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[Illustration:

  Cyphocrania Goliath (reduced).      [_Frontispiece._]




                        THE YOUNG COLLECTOR'S

                               HANDBOOK

                                  OF

                  Ants, Bees, Dragon Flies, Earwigs,
                          Crickets, and Flies

              (_HYMENOPTERA_, _NEUROPTERA_, _ORTHOPTERA_,
                       _HEMIPTERA_, _DIPTERA_).


                                  BY

                           W. HARCOURT BATH.


                       [Illustration: colophon]

                            SECOND EDITION.


                                LONDON:
                       SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO.,
                          PATERNOSTER SQUARE.

                                 1890.




Printed by Hazell, Watson, & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury.




PREFACE.


Most boys have a fondness for forming collections of various objects,
such as Foreign Stamps, Crests, and Coins; but very few comparatively
collect Natural Objects. Now it will be admitted by all that the
collecting of Natural Objects, such as Insects, Shells, Plants,
Fossils, Minerals, etc., possesses immense advantages over that of
Foreign Stamps and the like; for the former, besides satisfying the
collecting ambitions, also cultivates the observant and intellectual
faculties, while at the same time affording healthful recreation in the
fields and woods.

Again, a mere collector's province may be exhausted in a few years,
whereas the study and observation of Natural History, which are
the usual "fruits" of collecting Natural Objects, are practically
inexhaustible.

Another great advantage which Natural History possesses, is that it
may be prosecuted with very little expense, and is therefore a subject
which even the poorest person may conveniently undertake.

This little handbook is intended to be a "Guide to Collecting Insects,"
which by way of Natural History, we may remark, is becoming more
popular every day in this country. Hitherto, however, there have been
very few books published on Entomology for beginners, but for those who
wish to go more deeply into the subject than the present brief manual
can pretend, we would strongly recommend them to obtain Mr. Kirby's
excellent illustrated "Text-Book of Entomology" (Swan Sonnenschein
& Co.), to which work we are greatly indebted for much valuable and
interesting information.




CONTENTS


                       PAGE

  INTRODUCTION            9

  ORDER HYMENOPTERA      13

  ORDER NEUROPTERA       34

  ORDER ORTHOPTERA       52

  ORDER HEMIPTERA        64

  ORDER DIPTERA          86




THE YOUNG COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK

OF

Ants, Bees, Dragon Flies, Earwigs, Crickets and Flies.




INTRODUCTION.


By the Linnæan system insects are divided into seven great Natural
Orders--namely, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera,
Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, and Diptera.

Of these, the Lepidoptera or Butterflies and Moths, and the Coleoptera
or Beetles, have hitherto received the lion's share of attention,
though this is less exclusively the case than it was some few years ago.

Any one who wishes to commence the study of these two orders now will
have to work very hard indeed before he can hope to put anything new
on record concerning them. There is, however, a very wide field for
research and discovery open to all who will turn their attention to the
other groups, and it is with the intention of encouraging the study
of these "Neglected Orders" that we have written the present little
handbook.

       *       *       *       *       *

The orders which we here intend to treat of are the following:--

 _The Hymenoptera_, including the Bees, Wasps, Ants, Saw Flies, Gall
 Flies, Ichneumon Flies, and their allies.

 _The Neuroptera_, including the Dragon Flies, Day Flies, Lacewing
 Flies, Stone Flies, Caddis Flies, and their allies.

 _The Orthoptera_, including the Grasshoppers, Locusts, Crickets,
 Cockroaches, Earwigs, and their allies.

 _The Hemiptera_, including the Bugs, Skaters, Lantern Flies, Frog
 Hoppers, Aphides, and their allies.

 _The Diptera_, including the Gnats, Midges, Crane Flies, Hawk Flies,
 Bee Flies, Breeze Flies, Bot Flies, and their allies.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Hoplistomerus Serripes.]

[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Ledra Aurita (Mag.)]

The number of insects is so large (about 13,000 different kinds are
found in our own country alone) that it will be found impossible
by any one to collect the whole at once; and to study them all is
completely out of the question. A single insect, indeed, is ample to
occupy a whole lifetime in the elucidation of its life history. Most
persons, when they commence to study insects, collect indiscriminately
everything which comes in their way; but they soon find the subject
too immense for them to grasp as a whole, and they either give up
collecting altogether, or else confine their attention to a single
group or order of insects. We would recommend every young person to
make up his mind at the first which group or groups of insects he
has a special fondness or liking for. Having done so, he will require
to know the best means of attaining his object--namely, the formation
of a collection. A few hints, therefore, as to the mode of collecting
and preserving insects in general may be of assistance to the young
collector.

[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Aphæna Amabilis.]

First of all, as to the apparatus necessary for collecting insects.

This will be found very simple and inexpensive. A butterfly net is,
perhaps, the most useful requisite. An ordinary cane-gauze net will do
well. A good stock of chip pill-boxes will also be needed. These can
be purchased from the shop of any Natural History dealer at about 3_d._
per dozen, nested (in four sizes).

[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Orthesia Urticæ (Mag.)]

For collecting aquatic insects and their _larvæ_ we shall require a
water net, made of fine zinc-gauze, about six inches in diameter, to
group about among stones and other rubbish at the bottom of pools and
ditches. This instrument should be made so as to slip on and off a
walking-stick when required.

A killing bottle charged with cyanide of potassium or with chopped
laurel leaves completes the outfit.

Little need be said as regards the mode of collecting insects, as their
habits may be gathered from the following pages.

They may be found almost everywhere, in woods, fields, gardens, in
pools, ditches, canals, and rivers, under dead leaves and the bark of
trees, among moss and stones, etc., etc. They may also be found at all
times of the year; even in the depth of winter some species may be met
with.

Most insects may be preserved in the same manner as Butterflies and
Moths. They should be set on flat setting-boards, and left to dry
thoroughly before being removed.

The smaller species may be gummed to cardboard in a similar way to
Beetles.

In the arrangement of the insects in the cabinet the classification and
order given in these pages may be followed. About half-a-dozen of each
species will be found a convenient number to collect.




ORDER HYMENOPTERA.

INCLUDING THE BEES, WASPS, ANTS, ICHNEUMON FLIES, SAW FLIES, GALL
FLIES, AND THEIR ALLIES.


[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Cryptus Formosus.]

The _Hymenoptera_ belongs to one of the most interesting and extensive
orders of insects. The structure and habits of the different species
which it includes are very various. Their marvellous instincts have
excited the admiration and wonderment of the philosophers of all ages.
They are, indeed, by far the most intelligent of insects, being greatly
in advance of any other group known to exist. The _Hymenoptera_ are
mandibulate insects, their mouths being formed for biting, and they
undergo complete metamorphoses. Perhaps the most striking external
distinctive character is to be found in the structure of the wings,
both pairs of which are membranous; and another peculiarity of equal
importance is the condition of the prothorax, which is reduced to very
small dimensions. In the majority of the _Hymenoptera_ the females are
provided with stings, which serve many purposes, independently of
weapons of defence. Many families, however, do not possess stings.

Many of the _Hymenoptera_ feed on plants and trees, but probably the
greater number are parasitic on other insects.

[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Pimpla Turionellæ (Mag.)]

This order includes the bees, wasps, ants, saw flies, gall flies,
ichneumon flies, and many other familiar insects.

The following will show the principal characteristics of each group
into which the order has been divided.

 _Tribe 1, Aculeata._--Generally social insects, consisting of males,
 females, and neuters. Ovipositor modified into a sting. _Larvæ_,
 footless grubs.

 _Tribe 2, Entomophaga._--Mostly parasitic on the eggs and larvæ of
 other insects. Ovipositor used as a borer. _Larvæ_, footless grubs.

 _Tribe 3, Phytophaga._--Principally vegetable feeders. Ovipositor used
 as a borer. _Larvæ_ having six or more legs.


TABULAR VIEW

OF THE

PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF THE HYMENOPTERA.


TRIBE I. ACULEATA.

_Section 1. Anthophila._

  Family  1.  Aphidæ or Honey Bees.
  Family  2.  Andrenidæ or Burrowing Bees.

_Section 2. Diploptera._

  Family  3.  Vespidæ or Social Wasps.
  Family  4.  Eumenidæ or Bramble Wasps.
  Family  5.  Masaridæ or Solitary Wasps.

_Section 3. Fossores._

  Family  6.  Philanthidæ or Bee-eating Wasps.
  Family  7.  Crabronidæ or Sand Wasps.
  Family  8.  Nyssonidæ or Fly-eating Wasps.
  Family  9.  Larridæ or Black Wasps.
  Family 10.  Sphegidæ or Grasshopper-eating Wasps.
  Family 11.  Pompilidæ or Burrowing Wasps.
  Family 12.  Bembecidæ or Scented Wasps.
  Family 13.  Sapygidæ or Bees' Nest Wasps.
  Family 14.  Scoliidæ or Beetle-eating Ants.
  Family 15.  Thymidæ or Stout-bodied Ants.
  Family 16.  Mutillidæ or Solitary Ants.

_Section 4. Heterogyna._

  Family 17.  Formicidæ or Social Ants.


TRIBE II. ENTOMOPHAGA.

  Family 18.  Cympidæ or Gall Flies.
  Family 19.  Chalcididæ or Little Gall Flies.
  Family 20.  Proctotrypidæ or Bee Parasites.
  Family 21.  Braconidæ or Butterfly Parasites.
  Family 22.  Ichneumonidæ or Ichneumon Flies.
  Family 23.  Evaniidæ or Beetle Parasites.
  Family 24.  Chrysididæ or Golden Wasps.


TRIBE III. PHYTOPHAGA.

  Family 25.  Sericidæ or Tailed Wasps.
  Family 26.  Tenthredinidæ or Saw Flies.


TRIBE I.--ACULEATA.

The _Aculeata_ contains the great majority of the _Hymenoptera_. Their
principal characteristic is that the ovipositor of the female in most
of the groups is modified into a sting. The _larvæ_ are footless grubs.
This tribe is divided into four sections, which are again subdivided
into seventeen families, each of which it is our intention to discuss
in their proper order.


_Section 1.--Anthophila._

_Family 1, Aphidæ._--This family contains the numerous species of honey
bees which are familiar to all of us. They are very varied in their
structure, colours, and habits. Many species are social, while many
others are solitary. The common Hive Bee (_Apis mellifica_) belongs to
the former class. There is, perhaps, no insect which has attracted so
much notice as this species. Volumes have been written respecting it,
and philosophers in all ages of the world's history have spent their
whole lifetime in the elucidation of its economy.

[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Megischus Annulator.]

[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Apis Mellifica (Queen).]

[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Apis Mellifica (Drone).]

In southern Europe, notably in Italy, a much brighter-coloured and
finer insect is found, distinguished especially by having yellow
transverse bands on the abdomen. This bee was long supposed to be a
distinct species, and was described under the name of _Apis ligustica_,
but it is now regarded as merely a variety. This bee has been
introduced into all the northern parts of Europe.

[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Apis Mellifica (Worker).]

Several species of Humble Bees are very common in this country. One of
the best known is the _Bombus terrestris_, the large females of which
may attain a length of nearly an inch. This is a large black insect
with the extremity yellow.

[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Melipona Anthidioides (Mag.)]

In another rather smaller species, _Bombus lucorum_, the extremity of
the abdomen is white. Both these species are subterranean bees, forming
their nests in banks, etc.

Of the moss-builders, the best known, perhaps, is the _Bombus
muscorum_, the largest specimens of which measure about two-thirds of
an inch long.

Another species, _Bombus lapidarius_, is so called from a preference it
shows for making its nests under stones. The end of the abdomen of this
bee is bright orange-red.

[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Bombus Pratorum.]

Of the solitary bees a very common black species is _Anthophora
acervorum_, which is usually found in abundance in the spring in the
neighbourhood of banks and cliffs.

The violet Carpenter Bee (_Xylocopa violacea_), which chiefly inhabits
the south of Europe, is a very pretty insect with violet-coloured wings.

[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Xylocopa Violacea.]

The Mason Bee (_Chalicodoma muraria_) builds its nest, composed of fine
grains of sand, very firmly united by a salivary secretion, upon the
surface of walls and similar situations. This species has hitherto not
been met with in this country.

The Horned Bee (_Osmia bicornis_) is remarkable for the female having
two little horns projecting from the front of her head. This insect
usually burrows in sandy banks and cliffs. Another allied species
(_Osmia hirta_) burrows in wood, whilst two others (_Osmia bicolor_ and
_aurulenta_) select ready-made nests in the shells of the common snails
(_Helix hortensis_ and _H. nemoralis_), within the whorls of which
they build their cells of gnawed vegetable material.

[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Ctenioschelus Latreillii.]

The Leaf-cutting Bees, which belong to the genus _Megachile_, are also
very interesting in their habits.

[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Osmia Tunensis.]

[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Andrena Collaris.]

_Family 2, Andrenidæ._--All the insects belonging to this family
are solitary in their habits. The species are very numerous in this
country. Many of them burrow in the ground, while others have been
observed to make their nests in bramble stick. They are usually smooth,
black insects, very unlike bees in appearance. The females have no
apparatus for carrying pollen either on the legs or on the abdomen.


_Section 2.--Diploptera._

_Family 3, Vespidæ._--The Social Wasps, which belong to this family,
are very well known everywhere in this country. In their general
structure they resemble the bees, but are usually much more slender in
appearance, and also much less hairy.

[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Polistes Gallica.]

The general habits of these wasps are pretty uniform except in the
matter of their architecture, and in this respect they display a
remarkable variety.

[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Nest of Polistes Gallica.]

Besides the common Wasp (_Vespa vulgaris_) two other species found in
this country, which build their nests in the ground, follow the same
principles in the construction of their nests.

The Hornet (_Vespa crabo_), which is remarkable for its large size,
usually builds its nest in the hollow of a tree. Both the hornet and
common wasp sometimes build their nests under the eaves of houses
or attached to a beam under the roof; and in these cases the outer
covering of the nest is thinner and more delicate in texture than
when the dwelling is exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather.
Another common species inhabiting Britain is the Wood Wasp (_Vespa
sylvestris_), which builds nests suspended from the branches of trees.

[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Odynerus Ovalis (Mag.)]

_Family 4, Eumenidæ._--One of the commonest and best-known species
belonging to this family is the Wall Wasp (_Odynerus parietum_), which
may be almost constantly seen haunting sunny walls during the months of
June and July. It makes its burrows in walls and high banks, while many
other allied species form their nests in the hollow stems of brambles.

_Family 5, Masaridæ._--This family contains the great bulk of the
solitary wasps, which, however, are principally inhabitants of warm
climates.

The _Masaridæ_ are a small group of black-yellow belted wasps,
which are found in the south of Europe, but not in Britain, two of
the commonest species being _Celonites apiformis_ and _Ceramius
fonscolombi_.


_Section 3.--Fossores._

[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Cerceris Capito.]

_Family 6, Philanthidæ._--Most of the species belonging to this family
are black with yellow spots and bands, and most of them are inhabitants
of the warmer parts of the earth. Some of the species provision their
nests with beetles and grasshoppers, while others attack bees, and are
very mischievous, destroying great numbers.

_Family 7, Crabronidæ._--This family includes a considerable number of
solitary species of wasps. In colour they are generally black spotted
and striped with yellow, but many of them are bright red.

The typical genus _Crabro_ is a very extensive one, including over 150
species, a great proportion of which are inhabitants of Europe, while
even Britain possesses more than thirty.

_Crabro cribrarius_ is the largest British species. Its food consists
principally of gnats and other dipterous insects. This insect and many
others burrow in the ground, generally in hard sandbanks. Another
species (_Crabro brevis_) frequents similar situations, and has been
known to provision its nest with small beetles.

[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Chlorion Viridiæneum.]

_Family 8, Nyssonidæ._--This family is not a numerous one comparatively.

_Mellinus arvensis_ is a black insect, about half an inch in length,
with stripes on the abdomen and yellow legs. It provisions its nest
with flies, and not being able to capture them by swiftness, runs past
them when they are resting in an unconcerned manner till they are
thrown off their guard, when they are pounced upon and carried off to
the nest.

_Family 9, Larridæ._--This family very much resembles the last. The
species are mostly small insects, few of them measuring half an inch in
length. They are usually black, sometimes with the abdomen red at the
base.

_Family 10, Sphegidæ._--Most of the insects included in this family
feed upon grasshoppers, and the manner in which they procure their
prey is very curious. In attacking their bulky prey they use every
endeavour to turn the grasshopper on its back. When they succeed in
this they inflict stings in different parts of the underside of the
abdomen and thorax, which soon paralyse the victim, which is then
dragged to the nest of the ruthless destroyer.

_Sphex flavipennis_ is a common species in the south of Europe.

_Family 11, Pompilidæ._--Most of the species of _Pompilus_ burrow in
sand or sandy soil, and store their nests with spiders and the _larvæ_
of insects.

One of our commonest species, _Pompilus fuscus_, is usually about
half an inch long, and is black, with the first three segments of the
abdomen red banded with black. This insect makes its appearance in the
spring, and may be observed in sandy places throughout the summer.
Another common British species is _Pompilus punctum_, which is black in
colour.

_Family 12, Bombicidæ._--This small family is not represented in
Britain, though found in southern Europe. Many of the insects burrow in
the sand, scratching a hole with their forefeet like a dog, as observed
by Sir S. Saunders in the Ionian Islands. In the daytime they may be
seen flying rapidly from flower to flower, and many of them exhale an
odour of roses.

[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Sapyya Clavicornis.]

_Family 13, Sapygidæ._--This is a small family containing only a single
genus, with very few species.

The species of _Sapyga_ occur in Europe and North America. They are
supposed to be parasitic in the nests of bees, but the females of the
common European species (_Sapyga pacca_) have been observed carrying
small caterpillars, from which Mr. Smith (the great authority on
Hymenoptera) justly infers that they are parasitic only to the extent
of usurping the burrows made in sandbanks and dead wood by more
industrious insects, their own structure not adapting them for the
labour of digging.

_Family 14, Scoliidæ._--Although this family is abundant in warm
climates, we have only two small species belonging to the genus
_Tiphia_ in Britain.

They are black, with more or less reddish legs, and measure from a
quarter to half an inch in length. In south Europe we meet with several
large and handsome species, one of which, _Scolia hortorum_, is black
with two yellow bands on the abdomen.

[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Scolia Hortorum.]

_Family 15, Thymidæ._--The insects of this family are almost
exclusively confined to Australia and South America, where they are
very numerous. They are generally of a black colour, with more or
less extended yellow markings. They are very stout insects; in fact,
their bloated bodies give them very little resemblance to any other
insects, except perhaps to the Oil Beetles. Very little has hitherto
been ascertained respecting their habits, but they are believed to be
parasitic.

[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Mutilla Maura (Male).]

_Family 16, Mutillidæ._--This family includes a large number of
species, probably 1,500, but from the differences presented by the
males and females, entomologists have found it difficult to arrive at
any certainty upon this point. The species are spread over all the
earth, but are particularly abundant in warm climates, where also, as
usual, they attain the largest size and the most beautiful colouring.

One of the best-known species in our own country is _Mutilla europæa_,
which is about half an inch long, of a black colour, hairy, with the
thorax entirely red in the wingless females.

[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Mutilla Maura (Female).]

This insect frequents the nests of Humble Bees, and its _larvæ_ appear
to be parasitic upon the _larvæ_ of the bees.


_Section 4.--Heterogyna._

_Family 17, Formicidæ._--To this family belongs the numerous species of
ants, which are social insects, organised after the fashion of the bees
and social wasps.

The number of species described is probably considerably over a
thousand, but the total number must be very much greater if Mr. Bates
is correct in his estimate that not less than 400 species inhabit the
valley of the Amazon.

[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Formica Lignipeda (Male). (Mag.)]

The habits of the ants are most interesting, and one of our greatest
living naturalists, Sir John Lubbock, has devoted much of his time in
elucidating their economy.

The nests are almost always chambered cavities, hollowed out either in
the ground, in walls, and similar situations, or in dead and decaying
wood.

One of the commonest examples in our own country is the Garden Ant
(_Formica nigra_), which may be found everywhere in gardens making its
nest in the ground.

Another common species is the pretty Turf Ant (_Formica flava_), which
generally haunts commons and heaths, casting up small hills, which
serve to throw off the rain; and this species in some localities makes
its nest under stones. The Wood Ant (_Formica lignipeda_) is another
familiar species.

[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Formica Lignipeda (Worker). (Mag.)]

A very large group of ants belong to the section _Myrmicinæ_, the
best-known species of which are the Red Ants, _Myrmica rubra_, and
their allies.

[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Myrmica Rubra (Male). (Mag.)]

A very minute species which has been introduced into this country,
probably from Brazil or the West Indies, is the Horse Ant (_Myrmica
molesta_). It is a very small brownish-yellow species, which seems
to have been first observed in England in 1828. It takes up its
abode in houses, frequently in the neighbourhood of the kitchen
fireplace, and when it multiplies becomes such a pest as to render
the house uninhabitable. Some of the metropolitan districts have been
particularly infested.


TRIBE II.--ENTOMOPHAGA.

Most of the insects belonging to this tribe are parasitic on other
insects. The _larvæ_ are footless. There are seven families included in
the _Entomophaga_.

[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Cynips Gallæ Tinctoriæ (Mag.)]

_Family 18, Cynipidæ._--This family includes most of the gall flies.
The number of species is very considerable. Of the great majority the
females pierce with their ovipositor the tissues of plants and trees,
and there deposit their eggs, from which the _larvæ_ are soon hatched.
The irritation caused by this intrusion of a foreign body into the
tissues produces the galls which are so commonly met with.

[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Smicra Sispes (Mag.)]

The galls produced by different species of flies differ greatly in form
and structure. Some of them are round and smooth, like fruits, such as
the cherry gall of the oak leaves, produced by the puncture of _Cynips
quercus-foli_.

The most singular, however, of all the galls is perhaps the Bedeguar,
which is formed on the stems of wild roses by the puncture of a small
species, _Rhodites rosæ_.

_Family 19, Chalcididæ._--To this family belong many gall insects,
principally found, however, in foreign countries.

The _Chalcididæ_ include a great number of small species, few exceeding
half an inch in expanse. Many of these are singular in shape, and
others brilliantly metallic; but, owing to their small size, they have
hitherto been studied by comparatively few entomologists.

[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Thoracamba Furcata (Mag.)]

_Family 20, Proctotrypidæ._--The _Proctotrypidæ_ are probably much less
numerous than the preceding family, but have been less studied, being
generally smaller and more obscure in their habits; in fact, some of
them share with several beetles the reputation of being the smallest
insects.

[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Proctotrypes Rufipes (Mag.)]

_Family 21, Braconidæ._--This family is one of very great extent.

Many of the foreign species are rather large and handsome insects,
often varied with black and yellow.

The best known of the _Braconidæ_ is perhaps _Microgaster glomeratus_,
a small blackish species with reddish-yellow legs, which destroys the
_larvæ_ of the common Cabbage Butterflies, round the dead body of which
its little yellow cocoons may often be observed.

_Family 22, Ichneumonidæ._--The _Ichneumonidæ_ are rather large and
slender insects, and are divided into many sub-families.

[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Bracon Bicolor.]

They are a very numerous group. It has been calculated that nearly
5,000 species have been described, but the data generally are very
untrustworthy.

[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Joppa Antennata.]

The species of _Trogus_ are rather large insects, measuring an inch or
more in length. They are black with reddish legs and abdomen, and the
wings are sometimes slightly dusky at the edges.

[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Evania Appendigaster (Mag.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Pelecinus Politurator.]

In another group, _Pimplinæ_, the ovipositor is generally very long.
The best-known species is _Rhyssa persuasoria_, a blackish insect,
which measures about an inch in length. This insect is met with in
fir plantations, and uses its extraordinary ovipositor to drill holes
in trees infested by the _larvæ_ of _Sirex gigas_, on which its own
_larva_ is parasitic. The insect frequently drives its ovipositor so
firmly into the wood of the tree, that it is unable to withdraw it, and
perishes in this position.

_Family 23, Evaniidæ._--One of the most familiar insects belonging to
this family is the _Evania appendigaster_. It is a small black insect,
found in the south of Europe, and is parasitic on cockroaches. An
allied British species, _Fœnus jaculator_, is a not uncommon insect
found haunting the burrows of _Crabronidæ_, upon which it is probably
parasitic.

_Family 24, Chrysididæ._--The Ruby-tailed Wasps, or Golden Wasps, as
the _Chrysididæ_ are popularly called, are among the most brilliant
of the _Hymenoptera_, most of the species being either of an intense
green, blue, or fiery red.

They are small or moderate-sized insects, which are found on walls
or flowers in the full heat of the sun; for, as a rule, the most
brilliantly-coloured insects are diurnal in their habits.

[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Chrysis Ignita (Mag.)]

As far as their habits are known, they deposit their eggs in the nests
of other insects, chiefly _Hymenoptera_, on the _larvæ_ of which their
own offspring feed.

The commonest British species is _Chrysis ignita_, which is a very
variable insect, both as regards size and colouring.


TRIBE III.--PHYTOPHAGA.

The insects belonging to the third tribe of the Hymenoptera are
strictly vegetable feeders. There are only two families.

_Family 25, Siricidæ._--This family includes the insects known as
Tailed Wasps. It is not a very extensive family, and its species occur
chiefly in Europe and North America, in both of which regions the
typical genus _Sirex_ is represented by large species.

The best-known European species which is common in some parts
of Britain is the great Tailed Wasp (_Sirex gigas_), a very
formidable-looking insect, of which the female often measures nearly an
inch and a half in length.

[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Cimbex Luteus.]

The general tint is black with the antennæ, the sides of the thorax and
the legs and apex of the abdomen yellow. This insect lives in pine and
fir woods, and the female deposits her eggs in the woody parts of the
trees, into which she bores to a depth of over half an inch by means of
her long ovipositor.

[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Lophryus Pini (Mag.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Pamphilius Faustus (Mag.)]

Another species which occurs in this country is the _Sirex juvencus_,
of a steel-blue colour, but smaller than the former.

_Family 26, Tenthredinidæ._--This is a very extensive family and
contains the numerous species of Saw Flies, so called because their
ovipositor is in shape somewhat like a saw in appearance.

Probably the best-known species is the Gooseberry Saw Fly (_Nematus
ventricosus_), whose speckled and green _larvæ_ are so injurious in
gardens and orchards. This insect is yellowish in colour, and about a
quarter of an inch in length.

_Tenthredo æthiops_, a small black species, deposits its eggs upon
fruit trees.

Many other species live on different kinds of plants and trees.




ORDER NEUROPTERA.

INCLUDING THE DRAGON FLIES, LACEWING FLIES, DAY FLIES, STONE FLIES,
CADDIS FLIES, AND THEIR ALLIES.


Next to the butterflies and moths, the _Neuroptera_ (or nerve-winged
insects), to which belong the Dragon Flies, Lacewing Flies, Day Flies,
Stone Flies, Caddis Flies, and their allies, are undoubtedly the most
beautiful members of the insect tribe. Though they cannot compete with
the _Lepidoptera_ in point of colouring, it is questionable whether
they are not more graceful and elegant in appearance.

The order _Neuroptera_ was founded by the great Swedish naturalist
Linnæus, and its name has been kept intact since, though the
classification of the insects comprised in it has undergone many
modifications.

[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Ascacaphus Macaronius.]

The _Neuroptera_ are not a very numerous body of insects compared with
either the _Coleoptera_ or _Lepidoptera_, but they contain some of
the largest and most handsome insects known. The order is very well
represented in the temperate zones, though the finest species are met
with in the tropical parts of the world. Nearly 700 species are known
to inhabit the British Isles. In the whole world their number may be
given in round figures at about 4,000, but there is no doubt that this
number may be considerably increased.

The largest and most handsome species are the Dragon Flies or
_Ornoptera_, one species occurring in our own country, measuring
fully four inches in expanse of the wings. The Lacewing Flies
(_Hemerobiidæ_), the Day Flies (_Ephemeridæ_), the Stone Flies
(_Perlidæ_), and the Caddis Flies (_Trichoptera_), are among the other
more conspicuous members of the group.

[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Nemoptera Extensa.]

The _Neuroptera_ may be divided into three great sub-divisions,
according to certain well-defined characteristics. The modern tendency
is to raise each of these sub-divisions to the rank of orders.

The _Neuroptera_ may be classified as follows:--

 _Sub-Order 1, Planipennia_, or true Neuroptera.

   Metamorphoses complete, larvæ, mostly terrestrial.

 _Sub-Order 2, Trichoptera_, or hairy-winged Neuroptera.

   Metamorphoses complete, larvæ aquatic. Wings of Imago clothed with
   hairs.

 _Sub-Order 3, Pseudo-Neuroptera_, or false Neuroptera.

   Metamorphoses incomplete.

The most important distinction between the first two groups and the
third is that the former undergo complete metamorphoses, whereas in the
latter the transformations are incomplete or imperfect. The latter for
this reason are often classified as a separate order.

The _Trichoptera_ are also placed by some entomologists in a distinct
order, on account of the peculiarity in their wings being clothed
with hairs. They, however, present so many points both in habits and
structure, analogous with the true _Neuroptera_, that we have retained
them as a sub-division of the Order.


TABULAR VIEW

OF THE

PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF THE NEUROPTERA.


_Sub-Order 1.--Planipennia._

  Family  1.  Myrmeleontidæ or Ant Lions.
  Family  2.  Hemerobiidæ or Lacewing Flies.
  Family  3.  Mantispidæ or Mantis Flies.
  Family  4.  Sialidæ or Sialis Flies.
  Family  5.  Raphiidæ or Snake Flies.
  Family  6.  Panorpidæ or Scorpion Flies.


_Sub-Order 2.--Trichoptera_ (or Caddis Flies).

  Family  1.  Inæquipalpia or Large Caddis Flies.

    Sub-family 1. Phryganeidæ.
    Sub-family 2. Limnophilidæ.
    Sub-family 3. Sericostomidæ.

  Family  2.  Æquipalpia or Little Caddis Flies.

    Sub-family 1. Leptoceridæ.
    Sub-family 2. Hydropsychidæ.
    Sub-family 3. Rhyacophilidæ.
    Sub-family 4. Hydroptilidæ.


_Sub-Order 3.--Pseudo-Neuroptera._

TRIBE I.--ORNOPTERA (or Dragon Flies).

  Family  1.  Libellulinæ or Great Dragon Flies.

    Sub-family 1. Libellulidæ or Libellulines.
    Sub-family 2. Cordulidæ or Cordulines.
    Sub-family 3. Æschnidæ or Æschnines.
    Sub-family 4. Gomphidæ or Gomphines.

  Family  2.  Agroninæ or Slender Dragon Flies.

    Sub-family 1. Agronidæ or Agronines.
    Sub-family 2. Calopterygidæ or Calopterygines.

TRIBE II.--SUBULICORNIA.

  Family  3.  Ephemeridæ or Day Flies.

TRIBE III.--PLECOPTERA.

  Family  4.  Perlidæ or Stone Flies.

TRIBE IV.--CORRODENTIA.

  Family  5.  Psocidæ or Book Mites.
  Family  6.  Embiidæ or Agile Mites.

TRIBE V.--SOCIALIA.

  Family  7.  Termitiæ or White Ants.

TRIBE VI.--PHYSOPODA (or Thrips).

  Family  8.  Tubulifera.
  Family  9.  Terebrantia.

TRIBE VII.--MALLOPHAGA (or Bird-lice).

  Family 10.  Philopteridæ.
  Family 11.  Liotheidæ.

TRIBE VIII.--THYSANURA (or Bristle-tails).

  Family 12.  Lepismidæ.
  Family 13.  Campodeidæ.
  Family 14.  Japygidæ.

TRIBE IX.--COLLEMBOLA (or Spring-tails).

  Family 15.  Smynthuridæ.
  Family 16.  Papyriidæ.
  Family 17.  Degeeriadæ.
  Family 18.  Poduridæ.
  Family 19.  Amouridæ.


SUB-ORDER 1.--PLANIPENNIA.

The _Planipennia_ contains the most typical forms of the _Neuroptera_.
This sub-order is subdivided into six families, four only of which
contain representatives in the British Isles. They are most abundant
in the tropical parts of the world, where also the most handsome and
curious forms occur.

[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Myrmeleon Formicarius.]

_Family 1, Myrmeleontidæ._--The Ant Lions are the most familiar and
important members of this family. The common Ant Lion (_Myrmeleon
europæus_), which is abundant in sandy places in the south of Europe,
is a slender and elegant creature, with large finely reticulated rings.
The _larva_, to which the name of "Ant Lion" properly belongs, is of a
stout form and a greyish-yellow colour, covered with warty processes
and with hairs. Its food consists of ants and other small insects,
which it captures by a singularly ingenious arrangement, namely, by
means of a funnel-shaped pitfall which it constructs in the sand, and
at the bottom of which it lies. When any unfortunate insect ventures
too near, the Ant Lion sends up a shower of sand, and the victim in
its consternation falls down the pit, where it is speedily seized and
devoured.

Other species of ant lions are known to occur on the continent of
Europe, but none hitherto have been discovered to inhabit this country.

[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Myrmeleon Larva.]

[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Nemoptera Coa.]

_Family 2, Hemerobiidæ._--The second sub-family contains the Lacewing
Flies, many representatives of which occur in the British Isles. They
are among the most elegant and beautiful of the _Neuroptera_.

The Golden-eyed Fly (_Chrysopa vulgaris_) is a very abundant and
well-known example, but notwithstanding its great beauty it is capable
of emitting a very disagreeable odour when handled. This is a delicate
green insect with a body half an inch long, and which may be seen
almost everywhere on warm summer evenings, flying slowly about from
tree to tree. The eggs, which are little round or oval bodies like
small pearls, are deposited by the female in groups upon the leaves of
plants and trees. The _larva_ when fullfed is about half an inch in
length. The food consists of plant lice and aphides, and it is thus a
very beneficial creature, and should be encouraged by every gardener.
The _pupa_ of this insect is enclosed in a cocoon. Between thirty and
forty species of lacewing flies are known to occur in our own country.

[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Chrysopa Septempunctata.]

[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Mantis Pagana.]

_Family 3, Mantispidæ._--This family contains only one genus--viz.,
_Mantispa_, or the Mantis Flies. A single species, _Mantispa pagana_,
is common in southern Europe, but does not occur in the British Isles.

_Family 4, Sialidæ._--In the fourth family of the _Planipennia_ the
_larvæ_ are aquatic in their habits with very few exceptions. The
_pupa_ is not enclosed in a cocoon as it is in the _Hemerobiidæ_. The
single common British species (_Sialis lutaria_) is a blackish-brown
insect, rather more than half an inch in length. It is well known to
anglers, and may be found abundantly in the spring and early part of
the summer upon walls and palings in the neighbourhood of water, and
upon the stems and leaves of grasses and other plants growing in the
water or upon its bank.

In repose the wings of this insect, as in the _Hemerolicidæ_, are laid
over the back. They are sluggish creatures, and do not readily take to
flight.

_Family 5, Raphiidæ._--This family contains the curious group of
insects called "Snake Flies" or "Camel Flies," which are included by
some entomologists in the previous family. They have characteristics,
however, which entitle them to be placed apart. They have a rather
large head, which is attached to a greatly elongated prothorax by a
thinnish neck, so that the head has considerable freedom of motion. The
species are not numerous, four kinds only occurring in Britain. The
_larvæ_ reside under the bark of trees, where they feed upon minute
insects. The commonest species is probably _Raphidia megacephala_.

[Illustration: Fig. 48.--Raphidia Ophiopsis (Mag.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 49.--Panorpa Communis.]

_Family 6, Panorpidæ._--The _Panorpidæ_, or Scorpion Flies, are
very curious creatures, characterised above all things by the
perpendicularly placed and greatly elongated head.

The _larvæ_, so far as they are known, live in the earth, and are like
caterpillars in their general form.

Five species occur in this country, the best known being _Panorpa
communis_, which may be met with almost everywhere about hedge banks
and in lanes. It is about half an inch long. The wings are transparent,
with dark brown spots, which are more or less confluent.

Another species, _Boreus hiemalis_, which possesses no wings, is found
on the ground among leaves in the winter time. It does not exceed
one-sixth of an inch in length, and is of a metallic-green colour.

[Illustration: Fig. 50.--Bittacus Tipularius.]

[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Boreus Hiemalis (Mag.)]


SUB-ORDER 2.--TRICHOPTERA.

The members of this group are the insects commonly known as Caddis
Flies, and they are often ranked as a separate order by entomological
writers.

Nearly 600 species of _Trichoptera_ occur in Europe, of which about
half the number are indigenous to the British Isles. The _larvæ_ are
aquatic, and when full-grown prepare for themselves curious dwellings
composed of sticks, stones, and other materials wherein to pass the
pupa state. They may be seen almost everywhere where there is water.

The caddis flies may be divided into two families, though the
distinguishing marks are so minute that they really ought to be
classified as one family only. To Mr. McLachlan we owe many thanks for
his researches in this group of insects.

[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Hydropsyche Montana.]

[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Marronema Rubiginosa.]

_Family 1, Inæguipalpia._--This family includes the largest species of
the tribe, and are principally found in northern regions.

One of our largest British species is _Phryganea grandis_, which
measures four-fifths of an inch in length, and over two inches in
expanse of the wing. It is an abundant insect, of a brown colour, with
yellow rings on its _antennæ_, and the anterior wings are ash-coloured,
clothed with brown.

The _larvæ_ of this group for the most part inhabit quiet waters,
ponds, canals, etc.

This family is subdivided into three sub-families, viz., _Phryganeidæ_,
_Limnophilidæ_, _Sericostomidæ_.

_Family 2, Æguipalpia._--This family constitutes a second group, and
also contains many species, many of them, however, being very minute
insects, some hardly one-eighth of an inch across the wings. They make
little cases of silk resembling seeds, to the outer surface of which
they attach grains of sand, etc.

The _Æguipalpia_ contains four sub-families--viz., _Leptoceridæ_,
_Hydropsychidæ_, _Rhyacophilidæ_, and _Hydroptilidæ_.

Of the _Leptoceridæ_, _Molanna augustata_ may be taken as a typical
example, the larva of which lives on the sandy bottom of pools, and is
very difficult to detect.


SUB-ORDER 3.--PSEUDO-NEUROPTERA.

In the third sub-order of the _Neuroptera_ are grouped together a
series of insects which present great divergences of character, and
really do not belong to the true _Neuroptera_ on account of their
incomplete metamorphoses. They, however, for the most part, resemble
the _Neuroptera_ in the structure of their wings.

They are divided into several tribes and many families.


TRIBE I.--ORNOPTERA OR DRAGON FLIES.

To this tribe belong the Dragon Flies, the largest and most beautiful
members of the whole order.

About 1,500 species have been described from various parts of the
world, and of these about fifty are known to inhabit our own country.

Their habits are very much alike. The insect passes all the earlier
stages of its existence in water. The _larvæ_ are most voracious
creatures, and are undoubtedly the most predaceous of insects. The
apparatus by which they capture their prey consists of a peculiar
modification of the _labium_.

When full grown the _larvæ_ crawl up the stem of some aquatic plant
out of the water, and after resting there for a longer or shorter
time the skin splits open along the thoracic region, and the perfect
insect by degrees struggles out of its investment, and when the wings
are dried it starts off to continue the same scene of rapine which has
characterised its subterranean existence.

The perfect insect may be seen hawking about for insects in the
neighbourhood of pools in all fine weather during the summer and
autumn months. In dull weather, however, they usually remain at rest on
the leaves of plants and trees, etc. The eyes of Dragon Flies are most
beautiful objects when viewed under the microscope; they are composed
of a great number of facets or lenses. In one species of Dragon Fly as
many as 10,000 of these facets have been counted in each of its eyes.

Besides these compound eyes most dragon flies have additional eyes,
called _Ocelli_, which are situated on the top of the head; they are,
however, quite simple.

It is commonly thought by persons who are not naturalists that dragon
flies sting; such an erroneous idea we take the opportunity to correct.

[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Libellula Depressa.]

The _Ornoptera_ are divided into two principal families.

_Family 1, Libellulinæ._--To this family belong all the great dragon
flies, mostly thick-bodied insects. It is subdivided into four
sub-families.

To the first sub-family, the _Libellulidæ_, many common and familiar
dragon flies belong. The best known is what is vulgarly called the
"Horse-stinger" (_Libellula depressa_), an insect about two inches
long, with a rather depressed abdomen, which is yellowish-brown, with
yellow spots on the sides in the female, and coated with a beautiful
violet-blue powder in the male.

It may be seen almost everywhere, hawking for flies about rivers and
ponds, during warm weather.

The second sub-family, the _Cordulidæ_, contains four British species,
of which the beautiful _Cordulia metallica_ is the typical example.

The _Æschnidæ_ contain some of the largest members found. The great
dragon fly (_Æschna grandis_) is one of these. It is nearly three
inches long and four inches in expanse of the wings, and is of a light
rusty-brown colour with a few pale markings.

Of the _Gomphidæ_ only four species inhabit our own country.

_Gomphus vulgatissimus_ is a black insect, nearly two inches long, with
yellow bands on the thorax, and a line of the same colour along the
back of the abdomen.

_Family 2, Agroninæ._--This family contains a number of slender-bodied
insects. There are two sub-families.

The _Agrionidæ_ are a very numerous group. The typical form, _Agrion
puella_, which is a beautiful, slender creature, measures about two or
two and a half inches in expanse of the wings. The abdomen of the male
is banded with azure blue, that of the female being brassy-black.

The _Calopterygidæ_ contain only two British species--viz., _Calopteryx
virgo_ and _C. splendens_.

[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Calopteryx Virgo (Male).]


TRIBE II.--SUBULICORNIA.

The second tribe of the _Pseudo-neuroptera_ contains a group of insects
which are so similar to one another in form that they are all included
in one family.

_Family 3, Ephemeridæ._--The _Ephemeridæ_, or Day Flies, as they are
popularly called, are delicate, elongated, soft-bodied creatures, with
a moderately small head. The antennæ, which spring from the forehead
below the ocelli, are short and awl-shaped. These insects, which seem
to be found mostly in temperate climates, are remarkable for the great
delicacy of their structure, and for the extreme shortness of their
lives in the perfect state, which seems in general scarcely to exceed a
day.

Nearly fifty species of _Ephemeridæ_ occur in this country. The
best known is _Ephemera vulgata_, of which the sub-imago is called
the "green drake," and the imago the "grey drake" by anglers. The
two-winged _Clöen diptera_, which, however, is a much smaller species
than the foregoing, is also very abundant.

[Illustration: Fig. 56.--Calopteryx Virgo (Female).]


TRIBE III.--PLECOPTERA.

The _Plecoptera_ contain only one family.

_Family 4, Perlidæ._--The _Perlidæ_, or Stone Flies, are chiefly
inhabitants of the temperate regions; they are of small size, and not
very numerous in species, about thirty being indigenous to the British
Isles.

The _larvæ_, which are aquatic in their habits, closely resemble the
perfect insect in form. Their food consists of other insects and they
prey especially upon the _larvæ_ of the Day Flies.

The perfect insects are usually found resting quietly on plants and
other objects on the banks of streams. The large brown species,
_Perla bicaudata_, appears in the spring, and is very common in the
neighbourhood of pools, streams, and canals.


TRIBE IV.--CORRODENTIA.

This tribe contains two families, one of which is represented in the
British Isles.

_Family 5, Psocidæ._--This is a family of small insects with simple
veined wings. They have a rather large head, and bear a pair of long
tapering antennæ. They are found upon trunks of trees, old palings,
walls, etc. They are very active in their movements, and generally
appear in the imago state about the end of summer or beginning of
autumn.

_Atropos pulsatorius_ is one of these. It lives in books and among old
damp papers, whence it is often called the "Book Louse."

[Illustration: Fig. 57.--Perla Bicaudata.]

[Illustration: Fig. 58.--Psocus Bipunctatus.]

They are also very destructive to collections of preserved insects and
plants. About thirty species occur in this country.

_Family 6, Embiidæ._--This family contains no representative in the
British Isles, and consists of a small number of almost exclusively
exotic species. Two species, however, inhabit the continent of Europe,
one of which, _Embia Solieri_, occurs in the south of France on the
Mediterranean littoral.

These insects are very closely allied to the _Psocidæ_ in their habits.


TRIBE V.--SOCIALIA.

The Socialia contains a very peculiar group of insects closely allied
to the cockroaches in the _Orthoptera_. They may be considered a
connecting link between that order and the Neuroptera. There is only
one family.

_Family 7, Termitiæ._--The _Termitiæ_, or White Ants, are almost
exclusively inhabitants of tropical climates, and are unrepresented in
our own country.

They are a very remarkable family of insects. They build most
complicated dwellings, consisting of innumerable galleries and
chambers, and they are so interesting in their habits that every
traveller who has seen anything of them has always a great deal to
relate concerning them.

One species, _Termes lucifugus_, inhabits the south of France, and is
very well known on account of the mischief which it sometimes causes.

[Illustration: Fig. 59.--Termes Bellicosus (Male).]

[Illustration: Fig. 60.--Termes Bellicosus (Soldier).]


TRIBE VI.--PHYSOPODA, OR THRIPS.

This tribe of insects, to which the name _Thysanoptera_ is sometimes
applied, contains many curious forms.

There are two principal groups of these insects--namely, the
_Tuberlifera_ and the _Terebrantia_. They are generally known to
gardeners by the name of "Thrips." Some of them occasionally prove
injurious to cultivated plants. This is especially the case with the
Corn Thrips (_Thrips cerealium_), which generally attacks the ears of
corn, and, when numerous, is very mischievous.


TRIBE VII.--MALLOPHAGA OR BIRD LICE.

These insects, which are known as "Bird Lice," were formerly placed
among the true lice, but they differ in the possession of biting
mouths, and in the diet to which such a structure adapts them.

A great number of these curious little insects have been recorded, and
they inhabit all parts of the world. They live among the feathers of
birds and the hairs of mammalia.

Almost every animal and bird is subject to these parasites.

The common fowl, duck, goose, game birds of all kinds, and pigeons,
are very commonly infested by them, as are also the dog, the cat, the
sheep, and the guinea-pig.

The two principal families of the _Mallophaga_ are the _Philopteridæ_
and the _Liotheidæ_.

[Illustration: Fig. 61.--Lipeurus Diomedeæ (Mag.)]


TRIBE VIII.--THYSANURA OR BRISTLE TAILS.

The forms composed in this tribe of insects are reckoned at present
to be the nearest resemblance to the theoretical progenitors of
the insects; in fact, Sir John Lubbock hints that they might well
be regarded not as insects at all, but rather as the surviving
representatives of a group formed by the ancestors of the whole
multitude of insect types.

[Illustration: Fig. 62.--Lepisma Saccharina (Mag.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 63.--Orchesella Rufescens (Mag.)]

The food of these creatures consists of decayed vegetable matter.

Three principal families may be recognised--viz., _Lepesmidæ_,
_Campodeidæ_, and _Japygidæ_.


TRIBE IX.--COLLEMBOLA OR SPRING TAILS.

These insects closely resemble the previous tribe in general character,
to which also the same remarks nearly apply.

They are generally small insects, a length of a quarter of an inch
being considerably above the average. They are found commonly in loose
earth, under decaying leaves in woods, in moss, under the bark of dead
trees, and in rotten stumps. They always prefer damp situations.

[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Isotoma Gervaisi (Mag.)]

Cold seems to have but little effect upon them; they will recover their
activity after being frozen. One species, _Desoria glacialis_, is
found enjoying itself upon the Swiss glaciers, and another, _Degeeria
nivalis_, occurs upon the surface of snow in many parts of Europe. Some
species also may be met with hopping about upon the surface of standing
water. _Podura aquatica_, a minute blue-black species, is common in
such situations in England.

The five principal families are the _Smynthuridæ_, _Papyriidæ_,
_Degeeriadæ_, _Poduridæ_, and the _Amouridæ_.




ORDER ORTHOPTERA.

INCLUDING THE GRASSHOPPERS, LOCUSTS, CRICKETS, COCKROACHES, EARWIGS,
AND THEIR ALLIES.


The _Orthoptera_ include all those forms of insects which have
four wings, the anterior pair being of a leathery nature. They are
mandibulate; that is, their mouths are formed for biting, and they
undergo an imperfect metamorphosis.

The insects comprised in this order are extremely numerous and
destructive in the tropical parts of the world (Kirby gives their
number as about 7,000), but they are only represented in the British
Isles by about sixty species, few of which are really abundant. They
include the cockroaches, crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, earwigs, etc.

All these insects may be divided into three sub-divisions or
tribes--namely, the Runners or _Cursoria_, the Leapers or _Saltatoria_,
and the Earwigs or _Euplexoptera_.

The following table will show at a glance the outlines of the proposed
arrangement:--

 _Tribe_ I., _Cursoria_.--Hind wings with veins radiating from the
 base. Hind legs formed for running.

 _Tribe_ II., _Saltatoria_.--Hind wings with veins radiating from base.
 Hind legs formed for leaping.

 _Tribe_ III., _Euplexoptera_.--Hind wings with veins radiating from
 the apex of a horny piece occupying the base of the anterior margin.

The _Euplexoptera_, or Earwigs, are regarded by some authors as a
separate order. They are thus treated by Westwood in his "Introduction
to the Modern Classification of Insects," but the modern tendency is
to revert to the Linnæan system, and retain them among the _Orthoptera_.

[Illustration: Fig. 65.--Phasgonura Viridissima.]


TABULAR VIEW

OF THE

PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF THE ORTHOPTERA.


TRIBE I.--CURSORIA.

  Family  1.  Blattidæ or Cockroaches.
  Family  2.  Mantidæ or Praying Insects.
  Family  3.  Phasmidæ or Stick and Leaf Insects.


TRIBE II.--SALTATORIA.

  Family  4.  Achetidæ or Crickets.
  Family  5.  Gryllidæ or False Locusts.
  Family  6.  Locustidæ or True Locusts and Grasshoppers.


TRIBE III.--EUPLEXOPTERA.

  Family  7.  Forficulidæ or Earwigs.

We will now proceed to describe each of these families in turn.


TRIBE I.--CURSORIA.

The insects constituting this group are distinguished by having their
hind legs adapted for walking or running. They are subdivided into
three families.

_Family 1, Blattidæ._--This family includes the numerous species of
cockroaches, or "black bats" as they are often called by uneducated
persons. They are represented in all parts of the world, but are most
abundant within the tropics, and especially in central and southern
America, where also the largest and finest species are to be found.
Many curious forms are also to be met with in India and different parts
of Africa.

They are very active creatures, and run with considerable rapidity, but
their activity is chiefly nocturnal, and during the day they generally
remain quietly concealed in some obscure retreat. Their diet consists
of both vegetable and animal matter, and offal of every description.
They are most useful in hot climates, acting the part of scavengers,
and by these means preventing the outbreak of malaria and other
pestilential diseases.

The best-known species in this country is the common Cockroach (_Blatta
orientalis_), which, by-the-bye, is not a native of Europe, having been
introduced from the East several centuries ago, and to have made its
home here.

[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Blatta Orientalis.]

Other species besides this are met with occasionally in different parts
of the country, having been introduced in like manner at different
times from foreign parts. The Giant Cockroach (_Blaberus giganteus_)
is one of these. Its native home is South America and the West
Indies, and in the latter place it is commonly called the "drummer."
It measures nearly three inches in length. The Zoological Gardens in
London is a favourite resort of this species.

[Illustration: Fig. 67.--Blaberus Giganteus.]

[Illustration: Fig. 68.--Corydia Petiveriana.]

_Family 2, Mantidæ._--The _Mantidæ_ may be at once distinguished from
the insects comprising the other two families of the _Cursoria_ by the
structure of the forelegs, which are converted into powerful raptoral
organs.

The body of these insects is more or less elongated, and the head,
which is triangular or heart-shaped, is attached to the thorax by a
distinct neck.

[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Blepharis Mendica.]

The _Mantidæ_, or Praying Insects, are celebrated for their habit of
resting on their four hind legs, and with their front legs raised in
the air, in what was formerly supposed to be an attitude of devotion,
but really in an observant attitude, and on the alert for their prey.

None of these insects are met with in the British Isles, but several
species are rather abundant in the south of France. Two species,
_Mantis pauperata_ and _Mantis religosa_, measure about two or two and
a half inches in length. A third species, _Mantis oratoria_, is also
common but somewhat smaller in size.

_Family 3, Phasmidæ._--These insects very much resemble the _Mantidæ_
in general appearance, to which also they are very closely allied.

They are among the most peculiar insects in existence. Their appearance
is comical in the extreme. Many of them resemble sticks, either green
growing trees or brown and withered branches, and hence the name of
stick insects commonly applied to them is very appropriate. On account
of their skeleton-like forms they have also been likened to ghosts and
spectres.

Some few species mimic leaves of trees and various plants, and these
are often called "leaf insects."

The number of species of this family is not very large, and by far the
greater part of these are inhabitants of the warmer regions of the
earth, and they seem to increase in size, especially the nearer their
home lies to the Equator.

Among the more interesting species we may mention _Cyphocrania
semirubra_ from Brazil, with short greenish elytra and pink wings.

_Bacillus rosii_ is a brown, wingless form found in Italy and the south
of France.

Some of the tropical species are among the largest insects known. A
winged Australian species attains the length of ten inches.

_Lopaphus cocophagus_ is a common species in the South Sea Islands, and
sometimes commits great ravages in the plantations of cocoa-nut trees.
When this insect is alarmed it squirts out a highly acrid fluid, which
causes great pain, and sometimes blindness if it reaches the eye.

We may remark that no species of _Phasmidæ_ are known to inhabit the
British Isles.


TRIBE II.--SALTATORIA.

The principal character of the insects belonging to this tribe consists
in the adaptation of the hind legs to the purpose of leaping.

The males of most of the species possess the faculty of producing loud
chirping sounds, but the means by which this is effected vary in the
different families.

_Family 4, Achetidæ._--The most familiar British insect belonging to
this family is the common House Cricket (_Acheta domestica_). Living,
as it does, in the immediate vicinity of the fire, it seems to be
totally independent of the changes of the seasons, and may usually be
found of all ages at all periods of the year. Crickets are particularly
abundant in bakehouses, being extremely partial to warmth. The chirping
noise which they produce at night-time is sometimes almost deafening,
and it is really surprising from what a very long distance the sound
may be heard.

Their food consists of bread crumbs and scraps of meat and vegetables
which have been allowed to accumulate during the daytime. The best
way, therefore, to get rid of the insects is to take proper care in
clearing away all the refuse after meals, for if this were not there
the crickets could not subsist, and would soon quit the house. They
are, however, generally objected to only by weak-nerved people, and do
very little harm, if any whatever. It is a question whether they are
not very useful in acting as scavengers.

[Illustration: Fig. 70.--Hetrodes Pupa.]

[Illustration: Fig. 71.--Gryllotalpa Vulgaris.]

A nearly allied British species is the Field Cricket (_Acheta
campestris_), which is rather larger than the house cricket. It is
comparatively rare and local in this country, but abounds everywhere on
the Continent.

A third British species is the Wood Cricket (_Nemolicus sylvestris_),
which is considerably rarer than either of the preceding. It is found
abundantly among dead leaves in woods in France and other parts of the
Continent, but is very rarely found in England.

The Mole Cricket (_Gryllotalpa vulgaris_) is perhaps the most
interesting member of the family. It is a large, robust insect, about
an inch and a half in length and of a very dark brown colour. It is
remarkable for the peculiar shape of its front legs, which exactly
resemble those of the mole.

It burrows in loose soil, and, like the mole, it passes along close
beneath the surface of the ground, and often raises a small ridge as it
advances. It frequents gardens, especially near the banks of canals,
and is also fond of damp meadows and other localities in the vicinity
of water.

The eggs to the number of 200 or 300, are deposited in a chamber of
considerable dimensions, and enclosed in a sort of cocoon-like envelope.

The _larvæ_ when first hatched are white, and are said to be three
years in arriving at a state of maturity. The mole cricket is found
chiefly in the south of England.

[Illustration: Fig. 72.--Œcanthus Pellucens.]

_Family 5, Gryllidæ._--The most conspicuous insect belonging to this
family in Britain is known as the great Green Grasshopper (_Phasgonura
viridissima_), which measures nearly four inches in expanse of the
wing, and is therefore nearly as large as the migratory locust which
sometimes visits us.

The great green grasshopper is not, however, a very common insect in
this country, being principally confined to the south of the island.

Another European and British species, _Decticus verrucivorus_, is of
about the same length. It receives its name from the custom prevailing
among the Swedish peasants of making it bite their warts. This insect,
in common with many others of the same family, when at all roughly
handled, emits from the mouth a brownish fluid, which is said to
possess acrid qualities, and the introduction of this into the warts is
supposed to cause their disappearance.

[Illustration: Fig. 73.--Truxalis Nasuta.]

_Family 6, Locustidæ._--This family, which includes the grasshoppers
and true locusts, is easily distinguished from both the preceding
families by the character of the antennæ, which are comparatively
short.

The common English Grasshopper (_Rhammatocerus biguttulus_), whose song
must be familiar to every one who has walked through the fields during
the summer time, is produced by the friction of the hinder thighs
against the wing-cases.

The locusts have been celebrated from the dawn of history on account of
the terrible ravages which they have committed in various parts of the
world; and although many different species have made their appearance
in our own country at various times, the climate, fortunately, seems
unsuitable for them to live in, and they have, therefore, not been
known to breed here.

The Migratory Locust (_Ædipoda migratoria_) is perhaps the best known
in this country on account of its visits, many stray individuals of
which have visited us at different periods.

Locusts are known all the world over, in fact, nearly every country has
a species peculiar to itself. The most extraordinary accounts are on
record of the vastness of the swarms which every now and again invade
particular districts. They are said sometimes to absolutely darken the
sun.

[Illustration: Fig. 74.--Decticus Verrucivorus.]

[Illustration: Fig. 75.--Locusta Peregrina.]

They clear off everything from the surface of the ground as completely
as if the place had been visited by fire.

In many eastern countries locusts are relished as articles of food.

The distinctive character of the insects comprised in this group is
found in the structure of the wings. The anterior pair are of a horny
or leathery consistence, but always much shorter than the abdomen. The
hind wings, on the contrary, are of large size, and are composed of a
very delicate membrane. There is only one family.

[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Caloptenus Italicus.]


TRIBE III.--EUPLEXOPTERA.

_Family 7, Forficulidæ._--The insects of this family present a great
uniformity of structure. They are, for the most part, of nocturnal
habits, concealing themselves during the day in crevices under the bark
of trees, or in the ground under stones and leaves, etc.

Their food consists almost exclusively of vegetable substances, and are
sometimes very injurious to flowers and fruit.

It has been said, however, that they also feed largely on plant lice or
aphides, which, if true, give them a very redeeming quality.

The female earwig deposits her eggs under a stone in some cavity in the
ground often dug out by her own labour.

Unlike most other insects, the female does not perish as soon as she
has laid her eggs, but lives to behold her offspring, brooding over
them almost like a hen. But it is distressing to learn that if the
mother should die she is immediately devoured by her progeny.

The _Euplexoptera_ are widely distributed over the surface of the
earth. The tropical regions, however, can hardly claim any great
predominance over more temperate climates as regards either the number
or size of the species.

The largest European species (_Forficesita gigantea_), which is an
inhabitant of some parts of England, measures about an inch in length
of the body.

Our common Earwig (_Forficula auricularia_) is not only found all over
Europe, but apparently throughout the greater part of the eastern
hemisphere.

[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Forficula Auricularia.]

Another British species, viz., the little Earwig (_Labia minor_), is
also of wide distribution.

The earwig derives its name from its occasionally creeping into the
human ear in search of concealment. This has been denied by many
authors, but we have personally known instances of earwigs entering the
ears of persons lying asleep in fields in the summer time. The insect
can be driven out immediately by pouring a little oil into the ear.

Some writers have attempted to prove that the name earwig is a
corruption of "earwing," in allusion to the shape of the hind wings;
really a very ingenious idea, but incorrect nevertheless.




ORDER HEMIPTERA.

INCLUDING THE LAND BUGS, WATER BUGS, PLANT BUGS, SKATERS, LANTERN
FLIES, FROG HOPPERS, APHIDES, AND THEIR ALLIES.


[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Zelus Quadrispinosus.]

The _Hempitera_ are _Haustellate_ insects; they have four wings, which
are membranous and naked. Their metamorphosis is incomplete. The order
is a very extensive one. The insects, however, are mostly found in
the tropical parts of the world, from whence nearly twenty thousand
species have been described. In the British Isles their number reaches
nearly a thousand.

The study of the _Hemiptera_ has hitherto been sadly neglected, owing
to the great majority of them being very small species.

[Illustration: Fig. 79.--Macrocheraia Grandis.]

They include the Plant Bugs, Sand Bugs, Water Bugs, Cuckoo Spits,
Froghoppers, Plant Lice, and many other familiar forms. The three great
divisions into which they are divided are treated by many entomologists
as distinct orders. The following will show under each heading the
principal distinguishing character of each group or sub-order as we
shall designate them.

 _Sub-Order 1, Heteroptera._--Fore wings of a parchment like
 consistency.

 _Sub-Order 2, Homoptera._--Fore wings membranous and naked, similar to
 the hind ones.

 _Sub-Order 3, Anaplura._--Wingless; no metamorphosis.

The _Heteroptera_ are regarded as the highest of the three groups,
followed by the _Homoptera_, while the _Anoplura_ constitute a
somewhat aberrant series, and are somewhat in the same position as the
fleas (_Aphaniptera_) are to the true _Diptera_.


TABULAR VIEW

OF THE

PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF THE HEMIPTERA.


_Sub-Order 1.--Heteroptera._

TRIBE I.--GEOCORES OR LAND BUGS.

  Family  1.  Scutelleridæ or Shield Bugs.
  Family  2.  Coreidæ or Land Bugs.
  Family  3.  Lygæidæ or Chinch Bugs.
  Family  4.  Pyrrhocoridæ or Plant Bugs.
  Family  5.  Capsidæ or Sap Bugs.
  Family  6.  Tingididæ or Tree Bugs.
  Family  7.  Cimicidæ or Bed Bugs.
  Family  8.  Reduviidæ or Pirate Bugs.
  Family  9.  Emesidæ or Wolf Bugs.

TRIBE II.--HYDROCORES OR WATER BUGS.

  Family 10.  Saldidæ or Water Jumpers.
  Family 11.  Hydrometridæ or Skaters.
  Family 12.  Gerridæ or Ocean Bugs.
  Family 13.  Galgulidæ or Shark Bugs.
  Family 14.  Nepidæ or Water Scorpions.
  Family 15.  Notonectidæ or Water Boatmen.


_Sub-Order 2.--Homoptera._

  Family  1.  Cicadidæ or Cicadas Flies.
  Family  2.  Fulgoridæ or Lantern Flies.
  Family  3.  Membracidæ or Horn Flies.
  Family  4.  Cercopidæ or Froghoppers.
  Family  5.  Tettigonidæ or Meadow Lice.
  Family  6.  Ledridæ or Oak Lice.
  Family  7.  Jassidæ or Elegant Lice.
  Family  8.  Psyllidæ or Plant Lice.
  Family  9.  Aphidæ or Aphides.
  Family 10.  Aleyrodidæ or Powder Flies.
  Family 11.  Coccidæ or Scale Insects.


_Sub-Order 3.--Anoplura._

  Family  1.  Pediculidæ or True Lice.


SUB-ORDER I.--HETEROPTERA.

The _Heteroptera_ constitute the first sub-order of the _Hemiptera_.
They include the True Bugs, an extensive group of very varied
structure and habits. The greater part of the terrestrial species feed
on plants, though some feed on the blood of animals, while the aquatic
species are principally carnivorous in their habits. This sub-order is
divided into two tribes.

[Illustration: Fig. 80.--Graphosoma Lineatum (Mag.)]


TRIBE I.--GEOCORES OR LAND BUGS.

This tribe includes the terrestrial species of bugs. It is subdivided
into fifteen families.

[Illustration: Fig. 81.--Tectocoris Banksii.]

_Family 1, Scutelleridæ._--This extensive family includes the greater
portion of the largest and handsomest species of the Land Bugs.

The insects live upon plants, trees, and shrubs, and feed upon
the juices, which they suck out of the soft tissues, many of them
especially attacking juicy fruits. The family is very well represented
in the warmer parts of the world, where also the most beautifully
coloured species are met with.

One of the most handsome representatives in Europe is _Graphosoma
lineatum_, which measures nearly half an inch in length. It is
reddish in colour and is common on flowers, especially those of the
_Umbelliferæ_, but is not met with in our own country.

_Edessa cervus_ is a native of South America, and another pretty
species.

The most familiar British species is what is commonly known as the
Colewort Bug (_Strachia oleracea_), a very pretty insect, which lives
on cruciferous plants, and is said sometimes to be injurious in gardens.

[Illustration: Fig. 82.--Catacanthus Incarnatus.]

[Illustration: Fig. 83.--Euthyrhynchus Floridanus (Mag.)]

Some of the Chinese Bugs belonging to the genus _Tesseratoma_ are the
largest species known.

_Family 2, Coreidæ._--This family contains a great number of
plant-feeding native and exotic species, varying considerably in shape
and structure. The majority of European species are, however, of small
size in comparison to those found in tropical parts of the world.

The insects of this family are rarely adorned with bright colours,
different shades of brown being the prevailing tints, although a few of
them are gaily adorned.

[Illustration: Fig. 84.--Trigonosoma Desfontainei.]

In their general habits they much resemble the Shield Bugs.

Two British species are _Syromastes marginatus_ and _Verlusia rhombea_.

_Family 3, Lygæidæ._--The members of this family are, on the whole,
much smaller than the _Coreidæ_, some of the smallest forms of which
many of them resemble.

[Illustration: Fig. 85.--Cantao Oceliatus (Mag.)]

These insects are generally of a red colour, with black bands and spots.

Several species are very injurious to cultivated plants. One of the
most destructive of all is _Blissus leucopterus_, a black insect
with white fore wings, each of which is marked with a large black
triangular spot on the outer edge. It measures about an eighth of an
inch in length. The young larva is red. In the United States this
insect, which abounds to a considerable extent, is called the "Chinch
Bug."

[Illustration: Fig. 86.--Menenotus Lunatus.]

[Illustration: Fig. 87.--Copius Intermedius.]

_Family 4, Pyrrhocoridæ._--This family of bugs abounds in all parts of
the world, and in Europe and Britain is undoubtedly the most numerously
represented of all the families of bugs. A very common species in this
country found on nettles is _Phytocoris tripustulatus_, which is about
one-sixth of an inch in length, and generally yellowish in colour.

_Family 5, Capsidæ._--This family contains a great number of small
species of variegated colours, which feed exclusively on the sap of
plants or the juice of fruits.

A rather small species (_Capsus ater_) is common upon herbage. The male
is entirely black; in the female the head and thorax are reddish. The
genus _Miris_ and its allies include elongated species, which are found
chiefly in grassy places.

_Family 6, Tingididæ._--The species of this family differ considerably
among themselves in size, structure, and habits; and although the
majority of them are carnivorous, others, especially among the smaller
species, are herbivorous. One species (_Tingis pyri_), found in our own
country, is sometimes very injurious to pear trees.

[Illustration: Fig. 88.--Tingis Pyri (Mag.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 89.--Cimex Lectularius (Mag.)]

_Family 7, Cimicidæ._--The type of this family is the common Bed Bug
(_Acanthia lectularia_), which is only too well known to most people.
Although treated as a British insect, it does not always appear
to have been an inhabitant of these islands, but to have made its
way here about the beginning of the sixteenth century. Three other
British species have been described as inhabiting the dwelling-places
of certain animals and sucking their blood. _A. columbaria_ attacks
pigeons. _A. hirundinis_ is found in swallows' nests, and _A.
pipistrelli_ feeds on bats.

_Family 8, Reduviidæ._--All the insects of this family are predaceous
in their habits, and are exceedingly numerous in tropical climates.
The largest British species is _Reduvius personatus_, an insect about
three-quarters of an inch long, of a blackish-brown colour with reddish
legs. It is well furnished with wings, and flies especially in warm
summer evenings, when it frequently enters houses, being attracted by
the lights. This insect is said to be a great enemy to the bed bug.

Some of the foreign species of _Reduviidæ_ are most formidable insects,
such as the great black _Conorrhinus renggeri_ of Chili, which often
attacks travellers when camping out.

_Family 9, Emesidæ._--Most of these insects are carnivorous in their
habits. The best known species of this family is probably _Plæaria
vagabunda_, a brown, delicately-formed insect, which inhabits trees.

[Illustration: Fig. 90.--Acanthaspis Sexguttata.]


TRIBE II.--HYDROCORES OR WATER BUGS.

All the insects belonging to this tribe are either water insects, or
found only in the immediate neighbourhood of water. It contains the
remaining families of the _Heteroptera_, six in number.

_Family 10, Saldidæ._--The majority of species belonging to this
family are small, dull-coloured insects, always found in the
neighbourhood, though they are not strictly aquatic.

_Family 11, Hydrometridæ._--The habits of most of these insects are
herbivorous, and they are all found near water.

_Hydrometra stagnorum_ is a black or brown insect, more or less tinged
with reddish, and about half an inch long. It is found running on the
surface of water, or else on the banks or among water plants, but is
not so active as some of the other species.

[Illustration: Fig. 91.--Halobates Pictus (Mag.)]

_Family 12, Gerridæ._--This family includes some very familiar insects,
which may be seen running over the surface of every piece of water.
These insects, of which several species are abundant in Britain, have
boat-shaped bodies. The typical form is _Gerris lacustris_, which may
be met with almost anywhere. They are predaceous in their habits,
feeding upon other insects. Some nearly allied, but mostly very small
species, with legs even longer in proportion than those of our common
forms, are met with at sea within the tropics, and often at a great
distance from land.

[Illustration: Fig. 92.--Galgulus Oculatus (Mag.)]

_Family 13, Galgulidæ._--This family only includes a few American
species, which are generally brown spotted with yellow. _Galgulus
oculatus_ inhabits the southern part of the United States, and measures
about two-fifths of an inch in length.

_Family 14, Nepidæ._--The species of this family are not very numerous,
but are of considerable interest. They are of large size, and very
fierce and voracious. The genus _Betostoma_, found in the East Indies
and America, includes the largest species of _Heteroptera_, some of
which measure four and a half inches in length, and nearly six inches
in expanse of the wing. Their food consists of small fish, frogs, etc.

[Illustration: Fig. 93.--Nepa Cinerea.]

The best-known species in our own country is the Water Scorpion (_Nepa
cinerea_), which has the power of inflicting a very painful wound
if handled. It measures about an inch in length. In colour it is
yellowish-grey, the back of the abdomen being red, and its large front
legs, which somewhat resemble the claws of a scorpion, have given
rise to the name by which it is popularly known. It is very common in
stagnant water.

[Illustration: Fig. 94.--Notonecta Glauca.]

[Illustration: Fig. 95.--Metacanthus Punctipe (Mag.)]

_Family 15, Notonectidæ._--These insects are commonly known as "Water
Boatmen," from their habit of rowing themselves about on their backs
with their long hind legs. They are carnivorous, feeding on small
insects and other "fry."

The most typical British species is _Notonecta glauca_, a yellowish
insect about half an inch long. It is a most predaceous insect, and can
bite severely.

Another common species inhabiting our own country is _Coriax
Geoffroyi_, which is nearly half an inch long. The _Notonectidæ_ are
all very powerful and active creatures.

[Illustration: Fig. 96.--Corisa Striata.]


SUB-ORDER II.--HOMOPTERA.

This extensive sub-order includes the Cicadas, Lantern Flies, Plant
Lice, Scale Insects, etc.

[Illustration: Fig. 97.--Fulogra Horsfieldi.]

As already pointed out, the most striking general character of this
group consists in the uniform texture of the forewings.

[Illustration: Fig. 98.--Cixius Cunicularius (Mag.)]

There are eleven families included in the _Homoptera_, all the species
belonging to which feed upon vegetable juices.

_Family 1, Cicadidæ._--These insects are mostly inhabitants of warm
climates, and our only British representative of the family (_C.
anglica_) is one of the smaller species, the wings only expanding about
an inch and a quarter. Four or five hundred species, however, are
known to inhabit the world, and some of them attain to considerable
dimensions.

[Illustration: Fig. 99.--Delphax Longipennis.]

[Illustration: Fig. 100.--Derbe Strigipennis (Mag.)]

They generally live upon trees and shrubs, and obtain their nourishment
by piercing the tissues and sucking out the juices of their young
tender shoots.

[Illustration: Fig. 101.--Issus Coleoptratus.]

The _Cicadas_ are improperly called "Locusts" both in America and
Australia, on account of the chirping noise which they perpetually keep
up in the woods, both day and night.

_Family 2, Fugloridæ._--This family includes the Lantern Flies and
Candle Flies, which are remarkable for their large size, bright
colours, and strange forms. They are almost all exotic insects.

[Illustration: Fig. 102.--Tettigometra Virescens (Mag.)]

The largest species is found in South America, and is called the Great
Lantern Fly (_Fulgora laternaria_), measuring nearly three inches in
length, and over four inches in expanse of the wings.

[Illustration: Fig. 103.--Pœciloptera Phalænoides (Mag.)]

The Chinese Lantern Fly (_Fulgora candelaria_) has a red body, the fore
wings being greenish with yellow spots, the hind wings orange colour
with black tips.

[Illustration: Fig. 104.--Membracis Foliata (Mag.)]

_Cixius nervosus_ is found in the British Isles, chiefly on alders. It
measures about a quarter of an inch in length, and in colour is black
with yellow legs, and transparent wings dotted with brown.

_Family 3, Membracidæ._--This family is chiefly remarkable for the
fantastic shapes assumed by the prothorax.

Most of the species are inhabitants of America, where they occur in
wonderful abundance and variety.

[Illustration: Fig. 105.--Smilia Fasciata (Mag.)]

A common species, _Centrotus cornutus_, is found in the British Isles
and over the greater part of Europe. It is rather over a quarter of an
inch long, black, with a pair of upright horns on the prothorax.

Another common European and British species (_Gargara genistæ_) is
smaller than the preceding, and has no horns on the prothorax.

[Illustration: Fig. 106.--Œda Inflata (Mag.)]

_Family 4, Cercopidæ._--The "Froghoppers" and "Cuckoo-spits" belong
to this family. They are chiefly small insects found among grass and
bushes in the summer.

[Illustration: Fig. 107.--Physoplia Nigrata (Mag.)]

A very common species in this country is the common Cuckoo-spit
(_Aphrophora spumaria_), which is about a quarter of an inch in length,
and of a yellowish-grey colour. This insect can make a prodigious leap
in proportion to its size. It is said to sometimes spring to a distance
of two yards. Its yellow _larvæ_ may often be seen on grass and low
plants enveloped in a mass of froth, which has given rise to the name
of "Cuckoo-spit."

[Illustration: Fig. 108.--Hypsauchenia Westwoodii (Mag.)]

_Family 5, Tettigonidæ._--These insects are exceedingly numerous, and
are often remarkably elegant in form. They are mostly inhabitants of
America, where some three or four hundred species have been described,
but in England we have an exceedingly pretty species (_Tettigonia
viridis_), which is common in damp meadows.

[Illustration: Fig. 109.--Heteronotus Vulneratus (Mag.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 110.--Jassus Atomarius (Mag.)]

_Family 6, Ledridæ._--Many of the insects belonging to this family
resemble beetles somewhat in appearance. _Ledra aurita_, which may
be considered the type of the family, is a greenish insect, about
three-quarters of an inch in length, and found on oak trees.

_Family 7, Jassidæ._--This family contains a considerable number of
small insects, some of them of great beauty and elegant in appearance.
The typical genus is _Jassus_.

_Family 8, Psyllidæ._--This is the first family of the so-called "Plant
Lice" or "Blight." They resemble the "Froghoppers" in their habits of
jumping. Most of them are small insects, and they subsist on the sap of
plants, to which they are sometimes injurious. A few species produce
galls.

_Livia pyri_ is a reddish insect, abundant on pear trees. Other common
species are found on the alder, ash, oak, and nettle.

[Illustration: Fig. 111.--Bythoscopus Venosus (Mag.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 112.--Livia Juncorum (Mag.)]

_Family 9, Aphidæ._--The _Aphidæ_, or "Plant Lice," "Blight," and
"Green Fly," as they are variously called, are amongst the most
destructive of insects. They are small and feeble creatures, but make
up for their individual insignificance by their immense numbers.

They sometimes exist in countless millions, completely smothering the
plants upon which they feed.

Migratory habits seem to be strongly developed among the _Aphidæ_,
hence it is we are so suddenly visited by such enormous quantities of
the insects during hot weather in the summer time.

In colour the _Aphides_ are generally green, brown, and black,
according to the species. Different kinds live on different plants and
trees.

[Illustration: Fig. 113.--Darnis Limacodes (Mag.)]

The Hop Aphis (_Aphis humuli_) lives upon the hop, and its abundance or
scarcity is a most important matter to the hop-growers in this country.

[Illustration: Fig. 114.--Tricophora Sanguinolenta (Mag.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 115.--Aphis Tiliæ (Mag.)]

One of the most destructive insects of the whole family is the Vine
Aphis (_Phylloxera vastatrix_), which has committed terrible ravages
at various times in most of the vine-growing districts on the Continent.

The Aphides have the habit of discharging a sweet sticky substance
called honeydew, of which ants are very fond.

[Illustration: Fig. 116.--Lachnus Quescus (Mag.)]

The reproduction of the _Aphidæ_ constitutes one of the most
interesting chapters in the history of the animal kingdom.

[Illustration: Fig. 117.--Aleyrodes Proletella (Mag.)]

_Family 10, Aleyrodidæ._--Many of the insects of this family resemble
moths in appearance. Indeed, the typical species, _Aleyrodes
proletella_, a very small reddish insect, was formerly considered to be
a moth by the older writers on entomology.

_Family 11, Coccidæ._--This family contains the Cochineal Insects, the
Scale Insects, and their allies.

The _Coccidæ_, or Scale Insects, are sometimes very injurious to
cultivated plants, but they are also useful, producing cochineal,
shellac, manna, and other substances of considerable importance.

The Cochineal Insect (_Coccus cacti_) is a native of Mexico, and
furnishes us with the most valuable and durable red dye that we
possess, and the Lac Insect (_Coccus lacca_), an East Indian insect,
produces the well-known lac-dye.

The common Scale Insect (_Coccus adonidum_) is well known in hothouses
and conservatories in our own country, though it is not indigenous,
having been imported from abroad.

[Illustration: Fig. 118.--Coccus Cacti (Mag.)]


SUB-ORDER III.--ANOPLURA.

This sub-order contains only one family, which is considered to be the
last and lowest group of the _Hemiptera_, of which it may be regarded
as a very degenerate form. The insects have no wings, and live upon the
blood of other animals.

_Family 1, Pediculidæ._--The "Lice" are a very extensive family,
but at present not very well known. Almost every mammal has a louse
peculiar to itself.

[Illustration: Fig. 119.--Pediculus Capitis (Mag.)]

Three species infest man. The Head Louse (_Pediculus capitis_), found
on the head, especially in children. The Body Louse (_Pediculus
vestimenti_), found in the clothes; and the Crab Louse (_Phthirius
inquinalis_), a broader and shorter insect, found in the hair on the
face and body of uncleanly persons.

The lice infesting different races of men differ in colour--thus, those
found on niggers are black; and those on Europeans are whitish.

Other species of lice infest the dog, cat, pig, mouse, elephant,
monkey, etc.

The _Pediculidæ_ undergo no metamorphoses.




ORDER DIPTERA.

INCLUDING THE GNATS, MIDGES, CRANE FLIES, HAWK FLIES, BEE FLIES, BREEZE
FLIES, BOT FLIES, AND THEIR ALLIES.


The _Diptera_, or two-winged flies, are among the most numerous orders
of insects, but they have been so little studied hitherto that we have
but a very imperfect knowledge of them, especially as regards the
tropical species.

[Illustration: Fig. 120.--Midas Giganteus.]

The number recorded in the British Isles is about 3,000, that of the
whole world probably exceeds 30,000, and it is certain that this number
will be increased immensely as time goes on.

The _Diptera_ may be defined as insects with a sucking mouth
(_Haustellate_), and with only two wings, which are membranous, while
the hind wings are represented only by a pair of small knotted organs,
called _halteres_. Their metamorphoses are complete.

The _larvæ_ are footless "grubs," generally with a soft body, but
sometimes leathery or even nearly horny. Many of them possess a
distinctly marked head, which may contain _ocelli_, but in the majority
the head appears as if it were simply one of the neighbouring segments.

[Illustration: Fig. 121.--Craspedia Coriaria.]

Their food generally consists of decayed animal and vegetable matter,
and thus they are very useful as scavengers, particularly in hot
climates.

The _larvæ_ frequently live in the substance upon which they feed,
while others reside in water, and many are parasitic.

For the classification of the _Diptera_ we owe much to that eminent
entomologist, Osten-Sacken, whose arrangement has been here generally
adopted.


TABULAR VIEW

OF THE

PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF THE DIPTERA.


TRIBE I.--NEMOCERA.

  Family  1.  Cecidomyiidæ or Wheat Midges.
  Family  2.  Mycetophilidæ or Army Worms.
  Family  3.  Simuliidæ or Sand Flies.
  Family  4.  Bibionidæ or Garden Flies.
  Family  5.  Blephariceridæ or Blood Flies.
  Family  6.  Culicidæ or Gnats.
  Family  7.  Chironomidæ or Midges.
  Family  8.  Orphnephilidæ or Bread Flies.
  Family  9.  Psychodidæ or Fungus Midges.
  Family 10.  Tipulidæ or Crane Flies.
  Family 11.  Dixidæ or Wood Gnats.
  Family 12.  Rhyphidæ or Dung Midges.


TRIBE II.--BRACHYCERA.

  Family 13.  Xylophagidæ or Tree Flies.
  Family 14.  Cœnomyiidæ or Poplar Flies.
  Family 15.  Stratiomyiidæ or Manure Flies.
  Family 16.  Acanthomeridæ or Pomade Flies.
  Family 17.  Tabanidæ or Breeze Flies.
  Family 18.  Leptidæ or Fox Flies.
  Family 19.  Asilidæ or Hawk Flies.
  Family 20.  Midaidæ or Wolf Flies.
  Family 21.  Nemestrinidæ or Flower Flies.
  Family 22.  Bombyliidæ or Bee Flies.
  Family 23.  Therevidæ or Hairy Flies.
  Family 24.  Scenopinidæ or Window Flies.
  Family 25.  Acroceridæ or Sloth Flies.
  Family 26.  Empidæ or Little Hawk Flies.
  Family 27.  Dolichopodidæ or Fairy Flies.
  Family 28.  Lonchopteridæ or Water Flies.
  Family 29.  Syrphidæ or Dart Flies.
  Family 30.  Conopidæ or Wasp Flies.
  Family 31.  Pipunculidæ or Hedge Flies.
  Family 32.  Platypezidæ or Fungus Flies.
  Family 33.  Œstridæ or Bat Flies.
  Family 34.  Muscidæ or Meat Flies.

    _Section 1.--Calypteræ._

    Sub-family  1. Tachininæ or Parasitic Flies.
    Sub-family  2. Descinæ or Rainbow Flies.
    Sub-family  3. Sarcophaginæ or Screw Worms.
    Sub-family  4. Muscinæ or Blow Flies.
    Sub-family  5. Antromyiinæ or Summer Flies.

    _Section 2.--Acalypteræ._

    Sub-family  6. Scatophaginæ or Dung Flies.
    Sub-family  7. Ortalinæ or Wood Flies.
    Sub-family  8. Trypetinæ or Fruit Flies.
    Sub-family  9. Piophilinæ or Cheese Flies.
    Sub-family 10. Diopsinæ or Horn Flies.
    Sub-family 11. Chloropinæ or Corn Flies.
    Sub-family 12. Drosophilinæ or Mould Flies.
    Sub-family 13. Agromyzinæ or Holly Flies.

  Family 35.  Phoridæ or Plant Flies.


TRIBE III. HOMALOPTERA.

  Family 36.  Hoppoboscidæ or Forest Flies.
  Family 37.  Nycteribidæ or Bat Lice.
  Family 38.  Braulidæ or Bee Lice.


TRIBE IV. APHANIPTERA.

  Family 39.  Pulicidæ or Fleas.

The number of families comprised in the _Diptera_ is so great that
space will only permit us to deal very briefly with each.

[Illustration: Fig. 122.--Epidosis Leucopeza (Mag.)]


TRIBE I.--NEMOCERA.

This tribe contains many well-known insects--namely, the Midges, Gnats,
Daddy-longlegs, etc., which are divided into twelve families.

_Family 1, Cecidomyiidæ._--These are small delicate species, generally
clothed with long hair. They are all vegetable feeders, some of
them being very destructive to crops. The Hessian Fly (_Cecidomyia
destructor_) is probably one of the best-known species, on account of
the terrible mischief which it has caused in various countries, and
particularly in the United States of America. Miss E. A. Ormerod, the
well-known economic entomologist, has recently written a great deal
concerning this insect, with the view to preventing its increase in our
own country.

The Wheat Midge (_Diplosis tritici_) is another very mischievous
species.

[Illustration: Fig. 123.--Mycetophila Distigma (Mag.)]

_Family 2, Mycetophilidæ._--These are generally small species. They are
all vegetable feeders. The _larvæ_ live gregariously in fungi, rotten
wood, bark, etc.

The Army Worms (_Sciara_) of America, which belong to this family,
sometimes congregate in enormous numbers.

[Illustration: Fig. 124.--Macrocera Lutea (Mag.)]

The flies are remarkable for their remarkable powers of leaping.

_Family 3, Simuliidæ._--This family includes only one genus, _Simulium_.

It is, however, widely distributed, and some of the species, which are
popularly called Sand Flies, are exceedingly annoying in hot climates.

[Illustration: Fig. 125.--Simulium Ornatum (Mag.)]

_Family 4, Bibionidæ._--Several species belonging to this group are
very familiar insects. Among them is the St. Mark's Fly (_Bibio
Marci_), which is black, with transparent wings in the male and
brownish in the female.

These flies appear in the spring, and their _larvæ_ live in dung or
damp earth.

Many of the species are popularly called "garden flies."

[Illustration: Fig. 126.--Bibio Hortulanus (Mag.)]

_Family 5, Blephariceridæ._--These flies have long legs, the _antennæ_
are usually long and slender, and the wings broad and long. The type of
this family is _Blepharicera fasciata_, the female of which is a very
blood-thirsty creature. It is a dark brown fly, with transparent wings
and yellow legs, and it measures about one-third of an inch in length.
It is, however, by no means abundant.

_Family 6, Culicidæ._--The _Culicidæ_, or Gnats, are a very extensive
family.

[Illustration: Fig. 127.--Culex Pipiens (Mag.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 128.--Chironomus Plumosus (Mag.)]

The _larvæ_ are nearly all aquatic.

They are generally small, dull-coloured insects, and are often called
"Mosquitoes" in the country. These insects frequently cause much
annoyance during the summer months to persons engaged in out-door
occupations. They are particularly abundant in damp meadows, in the
vicinity of water, and also in hay-fields, where the face and hands of
the mowers are sometimes blistered to much pain by the suckers of the
little creatures.

[Illustration: Fig. 129.--Ceratopogon Femoratus (Mag.)]

One of the most troublesome species is probably the House Gnat (_Culex
ciliaris_), which, thirsting for its evening meal, often enters our
apartments, sounding its approach by a tolerably loud humming.

[Illustration: Fig. 130.--Trichocera Fuscata (Mag.)]

_Culex annulatus_ is a little larger, and is said to produce a greater
amount of irritation by its bite.

_Family 7, Chironomidæ._--These insects are small delicate insects,
much resembling gnats in appearance, and are popularly called "Midges."
The _larvæ_ of most of the species are aquatic.

The _larva_ of _Chironomus plumosus_, which is common in stagnant
water, is called the "blood worm" from its bright red colour.

[Illustration: Fig. 131.--Tipula Gigantea.]

_Family 8, Orphnephilidæ._--Most of the species belonging to this
family are of small size.

The typical species is _Orphnephelia testacea_, measuring scarcely
one-tenth of an inch in length, and is sometimes found in bakehouses.
It is of a rusty-yellow colour.

_Family 9, Psychodidæ._--This is a small family consisting of minute
brown or yellowish species remarkable for their resemblance to moths.
They mostly feed on fungi and decayed vegetable substances.

The species of _Phlebotomus_ are troublesome blood-suckers in the south
of Europe.

_Family 10, Tipulidæ._--The insects belonging to this group are
popularly known as Crane Flies and Daddy-longlegs. They are very
abundant.

The commonest species, _Tipula oleracea_, is a grey species with
transparent wings, and exceedingly destructive to corn, roots of
grass, etc., and no effectual remedy has hitherto been discovered for
preventing their attacks.

The familiar Winter Gnat (_Trichocera hiemalis_) belongs to this
family. It may often be seen, even during the dreary months of December
and January, dancing to and fro under the shelter of some hedge or
wall. In frosty weather it conceals itself beneath the bark of trees,
under leaves, etc.

[Illustration: Fig. 132.--Erioptera Grisea (Mag.)]

_Family 11, Dixidæ._--This family of gnats frequents damp places in
woods, and are therefore designated "Wood Gnats." They may occasionally
be seen during the summer time in immense swarms.

The species of _Dixa_ are reddish, yellow, or black insects generally
of small size.

_Family 12, Rhyphidæ._--The _larvæ_ of most of these insects feed upon
decayed vegetable matter.

The species of _Rhyphus_ may often be found resting on leaves in damp
situations, they may also be seen on windows, and occasionally "dancing
in the air."

They are generally brown, yellow, or grey insects of small size.


TRIBE II.--BRACHYCERA.

These insects are generally of much larger size, and more robust in
appearance than those contained in the previous tribe. They are divided
into twenty-two families.

[Illustration: Fig. 133.--Stratiomys Chameleon.]

_Family 13, Xylophagidæ._--The _Xylophagidæ_ are thick-looking insects.
The head is as broad as the thorax. The legs, which are long and
slender, are quite naked. The _larvæ_ live in rotten wood, and the
flies may often be seen at rest on the trunks of trees.

[Illustration: Fig. 134.--Sargus Cuprarius (Mag.)]

_Family 14, Cœnomyiidæ._--In this family the head is narrower than
the thorax; otherwise they closely resemble the previous family. The
typical European species is _Cœnomyia ferruginea_, which measures
about three-quarters of an inch in length, and in colour varies from
rusty-yellow to black. The _larvæ_ feed inside the trunks of rotten
poplars.

_Family 15, Stratiomyiidæ._--These are rather slender flies, varying
from half to one inch in length. They are usually found resting on low
plants. Many species frequent cow-dung and manure, etc. Several kinds
exhibit a metallic coloration, others are black, often more or less
varied with white or yellow.

[Illustration: Fig. 135.--Chrysops Cæcutriens (Mag.)]

_Family 16, Acanthomeridæ._--The _Acanthomeridæ_ are met with
principally in America. The typical species, _Acanthomera picta_, is
found in Brazil, and measures more than an inch in length. It used
formerly to be largely used in the manufacture of pomade.

_Family 17, Tabanidæ._--The _Tabanidæ_ are broad-looking insects. The
_larvæ_ usually live in damp earth. The females of these species live
on the blood of animals.

The best-known species is the Gad Fly (_Tabanus bovinus_), which
measures more than an inch in length, and is particularly troublesome
to cattle in hot weather. It is blackish above, and reddish beneath and
on the sides of the abdomen.

The Clegg Fly (_Hæmatopota pluvialis_) also belongs to this family. It
is a dingy-looking insect with mottled-grey wings, and is sometimes
very abundant in damp meadows.

[Illustration: Fig. 136.--Hæmatopota Pluvialis (Mag.)]

Many other species of _Tabanidæ_, popularly called "Breeze Flies," are
plentiful in this country.

_Family 18, Leptidæ._--These insects are mostly predatory, though many
small species are parasitic on animals and other insects. The _larva_
of _Vermilio degeerii_ lives in sand, and feeds on such insects
as fall in its way. Those of the genus _Leptis_ are parasitic on
cockchafers and other large beetles.

[Illustration: Fig. 137.--Vermilio Degeerii (Mag.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 138.--Chrysopila Atrata (Mag.)]

_Family 19, Asilidæ._--The _Asilidæ_ or Hawk Flies are a family of
considerable extent, and include many very large and conspicuous
insects. They feed on other insects, and are very courageous, sometimes
attacking even dragon flies. One of the most common species is _Asilus
crabroniformis_, which is common in the south of England.

_Family 20, Midaidæ._--These are large insects resembling the _Asilidæ_
in their habits, and are nearly all tropical. A few species, however,
inhabit the south of Europe.

_Midas giganteus_ is found in Brazil and adjacent countries in tropical
America. It measures about one inch and a half in length.

_Family 21, Nemestrinidæ._--These insects are chiefly inhabitants of
tropical climates like the preceding family. They are generally of
a black colour, sometimes with red legs. They suck the nectar of
flowers through a long proboscis, but nothing is yet known of their
transformations.

[Illustration: Fig. 139.--Xylophagus Ater (Mag.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 140.--Ceria Conopsoides (Mag.)]

_Family 22, Bombyliidæ._--The Bee Flies belong to this family. They
are small or middle-sized insects, densely clothed with hairs. They
are exceedingly active insects with long tongues, with which they suck
honey from flowers. Their _larvæ_ are often parasitic in their earlier
stages on other insects.

They are very useful in North America by keeping down the number of
locusts, in the egg capsules of which the _larvæ_ feed.

Two species, _Bombyliis major_ and _B. medius_, are common in this
country, and may often be seen in gardens and open spaces in woods
during the spring and summer months.

_Family 23, Therevidæ._--This family is a very numerous one, especially
those of the typical genus _Thereva_. They are slender, middle-sized
black insects, and their bodies are generally covered with hair. They
are generally found in the neighbourhood of bushes and trees.

_Family 24, Scenopinidæ._--The _Scenopinidæ_ include a few minute,
black flies, not exceeding a quarter of an inch in length. They are not
very common, but are sometimes found about windows.

_Family 25, Scroceridæ._--This family also contains small species of
flies, but their metamorphoses are at present unknown.

[Illustration: Fig. 141.--Medeterus Nolatus (Mag.)]

They are usually to be found resting easily on dry branches of trees,
but are generally rare.

_Family 26, Empididæ._--The insects of this group are very similar to
the _Asilidæ_ in their carnivorous propensities, but the species are
usually of a much smaller size. _Empis livida_ is a common yellowish
species measuring about one-third of an inch in length.

[Illustration: Fig. 142.--Dolichopus Regalis (Mag.)]

_Family 27, Dolichopodidæ._--This family is a very extensive one,
including a considerable number of genera and species. They are usually
small flies often of brilliant metallic colouring. They may be found
generally in the neighbourhood of water.

[Illustration: Fig. 143.--Scenopinus Fenestralis (Mag.)]

_Family 28, Lonchopteridæ._--The species of _Lonchopteridæ_ are small
yellowish-brown or greenish flies with lanceolate wings. They frequent
the banks of shady streams, and are often found resting on wet stones.

_Family 29, Syrphidæ._--The majority of flies belonging to this family
are of a moderate size, and possessed of brilliant colours. With the
exception of the enormous family _Muscidæ_, they are one of the largest
families of the _Diptera_.

[Illustration: Fig. 144.--Syrphus Ribesii (Mag.)]

Most of the species may be recognised at once by their peculiar mode of
flight, for they hover motionless in the air, and if alarmed dart off
with a rapid motion which the eye cannot follow.

_Milesia Crabroniformis_ is a very large species common in the south of
Europe.

About thirty species are found in the British Isles. Of these _Syrphus
pyrastri_ is perhaps the best-known example. It is a very wasp-like
creature, and is, indeed, mistaken by many people for a wasp. It is
a very useful insect, feeding largely on aphides and plant lice, and
should therefore be encouraged by every horticulturist.

_Family 30, Conopidæ._--The _larvæ_ of most of these insects are
parasitic on _Orthoptera_ and _Hymenoptera_. Many species have a
resemblance to wasps in appearance, being striped with yellow and
black. The typical genus, _Conops_, are slender flies measuring half an
inch in length.

_Family 31, Pipunculidæ._--These are black or brown insects. The head
is large and round, generally broader than the thorax. The _larvæ_ are
mostly parasitic on other insects. The flies may often be seen in great
swarms in shady places in the vicinity of hedges, in lanes, etc.

_Family 32, Platypezidæ._--This family contains many beautiful flies.
Great numbers of them are marked with orange and silver and black. The
_larvæ_ inhabit fungi.

[Illustration: Fig. 145.--Eristalis Simili (Mag.)]

_Family 33, Æstridæ._--The Bot Flies are well known on account of the
annoyance they cause to cattle. They lay their eggs upon the hides
of the animals, and the _larvæ_, when hatched, make their way under
the skin, and there take up their abode, living on the juices of
their unfortunate host. It is estimated that the loss occasioned by
these troublesome pests amounts to millions of pounds in the British
Isles alone. The best-known species is probably _Æstrus bovis_, which
infests the ox. The cattle are so well aware of the danger attending
the presence of this insect, that as soon as it appears near them, the
whole herd exhibits the most unmistakable signs of terror, rushing
about their pasture with their tails in the air, and in case of need
taking refuge in water, where the fly will not follow them. Miss E.
A. Ormerod has recently paid much attention to the economy of this
insect, with the view to finding some remedy for its attacks.

[Illustration: Fig. 146.--Nemestrina Longirostris (Mag.)]

_Family 34, Muscidæ._--The _Muscidæ_ is the most numerous family, of
the _Diptera_ and it includes many familiar insects. It is divided
into two sections, containing thirteen sub-families. The first
section, _Calypteræ_, contains five sub-families. The _Tachininæ_ are
parasitic in the larval stage on _Lepidoptera_. The largest of the
_Muscidæ_ found in Europe is _Echinomyria grossa_, which measures about
three-quarters of an inch in length.

[Illustration: Fig. 147.--Volucella Zonaria.]

[Illustration: Fig. 148.--Conops Flavipes (Mag.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 149.--Myopa Ferruginea (Mag.)]

Many species of the _Dexinæ_ are of the most metallic-green or blue.
They are principally found in Australia.

The Flesh Fly (_Sarcophaga carnaria_) belongs to the _Sarcophaginæ_ and
is one of our largest species. The _larvæ_ of some species are called
"Screw Worms" in America.

The fourth sub-family, the _Muscinæ_, contains the most typical species
of the _Diptera_ or two-winged flies. The common House Fly (_Musca
domestica_) is the most familiar example. Several blue-and-green flies
are produced from _larvæ_ which feed on more or less putrid flesh,
and are well known to anglers as "Gentles." The Blow Fly or Blue
Bottle (_Musca vomitoria_) is one of these, also the Green Bottle Fly
(_Lucilia Cæsar_) which is often common about hedges in the summer
time. Many species belong to the sub-family _Anthomyiinæ_, are very
small insects, and their _larvæ_ mine in the leaves of plants like
those of _Tineæ_.

[Illustration: Fig. 150.--Platypeza Fasciata (Mag.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 151.--Gastrophilus Equi (Mag.)]

Section 2, namely _Acalypteræ_, contains eight sub-families.

The species of _Scalophaginæ_ are usually called "Dung-flies." The
commonest species, the Yellow Dung Fly (_Scatophaga stercoraria_),
feeds largely on manure and other refuse.

The _Ortalinæ_ are flies of small or moderate size, which are met with
principally in woods and fields. The _Trypetinæ_ feed chiefly on fruit.
One species, _Ceratitis hispanica_, is very destructive to oranges in
the south of Europe, etc. Of the _Piophilinæ_, _Piophila casei_ may be
taken as the typical example. The _larvæ_ which abound in cheese and
bacon are popularly called "Cheese Hoppers," or "Jumpers," in allusion
to their habit of springing. The _Diopsinæ_ are principally met with
in the tropical parts of the world. They are generally insects of
moderate size. Most of the species of _Chloropinæ_ are of small size.
Their _larvæ_ generally live in the stems of corn and various kinds of
grasses. The _Drosophilinæ_ are small, dull-coloured flies, the _larvæ_
of which feed on fungi, rotten fruit, and similar substances.

[Illustration: Fig. 152.--Hypoderma Bovis (Mag.)]

The last sub-family, namely, the _Agromyzinæ_, is very extensive. One
of the commonest species is _Phytomyza ilicis_, the _larva_ of which
forms large brown blotches on the leaves of the holly.

[Illustration: Fig. 153.--Diopsis Subfasciata (Mag.)]

_Family 35, Phoridæ._--The insects belonging to this family are
generally of small or moderate size. They are very active, and may be
observed on plants, and also sometimes sunning themselves on windows.


TRIBE III.--HOMALOPTERA.

The insects belonging to this section much resemble spiders in
appearance. They are all parasitic, and are remarkable for the perfect
insect producing its young singly, and that not in the egg state, as in
most insects, but either in the _pupa_ state, or as a mature _larva_
ready to become a _pupa_ immediately. This tribe contains only three
families.

_Family 36, Hippoboscidæ._--The most familiar insects comprised in this
family are known as "Forest Flies." The common Forest Fly (_Hippobosca
equina_) is a brown species about one-third of an inch in length, and
exceedingly annoying to horses, particularly in the New Forest. The
Sheep Tick (_Melophagus ovinus_) is another well-known example.

[Illustration: Fig. 154.--Oscinis Cornuta (Mag.)]

_Family 37, Nycteribidæ._--These insects are all parasitic on bats, and
are commonly known as "Bat Lice." They are wingless, but have a pair of
halteres placed upon the dorsal surface.

[Illustration: Fig. 155.--Phora Camariana (Mag.)]

_Family 38, Braulidæ._--This family includes only a single species,
which is parasitic upon the honey bee. Its name is _Braula cæca_, and
it is an exceedingly minute creature.


TRIBE IV.--APHANIPTERA.

The tribe _Aphaniptera_ was formerly considered to be a separate order,
but it is now generally included among the _Diptera_ on account of the
similarity in the transformations besides other considerations. There
is only one family.

_Family 39, Pulicidæ._--To this family belongs the numerous species of
fleas which infest different kinds of animals.

The Human Flea (_Pulex irritans_) is familiar to every one. It gets its
living by sucking our blood, and is of great annoyance, particularly in
hot weather. The blisters which it raises on various parts of the body
are exceedingly irritating.

[Illustration: Fig. 156.--Pulex Irritans (Mag.)]

The Dog Flea (_Pulex canis_) and the Cat Flea (_Pulex felis_) are
distinct from the above, and are chiefly confined to those animals,
although they do not disdain to vary their diet occasionally with human
blood.

The Jigger or Chigoe (_Sarcopsylla penetrans_) is abundant in the
West Indies and in South America. It is sometimes very annoying to
travellers, burrowing deeply under the skin. The body of the female is
capable of attaining to the dimensions of a pea.

                   *       *       *       *       *

Printed by Hazell, Watson, & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury.

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learning which they have.... The illustrations are uniformly good--far
better than in many expensive books."--_Academy._

 BUTTERFLIES, MOTHS, AND BEETLES. By W. F. KIRBY.

 CRUSTACEANS AND SPIDERS. By F. A. A. SKUSE.

 ANTS, BEES, DRAGON FLIES, EARWIGS, ETC. By W. H. BATH.

 REPTILES. By CATHERINE HOPLEY.

 MAMMALIA. By F. A. A. SKUSE.                            [_Shortly._

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                    LONDON: SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO.

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Transcriber's Notes:

  Italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold text by =equal
    signs=.
  The 2 pages of advertisements preceding the title page have been moved
    to the end of this book.
  The half-title page has been removed.
  Obvious printing mistakes have been corrected.
  Variations in spelling, hyphenation, and accents remain as in the
    original unless noted below.
  Introduction, "Linnean" changed to "Linnæan" ("By the Linnæan system").
  Page 10, "Hawk flies" changed to "Hawk Flies."
  Page 15, "Section 3" changed to "Section 2."
  Page 39, "fulfed" changed to "fullfed".
  Page 43, "PSEUDONEUROPTERA" changed to "PSEUDO-NEUROPTERA."
  Page 52, "reins" changed to "veins."
  Page 55, illustration caption: "Fig. 8" changed to "Fig. 68."
  Page 95, "Family 1" changed to "Family 12."
  Page 103, "Fig. 145" changed to "Fig. 146."
  Page 106, "Piophila-casei" changed to "Piophila casei."
  Page 107, "Tribe VI" changed to "Tribe IV."