OUTLINES
OF
CREATION.

[Pg 215]

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

After considering the beautiful covering which a kind Providence has given to the earth in the form of all sorts of vegetation, it will be necessary now to consider for what kind of creatures this most delightful garden was prepared, whether they seek their food in the air, water, or earth, for [Pg 216] all these places are abodes of the vegetable tribes, and where there is vegetation there are animated beings; for there is not an animal in existence, but directly or indirectly feeds upon the vegetable kingdom, from the elephant and rhinoceros which devour whole plantations, to the minute animalculæ which float in the air or dwell in every drop of stagnant water, where food in the form of equally minute algæ is found—each possessed of wonderful organs and powers suitable to the kind of existence they lead, for God has often placed life in the most simple as well as complicated forms. Dr. Mantell says:—

"We have been accustomed to associate the presence of vitality with bodies possessing various complicated organs for the elaboration and maintenance of the energies of existence, but here we see perfect and distinct creations in the condition of globules and cells, which live and move and have their being, and increase in numbers with a rapidity so prodigious, and in modes so peculiar, as to startle all our preconceived notions of animal organisation."

And it is in these Protozoa, the lowest of the animal creation, that a perfect similarity of condition exists to those of the vegetable kingdom, they are here upon a level; but arising out of these simple forms, God has created two sets of types or portraits, the members of each resembling those below it in some particular, but having organs which are superior to it; and above these are found members whose organs are of a still higher order, and so on till the one set comprises the highest orders of the vegetable, and the other those of the animal kingdom, in its ranks. But these simple organisms are never developed so as to resemble those placed above them; they each, whether high or low, continue to produce their like, for each grade was a creation of itself and a separate one from God's hands. There have been writers, who would endeavour to make it appear that God only created the lowest and most simple germs, and the circumstances which were necessary to develop them, and then allowed these to act and re-act until a man or an oak tree at last became the result! Were this the case, geology would long before this have shown the "small beginnings" [Pg 217] of man; but no! as soon as traces of man's creation are perceived, he is found as perfectly formed and organised as he is now, there are no transition stages of man's existence, nor of any other animal. It is true that the simpler forms of both animal and vegetable existence were created first, but this was in accordance with the state of the earth's surface, which was not at first suitable to the requirements of the higher animals, which were only created when the earth was in a state suitable to receive them.

But when the surface of the earth was still more developed God created man. His last and greatest work; and there can be no doubt that God in His wisdom caused all these changes to precede the creation of man, that he might lack nothing to confer happiness on him, nor objects to exercise his faculties upon.

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Animals are divided into two great natural families, the Invertebrate and the Vertebrate, the former having neither spine nor internal skeleton, the latter having both.

The Invertebrate animals are divided into the following sub-families, classes, and orders by Dr. William Carpenter.

[Pg 218]

Sub-family 3.—Mollusca, having Six classes.

The Infusoria, the first class of the Radiata, comprise all those microscopic organisms called "Protozoa;" they consist of a membranous cell with fluid contents, and are very nearly allied to the Protophytes or lowest vegetable existences. It is still a matter of discussion amongst physiologists and microscopists as to which kingdom shall claim certain of them, but, according to Dr. Carpenter, it appears that the vegetable cell-beings have two envelopes, the inner one albuminous and the outer one cellulose or starchy, and the following passage occurs in his treatise on the Microscope (which should be in the hands of all enquiring minds):—

"The animal cell, in its most complete form, is comparable in most parts of its structure to that of the plant, but differs from it in the entire absence of the 'cellulose wall' or of anything that represents it, the cell-contents being enclosed in only a single limitary membrane, the chemical composition of which, being albuminous, indicates its correspondence with the primordial utricle. In its young state it seems always to contain a semi-fluid plasma, which is essentially the same as the protoplasm of the plant, save that it does not include chlorophyll granules, and this may either continue to occupy its cavity (which is the case in cells whose entire energy is directed to growth and multiplication) or may give place, either wholly or in part, to the special product which it may be the function of the cell to prepare. Like the vegetable cell, that of animals very commonly multiplies by duplicative sub-division, it also (especially among Protozoa) may give origin to new cells by the breaking up of its contents into several particles."

Some of these creatures are so exceedingly minute that hundreds of millions may be contained in a drop of water. They have no organs of any kind, but consist of single cells [Pg 219] of a soft substance called "sorcode;" there is no distinction of sexes, and generation takes place by sub-division, each cell separating into two, and these again into two more, and so on with marvellous rapidity; this is the usual method of increase, but occasionally an act of conjugation takes place, two cells blending into one at the points of contact, the result of which is a nucleus or cell within the original one. These animated cells are of all forms, having prolongations which appear to be thrown out to absorb any particle of organic matter within reach, which then enters within the soft substance of the animalcule and is digested or dissolved, such are the Ambœba, the Actinophrys, &c. (see fig. 1); a step or two higher from these, the very lowest, infusoria are found to possess the first rudiments of organs in the form of cilia, which consist of minute elongations having a constant vibratory motion, for the purpose of causing a current in the water in which they live and bringing food into their vicinity.

Some very curious and complicated changes take place in the lowest of the animals, very similar to those in the lowest vegetables; and what has been called the life-history of these beings, often embraces a great number of forms before the circle of their metamorphoses comes round to the starting-point. Some of these phases of existence are quite different from those going before and after them, and as the vegetable free-cell at one time is capable of motion, it has long been mistaken for an active living animalcule (the Protococcus pluvialis, &c.), and there can be no doubt but that it will be found that many of the lower forms of animated life described by Ehrenberg and others, and still considered as such, will prove to be merely different stages of the metamorphosis of the same protozoon; or it may be not an animal at all, but a simple vegetable or protophyte.

Dr. Carpenter says, "It is quite certain that the Desmidiaceæ, like the confervoid plants in general, grow at the expense of the inorganic elements which surround them, instead of depending upon other living beings for their subsistence, and that they decompose carbonic acid and give off oxygen under the influence of sunlight. They have the [Pg 220] power of generating from these materials the organic compounds which they require for their own development, and these are such as are formed by other undoubted protophytes, as is proved by the application of the appropriate tests." These "Desmidiaceæ" were long considered to belong to the animalculæ, as were the "Diatomaceæ," "Volvox globator" (fig. 2), &c.

Some of the Infusoria, however, have a far higher organisation, such as the "Rotiferæ," and especially the "wheel animalcule" (fig. 3), which at one time was supposed, absurdly enough, to possess a living wheel turning round rapidly on its head! This wheel, however, proved to be nothing else than a vortex of water produced by rotatory cilia. This and many other mistakes were owing to the imperfect construction of the microscopes of that date. These and their fellow animalcules possess several organs, as a stomach, &c. The protozoa at one time were supposed to possess a number of stomachs, and were thence called "poly-gastric infusoria," but it has now been demonstrated that these beings merely absorb or entangle portions of organic matter into their substance, and that there are no cysts or stomachs for their reception. Some of the Infusoria are able to withstand enormous changes of temperature, without losing their vitality; cold far below freezing point, and heat equal to boiling water does not destroy them, and they may be dried in the most complete manner which chemists can devise, and kept in this dry state for years, and yet, on the [Pg 221] application of moisture, return to life. There is no doubt but every inch of air contains the germs of some of the Infusoria in a dry state or their ova, and make up a portion of that fine halo of dust which always appears in the air when a gleam of sunshine is let into a dark place.

The second class of the Radiata, the Entozoa, are those beings which inhabit, as parasites, the intestines and other parts of animals. Their history is very obscure, but there seems to be about twenty varieties of these creatures, and a great number of animals have their peculiar Entozoa. The best known in the human subject are the "Ascaris" or thread-worm, the "Lumbricus Teres" or long-worm, and the "Tænia" or tape-worm; this last is jointed, and grows to several yards in length.

The third class, the Zoophyta, includes four orders. The first of these, the Hydroida, comprise the Tubularia, Sertularia (fig. 4), and Sponges (fig. 5); these are minute gelatinous creatures, secreting a sort of tube in which they dwell. These tubes are congregated into masses of different forms and colours, and, with other structures totally different, are erroneously known by the general name of "sea-weed." [Pg 222] The Zoophyte which dwells in these tubes is furnished with a set of cilia forming a sort of plume. Most of these Hydroida are phosphorescent, such are those which, scattered about on the surface of the sea, contribute to that luminosity so frequently seen.

The second order of the Zoophyta, Asteroida, are those which have a star-like shape; they are congregated into compound structures, forming what are called sea-fans (Gorgonia, fig. 6). These Gorgonia are of all colours, and very beautiful; the animals or "polypes" are gelatinous, and have a gelatinous mass or stalk with branches, strengthened and supported by a horny centre. This gelatinous mass forms the animal itself, as well as a sort of common integument connecting the whole family of many thousands. The Gorgonia or sea-fans usually preserved, are dry and hard, as the gelatinous covering has so little substance that, when dried, it forms a rough powdery covering only to the horny support. This powdery surface, if washed off with a little water and placed under the microscope, is found to contain and be made up of spiculæ or crystals of carbonate of lime, of various colours and beautiful forms [Pg 223] (fig. 7); these, when the animal is alive, help to support its gelatinous frame; the Tubiporæ also belong to this class. Fig. 8 represents the Organ-coral (Tubipora musica); it is of a bright red colour, and, when the polypes are living, is a very beautiful object.

The third order of Zoophytes is the Helianthoida, which include the "Actinia." These Zoophytes are entirely gelatinous, and have beautiful variations of colour. They throw out tentacles like the petals of a flower, and form very beautiful objects; they may be seen in the aquatic vivaria of the Zoological Gardens. To this order of Zoophytes belong the "corals" or Zoanthoid polypes, which produce the coral reefs, extending in some cases hundreds of miles. Dr. Baird gives the following account of them:—

"By far the greater part of the Zoanthoid polypes, as they grow, deposit in the cellular substance of the flesh of their back an immense quantity of calcareous matter which enlarges as the animal increases in size, and, in fact, fills up those portions of the substance of the animal, which by the growth of new parts are no longer wanted for its nourishment, and in this manner they form a hard and strong case, amongst the folds of which they contract themselves so as to be protected from external injury, and by the same means they [Pg 224] form for themselves a permanent attachment which prevents their being tossed about by every wave of the element in which they live. The stony substances so formed are called corals, and their mode of formation causes them exactly to represent the animal which secretes them. The upper surface is always furnished with radiating plates, the remains of the calcareous particles which are deposited in the longitudinal folds of the stomach. These, in all probability were the constructors of all the strata of limestone rocks, which form some of our largest mountains—they were once the beds of seas, and were up-heaved by internal forces. The Madrepores (fig. 9) are also of this order, and form the stony matter in the same way. These are of various patterns, and the beautiful brain-stones in the British Museum are of their construction."

The fourth order of Zoophytes are the Ascidioida, including [Pg 225] formerly the Flustræ (fig. 10), but of late these have been shown to be closely allied, if not identical with, the Tunicated Mollusca, and have received the name of Polyzoa, they will therefore be noticed under that head.

The fourth class of the Radiata, are the Radiaria, including two orders. The first of these are the Acalephæ; the Medusæ or Jelly-fishes belong to this order; these creatures float about sometimes in great numbers, they are transparent and gelatinous, of a hemispherical form, the flat surface being fringed round with fibres, some of which sting like nettles if brought into contact with the skin.

The second order of the Radiaria include the Echinodermata or Sea-hedgehogs, Star-fishes, &c., these are many of them furnished with a profusion of spines, and hence their [Pg 226] name; they are also called Sea-eggs or Sea-urchins (fig. 11), and are mostly of a conical or spherical shape, divided into five segments covered with minute holes, from which project tentaculæ serving as organs of locomotion, touch, &c., and the surface of the body is covered with shelly spines of various forms and thicknesses; the mouth is in the centre, and they feed upon marine productions. The spines, if cut across and ground thin so as to be transparent, show a most complicated and beautiful structure when under the microscope (fig. 12).

The Star-fishes are inhabitants of the sea, and have generally five arms covered beneath with tentaculæ having small suckers at the point, it is by means of these that they [Pg 227] move from place to place; the mouth is in the centre. They live upon small marine animals, and have the power of reproducing any of the rays which happen to be broken off; and if cut into two or more pieces, each will produce a fresh animal. There is a species of Star-fish, so brittle, that it is quite impossible to touch it without breaking it, or rather it breaks itself, for it seems to have the power of casting off its arms at pleasure. These forms complete the Radiate series of animals, they have nearly all a somewhat regular radiated form, and some of them are very beautiful, such as Sertularia, which grow in communities and form many beautiful branched objects, much resembling sea-weeds and flowers, hence the name Zoophyte, which means animal flowers.

The Articulata form the second division of the Invertebrata. It has five classes, the first of which is the Annellata; in this order are included the Worms and Leeches (fig. 13), these have no hard covering but are soft throughout, they are made up of a number of soft rings which encircle their bodies from one end to the other, and are capable of being [Pg 228] shortened or elongated by the muscles which draw together the rings (these are placed longitudinally), or by those which contract and widen them, placed circularly; this enables them to move along, and in so peculiar a manner that it has received the name of "vermicular," or worm-like. The most familiar example of this class is the Earth-worm (Lumbricus terrestris), this lowly creature lives in soft mud and clay and bores its way into the ground, in doing so it is assisted by a slimy secretion which covers it, its food consists of earth containing organic matter, this it swallows constantly and extracts what is fit for its nourishment ejecting the remainder apparently unaltered; the curious little heaps of soft dirt which are so often seen in wet weather on the garden-paths, &c., are formed in this way. The Leech is another familiar example of the Annellata or Annelidæ, this little useful creature lives in ponds and stagnant waters, and feeds by sucking the fluids of other animals (chiefly frogs and fish) with which it will gorge itself till it is double its original size, it will then remain (often for months) without food till it is all appropriated, the process going on very slowly; a full-grown Leech is perhaps twenty years old, they grow so slowly, (hence it is, that Leeches may be kept for months after being gorged with blood without any food, and they will live and be healthy). They are furnished with two suckers, one at each end, and a mouth with numerous fine teeth placed in a tri-radiate manner, with which they pierce the skin when about to feed. They move in the water with great rapidity by a wavy motion of their bodies, but on solid substances their mode of progression is that of adhering by the sucker in front, then drawing the other one close up and extending the body to its full length, taking hold again by the front sucker and again bringing up the hindermost.

The Cirripeda constitute the second class of the Articulata, which comprise the "Acorn shells" and "Barnacles" (fig. 14); these little creatures were formerly described as Molluscs, but are now considered to be articulate animals, and by some as Crustaceans. Dr. Baird gives the following description of them:—"The Cirripeds are articulated animals contained within a hard covering composed of several pieces and con [Pg 229]sisting of calcified chitine. The body of the animal is enclosed in a sac lined with the most delicate membrane of chitine, which in one group is prolonged into a peduncle and contains the ova; the body is distinctly articulated and placed with the back downwards."

Dr. Carpenter describes the young of the Cirripedes as not fixed like the adult creatures, but moving about freely, and only becoming fixed in the form of the usual acorn shell after undergoing several strange metamorphoses, during which stages they more resemble the ordinary Crustaceans than they do in their fixed state.

The Crustacea form the third class of the Articulata, they comprise animals covered with a hard shell or carapace, like a case made up of rings, with joints allowing the pieces to move upon each other, except where several of them are consolidated to form the principal covering. These rings generally amount to twenty-one in number, some composing the claws, others the legs, &c. The shell is chiefly made [Pg 230] of carbonate of lime (chalk) held together by animal matter. The greater part of the Crustacea inhabit the waters, and they cast their shells from time to time as they grow; the Lobster (Astacus marinus), is a familiar example, it is found in the sea near rocky shores, and is capable of rapid motion under the water, darting along (tail foremost) with great rapidity, it has powerful claws, with one of which (the blunt one) it holds its food and with the other (the sharp one) cuts it up into pieces; they have the power of casting off these claws and reproducing them; they feed upon smaller Crustacea and fish, or any animal matter they can find. The Cray-fish is another example, it is a sort of fresh-water Lobster, living in holes (frequently deserted rat holes) in the banks of rivers; its shell is very rough, but otherwise somewhat resembles the Lobster. Crabs, Shrimps, and Prawns, are members of this class (fig. 15).

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The Insects form the fourth class of this division, and by far the most important and numerous. They come to maturity only after undergoing successive changes from the egg to the perfect animal; these transformations are amongst the most wonderful things connected with them. The eggs (some of which are very beautiful) are first deposited in some safe place, either attached to a leaf or tied up in a small bundle by silken threads spun by the parent insect, and in some nutritious substance, so that when it comes to life it may at once have food; this is sometimes in manure, sometimes in flesh, and sometimes under the skin of a living animal (few are exempt from this infliction), where they remain for a time and then come forth as maggots, caterpillars, &c.; in this state they are called [Pg 232] "larvæ," these are generally active creatures and eat most voraciously, which seems to be the principal act of this state of their existence. These larvæ frequently change their skins as they grow, and at last they assume the next stage of their life, the pupa or chrysalis state, which is one generally of complete inactivity; many of these larvæ, weave themselves a covering of a sort of silk, to defend them while in the pupa state—such as the Silkworm, whose covering (cocoon) is the source of all the silk of commerce—others merely place themselves in a situation of security. The pupa remains dormant for a certain time, and then becomes the imago or perfect insect (the last state of its existence), such as a Moth, a Butterfly, a Beetle, &c. These are of different sexes, and in due time produce a batch of eggs and then die; these eggs are often incredible in numbers, amounting to many thousands—fortunately but few escape the watchful eyes of other insects and of birds who feed upon them.

Insects have six jointed legs, a pair of antennæ or horns (as they are called) and generally one or two pairs of wings. The head is joined to the body by a constricted neck, the part of the body to which it is joined is called the thorax, and to this is added the posterior part or abdomen; this part is extremely various in form in different insects, in some it is round and full, in others long and extended. The antennæ arise from the head, and are generally composed of eleven pieces variously disposed; these wonderful organs are possessed of great sensibility, and they certainly serve to convey information to the insect, of the nature of one of the special senses; it was formerly thought to be simply that of touch very much refined, or of smell, but it is now generally considered to be that of hearing, or a modification of it. The forms of the antennæ are very various, fig. 17 represents that of the Cockchaffer (Melolontha vulgaris). The legs proceed from the thorax, as do the wings, the abdomen giving rise to none of the extremities; the feet of insects are all pretty much upon the same model, some being more developed than others, they have a pair of hooks or claws for catching and clinging to rough surfaces, and a pair of cushions or pads, covered in some cases with suckers. The foot of the [Pg 233] Fly (fig. 18) is well developed in this particular, enabling it to walk with perfect ease even on glass or the smoothest surface, and in any position. Insects do not breathe by lungs or gills, but by means of branched tubes called "tracheæ," which convey the air to the interior of the [Pg 234] animal. On the surface of these, the blood vessels ramify, giving out the carbonic acid of the blood and receiving oxygen; the openings to these air-tubes are arranged along the sides of the body, and are called "spiracles" (fig. 19). They are curious objects under the microscope, some of them being closed by a perforated membrane, others have a sort of sieve or network of fibres, and most of them a contrivance to catch and exclude minute particles of matter floating in the air, and thus prevent their entry into the tracheæ. Insects have two eyes, one on each side of the head, which are of great size, often forming complete hemispheres; each eye is made up of several thousand separate eyes or "ocelli," hence they are called compound eyes; these ocelli are placed closely together, so as to form a sort of honeycomb arrangement; the appearance of a part of one of these eyes is shown in fig. 20.

Insects are amongst the most active of creatures, whether for good or for evil, and the prodigious rapidity with which they increase under favourable circumstances would soon cause them to overrun the whole earth, to the extinction of almost every other creature, were these circumstances not controlled by an all-wise Providence, who keeps a constant [Pg 235] check upon their progress by causing one insect to feed upon another, and who has formed almost innumerable other creatures (including birds, reptiles, and fishes) with instincts which lead them to feed upon insects in every stage of their development (fish devour the larvæ of many insects which inhabit the waters during the first stage of their existence); but it occasionally happens, when some of these salutary checks upon their increase are withdrawn, that they multiply with such fearful rapidity as to produce a complete famine, for they eat up everything before them. Who has not heard of the plagues of Locusts and the depredations of the White Ants? The swarms of Locusts in Africa will sometimes cover many hundred square miles of surface, and in this space not a vestige of any vegetation would remain after their visit. The description of the prophet Joel is sublime: "The land is as the garden of Eden before them, and behind them a desolate wilderness: yea, and nothing shall escape them.... The earth shall quake before them, the heavens shall tremble: the sun and the moon shall be dark, and the stars shall withdraw their shining."

But it is kindly ordained that these visitations shall only occasionally take place, and even when they do, terrible as is the infliction, a benefit in reality outweighing the injury often succeeds; for the land in these countries is often made almost barren by the quantities of tangled roots and stubble [Pg 236] on the surface of the earth, which by the destructive powers of these insects is completely removed, and their manure left in its place, so that the fertility of the ground is much increased (often tenfold) after their visits.

The thousands of species of insects which exist, render it impossible in a work like this, even to name them, but under the separate orders will be given a slight outline of the more important.

Insects are divided, according to the character of their wings, into nine orders.

1. Coleoptera (Black-winged).

The Coleoptera are those insects generally denominated Beetles, they have four wings, the two outer of which are not used to fly with, but as cases to cover and protect the other two; they are called "elytra," are horny and firm in texture, and in some cases, as the Diamond Beetle and Musk Beetle, beautifully ornamented; the under pair of wings fold transversely so as to pack up under the outer ones, which are shorter. All Beetles live but one season, both sexes die before winter, leaving nothing but their eggs to continue the species, the larvæ which come from these are very destructive, eating most voraciously; for [Pg 237] the most part, Beetles feed on decaying substances such as dung, &c., and are therefore useful creatures; there are between 40,000 and 50,000 species of them. Beetles have been called the scavengers of nature, and truly they are so, for they (with other insects) clear off all dead matter, whether animal or vegetable; the Geotrupes stercorarius, and others, dig holes in the ground and bury the excrement which is deposited on the surface, thus doing a great service to vegetation, taking it down to nourish the roots of the grass and other plants instead of allowing it to harden and decompose on the surface. All dead animals are at once attacked and devoured by insects, and the Beetles play their full share in this necessary operation.

There are certain Beetles, called Burying Beetles (Necrophorus vespillo), which remove the earth from under the dead bodies of small animals, such as birds or mice, till they are beneath the level of the ground, when they cover them up and deposit their eggs in them; these bodies form stores of food for the future larvæ.

The Stag Beetle (Lucanus cervus, fig. 22), the Dor Beetle (Geotrupes stercorarius), the Cockchaffer (Melolontha vulgaris), the Musk Beetle (Cerambyx moschatus, fig. 16), and the Lady-bird (Coccinella), are well-known members of this order.

2. Orthoptera (Straight-winged).

The Orthoptera are those insects whose wings fold longitudinally; they have two pairs, but the anterior pair are horny and serve as wing-cases to the posterior pair; their food is chiefly vegetable, but to many of their species any kind is acceptable, as their mouths are suitable for grinding-up hard substances. The Locusts (Locustidæ, fig. 21), Grasshoppers (Gryllidæ), Crickets (Achetidæ, fig. 16), and Cockroaches (Blattidæ), or Black-beetles, as they are sometimes incorrectly called, belong to this tribe. Their metamorphoses are not so complete as in many other insects, for they never entirely change their [Pg 238] form; the larva as it leaves the egg has no wings, but otherwise is much like the parent; it changes its skin several times, which stage is analogous to the pupa state, after casting it five times and obtaining wings, it becomes the imago or perfect insect. The ravages of the Locusts are so well known that little need be said; the following is from Kirby and Spence's Entomology:—

"Although this animal be not very tremendous for its size, nor very terrific in its appearance, it is the very same whose ravages have been the theme of naturalists and historians in all ages, and upon a close examination you will find it to be peculiarly fitted and furnished for the execution of its office. It is armed with two pairs of very strong jaws, the upper terminating in short, and the lower in long teeth, by which it can both lacerate and grind its food; its stomach is of extraordinary capacity and powers; its hind legs enable it to leap to a considerable distance, and its ample vans are calculated to catch the wind as sails, and so to carry it sometimes over the sea; and although a single individual can effect but little evil, yet when the entire surface of a country is covered by them, and every one makes bare the spot on which it stands, the mischief produced may be as infinite as their numbers. So well do the Arabians know their power, that they make a Locust say to Mahomet, 'We are the army of the Great God; we produce ninety-nine eggs; if the hundred were completed, we should consume the whole earth and all that is in it.'"

3. Neuroptera (Nerve-winged).

The Neuroptera comprise the Dragon-fly (Libellulina, fig. 16), Ant-lion (Myrmelion), Caddis-flies (Phryganidæ), and the May-flies (Ephemera); these insects have wings of a beautiful network structure, as may be seen in the Dragon-fly, they make their appearance about the middle of June in the locality of ditches and ponds. The Caddis-fly is noted for the peculiar case which the larva makes for itself; the larva inhabits the [Pg 239] water and the ease is made of little fragments of wood, shell, and sand, agglutinated together so as to float; the perfect insect is not aquatic, and flies away when formed. The May-flies are noted for the shortness of their existence, the larvæ live in the water, and many of them are eaten by fishes who are very fond of them, but sufficient numbers come to the perfect state, to form complete clouds in the air where the larvæ were, these creatures live but a day, and some of their species but an hour or two, in the perfect state, they deposit their eggs in the water, which come to life in the mud at the bottom. The flight of these fragile beings and their short-lived holiday festivities are well described by Kirby and Spence:—

"In the beginning of September, for two successive years, I was so fortunate as to witness a spectacle of this kind, which afforded me a more sublime gratification than any work or exhibition of art has power to communicate. The first was in 1811. Taking an evening walk near my house, when the sun, declining fast towards the horizon, shone forth without a cloud, the whole atmosphere over and near the stream swarmed with infinite myriads of Ephemeræ and little gnats of the genus chironomus, which in the sun-beam appeared as numerous and more lucid than the drops of rain, as if the heavens were showering down brilliant gems. Afterwards, in the following year, one Sunday, a little before sunset, I was enjoying a stroll with a friend at a greater distance from the river, when in a field by the road-side the same pleasing scene was renewed, but in a style of still greater magnificence; for, from some cause in the atmosphere, the insects at a distance looked much larger than they really were. The choral dances consisted principally of Ephemeræ, but there were also some chironomi, the former, however, being most conspicuous, attracted our chief attention. Alternately rising and falling, in the full beam they appeared so transparent and glorious, that they scarcely resembled anything material; they reminded us of angels and glorified spirits drinking [Pg 240] life and joy in the effulgence of the Divine favour. The Bard of Twickenham, from the terms in which his beautiful description of his sylphs is conceived in the 'Rape of the Lock' seems to have witnessed the pleasing scene here described:—

4. Hymenoptera (Membrane-winged).

The Hymenoptera are those insects which have four membraneous wings. The Bees (Apidæ, fig. 16), Wasps (Vespidæ), the Ants (Formicidæ), and the Ichneumon Flies (Ichneumonidæ), are the chief tribes of this order. The Bees, Wasps, and Ants are celebrated for forming societies, more perfectly arranged and governed than in any other creatures but man. It is curious that the most perfect instincts (such as approach so nearly to reason that they almost defy us to make a distinction) should have been given by the Creator to creatures so far removed from man in the scale of existence, and so little resembling him in any other particular. This is one of the stumbling-blocks in the way of those who wish to have it believed that all animals are progressive from certain types, which cannot be got over; if such were the case, man would be most nearly imitated by the Apes, and these again by those most nearly allied to them, and so on downwards, but here we find a government almost as perfect as that of the human species—an arrangement of work, a division of labour, buildings, storehouses, &c.—showing nearly all the social habits and feelings of man, in creatures who in form and size have no resemblance to him.

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Kirby and Spence, in describing the societies of insects, say:—"But when we consider the object of these societies, the preservation and multiplication of the species, and the means by which that object is attained (the united labours and co-operation of perhaps millions of individuals), it seems as if they were impelled by passions very similar to those main-springs of human associations which I have just enumerated. Desire appears to stimulate them, love to allure them, fear to alarm them. They want a habitation to reside in and food for their subsistence. Does not this look as if desire were the operating cause which induces them to unite their labours to construct the one and provide the other? Their nest contains a numerous family of helpless brood. Does not love here seem to urge them to exemplary and fond attention, and those unremitted and indefatigable exertions manifested by the whole community for the benefit of these dear objects? Is it not also evident by their general and singular attachment to their families, by their mutual caresses, by their feeding each other, by their sympathy with suffering individuals and endeavours to relieve them, by their readiness to help those that are in difficulty, and finally by their sports and assemblies for relaxation? That fear produces its influences upon them seems no less evident, when we see them agitated by the approach of enemies, endeavour to repel their attacks, and to construct works of defence. They appear to have besides a common language, for they possess the faculty, by significative gestures and sounds, of communicating their wants and ideas to each other."

Numerous works have been entirely devoted to the habits and instincts of Bees and Ants, and very interesting they are, but it would be impossible to give an intelligible account of them in the small space allotted in this volume.

The wax of which Bees build their beautiful six-sided cells, and which is the whole source of all the wax used by men for a variety of purposes, is secreted in little scales [Pg 242] or flakes, between the joints of the abdomen, from whence the wax-making Bees take it to build the comb; the cells of the comb are filled with honey, which is obtained by the Bees (by means of the apparatus shown at fig. 23), from the nectaries of flowers in the form of nectar, and is converted into honey in the honey-bag of the Bee, from whence it is discharged into the cells. Bees also collect the pollen from the flowers they visit, this adheres to the hairs on the Bee, and is scraped and brushed off, and collected into two little lots, which the Bee carries on each hind leg, this pollen is made into bee-bread. By scattering the pollen, flowers are often fecundated, for there are many plants, the female flowers of which are separate from the males, and it is only by insects and the wind, that the females are fecundated, for the Bee, with the pollen adhering to every part, first visits one flower and then another in search of nectar.

[Pg 243]

With respect to the Ants, Kirby and Spence give the following account of the building of their habitations.

"The nest of Formica brunnea is composed wholly of earth, and consists of a great number of stories, sometimes not fewer than forty, twenty below the level of the soil, and as many above, which last, following the slope of the ant-hill, are concentric. Each story, separately examined, exhibits cavities in the shape of saloons, narrower apartments, and long galleries which preserve the communication between both. The arched roofs of the most spacious rooms are supported by very thin walls, or occasionally by small pillars and true buttresses; some having only one entrance from above, others a second, communicating with the lower story; the main galleries, of which, in some places, several meet in one large saloon, communicate with other subterranean passages, which are often carried to the distance of several feet from the hill. These insects work chiefly after sunset. In building their nest they employ soft clay only, scraped from its bottom when sufficiently moistened by a shower, which, far from injuring, consolidates and strengthens their architecture. Different labourers convey small masses of this ductile material between their mandibles, and with the same instrument they spread and mould it to their will, the antennæ accompanying every movement. They render all firm by pressing the surface lightly with their fore feet; and however numerous the distinct masses of clay composing these walls, and though connected by no glutinous material, they appear when finished, one single layer, well united, consolidated and smoothed. Having traced the plan of their structure, by placing here and there the foundations of the pillars and partition-walls, they add successively new portions; and when the walls of a gallery or apartment, which are half a line thick, are elevated about half an inch in height, they join them by springing a flattish arch or roof from one side to the other. Nothing can be a more interesting spectacle than one of these cities while building. In [Pg 244] one place vertical walls form the outline, which communicate with different corridors by openings made in the masonry; in another we see a true saloon, whose vaults are supported by numerous pillars; and further on are the cross-ways or squares where several streets meet, and whose roofs, though often more than two inches across, the Ants are under no difficulty in constructing, beginning the sides of the arch in the angle formed by two walls, and extending them by successive layers of clay till they meet; while crowds of masons arrive from all parts with their particles of mortar, and work with a regularity, harmony, and activity, which can never enough be admired. So assiduous are they in their operations, that they will complete a story [Pg 245] with all its saloons, vaulted roofs, partitions and galleries, in seven or eight hours. If they begin a story, and for want of moisture are unable to finish it, they pull down again all the crumbling apartments that are not covered in."

Every one has heard of the destructive as well as constructive qualities of the "White Ant;" another quotation from Kirby and Spence will illustrate both.

"When they find their way into houses or warehouses nothing less hard than metal or glass escapes their ravages; their favourite food, however, is wood of all kinds, except the Teak, and Ironwood, which are the only sorts known, that they will not touch; and so infinite are the multitudes of the assailants, and such is the excellence of their tools, that all the timber-work of a spacious apartment is often destroyed by them in a few nights. Exteriorly, however, everything appears as if untouched; for these wary depredators (and this is what constitutes the greatest singularity of their history) carry on all their operations by sap and mine, destroying utterly the inside of solid substances, and scarcely ever attacking their outside until they have first concealed it and their operations with a coating of clay. A general similarity runs through the proceedings of the whole tribe, but the large African species, called by Smeathman Termes bellicosus, is the most formidable. These insects live in large clay nests, from whence they excavate tunnels all round, often to the extent of several hundred feet; from these they will descend a considerable depth below the foundation of a house, and rise again through the floors; or, boring through the posts and supports of the building, enter the roof and construct their galleries in various directions.

"If a post be a convenient path to the roof, or has any weight to support, (how they discover it is not easily conjectured), they will fill it with their mortar, leaving only a track-way for themselves, and thus, as it were, convert it from wood into stone as hard as many kinds of freestone. In this manner they soon [Pg 246] destroy houses, and sometimes whole villages, when deserted by their inhabitants, so that in two or three years not a vestige of them will remain. These insidious insects are not less expeditious in destroying the wainscoating, shelves, and other fixtures of a house, than the house itself; with the most consummate art and skill they eat away the inside of what they attack, except a few fibres here and there, which exactly suffice to keep the two sides, or top and bottom, connected, so as to retain the appearance of solidity after the reality is gone; and all the while they carefully avoid perforating the surface, unless a book or any other thing that tempts them should be standing upon it.

"Kœmpfer, speaking of the White Ants of Japan, gives a remarkable instance of the rapidity with which these miners proceed. Upon rising one morning he observed that one of their galleries of the thickness of his little finger had been formed across his table; and upon a further examination he found that they had bored a passage of that thickness up one foot of the table, formed a gallery across it, and then pierced down another foot into the floor; all this was done in the few hours that intervened between his retiring to rest and his rising."

Most of this order are armed with some weapon of defence. The Bee and Wasp have each a most formidable sting, with which they are able to inflict a wound fatal to most insects. The Ants have a peculiar secretion, consisting of formic acid, which they eject with great force, and which has a very disagreeable smell. The eggs of Ants when hatched produce a small grub, which spins itself a sort of cocoon, and in this state it so much resembles a grain of corn, that it has been mistaken for it; this error has given rise to the supposition that Ants store up corn for winter, whereas they never eat corn, but the care they take of these larvæ, removing them from place to place, taking them up in their mandibles and running along with them, has been mistaken for the act of storing away grains of corn.

[Pg 247]

5. Strepsiptera (Twisted-winged).

This order includes but a few species; Dr. Baird in his Cyclopædia, gives the following account of them:—

"Certain insects were discovered by Kirby, living parasitic in the abdomen of some Andrenæ, which at that time were nondescript, and could not be referred to any existing order. They were afterwards placed in an order by themselves, which he called Strepsiptera. The larvæ live in the bodies of Bees, Wasps &c., and the males only undergo a perfect metamorphosis; the females, even when adult, have neither legs, wings, nor eyes, but resemble larvæ, and continue to live parasitic in the bodies of the Hymenopterous insects within which they were born. The characters are thus taken from the male and consist chiefly in the structure of the wings. The anterior pair are quite rudimentary, being transformed into a pair of short, slender, contorted appendages resembling narrow balancers or halters. The posterior pair are large and membraneous, their nervures are only longitudinal, so that they are able to fold them like a fan. They have large globular eyes, with the facets few, but of comparatively large size."

"About ten or twelve species are known, forming a small family, "Stylopidæ." The genus Stylops may be taken as the type, and contain such species as have the tarsi with four points and the antennæ with six."

[Pg 248]

6. Lepidoptera (Scaly-winged).

This order includes the Butterflies and Moths, they have four wings, which are large and covered with minute scales, which are for the most part of a heart or battledore shape, as in fig. 27. The wings of these insects are many of them beautifully marked and tinged. There are about 12,000 species, by some divided into "diurnal" (or those which fly by day), "crepuscular" (or those which fly in the evening), and "nocturnal" (or those flying by night). The Moths are mostly crepuscular and nocturnal, while the Butterflies are chiefly diurnal, but the most usual distinction between the Moth and Butterfly consists in the form of the antennæ, those of the Moth being feather-shaped, while those of the Butterfly have a small knob at the end, or, as it is called, "club-shaped." The Lepidoptera feed upon the nectar of flowers, for which purpose they are furnished with a long proboscis or "Haustellium," which is curled up under the head, it consists of two semi-cylindrical pieces which when placed side by side form a tube, up which [Pg 249] the nectar is drawn by capillary attraction. The metamorphosis of these insects is complete.

The Silkworm (Bombyx mori) belongs to this order. It is the most important of all insects to man, as from it alone all the silk of commerce is obtained. Its cocoon is of a beautiful yellow colour, varying in shade from orange to pale straw-colour; the silk of one cocoon weighs somewhere about three grains; it would therefore, at this calculation, take 1920 worms to spin one pound. The annual import of silk into this country alone is about 7,000,000 pounds, it must therefore take 13,440,000,000 Silkworms to supply us with silk yearly! The Silkworm feeds almost exclusively on the leaves of the mulberry.

[Pg 250]

7. Hemiptera (Half-winged).

The Hemiptera have two pairs of wings, the hindermost small, and the foremost pair half horny and half membraneous, the base being horny, and the apex membraneous. They include the Bugs, some of which are aquatic, as the Water Scorpion (Nepa), and the Water Boatman (Natonecta), which swims on its back, rowing itself by means of a pair of long legs, which look like oars; the common bed Bug is also of this order, although wingless, as are also the Plant Lice (Aphides), which, however, obtain wings in their perfect state.

8. Diptera (Two-winged).

The Diptera include the common House Fly (fig. 16), Bluebottle Fly, Gnat, and many others; their wings are like the Neuroptera, but they have but one pair, the other pair being undeveloped, form little knobs called "balancers." The wings of Flies are generally covered with short stout hairs, as seen in fig. 29; the common Fly feeds upon almost anything, but some of the Diptera feed exclusively on the blood of other animals; the Gnat (Culex pipiens), of which the Mosquito is a variety, deposits [Pg 251] its egg in the water on any floating substance, the larva which comes from the egg is aquatic, living with its head downwards, the end of the abdomen only being above the water, in this there is a spiracle or breathing orifice, which enables it to take in the air; the Gnat, when it comes from this larva, stands on its shell for a moment, and then flies off, for it is not suited to live in the water; this history of the early stages of its life, accounts for Gnats being always found in such numbers near pools of water. The Tsetse, which Dr. Livingstone describes as being so fatal to cattle, is of this order; he says, "It is well known that the bite of this poisonous insect is certain death to ox, horse, or dog.... A most remarkable feature in the bite of the Tsetse is its perfect harmlessness to man and wild animals, and even calves, so long as they continue to suck the cows."

9. Aptera (Wingless).

To this order belongs the Flea (Pulex irritans), which is furnished with lancet-shaped weapons, through which it sucks the blood of other animals, for it is entirely parasitic, and also the "Chigeo" (Pulex penetrans), which is a troublesome and even dangerous pest in the West Indies; it penetrates the skin of the feet, and deposits its young beneath it.

The last class of the Articulata, the Arachnida, includes [Pg 252] the Spiders, Scorpions, Centipedes, and Millipedes. The Arachnida differ from insects, in having eight or more legs, more than two eyes, no wings, and no head; the Spiders have four pairs of legs, and six, eight, or more, simple eyes, which appear as minute spots on the upper part of the thorax. Spiders nearly all live by preying upon small insects, which they catch in several ways, but by far the most general mode is by constructing a web or net to entangle them; the threads of this web are made of a fluid glutinous substance, which is secreted within the abdomen, and which they project from extremely minute orifices, several of which exist on the point of little projections called "spinnarets," this liquid dries into a solid thread immediately it comes into contact with the air; it is extremely strong, and so fine that several thousand of the single fibres will only make the size of a human hair. The Garden Spider (Epeira diadema) is often called the Geometrical Spider, from the regularity of its web. These [Pg 253] Spiders will often place a thread from one spot to another, where it would seem impossible that they could attach it, such as from the branch of a tree to the corner of a house twenty feet or more from the ground; it has never been accurately determined how the Spider does this, and it is the more difficult to observe, as it is always done in the night, but it has been supposed that a fine thread is spun, and that the wind carries it across, when it is strengthened and afterwards made tight. The Spider (Araneæ domestica) that makes "cobwebs" in the corners of rooms, is called the Weaving Spider. Some Spiders are called Hunting Spiders, they do not construct webs, but pounce upon their prey with a leap; the Mygale avicularis of South America is one of this kind; it is said that some grow so large that their feet spread out a foot wide. The Long-legged Spider, often found in our houses, and of which fig. 32 is an exact copy, measures 3½ inches, and is the largest species we have. There are also aquatic Spiders, which feed upon insects in the water and dive down for them; their surface being hairy and unctuous, retains sufficient air to bring them up and prevent them being wetted. The eyes [Pg 254] of Spiders are different from those of other insects; they appear as simple, shining spots, or "ocelli," and not compound eyes, having a great many "ocelli" compounded into one. These "ocelli" are arranged in a group of eight or more, and placed on the upper part of the thorax, for Spiders have no head, although generally represented with one. The eggs of Spiders are generally deposited in some sheltered place, fastened together and partly covered with a net-work of a sort of yellow silk, very much resembling the cocoon of the Silkworm. The Scorpion, so terrible in appearance, and in its sting so deadly, and which is sometimes a foot in length, belongs to this order. It has eight legs, and a pair of claws like a lobster, the body is lengthened into a sort of tail, at the end of which is a claw or sting, like the poison fang of a serpent, with a poison bag at its root; its effects are often fatal to man, and always so to the insects and other small animals upon which the Scorpion feeds, its usual mode of killing which, is to catch them with its claws and then to sting them to death. The Centipede is a scarcely less frightful creature; in South America and the West Indies it is sometimes found to grow to eight or ten inches in length, it is of a long jointed form, with generally twenty-one pairs of legs, although some have double this number; its bite is much to be dreaded, as it is poisonous, especially the "Scolopendræ," which have a poison gland, like the snake; in this country they are very small indeed, and are generally found in moist places.

The Centipedes and Millipedes are, by some, placed in the class Arachnida, but by others in a separate class called "Myriopoda," divided into two orders, the Chilognatha, which have rounded cylindrical bodies, and generally more than one pair of legs to each segment of the body, and the Chilopoda, which have a distinct flattened head and but one pair of legs to each segment.

[Pg 255]

The last of the three great divisions of the Invertebrata is formed by the Mollusca; it is divided into six classes, (see page 218). The Mollusca are characterised by having no internal skeleton, nor external horny case, as in the Articulata; they are rather soft, and either void of solid covering, or possessed of "shells" composed chiefly of earthy matter (chalk), and in one or two pieces, called valves, hence the names, uni-valve and bi-valve; all shells of this description belong to the Mollusca, some of which have no means of locomotion, as Oysters; others have a "foot" covered with a muscular expansion, called the "mantle," by which they glide onwards, as the Snail.

1. The Tunicata have no shell or hard covering, but are of a pretty firm consistence; they are either fixed to rocks and sea-weeds, or float about freely, and are either solitary, social, or compound. The "Ascidians" are united in groups, and are all connected [Pg 256] by a common stalk or "Stolon," from which they grow by buds.

2. The Brachiopoda. These Molluscs are furnished with a pair of shells, within which the animal lives; one of these shells (the ventral one) has a small hole in it, close to the hinge, and through this a long tendinous cord passes, which fixes the creature to some stone or rock, hence the name Brachiopodous, which means arm-footed. The young of this Mollusc are not fixed, but float about. The Lingula has horny shells, and the foot passes out between them; these creatures were some of the first created, if not the very first; the shells of Terebratula are found in vast quantities in the oldest fossiliferous strata.

FIG. 34.—COCKLE (Cardium edule).

3. The Lamellibranchiata include a great many of our most ordinary Mollusca, commonly known as "shell fish." They have a pair of shells, and are thence called "bivalve." The Oyster (Ostrea edulis), Mussel (Mytilus edulis), Cockle (Cardium edule), Scallop (Pecten), belong to this class. Oysters form a considerable article of commerce, thirty or forty thousand bushels are brought each season to London; they are dredged up from "beds," where they are found in great quantities. They spawn in May and June, and are not then good. There is an old and a well-known saying, that "Oysters are not fit to eat, unless there is an R in the month," all the names of the months containing an R but May, June, July, and August. The spawn is collected and placed in artificial beds, consisting of shallow places or hollows in the sea, where the tide will not wash them away, and whence they can be easily removed when sufficiently grown, which is in five or six years; these creatures have no powers of locomotion, but remain where the tide [Pg 257] washes them; but Scallops, Cockles (fig. 34), and Mussels (fig. 33), have the power of fixing themselves to any substance they wish, by means of the "byssus" or beard, which is a tuft of fibres passing out from between the shells; and it is said, the Scallops have the power of progression, by suddenly opening and shutting the shells.

4. The Pteropoda are Mollusca which have no shell, or a very thin one; the Clio borealis (fig. 33), which forms the chief food of the Whale, is found in great multitudes in the Arctic seas, it swims about by means of two extensions, similar to wings. The Hyalœa has a small round transparent shell.

5. The Gasteropoda are extremely numerous; most of them have univalve shells, but many of them have none, as the Garden Slug (Limax, fig. 35). The Whelk (Buccinum undatum), Perriwinkle (Littorina littoria), Garden Snail (Helix aspersa, fig. 35), and the Wentle-trap (Scalaria, fig. 36), are the most familiar examples of this class. These Mollusca walk by means of the [Pg 258] mantle, which is muscular, and capable of alternate contraction and expansion; they breathe by means of lungs on their back beneath the shell, and to which there is an opening in their side. What are usually called the horns are four in number, two short and two long; they are tentaculæ, but what is peculiar in them is the circumstance of having the eyes placed at their ends. These Mollusca have a sort of valve, which, when they retire into the shell, closes it like a lid; it is called the "Operculum;" in some cases it is horny, as in the Perriwinkle, and in others, resembles shell; the shells of these mollusca are coiled into a spiral, this is caused by the shell always growing by additions to the edges of the mouth, and in nearly every case this spiral turns in the same direction that a screw does, but in a very few it turns in the opposite direction, as in the "Fusus contrarius."

6. The Cephalopoda include the "Cuttle-Fish," and Nautilus (fig. 33). They are furnished with eight or ten tentacula or arms, which spring from the head, and which are covered with suckers; the mouth is in the centre, and these tentacula are used to lay hold of their prey and convey it to the mouth; they have two perfect eyes, and they breathe by gills. The Nautilus has a univalve shell, which is of a very graceful and elegant form; its interior is divided into chambers, with a syphon running through them, by which the air is exhausted or compressed so as to cause them to sink or swim; the animal occupies only the outer chamber; the extinct Ammonite belonged to this class. It is from the Cuttle-Fish (Sepiæ) that the beautiful dark brown pigment, known as "sepia," is obtained, and also the material of which Indian-ink is made.

[Pg 259]

THE VERTEBRATA.

The Vertebrate animals are those which have a brain and spinal cord inclosed within a bony case, an internal skeleton, to which are affixed the muscles, and which is moved by them; they all possess four extremities, more or less modified in form, with the exception of the Serpents. They are divided into four classes, Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals.

FISHES.

The Fishes live in water, and are unable to live in the air; they receive oxygen from the water, but this is received much more slowly than by air-breathing animals, and as the combination of oxygen with the carbon of the system gives the elevated temperature of animals, so in Fishes, the oxygen being received slowly, their temperature rises but little above the temperature of the water they inhabit; they have thence received the name of "cold-blooded." Fishes live upon the marine animals which they capture, the various sea-weeds which grow in the water, and insects which fall into, or breed there. They have fins instead of legs, but the two pairs of fins known as "Pectoral" and "Ventral" are analogues of them, and in a pectoral fin may be found bones analogous to all the bones of the arm and hand of Man, or the fore-feet of the other Vertebrata. Fishes urge themselves through the water chiefly by the action of the tail from side to side, and in those members which have more extended forms (as Eels), by a wavey motion of the body itself; and the rapidity with which they swim is such, that Sharks have been known to go round the ship they are following many times in a very short space, although it may be sailing at a great speed before the wind. Fishes are covered with scales, and the head is united to the body without any constriction which can be considered as a neck; they are mostly of a form such as can easily pass through the water, without offering much resistance, and their specific gravity is so nearly that of water, that, by the compression of a small vessel filled with air, called the [Pg 260] swimming bladder or "sound," they can rise and sink with little effort. Many tribes of the human family, such as the Esquimaux and Polynesians, almost live upon Fish, and even in Great Britain, in fishing districts, it forms a great part of the food of the inhabitants, and their capture gives employment to thousands.

Fish inhabit all kinds of water, the sea, rivers, and ponds, and many which live habitually in the sea come into rivers at certain seasons; and with respect to those which dwell always in the sea, some inhabit certain tracts only, and confine themselves to them, just as quadrupeds do to certain localities on the land. It has been a matter of wonder how the Fish get into ponds formed by the drainage of lands; but most ponds are supplied by springs which run underground from adjacent lakes or rivers, or by rills running on the surface, these bring the ova or eggs, which in favourable situations become hatched. Fish are exceedingly prolific, the eggs in the roe of a Codfish were estimated by Lewenhoec, to be upwards of 9,000,000, but not one in a thousand comes to maturity; there are enemies on all sides to devour them before they are hatched, and others to attack them afterwards. Some of the rivers of France have lately been artificially stocked with Fish by causing the fecundated spawn to be preserved till they are of a bulk and strength to protect themselves. This was effected by confining them in tanks floating in the water and perforated with holes, and afterwards placing them in a part of the river, inclosed both above and below by means of nets, so as to keep away their enemies—the larger Fishes.

Fishes were the first of the Vertebrated animals created, and as a proof of the incorrectness of the doctrine of development, these first-created Fish were of a class corresponding to the most highly organised Fishes of the present day.

Fishes are divided into two families: 1, Osseous Fishes (with a bony skeleton); 2, Cartilaginous Fishes (with a cartilaginious skeleton).

The Osseous Fishes are divided into six Orders:—

[Pg 261]

1. Acanthopterygii (Thorny-fin).

The Acanthopterygii include a great number of our ordinary useful Fishes, as Mackerel, Perch, Tunny, Gurnard, &c. (fig. 37). The Perch is a good example of this order, the sharp spines on its dorsal fin being well developed, and dangerous for anglers to handle.

2. Malacopterygii abdominales (Abdominal soft-fin).

The abdominal Malacopterygii include the Pilchard, Herring, Pike (fig. 38), Salmon (fig. 39), Anchovy, Trout, Roach, Chub, Tench, and many more of the Fish which inhabit our streams and the sea.

[Pg 262]

The following account of the Salmon, is extracted from Dr. Baird's Cyclopædia of the Natural Sciences:—"The Salmon is exceedingly abundant in all the northern oceans. It is found in France, England, Germany, Bohemia, Switzerland, Scandinavia, Iceland, and Greenland. It exists also in Labrador and Canada, and down the American coast to the Connecticut river, in latitude 41½ deg., and either it, or a species so closely allied as not to be distinguished except by close comparison, abounds in the Arctic seas washing the northern shores of the American continent. It does not frequent the rivers falling into the Mediterranean, and, though it has been stated to be the case, it does not occur in the Persian Gulf, or the Caspian Sea. In entering the mouths of rivers in order to spawn, the females are [Pg 263] always observed to precede the males, depositing their ova in little pools or sort of nests, which they form in the sand at the bottom, for the males to fecundate. The young grow very rapidly, and at the present time, the subject of the changes which they undergo in their progress to maturity is one exciting much interest. When first hatched they are about an inch in length, and during the first year are called "Parr." When they remove to the sea, they receive a more brilliant dress, and then become the "Smolt," varying from four to six inches in length. After a residence in the sea of from two months to ten weeks, they revisit the fresh waters, and are then from two-and-a-half to four pounds' weight, and are called 'grilses' or 'gilses.' During the ensuing winter they spawn, and are then known as Salmon. Salmon grow to a large size, full-grown specimens weighing about forty pounds, though individuals are mentioned which have weighed seventy or even eighty pounds. Such are now excessively rare, owing to the perfection of the means of capturing them at the mouths of our rivers, by which the chances are very greatly against any fish escaping the various dangers by which it is environed for such a succession of years as is likely to admit of its attaining to its full dimensions. The power these fish have in overcoming obstacles to their progress up large rivers at spawning time is very great; they shoot up rapids with the [Pg 264] velocity of arrows, and clear considerable waterfalls, leaping a height of ten, twelve, and even as much as twenty feet. The usual time at which the Salmon leaves the sea is the autumn; it remains in the rivers during the winter, and returns to the sea, after having deposited its spawn, in the spring. The fishing of this excellent and universally admired fish gives employment to many thousands of people, throughout the whole of the north of Europe. Salmon fisheries, it has been said, rank next to agriculture. In this country the Scotch rivers supply by far the greater proportion of the salmon brought to market. The total value of the Scotch fisheries has been calculated at £150,000 a year."

Many salmon are caught by stake nets, and also by the practice of "spearing;" this is a very picturesque sight, as it is conducted by torchlight.

The Herring (Clupea Harengus) makes its visit to this country about September, in enormous shoals, extending many miles each way; they are caught in great quantities and salted in the boats immediately; when brought on shore they are suspended in the smoke of wood fires, and become "red herrings." The Herring fisheries are very important, and afford—like the Salmon fisheries—employment to thousands; the greatest quantities are caught off the coast of Norway, where it is calculated about 400,000,000 are taken yearly. A great many are caught off Lowestoffe, and Wick, in Caithness. The Pilchard (Clupea pilchardus) is a kind of Herring, and is caught in enormous quantities off the coasts of Cornwall. The Sprat and Whitebait are species of "Clupea."

3. Malacopterygii sub-brachiales (Sub-brachial soft fin).

The brachial Malacopterygii include most of the Flat Fish; as the Turbot, Plaice, Sole, &c. (fig. 40). The Turbot, and Halibut are caught out in the deep waters, but the Plaice and Flounders, chiefly in shallows; these fish have one side dark and the other light, and both eyes are placed on [Pg 265] the dark side; they always swim with this side upwards; in the Turbot this is the left, while in Plaice it is the right side. The Cod (fig. 40) is also included in this order; it is a large fish, often weighing forty or fifty pounds, and three or four feet long; it is chiefly caught in northern regions, the banks of Newfoundland being the most celebrated for its Cod fisheries, and supply the London market. These fish are caught by a long line and hook let down to a great depth.

[Pg 266]

4. Malacopterygii apodes (Footless soft fin).

To this order belong the Eels (fig. 41). They have no abdominal fins, and are therefore called apodial, or footless; they very much resemble the serpent in their elongated form; they live chiefly in rivers and ponds, in the mud of which they obtain worms, &c., upon which they feed, they have been known to leave the water at night and travel for some distance in search of worms, frogs, &c. These fish live a long time after they are removed from the water, and are extremely tenacious of life; their skins are covered with such fine small scales that they appear quite smooth, and are extremely slimy. The Conger Eel is much thicker in proportion than the common Eel, and has a dorsal fin like a fringe all down the back; it grows to the weight of ninety or a hundred pounds sometimes. Eels are often caught by thrusting many-pronged spears (having the spears barbed) into the mud, and the Eels are brought up sticking between the prongs. The Electrical Eel (Gymnotus electricus) belongs to this section; it somewhat resembles a large ordinary Eel four or five feet long, but has a broad ventral fin running all along its lower part; it is famous for its power of giving electrical shocks when touched, and seems to have the power of using this influence at pleasure, but after giving a certain number of shocks its power becomes exhausted, and it has to remain some time before it can again give out shocks of any strength; these shocks are sufficiently [Pg 267] strong to prove fatal to small animals, and even to mules and horses crossing the streams which they frequent, when a number will attack them at once. This creature is a native of the rivers and pools of South America, Demerara, &c.; the natives kill them by driving in a great number of horses, and when the Eels have exhausted their electrical powers, they are then caught and killed.

5. Lophobranchi (Tufted gill).

To the Lophobranchi belongs the Pipe-fish (Hippocampus, or Sea-horse, fig. 42). The following is Dr. Baird's description of these curious little creatures:—

"Most of these species are straight, but others of the family contract after death, so as to form a grotesque resemblance to a horse in miniature. These form the genus Hippocampus, and from their shape are generally called Sea-horses. Hippocampus brevirostris (the short-nosed Sea-horse) is occasionally met with on the British coast. It is from six to ten inches long, the body much compressed, short and deep; the whole length of the body and tail divided by longitudinal and transverse ridges, with tubercular points at the angles of the intersection. The snout is slender, and the tail long, quadrangular, and terminated in a naked or finless tip. When swimming about, the Hippocampus maintains a vertical position, but the tail is ready to grasp whatever meets it in the water; it quickly entwines in any direction [Pg 268] round weeds or other objects, and darts at its prey with great dexterity."

6. Plectognathi (Plaited jaw).

The Sea Porcupine (Diodon hystrix) belongs to this order. These Fish are of a peculiar thick rounded form, and occasionally inflate their stomachs with air, which makes them almost spherical, in which state they float with the belly upwards, and being covered with spines, present rather a formidable object to attack; the flesh is unwholesome, and, it is said, the liver is violently poisonous; some of the species of this fish are phosphorescent, and from this appearance they derive the name of Sunfish, as they shine very brightly in the dark. The short Sunfish (fig. 43) turns round as it swims; it is very large, sometimes weighing from three to four hundred pounds. They yield a considerable quantity of oil, for which they are caught. Their jaws are not divided into teeth, but consist each of a single piece; they live upon seaweeds and various crustaceans.

[Pg 269]

The Cartilaginous Fishes are divided into three orders.

1. Sturiones (Sturgeons).

Sturgeons (fig. 44) are inhabitants of the northern seas, but are occasionally found in our rivers. They have rows of bony plates imbedded in the skin; they sometimes attain the length of twenty feet, but are usually from six to eight feet long. Isinglass is made of the swimming bladder of the Sturgeon, and the roe (dried and salted) forms the "Caviare."

2. Plagiostomi (Wide-mouthed).

The Plagiostomi comprise the Sharks (fig. 45) and Dog-fishes, a most voracious tribe; the White Shark often attains the length of twenty feet. They are terribly famous for their dreadful powers of destruction, swallowing all that comes before them; they are able to bite in [Pg 270] two, with one snap of their formidable jaws, the body of any one unfortunate enough to fall in their way; their mouths are armed with several rows of short spear-shaped teeth; the mouth is placed a considerable distance under the head, so that when biting they turn on one side or quite over; they have no gills, but the water passes through five oblong openings on each side. Sailors hold this terrible inhabitant of the deep in great detestation, as well they may, for there are few who have spent many years at sea but can tell of a friend or messmate who has been mutilated or devoured by the Sharks. When sailors catch one, it is hauled on deck and killed with great gusto; the stomach is opened and its contents examined, and it generally contains some terrible mementoes in the form of buttons, buckles, &c., the only relics of its victims.

3. Cyclostomi (Round-mouthed).

The Lamprey or Lampern (fig. 46) inhabits both rivers and lakes, and some species, the sea; it has a round mouth, by which it affixes itself to rocks, &c., and also to other fish, it is furnished with teeth on the outer edge, it has no scales, but is covered with a glutinous skin; in form it much resembles an Eel, and is from twelve to eighteen inches long. The Lamprey was once very plentiful in the Thames, and considered a dainty.

[Pg 271]

REPTILES.

These constitute the second class of the Vertebrate animals. They are divided into four orders.

1. Amphibia (double-lived).

By some naturalists a separate class is made out of the Amphibia, including the Frog kind, Toads, and Newts (fig. 47), which they call "Batrachia," and which takes a place between Reptiles and Fishes, as the young of this class have a totally different form from the adult animal, and much resemble a fish, breathing by gills and having no legs, but as they become mature the gills are replaced by lungs, and the legs make their appearance.

The Amphibia have soft skins, which appear to serve as lungs or gills when they are under the water, extracting the air from it, and enabling them to remain a long time there without coming up to breathe; they are partly aquatic, and feed upon insects and other small creatures, which they capture by darting out the tongue, which is covered with a glutinous secretion, and drawing it in again instantly with the insect adhering to it, which [Pg 272] they swallow whole. The Frogs are furnished with webbed feet and swim well; they progress on land by leaps, their powerful hind legs carrying them to a great distance. The young of the Amphibia are brought forth as eggs, which float on the water, and when they first come to life form the curious little creatures called Tadpoles, having long tails and no feet, and, as before stated, more resembling Fish than Reptiles. The Toads are for the most part nocturnal in their habits, living in the daytime in gardens and holes; they feed upon insects, as do Frogs, and lay their eggs in the water. The stories of Toads being found alive in rock and the heart of trees, arise from the following circumstances: Toads when small will often creep into holes in rocks and hollows in trees, and in these situations they find abundance of food; being slothful in their habits, and capable of existing upon but little food, and abstaining from it a long time, they are apt to remain in their snug quarters and content themselves with what insects may come to them. In this way they grow too large to get out of the hole, and live for a great time in it; when chance discovers them, by the rock being broken open or the wood of the tree cleft, the opening into which they had crept is overlooked. The Water Newt (Triton cristatus) inhabits pools and ditches, and (like the others of this order) is first formed as a Tadpole; it is of a brown and bright yellow colour, with a crest down its back and tail, and has the most extraordinary powers of reproducing any part cut off or removed, such as a leg or the tail.

2. Ophidia (Snake-like order).

This includes the Serpents, Boas, and Pythons. These creatures are peculiar from their long and flexible form, and the absence of legs. They move by a sinuous winding action, and when about to seize their prey, make a sudden dart with great rapidity. They are covered with regular scales, and mottled with different colours; some, as the Adder and Rattle-snake, are very [Pg 273] venomous, the poison is contained in small glands connected with the poison-fangs, which are two long pointed teeth, having a groove or small canal leading from the side of the tooth to the poison-bag, upon which, when they bite, they press, and inject the poison into the wound while the tooth is in the flesh. These poison-fangs lie flat down when the creature is not excited, but are drawn up by muscles, when they are about to spring on anything. It is a common mistake to think that Serpents have a "sting," arising from their having a thin, long forked tongue, which they protrude and retract with great rapidity, and which has [Pg 274] been mistaken for a sting; the greater number of Snakes are not at all venomous. Serpents have no teeth fit for eating with, but they are used to hold their prey, while they swallow it, and they serve admirably for this purpose, as each tooth turns backwards. These creatures have mouths and throats capable of enormous distension (the lower jaw not being fixed to the upper one), so that they can swallow their food whole, which they always do; a Frog or Toad is often swallowed by the common Snake, which is quite disfigured by it when in its stomach. The Pythons and Boas (fig. 48) are the largest of this class, they kill their prey by coiling round it, and gradually tightening their folds till it is suffocated and almost crushed, when it is swallowed; these great creatures will grow to the length of 30 or 40 feet, and are capable of swallowing considerable quadrupeds, as Hares, Goats, Deer, &c.; after having their food, they lie torpid for several days. All Serpents lay eggs, and the Pythons coil themselves round upon their eggs to protect them; the Boa-constrictors are inhabitants of America, the Pythons of the Old World.

3. Sauria (Lizards).

The Sauria include the Crocodiles, Alligators, Skinks, Geckos, Iguanas, and Lizards; they are carnivorous, the smaller ones feeding on insects, and the larger members on whatever they can catch. They have four legs, and are covered with hard rough scales running in ridges on their backs, they have large strong tails, and their jaws are furnished with sharp teeth. The Alligator is found in great numbers in the Mississippi, and is a most formidable creature, attacking any who may venture into the water. In winter they bury themselves in the mud and remain there in a torpid state, they are from 15 to 20 feet long. The Crocodile is a native of Africa and the West Indies, there are many found in the Nile, it is larger than the Alligator, reaching often to 30 feet. Dr. Baird gives the following account of the Alligators and Crocodiles:—

[Pg 275]

"The Alligator (Alligator lucius, fig. 49), a native of North America and abundant in the Mississippi, is a formidable and ferocious creature, prodigiously strong, and sometimes reaching the length of 18 feet. It is provided with numerous sharp teeth, long tenacious claws, and a powerful tail, a single blow of which is capable of overturning a canoe. It chiefly preys by night, assembling in large numbers, besetting the mouth of some [Pg 276] retired creek, into which they have previously driven the fish, and bellowing so loud that they may be heard at the distance of a mile. It is said to attack men and quadrupeds whilst bathing or crossing the rivers, and to be more fierce and voracious then the other species of this sub-family. In Winter it buries itself in the mud at the bottom of the swamps and marshes which it inhabits, and continues in a torpid state till Spring.

"The true Crocodiles are natives of Africa, the West Indies, and America; and the best known species is the Nilotic Crocodile (Crocodilus vulgaris, fig. 49). This animal is a native of the Senegal river, of the Niger, and other rivers of Africa, but more particularly of the Nile in Egypt, where it attains the length of about 30 feet. The Crocodile was held in great veneration by the ancient Egyptians, by whom it was known under the name of 'Champsa.' The Crocodiles are exclusively carnivorous, and are ferocious animals. Their numbers are, however, kept down by the enemies which surround them. For the adults, few animals could be their match, but the little Ichneumon or 'Mongooz' devours their eggs in great numbers while hatching in the sand; and birds of prey pounce upon their young on quitting their shell, and before they are able to reach the shore."

4. Testudinata (having a shield).

The Testudinata include the Tortoise, and Turtle kind. They are remarkable for their horny covering (carapace) which forms a sort of shell, out of openings in which, their head, tail, and legs protrude; they have short feet, covered with scales, and no teeth, but the edges of the maxillary bones are sharp, like the edge of a knife, and they bite out pieces from vegetable substances with ease. Some of this class (the Turtles) are residents of the water, and grow to a great size, weighing fourteen or fifteen hundred pounds, and measuring seven or eight feet long. Others are much [Pg 277] esteemed as food, especially the green Turtle. Dr. Baird, in his Cyclopædia of the Natural Sciences, under the article "Chelonia," gives a good description of these creatures, from which the following is extracted:—

"The Green Turtle (Chelonia viridis, or midas, fig. 50) is five or six feet long, and weighs from seven to eight hundred pounds. It is principally found in the Atlantic Ocean, and is often met with seven or eight hundred leagues from land. They are easily caught when asleep on the surface of the water, to which they come to breathe. In the West Indies, the Bahama Islands, and the Island of Ascension, the capture of Turtles gives employment to many people, and affords food for thousands.

"The Hawk's-bill Turtle (Caretha imbricata) is a smaller species, scarcely ever exceeding two hundred pounds' weight, and is a native of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The flesh is not good, but the shells, which are formed of a considerable number of scales overlapping each other at their extremities, in the manner of tiles on the roof of a building, are of great importance as an article of commerce, and are much superior to that of any other species. It is extensively used in the [Pg 278] manufacture of combs, snuff-boxes, &c., also for inlaying, and other ornamental work.

"In the family of land Tortoises (fig. 51), the feet are club-shaped, and their habits are terrestrial. The shell is very solid, thick, ovate, and (in the adult state) covered with horny concentrically-grooved shields, marked with a permanent areola. They have a short thick tail, are very slow in their motion, and live upon vegetables and roots. Most of the species are natives of the warm regions of the globe, but those that live in colder regions burrow and sleep during the winter. They are quiet, inoffensive animals, extremely tenacious of life, and remarkable for longevity. Individuals are stated upon good authority to have lived upwards of two hundred years.

"The common Tortoise, or Taragua (Testudo Græca), is a native of the south of Europe, and almost all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean; it is found in the islands of the Archipelago, Corsica, Sardinia, and in Africa, but is thought to be more common in Greece than elsewhere. It is from six to eight inches long, and weighs about forty-eight ounces. This species is often brought to this country and kept in gardens. One was brought to the Archiepiscopal garden at Lambeth, in the time of Laud, in 1633, where it lived till 1753, owing its death then, more to neglect than the effects of age."

[Pg 279]

BIRDS.

The third class of the Vertebrata, comprises the "Birds," or those whose young are not born alive, but in the form of eggs; who have warm blood, and breathe by lungs, the air-cells of which communicate with the hollow shafts of the bones, (these are full of air instead of marrow), this gives them lightness, and serves as a reservoir of air while flying; they have two anterior extremities so modified as to form wings, and a heart with four cavities; most of them have the power of flying through the air, and some to a very great height, as the "Condor" (fig. 52), while in others the wings are rudimentary and only assist them in running, as [Pg 280] in the Ostrich, (fig. 52) Cassowary, Penguin, &c., while in the "Apteryx" (fig. 52) they are quite absent.

Birds are covered with a peculiar modification of hair known as feathers; these consist of a central shaft with closely-set diverging branches, some of which have others branching from them with a serrated surface, giving them that peculiar metallic brilliancy so well shown in the feathers of the Humming Bird. Birds are furnished with beaks of almost every form, to suit their method of feeding, &c., and likewise feet, sometimes furnished with sharp and powerful talons, at others, feet suitable to climb with, and again in some they are webbed between the toes, so as to enable them to swim with great rapidity.

Birds are divided into five orders, as follows:—

1.  Raptores (Preying) Eagle, Owl, &c.
2.  Insessores (Perching), divided into 4 tribes, viz:—
1.  Dentirostres (Tooth bill) Thrush, Butcher-bird.
2.  Conirostres (Cone bill) Raven, Crow, Finch.
3.  Scansores (Climbing) Parrot, Wood-pecker.
4.  Fissirostres (Split bill) King Fisher, Goat-sucker.
3.  Rasores (Scraping) Poultry, Pheasants, &c.
4.  Grallatores (Wading) Heron, Crane, &c.
5.  Natatores (Swimming) Goose, Duck, &c.

1. The Raptores, as the Eagles and Falcons, are furnished with hooked beaks and strong sharp talons (fig. 53), they prey upon all small animals, as birds of less strength, rabbits, &c., and some of them upon fish, as the Osprey, others feed upon dead flesh and offal, as the Vultures, and are very useful creatures in hot countries, where they are generally respected, they hover about the towns, feeding upon almost everything capable of being swallowed; it is not certain whether these birds detect the presence of food by smell or sight (both of these senses are possessed by them in perfection), but it is certain that in the desert, when any animal dies, these birds soon make their appearance, although a few minutes before not one could be seen for miles around. The Owls are nocturnal, their plumage is downy, and their eyes placed so that both shall look forwards, the pupils close, similarly to a cat's eye, and their vision, like the cats (their companions [Pg 281] among the Mammalia) is extremely sensitive, so that the expression "as blind as an Owl," has no more sense in it than "as blind as a Cat" would have; they feed upon rats, mice, insects, &c.

2. The Inessores include some that live by catching insects in the air while they fly, as the Swallows (fig. 54); these are furnished with great powers of flight and rapidity of movement; others (the Scansores) which climb and hold by the branches of trees, feeding upon nuts and fruit, as the Parrot; others live upon insects, but seek them in the crevices of old trees and other similar places, as the Woodpeckers (fig. 54). Some live entirely upon fish (King-fishers), which they catch from the streams on the banks of which they live. This order includes all the singing birds, and by far the greater number of birds of passage; this propensity to migrate is one of the most wonderful of all the instincts of Birds, the Swallow [Pg 282] leaves England in the Autumn to take up its abode for the Winter in Africa, or the Islands of the Archipelago, and returns again in the Spring, year after year, to the same nest; these journeys are accomplished at the rate of 40 or 50 miles an hour. Pigeons also have the wonderful faculty of returning home from almost any distance, appearing to know by instinct the right direction; as, after a turn or two, they take a straight course to their destination.

3. The Rasores include the common Fowl (fig. 55), Pheasant (fig. 55), Partridge, Turkey, &c.; they feed principally on grain, but occasionally on insects and worms, which they scrape up with their feet; they live chiefly upon the ground, on which they build their nests, but generally roost on trees. Most of this order supply excellent food, the Turkey is famous as a Christmas dish, and is often of a great size; this bird is very plentiful in Central and South America in a wild state, and often [Pg 283] attains a large size, weighing 30 or 40 pounds; the natives have a simple and curious method of catching these birds, which are extremely shy, never allowing any one to approach near to them. A sort of cage is built of twigs, large enough to contain many, and having holes close to the ground all round, of a size just sufficient to admit a Turkey when its head is bent down; leading to each of these holes a train of corn is placed, but none within, the birds coming to pick the corn, follow up the line of corn with their heads down, till they are within the inclosure, when finding no more, they raise up their heads and cannot get out, for they have not the sense to stoop their heads, so as to allow of their exit.

[Pg 284]

4. The Grallatores include the Herons and Cranes (fig. 56), which wade into streams and catch fish; these are furnished with long legs, neck, and beak, and when they have gone into the water as far as their long legs permit, they stand still and wait with the head resting on the shoulders and the eyes fixed on the stream, till an unlucky fish approaches near enough, when with a quick stroke they dart at it, and catch it; they are very picturesque objects, standing on one leg (as they commonly do) in some lonely pool or stream.

[Pg 285]

5. The Natatores, a very large class of Birds, live almost entirely in the water, they are web-footed and swim beautifully, as the Swans, Geese, Ducks, &c. (fig 57); these feed in general upon the vegetation growing in, and on the margin of the water, also on worms, larvæ, &c.; they have a beautiful mode of rising and flying in a line, when disturbed from their haunts, and this line is maintained for a long distance, and is sometimes double like the letter V, one bird leading and the others following in single file.

[Pg 286]

THE MAMMALIA.

This class is divided into twelve orders:—

1. Marsupiata (Pouched) Kangaroo.
2. Monotremata (Having but one vent) Platypus.
3. Rodentia (Gnawing) Beaver, Rabbit.
4. Edentata (Toothless) Anteater.
5. Ruminantia (Chewing) Ox, Deer, Sheep.
6. Pachydermata (Thick skinned) Horse, Elephant.
7. Cetacea (Whale-like) Whale, Porpoise.
8. Carnivora (Flesh-eating) Lion, Tiger.
[Pg 287]9. Insectivora (Insect-eating) Mole, Hedgehog.
10. Cheiroptera (Hand-winged) Bat.
11. Quadrumana (Four-handed) Monkey, Ape.
12. Bimana (Two-handed) Man.

These twelve orders of the class "Mammalia," of the division "Vertebrata," (as their names imply), have their peculiarities, such as fit them to their modes of life, as, the medium in which they live, the climate, the food they eat, and the manner of obtaining it. They have all the five special senses, sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch, but very differently developed in respect to power. Yet, as a whole, they maintain a similitude. They have all internal skeletons, and each part of this skeleton exists in all, but modified to suit different purposes. They have all the peculiar attributes of the "Mammalia," such as suckling their young, being born alive, having four extremities, warm blood, respiration by lungs, and a heart with two auricles and two ventricles.

A general description of the anatomy and some of the functions of Man will be given hereafter, and will apply equally to all the Mammalia; always bearing in mind that the difference in structure of every animal, although making it inferior to Man, does not do away with any of the essential qualities, which constitute it one of the members of the highest group; for, although immensely inferior to Man, yet the Mammalia are for the most part greatly superior to all the classes below it, the capability of being educated, being in itself a vast step beyond mere instinct, wonderful though this may be, and developed to an extraordinary degree, as in some of the insects; yet, in these, there is no possibility of improving it, while in some of the Mammalia, as the Dog, Horse, Elephant, and Monkey, there is an evident tendency to progressive improvement when aided by the example and tuition of Man.

1. The Marsupiata include the Kangaroos and Opossums (fig. 59). They are characterised by the possession of a pouch at the lower part of the abdomen, into which the young enter as soon as born, for they are born in a very imperfect state, and when in the pouch they adhere to the teat of the [Pg 288] mother, where they remain till more fully developed. In these animals the hind legs are greatly developed, and the fore legs but little. They progress by enormous leaps, resting on the hinder legs and tail, both of which are very strong. They belong exclusively to Australia, which appears to produce many forms having peculiarities not met with elsewhere, and among the lowest of their type; this and the next order appear somewhat to partake of the form of the Bird, the undeveloped state of the young in the Marsupiata, being an approach to the egg of the Oviparous animals.

2. The Monotremata includes the Duck-bill, called also "Platypus," and "Ornithorynchus paradoxus," (fig. 60), a most singular combination of the forms of the mammal and the [Pg 289] bird. It has a mouth resembling the bill of a Duck, and several other peculiarities, which lead to the consideration of it as one of the connecting links between the forms of the Mammalia and Birds.

3. The Rodentia comprise the Rat, Beaver, Rabbit, Hare, Mouse, &c. They live upon almost any kind of vegetable matter; the Rat and Mouse will eat anything they can get. Their incisor teeth are two in front of each jaw, and are chisel-shaped and very sharp; they are so constructed that they shall be kept sharp by being used, which is effected by the hardest part or enamel being in front in a thin layer, so that it is not so easily worn away as the bony part. If these animals be fed on soft food, their teeth continue to grow nevertheless, and protrude from their mouths in a most singular way. The Beaver (fig. 61) is almost aquatic in its habits, it gnaws through the stems of trees, and uses them to dam up the water of the stream they inhabit, so as to secure a constant supply. They build houses or huts of wood, mud, and stones, which they unite in constructing. These houses have their entrances beneath the water, so [Pg 290] that the Beavers dive to enter them; they have two divisions or rooms in them, and are sufficiently large to lodge several families. The Rat is too well-known to need much description. The brown or Norway Rat has only been an inhabitant of this country about forty years, the black Rat being before that time the usual house Rat, but it is now almost exterminated, specimens being very rare. There are several other species of Rats; the best known is the Water Rat, who burrows in brooks and ditches, and partly lives in the water. Of the Mouse there are also several species. Besides the usual house Mouse, there is the wood Mouse, which forms a magazine of grain and nuts underground for winter store; and the harvest Mouse, which builds a little round nest between the stalks of corn. The Squirrel is also of this order. This pretty little creature lives in the trees, chiefly feeding upon nuts; can leap well, and run up the branches of trees with surprising agility. The Flying Squirrel has a broad expansion of skin between [Pg 291] the fore and hind legs on each side, so that when stretched out, they form a sort of parachute; this enables the creature to leap to a great distance from tree to tree, and supports it in the air as it goes. The Porcupine (Hystrix cristata), so celebrated for its quills, which supply a sort of defensive armour, is of this order.

4. The Edentata, or Anteaters, have no teeth, but a peculiarly shaped tongue, which is covered with viscid mucus, and which they project and retract with great rapidity, causing the Ants and Termites, on which they feed, to adhere to it, and be carried into their mouths. The Great Anteater (Myrmecophaga jubata, fig. 62) is a very extraordinary animal in appearance; it has an enormously prolonged nose, and the back is covered with a sort of mane; the tail, also, is of prodigious size, and very bushy; when this curious animal lies down to sleep, the long snout is thrust under it, and the tail laid across the back, the end of [Pg 292] the snout projecting behind. In this position, it would lead anyone to suppose that the head was where the tail really is, and that when looking at the creature's hinder part, they were looking at its head; and the sudden reversal of the position of these parts, when it gets up quickly, is certainly extremely ridiculous.

5. The Ruminantia.—The Ruminating animals (fig. 63) are those which chew the cud. There are a great many species, and their members are also very numerous. The Ox, and its varieties, the Buffalo, Bison, Yak, &c.; the Deer, Antelopes, Gazelles, &c.; the Sheep, Goat, Giraffe, and Camel, all belong to the Ruminants. These all have hoofs, cloven into two parts; have no incisor (or front) teeth in the upper jaw; and are essentially grazing animals. They have stomachs made up of four compartments; into the first of these (the Rumen) the crude grass enters, and is afterwards returned to the mouth, and again chewed at leisure; the molar teeth, or grinders, are flat, and roughened, so as to effect this purpose; and, that they may not become smooth by wear, the enamel (or hard part) of the teeth is so disposed in various layers, that it is always projecting above the bony part, which wears down first. The Ruminants are gregarious, associating in herds of enormous numbers. Cumming, describes the herds of Springboks, in South Africa, as being in countless thousands, continuing to pass for hours together; and covering the plain as far as the eye could reach. Cattlin, also, describes the American Bison of the Prairies as being congregated in the most surprising numbers. Some of the members of this order are very large and heavy animals. The Cape Buffalo is of enormous strength, and very fierce when attacked.

Dr. Livingstone, in his Travels in South Africa, speaking of the Lion, says:—"He seldom attacks full-grown Buffalos; but frequently, when a Buffalo-calf is caught by him, the cow rushes to the rescue, and a toss from her often kills him. One we found was killed thus, and on the Leambye, another, which died near Sesheke, had all the appearance of having received his death-blow from a Buffalo. It is ques [Pg 293]tionable if a single Lion ever attacks a full-grown Buffalo; the amount of roaring heard at night, on occasions when a Buffalo is killed, seems to indicate there are always more than one Lion engaged in the onslaught."

The Ruminants are the only members of the Mammalia furnished with horns, and some of these are of enormous size; the Elk, Buffalo, and Steinbok, are instances. In the Deer tribe they are shed yearly, and increase in size and in the number of their branches at each fresh growth. The flesh of the Ruminants forms the chief animal food of Man, [Pg 294] and some tribes of the American aborigines live exclusively on it.

The Camel, next to the Horse, is the most useful beast of burthen. The Arabs greatly prize these creatures, and from their power of carrying a supply of water in their stomach, they are very useful in crossing the desert; their hoofs are also spread out so as to enable them better to walk on the soft and yielding sand; there are two kinds of Camel, the Bactrian, with two humps, and the Arabian Camel with but one. The Dromedary is a small agile breed of the Arabian Camel, celebrated for its swiftness.

6. The Pachydermata or thick-skinned animals (fig.64) include the Elephant, Rhinoceros, Horse, Ass, and its varieties; Hog, Tapir, Hippopotamus, &c.; these have many of them a single solid hoof on each foot, as in the Horse and Ass tribe, others have separate toes clothed with a hoof, as in the Elephant. In nearly all the Pachydermata there is a prolongation of the nose or upper lip, the Horse even has some power of prehension in this part; the Rhinoceros is able to bring the upper lip into so fine a point as to pick up a crumb, and in the Tapir there is a considerable prolongation of the nose, while the Elephant has this part developed into a complete prehensile organ.

The Elephant, Rhinoceros, and Hog are fond of wallowing in the mud, with which they completely besmear themselves, and seem to derive great satisfaction therefrom. There are two kinds of Elephants, the Asiatic, or Indian, and the African, the chief distinction between them is the size of the ear, that of the African Elephant being of very great size; there is a very young specimen of this kind in the British Museum, but a full-grown African Elephant has never been brought to England. The Elephant is furnished with a pair of enormous tusks proceeding from the upper jaw, these are composed of solid ivory, and often weigh nearly a hundred pounds each; with the trunk, the Elephant is able to gather food in the form of grass and herbage, and put it into its mouth, it can also draw up a considerable quantity of water, and this being poured down its throat [Pg 295] from the trunk, constitutes its usual mode of eating and drinking, as the neck is too short for the animal to reach the ground except by the trunk. The Indian Elephant is much used as a beast of burthen, and for various other purposes; they are very docile and sagacious.

The Horse has been subjected to the service of Man from the earliest records, indeed it is not known when this beautiful animal was first trained to be his useful servant and companion; he is mentioned, in the Scriptures, as being subjected to the Bit, and in the sculptures brought from [Pg 296] the ruins of Nineveh by Layard; the Horse is constantly sculptured, decked in the most gorgeous trappings and driven by reins and a bit, almost in the same manner as in the present day, and these sculptures are among the earliest records of Man's hands. There are several breeds of Horses; the chief are the Arabian (from which stock proceed our race horses), the Flanders or Cart-horse, and the Sheltie or Shetland horse. The Horse is nowhere found in a state of nature, yet many wild Horses graze on the plains of America, but it is known that these are not native, but proceed from those placed there to graze, and which have bred and run wild. The Ass is distinguished from the horse by the tail having short hair on it, except at the extremity, and the mane being short and upright.

7. The Cetacea, or Whale kind, inhabit chiefly the colder latitudes, they are entirely aquatic, but breathe air; the Whale, Narwal, Dolphins, and Porpoises are the chief members.

In Whales (fig. 65) the anterior extremities are so developed as to form a sort of fin called a "flipper," but in which all the usual bones of an extremity exist; the posterior extremities are modified so as to completely resemble the tail of a fish; they have smooth skins devoid of hair. All these tribes have a considerable thickness of fat or [Pg 297] blubber (as it is called) beneath their skin; this protects them from the cold, for most of these creatures live in the very coldest climates, the oily matters acting as a non-conductor; it is for the oil yielded by this blubber that they are chiefly caught. The Cachelot or Sperm-whale (Phyceter macrocephalus) also yields spermaceti, which crystallizes from the oily matter contained in its head, and the Greenland-whale yields baleen or whale-bone, which is a substance forming a sort of sieve in the mouth, through which they draw the sea water and catch all it may contain for food, this consists of all small fish, but principally a small mollusc called the "Clio Borealis," which inhabits the northern seas in great numbers; a whole shoal of these is taken in by the Whale at a draught. The Whale often measures 60 or 70 feet in length, and the Razor-back Whale sometimes 100; a large Whale will yield 20 tuns of oil. The Narwal or Sea Unicorn is from 20 to 30 feet long; it has but one tooth, which is developed to a prodigious length, and projects in front in a straight line like a sort of horn, there are however sometimes two of these, one being always much larger than the other; this horn is 8 or 10 feet long, perfectly straight and twisted, it is used by the animal to break the ice so that it may breathe, and also to spear and capture fish, on which the Narwal lives. This horn produces beautiful ivory.

8. The Carnivora, or Flesh-eaters (fig. 67), include the Feline tribe, as the Lion, Tiger, Jaguar (fig. 68), Leopard, &c.; the Canine, as the Hyena, Wolf, Jackal, Dog, Fox, &c., the Ursine, which includes the Bears, and the Phocine, including the Seal kind. The Feline tribe are formed to spring upon, hold, and rend other animals which they kill for food, and have teeth and claws suitable to this purpose, and great activity and strength to enable them to contend with, and overcome their prey. They are, for the most part, nocturnal in their habits, seldom seeking their prey but in the night, and then mostly frequenting the drinking-places where other animals come for water. They attack by gradually stalking after the animal, getting nearer and nearer, till at last [Pg 298] a well-directed spring brings them on to it at once. That these animals may better surprise their prey, they have eyes so extremely sensitive to light that they can see well when it would appear to Man to be quite dark, hence the saying, "cats can see in the dark." The Iris (or coloured part of the eyes) in this tribe is made so as to close up into a slit (1, fig. 66), and thus exclude the light of the day to a great extent, which would otherwise be too powerful, and injure the extreme sensibility of their vision. Their claws (2, fig. 66) are made to retract by a tendon, so as to keep their points from being worn by walking. This accounts for the silent, stealthy tread of the domestic cat; it enables them to creep quietly upon their prey, and at the moment they are about to seize them, the claws are extended. The pointed or flesh-teeth of the Carnivora are greatly developed, and are very sharp. Their molars (3, fig. 66) are pointed, and suitable to the food they are intended to masticate. The tongue of the feline tribe is very rough, and is used to rasp off the flesh from bones. When closely examined, the surface of their tongues present a series of horny hooks, all bending in one direction, and forming a sort of rasp.

The Lion is usually placed at the head of this race, but it [Pg 299] is questionable whether he is so powerful as the Bengal Tiger, and combats between the two, generally give the mastery to the Tiger.

Dr. Livingstone, in his description of the Lion, takes off a good deal of the poetical nobility and imaginary superiority with which the Lion has been commonly invested. The following selections will show what are Dr. Livingstone's impressions from personal experience:—"When a Lion is met in the day-time, a circumstance by no means unfrequent to travellers in these parts, if preconceived notions do not lead them to expect something very 'noble' or [Pg 300] 'majestic,' they will see merely an animal somewhat larger than the biggest Dog they ever saw, and partaking very strongly of the canine features. When encountered in the day-time the Lion stands a second or two gazing, then turns slowly round and walks as slowly away for a dozen paces, looking over his shoulder, then begins to trot, and when he thinks himself out of sight bounds off like a greyhound. By day, as a rule, there is not the smallest danger of Lions which are not molested attacking Man, nor even on a clear, moonlight night, except at the breeding-time.

"So general, however, is the sense of security on moonlight nights that we seldom tied up our Oxen, but let them lie loose by the wagons; while, on a dark, rainy night, if a Lion is in the neighbourhood, he is almost sure to venture to kill an Ox. His approach is always stealthy, and the least appearance of a trap is enough to cause him to refrain from making the last spring.

"Lions never go near any Elephants, except the calves, which, when young, are sometimes torn by them. Every living thing retires before the lordly Elephant, yet a full-grown one would fall an easier prey than the Rhinoceros. The Lion rushes off at the mere sight of the latter beast."

The Bengal or Royal Tiger is the largest of the Feline tribe, being generally 8 feet long and 4 high. It is, however, often found much larger. It would appear from the most correct accounts that the Lion is hardly a match for this formidable creature. The Tiger is as beautiful as dreadful; its colour is of a bright orange-buff, with white face and under parts, the back and legs being beautifully striped with black. The Tiger has no mane, but is of a sleek, graceful make, though terribly powerful. It inhabits India chiefly, and will prowl for hundreds of miles by the sides of rivers, secreting itself in the jungle and sleeping by day. Sometimes traces of a Tiger will be seen in the locality of villages or towns, and stray Sheep or Bullocks disappear from time to time, but it will destroy any human being who unluckily approaches its haunts, and having once tasted human blood, appears afterwards to prefer this kind of food to all others, and will pick out [Pg 301] a cow-herd in preference to the cattle he is driving; in all probability this preference is really owing to the ease with which the capture can be made; and the small resistance Man is capable of offering; be this as it may, the Tiger having once destroyed a man is called a "man-eater," and a reward is offered for his head; when this occurs near any of the stations of the East India Company, the officers generally make it a point to sally forth and endeavour to capture this terrific beast; this they do on foot, as it is impossible to depend on any Horse, their natural fear of the Tiger being so great that all Horses either shy, or at once retreat. The officers, armed with guns, take with them a [Pg 302] number of natives, who with long canes beat the jungle and generally start out the monster, at whom there are a few deadly rifles pointed, which invariably bring him at once to the ground.

The largest of this tribe inhabiting the New World, is the Puma or Cougar, which is much inferior to the Lion both in size and strength, although very fierce and dangerous, it is of a pale drab colour inclining to grey; it climbs trees and stretches itself along their branches, waiting for some unlucky animal to pass, when it drops quietly upon its shoulders and quickly destroys it. The Leopard tribe includes several varieties, as the Jaguar, Panther, Ounce, Ocelot, &c., they are all more or less spotted with black, and possess all the ferocity and much of the strength of the nobler species of their tribe, the smallest of them being more than a match for a man without weapons.

The Canine tribe of the Carnivora includes Dogs, Wolves, Jackalls, and Foxes. The Dogs are greatly altered from their wild nature by being domesticated, resembling in their wild state a small Wolf; the Dog in its domesticated state is too well known to need any description here. The Jackals and Wolves generally hunt in packs, and devour all kinds of offal, flesh and bones, which their strong jaws and teeth appear to crush and break up without difficulty.

The Bears form the next tribe, these are often very large animals; the Grisly Bear of the Rocky Mountains (Damis ferox) is the largest of the Brown Bears, it often measures eight feet long and is extremely powerful, the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) is smaller, but still a powerful animal, the Polar Bear (Thalarctos maratimus) is white and is the largest of all the Bears, measuring eight or nine feet long, it is coated with long shaggy hair, and even its feet are clothed with hair underneath, that it may not slip on the ice, and to defend it from the cold; this Bear is found in the Arctic Regions among the ice, and feeds upon Fish and other marine animals. Bears in general are carnivorous, but eat many other kinds of food; they are very fond of honey, and are never contented if they smell it, until they get at it, for this purpose they will often gnaw a hole in a tree and [Pg 303] thrust in their head. Advantage is taken of this predilection to entrap the animal, the natives of the Rocky Mountains often baiting Bear traps with honey.

The Seals and Walrus (fig. 69) form the next, or Phocine tribe; they are amphibious, and feed chiefly on Fish, inhabiting the colder regions of the North; their hinder extremities are but little developed, and serve the purposes of a tail. They are covered with a close fur, and the canine teeth of the Walrus are so largely developed in the upper jaw as to form tusks, by means of which they hook on and attach themselves to the blocks of ice.

9. The Insectivora, such as the Mole, Hedgehog, and Shrew-mouse, (fig. 70), live entirely on insects, the Mole burrows for them in the earth, and the fore paws are so made as [Pg 304] to dig out and throw the earth behind it, and it burrows in this way with the greatest rapidity. As it is nearly always beneath the surface of the earth, and consequently in the dark, so a sense of vision is not required, it is therefore blind, but the senses of touch and smell, being very acute enable it to find its food. The Hedgehog and Shrew-mouse are furnished with pointed noses, with which they dig up the earth in search of insects, and when found they devour them with amazing rapidity. The Hedgehog has the power of rolling itself up into a ball and defying the attacks of almost anything, for its bristles are so stiff and sharp that they prick like thorns, and make a capital defensive armour; the Hedgehog is eaten by many, especially by the Gipsies, who esteem it a dainty.

10. The Cheiroptera (Bat tribe, fig. 71), have fore feet so modified as to serve as wings, with which they fly with tolerable swiftness, producing a peculiar flapping sound. These wings are formed by a membrane which is stretched out between the fingers, which are exceedingly elongated, and [Pg 305] which reaches from the fore feet to the hind feet. The Bat tribe all feed upon insects, especially moths; they rest in the day time head downwards, clinging to rough places by means of the claws of their hind feet, coming out at night to seek their food; their sight, which is very quick, enabling them to see their prey when almost dark. Some of the larger species of this tribe, inhabiting America, are called Vampire Bats, they live by sucking the blood of various animals, such as cattle and horses, thereby inflicting dangerous wounds.

11. The Quadrumana (fig. 72), so called from their hind and fore feet both having thumbs, and being developed into hands, includes the Monkeys; they may be divided into two tribes, those inhabiting the Old World (Simiidæ), and those inhabiting the New (Cebidæ), these include what were formerly called Apes, Baboons, &c. These animals approach the most nearly to the form of the human being, the [Pg 306] Chimpanzee being considered the nearest in formation to Man; there are, however, many very broad distinctions between the two, especially in the foot and head. The Quadrumana are very clever, but their actions seem to have more meaning in them than they in reality possess, owing to the resemblance of these creatures to the human being. There are many surprising accounts of these beings, such as their arming themselves with sticks and stones to defend themselves; but no act of reason has ever yet been perceived in them, nor any tendency towards improvement, [Pg 307] except that which has been given them by Man. "The Monkey who had seen the world," and went home and taught his companions, is a fable in both senses of the word. The Monkey tribe are formed to pass their lives in the trees among the branches, their hands being formed to suit this kind of life. None of them walk well, but when they are among the branches, swinging themselves from bough to bough, few creatures are more active; their food is fruit and nuts of all kinds. The Chimpanzee, certainly, is the nearest approach to Man in the lower animals, and walks better in an upright position than does the Ourang-outang, whose whole life is spent in the trees, while the Chimpanzee often inhabits holes in the earth and rocks. In the "Penny Cyclopædia" is the following account of one, by Captain Payne:—

"It shook hands with some of the sailors, but refused its hand with marks of anger to others, without any apparent cause. It speedily, however, became familiar with the crew, except one boy, to whom it was never reconciled. When the seamen's mess was brought on deck it was a constant attendant, would go round and embrace each person, while it uttered loud yells, and then seat itself among them to share the repast."

Some of the Monkey tribe (the Spider-monkeys) have the power of holding fast with the end of the tail; it, in fact, forms a sort of hand, and they swing from the boughs by it, and it is said that several will attach themselves in this way, forming a long chain, and swing themselves from the topmost bough of a tree when they wish to cross a stream, the lowest catching hold of the boughs on the opposite side, and the uppermost of them letting go his hold, they are all thus conveyed across.

12. Bimana (two-handed). This order includes Man alone. Man has been placed in a separate class, and not as the first order of the Mammalia, but, as will be presently noticed, although he has many attributes which no other animal has, yet in bodily construction, and all the functions of his material part, he so nearly resembles the other orders [Pg 308] of his class that it is deemed better to place him at their head under the designation of "two-handed;" although indeed he is the only animal who can be said to possess hands, properly so called, for those of the Monkey tribe are so imperfectly developed that they have but little claim to the name.

In his circulation, respiration, digestion, &c., Man exactly resembles the other Mammalia, also in the organs of locomotion and special sense, modified slightly in form; but to these purely animal attributes, he has superadded faculties which raise him above them, and show him to be the last and most perfect of God's creatures, one step further, in fact, than any other living being; and it is a curious circumstance, and one showing the accuracy of detail, with which the Mosaic account of Creation in the Bible abounds, that this very superiority is not only mentioned in many ways, but recorded as the result of a special act of God over and above his formation as an ordinary animal, in which state he was created, for we find the words, "and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul," this especial act was not performed for any other being which God had created, of which it is stated simply "male and female created He them."

Man is possessed of sentiments (or those feelings which prompt him to believe in, look forward to, and hope for a higher state of existence, than that which he enjoys here) which none of the lower animals have, and of reason in place of instinct. There is certainly a vast difference between the two, although many would have us believe the one is the same as the other, but of a higher order; instinct causes its possessor to act from innate impulse without consciousness of the result, while reason points out "the why and the wherefore." Man is conscious of his own identity, this is also peculiar to him; moreover, all the performances of man can be improved by practice, none of the instincts can, but are as perfect at first as at last; the Bee makes the comb, and the Bird the nest, as well the first time as the last, and although the higher animals, as the Dog, Horse, Elephant, &c., can be taught to perform [Pg 309] various clever and useful acts, yet it is by Man's instrumentality and not by their own powers; in fact there is not an animal which left to itself has the slightest power within [Pg 310] itself of deviating one iota from those peculiar instincts which were given it by God. But Man at every effort rises higher than he was before, till he arrives at such a knowledge of the great works and designs of his Creator that he bows his head in awe and admiration of the wonders permitted to appear to his comprehension. With respect to his bodily structure, Man undoubtedly stands first in the race of beings, although, in some particulars, such as the acuteness of the senses, he may be inferior to some.

The Human frame consists of a skeleton (fig. 73) formed of hard and unyielding bone, having joints to admit of motion in certain directions; this skeleton performs certain great and important offices, it forms strong boundaries or protecting cases for most of the vital parts, so as to shield them from external violence, such as the brain and spinal cord, the lungs, heart, &c., it also furnishes a series of levers to be acted on by the muscles, for the purposes of motion, and a firm support for the soft parts of the system. The skeleton is divided into the head, trunk, and extremities; the head is again divided into cranium and face; the trunk is divided into spine, thorax, and pelvis; the extremities into the upper and lower, the upper consisting of arm, fore-arm, and hand; the lower of thigh, leg, and foot. The bones are divided into "flat bones" (fig. 74) and "long bones" (fig. 75), the flat bones (as a general rule) form the boundaries of the cavities, and the long bones the levers.

The bones consist of earthy matter, chiefly phosphate of lime, held together by a sort of cartilage, and arranged in fine scales or plates forming interstices or cells (fig. 76), these are large in the centre of the bone so as to make it nearly (and in some instances quite) hollow, and very small at the surface, so as to make it there nearly solid; this arrangement is found to be the very best to secure strength and lightness, [Pg 311] together with a very slight degree of flexibility. The general form of a long bone is that of a shaft, having an enlargement at either extremity, the shaft is generally curved slightly so as to give elasticity, and is more solid than the ends, which are expanded to give size and firmness to the joints, and porous to keep them light; the shaft is small and close in its texture, that there may be plenty of room for the muscles which lie on and cover it. The skeleton then, consists of bony cases which enclose the viscera, a series of levers covered with, and moved by the muscles, and the whole forming a solid framework to support the soft parts. All the various motions of the body, from the winking of the eyelid and the wonderfully adjusted motions of the eye itself—which are so accurate, that a certain perceptible motion is required to look alternately at one side [Pg 312] and the other of a pin's head—to the most powerful stroke of the arm, are performed by the contraction of the muscles. But there are several actions which would at first appear to be produced by elongation instead of contraction, such as the protrusion of the tongue, the winking of the eyelids, and the closure of the lips; but the first of these is produced by the contraction of a muscle which is attached at one extremity to the under part of the root of the tongue, and at the other to the inner part of the lower jaw, which, when it contracts, draws the whole tongue forwards, causing a part of it to protrude; the eyelids and lips are closed by circular muscles surrounding them, which, by contraction, draw together those parts.

The muscles form the flesh of an animal, or that part which is of a red colour, and which is called lean (in contra-distinction to fat), they are composed of fibres, each fibre made up of a number of fibrils, and the whole bound up together by means of a fine membrane, called areolar tissue. Each of these fibrils consists of a number of cells pressed closely together and having a peculiar bearded appearance (figs. 77, 78). It is by the sudden approximation and flattening of these cells that the muscle is shortened during contraction, but the contraction of each fibril is only for an instant, and then a relaxation and elongation of the cells takes place, which is followed by a second contraction, and so on. Now, the way in which a muscle keeps in a state of permanent contraction is this: the various fibrils or strings of cells relieve each other instead of all contracting and all relaxing together, and in this way a part only of the fibrils are in a state of contraction at any given time, while the others are relaxed, and as one begins to relax another contracts, and [Pg 313] so keeps up a state of contraction in the muscle up to a certain point, when the contractions become gradually more feeble, and finally cease altogether; the muscle is then exhausted, but, if allowed to rest awhile, it again obtains its contractile power. This peculiar contractile power is a physical one, and exists for a short time after death, that is, until its perfect structure is altered by the beginning of decomposition; and what is a curious fact, the muscles of a dead body stimulated to contraction by pricking or galvanism, will tire and again obtain their contractility by rest, just as in the living body. The nature of the stimulus which causes the muscles to contract during life is not known; but, whatever it may be, it is conveyed from the spinal cord and brain, through the medium of a set of nerves, called the "motor nerves," or nerves of motion, to the muscles, to every fibre of which they are distributed. There is, however, another set of nerves which have nothing to do with motion, although exactly similar in appearance and generally associated and bound up in the same sheath with them; these are the nerves of sensation. They take their origin from every part possessed of sensibility or feeling—more especially the skin—and convey every impression of feeling to the brain. The muscles are not all under the control of the will, for the muscles of the heart, bowels, &c. are quite out of our control. Those which are subservient to our will are called "voluntary" muscles, or the "muscles of animal life," while those out of the control of the will, are the "involuntary" muscles, or "muscles of organic life" (fig. 79). These last have a structure different to the voluntary muscles, being composed of flattened fibres containing granules and overlapping each other. The tendons are the cord-like extremities of the muscles which connect them to the bones; they are fibrous and slightly elastic, flexible, and exceedingly strong; while moist they have a splendent appearance, somewhat like mother-of-pearl.

The ligaments are the strong fibrous bands which connect the bones together. Cartilages are substances of a white colour, smooth in their texture, and not very flexible; [Pg 314] they are connected to the bones which they sometimes serve to prolong, and are themselves often converted into bone in old people, by the deposition of earthy matter within their structure, in fact, they may be considered as bone in an undeveloped state; for, in the infant, many parts are cartilaginous, which, in the adult, are bony; such as the ends of the long bones, the bones of the nose, &c.

With respect to the development of the form of the human body, there are two chief conditions which influence it, namely, age and sex. With respect to age, the proportional magnitudes of the different parts, early and late in [Pg 315] life, vary very considerably. In the infant (fig. 80) the hand is by far the most completely developed (in size), next to this the abdomen, then the chest and upper extremities, and, finally, the lower extremities. In the adult (fig. 81), the largest measurement is round the chest and shoulders, but in the infant it is round the head; in the adult the lower extremities weigh one half of the whole body, but in the infant not one quarter. The infantile face has many peculiarities, so also has the face of old age (fig. 82). In the infant the lower part of the face is but little developed, the lower jaw is small, the chin scarcely at all prominent, and the distance from the nose to the chin very short, owing to the absence of the teeth, or (when formed) their smallness. The bones of the nose are scarcely formed, and this organ has therefore no bridge, properly so called; the nostrils are small, the lower part of the forehead small, smooth, and rounded, and the arches of the eyebrows but little prominent. The cheek-bones are small, and so are the bony arches which join them to the temples; the cheeks are full of fat, and the angles of the jaws rounded. In middle age the lower part of the forehead becomes more fully developed, the bony edges which support the eyebrows [Pg 316] project and overhang the eyes, the bridge of the nose and the nostrils become more fully formed, the space from the nose to the chin is greater, the teeth cause the lips to be pushed more forward, the lower jaw is larger, and the cheek-bones show more plainly. In old age the whole upper part of the face becomes more marked, the nose and eyebrows still more prominent, the cheeks hollow from absorption of the fat, the space from the nose to the chin (as in infancy) shortens from loss of teeth, but the chin, being more fully formed, projects as the jaw rises to fill the space occupied by the teeth. The angles of the jaw are also very sharp and square, the eyes sunk in the head, and the whole skin of the face loosened and wrinkled from loss of substance beneath. With respect to sex, in the Male the facial bones are more fully formed, the shoulders broader and higher, the collar-bones longer and more curved, the chest wider, the hips narrower, and the legs longer, and every bone has its processes or markings more fully developed, and is more contorted from the action of the muscles, which are larger and more powerful than in the Female. In the Female (fig. 83) there is a greater deposition of fat, [Pg 317] and, in many other respects, a tendency to a child-like conformation.

The body is everywhere covered by a common integument called the skin, beneath which is a layer of areolar and adipose tissue, which last has its cells filled with fat, which during life is in a liquid or oily state; this serves to protect the parts beneath both from cold and violence, fills up the hollows and irregularities between the muscles, and gives the body a more rounded and graceful appearance.

Man, in common with all the higher animals, is possessed of the five "special senses," namely, sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste, the organs of which are the eyes, nose, ears, skin, and mouth; but these are developed in very different degrees in different animals.

Sight is the sense by which we take cognisance of those external objects which either give out or reflect light. The eye (fig. 84) is an optical instrument of great beauty and perfection, and by its help an image of everything we look at is produced in miniature on the expanded optic nerve called the "retina," as an image is produced in the "camera," which instrument is made in imitation of the eye; this image by some unknown power is perceived by the mind, and produces [Pg 318] the sense of vision. By the sense of sight we recognise all forms, colours, and gradations of light and shade, and also (assisted by the experience gained by the sense of touch) the qualities of surface, such as roughness, smoothness, &c.; for instance, we know by touch that a piece of glass is smooth, that a piece of velvet has a different kind of smoothness, &c., and the mode in which these surfaces reflect the light, teaches us to recognise them so that we could predict from touch what appearance an object would have, or by the look how it would feel. Our knowledge of the solidity of bodies is known to the sense of sight by (unconsciously) looking at them with each eye alternately, so as to see to a certain extent round them, or somewhat on either side alternately. By this fact the principle of the stereoscope is explained, the pictures looked at through it, consist of two views of the same object, taken at points of sight a short distance apart (corresponding to the distance between the eyes) and they give us, when steadily looked at, the same result that real objects do when looked at with each eye, alternately. It is a curious fact, but one which has been clearly demonstrated by optical experiments, that the picture represented on the "retina" is inverted, but from habit we refer things to their natural position, and how naturally and easily this is done, may be ascertained by holding the head down close to the floor, and looking at objects through one's legs, in this position they are all inverted; but we naturally make ourselves satisfied that they are still as they were before, so that they really do not appear to be inverted. The impression formed by objects upon the retina is not immediately destroyed upon their removal, but remains for an instant permanent; this gives rise to a great many curious phenomena, among which the most familiar is the circle of light produced by the rapid evolution of any luminous body, as the red-hot end of [Pg 319] a stick. This is also shown by a toy, called the "Thaumatrope," which consists of a piece of card having a small wire attached to the upper part by which it may be turned rapidly round by the thumb and finger. On one side of the card is painted an object, such as a parrot, and on the other a cage; when the card is turned round, first the bird and then the cage is presented to the eye, but the image of the one has not left the eye before the other is presented to it, and the result is the uniform appearance on both sides of a parrot in a cage.

The structure of the eyes in Man and the higher animals is very nearly alike, so that the same description will serve for both, but those of insects and the lower orders of animated beings are very different.

The eye consists of various humours of different densities enclosed in membranes (fig. 85); the human eye is spherical for the posterior four-fifths of its circumference, but the front part projects a little, being formed of part of a smaller sphere. The globe of the eye, all but this front part, is enclosed in a firm fibrous coat called the "sclerotic," within which is a [Pg 320] membrane full of blood-vessels called the "choroid," this on its inner side is covered with a black substance called the "black pigment," and within this (lining the ball) is the nervous coat or retina, it is the optic nerve so expanded as to form a lining to the membranes of the ball of the eye for the greater part of its extent. The ball of the eye is filled with a transparent fluid, somewhat glutinous, called the "vitreous humour;" stretched across the front part of the ball of the eye is a membrane having a round hole in its centre, called the "iris," coated (like the choroid) with black pigment on its back surface; this membrane (the iris) is the coloured part of the eye, and its transparency or opacity determines the colour of the eye. The pupil is the hole in its centre, it looks black because the black pigment which covers the inside of the ball of the eye (for the retina is transparent) is seen through it; behind the iris and in front of the vitreous humour, is the crystalline lens, it is just the shape of a very thick lens, but is more convex behind than in front, it is quite transparent, and of a density almost approaching to solidity. The front fifth of the ball of the eye is covered in by a dense transparent substance called the cornea, of the form of a watch-glass and quite transparent, between this and the crystalline lens there is a small space called the anterior chamber, filled with a clear watery fluid called the aqueous humour. The eye is moved by six muscles, four straight and two oblique, these turn it in every direction with the greatest accuracy; the front of the eye is defended by the eyelids, which by winking and being moistened by the tears, keep the eye always moist and free from dust.

The eyes of insects and several other classes of animals are called compound eyes, and the image they produce must resemble objects depicted in mosaic, or made up of small spots of distinct colours; they consist of hundreds of small tubes, radiating and forming part of a sphere on each side of the head, each of these tubes admits the light from objects at which they point. Some of the animals still lower in the scale have simple spots of transparent membrane with an expansion of optic nerve beneath them; in such creatures [Pg 321] the power of vision is probably limited to distinguishing light from darkness.

Hearing.—Sound is conveyed to the mind by the vibration of air, and this vibration is communicated to a membrane within the ear, called the "tympanum;" this is in connection (by means of three minute bones) with the expanded auditory nerve, which ramifies within the "vestibule," which is filled with a fluid, so that the vibrations of the air are thus communicated to the nerve of hearing (fig. 86).

Smell.—The interior of the nose is lined by a fine moist membrane, on which the olfactory nerve is distributed. The cause of odour is quite unknown; though, as most volatile substances are odorous, it is supposed to be some volatile matter which comes in contact with the olfactory nerve, or nerve of smelling. The quantity given off in some instances must be exceedingly small, for one grain of musk placed on a piece of glass will give out scent for months, and at the end of that time weigh still one grain. Some animals, as Dogs and Birds of prey, have this sense so acute that it serves them instead of almost every other; the Vulture will scent carrion miles away, and the Dog will track his master by the power of scent.

Taste.—The sense of taste resides chiefly in the tongue, [Pg 322] but to some extent in the palate or roof of the mouth; it appears to be a modified sense of smell, combined with common sensation or touch, and is much diminished by loss of smell.

Touch, next to sight, is the most important of the senses. The whole skin possesses this sense, but in some parts far more than others, the finger-ends being the most perfectly endowed with it; and in the lower animals the parts which are used as prehensile organs, are in them the most acutely sensitive to touch, as the end of the proboscis in the Elephant, and the lips of most other quadrupeds. In the Feline tribe, the smellers or hairs from the side of the face, appear to be true organs of touch, and enable them to feel their way in the dark. By the sense of touch we are informed of the amount of resistance of matter (and consequently its weight), of hardness, smoothness, roughness, and other qualities of surface, and by the amount of extension of the hand to reach them of their distance from us, and also of the form and size of things.

The human hand is the most perfect organ of prehension possessed by any animal, for although Monkeys have hands, yet these are so imperfect as to serve chiefly for clinging to, and climbing amongst the branches, they cannot take any small substance between the thumb and finger, while the human hand, besides enabling its possessor to grasp firmly [Pg 323] with all the fingers and thumb, each can individually be approximated to the thumb so as to hold the very smallest substance, and as Man is so constituted that he can stand firmly on his feet, his hands can be solely appropriated to the acts of prehension. It has been said that Man owes much of his superiority to the lower animals, to the possession of hands which can take, examine, and compare everything within his reach; but it seems more probable that these hands have been given him because he, only, has the faculties of examining and comparing. The Lion and Tiger would be no better off, had they Man's hands instead of their feet with claws—probably much worse.

Animals do not feed upon unorganised matter, as do vegetables, but merely appropriate to their own use those organic principles which are ready formed in the vegetable or animal, such as albumen, fibrine, starch, gum, sugar, &c., and assimilate them into their substance.

When food enters the mouth of an animal it there meets with a fluid (the saliva) which is capable of converting [Pg 324] starchy matters into sugar, thus rendering this aliment (which is presented in a state of a nature quite insoluble at the heat of the stomach) not only soluble, but nutritious. This ensalivation takes place while the food is being masticated; when in the stomach (fig. 90) it meets with the "gastric juice," a fluid capable of dissolving both fibrine and albumen (the two other chief aliments), even when coagulated; thus all kinds of food when they have been a short time in the stomach are reduced to a liquid, and so far fitted to enter the system. The stomach is a membraneous bag, communicating at the upper orifice with the mouth, and at the lower with the intestines; its internal (mucous) coat is smooth, and contains many absorbents; its outer coat is muscular, and capable of contraction, so as to roll together its contents, thus bringing every portion into contact with the gastric juice; this mass of dissolved food has received the name of "chyme." By admixture with the bile (a fluid excreted by the liver) and other juices, it separates (like curds and whey) into a liquid and partially solid matter; the liquid part is like milk, and is called "chyle," and it is taken up by absorbent vessels, by "endosmose," a peculiar power which membranes have of [Pg 325] allowing liquids to pass through them when there is a more dense liquid on the other side (as described in the experiment at page 123, "Vegetable Kingdom,"), and, passing through the vessels called "lacteals," is mixed there with the impure blood as it is about to be returned to the heart, and from thence to the lungs, where impurities are got rid of in the form of carbonic acid. The lungs (fig. 91), in performing this office, expose the blood (contained in thousands of minute blood-vessels) to the air which enters the windpipe at every inspiration or breath, the windpipe divides into two, and these each into two more (the bronchial tubes), and so on until they are no larger than a hair; at the end of each tube is a little "air-cell," on the membraneous walls of which the vessels containing the blood are distributed as a network. The blood when it enters the lungs is of a dark purple or blackish colour, and is loaded with carbonic acid; this blood is received by the heart from the great veins, which pour it into the right auricle, this contracting, sends it into the right ventricle, [Pg 326] which, in turn, sends it through the pulmonary arteries into the lungs; while there, it is exposed in the network of vessels which ramify on the walls of the air-cells; another process of endosmose takes place, and the carbonic acid passes through the walls of the vessels into the air-tubes, and escapes by the breath; at the same time that this carbonic acid is cast off, an equal bulk of oxygen is absorbed from the air, so that the air which enters the lungs, and that which passes out, are the same in bulk—plus watery vapour—although what enters is pure air, and what is expelled, is loaded with carbonic acid. The blood, having exchanged carbonic acid for oxygen, is now altered from a black to a bright scarlet colour, and is in a condition to be circulated through the system. On leaving the lungs by the "pulmonary veins," it enters the left auricle of the heart, and passes from thence to the left ventricle, which is very powerful, and forces it by compression upwards into the "aorta" (the first great artery), and thence through the other arteries, which divide, and become smaller and smaller until it arrives at every part of the body, forming a network of fine vessels which are called capillaries; so perfectly are these vessels distributed, that it is almost impossible to cut or prick any part of the body without wounding one of them, and thereby drawing blood. When these capillaries have supplied this pure blood to repair and renovate every part of the system, and received for the new material, that which is worn out or spoiled, they urge it onwards to where they unite into small veins, and, as these continue to unite, they form large trunks, and pour the blood, now black and impure, into the right auricle of the heart, together with the fresh material (chyle) derived from the food, again to be sent through the lungs and purified for fresh circulation. This description applies as well to the other Mammalia as it does to Man, for these classes do not differ from Man in their physical structure, except in form and size, and the alteration in the proportion of the various parts to adapt each to its peculiar purpose.

[Pg 327]

Man is, without doubt, the only animal possessed of reflective and reasoning faculties, and the possession of these has raised him immeasurably above all the rest. He has also physical capabilities suitable to a dominant being whose race is destined to people the earth in every part. Were his constitution formed like that of the Chimpanzee or the Ourang, he could only live in the very hottest of climates; but it is found that Man is healthy and happy through ranges of temperature, which would prove fatal to most other animals. In the frigid regions of the north, the Laplander enjoys many comforts which he fancies could never be obtained in any other latitude, and the Bushman of Africa, following the wild animals of that region, and needing no covering to shield him from the burning rays of the sun, deems his lot the happiest that can be. The human race are gradually increasing in number, and there is scarcely a spot capable of being inhabited at all, but they are found there; and, wherever Man comes, the wild animals of the region retire or become entirely [Pg 328] extinct, excepting those which serve him as food, such as the Ruminants.

The difference between the highest of the lower animals and Man, is so distinct, that no more need be said about it; but among men themselves, there is a great difference; between the European, and the Negro or the Hottentot, there is a vast distinction, but the most simple would at once say they are both men, and possessed of the essential qualities of men; and there can be no doubt that all men of every kind form one species. This is a point pretty well settled among all who have written on the subject; and indeed, great as the difference is among men, it is not half so great as that which exists between the Bull-dog and Italian Greyhound, and yet they are both dogs; or between the Race-horse and the Dray-horse, and yet who is there can doubt of these both being of the same species.

Blumenbach made out five varieties—namely, 1, Caucasian; 2, Mongolian; 3, American; 4, Malay; 5, Ethiopian or Negro. Pickering2 describes eleven varieties, and arranges them as follows:—

In this arrangement the "Arabian" corresponds with the "Caucasian" of Blumenbach; both names are given from the supposed country of the original members of the race; the appellation "European," used by Dr. Latham is, however, a much more appropriate one than either, both the Caucasian and Arabian being now limited to the inhabitants of the localities from which their names were derived. The Arabian, Caucasian, or European family occupy the chief part of Western Europe, the British Isles, and the United [Pg 329] States of America, and is fast spreading in other parts of the American Continent and in Australia. It is characterised by a fair complexion, arched nose, ruddy cheeks, thin lips, and the frequency of blue eyes and light hair. Its members are at this present time the highest and most civilised classes in the world, being further advanced in religion, arts, sciences, and literature; also their capacity for enterprise and speculation, and their love of novelty, is far beyond that of any other variety of the human race; anything new that offers the smallest chance of being beneficial is at once adopted by them and carried out. This is, perhaps, the great secret of their advancement, for the other most numerous variety of the human family, and which exceeds the European in numbers (the Mongolian), has but little capacity for change of any kind, in fact, appears to admire and adhere to those matters only, which have the most undoubted stamp of antiquity—such a mode of feeling especially obtains among the Chinese. Dr. Latham divides the European family into—

The Basks appear to have been the original inhabitants of Spain and Portugal, which have abandoned their former habitation and now dwell in the mountains of Navarre and Gascony, just as the American Indians may be supposed to dwell at some future time in the Rocky Mountains.

[Pg 330]

The Skiptar are the inhabitants of Albania, much resembling in personal appearance the Turks and Sclavonians, but having a language derived from a different source. The following is a description of the Albanian, from the "Penny Cyclopædia:"—

"The Albanians are about five feet and a half high, muscular and straight in their persons. Their activity, and the tight girdles which they wear, render them small round the loins; they have full broad chests, long necks, long oval faces with prominent cheek bones, and flat raised foreheads, arched eyebrows, blue or hazel (rarely quite black) lively eyes, thin straight noses, thin but open nostrils, and small mouths furnished with good teeth. Their complexions are white in youth, but become tinged a dusky hue in old age."

The Kelts (or Celts) were the former inhabitants of both France and England, they are now to be found chiefly in Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland, and are called Gaelic Celts; the English are a mixture of these with Saxon and German, but still retain a good deal of the blood of the Celts; in Wales the Celts are derived from the ancient British branch. The English retain more of the Germanic language, while the Welsh retain most of the original British; the French are Celtic mixed with Roman, and have therefore a great admixture of Latin in their language. The Kelts appear to have been a race above the usual height, with red or light hair, ruddy complexion, and of a fierce and impetuous disposition.

The Greeks and Latins.—Of this stock, the inhabitants of Italy and Greece are the purest descendants, but it is extended with more or less contamination to Spain and the Danubian Principalities. Italy was probably the original seat of both races.

The Sarmatians.—This stock inhabits Russia, Poland, Bohemia, Hungary, and Servia, all speaking the Sclavonic languages.

The Germans.—This race inhabits Germany, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, and its immediate branch the English, forming the Anglo-Saxon family, are extended [Pg 331] to America, Canada, Australia, and other parts of the world by colonisation.

Dr. Pickering calls the European race Arabian, and makes it extend through the whole of Europe, India, Arabia, and the northern parts of Africa, believing all these to have been derived from the same stock, and forming variations of the same family. The language spoken by the Europeans of all classes has been called Indo-European, hence Pickering classes with them the Hebrews, Armenians, Parsees, and many more, all derived from a stock supposed to have migrated from Asia into Europe and Africa.

The Abyssinian.—This race inhabits the table lands of Abyssinia, and its extension into the interior. Dr. Pickering thus describes the appearance of three individuals of this race whom he met at Singapore—

"The hair was much alike in all three, and was crisped and fine, neither coarse enough nor in sufficient quantity to form a resisting mass. The beard of one individual was in pellets absolutely like the close wool of the Negro, but the prominence of nose, greater even than usually occurs in the white race, bore sufficient testimony to his purity of descent. The second individual had the face very much elongated, but the nose was not particularly prominent. The third had a straighter beard, which was black and grey in regular stripes. The complexion was the same in all three, and though very light, was by no means of a sickly hue, and indeed these persons might readily have been passed in the streets as belonging to the white race."

[Pg 332]

The Mongolian race, according to Pickering, includes the inhabitants of part of China and all the north-eastern parts of Asia, also the aborigines of North and South America, with the exception of a tract of land on the south-western coast, including what is now California, and part of the United States. This race is probably the most numerous in the world. The complexion of the Mongolian is decidedly yellowish brown, but rather pale withal (it is well seen in the Chinese); the head is flattened from before to behind, and expanded from side to side, so that in some well-marked cases the head is as broad as it is long, the eyes are drawn upwards at the outer angles, and appear wide apart, from the inner angle, being but little prolonged inwards, the cheek-bones are prominent; the eyes black, and the hair black and straight. The best specimens of this family are the Tartars and Chinese. The Chinese are highly skilful in most of the useful arts, especially in agriculture. Their history extends very far back, and [Pg 333] probably the longest series of recorded events in existence, being continuous for a period of about 4,000 years, during the whole of which time they have been in a state of civilisation nearly the same as they are at the present time.

The aboriginal tribes of America belong to this family. Dr. Latham derives their origin from the Esquimaux (or Eskemo), and their migration from north-eastern Asia, Kamschatka, and the Aleutian Islands, to the eastern or Pacific shores of America.

The Chinese and Tartars are of a decidedly yellow tint. The Americans are of a dark copper-coloured hue, hence their designation "Red Indians."

The Hottentot. This race inhabits the south of Africa, and parts extending thence into the interior; they are of a yellowish-brown complexion, small in stature, with hair consisting of small black knobs of a crisp sort of wool, separated from each other in such a way that the skin of the head may be distinctly seen between them. They are strictly nomadic, scarcely ever remaining in any fixed spot, but following the animals they hunt and kill for food, upon the flesh of which, with a few roots, they live.

Dr. Livingstone denies that they are very small in stature; speaking of the Bushmen, a tribe of the Hottentot family, he says:—"They are the only real nomads in the country, [Pg 334] they never cultivate the soil, nor rear any domestic animals, save wretched dogs; they are so intimately acquainted with the habits of the game, that they follow them in their migrations from place to place, and prey upon them, and thus prove as complete a check upon their inordinate increase as the other carnivora. The chief subsistence of the Bushmen is the flesh of game, but that is eked out by what the women collect of roots, beans, or fruits of the desert."

The Malay family are a coast-dwelling people, delighting in the water, and never found very far removed from it; they inhabit the southernmost coast of China, from Siam southwards, and all the adjacent islands. They are of a dark rich brown colour, with straight, coarse, black hair and scanty beard, which in some is quite wanting. Some of the members of this family are above the usual standard of height, such as the Polynesians and Tahitians. The moral character of the Malays, generally [Pg 335] speaking, is of an inferior order. They are a race differing much, in some respects, from the Negro and Red Indian, being of peculiarly active temperaments; they exhibit considerable intellectual capacity, and are an ingenious people. It is extremely probable, from the fact of their being found in islands surrounded by others in the hands of the Ethiopic race, that they have pushed out the less active variety, and, in short, annihilated them; and it is likely that they will in turn suffer extinction at the hands of a superior variety, or a variety rendered superior by civilisation.

The Papuan race inhabit the Feejee Islands and the coasts of New Guinea; they are almost black, with a rough skin and thick woolly hair, which grows much longer than in the Negro, and which they wear curled up so as to form a resisting mass, and no bad protection against the blow from a club (their national weapon). Their height is above the average of Europeans. Fish and yams are their chief food.

The Negrillo are nearly black in colour, short in stature, with projecting jaws and thick woolly hair, the nose not so flat as the Negro, nor the lips so thick; they inhabit the interior of New Guinea and a few islands in its locality, of which they appear to have been the aborigines, the central parts only being occupied by them; the coasts are inhabited by the Papuan and Malay races, who have driven the Negrillo aborigines from their former abode to the central mountains.

[Pg 336]

The Indian or Telingan race inhabit the whole of Hindostan, and parts of Persia. The complexion is much the same as in the two preceding races (Negrillo and Papuan), and is so decidedly darker than in the Malayan, that by common consent it is called black, although, on comparison, the two differ widely from that of the unmixed Negro. The greater part of Hindostan is, however, inhabited by a mixed race, partly Persian, partly Arabian.

Pickering describes them as follows:—"The features approximated very closely to those of the White race, but in general the mouth appeared to be wider, the nose rather less prominent, and the lips sensibly thicker. The profile was less vertical than in the surrounding Malays, the lower part of the face projecting with a regular arch, as in the Mongolian, and there was a further correspondence with the latter race in the frequent instances of the arched nose. The beard occurred more frequently, and was more copious than in the Malay race; the hair was straight and fine, and I have never seen it any other colour than black."

The Ethiopians inhabit the central and north-east part of Africa, Nubia, and the upper districts of the Nile. They are black, but their features are not far removed from the European, except in the fulness of the lips, and they are in some cases extremely handsome. The hair is black and crisp, but not completely woolly, and grows sufficiently long to be plaited, which is the usual mode in which it is worn by the females of this race.

[Pg 337]

The Australians.—The natives of Australia are quite black, and have the nose and mouth very wide; the lips are thick, but not so much so as in the Negro; the hair is black and curly, but not woolly; the eyes are very small, deeply set, black, and keen; the lower part of the face does not project like that of the Negro. These make a wide distinction between the two races, although they have been confounded with each other.

The Negro.—This race appears to differ from the European more than any other. The skin of the Negro is quite black and shining, the hair black, closely crisped into a sort of wool, and never growing to any great length; they have but little beard, the nose is flat and broad, and the lips very thick and protruding, as is also the whole lower part of the face; the front teeth also project outwards, and the whole contour of [Pg 338] the face and head is backwards, forming a gradually receding outline. They inhabit the interior and eastern parts of Africa conjointly with the Hottentot.

The preceding is a slight outline of the various races of men which inhabit the earth; their numbers are in the gross somewhere about a thousand millions, and it has been computed as follows, bearing in mind that these numbers are but a rude approximation to truth:—

In examining the various tribes of animated nature, there is one great fact which impresses itself irresistibly upon our minds, namely, that they all form the handiwork of one Creator, and His Autograph is stamped everywhere. His care is also shown in the way in which animals are made to feed on all kinds of organic matters, and on each other; this has been the means of economising all the nutriment which exists on the earth, for, although it may not always be apparent, yet there is not a scrap or crumb ever wasted in nature; not a decayed leaf or blade of grass, not a leg of a fly, nor the wing of a gnat, nor any part or portion of organic matter, from the smallest animalcule to the huge carcass of the dead elephant, or the trunk of the giant pine tree which the hurricane has uprooted, but forms a feast for some of the smaller tribes of animated beings there placed by Providence to eat it. Millions of these, after devouring the waste-matters of organic existence, whether embedded in the soil or elsewhere (not accessible to larger creatures), themselves form the food for creatures of larger growth, as birds, fishes, &c.; these again form the food of Man, so that

"Nothing is wasted."

THE END.

---

[Pg 339]

Cloth, Gilt, Price Five Shillings.

---

UNIFORM WITH "OUTLINES OF CREATION."

THE
BOY'S BOOK
OF

INDUSTRIAL INFORMATION.

By ELISHA NOYCE.
AUTHOR OF "OUTLINES OF CREATION."

ILLUSTRATED WITH THREE HUNDRED AND SIXTY-FIVE ENGRAVINGS, BY
THE BROTHERS DALZIEL.

---

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.

Examiner, July 3. 1858.

"This book contains a brief and very clear summary of information for young readers upon the natural products used in the arts, and the arts by which they are converted to Man's use. It tells the main facts that relate to every manufacture, and describes the various kinds of apparatus and machinery—chains, cranks, valves, wheels, steam and other engines, fire-arms, stills, thermometers and barometers, ploughs, thrashing-machines, &c., as well as the more notable kinds of engineering work. To make the brief descriptions as effectual as full ones, they are very freely illustrated with good woodcuts by the Brothers Dalziel. Whatever is described is shown not only by plans and diagrams, but frequently also by little pictures that are very interesting and effective. The illustrations, we should add, are not copies of copies, but new and direct sketches from the things they represent. Among efforts to produce cheap volumes of useful information for the young, we account this one of the most successful."

Art Journal, August.

"This is just the book to place in the hands of an intelligent boy or girl—for why should the useful information it contains be limited to sex?—who desires to know something about those things from which so much of his comfort and enjoyment is derived. Every youth in Prussia, whatever be his condition—the prince and the peasant alike—is, we believe, compelled by the laws which apply in that country to education, to learn some trade or handicraft. Mr. Noyce's book will serve to initiate every boy in the United Kingdom who reads it, into the theoretical art and mystery of the material and manufacturing world. He divides his teachings into six sections, under the respective heads of Natural Products, Manufactured Products, Products of Skilled Labour, Arts and Trade Processes, Apparatus and Machinery, and Engineering Works, bringing into notice more than one hundred and fifty different subjects. The explanations and descriptions are, as they should be, simple and untechnical, as far as possible; concise, yet sufficiently demonstrative; a multum in parvo, to which Messrs. Dalziel's clear and well-executed engravings give great additional value. Such a volume is worth a hundred story-books as a present to the juveniles."

[Pg 340]

Illustrated London News, July 3.

"This work, by Elisha Noyce, with 365 illustrations by the Brothers Dalziel, is calculated to do much good. The object is not only to please, but to instruct; and, although written ostensibly for the young, it may be read with advantage by all who desire to possess a knowledge of things in everyday use. The information throughout is conveyed in a clear and understandable form; this, combined with its pictures on every page, is well calculated to make the mind familiar with many objects that as a rule have hitherto been but imperfectly realised to the young. The book is admirably adapted to assist those who are about to make choice of an occupation, and this of itself would make it a welcome addition to the numerous works written for the information and guidance of the rising generation. The book is published by Ward and Lock."

Dispatch, July 4.

There is really a great deal to recommend this book to the attention of the public as one especially adapted for the entertainment and the instruction of the young. The subjects themselves embrace the whole arcana of the material universe, the mineral and vegetable products of the earth, their properties, manufacture, and varied convertibility to the service and uses of man. Three hundred and sixty-five first-class engravings, from the pencils of the Brothers Dalziel, and most of these being illustrative of the finished machinery of Woolwich Arsenal, and drawn by permission of the authorities, add to the value of the matter incorporated in these pages, while in almost all other forms the industrial arts, with their varied apparatus and machinery, are ably and fully described. It is a true "Boy's Book," and merits the amplest circulation possible for it to attain.

Daily Telegraph, July 20.

The title of Mr. Noyce's book sufficiently explains its object, and we have only to say that it answers its purpose. It is clearly and amusingly written, and embraces a large variety of useful subjects, which it treats in a full, though, at the same time, a concise manner. The book is illustrated with three hundred and sixty-five excellent engravings by the Brothers Dalziel.

Leeds Times, July 31.

The author's object in the elegant-looking issue before us, as described by himself, is to convey to the youthful reader a knowledge of the materials, processes, and apparatus made use of in the various examples of industry and skill constantly before our eyes. No fewer than 365 wood-cuts by the Brothers Dalziel are appropriately interspersed with the letterpress, thus enabling the reader to clearly understand what otherwise would of necessity, in some cases, be almost incomprehensible. The work is clearly and ably written, and even the intelligent adult must possess a large fund of general knowledge who can truthfully affirm that he has derived no information from its pages.

Norfolk News, Aug. 7.

The title of "The Boy's Book" has been applied to more than one, two, or three subjects; but to none more appropriately than to this, which is really and truly "The Boy's Book of Useful Knowledge." The author has observed the happy medium of saying neither too little nor too much—of neither wearying the patience of his young readers by long and needless details, nor of disappointing their curiosity by unnecessarily brief and insufficient descriptions. If we are not greatly mistaken, the book will soon become a general favorite with the young, and we should strongly recommend it as a text-book of general information to Educational establishments. It is beautifully got up, and its value is considerably enhanced by the superior wood engravings of the Brothers Dalziel, which speak the language of explanation as plainly to the eye as does the letterpress to the understanding.

LONDON: WARD & LOCK, 158, FLEET STREET.

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