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[Illustration: Engraved by Edw^d Finden.

VIEW OF BANKOK.]




  THE
  MISSION
  TO
  SIAM, AND HUÉ
  THE
  CAPITAL OF COCHIN CHINA,
  IN
  THE YEARS 1821-2.


  FROM THE JOURNAL OF
  THE LATE GEORGE FINLAYSON, ESQ.
  ASSISTANT SURGEON OF HIS MAJESTY’S
  8TH LIGHT DRAGOONS,
  _SURGEON AND NATURALIST TO THE MISSION_.


  WITH A
  MEMOIR OF THE AUTHOR,

  BY
  SIR THOMAS STAMFORD RAFFLES, F.R.S.

  LONDON:
  JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREET.
  MDCCCXXVI.




  LONDON:
  PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES,
  Northumberland-court.




  DEDICATED
  (BY PERMISSION)
  TO THE
  HONOURABLE THE COURT OF DIRECTORS
  OF
  THE EAST INDIA COMPANY;

  THROUGH WHOSE LIBERALITY THE MISSION WAS PROVIDED
  WITH THE MEANS OF PROSECUTING
  OBJECTS OF SCIENCE,

  BY THEIR MOST OBEDIENT
  HUMBLE SERVANT,
  THOMAS STAMFORD RAFFLES.




INTRODUCTION.


In the year 1821, a mission was sent by the Governor-General of Bengal
to the courts of Siam and Cochin-China, having for its object the
opening of a friendly intercourse between those countries and the
British possessions, and the establishment of free trade on both sides.

This mission it is well known was not attended with the success
expected; little or no positive advantage was gained to our trade, but
the foundation of a friendly intercourse was laid by the visit, and the
knowledge procured may prepare the way for a future attempt under more
favourable circumstances.

It at any rate afforded an opportunity for our obtaining much
valuable information respecting countries and people, hitherto almost
unknown to us, and in this respect the particulars contained in the
following pages may be deemed of sufficient interest to justify their
publication: they are transcribed nearly verbatim from the private
journal of the late Mr. George Finlayson, who was attached to the
Mission as Surgeon and naturalist, but who, unfortunately for his
friends and the cause of science, fell a sacrifice to his unwearied
exertions in the performance of the service intrusted to him, and did
not live to revise and arrange them himself, having died on his passage
to England.

The Journal in its unfinished and rough state, with the whole of the
valuable collections in natural history made by Mr. Finlayson during
the course of the Mission, having been deposited in the museum of the
East India company, and by the liberal arrangements of the court of
directors, laid open to the inspection of those who were interested
in the subject, it is now published, with the permission of Dr.
Somerville, and in the simplest form practicable, it being considered
that such a work can have no better recommendation than the certainty
of its genuineness and authenticity.

It does not profess to afford any account of the official proceedings
or conduct of the Mission, further than met the author’s observation
as a spectator in common with others who were present on the occasion;
its object is to throw light on the country, and on the character,
institutions, and habits of the people generally.

It would have been easy to have enlarged the work by the addition
of notes and explanatory remarks, and at one time it was proposed to
have annexed an appendix with plates, illustrative of the subjects in
natural history collected during the voyage, for which the materials
are considerable; but the publisher having objected to the increased
expense that would in this case have been incurred, the plan was
abandoned.

Partly also on this account, but more especially in consequence of its
being understood that Mr. Crawfurd, to whom the charge of the Mission
was intrusted, himself meditates a work on the subject, and as it would
be treading on ground more peculiarly belonging to that gentleman, it
has been deemed advisable not to enlarge, in this place, on the public
objects and results of the Mission, or to enter into any general review
of the state of the countries visited, or of the various interests
involved, which might otherwise have been expected.

It is necessary however to say a few words respecting the lamented
author.

GEORGE FINLAYSON was a native of Thurso, in Scotland, descended
from parents in a very humble sphere of life, but most respectable
in their station. He had two brothers who, like himself, died early
in the career of prosperity. The circumstances under which Donald,
the eldest, and subsequently George, were brought forward, were as
follows:--

During the late war, when the charge of the medical department of the
army in Scotland was committed to Dr. Somerville, he had occasion for
the assistance of a clerk, the nature of whose duties made it desirable
that he should have some knowledge of medicine, and it occurred to
him that the salary of the office might furnish the means to some
meritorious person of prosecuting his studies at the same time. In
order to find such a person he addressed himself to Dr. Thomson,
professor of surgery in the University of Edinburgh, well knowing the
competence of his judgment, and his disinterested zeal in advancing
modest merit; Dr. Thomson immediately named a young man who fulfilled
every condition, and whose slender means arose from hours of private
tuition. Donald Finlayson was accordingly sent and appointed. Assiduity
in the discharge of every duty, blended with an earnest desire to
please, were striking parts of his character. He was a good Greek,
Latin, and French scholar, and an excellent botanist, besides being a
good anatomist, and well versed in other branches of medical science.
He showed an ardour in acquiring information on every subject which
excited an interest in those from whom he sought it. He had enjoyed
fewer opportunities of acquiring a knowledge of the world than of most
subjects, and was conscious of the awkwardness resulting from this
deficiency, and most anxious to remove the cause of it, in which his
success was only to be explained by the thankfulness with which he
received a hint upon the subject.

On completing the course of his academical studies, Dr. Somerville
thought him equal to a higher situation, and advised him to go into the
army, assuring him that he had been so satisfied with his services,
that he should be glad if he had a brother that he might appoint to
be his successor. He said his brother George, whom he had taken great
pains to educate, was in every respect a more able man than he was, and
therefore strongly recommended him.

George was accordingly appointed to the situation. He in every respect
verified the account of his partial friend; and became so great a
favourite, that he was a constant inmate in Dr. Somerville’s family,
and beloved by all who knew him. When his studies were finished, Dr.
Somerville sent him also into the army, and it was no less gratifying
to the generous feelings of that gentleman, than creditable to his
discernment, to learn, that both brothers distinguished themselves
by their attention to their duty and their humanity to the sick and
wounded. Donald had been actively employed in the harassing engagements
that preceded the battle of Waterloo, as assistant-surgeon of the
33d regiment, and also on that memorable day. On the march to Paris
with his regiment, he disappeared, and it seems probable that he
fell a victim to marauders then abounding in the country, from the
disorganized state of the retreating army. George got leave of absence
to endeavour to learn the fate of his unfortunate brother, but his
efforts were unavailing as he could only hear that he had been seen
exploring a cave near St. Quinten. He was so affected by this severe
loss of a brother to whom he owed so much, that it was an act of
humanity to get him removed from the scene of his sorrows. Sir James
Macgregor, who is never wanting on such occasions, kindly and promptly
acceded to Dr. Somerville’s request to attach George Finlayson to
the medical-staff about to proceed to Ceylon, under the direction
of Dr. Farrel, than whom no one was more capable of discerning and
appreciating his worth and talents.

In Ceylon Mr. Finlayson was indefatigable in the pursuit of botany
and other branches of natural history, to which he devoted all the
time that his laborious professional duties allowed. After a residence
of some years in this island, he was removed to Bengal, having been
appointed assistant-surgeon of His Majesty’s 8th regiment of Light
Dragoons, by the kindness of Sir James. He rejoiced to find that his
regiment was doing duty near the Himalayan Mountains, as his journey
would afford him an opportunity of exploring such an extent of new
ground; while his residence there held out every temptation that could
fascinate a mind ardent in the pursuit of natural history.

The following extract from a letter written by him to his friend
and patron. Dr. Somerville, on his quitting Ceylon, explains his
circumstances and prospects at that period, and throws some light on
his general character and feeling.

  _Kandy, 6th July, 1819._

    I have heard of my being appointed assistant-surgeon to the
    8th Dragoons.... I have received a very polite note from the
    director-general on the subject, to whom I am very grateful for
    the appointment. I could not help entertaining apprehensions lest
    I should revert to the rank of hospital assistant, and if I have
    not done so, I am persuaded it is through the representations and
    intercessions of yourself and Mr. Reid. I have had much reason
    to be satisfied with my situation in this island, and it is not
    without regret that I shall leave it. Through the kindness of Dr.
    Favell, my situation and duties have always been such as to render
    me perfectly contented. I have not been inattentive to your advice
    on a former occasion, and already, through the good management
    of my friends, I find myself possessed of several hundred pounds,
    a sum much beyond my expectations. I doubt, therefore, if my
    circumstances will be benefited by removing to India, where, though
    the pay is much greater, the mode of living is more expensive, and
    as second assistant I cannot expect to have the charge of the sick.
    However, there are other circumstances attending the change, which
    are of a pleasing nature. My regiment is stationed at Merut, on the
    frontier of the upper provinces of the Bengal Government, so that
    from Calcutta I shall have a journey of several thousand miles to
    perform, a circumstance which of itself would outweigh a host of
    difficulties. I am delighted with the prospect of seeing so large a
    portion of the globe; the journey cannot but prove interesting and,
    I hope, useful to me.

On the return of his regiment to Europe, he was detained for the
purpose of attending the Mission to Siam and Cochin China, as medical
officer and naturalist, during which his health was sacrificed at an
early period by the active and severe exertions which his zeal in the
pursuit of natural history induced him to make, and he lived but to
reach Bengal, and embark for Europe with little or no hope of recovery.
It has been already mentioned that he died on the passage home.

The following extracts from some of his later letters to Dr. Somerville
will not be read without interest.

  _Siam, 15th June 1822._

Nearly three months have elapsed since we arrived at this place,
Bankok, the capital of Siam, and being unable to get our ship over
the bar of the river, we shall probably remain as much longer. I have
had but little opportunity to do any thing in any branch of natural
history. The people have kept a strict watch over our actions, and
their jealousy opposes an insuperable barrier to researches of that
nature. We have gained some information respecting the manners of
the people, their religion, &c., which may one day afford you some
amusement.

* * * By-the-by, what do you think of my furnishing a rapid and popular
sketch of our voyage to this place and to Cochin China? Is a production
of this sort calculated to excite any interest at the present time?
Probably not, after all you have had of late respecting the embassy to
China and the shipwreck of the Alceste. * * * I am not at all ambitious
of becoming author, and my reason for saying this much is to know your
inclinations, by which I would be guided rather than by my own.

I do not know that the political or commercial objects of our mission
are of that importance to attract any share of your attention or
curiosity. One might with justice say of the king of Siam, what
Voltaire says of a certain king of Babylon. “Il se croit le plus grand
roi de la terre, parceque tout le monde le lui dit.” The celestial
empire itself is but a small matter compared to his kingdom. Judge then
of the notions such a personage is likely to entertain of our nation.

Our Mission, there seems great reason to fear, is destined to share
the fate of the numerous attempts which have already been made to
establish a friendly and commercial intercourse with the ultra-Gangetic
nations. It does not appear likely that it will effect any thing for
the benefit of our commerce. When we arrived in the country we were
quite ignorant of many matters, a knowledge of which would have been of
the first importance in conducting affairs with such a people. Peace,
for which they are more indebted to the weakness and pusillanimity of
their enemies than to their own strength, had left the king, and one or
two of his ministers, leisure to embark in commercial speculations. You
are aware that the king is here the merchant, and almost the only one.

The success of their first attempts exceeded their expectations, and
led them to think of increasing the produce of the country. Chinese
emigrants were, with this view, encouraged, beyond all former example,
and at this moment, they are thought to equal the natives of the
country, in number. The effect was instantaneous. The produce of
sugar alone, which was before totally neglected, has increased to an
astonishing extent, in the course of the last ten years. It is the same
with other articles of commerce, as pepper, cardamums, &c.

Not content with trading to China, the Government now wishes to see the
ships of Europeans within its ports; one party in the state (that which
conducts the commerce of the country) would willingly favour the trade
with the latter; but another, and by far the most respectable among the
King’s advisers, are averse to making any alterations in established
usages, though not displeased to see their country visited by European
ships. As they stand at present, the regulations relating to commerce
with Europeans are almost prohibitory.

It were perhaps useless to say through what causes our Mission has
failed, for indeed it may be said to have done so already: I do not
know that we can expect a much better reception at the court of Cochin
China, to which we proceed as soon as we can leave this. As diplomatic
matters have hitherto gone in this part of the world, it will perhaps
be well if we come off without insult or something worse.


_Off the Hooghly, Dec. 25th, 1822._

We are thus far on our return to Bengal, after an absence of more than
thirteen months. I return with collections in natural history which
will not, I think, disappoint the Supreme Government. I have seen much,
and many interesting tribes of people; I have been much gratified;
but my health is destroyed, I fear, for ever. Both my lungs and liver
are in fault; I have exposed myself too much to the weather; but for
my health, I had been the happiest man alive. The next two months
will decide whether I shall recover or not; our cold weather is just
set in, and may do me good. This is the first time I have put pen to
paper for months, therefore do not expect much. I cannot say that we
have gained much by negotiation; the Siamese and Cochin Chinese are a
very proud people. The King of Siam gave the Mission an audience, but
the King of Cochin China, contrary to the custom of his predecessors,
would not receive the Envoy of the Governor-General of Bengal. It
was the practice of his court, he observed, to grant audiences to
the ambassadors of kings only, and that the Governor-General must
address himself to his Minister. The business of the Mission was
transacted with the latter. Cochin China offers to the traveller
a most extraordinary spectacle; the capital, Hué, is surrounded by
fortifications that would do credit to the first fortress in Europe. I
have kept a journal of events, and it is of some extent; I hope it will
serve to amuse my friends for an idle hour or two. If the public have
any curiosity respecting the countries we have lately visited, I should
not care to lay it before that awful tribunal, provided, however, that
the work would gain me some little credit. In this, however, I should
be guided by your opinion, and that of your friends. I have a great
horror of appearing before the public, but something not altogether
uninteresting in the form of a book would be of service to me in this
country, where if I get forward, it must be by my own exertions. I
should be very happy to hear from you on this subject, if you think it
deserves the least consideration.

Mr. Crawfurd means to write a book. * * * His opinion of things differs
considerably from mine, for I was in fact but a mere spectator.

I have discovered some splendid new plants. What would Mr. Brown say
to a plant of the Orchideous tribe, an ærides, as far as I have yet
discovered, that should have a flowering spike six feet high, covered
with upwards of one hundred flowers, each some inches across[1]? There
is not a more splendid object in vegetable nature; if less singular,
it is perhaps equally deserving of admiration with the Rafflesia, which
he has described in his usual classical style. I shall have a good many
plants to send home, as well as birds and quadrupeds.

  _Calcutta, June 15th, 1823._

    Dr. F. advises me strongly to continue in India; I see no plan so
    good, if my health will admit, yet I will not continue a useless
    burden on a Government which I have found so liberal, and if a
    few months’ experience do not bring me about, I will give up all
    prospects and wait the too tedious issue of such complaints.

    I have reason to fear that I have got confirmed phthisis; if
    I recover, my prospects will brighten: even under the worst
    circumstances, we may prepare for better times. If I remain, it
    will be greatly to my advantage to be transferred to the Company’s
    medical service. It is nothing entering the lists with boys again.

  _Calcutta, June 16th._

    My health has not improved since my arrival, and as if ill
    health were not of itself sufficient grievance, it is, I fear,
    destined to entail upon me the disappointment of very fair hopes.
    Notwithstanding the frequent interruption to my labours by ill
    health, the present Governor-General, Mr. Adam, has expressed
    himself very favourably of my exertions, and very willing to do
    something for me. Indeed, I am assured on very good authority,
    that he would immediately put me in possession of a most elegible
    appointment, just vacated by a friend of mine, if my health would
    admit of my entering upon its duties. It would be preposterous in
    me to expect that Government would keep this open for me. In this
    employment I should have been placed under the immediate control of
    Government, and should have no less a field than the Himalaya range
    for my research.

    I fear I have been rather troublesome to you with my letters of
    late, this being the third within a very short time.

    My object in writing this is to inform you that in the course of a
    month or so I shall be on my way to England. I have come to this
    resolution in consequence of my bad state of health, in which no
    improvement has taken place since my arrival here: if I have not
    yet got a confirmed phthisis, the voyage may set me up, but if
    I have, I shall wait my fate in some retired corner or other at
    home. I shall leave behind me some very worthy friends who have
    always been forward in promoting my interest, and although my
    regiment has gone home, I could at this moment get an appointment
    from Government, if my health would allow me to accept it. I have,
    however, determined to sacrifice every thing for the recovery of
    my health, feeling pretty well assured that with that I shall get
    through the world some how or other.

  My kindest and affectionate regards to you all.

It is due to Lord Amherst to mention that on his Lordship’s appointment
to the Government of India, Dr. Somerville made known to him the
acquirements of Mr. Finlayson, distinctly explaining that his object
was not to solicit favour, but to mention that it might be a subject
of regret that a person so eminently qualified by his knowledge in
natural history should return to Europe with his regiment, while his
abilities might be so usefully exerted in India. Lord Amherst said
that it was the only application of the kind that had been made to
him; he saw it in its true light, and immediately made a memorandum of
the circumstance, with an assurance that he should not fail to take
care of so deserving a person; and it is certain that his Lordship
would have done justice to his merits, had his life been spared. But
his constitution was worn out by his indefatigable exertions in those
ungenial climates in which it was his lot to serve. Even before the
arrival of Lord Amherst, a lucrative and honourable employment well
suited to his habits and studies was offered to him by Mr. Adam,
but the disease which terminated his life had already made too much
progress to admit of his availing himself of the proffered patronage.

In speaking of the character of the two brothers, Dr. Somerville thus
expresses himself:--

“I have seldom met with any young men more strongly impressed with the
sense of rectitude than Donald and George Finlayson; their conduct was
in every case regulated by a feeling of duty, and a desire to be useful
to all around them, to which it would be superfluous to add how much
they were esteemed, and how sincerely their premature death has been
regretted.”

In reflecting on this short biographical sketch, the mind cannot fail
to dwell on the bright example which it affords, that knowledge and
independence are within the reach of all who will labour for them,
whatever be their condition or rank in life, and that the best and only
solid foundation of prosperity and esteem, is a steady adherence to the
principle of rectitude.

Nothing can be more creditable than the exertions made by the father
to gratify the thirst for education and knowledge evinced by his sons,
unless it be exceeded by the generous and disinterested friendship
of the patron. But both would have been unavailing had not the young
men themselves been indefatigable in their exertions, and religiously
upright and steady in their principles, conduct, and views.

Though Finlayson may not rank with a Burns, or a Leyden, in point of
talent, still it is hoped there is enough in his story and writings to
excite interest and attention; and that while his name may be enrolled
in the long and melancholy list of those who have in early life fallen
a sacrifice to their zeal and exertions in the cause of science, it
may add another link to the chain which binds our affections and
attachment to a land where the avenues to it are open to all, and the
patronage and encouragement to worth and talent are daily advancing
with the facilities of education and improvement. Let it, however, be
recollected that the foundation of the education of the Finlaysons (for
they were in other respects nearly self-taught) was laid at home, under
the parent’s eye, not in schools, nor in the knowledge of the world,
but on the broad and obvious principles of religion and morality,--as
simple as they are sacred,--instilled into their youthful minds with
their earliest recollections, and confirmed by the pastor’s authority
and blessing, according to the practice in Scotland. This foundation
was equal to any superstructure, and on it, as on a rock of adamant,
they built their hopes, their fortunes, and their happiness,--and
their reward was a feeling of content and gratitude for the unexpected
benefits they enjoyed, and the esteem and respect of all who knew them.

       *       *       *       *       *

The following observations collected from the author’s loose memoranda
were probably intended by him as the outline of an introduction to the
publication which he projected, and may be advantageously introduced
in this place as a preface to the Journal. They will shew his turn of
mind, and the objects he had in view.

    In a greater or less degree, there is, perhaps, inherent in the
    minds of most men, a desire to visit foreign countries,--desire
    which neither storms nor tempests, deserts, wilds, nor precipices,
    with all their appalling fears, have been able to counteract or to
    check. Cast naked and helpless on this earth, man has aspired to
    scan its limits, to ascertain its bounds, and even to scrutinize
    its nature: he has risen superior to the contending elements, which
    might seem to have opposed an insuperable barrier to his restless
    ambition, to his ever-active, never-satisfied curiosity; and even
    the great globe itself no longer seems to offer a theatre too great
    or too extensive for the exertion of his activity.

    Insatiable ambition, boundless curiosity, are to be reckoned among
    the more prominent of the attributes with which man is endowed.
    To what mighty ends have they not led? If they have brought upon
    him, and upon the race, unnumbered evils, they have also had their
    attendant good. His share of peace, perhaps of happiness, had been
    greater had he indulged these propensities less; but it is not
    in his power to resist the unalterable impulse, conferred upon
    him, doubtless, for the best of purposes. The _curiosity_ that
    is gratified with inquiring into the laws implanted in organized
    beings, or into the general phenomena which characterize the
    material world at large, admits of, and is usually attended by
    gratification as permanent as it is unmixed; every step is attended
    with unalloyed pleasure, every new acquisition leads and stimulates
    to further discovery.

    This disposition of the mind is particularly observable in those
    who have made nature and natural objects their study. Hence
    the eagerness with which men engage in them: no one capable of
    reflection but has at one time or other experienced this laudable
    curiosity, and wished for the power to gratify it. To this source
    we must refer the encouragement held forth in the present day
    to voyagers and travellers, and in general to every one engaged
    in matters of discovery. It is not extraordinary, therefore,
    that persons should readily be found eager to enter upon the
    investigation of new and distant countries, and of the various
    objects of knowledge which they contain. It is the lot of few to
    indulge their inclinations this way; and of these few, how scanty
    is the proportion of individuals qualified for the important task,
    either by original endowment, by previous pursuits and habits, or
    by the necessary education, or by a proper train and temper of
    mind! Fortunately, however, the objects of pursuit are as numerous
    as the taste of man is various, and something is left even to the
    most humble intentions. A proper consideration of this matter would
    lead to the most important acquirements both on the part of the
    most humbly endowed, and for the benefit of science and knowledge
    in general. The principle need not be enforced by argument: let
    us follow it, if possible, with alacrity, and make the most of
    the opportunities which fall in our way. Let us devote to the
    task those abilities, however moderate, with which the Almighty
    has endowed us, and we shall rarely fail altogether of deriving
    benefit from our exertions. We may rest secure that the labours
    so bestowed will seldom fail to be duly appreciated; that our
    observations will be received with candour, and our alignments,
    if urged with modesty, will rarely fail to be listened to by the
    circle of our friends and acquaintances, to the approbation of whom
    no one can be altogether indifferent. It is in this temper of mind
    that we may hope to avoid a two-fold evil; that of exaggerating
    the importance of the feeble exertions of an individual on the
    one hand, and of thinking too meanly of his capacity on the
    other,--since both are alike hurtful, and alike oppose the
    acquisition of useful knowledge.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Ærides. Scapo simplici, foliis a radice arcte imbricatis, distichis
tripedalibus, frondi similibus; foliolis ensiformibus, longissimis:
floribus spicatis, alternis punctatis, magnis, speciosis; labello
subcylindrico, tripartito, laminâ inferiore patente, trifida, acuminata
integra, laminis superioribus in arcum supra pistillum conniventibus.

The flowers diffuse the richest fragrance, the petals are waved on the
margin, of a fleshy consistence, of a dark yellow colour, interspersed
with iron-brown spots. The pistillum is similarly dotted; the labellum
internally striated, trifid, and villous at the apex. The spike of the
plant discovered contained more than one hundred flowers, the greater
number of them fully expanded, each several inches in length, and as
much in breadth.--_Extract from Mr. Finlayson’s Botanical Journal._




CONTENTS.


  CHAPTER I.
                                                                   Page
  Voyage from Calcutta to Islands of Preparis, Narcondam,
  Seyer.--Remarkable Silence and Absence of Birds.--Granitic
  Structure.--Zoological and Botanical Remarks.--Coast of
  Siam.--Straits of Papra.--Botanical Observations.--Prince
  of Wales’ Island.--Chinese Settlers.--Scenery.--Zoology.--Brumal
  climate.--Distribution of Plants.--Soil.--Products.--Queda          1

  CHAPTER II.

  Leave Prince of Wales’ Island.--Luminous Appearance of the
  Sea.--Pulo Dinding.--A gigantic Ærides.--Malacca.--Deserted
  Appearance. Slaves.--Little Camiron.--Islands.--Vegetable
  Phenomenon.--Singapore.--Unrivalled situation as an emporium
  between the Indian and China Seas.--Serenity and security
  of the Atmosphere and Seas.--Monsoons scarcely felt.--Climate
  salubrious, contrasted with that of Upper India, so fatal to
  Europeans; effects of on Vegetable and Animal Nature.--Creeping
  plants.--Malay race.--Mangroves, utility of.--Character of the
  Chinese.--Their Ships.--Malays of the Sea or Orang
  Laut.--Description of the New Settlement.--Conduct of the Chinese,
  and manly Conduct of Captain Richardson.--Natunas Isles.--Pulo
  Ubi.--Seeds discovered in the Wild Plantain.--Botanical
  Observations.--Groups of Islands.--Joss Sticks.--Fu-Kok.--Arrival
  at Paknam in Siam River                                            33

  CHAPTER III.

  Siam.--Interpreter arrives.--Requested to land the
  Guns.--Entertained by a Chief.--Physiological remarks on the
  Siamese.--Progress to Bankok.--A floating Bazar.--Bankok
  described.--The Governor General’s Letter to the King delivered
  to a Chief.--A suspicious Attempt made to get Possession of the
  Presents.--Interview with one of the Ministers.--Disgusting
  Servility of his Attendants.--Negotiations respecting the
  Performance of the Court Ceremonies.--Proceed to the
  Palace.--Addressed in good Latin by a Native.--Observations
  on the Road to the Audience.--Description of the Audience         103

  CHAPTER IV.

  White Elephants and White Monkies.--Taste of the
  Siamese.--Brahmans and Hinduism in Siam.--Library of the
  Temple.--Enormous Guns.--Trade of Siam a Royal
  Monopoly.--Chinese Emigrants.--Sugar.--Siamese Policy
  respecting Trade.--Policy of the Ultra Gangetic Nations.--An
  Embassy arrives from Cochin China.--Procession of Royal Barges
  of Siam to receive it.--Siamese Music.--Reflections on the
  Result of the Mission                                             150

  CHAPTER V.

  Interview with Prince Chroma Chit.--Mr. Finlayson called
  upon to visit a case of Cholera in the Palace.--Mission
  not visited by any Persons of Respectability.--Parties
  at the Court of Bankok.--Nothing granted in favour of
  Commerce.--Agent to the Governor General leaves without an
  audience.--Bankok; the Dwellings mostly Floating
  Rafts.--Inhabitants mostly Chinese.--Manufactures of Tin,
  Leather, Cast-Iron Vessels.--Balachang.--Siamese
  eat Flesh, but do not kill.--Palaces and Temples, or
  Prachadis of Bankok.--Images of Buddha excessively
  numerous.--Analogies between the Pyramid of Egypt and
  the Bauddhic Dagoba                                               194

  CHAPTER VI.

  Physical form and character of the Siamese.--Manners and
  Customs.--Treatment of the dead, and funeral obsequies of
  the Monarch.--Laws.--Adultery.--Theft.--History.--State
  of defence.--Revenue.--Siamese numerals.--Kalendar.--Annual
  festival at the close of the year.--Religion.--Laws of
  Buddha.--Province of Chantibond the richest portion of the
  territory of Siam.--Its products.--Mines of gold and of
  precious stones.--Zoological remarks                              224

  CHAPTER VII.

  Depart from Siam.--Sechang, or Dutch Islands.--Inhabitants.--
  Enormous Yam.--Bay of Siam.--Geological Remarks.--Pulo
  Panjang.--Two Brothers’ Islands.--Pulo Condore.--Geology.--
  Inhabitants.--Hospitable Character.--Cape St. James Current.--
  Bay of Cocoa Nuts.--Geology, &c.--Vung Tao.--Costume.--Governor
  of Kan-dyu, a singular Character, takes charge of an Official
  Communication to the Governor of Saigon.--Inhabitants very
  polite.--Dress almost exclusively in Silk.--Physiognomy and
  Form.--Habitations.--Costume.--Shops.--Royal Boats                264

  CHAPTER VIII.

  The Author proceeds to Saigon.--River of Saigon.--Saigon.--
  Superstitious Emblems.--M. Diard.--Cochin Chinese Females and
  Morality.--Markets.--Manufactures.--Bingeh and Saigon.--Fort.--
  Conference respecting the Governor General’s Letter.--Retinue
  of the Mandarins.--Hospitality of the Chinese Settlers.--
  Audience of the Governor of Saigon.--Combat between a Tiger
  and Elephants.--Proceed to Turon.--Coast of Cochin China.--
  Fishing Tribes.--Boats.--Turon Bay.--Geology, &c.--Visit
  Turon.--A limited Number allowed to visit Hué.--Wretched
  Accommodations for the Passage                                    303

  CHAPTER IX.

  Voyage from Turon Bay to Hué.--Mouth of the River of
  Hué.--Politeness of the Cochin Chinese has not tended to
  ameliorate the Treatment of Females.--Arrive at Hué.--Perpetual
  watch kept over the Members of the Mission.--Military
  Costume.--The Governor General’s Letter to the King sent to
  the Mandarin of Elephants.--The Chinese Translation
  altered.--Interview with the Mandarin.--Canal surrounding the
  City.--Beautiful Prospects on the River of Hué.--Neatness
  of the Villages.--Horses.--Soil.--Fortified City.--French
  Mandarins.--Conference with the Mandarin of Elephants.--
  Difficulty respecting an Audience with the King.--An
  Entertainment served.--Further Discussion.--The Audience
  with the King refused.--Beauty and strength of the Fort.--
  Inhospitality of the Government.--Royal Barracks.--Artillery
  Store-Houses.--Enormous Gun.--Citadel.--Remarks on the
  French Interest at court.--The Presents from the Governor
  General and an Audience refused.--Poverty of the Bazar            338

  CHAPTER X.

  Physiological Exterior of the Cochin Chinese.--Costume.--Moral
  Character.--Religion.--Brutalizing effects of a Despotic
  Government.--Military Servitude.--Population.--Rains and
  Inundations.--Costume of the Rainy Season.--Visit to the
  Tacoon.--Tablets and Boxes ornamented with the Mya
  Shell.--Letter and Presents for the Governor General.--The
  Agent declines accepting the Presents for the Governor
  General.--Regulations respecting Trade.--Extent of Permission
  retracted.--A Repast: Rotten Eggs and Chickens in the Shell
  a Chinese Delicacy, and Token of Royal Favour.--The Mandarin
  of Han.--Letter to the Governor General refused.--Pitiful
  Spirit of the Cochin Chinese Government.--Chinese Players.--
  The King of the Drama bambooed.--Final Interview with the
  Mandarin of Strangers.--Return to Turon.--Beautiful
  Country.--Canal.--Salt-water Lake.--Grand Scenery.--Route.--
  Botanical Observations.--Palanquins and Bearers.--Granitic
  Country.--Excellent Roads.--Re-embark                             373




A JOURNAL

OF

THE VOYAGE OF THE MISSION

FROM

BENGAL TO SIAM AND COCHIN CHINA.

IN THE YEARS 1821-2.




CHAPTER I.

    VOYAGE FROM CALCUTTA TO PRINCE OF WALES’ ISLAND.--ISLANDS OF
    PREPARIS, NARCONDAM, SEYER, AND PRINCE OF WALES.


On the 21st November we embarked on the John Adam, nearly opposite to
Fort William, and dropped gradually down the river to the sand-heads.
We had but one opportunity of going on shore, and this was at some
distance above Sauger Island. The land was here eight or ten feet
above high-water mark; soil, a very deep, black, light mould, and
densely covered with low jungle. Numerous traces of deer, and one very
conspicuous track of a tiger, which appeared to have been of enormous
size. Carried off a species of Boletus, a species of Laurus, and one of
Calamus.

The pilot left us, in smooth water, near to a moored ship allotted for
the reception of pilots, and out of sight of land. On the following
morning we sailed, with a fair and tolerably strong wind, attended with
a sea sufficiently rough to occasion sickness in persons so little
accustomed to this dread element. In this manner we arrived off Cape
Negrais. While off this point, but still far from being within sight,
our ship was visited by two or three birds, one a species of dove, the
next another of the Linnean Passeres, and a third a species of Sterna.
The latter, as usually happens with others of the same family, either
from natural stupidity or from exhaustion, allowed itself to be taken
without difficulty.

_December 3._--Early in the morning, the island of Preparis, the
first land we had yet seen since we left the pilot, was in sight. We
stood towards it with the view of landing upon it, and examining its
structure; but the wind unfortunately increasing, and the windward
coast being only navigable with safety with the ship, it was deemed too
hazardous a task to land.

From the distance at which we viewed these islands, it was difficult
to form an accurate judgment respecting their structure. The two small
ones, called the Cow and Calf, at one time appeared as if they were of
basaltic formation; and again as if they were merely banks of coral.
Against the latter supposition, their altitude above the sea (not less
perhaps than two hundred feet) might seem to militate; but this is not
conclusive, especially if there be any truth in the observation, that
the great basin which composes this ocean has lost much of its original
altitude. It is possible that they may be composed both of basalt and
coral; it is highly probable that one or other of these materials
constitute their mass, and most probably the latter. The principal
island is of a gently undulating shape, rising gradually from the sea,
to a slight elevation, and is thickly covered with wood, and apparently
tall and wide-spreading trees.

We had the more reason to regret the circumstance of our not being able
to land on these islands, from their being the first in the great chain
which composes the archipelago.

On the following morning at sun-rise we were within sight of Narcondam,
an island apparently several miles in diameter, in form and shape a
perfect specimen of the volcanic cone, which we calculated to be about
two thousand five hundred feet above the sea. We were at too great a
distance to entertain a hope of landing on it. This island, from its
height, its solitary existence in a wide sea, and its singular and
beautiful form, constitutes a very striking object.

On this occasion we endeavoured to construct an instrument for
ascertaining the temperature of the sea at considerable depths,
but from the imperfection of our materials, our success was but
indifferent. In the only experiment that we performed, the temperature
at two hundred and forty feet was 2-1/2° less than at the surface.

The variations on the barometric column we observed to be very regular,
being at its greatest height about seven a.m., and lowest towards four
p.m.

The weather continued agreeable; the wind steady and moderate, the N.E.
monsoon having now set in steadily. Several of the natives on board had
been ailing; and one, a sepoy, had a dangerous attack of cholera, but
all were now sufficiently in health.

Our course now lay towards the coast, of which we soon came within
sight. As we approached the western coast of this peninsula, we could
not fail to be struck with the singular appearance of numerous islands,
varying in dimensions, situation, and height; an appearance very
different from what is observable on the opposite side of this bay,
where scarce an island rises a few feet above the water, but which here
being strewed over so great a space, seem to form a bulwark, or chain
of protection to the continental land.

The bold and elevated ridge in the centre, with the abrupt and rugged
points on their flanks, were no less striking, and appeared, even at a
distance, to afford ample evidence of their primitive structure. The
more elevated mountain ridges on the continent were not less bold or
striking in their appearance. The general direction of these ridges,
both in the islands and on the continent, is nearly north and south,
inclining a little from west to east. Vegetation appears everywhere
abundant; the forms principally arborescent.

On the 7th of December, being near to the Seyer Islands, in latitude
8° 43´ N., and longitude 97° 48´ E., we prepared to land on them.
These islands are within sight of the continent, and distant from it
about twenty-eight miles. The principal one appears to be about five
miles in length, and perhaps one in breadth. It was on this that we
proposed to land. As we approached in the boat, we were struck with
the general silence which seemed to pervade it, a circumstance which
appeared to us the more singular, as it was everywhere covered with
dense woods, which might be supposed to afford nourishment and safe
shelter to numerous land birds, while its rocky coast might have
been alike favourable to the existence of water fowl. Scarce a bird,
however, was seen to hover over the place. Neither the varied forms of
an exuberant vegetation, nor the safe asylum under its peaceful shade,
seemed sufficient to attract even a scanty portion of animated nature
to this apparently favourable, and certainly very beautiful, spot. Is
the proximity of man necessary to give to rude nature an aspect or an
impulse favourable for the support of animated creation in its various
forms? On this desert island, the tall trees seemed to wave their tops
in vain; the more humble shrub and herb flowered unseen, their sweets
apparently unappreciated. The useful and friendly palm, the luscious
plantain-tree, the scented jasmine, the elegant bamboo, the nutritious
yam, were here the spontaneous production of the soil; beautiful at
least, and interesting in appearance, though not highly possessed of
those valuable qualities, which in a domestic state man has conferred
upon them by his care and industry.

As we approached the shore, we were enabled to notice the elevated
and nearly perpendicular direction of the rocky mass, which, on more
close inspection, was found to be composed of coarse-grained granite,
for the most part of a reddish colour; but occasionally of a flesh
red, and more often of a gray colour. A well defined, broad, and very
white stripe, extending along the whole length of the island, a few
feet above the sea, appeared to form the high-water mark. This white
appearance was occasioned by a shelly incrustation.

The appearance of the rocks was, in general, very uniform. They were,
as already observed, altogether granitic. The inclination of the
strata was from N.E. to S.W. Though the character of this granite was
extremely well defined and prominent, it yet appeared a difficult task
to pronounce an opinion respecting its stratification. In one part
might be seen large, perfectly homogeneous masses, fifty or sixty
feet in thickness, without rent, fissure, or division, without the
slightest appearance of stratification; with the solitary exception
of the occasional occurrence of a seam or narrow vein of quartz, or
of finer-grained granite, crossing its surface. But by far the most
common appearance in this granite, was that of a tolerably uniform
stratification, the strata of unequal thickness, and crossing the
direction of the mountain ridge at an acute angle. These strata were
again irregularly divided in most parts, so that the whole seemed
to have a double stratification, or to be divided into irregular
trapeziums. The granite was almost universally coarse-grained,
containing chiefly quartz and feldspar, with but little mica; the
crystals of feldspar varied in size from a grain to nearly an inch.
This coarse-grained granite occasionally passed into one of very fine
structure, and here and there into gneiss, though the latter was always
of small extent. The rock was for the most part divided into numerous
sharp and needle-shaped points. Though on a lee shore, there was here
a considerable surf and swell, to impede our landing. A solitary
water-fowl was seen to wander from rock to rock, collecting food from
the pools, which abounded with small fish. After a little care, we
landed in safety on the rocks. We observed a considerable variety of
corals, crabs, and shells. Of the genus Patella, some species were
uncommonly large. Distracted with the multitude of different objects
before us, rocks, crustacea, vegetables, &c., we turned from the
sea-shore, and entered the forest. We had now reached the region most
favourable for the production of palms, the most interesting, the most
useful, the most singular of vegetable forms. We required no better
proof of an intertropical climate. Three different species were already
within our view; and the plants having an affinity to this family were
not less numerous. The former were Borassus flabelliformis, Caryota
urens, Phœnix farinifera. Of the latter, two species of Pandanus,
(odorat. and lævis,) and of Calamus two species, were abundant. The
number of plants which we observed within a small space was indeed
uncommonly great. The ascent from the sea was everywhere remarkably
steep and rugged; disintegrated granite, on the slope of the hills,
readily yielded to the pressure of the foot; the forest was, besides,
so close, as to be scarce penetrable. After we had proceeded some
way through it, our notice was attracted by the chirping of numerous
animals. We discovered this to proceed from a multitude of large bats,
Pteropus edulis, suspended from a flowering specimen of Borassus. We
brought down four of them.

Our exertions in penetrating the woods were necessarily great; the heat
was excessive. In a few hours we became somewhat tired, and returned
to our boat, highly gratified at the result of our excursion. To have
fully investigated the botany of this little island alone, would have
required not less than the period of a week. From the difficulty we
experienced in getting into our boat again, the plants we had collected
were nearly altogether lost; they were unfortunately tossed about in
the sea for some time, and thus rendered almost useless.

On returning to the ship, we found that the captain had visited the
small island opposite to us during our absence. He had not been less
entertained. The confinement of a ship necessarily renders the approach
of land agreeable; hence we are always delighted to set foot on shore
after having been some time at sea. He landed on a sandy beach; the
rocks were of similar structure to those of the larger island, but
the vegetable forms were considerably different, a circumstance to be
accounted for, perhaps, by his having landed on an opposite and less
exposed coast. In intertropical climates, the effect of the different
monsoons, even within a very narrow and circumscribed space, is very
remarkable, particularly where, as in this instance, there is, as it
were, a natural bulwark thrown up to shelter the respective aspects.

We continued to sail during the night with a gentle wind along the
coast of Siam. In the morning, a native of Siam and a Malay were
brought on board with fish from a canoe. The coast was still bold,
and in many parts rocky, with very deep water. Ridges of hills, with
intervening valleys and ravines, stretch in the direction of the
peninsula. Vegetation appeared everywhere unbounded. A few miles to the
north of the Straits of Papra, a somewhat flat table-land, many miles
in extent, divides the mountains from the coast; at this place we again
landed, at a rocky point, in the middle of an extensive sandy beach.

Here, as on the island, granite was alike abundant, forming mountain
masses and rocky eminences: structure very similar to the former;
strata more inclined from west to east; red variety of granite less
frequent; now gray predominant. Here and there veins of sienite? but
of small extent; also small veins of perhaps primitive trap, masses of
quartz, with schorl and talc imbedded.

Palms here also of spontaneous growth. Elate silvestris and Borassus
caudata of Loureiro were here common. Bambus verticillata, Scævola
lobelia, a large, herbaceous plant, with fleshy leaves, not milky
and singular from the lateral form of its flower; also Euphorbia,
Melastoma, a Syngenesious, and a singular Papilionaceous plant,
common on the shore; Convolvulus pes capræ, Jasminum, and Justicia.
Thick, dense forest, without any trace of contiguous cultivation. A
tall, slender tree, growing to the height of forty feet and upwards,
possessing much of the habit and general appearance of a pine, is found
lining the sea-beach, disposed in a continued line, with the greatest
regularity, and nearly at equal intervals. It here thrives well, and,
from its extreme regularity, gives to the scene the appearance of a
plantation. It affords shelter and protection from the sea-air to the
other vegetable forms. We discovered in this forest a solitary bird of
the genus Motacilla. Tracts of the wild elephant were not uncommon,
and the recent footsteps of a tiger were imprinted in the sand. Some
natives who, from a distance, observed us to land, kept hovering near,
but would not come within speaking distance. We now returned to the
ship, and a strong breeze springing up, we were soon carried beyond
the Straits of Papra and the island of Junkseylon or Salong. The wind
soon increased to a strong breeze, which compelled us to keep some
distance from the islands. On the 9th and 10th, we observed from time
to time the bold mountains of this coast. These mountains were still
distributed into ridges, and still loftier than those we had hitherto
seen. The hill, or rather mountain of Queda, was observed at a very
great distance. The hill of Penang came next into view; we slowly
approached this island, pleased with the great beauty of its undulating
scenery. The approach to it, through a narrow channel of deep water,
is somewhat tedious, and the tides are, for the most part, strong. The
moon shone bright, and our ship was thereby enabled to proceed during
the night without a pilot.

_11th._--In the morning of this day we anchored in the harbour, about
300 yards from the beach. We found here a considerable number of ships
of various descriptions and nations: English, American, Chinese junks,
Siamese and Arab. We received a polite invitation from the governor, W.
E. Phillips, Esq., to reside with him during our stay on the island.
We landed in the course of the day, and proceeded to the governor’s
country-seat, three or four miles from the town, and were received
in the most hospitable manner by him and his family. The population
of this island consists chiefly of foreigners from almost all parts
of the east. A considerable proportion of the motley group collected
on the beach, consisted of Malabar Mahomedans, called Chuliahs, who
here, as in their own country, were readily to be recognised by their
manner, partaking as much of idleness as of expectant curiosity. They
seemed industrious only in prying into the appearance and countenances
of strangers as they arrive; an occupation which doubtless they turn
to their advantage in some way or other. Silly as at first sight it
seemed to be, it is far more congenial to the habits of man, than the
cold, apathetic air of the natives of Bengal. We had not proceeded far,
before a more interesting and more gratifying scene was expanded to our
observation. Industry, active, useful, manly, and independent, seemed
here to have found a congenial soil and fostering care. The indolent
air of the Asiatic was thrown aside. Every arm laboured to produce some
useful object, and every countenance teeming with animation, seemed,
as it were, directed to a set task. With the air, they had lost even
the slender frame of the Asiatic; and the limbs, and muscularity, and
symmetry were those of another and more energetic race. These were
Chinese, a people highly valuable as settlers, by reason of their
industrious and very regular habits, who had established on this spot
the mechanical arts, on a scale which might even vie with that of
European artists, but which we should look for in vain in any other
part of India. It was a pleasing and gratifying spectacle, so much
are we in India accustomed to the opposite, to see a numerous, very
muscular, and apparently hardy race of people, labouring with a degree
of energy and acuteness, which gave to their physical character a
peculiar stamp, and placed them in a highly favourable point of view,
when compared with the habits of the nations around them. Their manner
of using their instruments, so different from the puerile style of
Indian artists, had in it much of the dexterity of Europeans: while
their condition bespoke them a flourishing and wealthy tribe. All the
principal shops, all important and useful employments, and almost all
the commerce of the island, was in their hands. Under the patronage of
the British Government, they soon acquire riches; they meet with entire
protection of property and person, and are cherished by the government,
which, in return, derives benefit from their industry, and from the
commercial and profitable speculations in which they usually engage.

The town, in this our first visit, appeared to be of considerable
extent, very neat, clean, and handsome, and populous to a very unusual
degree, that of the whole of the island, which is stated to amount
to 30,000, being chiefly collected together in this place. The style
of their houses is particularly neat, very light and striking. They
are composed almost exclusively of wood, and in a great proportion of
leaves of the palm, as in those of the poorer inhabitants. They are
raised from the ground from four to six feet or more on pillars, and a
ladder leads to the apartments. The thatch is made of the light leaves
of the palm, and forms an elegant roof, less subject to conflagration
than we should have expected from materials of this sort. Flame
instantly excites rapid combustion, but it is said to resist fire in
the form of spark; when once on fire, however, there is no subduing the
mischief. Mr. E. compares this combustion to that of Slop’s wig, which
was no sooner lighted than it was consumed. The huts are laid out in
right lines, and of convenient breadth; the houses are in different
compartments, and are tolerably uniform, clean, and well-lighted. The
parts occupied by the Malabar inhabitants have but little to recommend
them, either in point of cleanliness or of neatness. Profiting by
the mildness of the climate, they look not beyond shelter from the
elements, and seclusion from the public eye: a mean and sordid house
afford both to their satisfaction. Ornament is never dreamt of, and
even comfort is but little considered. Unlike to these, the Chinaman
aims at neatness and even elegance in his dwelling, after having
satisfied the more important objects of comfort and utility; hence the
latter is rarely to be seen idling or sauntering about the streets:
more numerous wants, more energetic occupations, more generous diet,
demand more constant attention, and their gratification encroaches
on his leisure hours. The Indian rarely passes an European of any
rank without making an obeisance to him; and is in general abundantly
submissive. The Chinaman will not submit to this distinction, whether
from national pride and becoming independence of mind, or from
assumed insolence, unauthorised, perhaps, in his native country, does
not appear. However this may be, the latter is certainly the most
becoming custom. The object of the Chinese in banishing themselves
thus voluntarily from their native country, is doubtless to gain a
more comfortable subsistence, and to accumulate money sufficient to
maintain themselves at home. Yet they do not appear to hoard with mean
avidity; they are, on the contrary, considered as rather an extravagant
people, whose principal care is to procure good fare, though of a
coarse description, according to our European ideas. All the best
meat and fish, more particularly pork and ducks, the favourite food of
the grave disciples of Confucius, are at this place the portion of the
Chinese. It is alleged, however, that they are at times contented with
morsels of less delicacy; and that the canine tribe suffer occasionally
from their rapacious disposition, and carnivorous appetites. The good
condition in which their dogs are usually seen has probably had some
share in giving rise to the opinion of their feeding on them, for
scarcity of food cannot be urged in extenuation of the practice, if
indeed it require extenuation.

In proceeding to the governor’s country-house, we were much delighted
with the great profusion of vegetable productions that was every where
observable. As might be expected, we found here the more common species
of Palm, Cocoa and Areca, growing in great luxuriance. Numerous species
of Convolvuli and Parasitical Plants lined the hedges, and covered the
extreme branches of the trees. The low ground abounded with herbaceous
plants, and the whole resembled a beautiful and picturesque garden.
In the hedges, and in the waste lands, swamps and low grounds, which
form a tolerably broad belt between the hills and the sea coast, the
botanist finds a rich and highly interesting harvest. The neighbouring
forests, vallies, ravines, and hills, are still more interesting. At
every step he will discover new plants; and in this comparatively
small island, he will find a variety of vegetation well calculated
to delight and to astonish him. It would seem as if nature had taken
a peculiar pleasure in establishing her more delightful domain in
these islands. Nothing can exceed the extreme luxuriance, vigour, and
variety of the vegetable products. The more grand features of mountain,
precipice, and valley, are dispensed with unsparing hand. Reckless of
the comfort, and disregarding the convenience of man, here nature has,
as it were, placed her rich gifts beyond the reach of his modulating
hand. From luxuriance so lavishly bestowed scarce can he extract a
scanty subsistence, scarce can he render it subservient to his wants or
his pleasures; and he who maintains that this world was made alone for
man, might, amid such scenes, find room to doubt. The _cui bono_ must
at every step occur to his mind; he will soon discover that the tenants
of so much luxuriance are reduced to a very scanty number, and these
of the lowest order of animated creatures; birds, lizards, reptiles,
insects, and a very few predaceous quadrupeds. The poet may select such
scenes for the abodes of bliss, of happiness, and of mortal felicity;
but the philosophic inquirer will look to countries of less flattering
aspect for the more favourable existence and development, in the social
state, of the mental faculties of the human race.

We were now at liberty to employ our time agreeably to our respective
inclinations. The surrounding forests and hills afforded endless
enjoyment to those attached to natural history. They therefore claimed
no ordinary share of my regard. Every day continued to add something
to my little stock; while such is the salubrity of the climate, that
no danger seemed to be apprehended from the most free and continual
exposure even to the heat of a meridian sun, under circumstances of
fatigue, exhaustion, and the greatest exertion; and to penetrate to
any distance into the woods, or to ascend the steep and rugged sides
of the hills, necessarily exposes one to such conditions. Compared
with the botanical objects, the zoological are but scanty. Yet in this
department we were able to effect the commencement of a collection.
The most singular animal we as yet procured was the Galeopithecus
variegatus, an animal covered with the softest fur; furnished with a
broad expansion of the skin, extending from the head along the neck to
the fore-feet, which are palmated; from thence to the hind-feet, also
palmated, and from this to the extremity of the tail. By means of this
membrane it is able, for a short distance, to support itself in the
air. In the night-time it is active and lively; in the day, dull, lazy,
sleepy, and annoyed at being disturbed. It has two pectoral mammæ.
Those of the female are of considerable size. The voice is harsh,
sharp, screaming, and disagreeable. It feeds on fruit, and would seem
to be easily domesticated.

In some points this singular animal has a strong affinity to the genus
Lemur; but its elongated head, and comparatively small eyes, and more
especially the want of incisorial teeth in the upper jaw, shew that it
has been with propriety removed to a different genus.

We procured also, during the first few days of our stay, a species of
Felis, said to be common in the woods. It has much the appearance of a
species of Viverra. The body is very long, though in other respects it
is nearly of the size of a cat. It is remarkably fierce, and flies at
every thing that approaches; body black, with gray stripes, tail very
long, breast whitish.

A handsome species of Sciurus. The head large and globular; body and
tail dark gray; belly brown; top of the tail brown.

A species of Vespertilio.

The number of birds that we saw was inconsiderable. The principal
are the Buceros, Pelican, (in Mr. Philips’s grounds several are
domesticated,) several species of Alcedo, a solitary Adjutant, a
fishing Vulture, five species of Certhia, and several other Passeres;
of Corvus two species; Fulica; and Columba two species.

To describe or to enumerate the numerous vegetable productions which
are to be found in this island, is but little compatible with the
plan of a journal such as this. For an account of what has been done
in this way, I refer to the catalogues, descriptions, and drawings.
Several circumstances have conspired to render these less extensive and
less complete than was desirable. The mechanical labour and personal
fatigue, incurred in collecting materials, were necessarily very
great; that of preserving them afterwards considerable; and the aid
to be derived from persons of the labouring classes was not always
at my disposal. Neither was the present season the most favourable
for botanical pursuits. The brumal distance of the sun is felt, even
in the intertropical regions. In these islands more particularly,
this distance is rendered sensible, by unusual vicissitudes in the
atmosphere, not only in point of temperature, but as regards the state
of the winds, their capacity for retaining or depositing moisture; the
greater prevalence of electric phenomena; the remarkable variations
in the appearance of the clouds. Rains at this time are prevalent.
Towards evening the clouds accumulate in thick masses, the winds often
blowing with tempestuous fury, and the face of day is darkened; the
effect of these circumstances on the vegetable world is very sensible,
and yet the thermometer at this period of the year rarely descends
under 70° near to the equator. But even this indicates a degree of
cold, which in these climates acts more sensibly on the human body
than would be easily credited by an inhabitant of a cold region. The
effect is, doubtless, the more powerful from the presence of universal
moisture in the air, amounting very commonly to saturation. A degree
of brumal influence is therefore extended to the vegetable world; the
greater number of plants have ceased to flower; many trees cast a large
proportion of their leaves, and have a degree of nakedness not common
to them at other times. This influence is still more sensibly felt on
vegetation at various elevations above the sea. On the hills it is most
observable in arborescent botany. On the highest, very few plants,
and those chiefly herbaceous, are now to be found in flower. In the
plains, however, and in the sheltered acclivities of mountains, this
circumstance is less observable. Besides, with a considerable number of
the plants which grow in such places, the present is the proper and
natural period of flowering; and the number is not inconsiderable of
such as are to be found in flower, or in fruit, at all seasons of the
year.

The altitude of the mountain ridges in Penang is not so great as to
produce a very marked difference in the geographic distribution of
its vegetable productions. The highest point of land is that on which
the flag-staff is placed; and this, by barometric measurement, gives
an altitude of two thousand two hundred and twenty-three feet, above
the governor’s house, which may be reckoned about twenty-five feet
above the level of the sea; so that the greatest altitude will be two
thousand two hundred and forty-eight feet. Within this space, however,
the more experienced botanist, will detect a sensible difference in the
distribution of the vegetable forms. In the low grounds which extend
from the sea coast to the base of the hills, and for some distance
up their flanks, he will recognise the favoured region of the Palms,
and of the greater number of the Scitamineæ, vying with the former in
utility, whilst they even excel them in the beauty of their general
appearance.

Of the intertropical plants, the most superficial observer will have
remarked, that a considerable proportion are influenced scarcely less
in their geographical distribution by longitudinal than by latitudinal
position; and, if we divide the globe into hemispheres, we shall find
that the plants of an eastern differ from those of a western hemisphere
scarcely less than those of the northern from the southern. We may thus
observe a constant tendency to confine plants to a particular spot, to
isolate, and to increase their number; and that though, like man, some
are capable of existing in a great variety of climates, yet that these
are to be considered as exceptions to a great and general rule. Within
the tropics this limited distribution of plants is more remarkable than
in the other zones. It is especially observable in the distribution
of Palms, Scitamineæ, and the more valuable spices and aromatics.
Heat alone is not sufficient for their production, or we should find
them more general throughout the torrid zone, while, in fact, they
are respectively confined to very narrow limits. Within the tropics,
from the equator to nearly 20° N., and on the level of the ocean, or
but slightly elevated above it, we distinguish a belt, within which
are contained almost all the Palms with which we are acquainted. They
constitute the most remarkable vegetable production within this space.
As to distribution, we notice various points at which, without apparent
alteration of temperature, they are respectively limited.

Of the Cocoa-nut we may remark, that it grows with the greatest
luxuriance and perfection in the Maldive and Laccadine Islands, on
the south and west coasts of Ceylon, on the coasts of Malabar and
Coromandel, and west as far as Bombay. At Penang this Palm is evidently
less productive, and therefore less extensively cultivated. It is
replaced by the Areca catechu; by Nipa fruticans, Cycas circinalis,
and a few others. The Sea Cocoa-nut, as it is called, is still more
limited in its distribution; and the Borassus gomutus is almost equally
so. Here, too, it is rare to see a single specimen of the Borassus
flabelliformis, a palm so common in other parts of India. Peculiarity
of soil does not appear to be the sole cause of the occurrence of some,
or of the want of other species of the Palm tree. The soil of Penang
and of the opposite coast is of various descriptions and qualities, and
probably suited to the production of the whole tribe, being in some
parts sandy, hard and poor; in others, of a stiff, iron-coloured clay;
in others, soft and spongy, constituting extensive morasses; in others,
thick, black, and rich, containing a large proportion of vegetable
matter.

It has been remarked, that the mountain ranges are but of moderate
altitude, and that, therefore, we must not look for very great or
striking differences in the distribution of vegetable forms, as
connected with this circumstance. Arborescent vegetation here exists
in its fullest vigour, to within two or three hundred feet of the
summit of the loftiest peaks; and it may be observed, that the forests
generally abound in wood of uncommon altitude. At the elevation of
nearly one thousand feet, a considerable number of diminutive, but
elegant herbaceous plants are to be found, which do not occur at a
less elevation, and we meet with several species of Ferns in the
same situation. The gigantic Grasses of the plains here cease to
grow: Parasites, Epidendra, and Contortæ increase in number. Within a
few hundred feet of the summit we find an arborescent Fern of great
magnitude, and a species of Yew is said to occupy a similar range on a
contiguous hill. On the summit of the two highest peaks, arborescent
vegetation is evidently stunted, and the trees are of shrubby forms,
yet the productions of the plains will here thrive, with the assistance
of cultivation. We found Canna indica, Carica, Mussænda frondosa, and
various other plants growing around the Bungalows built upon the summit
of the principal peak. This elevation must certainly afford a fine
prospect from its summit, but as we were unfortunate in the state of
the weather at the time of our visit, I am not enabled to speak duly in
its favour.

The agricultural produce of this island is but inconsiderable; and
although much care is at the present time bestowed in clearing the
hills, for the purpose of introducing the cultivation of Coffee,
Spices, &c., the success of the experiment must as yet be left for the
ascertainment of futurity. The labour and expense of clearing steep
hills of exuberant woods must necessarily be very great; and where
arborescent vegetation exists in such vigour, it will always be a
matter of much difficulty to prevent the ground becoming again rapidly
covered with forest. It is to be feared, too, that the sloping sides
of granitic hills will not long continue favourable to the growth of
plants requiring a peculiar soil, and modified by the care bestowed
upon them by man. It is known that the more valuable productions of
the botanical world require the richest soil, and most assiduous
and unremitted care on the part of the cultivator. They have, in
fact, become, in a great measure, the work of his own hand; in their
perfect condition frequently incapable of maintaining their existence
independent of his care. When abandoned, they soon revert to their
original meagre condition, with difficulty to be identified with the
cherished product of cultivation, whilst of some plants, as of the
more valuable of the Cerealia, we look in vain for the parent stock.
Hence it is, that disregarding or forgetting this fact, we are apt to
consider the soil as excellent which supports that astonishing quantity
of vegetation we observe throughout these islands. To enumerate the
useful and curious plants this island produces, either spontaneously or
by culture, is a task too extensive. Pepper is the principal article.
It is produced principally on the southern parts of the island, on the
slopes of low hills, and on the narrow level belt which intervenes
between them and the sea-shore. The cultivation is almost exclusively
in the hands of the Chinese, who conduct it with a degree of art and
neatness, unknown in any other part of the East. For an account of the
cultivation of pepper, see _Marsden’s History of Sumatra_. The plants
are supported on the stems of the Erythrina indica, and occasionally
on those of the Morinda citrifolia, which are planted with them for
this purpose. The Nutmeg may be considered as the next in importance of
the agricultural products. Its cultivation is, on the whole, attended
with considerable success; the trees are large, vigorous, and produce a
great quantity of fruit, yet it has required upwards of twenty years to
give earnest of success; and it is stated, that as yet no exportation
of this article has taken place. The number of trees, at present on the
island, is rated at one hundred and fifty thousand, of which one-third
only are in a condition to bear fruit. Mr. Brown states the produce
of a single tree at one thousand nuts annually, and this number is at
present sold in the market for five Spanish dollars, and the mace,
which amounts to about one-fourth of the weight of the nuts, is sold
for something more than the above-mentioned sum. The first fruit is
reaped after the seventh year.

The Clove is also cultivated with success. Some trees which I have seen
growing at the base of the hills, and on the skirts of the forest,
where they were planted under the shade of other trees, seemed to
flourish with great vigour.

Mr. Brown states the produce of a single Coffee plant at four pounds.

We were too late to enjoy the Mangosteen in its greatest perfection,
yet from the few which were still to be procured, we considered it well
entitled to the encomium so often bestowed upon it by travellers.

I proceed to mention the more general plants used in the domestic
economy of the natives.

Pandanus lævis--the leaves afford a strong cordage, used for making
nets and other purposes.

A species of Urtica is cultivated for a similar purpose.

  Erythrina indica,   } supporters to the pepper plant.
  Morinda citrifolia, }

Nipa fruticans--the leaves are used universally for thatching.

Calamus--various species, applied to endless useful purposes on the
island, and exported to China.

Bromelia ananas--the pine-apple, three principal varieties; _a._ long,
conical sort, of a red colour, with numerous sprouts from the base.

_b._ With elegant, variegated leaves; the crown leaves and sprouts at
the base of the fruit also variegated.

_c._ Common species.

The Pine-apple thrives here with unusual luxuriance: some that were
shewn to us weighed from four to six pounds. They may be had for a mere
trifle in the markets.

Musa paradisiaca, or plantain. These are also produced in great
abundance and very cheap.

_December 25._--Visited Qualla Muda, on the opposite shore of Queda.
The country here, to the distance of seven or eight miles from
the sea, is low, flat, and swampy, covered for the most part with
almost impenetrable jungle, the secure haunt of tigers, leopards,
rhinoceroses, and occasionally of elephants, its vast swamps being
unfavourable to the latter. The soil consists of a stiff, blue clay;
on the beach, here and there, disposed in beds, very plastic, purely
aluminous, and of a red colour; in other parts the soil consists of a
tough, black, soft and spongy mould, apparently very closely allied
to peat-moss. Where this soil exists, the ground is always boggy; the
moss is bound together by tough vegetable fibres; the surrounding
water assumes a black colour, of a bitter and peculiar taste, and a
strong, disagreeable odour. The appearance is quite peculiar. I have
not, in India, seen any thing resembling peat-moss so closely as this
soil does[2]. It is apparently in progress to the formation of that
substance. During our excursion we passed some rich fields of rice. The
ground was so soft, that we sunk to the knee at every step. We had not
proceeded far, before we came upon a bullock that had just been killed
by a tiger, in all probability of uncommon size, the impression of his
paw being equal in breadth to twice that of a man’s hand. The bullock,
a fine, large, and fat animal, had been killed by a blow on the neck,
by which the vertebræ appeared to have been dislocated or broken, while
the superficial veins were torn open by the tiger’s claws. A small
part of the rump only had been eaten. In the following night the tiger
returned, and carried off the carcass to the distance of about one
hundred yards.

The plants on this coast differ considerably from those of Penang. They
also exhibit considerably less variety. The Argus pheasant is common,
and a very considerable variety of gallinaceous birds is carried
from hence to Penang. The black leopard, and a species of wild goat,
probably an antelope, are also found. The resources of the mountains
and inland parts are almost entirely unknown, although, perhaps, there
exists no better field in the world for the naturalist than is afforded
by this peninsula, throughout the whole of its extent.

FOOTNOTE:

[2] Dr. Francis Hamilton has noticed several instances of what may be
called peat formations.--_Buch. MS._




CHAPTER II.

    LEAVE PRINCE OF WALES’ ISLAND.--LUMINOUS APPEARANCE
    OF THE SEA.--PULO DINDING.--MALACCA.--DESERTED
    APPEARANCE.--SLAVES.--LITTLE CARIMON.--ISLANDS.--VEGETABLE
    PHENOMENON.--SINGAPORE.--MILDNESS AND SALUBRITY OF THE CLIMATE.


_January 1st, 1822._--Visited mount Palmer, on the south coast of the
island. The scenery in the pass leading to it is beautiful, the finest
in the island. The whole tract abounds with a great variety of plants.
A road, practicable for horses, has been made across this pass; and
on the south coast, a tank has been constructed for the purpose of
affording water for ships that do not choose to enter the harbour.

4.--We returned on board the vessel, carrying with us two boxes of
nutmeg plants for the King of Siam.

5.--Sailed out by the south passage; for several days following we were
for the most part becalmed within sight of land; the great chain of
mountains still appearing bold, and many of the peaks of considerable
elevation.

Nothing is more singular in these seas than their phosphorescent
appearance by night, the ocean shewing like a vast lake of liquid
fire, melted sulphur, or phosphorus. In many of the bays, such as
the harbour at Prince of Wales’ Island, the bodies which emit this
singular light exist in such vast quantity, that a boat may readily
be distinguished at the distance of several miles by the brilliant
light, resembling that of a torch, proceeding from the water agitated
by her bow and oars. We have seen the sea rendered of a green colour
and slimy appearance, by day, so that it might have been taken for the
green vegetable matter common on stagnant pools. We have taken up a
quantity of this green-coloured water, and by keeping it till night,
have ascertained that the green colour by day, and the phosphorescent
appearance by night, were occasioned by the same substance.

The causes of this luminous appearance of the sea are doubtless various
in different parts of the ocean. We know that fish, when dead, afford
similar light, and experiments have shewn that dead fish immersed in
sea water, after a time, afford it also. The spawn of fishes is said
to afford it, and putrefaction is considered as a very common cause of
this appearance. In the present instance it appeared unequivocally to
proceed from innumerable small granular gelatinous bodies, about the
size of a pin’s head. These when taken upon the hand moved about with
great agility for a second or two, when they ceased to be luminous and
remained immoveable.

9.--Landed in the evening on Pulo Dinding, a beautiful granitic
island, like those we had hitherto seen, covered with thick, almost
impenetrable woods, from the margin of the sea to its summits. Its
altitude may be two or three hundred feet. Its vegetation is luxuriant
and varied. The soil is dense, black, and apparently very rich, held
_in situ_ by the density of the woods; the proportion of vegetable
mould is uncommonly great. Two species of Palm grow luxuriantly in the
ravines; and in moist places a species of Crinum, with leaves about
three feet long, covers considerable tracts. The hills are too steep
ever to afford a prospect of favourable cultivation, even for such
plants as Coffee. The arborescent vegetation is of much less altitude
than that of Prince of Wales’s Island. There is, however, no want of
irrigation. Several small rivulets were visible; but similar to many
parts of the Queda shore, the water here was rendered of a blackish
colour by the peculiar soil through which it percolates. It resembles
the water in pits from which peat-moss has been taken; the taste is
bitter and disagreeable.

At about half a mile distant north from an old and ruined fort, once
occupied by the Dutch, we found an Epidendrum of gigantic size, the
most elegant plant perhaps of the numerous tribe to which it belongs.
Nothing in the vegetable world could exceed in beauty the appearance
of this stately plant as it stood erect on the stem of an aged tree,
surrounded by its flowing leaves, rather resembling the frond of a
palm than the leaf of an herbaceous plant. The flowering spike alone
exceeded six feet in length, contained nearly one hundred flowers, and
was now in full blossom. The flowers exhaled a most grateful but mild
odour; they were about two inches and a half across, and upwards of
four, including the foot-stalk, in length.

It is only on the sea-coast that we have an opportunity of viewing
the materials which constitute the mass of this island, every other
part being covered with soil. We here see nothing but granite. This
granite, however, as will be seen by the specimens, is of different
structure from that of Prince of Wales’ Island, and the other varieties
we had observed. In many masses it is almost a pure feldspar, finely
crystallized and excessively hard. In other parts we find narrow
veins of gneiss traversing masses of the granite; and in other parts
the granite assumes a porphyritic appearance, containing, imbedded,
numerous small nodules of gneiss.

In this vicinity, the great continental chain of mountains gradually
diminishes in altitude, occasionally offering considerable interstitial
distance between their summits, which now become more rounded as
well as of lower elevation, whilst the whole chain bends more towards
the south-east, leaving an extensive flat land between its base and
the sea. This flat tract, however, is yet somewhat elevated above the
sea, and at several points, particularly on its oceanic border, as at
Parcelar Hill and Rachado Point, rises into solitary, isolated hills,
of a conical shape, rounded at top, but of inconsiderable height. The
general features of the country had now altered considerably; the hilly
eminences are probably constituted of sandstone or clay slate. The
country is everywhere covered with wood to the water’s edge.

_14th._--Arrived at Malacca.

On examination, we found the small hills about this place, and the
substratum of soil generally, to consist of a compact, nodular
iron-shot clay, used commonly in building. In its geologic locality
it is soft and easily cut into oblong masses like large bricks, which
become very hard by exposure to the air. The old and now ruined
fort, the Portuguese church, &c., are built of this material. It is
very heavy, and appears to contain a large proportion of iron. This
substance is common in Ceylon, and on the Malabar coast, it is used for
building and for making roads. It is there known by the name of kabouc.
No other mineral was here observable. In Ceylon it is found towards
the base of the mountains, in the vicinity of granite rocks.

At Malacca, the country is for the most part low, the small hills of
iron-shot clay being scarce an exception to this appearance. About a
mile inland it is swampy and covered with wood. The soil is a thick
and stiff clay, apparently very favourable for the cultivation of
rice. There appears to be no want of water; yet with these advantages,
the place does not raise rice for its own consumption. The Dutch,
who largely expatiate on the capacity of the country, attribute this
circumstance to the indolent habits of the Malayan race, who for the
most part are cultivators of the soil on the shores of this peninsula.
The cause more probably arises from the want of due encouragement to
agriculture; from mismanagement; from unfavourable terms in the tenure
of land; and in part perhaps from the existence of slavery amongst the
Dutch. Wherever this, the true cause, exists, it operates forcibly to
check the cultivation of the more valuable of the products of human
industry, under circumstances highly favourable to its development.
In vegetable products of less value, but that are reared with little
labour or care,--as fruit, the place abounds. The Mangosteen is here
found in the greatest perfection, a most delicious fruit, and justly
the boast of the east. The Plantain, the Durian, the Champada, the
Jack, &c., constitute a large proportion of the food of both natives
and Dutch, who may be considered as naturalized to the climate,
possessing similar tastes, and in some degree even the manners of the
native inhabitants. But fruit, however delicious or abundant, when it
constitutes the food of a people, must be considered as affording at
the best but a wretched subsistence, inferior to even the worst of the
Cerealia. For the existence of an abundant supply of excellent fish
upon their coasts, the inhabitants are still more indebted, than for
the produce of their fruit-trees.

On entering this place, we were forcibly struck with the contrast which
it afforded, in point of commercial importance, with the very beautiful
and interesting settlement at Prince of Wales’s Island. Here five or
six vessels at the utmost lay scattered and straggling in an extensive
bay. There hundreds of ships of all descriptions, sizes, and nations,
were seen crowded together, the sure indication of maritime prosperity.
In Malacca, every third house was shut up and appeared to be abandoned.
The streets were solitary and deserted. A lonely inhabitant sauntering
in his verandah, or idly lolling or smoking at his door, only served to
render the scene more dreary, sad, and melancholy. Even the Chinese,
of whom, however, but few now remain, seemed to have forsaken their
habits of industry, and afforded the discordant spectacle of reluctant
idleness. In Penang all was activity, and bustle, and zeal. The
population of the two places will not bear a comparison. Yet Malacca
possesses many advantages over the other settlement. In territorial
extent, it is unrestricted. The climate is mild, equable, salubrious,
and agreeable. Numerous tribes of Malays surround the settlement in
every direction, who it is to be supposed might, if encouraged by
proper management, be gradually brought to enter upon commercial
speculations, and to increase agricultural produce, to the mutual
advantage of both parties. The Dutch, however, it is to be feared, have
still to learn how to reconcile the native powers to their system of
government. A degree of suspicion and distrust is but too obvious in
the intercourse they entertain with each other.

Here we had but little opportunity of observing the mode of living and
manners of the Dutch people. In Malacca, as at the Cape, almost all
private families take lodgers into their houses. We, during our short
stay, resided at a house intermediate between an inn and a private
house. We here saw but little of that neatness and cleanliness said to
be inherent in Dutch people. A room, intended for dining in, and so
forth, is kept in tolerable order. The bed-rooms are wretched, small,
dirty, and ill-aired. The people generally appear to be very poor.
Their mode of life mean; their food coarse and indifferent, except
fish, which is excellent. Every necessary of life is extremely dear. A
fowl costs about half-a-crown, and other articles are in proportion.

Every family possesses a large number of slaves, who are mostly
employed in domestic affairs. There were upwards of thirty of different
ages and sexes belonging to the family in which we resided. Their
condition did not on the whole appear to be one of peculiar hardship.
They, however, may be considered a wretched race, an appearance they
derive chiefly from the want of clothing, and the existence of other
marks of their mean and abject condition. Of the domestic slaves,
however, some are decently and even richly clad. Their owners, in such
cases, take a pride in dressing them even in costly ornaments, as of
gold, silk, _&c_. A considerable portion of their property is often
laid out in this way, and the slaves themselves are said to lay out
their small gains, if such fall to their lot, in the purchase of such
articles.

During our short stay at this place, we procured a considerable number
of birds. They were chiefly brought for sale by the Malay inhabitants.

Landed on the island of Little Carimon. We had here another proof
of the alteration of structure which the country had undergone. In
this vicinity, the islands become extremely numerous, forming perhaps
the most beautiful, as they do the most extensive, Archipelago in
the world. Of these innumerable islands, many, like that under
consideration, are of a hilly nature, but differ from those of
primitive countries, by exhibiting rather a moderate elevation, rounded
at top, and for the most part sloping gradually towards their base.

These numerous islands are as various in form, as in extent and
elevation. Some are simple masses of bare rock, scarcely appearing
above water; others extend several miles in length and breadth, often
forming safe bays and extensive inlets. Some are flat throughout
their whole extent, others consist of hilly masses only; of all it
may be remarked, that wherever any soil exists, however scanty or
however poor, and sometimes even where no soil is observable, they
are not found, as might be expected, covered with a scanty, stunted,
and impoverished vegetation; but everywhere planted with forests
of the loftiest trees, forests in appearance scarce less ancient
than the rugged soil on which they stand. The spectacle universally
afforded among these islands, is in such respects equally beautiful,
interesting, and curious. The singular form which many of the trees
assume, is not the least remarkable feature in the varied phenomena
displayed by the vegetable creation. I allude more particularly in the
present instance to a remarkable and very obvious disposition in the
roots and lower part of the stem of the larger trees, to form winged
appendages of great magnitude. These tabular compressed appendages are
generally three or four in number. They obviously serve as supports
to the weighty incumbent mass of stem and leaves; thus compensating
for the want of depth of soil, a few inches into which the roots can
penetrate, before they are obstructed by the surface of rock, they
are thus forced to extend horizontally. A tree of this description,
torn up by its roots, affords a singular spectacle, and one in which
the economy of vegetable life is peculiarly remarkable, inasmuch as
this economy is obviously exerted in overcoming the difficulties which
oppose its development. Every crevice in the rocky base, every chink,
has been occupied by the root; a thin, but hardy net work extends along
the ground, to a distance often equal to the noble altitude of the
tree itself. The thin winged appendages to the tree, or its supporting
walls, as they may justly be termed, partake more of the nature of
root than of trunk, though altogether out of the earth. They possess
generally a smooth, softish, and very thin cuticle, green underneath,
abounding in the vegetable juices of the tree, and are remarkably hard.
They sometimes extend horizontally, in a straight, but more commonly
in a curved, direction, fifteen or twenty feet, their edges being
six, eight, or more feet above the ground, gradually decreasing from
the stem to the earth. In some instances they are formed into walls,
resembling fortifications. Of this sort we saw a very fine specimen on
this island.

We had now passed from granite mountains to rocks of the secondary
formation, detecting but few of the connecting media which usually
accompany these formations, and give indications of the proximity of
either the one series or the other. At Malacca we observed extensive
beds of iron-shot clay. Here we discovered the masses which compose
these islands to be formed of a series of rocks of a different
description. Though at first sight they seemed to be of very various
structure, a more close inspection shewed them to consist of two
principal varieties, intimately associated, and often passing into
each other. Of these the principal rock was a horn-stone or flinty
slate, disposed in large masses or thick beds, of which perpendicular
sections, twenty feet or more in depth, are occasionally exposed to
view. The tabular masses are of great thickness, so as to render the
stratification somewhat indistinct. They form an angle of nearly 40°
with the horizon, and dip towards the east. The rock is extremely
indurated, for the most part of a dark red colour, especially
externally. It yields with the greatest difficulty to the hammer, but
its edges are as brittle almost as glass, and fly into numerous minute
splinters with sharp edges--fracture distinctly conchoidal, dull, and
rather earthy. In many parts, it bears a near resemblance to flint,
and readily emits fire when the hammer is applied to it. It is very
uniform in its structure, presents no traces of imbedded minerals, or
of organic remains. Is very extensive.

The next rock is a porphyritic horn-stone, and splintery horn-stone.
The most common substance imbedded in the former of these, is a white
or grayish, or greenish granular limestone. It also contains rounded
masses of flinty slate. On the surface it is often cellular, the
limestone in its decomposition having dropped, or been washed out. The
masses of limestone vary in dimensions from an inch to several feet
square.

_January 20th._--Arrived at the new settlement of Singapore. The
selection of this island, for the purpose of a commercial settlement,
has been extremely happy. It is placed in the direct route from Bengal
towards China, and the numerous islands in the eastern part of the
Archipelago. It is from its situation calculated to become the centre
of the trade carried on in the China Seas and neighbouring countries,
the kingdoms of Cochin China, Siam, _&c._, as well as of that of the
Malayan Peninsula, and the western parts of India. It affords a safe
and convenient anchorage at all seasons of the year; while from its
insular situation, and being surrounded on every hand by innumerable
islands, it is alike exempted from the destructive typhoons so common
in the China Seas, and the scarce less furious tempests that occur on
the coasts of India. Here indeed the atmosphere throughout the whole
circuit of the year is serene and placid, to a degree unknown perhaps
in any other part of our globe. The smooth expanse of the seas is
scarcely ruffled by the wind. We seem, as it were, to be coasting along
the banks of a lake. Storms are here felt as it were by reflection.
The commotion excited in the China Seas by the tempest, is propagated
to this distance, where it is seen to give a peculiar direction and
increased velocity to the tides, and even occasions a considerable
swell. A similar but less remarkable effect is produced by a tempest
in the Bay of Bengal. Subject to the opposite impulses derived from
these extensive seas, the tides amongst the islands become extremely
irregular. At times they are found to run in one direction for several
days successively, with the effect, in embayed places, of raising
the water to a considerable height. In the numerous narrow channels
which divide the lesser islands, this tide runs with very great
rapidity, resembling water issuing through a sluice. The regular and
periodical influence of the monsoons is but little, if at all, felt
in these islands, the winds partaking more of the nature of what have
been called sea and land breezes. Hence proceeds that uniformity of
temperature which prevails in the atmosphere throughout the year. Hence
also proceeds the more frequent fall of showers, and the absence of a
proper, continued, and periodical rainy season. Few days elapse without
the occurrence of showers, which thus produce the most agreeable effect
in reducing the temperature and cherishing vegetation. Without the
continued influence of moisture, these regions would certainly exhibit
a far less cheerful picture, and the climate prove much less congenial
to the human frame. Heat in the equatorial regions is thus benignly
attempered to the constitution of man. It will be found to prove
infinitely less pernicious to his system than it does some distance
beyond the tropics, particularly in dry and arid climates. It is thus
that the hot and dry winds of Upper India, to the extent of more than
ten degrees beyond the tropic, exert such powerful and destructive
influence on organized beings, and more particularly on the human
frame. Its effects are too well known to require description. Inanimate
life is not merely at a stand; it is threatened with total destruction,
and with difficulty preserves a scanty gleam of future existence.
Animated beings retire to the thickest shades, and even there pant for
existence. The loose frame and acclimated constitution of the native
inhabitant, is not proof against its baneful influence. What then must
be its influence on constitutions so highly susceptible of excitement
as that of the inhabitant of the North of Europe? The fatality amongst
European troops has given too ample testimony. The physiologist, who
has not witnessed the effect of high temperature on the human system,
will with difficulty believe it capable of extinguishing life, often
within the period of a single hour from the commencement of excitement.
Its effects are no less rapid than fearful to the spectator; the mind
in such cases partaking of the general excitement in a degree amounting
even to complete mania. Within the tropics such effects are of rare
occurrence.

The sandy shores of the ocean, offering a surface highly favourable for
the developement of heat by reflection, will often be found of high
and oppressive temperature during the day. Yet the temperature during
the night is even here agreeable. Moderation, in point of temperature,
is further attested by its benign effects on vegetable nature, which
obtains a degree of developement unknown, perhaps, in any other part
of the globe. We see trees encroaching even on the domain of the sea,
their roots and branches covered with marine shells, as oysters, &c.
The bare rocks, the stems of the smoothest trees, the most scanty
portions of soil, are covered with an endless variety of plants. In
point of adaptation, we observe situations equally favourable, and
generally much more so, for the production of plants in most other
parts of the globe. The single circumstance of a peculiarly modified
temperature, would alone appear to be wanting. We are often at a loss
to discover in what manner many of these vegetables derive nourishment,
under circumstances, to appearance, so unfavourable. Moisture alone
would seem to many to be their sole source of aliment; the elements
of water being separated and assimilated by the organs of the plant.
The quantity of simple moisture, or rather of apparently pure water,
which some plants raise from the earth, is uncommonly great. This is
beautifully exemplified in the organization of some creeping plants,
in which the moisture is frequently conveyed the distance of forty,
fifty, or a hundred yards, before it reaches the leaves, or fruit, or
perhaps the assimilating organs of the vegetable. I have seen a plant
of this sort, that had been accidentally cut across, continue to pour
out pure, limpid, and tasteless water, in such quantity as to fill a
wine glass in about half an hour. The stem and bark of this plant were
quite green; there was no vestige of leaves, and it appeared that the
water was proceeding unchanged to the extreme branches of the plant, in
order to be assimilated. To other plants, even moisture, at least in
any obvious quantity, does not seem to be indispensable. These are to
be seen on bare rocks, without any ascertainable source of nutriment.
They probably derive it from the air itself, or perhaps they decompose
atmospheric air, and assimilate its elements.

This effect of equable though high temperature is not confined to the
varied forms of vegetable life. The lower orders of animal existence
attest its power no less strongly. The earth, the air, and the ocean,
teem with life. Myriads of insects succeed to each other, in their
labours at every varying period of the day and night. Some are busied
in removing dead animal matter; others prey upon the living; while,
to the great majority, the vegetable world affords an inexhaustible
source of nourishment. In the great ocean, we observe the economy of
nature directed to a similar purpose, in the habits of innumerable
Corals, Madrepores, and Molluscæ; here too, as in other departments of
nature, we observe the dependence which is established between animals
of more perfect organization, and those generally of the very simplest
structure, the operations of the latter being exerted in eliciting from
inorganic matter substances capable of maintaining the numerous tribes
of the former class. It is in this point of view, that a Coral bank
affords, perhaps, one of the most interesting spectacles in nature.
We scarce know which most to admire, the great beauty and variety of
their forms, the singularity and simplicity of their structure, or the
magnitude of effect, produced by means apparently so inadequate. The
analogy between them and plants is particularly impressive; nor can we
overlook the circumstance, that they are destined to perform analogous
operations.

Our residence at Singapore made us acquainted with several very curious
productions of this sort, among them, a singular species of Alcyonium
may be mentioned. It passes here, under the fanciful name of Neptunian
Goblet. It is in fact of the shape of a goblet, and its substance is
intermediate between that of a sponge and a madrepore. Its colour, when
fresh, is bright saffron, which becomes brown on drying. The body of
the cup, the stalk, &c., are very neatly formed. They vary from two to
five feet in height, and the cup is often three feet in diameter.

We obtained here a very singular species of Asteria, weighing from six
to eight pounds. Its back formed a regular pentagon, with numerous
round dots on its surface. The chasms on the lower surface are five
in number, narrow, proceeding from the centre, furnished, as in
other animals of this sort, with a double row of gelatinous, short,
whitish feelers. The teeth not very obvious, but placed at the angular
extremity of each flap. Its shell is of the consistence of very stout
leather. Its internal structure consists of innumerable series of
knotted threads. This was considered, in the place, as extremely rare,
and the Malays have no name by which to distinguish it.

Among the more rare animals of the Class Mammalia, to be found at
Singapore, we may reckon the following:

Halicora Dugong, called by the Malays, Duyong. The descriptions given
of this singular animal by systematic writers, though incorrect
and imperfect, sufficiently attest that it has been long known to
naturalists, and is therefore not to be considered as new in our
catalogues. It is found on various islands in the Archipelago, has been
seen at Malacca, and several times taken at Singapore. By report, it
is extremely inoffensive, grows to the length of ten or twelve feet,
and feeds on Fuci. Its flesh is esteemed, in flavour and delicacy, not
inferior to the best beef. The skin is remarkably thick and tough;
dried stripes of it are not to be distinguished from the thongs usually
made from the skin of the Hippopotamus. The structure of the stomach
is said to correspond in all respects with that of the ruminating
animals. In some crania, there are tusks and incisors in both jaws, but
in others neither, or the former only. The tusks scarce project beyond
the jaw, probably never beyond the lip. The absence of the teeth in
some may be owing to age. A single spiraculum opens near the top of
the head. The form of this canal is cylindrical. Seen in the skeleton,
it suggests the idea of its performing the office of a spiraculum. In
the living animal, however, it may possibly be clothed with skin. The
lips are said to be remarkably thick, and scantily covered with stout
bristles.

Unlike the Arctic Walrus, this animal appears to delight in solitude.
It is occasionally taken by surprise near the lone islands of the
Archipelago.

Flying squirrel, Pteromys Petaurista. This is of nearly the same size
as the Galeopithecus variegatus, also common in this place. It is of
a bright brown colour. Is seen towards evening flying from the tops
of trees, and generally alighting about the middle of other trees,
often at a considerable distance. In its flight, it merely expands
the membrane extended between its legs, and floats gently through the
air. When it has alighted on a tree, it quickly gains its summit, by a
succession of leaps.

And lastly, two undescribed animals, of different genera.

The productions of the vegetable world are here scarcely less
numerous, than in the beautiful and picturesque Island of Penang. Our
_herborisations_ in the neighbouring woods have already supplied us
with some rare, and a few new plants. There is on the whole, a very
obvious and striking difference between the plants of this island and
that just mentioned; but there is this important distinction, that
the difference refers for the most part to the individuals, and not
to the families, or even genera: thus the acotyledonous plants occur
in equal, if not greater, variety than in the latitude of the former
place, and the species are almost all different. Yet only the fifth
order of the acotyledones of Jussieu occurs in numbers; of the Fungi,
Algæ, Hepaticæ, and Musci, the individuals are remarkably infrequent.
The decayed woods of extensive forests are favourable to the production
of the Fungi, yet these are not numerous. We, however, met with some
singular plants of this description.

Of the Order Fuci, there is here a remarkable species, usually found
growing in isolated patches upon coral banks. It is pinnated, plumose,
elegant, about a foot and a half in length, and of a whitish colour.
It is endued with the property of stinging like nettles; the sensation
produced is more acute, and more penetrating--more instantaneous, but
somewhat less permanent. The hand is scarcely brought into contact with
it before the wound is inflicted. A small corrugated, granular bag,
filled with a transparent fluid, would seem to be the organ by which it
produces this effect. These are no sooner touched than they discharge
the fluid they contain. The plant soon loses this power, after having
been removed from the water. The comparative scantiness of the
Cryptogamiæ is amply compensated for by the number, variety, beauty,
and utility, of the more interesting order of Phænogamous plants. Of
the former, the abundance of a few individuals is considerable, whilst,
respecting the latter order, we are less impressed with the extent to
which individuals exist, than with the great variety which they offer,
a remark still more applicable to the zoology of this region than the
botany.

Among the vegetable productions applicable to economical, commercial,
and other purposes, is the Gambir; Nauclea Gambir and Aculeata, Linnæi,
or nat. ord. Rubiaceæ of Jussieu.

Gambir, Terra Japonica, or Catechu, is obtained in large quantities
from the leaves of this plant. The process is both simple and cheap.
The leaves are collected three or four times a year: they are thrown
into a large cauldron, the bottom of which is formed of iron, the
upper part of bark, and boiled for five or six hours, until a strong
decoction is obtained. The leaves are then withdrawn, and allowed to
strain over the vessel, which is kept boiling for as many hours more,
until the decoction is inspissated. It is then allowed to cool, when
the Catechu subsides. The water is drawn off; a soft soapy substance
remains, which is cut into large masses. These are further divided by
a knife into small cubes about an inch square, or into still smaller
pieces, which are laid on frames to dry. This Catechu has more of a
granular, uniform appearance than that of Bengal. It is perhaps also
less pure. The price in the market is four dollars per pecul, or
133-1/2 lbs. It is exported to Java and the other eastern islands,
where it is chiefly used for chewing with the betel leaf. The leaves
of the plant when chewed give a very astringent taste, which is soon
followed by a sweet, agreeable, and aromatic flavour.

We have already observed, that the most luxuriant vegetation of
spontaneous growth affords no certain proof that the soil which has
produced it will prove equally favourable for the production of the
usual objects of culture. The soil of Singapore, however, would seem
to be highly favourable for the cultivation of those products which
are confined to intertropical regions. The Malay race, accustomed to a
roving, unsettled life, have paid but little attention to agricultural
pursuits. In this respect they are much in the situation of the
Nomade tribes of northern Asia, or the more savage banditti of the
Arabian deserts. Their labours, therefore, afford no adequate means of
forming an estimate of the capacity of the soil. The skill and other
resources of Europeans have not yet been directed to this end; neither
has the well-proved industry of the Chinese had time to produce any
considerable effect. The experiments, however, which have been made
by the latter in the cultivation of pepper, and in the manufacture
of Terra japonica, have given good earnest of what may be expected
from agricultural operations of greater magnitude. Judging from the
natural appearance of the country, it may be presumed that the whole
island is susceptible of a high degree of culture. The soil is gently
undulating, here and there rising into low, mammated or rounded hills
of inconsiderable altitude; the temperature is favourable; irrigation
is abundant, and the soil of the interior parts is composed of sand and
stiff clay, mixed up with a large proportion of vegetable matter, which
gives it a very black appearance. There is a general tendency to the
formation of swamps; but never to the extent of forming lakes. Rivulets
and creeks abound in various parts of the island. The former are of
the greatest value in a commercial point of view, by the facilities,
as well as safety, which they afford for the transport and landing
of goods. The rivulets are but of inconsiderable size. Their waters
are almost always of a black colour, disagreeable taste, and peculiar
odour, properties which they would appear to derive from the peculiar
nature of the superficial soil over which they pass, in many parts
resembling peat-moss, as has been already observed. The water, however,
drawn from wells penetrating through the sandy base, is much less
sensibly marked by these disagreeable qualities.

It is at the point where the fresh water of rivers and rivulets
intermixes with that of the sea, that we find Mangroves chiefly to
abound. The economy of these plants is so strikingly peculiar in
character, that they claim great attention from every observer. The
species most common on the banks of rivers, in these climates, is the
Rhizophora Gymnorhiza, a tall, handsome tree, often growing to the
height of forty feet, covered with a thick profusion of large, oblong,
fleshy leaves, disposed in tufts at the extremities of the branches.
The singular form of the fruit in this tree is too well known to
require description. The descriptions of botanists are, however, but
indifferent.

The stem would seem to perform the usual functions of leaves, being
covered with a remarkably thin epidermis. It is frequently submerged
to the height of twelve feet or more, on which occasions it doubtless
performs different functions. Numerous roots are thrown down from the
branches, and in this manner a single tree is often conducted, as it
were on props, over a great extent of ground, rendered intricate and
impervious to animals.

Another species, the Rhizophora Mangle, is more independent of the
presence of fresh water; often extending laterally along the sea-beach,
or growing entirely in sea-water. Other species are possessed of
similar habits.

The shade of these plants is the favoured abode of innumerable tribes
of insects, particularly of mosquitoes. Inhospitable, therefore, is
the shade or shelter they afford to man[3].

One great purpose which these plants serve, is that of preventing
the encroachment of the sea upon the land. They even overcome this
tendency, and produce the opposite effect, as the coasts of Singapore
manifestly evince. It may readily be conceived, therefore, how
ill judged is the practice of destroying barriers of this sort.
In many parts they extend for miles into the country, until the
soil on which they grow has been raised above the water, when they
gradually give place to trees of another description; and in this
manner lands favourable for the cultivation of rice are produced.
Of this description extensive tracts exist in the neighbourhood of
the settlement. A slight embankment would prevent the ingress of
salt water along the banks of the creeks, and retain a supply of
fresh water favourable for this species of culture. As yet, however,
the pepper-vine, and nauclea, which require a dry and exposed soil,
are almost the sole objects of culture. The neatness, the industry,
the ingenuity displayed in plantations of this sort, afford a very
gratifying spectacle, and attest the great progress which the Chinese
nation has made in agricultural science. The Chinese may be considered
as the sole cultivators of the soil. The woods are for the most part
cut down by the Malays. The Chinese clear away the incumbent wreck,
selecting the best woods for domestic purposes, converting the refuse
into charcoal, palings, fences, &c., and enriching the soil with
the ashes of the remainder. I have not observed the manufacture of
the vegetable fixed alkali, potash, to be an object of attention
with them. Their plantations, whether of pepper-vines or of gambir,
are uncommonly neat, well trimmed, and healthy. Their habitations
are slight and temporary, inferior in many respects even to those
of the Malays. They are constructed of bamboos, twigs, and rattans,
and thatched with leaves of the Pandanus lævis, sewed together. They
are always surrounded by a few garden shrubs, esculent roots, and
vegetables. Several varieties of Musa and Amomum; several species of
Arum; sometimes small plantations of Jatropha manihot, are of the
most common occurrence. There is a manifest air of poverty in the
dwelling of the Chinaman, and of negligence, slovenliness, and even
meanness in his dress. He has scarce a stool or a bench to sit on. His
furniture is scanty,--of the simplest kind, and constructed of the
cheapest materials. In his culinary operations alone we observe an air
of neatness and of cleanliness. It is here indeed that the Chinaman
shines superior to all other Asiatics. Negligent of personal ornament,
insensible to the advantages of comfortable lodging, he appears to
entertain a just, nay, we may say, an exalted sense of the pleasures
of good eating. To this end and aim are directed all his industry
and ingenuity. The traveller who would judge of the comforts of the
Chinese planter, must see him at his meals. How erroneous his judgment,
were he to infer, from the sordid appearance of the labourer’s hut, a
corresponding degree of penury in all other comforts. The peasant,
thus indifferent to the advantages of comfortable lodging, will be
found to live on the richest, though not always the most delicate fare.
Pork, ducks, geese, the best kinds of fish, the rarest delicacies, are
purchased at any price by the Chinese. The proportion of animal food
consumed by them would appear to be incomparably greater than that used
by any other description of labourers on the face of the globe. They
seem to regard the quality of animal food less than the quantity or
richness. The only point of consideration is, whether the alimentary
mass will afford rich nutriment, or as Cobbett says, whether it will
lay fat on their bones.

Hence the flesh of dogs, of rats, of monkies, of alligators, and other
reptiles, afford in their turn, a savoury meal. The marine gelatinous
fishes, Holothuria, Sepia, &c., and bird’s nests, are ranked amongst
the most delicate of Chinese dishes, for the most part reserved for the
luxurious gratification of the epicurean palates of the wealthy. The
abomination in which dog’s flesh is held by the various tribes of the
Archipelago has rendered the eating of it a reproach even amongst the
Chinese emigrants, who will not always confess their propensity to feed
on this social, but unclean animal.

The most prominent feature in the character of the Chinese emigrant,
is industry,--the best and highest endowment which he has attained. He
is mechanically uniform and steady in the pursuit of what he conceives
to be his immediate and personal interest; in the prosecution of which
he exerts a degree of ingenuity and of bodily labour and exertion,
which leave all other Asiatics at a distance. He labours with a
strong arm, and is capable of great and continued exertion. He is not
satisfied to bestow the quantity of labour necessary for the mere
gratification of his immediate wants. Profusion and indulgence claim a
share of the produce of his toils.

Next in the catalogue of his virtues, may be reckoned general sobriety,
honesty, a quiet, orderly conduct, obedience to the laws of the country
in which he resides; and, as is affirmed, a strong and unalterable
sense of the important duties which parental affection inculcates. To
this we may add a strong attachment to his native country, and the
very questionable virtue of blind, undistinguishing admiration of, and
submission to, all its laws.

Notwithstanding this fair exterior, we shall find on examination that
the Chinese have but little real pretension to moral distinction
amongst nations; of the sublime, soothing, and pathetic duties
of religion they are as ignorant as they are regardless; a mean,
senseless, and unworthy superstition, the offspring of fear alone,
has usurped its place amongst the many; while the learned affect a
cold-hearted and scarcely intelligible theism. In all that regards
the more amiable feelings of our nature, and that tends to unite
the great family of the human race in closer union, they are still
more deficient. A disgusting and culpable apathy, an involved and
concentrated selfishness of gratification, a total disregard of the
wants, and necessities, and helplessness of their fellow-creatures,
marks the Chinese in their conduct through life. They know not the
pleasure of doing good for its own sake. They not only talk of, but
witness the misfortunes and distresses of their fellow-men, with an
apathy of feeling little short of mockery. They will stipulate for
reward with the wretch who is sinking in the water, before they will
extend a saving arm. They will talk of the greatest scourges to which
the human race is subject, famine, pestilence, war, as catastrophes
almost to be wished for,--considering the survivors as benefited by the
destruction of so many of their fellow-creatures. Their industry is the
result of the quick sense of gratification which they derive from the
indulgence of the more grovelling passions and animal appetites, and
where these can be indulged without labour, the Chinese will be found
to indicate their full share of Asiatic indolence.

It must be confessed however that the Chinese are, in a political point
of view at least, by far the most useful class of people to be found in
the Indian Seas or Archipelago. Their robust frames, their industrious
habits, and their moderate conduct, place them beyond competition. They
furnish the best artisans, the most useful labourers, and the most
extensive traders. Their commercial speculations are often extensive,
often of the most adventurous nature; and we may remark by the way,
that they are often immoderately fond of games of chance, as cards,
dice, cock-fighting. Inebriety is a vice of which they are but rarely
guilty. At their meals they indulge in the use of ardent spirits,
undiluted, but never use them to excess.

In point of mental capacity, they would appear to be inferior to many
other Asiatic tribes. They are chiefly distinguished by a certain
mechanical turn in all they do; and even their mental operations
partake of this distinction.

Notwithstanding the prohibitory laws of the Celestial Empire, there
would appear to be no other limit to the extent of emigration than
the capacity of individuals to procure a passage to the neighbouring
countries, modified in some degree by the greater or less demand for
industry. It must be recollected however, that this emigration is to
be considered as temporary, the majority of the Chinese calculating
upon returning after a time to their respective provinces. Their
wives,--or females of any description, are not permitted to accompany
them abroad, to which circumstance it is perhaps chiefly owing,
that the Chinese have formed no colonies or settlements; for the
establishment of which their situation is peculiarly favourable.
Superior in point of civilization, industry, and physical strength to
the nations around them, they neither aim at conquest nor power over
their weaker neighbours. They are content to be permitted to follow
their respective occupations, and are satisfied with the fair returns
of their labour. Yet in many of the commercial settlements of the
Archipelago, they constitute the majority of the population; whilst in
many of the Malay states, their proportion to the latter is so great as
three to one, or even more. This is particularly the case in the mining
districts of Borneo, as at Sambas, Pontiana, and more particularly
in the surrounding country, where it is said that upwards of 30,000
Chinese are occupied in searching for gold dust. Their masters are
here little better than savages; than whom none are more cruel or more
despotic. Mild and just laws are unknown to people in this state of
society, and therefore cannot be urged as the cause of the unpretending
conduct of the Chinese. This instance of general submission to a
people so greatly inferior to themselves, stands so much in opposition
to the ordinary conduct of man under similar circumstances, that we
may be permitted to doubt whether it is to be reckoned a virtue or
its opposite in the character of the Chinese; whether as affording a
proof of their love of peace and horror of aggression, or rather as
a demonstration of unparalleled pusillanimity and the total want of
military ardour. Certain it is that the Malays hold them in contempt
as opponents. The emigrant Chinese are almost exclusively from the
provinces of Canton and Fokien, chiefly from the latter. It is this
last also which furnishes the principal maritime population of China.
They carry on a considerable commerce in junks throughout the China
Seas and Archipelago, from Manilla to Penang, the boundaries of their
maritime excursions on the east and west. Nothing can be conceived more
rude, awkward, and unmanageable, than the vessels they navigate, called
junks; except indeed we bring into the comparison their great ignorance
of the science of navigation. A Chinese junk gives no bad idea of
what one might suppose the ark to have been. She resembles more an
oblong substantial wooden house than a ship. In maritime affairs, the
Chinese appear to have derived little or rather no benefit from their
intercourse with Europeans. The immutable laws of the Celestial Empire
forbid alteration: yet these laws could never have checked improvement
for so many centuries; and we find that all vessels built by the
Chinese, in the dominions of foreign powers, as at Siam, Cambodia,
&c., as well as in their own country, are invariably of this form. The
Malay race on the contrary, eagerly adopt improvements. We may observe
a marked superiority in the naval architecture of the Buggis people for
instance, a superiority which is daily increasing, in proportion as
they become better acquainted with Europeans.

The junks which visited Singapore during our stay there, were from
Canton Amoy, Cochin China, and the islands to the east. The larger
vessels carried from two to three hundred tons burden. They had neither
chart nor book of any description on board, nor any written document
to point out their route. They had no means even of ascertaining
the ship’s way, neither did it appear that they kept any account
of transactions on board. They had a rude compass, set in a wooden
frame, and divided into twenty-four points, which they did not appear
to put great dependence on, and this was probably the only nautical
instrument on board. Their mode of proceeding, is to set out with the
favourable monsoon. After reaching a certain point without losing sight
of land, they stand across the China Sea, calculating that they will,
as they generally do, reach the opposite side in ten or twelve days.
They make but one voyage across the China Sea in a year; on their
return, they sometimes make a short coasting voyage in addition, after
which the junk is hauled up, covered with straw, and laid aside till
the following season. The owner generally voyages in his own junk, but
does not always navigate it, another individual attending to that duty.
The crew have a share in the cargo.

Their provision consists of pork, fowls, rice, and abundant store of
pickled greens in large tubs; the latter strongly reminds one of the
sour crout of the northern nations of Europe, from which it probably
differs but little. Tea is their favourite beverage; they use it at all
hours of the day, making it in small quantities at a time; their cups
contain little more than two or three drachms.

In a small recess in the poop, there is always to be found a sort of
temple, ornamented with shreds of gold-leaf, or painted paper, and
containing three or four small images of porcelain or wood, dressed in
a tawdry and clumsy manner. These are regarded as tutelary deities, to
whom offerings of meat, rice, &c., are daily made. Their attributes,
as far as we could comprehend their nature, seemed to be analogous to
those of the Grecian deities that directed the winds and the rains.

Similar temples are to be seen in all the houses of the Chinese.

Inferior to these in the knowledge of all the arts of civilized life,
as well as in industry, stature, strength, and general appearance;
but their superiors in point of courage and military enterprise, and
above all in the possession of an ardent mind and exalted imagination,
stand the Malays, a race of people whose origin, still involved in
obscurity, would seem to be of no remote date. The most favoured of
their tribes, have as yet made but little progress in civilization,
whilst the majority would appear to be enthusiastically attached to
the unrestrained condition of savage life. The Malays constitute the
principal maritime population of the Archipelago and neighbouring
continent, in the different settlements of which they present
themselves to the traveller under very different aspects. They are by
nature less adapted to commercial pursuits than the Chinese, or the
Chuliahs, or other natives of India, and are therefore easily beaten
out of the field by them at the stations frequented by Europeans. They
are passionately attached to a sea-faring life, and their principal
occupation is that of fishing.

Bold and enterprising in their maritime excursions, they hold the
peaceful arts of civilized life almost in contempt. Negligent,
slothful, and listless in their moments of ease, they display in
the hour of danger and of enterprise, the most daring courage and
intrepidity. They enjoy neither the good nor ills of life with the
calm sobriety and moderation of other men. In action fierce, cruel,
and immoderate, their leisure is passed in a sleepy indifference that
approaches to the apathy of brute life.

Their character for treachery, though founded in truth, appears to be
much exaggerated. This vice would appear to attach more to the state
of society in which they are found to exist, than to any inherent
propensity towards it in Malays generally. It must be confessed,
however, that many of their practices are shocking to humanity. Their
laws regarding the right acquired over property and persons falling
into their hands at sea, by shipwreck or otherwise, shew them to be
possessed of as little of the milk of human kindness as any other
description of Asiatics[4].

The condition of the lower class of Malays in these parts, is wretched
beyond what we should conceive to be the lot of humanity in an
intertropical climate; almost the whole of their life is spent upon the
water, in a wretched little canoe, in which they can scarce stretch
themselves for repose. A man and his wife, and one or two children are
usually found in these miserable sampans. For subsistence, they depend
upon their success in fishing. They have all the thoughtlessness of
to-morrow that characterizes savage life. Their tackling is so rude
and scanty, that they are often reduced to the most urgent want. When
they have made a meal, they lay basking in the sun, or repose under the
dense shade of the mangrove, till hunger again calls them into action.
They have scarce a rag of cloth to secure them from the scorching
noon-day sun, or to shelter them from the damp and noisome dews and
exhalations of night. Their women are not less dexterous than the men
in managing their boats. Their only furniture consists of one or two
cooking pots, an earthen jar and a mat made of leaves of the Pandanus
lævis, which serves to protect them from the rain.

In the numerous bays, inlets, and creeks, that surround Singapore, an
inconceivable number of families live in this wretched manner, who have
never possessed a house nor any sort of abode on the land. They are
constantly roving about from place to place in pursuit of fish. What
they have succeeded in taking more than is required for immediate use,
they dispose of to the fixed inhabitants, taking rice, sago, betel, and
cloth, in return. We are struck with the analogy between such a life
and that of the tribes which subsist by hunting. The Malay is equally
attached to his mode of life, nor can he be persuaded by the example of
those around him to relinquish it. This description of Malays goes by
the appellation of Orang Laut, or men who live on the sea.

Others of the Malays have proceeded a step beyond this rude state; they
possess houses and a fixed abode; they use garments and cultivate small
spots of ground: their agricultural skill, however, has rarely extended
to the cultivation of rice or other of the Cerealia. They surround
their houses with a wooden paling, of sufficient extent to admit the
culture of the plantain, the yam, the betel, and a few other useful
plants for their own use.

They possess but little skill in the mechanical arts, and are employed
as labourers almost exclusively for the purpose of cutting down wood in
the forests, and clearing ground for culture. We neither find amongst
them a carpenter, a mason, a taylor, or a blacksmith.

We are told that in the interior of Sumatra, the Malays are found in a
still more civilized state; that of an agricultural people.

How tenacious is man of the savage state, and how slow and
imperceptible are the steps by which he emerges from it. The Malays
of the peninsula and of the straits of Malacca are at the present day
scarce to be distinguished from their rude ancestors of many centuries
back, as may be seen by the descriptions which our early navigators
have given of them.

A number of the people called Orang Laut were brought to us for
inspection. They were superior in condition; in appearance more
civilized than many whom we had seen in the bays and creeks remote from
the haunts of man. A portrait was taken of one of them, illustrative
of the physiognomy and general appearance of the Malay race. Six of
these men were more minutely examined. Their average height was five
feet three inches; average weight nine stone eight pounds; average
circumference of the chest, two feet ten inches; circumference of the
clenched fist about eleven inches; average of facial angle 66-1/2°;
average temperature under the tongue 100°.02.

The other tribes of people that frequent the commercial settlements of
the straits of Malacca, are Chuliahs, from the Malabar and Coromandel
coasts, Buggis from Celebes, Siamese, Burmans, a few Arab merchants, &c.

The situation of the new settlement of Singapore may be described in
few words. A plain, nearly two miles in length, but of inconsiderable
breadth in most parts extends along an elevated sandy beach, terminated
on the west by an extensive creek, about a hundred yards in breadth,
and running up into the land several miles.

The soil on the western bank of this creek is broken, consisting of
low, rounded, sandstone hills, interspersed with level ground. The
Chinese part of the population, and a few Malays, occupy this part of
the settlement. Their campong is the workshop of industry, and affords
at all hours a busy scene. The creek is navigable to boats of every
description, and even to small ships at low water. On its banks are
the store-houses, warehouses, &c., of the European and other principal
merchants. The convenience for commerce is such that they can at all
times, and in all weathers, land goods at their respective doors.
Several parallel and cross roads extend from this line of houses over
the plain, which is chiefly occupied as a military cantonment. A small
stream of water divides this plain, which is surrounded by a mud wall,
probably the remains of an ancient fortification, towards the east from
another of greater extent, but only partially cleared of wood. In this
last the Malays principally reside.

Behind the cantonment there is a hill of considerable height, on which
it appears that it is intended to erect a government-house, if the
place be retained.

During our stay here, we made several interesting excursions to various
points on the coast, and to the neighbouring islands, for the purpose
of ascertaining the geological structure of the group. These were
highly satisfactory. The result of our examinations I must relate
on a future occasion. From the accuracy, experience, and extensive
knowledge of Captain Dangerfield, we derived the most essential
assistance. Without his aid we might have had occasional difficulty in
discriminating the rocks and minerals that fell in our way.

On the 23d February, we re-embarked, and on the 25th left Singapore
harbour, and stood out towards the extreme point of the Malay
Peninsula, the wind blowing strong against us, but the sea, as usual,
being little agitated.

On the 26th we gained the mouth of the straits at the distance of a few
miles only from the shore. We had cloudy and rather damp weather, but
the temperature exceedingly agreeable, and almost invariable during
the day and night, at least the variation did not exceed three or four
degrees. It seemed in every respect congenial to the human frame. We
had again to remark the unaccountable paucity of sea-fowl in these
latitudes. At noon we fell in with His Majesty’s frigate Topaze,
Captain Richardson, from Canton and Manilla. The Captain sent a polite
invitation to such of us as might choose to visit his ship. I went on
board, accompanied by Rutherfurd.

During the period of his stay in China, the natives of that country
had, as usual, assumed a tone of insolence and presumption too marked
and too humiliating to be quietly submitted to by a commander in his
majesty’s navy. This led to representations on the part of Captain
Richardson, which were as bold as they were displeasing to the Chinese.
At length the Chinese in a tumultuous manner made a wanton and
unprovoked attack upon his men on shore in their boat unarmed, drove
them into the sea, and wounded a considerable number of them. The first
lieutenant seeing the disturbance from the ship, immediately beat to
arms, fired grape shot amongst the Chinese, and sent armed boats to
the assistance of the men in the water; on the approach of which the
Chinese speedily dispersed. The lieutenant thought that the Chinese
were beyond the reach of the shot. It appears, however, that at least
five persons were killed, and several wounded.

This affair was no sooner made known to the Chinese in authority, than
they put an immediate stop to the trade with the English, and demanded
from the frigate a number of men equal to that of the Chinese who had
been killed.

The captain resisted the proposal with indignation, and in his turn
demanded of them justice and an apology for the unprovoked affront
and unwarrantable attack on his men. In proportion as he remained
firm and resolute, they became the less urgent in their demands. They
even proposed to make the matter up, by suggesting that the captain
should sign a paper which they brought ready prepared, to the effect
that those who had actually killed the Chinese had either died of
wounds, had fallen overboard, or otherwise perished. As he would not
incur certain disgrace to himself and to his country, by asserting a
palpable falsehood, the matter remained still unsettled, and the trade
suspended, when he set out for Manilla.

In the evening, it being calm, mild, and agreeable, we landed in a
spacious bay, with a sandy beach, interspersed with rocks, within a
few miles of the extreme point of the peninsula. We found the rocks to
consist entirely of horn-stone porphyry. We traced this rock to the
extent of upwards of two miles, in the course of which it presents
no appreciable difference. Large surfaces, divided into innumerable
irregular masses, for the most part oblong, and occasionally
brick-shaped, with an ochry fracture, presented themselves. The rock is
extremely hard.

The land was, as usual, thickly covered with wood.

Forest, on the coast, formed chiefly of the following trees:--

Casuarina.

Hibiscus, two arborescent species.

Scævola.

Calophyllum inophyllum. This generally grows close by the sea-side, its
roots being washed by the tide at high water.

Cycas revoluta. Very abundant; a more handsome palm than the C.
circinalis. It was now in flower. The quantity of pollen discharged by
the stameniferous plant was uncommonly great, and of an oppressively
powerful odour. It appeared to us, on examining their structure, not
at all extraordinary that this plant should long have been taken for a
fern of gigantic size. A large, yellow-coloured, pine-shaped, squamate
cone terminates the stameniferous plant. Each scale is somewhat of
a triangular shape, the apex joining the central stem. On the under
surface of the scale are innumerable sessile and minute globules, which
burst exactly in the manner of many of the ferns, and discharge a
fine, strong-scented, yellow pollen. This palm rarely exceeds ten or
twelve feet in height.

Besides these we observed a species of slender Caryota.

Also Nipa fruticans,

And a species of Calamus; and another of Urtica.

We caught several fish in the seine on the 27th and 28th February.

We stood over towards the coast of Borneo, with the wind strong, and
quite against us. We now had a heavy swell and rough sea, which soon
affected the less experienced amongst us with sickness to a distressing
degree.

On the first of March we had sight of a lofty conical hill in Borneo,
and on the 2d we came in view of the coast of that island. The wind,
which had hitherto been steady and strong, sunk into a gentle breeze as
we approached the land, passing from the N.E. to N.W. and N.N.W. with a
calm sea.

On the 3d we were off the point called Tanjung api, and on the
following day stood over in the direction of the islands called
Natunas, the more southern of which we were in sight of, and even
close to. Their vegetation seemed to be quite peculiar. We were at
one time within two hundred yards of one of these islands; and could
observe along the beach several handsome scitamineous plants, and a
considerable number of Palms. In this part of our passage, we found the
weather, though rather damp, and for the most part cloudy, remarkably
agreeable. The thermometer did not rise above 80°, nor sink below 78°,
in the course of twenty-four hours, during our passage from the coast
of Borneo to that of Cambodia.

An hourly register of the barometer, kept day and night, indicated a
double tide in the column of mercury. At ten A.M., it was generally at
its height, which on successive days, varied at this hour from 29.98
inches, to 30.1 inches, the barometer being suspended about eighteen
feet above the sea. From five to six P.M., it had attained its lowest
level, varying on successive days from 29.86 inches to 29.95. From this
period it continued to rise till about midnight, when it had again
obtained its maximum, and from four to five a.m. was at its minimum.

About three P.M. on the 11th of March, we came abreast of the island
of Pulo Ubi, in lat. 8° 25´ N., long. 104° 50´ E., off the southern
extremity of Cambodia, and cast anchor in a bay on the N.E. side of it,
and prepared to land. In the same bay a Chinese junk lay at anchor.

As we approached the beach, we could observe one or two huts in a
plot of tall grass, overshadowed by a solitary cocoa-nut tree, and
several persons walking about. Our books had stated the place to be
inhabited, but the dreary appearance of the island, the stunted form
of its vegetation, its steril and forbidding aspect, and above all,
the total absence of every thing calculated to remind us of humanity,
soon destroyed the hopes we had cherished of mingling so soon in the
concerns of our fellow-creatures, and of observing society under
circumstances which might be supposed to confer on it a peculiar
interest. We were therefore not a little gratified to observe these
traces. We were still more pleased to observe one of the inhabitants
walk towards the point we were approaching, and thence concluded
that they must have been in some degree accustomed to the advent of
strangers. This person proved to be a slender, but healthy and active
old man. He wore a blue cloak, and an ample blue turban, and had a
thin, scanty, long beard. His appearance was not unlike that of an
Arab. He saluted us with respect, and though none of our party could
understand his language, we could easily perceive that he was not
displeased with our visit. We accompanied him to his house close by,
which we found to be a sort of temple. On a rude altar of wood, raised
about three feet from the ground, and covered with mats, was placed a
small earthen image, of a reverend, though rather grotesque looking
old man, in a contemplative attitude, his countenance not altogether
destitute of a certain air of benignity and conscious innocence. He
wore a long flowing beard and loose garments. On his left stood a
smaller figure of more humble pretensions; probably the attendant of
the former, or minister of his will. The first was different from the
figure or image (Joss,) the more common object of the worship of the
lower orders of Chinese.

Before them were placed various offerings of fruit, sugar and
sweet-meats. The altar was tawdrily ornamented with pieces of tinsel,
shreds of gilt paper, and painted silks.

Before the shrine was placed a low platform over which a mat was
thrown, on which the old man invited us to sit down. In one end of
the room were placed baskets of rice, a few small wax tapers, and
some yams. We found that two families lived on this spot, and one or
two Chinese. The latter had come for the purpose of collecting the
gelatinous Fucus, agar-agar. The former had, it would appear, lived
here for several years. Their subsistence had probably been chiefly
obtained from Chinese mariners, to whom this lofty island affords an
admirable land-mark, for which they always make in their coasting
voyages. They look upon the place as peculiarly sacred, and never pass
it without offering up prayers and praises for their success in having
made it. On this occasion they leave behind them a painted board, on
which is written the name of their junk, the date of their arrival,
the port they have left, &c. At this time several boards of this
description were in the keeping of the old man.

If we were pleased with the civility and attention of our first
acquaintance, we had reason to be no less so with the other members of
this little community. It was altogether an interesting spectacle to
see them crowd round, without the least fear or apprehension, and only
anxious to shew us kindness, and to treat us with hospitality. A middle
aged woman, of rather handsome appearance, after she had gratified her
curiosity by a hasty glance at the strangers, made us some excellent
tea, which she gave to us in small cups, in the usual manner of the
Chinese. A man, about her own age, and apparently her husband, lay
the wretched victim of that most distressing and horrible disease,
elephantiasis. Our appearance for a moment seemed to rouse him from the
moody melancholy which accompanies this complaint. Two handsome boys
and a girl made up the family.

We were forcibly struck with the difference in the vegetation of this
island from any that we had hitherto seen; a difference which, as it
is not easily to be accounted for by its geographical position, is
more probably owing to an unusually scanty supply of moisture, and
perhaps in part also to the peculiar nature of the soil, which being
very thin, and not retentive of moisture, must be unfavourable. The
vegetation here could scarcely be termed arborescent. It was low,
scanty and bushy. The Erythrina corallodendrum was among its stoutest,
and the Caryota mitis, of Loureiro, among its tallest, trees. Various
species of Dioscorea were common on the sloping sides of the hills,
where also the wild plantain (Musa sapientum) grew in abundance. We
had the good fortune to find this splendid herbaceous plant in flower.
Unlike, however, to that luscious and most delicious fruit raised by
the hand of man, the fruit of the wild plantain contains scarce any
pulp whatever. Its leathery sheath encloses numerous series of large
black seeds, attached to a pithy central stem, and immersed in a gummy
substance resembling birdlime. It appeared by our systematic works,
that the seeds of this most useful plant have been but rarely seen by
botanists. Hence doubts had been expressed upon the subject. In none
of the cultivated varieties are there any seeds discoverable, though
at times we may observe minute black points in the pulp, disposed in
longitudinal rows. These are probably the feeble traces of seeds not
yet quite extinguished by cultivation, the black perisperm being the
last to disappear.

We had now, therefore, a favourable opportunity of examining this
matter. The seeds were numerous, covered with a thick, black, brittle
shell, and as large as those of the custard-apple, but of a more
irregular shape. We collected numbers of them. There is no necessity
to refer, as Willdenow does, the origin of all the cultivated
varieties, and of all the species enumerated by botanists, to the Musa
troglodytarum, a native of the Molucca Islands, as the parent stock.
Our specimens accorded with the descriptions given of Musa sapientum.
The seeds were in all respects perfect, and apparently capable of
propagating the plant. Indeed its existence on these islands, so
rarely frequented by man, and altogether unfit for cultivation, can be
accounted for on no other principle than the fertility of the seeds.
It appears, therefore, that we ought to refer to this plant the origin
of the cultivated species, which are probably no other than simple
varieties of it.

The Yams found on this island are remarkably large. The green
tuberosities commonly found on the stem of the plant were eagerly
sought after by our Chinese followers, who regard them as a valuable
medicine. The Erythrina mentioned above was now in flower, and made a
handsome, shewy appearance. It was frequented by considerable numbers
of a large and beautiful species of pigeon, a circumstance the more
remarkable, as the birds we had hitherto seen in these latitudes were
of solitary habits, few in number, and not gregarious. This bird was
extremely handsome; its body was of a snow-white colour; its wings, and
the extremity of its tail, tipped with black. It appeared to be about
twice the size of our domestic pigeon. Though we shot one, we were not
so fortunate as to procure it.

The only Palm found here was that already mentioned, the Caryota mitis,
a species not enumerated in Persoon’s Synopsis, nor in the Species
Plantarum of Willdenow, for what reason it does not appear. It is very
well described by Loureiro; and it appears to be totally different from
the Caryota urens.

On the sea-coast there is a species of Pandanus extremely common. It
throws up a simple stem to the height of ten feet or more, in which
respect only it seems to differ from the Pandanus odoratissimus, the
habit of which is to extend along the ground, throwing down straight
and stout roots into the earth for its support, as it extends.

The Scævola, already mentioned, is common here as on the Malacca coast.

The form, distribution, and peculiar appearance of the land we had now
made were calculated to excite our attention, particularly in relation
to the contiguous continent. We were entering amidst innumerable groups
of islands, composing for the most part mountain masses, and all of
them much elevated. They were as various in form and dimension, as they
were numerous and picturesque. They were all covered with vegetation,
which, after we had passed their southern boundary, assumed a more
luxuriant appearance. They each might be imagined to be the abode of
an innocent, a happy, an undisturbed people. Nature, arrayed in her
most attractive colours, appeared to smile upon the scene. The sea was
calm and unruffled; the sky serene and unclouded. Nothing could be more
deceitful than this apparent fitness for the abode of man. There seemed
little reason to believe that any of them had ever been occupied. The
want of a constant supply of water must ever be a principal objection,
while their steep forms and scanty soil forbid every attempt at
cultivation. In many, the summits of the islands are rounded, in others
peaked and rugged. In fact, we here appear to have ascended the tops of
a range of mountains, in structure partaking of the nature of rocks
both of the primitive and secondary kind. The direction of this partly
submerged range is like that on the peninsula of Malacca, from north to
south, bending a little from east to west. The breadth of the range is
considerable. The islands form a continuous narrow belt extending along
the coast, in this respect somewhat similar to those on the east coast
of the bay of Bengal. There, however, we observe a stupendous parallel
chain of mountains extending from one extremity of the peninsula to the
other; whilst here the most remarkable circumstance was the extreme
lowness of the continental land. It is an extensive alluvion on a
level with the sea; on which we look in vain for hill or elevation of
any sort. At the distance of a few miles, the trees only, and not the
ground, are visible from the deck, whilst the islands, many of them
rising above 1,000 feet, are to be seen many miles off.

The occurrence of granite on this, the first of the series, was rather
unexpected.

This granite presents several varieties. It is less perfectly
crystallized, and more granular, than that we found on the west coast
of the peninsula of Malacca. Many of the specimens contain hornblende;
and on the summit of the hill there is a red granite, which breaks into
brick-like fragments. The lower granite is uncommonly hard, and breaks
with much difficulty.

_March 13th._--We had now got amongst innumerable groups of islands,
for the most part of small dimensions, all of them lofty, abrupt on
their sides, and almost invariably without any level ground attached.
We remarked, however, that in proportion as we advanced towards the
north, the vegetation had, as has already been observed, assumed a more
luxuriant appearance. Vegetable life again assumed that vigour which
had so often already attracted our admiration, and the intertropical
forest again displayed its unparalleled riches. This sensible
improvement in the forms of vegetation is probably owing to the genial
influence of a milder climate, and perhaps still more to the change
which has perceptibly taken place in the geological structure of the
country. But feeble traces of granite, as rolled masses, were now to
be seen. This series of rock had been substituted by various others of
later formation.

In the course of the day we visited two of these islands. They were
each about a mile in circumference, and from 200 to 300 feet high in
the centre; the first lies in lat. 9° 58´ N., and long. 104° 37´ E.,
about ninety-three miles from Pulo Ubi: the other lies about three
miles north of the last. In the first, the lowest rock is composed of
compact feldspar, of an iron-brown colour, intersected by narrow seams
of quartz. This rock is abundant along the base of the island, near to
the sea-mark.

The bulk of the island appears to be composed of a compound rock,
formed of clay-stone and potstone intermixed. This rock is rather soft,
and its fracture resembles that of some fine grained sandstones. It
occurs both on the top and towards the base of the hill.

Considerable beds of pure potstone, in a somewhat foliated form, occur
in the last.

The other island is formed almost entirely of potstone, and the
compound of potstone and claystone, mentioned as forming the bulk of
the other island, is here comparatively in small quantity. The potstone
contains imbedded small masses of clay slate.

In our excursions to-day we were so fortunate as to procure two of
the pigeons seen for the first time on Pulo Ubi. They were here very
numerous. Those we caught weighed about a pound each. This is to be
reckoned amongst the handsomest of this handsome genus, and if ever
domesticated, must prove a valuable acquisition to our aviaries.

_March 14._--Arrived at Fu-kok or Pau-kok, a large island, a little
to the north of the river of Can-cau. We cast anchor in an open
roadstead, nearly off the middle of the island, in lat. 10° 17´
N., and long. 104° 16´ E. This and several other islands in the
neighbourhood attain a considerable altitude towards the centre,
where the hills, disposed in ridges running north and south, appear
upwards of 2,000 feet in height. The eminences are continuous and
gently undulating, rarely abrupt in their forms, or exposing much rocky
surface. The island is everywhere covered with the thickest woods. We
had no where seen more luxuriant vegetation than this place afforded.

Both on the preceding night and this morning, we observed a number of
Praus sailing along the shores, but none of them could be enticed to
come alongside. It was imagined that they had been unaccustomed to see
a ship, and we afterwards learnt that our conjecture was correct. In
the course of the morning, a prau, after repeated solicitations, came
so near as to speak to us, but the people would not come on board.
Some time after this a native accompanied one of the ship’s officers
on board, and was followed by his prau. From this man, who spoke
the language of Cochin China, we learned that the place was partly
inhabited, and that at certain periods of the year, Cochin Chinese
and Chinese fishermen came hither for the purpose of pursuing their
calling; the latter chiefly for the purpose of collecting trepang,
a black species of Holothuria. Though the spoken language of the
people who now visited us was unknown to our Chinese followers, yet
by having recourse to the use of a common character, to which the
same ideas are attached, they were enabled to communicate with each
other. This was the character commonly used by the Chinese, which they
write by distinct letters, in straight lines from top to bottom. We
thus learned that the island belonged to the king of Cochin-China,
and that its most valuable production was Agila wood, the aquillaria
agallocha, Roxb. (Aloxylum agallochium, Lour.) The fair promises of
our vivacious and semibarbarous visitor excited hopes which were not
destined to be realized. After the most particular inquiry, and the
offer of considerable rewards for specimens of the fresh plant, we were
reluctantly compelled to give up the search. It appeared that this wood
is a royal monopoly, and that even to point it out to strangers is a
crime never to be forgiven. In the course of the forenoon, we landed in
two parties, followed at some distance by the native prau. The approach
is over an extensive shallow bank, on which we observed great numbers
of Asteriæ, Medusæ, Echini, and some corals. On the fishing stakes, in
front of the village, we shot two sea-fowl of the genus Sterna.

On reaching the shore, about six or seven men, armed with spears, came
down from the village, used threatening attitudes towards the party in
the first boat, and appeared desirous of opposing our landing. Capt.
M’Donnel, however, leaving his arms behind, leapt on shore, and went
up to them with the greatest confidence, shewing them at the same
time that he had no hostile intention towards them. Astonished at his
boldness, or doubting of their own valour, they immediately changed
their line of conduct, and appeared to welcome him with sincerity.

We were the less surprised at this inhospitable reception, on learning
that the persons in question were not inhabitants of the island,
but natives of China, who having enjoyed here a profitable fishing,
without interruption, had their jealousy awakened by the appearance of
strangers. Their accustomed insolence towards Europeans was visible
even here. The Chinese now seemed anxious only to derive advantage
from our visit; they followed us everywhere, and promised largely. We
had soon reason to regret that we had made their acquaintance, for the
Cochin-Chinese, who were remarkably civil and polite to us, seemed
to be somewhat jealous of our attention towards the former, and kept
themselves at a greater distance than at first. As we passed through
their village, they invited us to enter their houses, and spread a mat
for us to sit upon. Like all other Asiatics, they seat themselves on
the floor, or recline on cushions while they converse. They offered
us betel, and gave us pipes to smoke tobacco. It did not appear that
they had tea amongst them. They were good-natured and polite; examined
us very attentively, were much amused with our watches, laughing
immoderately when they were held up to their ear. They had abundance of
Agila wood in their houses, of which they offered us some. The coarser
parts of this wood they beat up in a mortar till it has attained the
consistence of saw-dust. This dust is then made into a paste with which
they cover small reeds. The party had great quantities of these reeds
in their possession. They are used by the Chinese, chiefly for sacred
purposes, being placed before the images of their idols, on account of
the perfume they give out when lighted. They burn with a slow smothered
flame, somewhat like that of tinder. These reeds are known in English
by the appellation of Joss sticks. Yet we looked in vain for any image
of this deity. Here and there, however, in front of their houses,
small wooden cells, raised on poles, were to be seen, which cells were
abundantly provided with Joss sticks.

The island of Fu-kok is of very considerable extent, situated in a
mild and equable climate, at no great distance from the mouth of the
river Can-cau, and surrounded by numerous islands which shelter it from
storms in either monsoon. The height of its mountains is such as to
attract a constant supply of moisture, and the soil would appear to be
of good quality, probably formed from a base of decomposed clay-slate;
though this is mere conjecture, as we were not so fortunate as to
discover a single point of rock, or even a stone, during our visit.
Hence the vegetation of this island is extremely rich and luxuriant,
and its general appearance exceedingly beautiful. Were it not for the
extreme scantiness of low, or rather level, land, it would be reckoned
admirably calculated for the habitation of man.

It is nearly of a triangular form, and broadest towards the northern
extremity. Its utmost length is thirty-four miles, and its greatest
breadth sixteen miles. The most southern point lies in lat. 9° 58´ N.,
and long. 104° 14´ E.

There are villages on several parts of the coast, and some of them
are said to be populous. That which we visited might consist of
about twenty families, who appeared to live comfortably, and in a
friendly, social, and peaceable manner. The men were of a stout, but
short make, intelligent, and rather good looking. Their houses were
constructed on poles, and covered on the roof and sides with a thick,
coarse bark, which split into numerous layers. They were raised about
three feet from the ground. We saw but few signs of cultivation, and
those only of recent date. The cocoa-nut and the plantain appeared to
have been planted but a very short time, yet were thriving with great
luxuriance. A small garden was attached to most of the habitations, in
which onions and culinary herbs were cultivated. The island abounds in
wild hogs, and we observed skins of the Rusa. Shell fish is abundant;
and considerable quantities of Holothuria were drying in the sun.
For a dollar, I purchased from a native, two dried skins of a very
singular species of Ray. We shot five species of birds in the woods.
For the plants which we found, I refer to the catalogue. Amongst them
will be found a species of Mr. Brown’s new genus Haya, natural order
Asclepiadeæ. The species is probably also new. It is extremely elegant.
It grows on bare rocks, or climbs on trees, in thick, convoluted
patches. The leaves are thick and fleshy, and the whole plant abounds
in an acrid milky juice. We here procured specimens of the Casuarina
equisetifolia, in flower. The tree is common along the beach here
as well as on the west coast of the peninsula of Malacca. It is a
very tall, handsome tree, somewhat resembling our pine. The wood is
remarkably hard, yet the tree grows with great rapidity. All the trees
here were Dioeceous; and this seems to be the true habit of this plant.
It ought therefore to be removed to that class.

Towards evening we got into our boats, intending to visit a point of
land which promised to afford us specimens of rock, but we found that
we were not able to reach it, especially as we were at a great distance
from the ship, and were threatened with a storm.

On the following morning we sailed round the island, and thus
ascertained the dimensions stated above.

We continued to proceed northwards among innumerable islands, many of
which, by their position with regard to each other, would seem to form
extensive bays and well-sheltered harbours. The tides in some places
are very strong and irregular. They rise to a very uncommon height for
these latitudes. In some places the sea was observed to be not less
than fifteen feet below high water-mark.

On the following day we landed on several small, rocky islands, off the
southern extremity of Fu-kok. We found them composed of huge masses of
sandstone. The surface of this sandstone was hollowed out into numerous
shallow cavities; it presented considerable varieties in granular
aspect and contained nodules of flint, quartz, &c.

We had been much exposed to a powerful sun during this day, the bad
effect of which I soon after was destined to experience, having been
laid up for some days with fever, which rendered me totally incapable
of attending to any thing. We continued our course through the islands,
sometimes keeping to the windward of them altogether, and at other
times passing through narrow straits, with fine deep passages between
the islands. Nothing could be more picturesque than the prospect which
these islands afforded on such occasions. Mr. Crawfurd went on shore on
one of them, and brought off specimens of granite and quartz-rock, of
which it was entirely composed. The islands, however, immediately near
to this were composed of variegated sand-stone.

On the _21st_ of _March_, about sun-set, some Chinese junks were seen
riding at anchor in the harbour of Siam, and there, the same evening,
we cast anchor. On the _22d_, the pilot of a Chinese junk came on
board, and represented that it would be necessary to send to Packnam, a
village at the mouth of the river, for a pilot; he was doubtful whether
the ship could pass the bar. The chief mate set out for this place in
the morning, with a letter from Mr. Crawfurd for the chief person of
the place. He was hospitably entertained during the night by the chief,
and returned on the following day, with a small present of fruit from
him, but no letter. In the meanwhile they had referred to Bankok, and a
pilot was ordered to attend us.

_25th._--We weighed anchor, with a light, fair wind, and attempted to
pass the bar, but stuck on a bank of mud, after clearing the principal
bar, which is of sand. Here the ship lay quite easy and upright,
supported on one side by props till next tide. At low water there were
but six feet on the bar. About 5 p.m. the ship begun to float again,
and after touching now and then, got over without much difficulty as
the tide made. The entrance is tolerably well marked out by lines of
fishing-stakes. The mouth of the river forms an angle with the entrance
from the harbour, so that the former is not perceptible until you are
close to it. The river gradually opens upon the view; it is called
Menam: it is about a mile and a half in breadth at its mouth. After
passing two or three short reaches, we anchored opposite to the town of
Packnam. The river is here about three-quarters of a mile in breadth,
and very deep; the banks are low, and covered with woods.

FOOTNOTES:

[3] Much stress has been laid on the apparent insalubrity of marshes
of this sort; and it has been maintained that in many parts they are
the chief, if not the sole, cause of the most fatal of intertropical
diseases, remittent fever. Humboldt, in his Essay on New Spain, lays
great stress on the effect produced by the growth of Rhizophora Mangle,
Pothos, Arum, and of the other plants which flourish in a marshy soil
charged with saline particles, in the production of yellow fever.
Without calling into question the insalubrity of marshy situations
in general, there appears great reason to believe that we are still
ignorant of the actual causes of this frightful disease. The settlement
of Singapore is possessed in an eminent degree of the circumstances
which are thought to be most conducive in producing the disease. Yet
here it is as yet unknown. An intertropical climate on the margin of
the sea, a continually high temperature, rapid and intense evaporation,
a humid and extensive series of saline and fresh water marshes exposed
to a burning sun, the vegetative impulse in a degree of activity
unequalled perhaps in any other part of the globe, the occasional
suspension of herbaceous vegetation by long-continued heat, accompanied
by drought, profusion of vegetable matter, as leaves, felled wood,
fruits, &c., intermixed with animal matter, forming fomites in every
stage of the putrefactive process, are amongst the more conspicuous
of the causes to which the occurrence of this disease is usually
attributed; and here all the causes enumerated operate with tenfold
force.

[4] See _Raffles, in Asiatic Researches_. Vol. XII.




CHAPTER III.

    INTERPRETER ARRIVES.--REQUESTED TO LAND THE GUNS.--ENTERTAINED
    BY A CHIEF.--PHYSIOLOGICAL REMARKS ON THE SIAMESE.--PROGRESS
    TO BANKOK.--A FLOATING BAZAR.--BANKOK DESCRIBED.--THE GOVERNOR
    GENERAL’S LETTER TO THE KING DELIVERED TO A CHIEF.--A SUSPICIOUS
    ATTEMPT MADE TO GET POSSESSION OF THE PRESENTS.--INTERVIEW
    WITH ONE OF THE MINISTERS.--DISGUSTING SERVILITY OF HIS
    ATTENDANTS.--NEGOTIATIONS RESPECTING THE PERFORMANCE OF THE COURT
    CEREMONIES.--PROCEED TO THE PALACE.--ADDRESSED IN GOOD LATIN BY A
    NATIVE.--OBSERVATIONS ON THE ROAD TO THE AUDIENCE.--DESCRIPTION OF
    THE AUDIENCE.


_March 26th._--Early in the morning, a man, dressed somewhat in the
style of an European sailor, came off, and stated that he had been
sent from Bankok to act as interpreter, and to accompany us to the
capital. This was one of that degraded, but self-important class of
society, well known in India under the general title of Portuguese,
a title to which a hat and one or two other articles of clothing
in the European fashion would seem to give every black man, every
native, and every half caste, an undisputed claim. Our visitor bore
the characteristic national features of the Siamese, amongst whom
he had been born; he spoke the Portuguese language with ease and
fluency, but English very imperfectly. He said, that the chief of
Packnam requested that the guns might be landed, as the ship could not
otherwise be permitted to proceed upwards without an order from court
to that effect. It was observed, that the Portuguese frigate did not
land her guns; he replied, that such was a special indulgence from the
court. Mr. Crawfurd was, at the same time, invited on shore to dinner,
the chief representing that he had received orders to entertain all
persons of the rank of ambassadors or envoys during their stay within
his jurisdiction. Very little notice was taken of, and no direct
communication was held with, the interpreter.

This sort of verbal communication, on matters of business, did not
augur well towards the success of our mission. We could not fail to
remark, that the different personages who had as yet visited us, were
either of very low rank, or of none at all, neither did they exhibit
any mark by which they might be recognised as acting from authority.
The chief, or, as the gentlemen of our party styled him, governor of
Packnam, himself, to all appearance, of small political importance,
being merely the head man of several poor fishing villages, did
not condescend to visit us, or to hold other communication with us
than that described. It was hinted that a man of some rank had been
sent hither to receive us, but neither did this personage make his
appearance. After breakfast, Captain M’Donnell went on shore to wait
upon the chief of Packnam; he induced the latter to send a young man, a
relation of his, on board. This man was received with much attention;
he appeared to take little notice of the ship, or, indeed, of any thing
else; he was naked from the waist upwards, and rather meanly dressed
even for a Siamese; he partook of sweetmeats and spirits, and after
inviting Mr. Crawfurd to go on shore, and conversing with the latter
for about half an hour, he rose and departed, Mr. Crawfurd having
agreed to visit the chief in the evening.

We accordingly set out in three different boats, Mr. Crawfurd and
Captain Dangerfield having their servants, harkaras, silver sticks,
state umbrellas, and dressed in the uniform of the Governor-General. A
crowd of people, consisting of old men and women, and many children,
were collected on the beach, and appeared to view us with considerable
curiosity. The young man who had visited us on board, alone received us
at the landing-place, from whence we walked through a narrow noisome
lane, paved with wood, the distance of about fifty yards, to the
chief’s house, a place of sorry appearance; we ascended by a flight
of wooden steps into a small enclosed court, which opened behind into
the house. In an open room, tawdrily ornamented with Chinese paper
lanterns, Dutch glass, and scraps of painted paper, we found the chief,
a tall, slender, rather elderly man, seated on a chair; he got up to
welcome Mr. Crawfurd, and conducted him to a chair on his left. A table
was placed in the centre of the room, and soon after we had taken our
seats (we were luckily accommodated with chairs), a dinner, consisting
of roast pork, roast ducks and fowls, and a pilaw, were brought in.
The dishes were cooked after the European fashion, two or three native
Christians who attended, to judge by their busy manner, being very
anxious to approve themselves on the present occasion. We had dined
before going on shore, but at the request of the chief, who, indeed,
appeared to be very desirous of pleasing us, we sat down to table,
accompanied by the interpreter already alluded to, but neither the
chief nor any of his family partook of the entertainment. A crowd of
people were collected in the court, and viewed us as we sat, evidently
with considerable interest. Opposite to the chief sat the personage who
had been sent to receive us; he was a good-looking, middle-aged man, a
Malay, who had been once or twice in Bengal: we spent nearly two hours
thus conversing on various subjects. On our getting up to depart, the
chief rose and shook hands with all of us.

_March 27._--No communication had arrived respecting permission for
us to proceed to the capital. One of the king’s boats, which had been
sent down for the purpose of taking Mr. Crawfurd to Bankok, returned
this morning. This was a long and narrow boat, turned up at the bow
and stern, bearing resemblance to a canoe, and provided with a sort
of chair in the middle, over which a shed of mats had been erected.
The rowers were numerous, but the accommodation trifling, as it could
carry but one or two persons. It appeared not a little absurd that they
should think of offering only this boat for the accommodation of a
numerous party. It was doubtless expected that Mr. Crawfurd would go up
alone.

Accompanied by Mr. Rutherford, I went on shore in the evening, and
strolled through the village. We found it difficult to land, it being
now low water, and the banks consisting of soft mud. We ascended into a
house built, as a great proportion of the village is, over the river.
We passed thus from house to house, on elevated boards, till we reached
dry land. We found the people remarkably civil, and even obliging. They
received us with smiles, and seemed anxious to entertain us. The women
were not less forward than the men on these occasions. They collected
round us, talked, laughed, and expressed not the least apprehension.
We found the houses dirty, and lumbered with billets of wood, with
little provision for ease. Yet the people appeared to live in tolerable
comfort, though their means of subsistence, if we except that which
they derive from the river and the sea, was not very evident. There
appeared a great paucity even of fish. Rice they seemed to have in
abundance. They were well fed, and stout, but rather below the middle
stature. They cut the hair close to the head, leaving a short tuft
on the forehead, which they comb backward. There is no difference in
this respect between the men and women, both cutting the hair off
short. Europeans are not more attentive to render their teeth white,
than the Siamese are to make them black. Amongst them black teeth only
are considered beautiful, and it must be allowed that they succeed
perfectly well in this species of ornament. This, together with the
coarse red painting of the mouth and lips, which they derive from the
constant eating of betel, catechu, and lime together, gives to them a
disgusting appearance. The face of the Siamese is remarkably large,
the forehead very broad, prominent on each side, and covered with the
hairy scalp in greater proportion than I have observed in any other
people. In some, it descends to within an inch or even less of the
eye-brows, covers the whole of the temples, and stretches forwards
to within nearly the same distance of the outer angle of the eye. The
cheek bones are large, wide, and prominent. A principal peculiarity in
the configuration of their countenance is the great size of the back
part of the lower jaw. The corona process here projects outwards, so
as to give to this part of the face an uncommon breadth. One would
imagine, on a careless inspection, that they were all affected with a
slight degree of _goitre_, or swelling of the parotid gland. A similar
appearance is often observable in Malays. The people generally go
naked from the waist upwards, sometimes throwing a piece of cloth over
the shoulders. Old women in general expose the breast; but the young,
and the middle aged, wrap a short piece of cloth round the chest, of
sufficient length to form a single knot in front, thus leaving the
shoulders and arms bare. From the loins to the knee, they wrap a piece
of blue or other coloured cloth, over which the better sort wear a
piece of Chinese crape, or a shawl.

The bazar, if a few scattered huts along a path may deserve that name,
was extremely meagre. A few plantains, pumpkins, betel, tobacco, and
jagory, were almost the only articles it afforded, by the sale of which
a few old women contrived to gain a subsistence.

We proceeded to a monastic institution, situated on the bank of the
river. The houses here are well built, spacious, and convenient. The
whole is included in an extensive and open space of ground, kept clean
and neat. The accommodation for the priests is excellent; the houses
are well raised, the floors and walls made of boards. A neat temple
occupies one extremity of the enclosure. The fraternity received us
with great cheerfulness, and, at our request, readily admitted us into
the interior of the temple. Here, raised to about the middle height of
the edifice, on a broad platform or altar, we discovered about fifty
gilded images of Buddha, all in the sitting posture. The principal
image, considerably above the human stature, was placed behind, and
over him was raised a sort of arched canopy of carved and gilded wood.
The others were ranged close before him. On each corner of the altar,
with their faces turned towards the images, clothed in the usual
costume of their order, and in the attitude of devotion, stood two
priests. The general form of the figure of Buddha was not essentially
different from that worshipped by the natives of Ceylon. The hair
is short and curled, the head surmounted by a flame or glory, the
countenance placid, benign, and contemplative. They have given somewhat
of a Siamese, or rather Tartar expression to the features, by rather
prolonging the eyebrows, and giving an obliquity to the eye; the nose
is more sharp, and the lips very thick.

The Buddha of the natives of Ceylon, on the contrary, is a complete
model of the ancient Egyptian or Ethiopian countenance, from which
their images never deviate in the slightest degree. There can be no
question, however, that both nations intend to represent one and the
same personage.

Nearly in the centre of this enclosure, a temporary building, of
a pyramidal form, and constituted of successive stages, was then
building. We were informed that this was intended to contain the
funeral pile on which the body of a chief, who had died about five
months before, was to be burnt in the course of another month; it being
customary, amongst Siamese of rank, to preserve the bodies of their
relations in their houses for a greater or shorter period, according
to the rank of the deceased. Great preparations were now making for
the approaching ceremony, and, in a building close by, we found
some priests at work, painting devices for the occasion. These were
principally grotesque figures of old men, monsters, serpents, &c.

In the course of the evening, we called upon the relative of the late
chief. He seemed well pleased at our taking notice of the preparations
that were going forward, and still more when I expressed a desire
to see the body, which lay in one end of the room, behind a white
screen. He immediately led us to the place, cast the screen aside, and
exhibited an oblong box, covered with white muslin, and ornamented with
green-coloured and gold-leaf fringe.

We proceeded along the bank for nearly two miles, on a paved path-way;
the ground here being low and swampy. This village rarely exhibits
more than two or three houses in depth from the river; yet, extending
in a continuous line for several miles, the population must be very
considerable. We passed several other handsome temples. It should be
observed, that at the monastic institution mentioned above, there is
a battery facing the river, but it cannot be said to command it. Here
there are ten or twelve iron guns, mounted on decayed carriages, half
sunk into the earth, and at present unserviceable.

_March 28th._--The boat which had gone the day before returned during
the night, and we now saw it in its usual place. The Malay, whom we
had met at the house of the chief, and who had been sent to meet
us, returned in it. He came on board in the course of the morning,
and stated that the ship might proceed up the river, without delay
or restriction of any sort. The anchor was accordingly immediately
weighed, and though the tide was against us, we proceeded up with
an easy breeze. The banks of the river were still very low; they
were thickly planted with the _attap_, which gave them a picturesque
appearance; in the background we observed the betel palm to grow in
great abundance, and to appearance spontaneously, the ground being too
low to admit of cultivation. Besides these, the jungle consisted of
various species of Calamus, and of bamboo, and long grass. Proceeding
farther up the river, extensive plains opened in prospect. They
presented rather a steril aspect, the harvest having been lately
gathered in. These plains occupy the left bank of the river, over
which they were now elevated about eight or ten feet. We were given to
understand, that in the rainy season they are covered with water, to
the depth of two or three feet, and are therefore well adapted for the
cultivation of rice. They appeared to extend as far as the eye could
reach. Between them and the river, there is a narrow strip of jungle.
Houses are interspersed along the bank, and surrounded by extensive
plantations of areca palms, plantains, and a few cocoa-nut trees. The
houses are small, but neat, consisting of one or two rooms, raised
about three feet from the ground. The opposite side of the river is
covered with jungle. The banks are tolerably steep, with very deep
water, from thirty to sixty feet near to their edge. The mud is stiff,
plastic, forming, in all probability, an excellent soil. The gentlemen
of our party went on shore in the evening, as we lay at anchor, waiting
the turn of tide. They shot several species of birds, amongst which
were a beautiful Pigeon, a Minor, and the blue Jay of Bengal.

We saw the Adjutant, and several species of Falco flying about.

About sun-set, we again weighed anchor, and continued to proceed up
the river till about midnight. We now began to be much molested with
musquitoes.

_March 29th._--We recommenced proceeding up the river at an early hour,
and about 8 A.M. cast anchor nearly opposite to the middle of the town.

In the course of our progress this morning, the various scenes upon
the river afforded considerable interest. Numerous small canoes, for
the most part carrying but one individual, small covered boats, &c.,
were plying in every direction. The market-hour was now approaching,
and all seemed life and activity. Here one or more of the priests of
Buddha were guiding their little canoe on its diurnal eleemosynary
excursion. There an old woman hawked betel, plantains, and pumpkins.
Here you saw canoes laden with cocoa-nuts,--there, groups of natives
were proceeding from house to house, on their various occupations.
But the most singular feature in the busy scene was the appearance
of the houses, floating on the water, in rows about eight, ten, or
more, in depth, from the bank. This novel appearance was peculiarly
neat and striking. The houses were built of boards, of a neat oblong
form, and towards the river provided with a covered platform, on which
were displayed numerous articles of merchandise: fruit, rice, meat,
&c. This was, in fact, a floating bazar, in which all the various
products of China and of the country were exposed for sale. At either
end the houses were bound to long bamboos driven into the river. They
are thus enabled to move from place to place according as convenience
may demand. Every house is furnished with a small canoe, in which
they visit, and go from place to place to transact business. Almost
all those collected in this quarter seem to be occupied by merchants,
many of them very petty no doubt, and by tradespeople, as shoe-makers,
tailors, &c. The latter occupations are followed almost exclusively
by the Chinese. The houses are in general very small, consisting of a
principal centre room, and one or two small ones, the centre being open
in front, for the display of their wares. The houses are from twenty
to thirty feet in length, and about half that space in breadth. They
consist of a single stage, the floor raised above the water about a
foot, and the roof thatched with palm leaves. At low water, when the
stream is rapid, there appears to be but little business done in these
shops. Their proprietors are then to be seen lolling or sleeping in
front of their warehouses, or otherwise enjoying themselves at their
ease. At all hours of the day, however, many boats are passing and
repassing. They are so light and sharp in their form, that they mount
rapidly against the stream. They are rowed with paddles, of which the
long canoes have often eight or ten on each side. The number of Chinese
appears to be very considerable; they display the same activity and
industry here that they do wherever they are to be found. Their boats
are generally larger, and rowed by longer paddles. They have a sort
of cabin, made of basket-work, in the centre, which serves to contain
their effects, and answers the purposes of a house. Many of them carry
pieces of fresh pork up and down the river for sale.

The river at Bankok is about a quarter of a mile in breadth, without
including the space occupied on each side by floating houses. It
carries down a large body of water, and contains a large proportion
of soft mud; its depth, even close to the bank, generally varies from
six to ten fathoms, whilst its rapidity is about three miles an hour.
As far as we could yet judge, not having been on shore, we suspected
that by far the greater part of the population lived on the water, in
floating houses, moveable from place to place. The inconveniences of a
city built in this manner must be numerous. The houses are small, the
accommodations trifling, and the occupants must be ever on their guard
against accidents. A trifling population must in this way occupy a vast
extent of ground. You look in vain for any thing better than a small,
low hut, of one stage only in height. These little houses, or huts, it
is true, are generally handsome and neat, but they make, on the whole,
a paltry, though to us a novel, appearance. Their form is chiefly
Chinese, as is also that of their temples.

In the course of the day, two children, about six years old, the son
and nephew of the minister who conducts all the business carried on
between the court and Europeans of every description, came on board to
see the ship, bringing with them a present, consisting of sweetmeats
and fruits. They were neatly dressed, from the waist downwards, and
had their bodies slightly rubbed over with a yellowish colour, either
turmeric or powdered sandal wood. They wore round the neck several
ornaments of gold and precious stones, none of them of much value.
Each had a long necklace of moon-stones set in gold thrown over the
shoulder, and suspended from the neck a large, broad, golden ornament,
studded with diamonds, sapphires, and rubies, all of inferior quality
and of trifling value. Like all Indian children, they shewed a
wonderful precocity of manners, conducting themselves with the greatest
ease and propriety.

In the evening we were visited by a man of rank, second to the minister
alluded to. He was an old, lively, and inquisitive man, upwards of
sixty-five years of age. He came in one of the king’s boats, which was
rowed by men dressed in coarse scarlet cloth.

This old gentleman conversed for some time with great ease and
affability, inquired into the respective rank and occupation of the
several gentlemen of the mission, and seemed to welcome us with great
cordiality. He soon intimated that the object of his visit was to
procure the letter from the Governor-General to the King. He had
brought with him a handsome golden cup for its reception. On this,
the letter, wrapt in gold tissue, was placed in his presence. On his
expressing a wish to depart, Mr. Crawfurd took up the cup, and raising
it to his head, proceeded through a double line of sepoys, with
presented arms, drawn out for the occasion, to the gangway, from which
he handed it down to one of the gentlemen of the mission placed in the
chief’s boat to receive it. The latter delivered it to the chief, who
placed it negligently on a piece of old carpet, on which he sat.

_March 30th._--The Portuguese, who continued to visit us from time to
time, brought a message from the minister Peea-Suri-Wong-Montree, to
the effect, that he would be happy to accommodate the mission with a
house during their stay at Bankok. The offer was accepted, and, at the
request of Mr. Crawfurd, Captain Macdonald went on shore to examine
the house. His report was far from flattering to our expectations. The
building, which appeared to be an out-house, intended for a store-room,
contained but four small, ill-ventilated rooms, the approach to which
led through a trap-door from below, and on three sides they were almost
entirely excluded from fresh air. There was not a single out-house
for the accommodation of a numerous train of followers. The place
was besides completely shut out from the court, and the open space
occupied by the chief himself, whose accommodations appeared to be
abundantly ample and comfortable. A list of the persons forming the
suite of the Agent of the Governor-General had been transmitted to the
minister at an early period after our arrival, by which he must have
been convinced that the house he had allotted was totally inadequate
for the accommodation of the party. Besides, the manner in which it
had been granted, was calculated to awaken suspicion that he either
wished to have the mission entirely at his own disposal, excluding
every one else from visiting us, and be enabled to keep the strictest
watch over our conduct, or that he wished to degrade it, by affecting
to regard it as of but little importance. The latter inference appeared
the more probable, from the circumstance of his own accommodations
being abundantly respectable and ample, and yet the number of his
retainers did not appear to equal that of our followers. With Asiatics,
as with other nations, it is the custom for the government to provide
accommodation for persons sent on the public service from one court to
another, in an official capacity.

In the present instance, it was conferred by an individual, in a very
inadequate manner, and as a matter of favour and of indulgence on his
part. It should be observed, however, that the number of houses built
of brick and mortar, and roofed with tiles, is here very scanty; and,
although the house allotted for the use of the mission was in all
respects inferior to those occupied by the chief, yet it is possible
that they may have considered it as admirably adapted for the purpose.

No person of rank had yet waited on the Agent to the Governor General,
and all communication with the minister was carried on through the
Malay so often alluded to, a man to all appearance of low rank,
cunning, suspicious, and artful in the highest degree. He could be
looked upon only in the light of a vigilant spy, supple, fawning, and
familiar, yet ready to take advantage of every expression, and of
every act of our conduct, nor were the most trifling and indifferent
matters beyond his notice; and, on one occasion, when a young
gentleman on board, not connected with the mission, went to visit the
Portuguese Consul, this man meanly traced his steps, and followed
him into the house. His character was besides publicly spoken of as
being little short of infamous; and, on more than one occasion, he
had been treated by the captains of American and European ships with
a degree of harshness and rigour which no man possessed of the least
degree of feeling or of credit could have possibly submitted to.
His particular duty is to superintend the conduct of the Malays who
frequent this port. I may observe of this man, that he appeared to
be about forty-five years of age. He was tall, active, and rather
thin. In appearance, he was not to be distinguished from that sect
of Mohammedans so numerous on the coast of Coromandel, Malabar, and
Ceylon, and usually known under the general and indefinite appellation
of _Moormen_. The sect is called Mopla. They are, for the most part,
petty traders, and are generally to be seen hawking their wares about
the houses of Europeans. They shave the head, and wear on its crown a
small white cap. This man always wore such a cap: the upper part of his
body was naked: round the loins he wore a piece of coarse cloth, turned
up between the legs, and, at times, a coarse shawl. Such were the
accomplishments, and such the appearance of Kochai-Sahac, a man whom it
was scarce possible to look upon without distrust.

The ship had not yet been secured, before a message was brought by this
man to demand the presents for the king. A list of the articles had
been demanded, and forwarded as soon as we entered the mouth of the
river. Their first object was to procure an English horse, originally
intended as a present for the king of Cochin China. It would seem that
they were much pleased with this gift, and indeed they were struck
with astonishment at the great value of the presents in general, and
hence they could but ill conceal their joy on the occasion, and that
they had been little accustomed to receive gifts of such value. Unlike
the more civilized states of further India, the Siamese court, in the
urgency and frequency of its demands, betrayed a degree of meanness
and avidity in this matter at once disgusting and disgraceful. For
several successive days, there was no end to their importunities. The
most valuable, as well as the most trifling articles, were taken away
without the least ceremony, and intrusted to the Moorman and a few
common labourers. In the course of the day, a mean-looking person came
on board, saying, that he was desired to take away the presents. The
circumstance appeared suspicious. He was told that he could not have
them, on which he went away apparently quite satisfied. It is probable
that this man had been sent by the prince, or some other person of
rank, to pry into the affair, as the Moorman asserted that he was
unauthorized to make any such demand. The articles, as they came up,
with the exception of the horse, consisting of superfine cloth, English
shawls, muslins, glass ware, muskets, and a small barouche, were taken
to the minister’s house, where they underwent a severe scrutiny.

The Portuguese consul at this place now sent a person in his suite to
wait upon the Agent of the Governor General. He spoke French with
tolerable accuracy, and excused the consul from not coming in person,
alleging as the reason, that the court would look upon such a visit in
an unfavourable light, on account of our not having as yet paid a visit
to the king; but that ceremony over, he would have the pleasure of
calling.

On wishing to go on the river in the evening, we learnt the
disagreeable intelligence that we were to be prisoners, and restricted
from intercourse with the people until the ceremony of our introduction
should be over. The only latitude we could aspire to was to pass from
the ship to the house on shore occupied by the Agent of the British
government, at the distance of a few yards only. This circumstance was
the more irksome, from the day of our intended introduction having been
put off for another week, and it was rendered the more disagreeable by
the inadequate accommodation they had assigned to the mission. They
seemed anxious only to procure presents, and presents in any shape
were eagerly snatched at. They shewed none of those little attentions
so pleasing to strangers, and understood by every people who have made
the least progress in civilization. Their conduct in this respect
formed a striking and unfavourable contrast with that of the Barman
people towards Colonel Symes on a similar occasion. Neither fruit
nor any other refreshment was offered to us; nor was the assistance
of labourers to be procured even when solicited. It was mysteriously
hinted that the king would provide our people with food during our
stay, but no such offer was ever tendered. The conduct of the court
was that of marked neglect, which, in a people notoriously guided by
ceremony and form, could only be attributed to design, and in no degree
to ignorance. Their conduct neither amounted to personal insult, nor to
ostensible contempt; and it is perfectly evident that they entertained
proper sentiments of respect for our government, and an ill-concealed
dread of its well-known power, from which we might have inferred that
they would make no difficulty in granting whatever such a government
would deign to ask.

In the evening a message was brought by the Malay, to say that the
minister would be glad to see Mr. Crawfurd. Accompanied by Captain
Dangerfield, he accordingly made him a visit. He received them in
a large and lofty hall, open on one side, spread with carpets, and
hung with glass lights and Chinese lanterns. They took their seats on
carpets spread for the purpose, and were entertained with tea, fruit,
and Chinese preserves. It would appear that the conversation was of
a general nature, and rather formal. They were well-pleased with the
attention of the chief, and spoke favourably of their reception. He
offered to make what alterations were deemed necessary to fit the house
for our convenience, an offer which he subsequently bore little in
remembrance. The servility which the attendants of this man observed
towards him, appears to have been quite disgusting, and altogether
degrading to humanity. During the whole of the visit they lay prostrate
on the earth before him, and at a distance. When addressed, they
did not dare to cast their eyes towards him, but raising the head
a little, and touching the forehead with both hands united in the
manner by which we would express the most earnest supplication, their
looks still directed to the ground, they whispered an answer in the
most humiliating tone. The manner in which he was approached by the
servants of his household was even still more revolting to nature. When
refreshments were ordered, they crawled forward on all fours, supported
on the elbow and toes, the body being dragged on the ground. In this
manner they pushed the dishes before them from time to time, in the
best manner that their constrained and beast-like attitude would admit,
until they had put them into their place, when they retreated backwards
in the same grovelling manner, but without turning round.

How abominable! how revolting this assumption of despotic power! that
would vainly assimilate a weak and frail mortal to the Deity, and that
could trample under its feet not only the body, degrading it to the
condition of the brute beasts of the field, but even the mind of man,
and render servility perpetual!

Yet this haughty chief was himself but a minister of the fifth order
in importance, doomed to take his turn of beast-like grovelling, as
was subsequently exhibited on visiting Chroma-chit, son to the king.
Every man here is doomed to crawl on the earth before his superior. The
nation must be considered as entirely the slaves of the king, of whose
lives, as well as property, he can dispose at will.

    Masters’ commands come with a power resistless,
    To such as owe them absolute subjection.

A few days after this Mr. Crawfurd, accompanied by Lieutenant
Rutherfurd, visited the Prince Chroma-chit, an illegitimate son of
the reigning king. The hour appointed was about eight o’clock in the
evening.

He was seated in the middle of a spacious hall, ornamented chiefly
in the Chinese style. Common looking-glasses, Dutch glass, shades,
lamps, and Chinese lanterns adorned the walls and were suspended from
the ceiling. The prince received them sitting, and on their entrance
pointed to carpets placed at a distance for the visitors to sit upon.
Like most other Siamese men of rank, the prince is uncommonly stout,
and rather bloated with fat. His form is unwieldy and coarse, his
manner grave and unbending, and his general appearance that of being
much older than he really is. The conversation, as reported by Mr.
Rutherford, turned upon the usual topics of public visits at Asiatic
courts; such as the length of our voyage, the age of the visitors,
their ordinary employments; the health of the Governor General of
India; the state of England, and so forth. After some time, boxes
containing betel and tobacco sprouts were offered; and afterwards
sweetmeats in profusion were introduced.

It is always the custom at this court to visit the prince, previously
to visiting the king. Almost all matters of government, in whatever
department, are in the hands of this prince, who is considered to
have shewn genius and talent equal to the great charge with which
he is intrusted. All matters relating to peace or war, to foreign
intercourse, or to domestic regulations, to affairs of religion, of
policy or of justice, are equally at his disposal, and rarely referred
to the king, but for the purpose of gaining his final consent. The
inferior agents of government are entirely under his control, and have
no power to do any thing of themselves without first obtaining his
opinion, for which purpose they generally wait upon him twice a-day.
He, at this interview, as did the king afterwards on the occasion of
our introduction to him, signified that Suri Wong Montree[5], the
chief who had accommodated the party with a house, would make known to
him the objects of their mission, and at the same time expressed his
authoritative expectation that this chief was attentive to our wants.

The submission of the attendants was on this occasion even more marked
than that observed towards Suri Wong, who was himself now amongst
the number strewed on the ground in humble obeisance towards their
prince. The latter conversed through the medium of the Malay, or
rather Moorman, by which name I shall call him in future, who was on
this occasion assisted by another personage of the same description,
who spoke the Hindustani with tolerable accuracy. The two Malay
interpreters of the Agent of the Governor General were not permitted to
be present.

It is customary amongst the Siamese to send home after the visitors
the sweetmeats which had been brought forward during the visit, as
it is also to place on the floor before them the presents they had
made. This was done by Suri Wong, and by this prince, and again was
this ceremony observed when we were introduced to the king, though in
the latter case the most insignificant only of the presents from the
Governor General of Bengal were introduced, and these were so laid out
as to make the least possible display.

Numerous were the proposals, and more numerous the reports brought
from day to-day respecting the ceremonies to be performed by us on
being presented at court. Many conferences had taken place between
Mr. Crawfurd and the Moorman on the important topic, and matters
were referred by the latter to the chief, Suri Wong. What the nature
of these conferences were I am altogether ignorant, not having been
present at them; and, indeed, as I do not understand Malayan, the
language in which they were carried on, my presence was the less
necessary. It was to be feared, however, that the cunning Moorman would
exert every means in his power, and leave nothing untried to induce
compliance on the part of the Agent of the Governor General, with all
the ceremonies prescribed by the Siamese court, of whose moderation, in
matters of this nature, we might in some degree judge, by the haughty
demeanour of the few chiefs we had yet seen. It was, therefore, alike
the interest, as it was the undisguised intention of the Moorman to
claim merit with his employers in proportion to his success in the
present matter. He commenced by introducing the question in the most
artful and clever manner, boldly asserting that a report had gone
abroad to the effect that the public Envoy of the Government of Bengal
meant to act in a disrespectful manner towards the King of Siam--that
it was his intention, throwing his arms impudently behind his back, to
stand before the king without shewing any mark of respect whatever. Mr.
Crawfurd replied, that so far from this being the case, he had come to
do honour to the King of Siam before his subjects, and then mentioned
what ceremonies he was willing to perform. With this assurance the
Moorman was said to have gone away contented.

Another matter, which appears to have created much discussion and
frequent reference, regarded the manner in which the members of the
mission should proceed to the place of audience. It was first proposed,
that after proceeding to the usual landing-place in boats, they should
thence continue on foot to the audience hall. This proposal was given
up for that of going on horseback, and this last finally to that of
being carried in palanquins.

Matters were at length settled, and we were given to understand that we
were to proceed to the palace at an early hour on the following day.

I accompanied Mr. Crawfurd on an early visit to the Barkalan, Suri
Wong Montree. On this occasion he was seated on a piece of red carpet,
and leaned on a velvet cushion; he rose up as we entered, and pointed
to a mattress covered with chintz, placed near to the door for us to
sit on. His manner appeared to me to be stiff, haughty, assuming, and
altogether without dignity to support it. The conversation between him
and Mr. Crawfurd lasted nearly half an hour, and turned chiefly on
commercial matters. He stated that the country could furnish annually
50,000 peculs of sugar, and 30,000 of pepper. He appeared to have
greatly exaggerated the annual produce in benzoin, and observed, that
the forests could supply sapan wood in any quantity. He desired to know
if the Siamese would be permitted to purchase arms in our ports in
India.

When we returned on board, Capt. Dangerfield remained behind after
breakfast, for the purpose of being informed respecting the nature of
the ceremonies to be performed by us on the following day in the royal
presence. In the course of the day we received a note from Capt.
D., stating that Mr. Crawfurd wished to see us on shore on a matter
of duty. We found that there existed a difference of opinion on the
subject in question. * * * * * * * *

This was the first we had heard of the matter in a serious way. We
had often in a jocular manner talked on the subject, but, as has been
observed, we were yet ignorant of what was expected of us. Immediately
thereafter, however, the nature of the intended salutations was
pointed out to us, differing certainly very materially from what we
had anticipated, and from what Mr. C. had pointed out on a former
evening as that which we were to perform. The mode of salutation, in
its present shape, admitted of little objection; and, accordingly,
after a very few remarks, we agreed to the performance of it. We were
to take off our shoes at the door of the hall of audience; when we had
entered, we were to take off our hats, and making a bow in the English
manner, we were to advance to the seats appointed for us, and there
sitting down, with the legs bent backwards and under us, but a little
to one side, we were to make three salutations with the hands united
before the face, touching the forehead each time. The union of the
hands in this manner appearing to be expressive of supplication, and
being used as the sign thereof by many Asiatics, Capt. Dangerfield
proposed that in its stead we should salute in the manner done at some
of the Hindu courts, by performing the salam with both hands, raising
them separately to the head at the same time. It was observed that
the difference was very immaterial, and that therefore the Siamese
mode should be preferred; besides it appeared that the members of the
mission might perform the salutation with more or less correctness as
they judged proper, and that it would be deemed enough if they touched
the forehead with the hands in any way.

_April 8._--It had been communicated to us that the ceremonies of the
day would commence at an early hour. Accordingly about seven A.M. we
were in attendance on the Agent to the Governor General. At eight
o’clock two boats, a large and a small one, shaped like canoes, and
turned up at the bow and stern, had come for the purpose of taking us
to the palace. The larger had, I think, thirteen paddles, and a man to
steer it. It was without ornament of any sort, plain, but neat, with a
boarded space in the centre, over which was erected a sort of matted
roof. A piece of old carpet, and a small, but old velvet cushion, were
placed upon this boarded space. The rowers in this boat were dressed
in caps and loose jackets made of coarse red cloth. The other boat was
of small dimensions, but also provided with a seat in the centre, and a
cover similar to that of the former.

In this there were stationed only five or six rowers, none of whom
appeared to be Siamese. Their appearance was very wretched and mean.
They had scarce a rag of clothes of any description, and consisted of
boys and decrepit old men. The guard of Sepoys, amounting to thirty in
number, were placed in the ship’s long-boat, and preceded us to the
landing-place near to the palace, where they waited the arrival of the
British Agent.

The Barkalan, Suri Wong Montree, set out at an early hour, dressed in
his robes of ceremony for the occasion.

The Moorman, Khochai-Sahac, was in attendance to conduct the mission
to the palace, and when the boats were ready, gave intimation that it
was time to proceed. The smaller boat was occupied by the servants and
followers of the mission, while the Agent to the Governor General,
accompanied by the gentlemen of his suite, entered the larger. In
this we found two Portuguese, who had been born in the country; one
of them a respectable-looking man. They were apparently sent to act
as interpreters by the way. The more respectable-looking of the two,
seeing that I spoke the Portuguese language very imperfectly, to my
great surprise addressed me in the Latin language. The purity of his
phraseology excited my surprise still more. It was vastly superior
to the monkish jargon, spoken by certain orders of the clergy in
some parts of the Continent of Europe. Yet this man had received his
education in Siam, in the Catholic seminary of this place. I concluded
that he was of the clerical order, but in this I was mistaken.

Our boats, accompanied by a small one which conveyed the Moorman,
proceeded towards the palace at a moderate rate. Our presence seemed
to excite but little attention on the part of the inhabitants of the
floating houses which line the banks of the river, occupied almost
exclusively by the Chinese, or on the part of those on board the junks,
or those passing and re-passing on the river. Some were observed to
laugh immoderately, while others covered the face to conceal mirth
which might be considered as rude. A few minutes brought us to the
landing-place, within a few paces of the outermost wall of the palace.
The Sepoys had arrived here before us, and now disembarked and drew
up in a line on the road. The boat which conveyed the servants, being
very indifferently supplied with rowers, was still far behind, so that
we had to wait in our boat till their arrival. The place we landed at
was dirty, inconvenient, and lumbered with wood and small canoes. It
might have been taken for the entrance into a wood-merchant’s yard,
than many of which this was much less clean and convenient. As great a
crowd of people, almost entirely males, as could be collected together
in so small a space was here assembled, and viewed us with much, but I
cannot say with respectful, curiosity. The gate and wall of the palace
were lofty, but mean-looking and in bad taste; neither were the three
other gates and inner walls that we passed remarkable for the opposite
qualities, not even for labour in their construction, or strength in
the design.

Our servants having arrived, we landed, and the palanquins intended for
our conveyance were produced. Without our being aware of it, they had
come along with us in the boat; a circumstance which will excite but
little surprise when it is known that these palanquins consisted merely
of a netting in the exact shape of a sailor’s _hammock_ suspended from
a pole. A small piece of carpet was spread in the centre, and each
vehicle was carried on the shoulders of two men, one at each end of
the pole. We at first experienced a little difficulty in preventing
ourselves from rolling out of this contrivance, and our awkward
attempts to do so seemed to afford great amusement to the spectators,
who kept shouting aloud until we were within the gate.

We took possession of our vehicles in the order of our respective
ranks, the Agent to the Governor General proceeding first. In this
manner, accompanied by our Sepoys, the procession passed to an inner
gate, distant from the first about one hundred and fifty yards; the
road was dirty, and here and there coarsely paved. At this gate we
were detained for a few minutes, when it was thrown open. Here we were
directed to leave the vehicles, and proceed on foot. We were at the
same time directed to take off our swords, and to leave the Sepoys
here. We had now entered a spacious and open court of great extent,
with various ranges of large tiled buildings disposed in tolerable
order, and traversed by roads paved with coarse-grained granite,
disposed in right lines.

It deserves to be mentioned, that at the gate last-mentioned, the
Moorman, Khochai-Sahac, was joined by another man of the same caste.
These, as well as other Moormen whom we saw on the present occasion,
were dressed in long loose gowns and turbans, ornamented with gold
leaf or tinsel. The two Moormen proceeding in front, and a crowd of
spectators on either side, we walked to the distance of about one
hundred yards on a paved road, when turning a short way to the right,
we were shewn into a large open building, of mean appearance, and not
particularly clean. We had as yet seen no guards or armed persons, and
no one on duty except the people at the last gate. In front of the
building we had now entered, about six or eight elephants had been
drawn up at regular distances, each surmounted by two men in quaint
costume.

In this room was placed a small platform, raised about a foot from the
ground, covered with a coarse white cloth, and close by a large old
carpet was spread, on which we were desired to seat ourselves. Betel
and tobacco sprouts were introduced on coarse brass dishes, and a like
attention was paid to our servants, who sat on the opposite side of
the room. The place was soon crowded with a multitude of low people,
some of whom were resting on their knees, and others standing, and all
of them were very noisy, insomuch, that now and then it was deemed
necessary to coerce with the rod. The profuse and unsparing liberality
with which it was applied, seemed to argue the great utility as well
as the frequent use of this sort of argument, and we never observed it
to fail in procuring a temporary silence. After we had waited somewhat
less than half an hour, it was notified by two men, dressed in an
upper garment of white cloth, in the fashion of a wide shirt, with a
narrow strip of coarse lace about the middle of the arm, and another
at its extremity, that we were called for. These men appeared to me to
belong to the police department; and afterwards, when they accompanied
us to see the elephants and other objects, they occasionally applied
the rod with laudable vigour, to maintain order amongst the rabble.
Without addressing themselves to the Agent to the Governor General,
they now delivered their message to the Moormen. The latter proposed
that we should here pull off our shoes, and walk the remainder of the
way without them. This however was overruled, and we again turned
into the road which we had left on entering. A line of men armed with
muskets was drawn up on each side of the road, and extended to the next
gate. Nothing could be more ridiculous or more unsoldierlike than the
appearance of this guard, composed of puny boys, scarce able to stand
under a musket, and of men of all ages. In their caps only was there
any thing like uniformity observable. These were all painted red, and
I cannot give a better idea of them than by saying that they exactly
resembled the slouched helmets once worn by the workers of fire-engines
at home. They scarcely had boldness to look us in the face as we
passed; and among the whole number, which perhaps might amount to one
hundred, we did not observe a single flint, nor possibly a serviceable
musket. Some had bayonets with scabbards on their muskets, and others
scabbards without bayonets. With their muskets awkwardly and slovenly
shouldered, some on one side and some on the other, we passed them
without exciting sufficient interest to obtain the least notice.

When we had arrived at the gate in front, we were again desired to pull
off our shoes. Our servants and followers were permitted to advance
no further, and even the interpreters to the Agent to the Governor
General were not allowed to proceed. Leaving our shoes at this place,
we advanced, on a paved road, through a passage about fifty yards in
length, enclosed by a wall on each side, until we came to another, and
the innermost gate. This also opened into a spacious oblong place, in
which were disposed several lofty and handsome buildings, occupied by
the king, or appropriated to particular offices. This space was also
intersected by coarsely paved roads, no way remarkable for cleanliness,
breadth, or beauty. Facing the gate at which we last entered, there
was drawn up a double line of musicians, one on each side of the road
through which we advanced. A shrill pipe and numerous tomtoms were
the only instruments whose sounds we heard, though we observed a
number of men furnished with horns, trumpets, chanks, _&c._ The music
though rude, was not inharmonious or displeasing to the ear, and the
interrupted beat, uniform regularity, and softness of the tomtoms was
even agreeable. On our right a numerous body of men armed with stout,
black, glazed shields and battle axes, were disposed in several close
lines within a railing, resting on their knees, and almost concealed
by their shields; behind these were placed a few elephants, furnished
with scanty but rather elegant housings. Still preceded by the Moormen,
we advanced slowly through the musicians to the distance of nearly
thirty yards from the last gate, when making a short turn to the right,
we entered a plain-looking building, at one end, and soon found that
this was the hall of audience. Fronting the door, and concealing the
whole of the interior apartment, there was placed a Chinese screen,
covered with landscapes and small plates of looking-glass. We halted
for a moment on the threshold, and taking two or three steps to the
right, so as to get round the screen, we found ourselves suddenly, and
somewhat unexpectedly, in the presence of majesty. A more curious,
more extraordinary, or more impressive sight has perhaps rarely been
witnessed than that on which we now gazed, with mingled feelings of
regret, (I should say of indignation,) and of wonder: of wonder excited
by the display of taste, elegance and richness in the decorations; of
regret, or of indignation, caused by the debased condition of a whole
nation. Such a scene was well calculated to take a firm hold on the
imagination. I shall, however, endeavour to describe it in its true
colours, and with the least possible aid from that faculty. The hall
was lofty, wide, and well aired, and appeared to be about sixty or
eighty feet in length, and of proportionate breadth. The ceiling and
walls were painted with various colours, chiefly in the form of wreaths
and festoons; the roof was supported by wooden pillars, ten on each
side, painted spirally red and dark green. Some small and rather paltry
mirrors were disposed on the walls, glass lustres and wall shades were
hung in the centre, and to the middle of each pillar was attached
a lantern, not much better than our stable lanterns. The floor was
covered with carpets of different colours. The doors and windows were
in sufficient numbers, but small and without ornament; at the further
extremity of the hall, a large handsome curtain, made of cloth covered
with tinsel or gold leaf, and suspended by a cord, divided the space
occupied by the throne from the rest of the apartment. On each side
of this curtain there were placed five or six singular but handsome
ornaments, called _chatt_, consisting of a series of small circular
tables suspended over each other, diminishing gradually so as to form a
cone, and having a fringe of rich cloth of gold, or tissue, suspended
from each tablet.

A few of the presents from the Governor General, as bales of cloth and
cut-glass, were placed nearly in the middle of the room, and on one
side; but we neither remarked the letter from the Noble Marquis, nor
did it appear that any notice whatever was taken of it on this public
occasion.

With the exception of a space about twenty feet square, in front of
the throne, which was kept clear, the hall was crowded with people
to excess. Those of every rank, from the highest to the lowest,
from the heir apparent to the throne, to the meanest slave present,
had his proper place assigned to him, by which alone he was to be
distinguished. The costume of all ranks was plain, neither rich nor
showy.

The curtain placed before the throne was drawn aside as we entered.
The whole multitude present lay prostrate on the earth, their mouths
almost touching the ground; not a body or limb was observed to move,
not an eye was directed towards us, not a whisper agitated the solemn
and still air. It was the attitude, the silence, the solemnity of a
multitude simultaneously addressing the great God of the universe,
rather than the homage of even an enslaved people. Not even Rome,
fertile in a race of tyrants, nor Dionysius himself, ever produced any
degradation to compare with this in ignominy.

Raised about twelve feet above the floor, and about two yards behind
the curtain alluded to, there was an arched niche, on which an obscure
light was cast, of sufficient size to display the human body to
effect, in the sitting posture. In this niche was placed the throne,
projecting from the wall a few feet. Here, on our entrance, the king
sat immoveable as a statue, his eyes directed forwards. He resembled
in every respect an image of Buddha placed upon his throne; while the
solemnity of the scene, and the attitude of devotion observed by the
multitude, left little room to doubt that the temple had been the
source from which the monarch of Siam had borrowed the display of
regal pomp. He was dressed in a close jacket of gold tissue, on his
left was placed what appeared to be a sceptre; but he wore neither
crown nor other covering on the head, nor was the former emblem of
the office of royalty displayed on the occasion. The throne was hung
round with the same sort of cloth which formed the curtain in front,
and behind it were placed two of the conical-shaped ornaments formerly
mentioned; except in the quality of the cloth with which the throne
was surrounded, we could observe no indication of opulence, or of
magnificence. There were neither jewels, nor costly workmanship, nor
precious stones, nor pearls, nor gold observable about the person
of the king, his throne, or his ministers. The latter were disposed
in three lines laterally, extending from the curtain in front; and
thus bounded on each side the empty space at the foot of the throne,
according to their respective ranks. The chief Suriwong was placed at
a very respectful distance. A considerable degree of light was thrown
laterally on the floor at the base of the throne, where large and
elegant fans were waved by persons placed behind the curtain. This
circumstance added considerable effect to the scene.

Such is a sketch of the form and appearance of Siamese royalty,
displayed on our entering the hall. When we had passed the screen,
and come in sight of the throne, we pulled off our hats and bowed
in the European manner, the two Moormen at the same time falling
prostrate, and crawling before us on the ground towards the throne. We
were desired to advance in a stooping posture; a narrow space, about
three feet in width, was left open in the centre for us to advance
through. When we had advanced a few paces in this narrow space, being
closely surrounded by the crowd of people, and distant from the
throne more than half the length of the hall, all the ministers being
a considerable way in front of us on either side, we were desired to
seat ourselves on the carpet, in the narrow lane or space through
which we had advanced, which we did in the best way we could, the two
Moormen placing themselves immediately in front of the Agent to the
Governor General and his Assistant, for the space would only admit
of two persons sitting beside each other. Mr. R. and I, therefore,
placed ourselves immediately behind the former. We now performed the
salutations agreed upon, after which a voice from behind the curtain
in front of the throne interrupted the silence which had hitherto
prevailed, by reading in a loud tone a list of the presents which had
been sent by the Governor General.

The King now addressed some questions to the Agent to the Governor
General. He spoke in a firm though not a loud voice; in his person
he was remarkably stout, but apparently not bloated or unwieldy; he
appeared to be about sixty-five years of age. The questions were
repeated by the person who had read the list of presents, and from
him they were conveyed in whispers by several individuals, till they
reached the Moorman, Kochai-Sahac, who, prostrate like the rest on
the ground, whispered them to the Agent to the Governor General, in
a tone which I could not hear, though placed immediately behind the
latter. The answers to the throne were passed on in the same way.
From the tenor of these questions, as related afterwards by Captain
Dangerfield, it would appear that they were of a very general nature,
and not particularly interesting. While these questions were passing,
betel was introduced in handsome silver vessels and gold cups. The
audience having lasted about twenty minutes, the King rose from his
seat, and turning round to depart, the curtain was immediately drawn
in front of the throne. On this all the people raised a loud shout,
and turning on their knees, performed numerous salutations, touching
the earth and their forehead alternately, with both hands united. The
princes and ministers now assumed a sitting posture, by which, for the
first time, we were enabled to observe their respective places. We left
the hall of audience without further ceremony. A heavy shower of rain
had fallen during the interview, and the roads leading to the different
parts of the palace, at no time noted for cleanliness, were now covered
with water and converted into a dirty puddle; we therefore requested to
have our shoes, but in vain, for no notice whatever was taken of our
request. On leaving the door of the audience-hall, a paltry Chinese
umbrella, which might be purchased in the bazar for a rupee, was given
to each of us. Not knowing with what view it was presented, I was about
to reject it, when I was told that it was meant as a present from the
King.

FOOTNOTE:

[5] Surya Vangsa Mantri: this title is Sanskrit, signifying counsellor
of the lineage of the sun.




CHAPTER IV.

    WHITE ELEPHANTS AND WHITE MONKIES.--TASTE OF THE
    SIAMESE.--BRAHMANS AND HINDUISM IN SIAM.--LIBRARY OF THE
    TEMPLE.--ENORMOUS GUNS.--TRADE OF SIAM A ROYAL MONOPOLY.--CHINESE
    EMIGRANTS.--SUGAR.--SIAMESE POLICY RESPECTING TRADE.--POLICY
    OF THE ULTRA GANGETIC NATIONS.--AN EMBASSY ARRIVES FROM COCHIN
    CHINA.--PROCESSION OF ROYAL BARGES OF SIAM TO RECEIVE IT.--SIAMESE
    MUSIC.--REFLECTIONS ON THE RESULT OF THE MISSION.


The Moormen, and the two men who had conducted us to the audience-hall,
now conducted us through the different courts of the palace. We
were still followed by a dirty, mean-looking rabble, whose impudent
behaviour was from time to time checked by the two police men, our
guides. The streets were remarkably dirty, so that for the greater part
of the way we had to walk up to the ancle in mud and water. However,
no offer was made to procure us our shoes until we had gone through
the whole ceremony of seeing the strange sights of this palace, a
tedious and not very gratifying ceremony, which occupied us nearly two
hours. The sun had, after the shower, shone out with intense power; the
stones over which we passed had in consequence been rendered very hot,
and the alternate passing from these stones into the wet and puddles
rendered the promenade not altogether agreeable to persons unaccustomed
to walk bare-footed.

We were first conducted to the stables of the white elephants, which,
being held in great veneration by the Siamese, are kept within the
inner enclosure of the palace, and have habitations allotted to them
quite close to those of the King himself.

Of white elephants there are at the present time no fewer than five in
the possession of the King, whence we may infer that this variety is
far less rare than we are accustomed to believe, at least, that is so
in the further peninsula of India. It has, however, seldom happened
that so many have been collected at one period, and the present is
regarded as auspicious in consequence of an event so unexpected, and so
much desired. A white elephant is still reckoned as beyond all value,
every effort is made to take them when they are by chance discovered,
and the subjects of the King can perform no more gratifying service
than that of securing them. They, and indeed all elephants, are the
property of the King only.

The appellation white, as applied to the elephants, must be received
with some degree of limitation; the animal is in fact an occasional
variety, of less frequent occurrence indeed, but in every respect
analogous to what occurs in other orders of animals, and, amongst the
rest, in the human species. They are, correctly speaking, Albinos, and
are possessed of all the peculiarities of that abnormal production; but
of these _white_ elephants, it was remarkable that the organ of sight
was to all appearance natural and sound, in no way intolerant of light,
readily accommodating itself to the different degrees of light and
shade, and capable of being steadily directed to objects at the will
of the animal; in short, similar in all respects to that of the common
elephant, with the exception of the iris, which was of a pure white
colour. In this respect, they resembled all the quadrupedal albinos
that I had hitherto seen, as those among horses, cows, rabbits. This
circumstance I should scarce have thought worth the noticing, were it
not that I shall have occasion to mention in the sequel an instance
of an animal of the albino kind, possessed of the peculiar eye of the
human albino. In one or two of the elephants, the colour was strictly
white, and in all of them the iris was of that colour, as well as the
margins of the eye-lids; in the rest, the colour had a cast of pink in
it. The hairs upon the body were for the most part yellowish, but much
more scanty, finer, and shorter than in other elephants; the strong
hairs of the tail were darker, but still of a yellowish colour. In
none did the colour and texture of the skin appear entirely healthy.
In some, the cuticular texture of the legs was interspersed with
glandular knobs, which gave a deformed appearance to these members.
In others the skin of the body was uncommonly dry, while the natural
wrinkles were unusually large, secreted an acrid-like fluid, and seemed
ready to burst out into disease. These beasts were all of small size,
but in excellent condition, and one of them was even handsome. They
were treated with the greatest attention, each having several keepers
attached to him. Fresh-cut grass was placed in abundance by their side;
they stood on a small boarded platform, kept clean; a white cloth was
spread before them, and while we were present they were fed with sliced
sugar-cane, and bunches of plantains.

In the same place we observed rather a fine-looking elephant, but a
small one, which appeared to me to be a greater object of curiosity
than any of the others. This animal was covered all over with black
spots, about the size of a pea, upon a white base. It is not unusual
to observe a partial degree of this spotted appearance in the elephant
of Bengal, as on the forehead and trunk of the animal, but in this
instance the skin was entirely covered with them.

The greatest regard is entertained in Siam for the White Elephant.
He who discovers one is regarded as the most fortunate of mortals.
The event is of that importance, that it may be said to constitute an
era in the annals of the nation. The fortunate discoverer is rewarded
with a crown of silver, and with a grant of land equal in extent to
the space of country at which the elephants’ cry may be heard. He and
his family, to the third generation, are exempted from all sorts of
servitude, and their land from taxation.

The next and only other animals that we saw here, are certainly of very
rare occurrence, and objects of great curiosity. These were two White
Monkies, perfect albinos in every respect. They are about the size of
a small dog, furnished with a tail about as long as the body. They are
thickly covered with fur, which is as white as snow, or that of the
whitest rabbit. The lips, eye-lids, and feet are distinguished by the
inanimate whiteness of the skin noticed in the human albino, while the
general appearance of the iris, the eye, and even the countenance, the
intolerance of light, the unsettled air they assumed, and the grimace
they affected, afforded so many points of resemblance between them and
that unhappy variety of our species, as rendered the sight disgusting
and humiliating. One who had seen a perfect albino of the human
species, would find it impossible to separate the impression of his
appearance from that of the animals now before us. These had but little
of the vivacity or mischievous disposition for which this tribe is so
remarkable. All their movements, all their attitudes, had for their
apparent object the lessening the effect of light and glare, towards
which they always turned their backs. Their eye-brows seemed pursed up
and contracted, the pupils were of a light rose-colour, the irides of a
very pale cast of blue. One was very old, and had but few teeth in his
head. His lips were beside remarkably thick, and apparently diseased.
The other was much younger.

It did not appear that they were held in any degree of veneration by
the Siamese; we learned that they were placed here from superstitious
motives, with the object, as they said, of preventing evil spirits from
killing the white elephants.

We next proceeded to visit a temple situated at a short distance beyond
the hall of audience. The court is spacious and neat, containing,
besides the temple, a handsome small building, in which their sacred
books are deposited. At each of the principal gates are placed
gigantic earthen images, of grotesque form, with clubs in their hands,
and at each angle of the temple brass figures of a fanciful animal,
somewhat resembling a lion. Besides, there were other figures made
of clay, paltry in appearance and absurd in design. The temple is
of a pyramidal form, highly wrought with minute figures, somewhat
in the Chinese style. The character of the ornaments, like that of
the paintings on the stern of a Chinese junk, is operose, unmeaning,
and grotesque; yet the general effect was in the present instance
not unpleasing to the spectator, who regarding it at some distance,
overlooked the minuteness alluded to. I remarked that the Siamese
have adopted the pyramid, generally a quadrangular one, instead of
the dome, the only form in which the Bauddhists of Ceylon build the
sepulchral edifice called Dagoba, the architectural characteristic of
their religion. The cause of this difference, in a matter so closely
interwoven with their religion, is probably to be looked for in the
different genius of the nations, to which cause also we must attribute
the difference observable in their respective images of Buddha
himself, for to the individuals of neither people are we to look for
the original exemplar of that form. The Siamese, like other tribes
of the Moghul race, seem to have formed to themselves a standard of
beauty, differing both from that of Europeans and of Indians. Hence the
sharp, the harsh, the fanciful, the improbable, are more considered
by them than the soft, the majestic, and the just in architecture.
The different forms given to the Dagoba, and to their temples and
palaces, would illustrate this remark. A similar taste is displayed
in the decorations of their private houses, in which you look in vain
for truth or nature in the representation of animal beings. A wild
unchastened fancy prevails among them; hence the origin of monsters and
of the grotesque figures which cover the walls of the houses of their
chiefs. Yet, though monstrous, unnatural, and unmeaning, they are not
altogether destitute of a certain degree of spirit and of boldness
in the execution. What degree and kind of genius they may possess in
music and in the arts remains to be seen. In the actual state of our
knowledge, I cannot but consider the Siamese as prodigiously inferior
to the rude inhabitants of the interior of Ceylon, with whom, as
professing the same religion, they will admit of a comparison. In the
elegant and imposing structure of the Dagoba, in the numerous figures
of Buddha, whether made of earth, stone, ivory, brass, wood, silver,
or gold, the latter are manifestly superior artists and architects.
The Siamese would appear to excel in the number of their images, the
Kandians in their quality. The Siamese temple, rich in the frippery and
tinsel of a Chinaman’s toy-shop, with its three hundred images, reminds
you more of children’s playthings than of the place of devotion; while
the Kandian, by the skilful distribution of light and shade, and proper
position of one, or, at most, of a few well-executed images, produces
an effect at once solemn, majestic, and impressive.

But if this obliquity of genius, if I may so call it, be so remarkable
in the matters already alluded to, it is still more so in all that is
calculated to give an insight into the constitution of their mind.
The people are governed by opinion, absurd and unjust, not by reason,
by sense, nor by kindness. The most degrading and brutal tyranny is
mistaken for well-meaning patriarchal kindness; and the oppression of
the multitude, and the grinding of the many, is regarded as the will of
the Deity. No man either wishes for, or aspires to, freedom of thought
or of action; and tyranny has cast its roots so deep, that change would
seem hopeless.

But to return to the temple. I have observed that it was of a pyramidal
form, the point terminating in a slender spire, about 200 feet high.
Within, the building constituted a single lofty chamber, about 50 feet
long, and nearly as much in breadth, paved with stones. In the centre
were placed, on irregular stages, a countless number of small figures
of Buddha, intermixed with bits of looking-glass, scraps of gilded
paper, and Chinese paintings. Surmounting the rest was a figure of
Buddha, about a foot and a half high, in a sitting posture, made, as
our guides would have us to believe, of emerald. The stone was either
the Chinese figure-stone, or Heliotrope, but it was placed at too great
a distance for us to be able to say exactly which. There was here
nothing in the shape of an altar, nor any convenience save the floor on
which to place fruit and flowers, the usual offerings made to Buddha.
A number of vagrant, idle people, had followed us. They entered the
temple, and behaved with a degree of noisy indecorum, which could not
fail to surprise us.

Surrounding the temple, and forming its enclosure, there is a paved
passage, covered in above, and supported by pillars. The walls of
this passage are covered with rude paintings of allegorical subjects,
chiefly taken from the story of the Ramayana, a celebrated epic poem
of the Hindus. It would appear, indeed, that many of the absurdities
of the Hindu religion are intermingled with that of Buddha. There are
in Bankok a few Brahmans, who are entertained by the king, and have
built a small temple. The Siamese cultivate a lock of hair on the
forehead, which lock they preserve from birth to the age of twelve,
fourteen, or sixteen, untouched. At the expiration of this period, they
institute a great feast; presents are made by all the relations and
friends of the family, and the occasion is rendered one of great joy.
The Brahman then, sprinkling a little water on the head, and repeating
certain prayers, cuts the lock. When the children of the king undergo
this ceremony, an artificial hill is constructed, on which the Brahman
performs the ceremony.

Close to the temple stands the pyramidal building, in which the sacred
books are kept. You ascend to it by a flight of steps, covered with
plates of tin, as is also the floor of the room. The books cannot be
very numerous. They are contained in a pyramidal upright cupboard,
richly ornamented with small pieces of mother-of-pearl.

Returning by the road we had entered, we repassed the inner and second
gates of the palace, when we found ourselves in the enclosure where we
had halted for some time before entering the audience-hall. The only
objects worthy of remark in this place were several ridiculously and
uselessly large brass guns. They must, from their size, be equally
unserviceable and unmanageable. They seemed, however, to pride
themselves not a little in possessing guns of such a calibre. They
appeared to have been uncommonly well cast.

Having now been shewn all that was thought worthy of notice, we were
reconducted to the room in which we had first halted. It was again
soon filled with the rabble. A plentiful dessert of sweet-meats was
introduced, and the Moorman was particularly desirous that we should
partake of it. But it was impossible to overlook the mean condition
of those left to entertain us, the disreputable appearance of the
building, or the jeering and disrespectful conduct of the herd of
spectators that crowded round us. It seemed as if the court had said,
_See them feed_.

As we were leaving the palace, several of the chiefs were returning
home at the same time, and afforded us an opportunity of observing that
they used vehicles more respectable and more comfortable than those
they had assigned for the use of the Agent to the Governor General. We
now procured our slung hammocks, and were carried back to our boats.
About one, P. M., we reached the ship.

A large quantity of sweet-meats, those which had been placed before us
on our visit to the palace, was sent home after us; and, in the course
of the afternoon, the chief, Suri-wong, paid the Agent to the Governor
General a visit, and said that he had been desired to entertain us with
a dinner. A profusion of roasted pork, goats’ flesh, ducks, fowls, &c.,
was then brought by his servants and laid on the table, together with a
couple of decanters of a wine nearly as strong and fiery as brandy. He
remained a spectator of the entertainment, but would not eat or drink
with us. He conversed with more ease with us than he had hitherto done.
He said we had been highly honoured, and seemed to be quite pleased
with the transactions of the day. He asked many questions, and wished
to be thought easy and free, but his manner was coarse and impolite to
a degree quite unusual in an Asiatic. * * * * *

On reviewing the transactions of this day, and connecting them with the
general conduct of the officers of the Siamese government towards the
mission, from the period of our arrival in the country, it will appear
that we had but little reason to be elated with success, or proud of
our reception at court.

In their visits, the most petty officers arrogated a superiority which
certainly did not belong to their inferior station, for some of them
turned out to be low retainers of the chiefs, to whom they performed
the offices of menials, and crouched on the ground before them, as we
afterwards found on visiting those chiefs. The demand that the guns
should be landed before we proceeded up the river, though a punctilio
they readily conceded, but little stress having to all appearance been
laid upon it from the commencement, shewed that nothing was beneath
their notice, and we may infer from their sending a single narrow boat,
capable of holding at most but three persons, on a short journey, for
the accommodation of the Agent to the Governor General, that they
wished to hold the mission very cheap.

After we had arrived nearly opposite to the palace, no notice whatever
was taken of the ship, any more than if she had not been there, and
the first communication had for its object to obtain possession of the
presents sent by the Governor General. It was impossible to attribute
to ignorance their affected indifference, and studied inattention to
whatever related to the accommodation, the wants, or the comforts of
the gentlemen of the mission. Hospitality is a virtue not altogether
unknown to any nation or people; with politeness, it is much the
same. Their leading features are acknowledged by all people. Nations
differ only in the mode of their expression. On these points there
seems no reason to believe that the Siamese are much behind their
neighbours. To individuals they had often behaved with attention and
kindness, and particularly so to the captains of ships and European
traders. The inference therefore is, that, in the present instance,
they listened to political motives only, and though the matter was of
that trifling importance as scarce to deserve mention, yet, taken in
conjunction with their conduct in other matters, it throws some light
upon the view in which they held the present mission. Every person
of rank carefully abstained from coming near us, Kochai Sahac, being
the channel of reference to the chief Suri-Wong Montree, who is not
among the persons of the highest rank, but only acting[6]Barkalan,
the chief, whose office this is, being either too old, or otherwise
incapable of attending to his duties. Our introduction to the king,
and the particular place assigned to the mission, at the audience, and
other circumstances before alluded to, require no comment. The court
in granting a public audience had displayed its power, and perhaps
its riches, motives of themselves sufficient to induce a government
supported chiefly by appearances, to grant such audience. It is known
that the king receives envoys from other potentates in a very different
manner, with ceremony, with pomp, wearing his crown at the audience. It
was evident therefore that they affected to treat the mission from the
Governor General of Bengal as of inferior consequence, and that they
meant to consider it in the light of a deputation from the governor
of a province, such deputations being common amongst the neighbouring
powers. This matter was placed beyond a doubt some days afterwards, the
moorman Kochai stating that the mission had been received by the king
as a deputation from a provincial government.

Seeing that no notice whatever was taken, nor even mention made, of the
letter from the Governor General at our public presentation, we could
no longer entertain doubts as to the idea which they wished to impress
upon the public mind respecting the importance of the government of
Bengal. We, however, had abundant reason to believe that well-informed
persons about the government were not ignorant of the vast power, the
extensive dominion, the unparalleled equity of that government.

The presents from the Governor General were laid out before us in the
hall, and a crier read in a loud voice a list of them, a circumstance
also open to suspicion, particularly as the interpreters to the mission
were not permitted to be present, or even to pass the inner gate of the
palace. Under such circumstances it appeared that they might represent
our word _presents_ in whatever light was most flattering to their
pride, their vanity, or their crooked policy.

With respect to the actual objects of the mission, the proposals were
so moderate, so obviously of mutual advantage, that, from all we could
yet learn, the government would be as anxious to confer them as ours to
receive them.

The encouragement given to the Chinese traders and labourers, and the
limited adventures of the king and some of the principal men about
him, had given them a foretaste of the advantages of commerce, which
they were now very anxious to improve. They were becoming sensible
of the errors created by their cupidity, in imposing innumerable and
vexatious duties. Blind to their real interests, as well as ignorant
of the practice of commerce, the king and his ministers still continue
to be the sole merchants, retaining in their own hands the monopoly
of all articles of consequence, and holding it contraband for any
others to intermeddle. They have yet to learn that it is possible
to fill the treasury with less risk, less trouble, and more credit,
from the industry and fair profits of their subjects; and hence King
Chau-chee-veet, “the Lord of Life,” continues to be the first trader in
his kingdom.

It is to the Chinese nation that they are indebted for whatever
knowledge they possess of the advantages of commercial intercourse. In
defiance of the laws of the celestial empire, there would appear to be
scarcely any limit to the extent of emigration from that great empire.
Her subjects are the best and most industrious part of the population
of the surrounding nations, over whom their industry, their superior
intelligence, and knowledge of the arts, have given them a great and
decided superiority. Siam, a country sunk under the most debasing
tyranny, destitute alike of arts and commerce, offered a fair field for
the developement of their superiority. Fear had long opposed obstacles
to the increase of the Chinese, till at length the government either
from conscious incapacity of restraining them longer, or from motives
of a different nature, has at length given them the most unbounded
encouragement, and granted them privileges which render their condition
infinitely preferable to that of the natives of the country. On the
other hand the benefits which the Chinese emigrants have conferred
upon this rude nation, are of obvious and striking utility, and of no
ordinary importance. They have sown the seeds of commercial enterprise.
They have created commerce where none previously existed, and with
their hands they have, as it were, called into existence some of the
more valuable objects of commerce. Scarce twenty years have elapsed
since the first sugar canes were planted in this kingdom. The annual
produce in sugar, at the present time, is stated to amount to 30,000
peculs, of 133-1/2 lbs. each, or 1788 tons. This constitutes, in
fact, the most valuable commercial article of the realm. The culture
is managed solely by the Chinese, and it is the opinion of the chief
Suri-Wong, that it may be carried to an almost unlimited extent.
Such being the nature of the advantages derived from the unremitting
industry of the Chinese, it is not to be wondered at, if that people
should enjoy privileges denied to European and other nations. Chinese
traders are accordingly subjected to less vexatious proceedings in
their commercial transactions, and are even allowed to purchase the
principal commodities at a lower rate of duty than other nations, the
difference in the article of sugar amounting to fifty per cent. less
than the general rate.

Not satisfied, however, with the trade carried on by the Chinese junks,
the king has shewn a strong desire to increase its extent, although
the means which he has adopted are not well calculated to effect
that object. His proper subjects are altogether ignorant of maritime
science, and seem to possess but few of the qualities necessary to
ensure success in such employments; he is therefore under the necessity
of employing foreigners, as native Christians, Arabs, and other
Mahommedans, to navigate his vessels. He, nevertheless, sends annually
to various ports in China from ten to twelve junks, of moderate size,
laden with sugar, pepper, sapan, and iron wood.

It is, however, with the commercial nations of Europe that he is most
desirous to establish the relations of trade. The great size of their
vessels, their valuable and select cargoes, and more particularly
their ready command of capital, and integrity of conduct, place them
at once beyond competition and rivalship. A conscious sense of his own
weakness, however, operates strongly as a check upon his intercourse
with Europeans. To these fears a debasing cupidity is superadded, and
the result is exhibited in a code of irksome and illiberal regulations,
calculated at once to disgust and to disappoint the liberal-minded
trader. In the actual condition of the existing government, there is
but little room to hope for amelioration of policy, or improvement
of circumstances. Still less, I conceive, are we to expect that they
will lay aside their old prejudices, and adopt in their stead those
regulations which, amongst Europeans, are the foundation of what is
called free trade. They may, indeed, be induced to lower the duties on
certain articles, but it is to be feared that neither the king nor his
ministers will abandon their favourite system of monopoly.

That the Siamese government is not disposed, at the present time,
to adopt the European notions of free trade, we have a proof in its
conduct with regard to the trading brig, Phœnix, belonging to Mr.
Storm. Trusting probably to the favourable disposition produced by
the mission, this vessel was freighted with articles from Calcutta,
which were conceived to be adapted to the Siamese market. She had no
sooner arrived at the mouth of the river, than it was communicated by
the Siamese government to the Agent to the Governor General that this
vessel should afford an instance of the disposition of the government,
and that she should enjoy all the privileges and advantages which the
royal Majesty of Siam meant to confer upon British merchants. The
ordinary policy was immediately resorted to. The king and his ministers
insist on the privilege of purchasing before any permission can be
granted to trade. They send to demand musters of the articles imported,
and affix their own price for such as they wish to purchase. Three
weeks have thus passed before any final answer is returned, or the
musters sent back, during the whole of which time no boat, no trader,
no individual of any description, is permitted to visit the ship, or to
hold intercourse with the owners on board. It may be readily conceived
that no subject will dare to offer a higher price than that which has
been tendered by the king and his ministers. The waste of time must
of itself be no little inconvenience to the merchant. It would seem as
if it were the object of the Siamese government to disgust the trader,
in this manner, by unnecessary delay, hoping thereby to reduce him
to the necessity of selling his goods on their own, or, at least, on
more moderate terms. In the meanwhile the most evasive answers are
returned to every proposition. The slightest and most indifferent
matters are rendered a source of annoyance, nor is any proposition or
representation on the part of the trader met openly and candidly, but
shuffled off in a mean and paltry manner.

From the conduct of the government towards this ship, it soon became
apparent how little they were disposed to grant to British merchants.
The Agent to the Governor General had been assured that the duties
should be lowered two per cent. below the present rate. It was now
unequivocally stated that no such reduction should take place until the
English sent five ships annually: it was afterwards stated that this
reduction would be enforced after the period of two years or so.

The most urgent and frequently repeated solicitations could not induce
them to give any answer on the subject of trade for the course of an
entire month, nor could the musters which they had demanded from Mr.
Storm be got back again. It afterwards appeared that one object of this
delay was to give time to the junks to arrive from Singapore with their
cargoes, by which means during this delay the prices of articles were
reduced twenty per cent.

While the ship lay here, it was vain to expect to be able to dispose
of any thing until the government had returned an answer. At length
a communication was made to the effect that the government would
purchase, but on terms to which Mr. Storm could not accede. The latter
now expected that he should be able to dispose of his goods to the
inhabitants of the place, but none of them ever came near him, nor
could they dare to offer a higher price than that tendered by the
Pra-Klang.

It will no doubt appear strange that a people, so anxious for the
commerce of European nations, as to hold out privileges in proportion
to the extent of that trade, should notwithstanding raise so many
obstacles against the obvious tendency of their apparent measures.
Various and very opposite feelings would appear to have given birth
to this manifest inconsistency of conduct--of which national pride,
and undisguised cupidity, vindicate a large share. There can be
little doubt but that much of the annoyance given to the European
trader is viewed by them as a matter of exultation--and it must be
confessed that the eagerness with which the former have sought for
their commerce, leading them to submit to insult and degradation, has
cherished this sentiment on the part both of the government and of
the people. It is the nature of the Ultra-Gangetic nations to rise in
their demands in proportion as they can enforce, or in any way procure
submission to their will. They are universally more influenced by
firmness, boldness, and decision, than by the most sound and conclusive
arguments, the most mild, inoffensive, and conciliating conduct.
They are either insensible to, or regardless of, the latter sort of
argument. He that would have them listen to arguments of reason and
common sense, must be backed by the hand of power, and hold the rod
in reserve. From such people nothing but insult is to be expected by
submission; and as these nations have an unquestionable and natural
right to dictate the terms on which they will hold intercourse with
Europeans, it becomes a question of some interest, how far the conduct
usually pursued by the latter has had a good or bad effect in promoting
the interests of their respective countries.

Unfortunately for the credit of the commercial nations of Europe,
their subjects have conducted themselves in this trade with views
solely of personal interest, totally disregarding the honour and
character of the nation to which they have belonged. In order to gain
paltry advantages, they often submitted to accumulated injuries,
and to the most degrading insults. It has thence happened that the
character of Europeans, even at the present time, stands but very low
with the nations occupying the Eastern ports of Asia. The Chinese,
the most intelligent of these nations, affect to consider the British
as a nation of ingenious tradesmen, little better, in fact, than
watch-makers, who owe their prosperity to their intercourse with their
country. The Siamese, conscious of the power of our Indian government,
affect a less haughty tone, yet fancy themselves infinitely superior to
us, inasmuch as we are so eager to purchase their commerce. In common
with most nations, they entertain a high opinion of the bravery of
their countrymen,--of the strength of their armies, and of the superior
wealth of their country.

The petty disputes in which they are often engaged with the captains
of ships and other traders, who subject themselves to systematic
annoyance, have tended to confirm them in this good opinion. They
are either too ignorant, or too infatuated, to perceive, that the
latter, being in a great measure placed at their mercy, unsupported
by the authority of their own government, and destitute of every
means of redress, afford them a conquest as easy as it is inglorious
and dishonest. Every petty and unworthy advantage thus gained, is
magnified into a triumph, not merely over the individual, but over the
government of which he is the subject; for as they are ignorant of the
manners and customs and superior civilization of other nations, so they
cannot conceive that such great ships, and such valuable commodities,
can belong to any one but the king, or to some one of his principal
officers.

Another circumstance which has contributed to render the present
government more haughty and assuming in its transactions with
strangers, is the tranquillity which for a considerable number of years
has prevailed in this country; tranquillity for which they are more
indebted to the ignorance of their neighbours, than to the wisdom of
their own measures. They have not yet measured their strength with a
power more civilized than themselves.

It may be doubted also whether, notwithstanding their apparent wish
to increase commerce, the innumerable obstacles which Europeans in
particular have to contend with be not intentional, as tending to
increase the safety of their kingdom by discouraging the access of
strangers. The conduct of the government would seem to justify such an
opinion, though from motives of policy, it may be deemed prudent to
cloak such sentiments under feigned representations.

That a great, generous, and warlike nation, such as Great Britain,
should incur the possibility of having her national honour
slighted, if not tarnished, by any nation under the sun, far less
by a semi-barbarous people, experience has rendered less a matter
of surprise than of regret. It cannot be altogether a matter of
indifference what opinion shall be entertained of her by so large a
portion of the human race, as that occupying the countries between the
Ganges and the Yellow Sea. Neither is national honour a mere sound or
but an empty name--for in this sound rests the strength of kingdoms,
the safety of nations. It is this that fans the flame in the patriot’s
breast--it is this that nerves the soldier’s arm--it is this motive
which more than any other converts the man into the hero.

Britain may well command the esteem, if not the homage, of such
nations. An open, manly, and disinterested conduct, on the part of
her subjects, is alone sufficient to establish such an opinion; but
while the success of commercial enterprise is alone regarded, national
honour will be left to shift for itself. The immense value of the
commerce with China, doubtless, is an object of the most powerful
temptation--but with respect to Siam, no such motives exist. Her
commerce, supposing it altogether unshackled, and left to full and
free operation, is after all but very trifling. It seems doubtful
whether it be equal to employ annually four or five ships of moderate
size; and the most valuable commodities of the country are bulky, such
as sugar. The consumption of British manufactures by the natives is
trifling in the extreme. Britain has more to give than to receive from
such a nation.

But it more immediately concerns the honour and safety of our
Indian government to maintain a dignified and imposing attitude in
its intercourse with these nations. The existing government having
established an everlasting fame, upon the firmest basis, has also
raised its honour and its faith to an enviable height. They will
doubtless continue to watch over it with the most jealous care.

That the crazy, disjointed, and puny government of Siam should affect
to treat the government of Bengal as inferior, and that it should
impudently dare to consider an authorized envoy from that state, as a
messenger from a provincial government, may well excite our surprise
and indignation.

_May 6th._--About this period intelligence was brought to court that
an ambassador from Cochin China had arrived at the mouth of the
river. After crossing the peninsula of Cambodia, he took shipping at
the port of Saigon, and, attended by a numerous train of followers,
arrived at Paknam in a small fleet of praws. Notice of his arrival
was immediately conveyed to Court. The Chief of Paknam was ordered to
entertain the ambassador during his stay at that place, and in the mean
time the requisite measures were taken for the purpose of conveying
him to the capital in a manner suitable to his rank. The festivities
of Paknam, though not of the most costly nature, were probably the
best the country could afford. They lasted for several days, and
consisted chiefly of scenic representations, musical entertainments,
and gymnastic exercises.

An event of this nature was calculated to excite attention and awaken
curiosity; it was altogether unexpected by us. We were naturally
desirous to compare our own situation with that of the Cochin-Chinese,
endeavouring thence to form a judgment of the real sentiments of the
Siamese respecting the English mission.

What the real object of this embassy may have been, we had no correct
means of ascertaining, but the avowed and ostensible one was said to
have originated in a feeling of gratitude on the part of the reigning
king of Cochin China, for the asylum and protection that had been
granted to his predecessor by the King of Siam, in the midst of
his misfortunes, when his country was usurped by his own rebellious
subjects, and he himself an exile and a suppliant in the land of
strangers. He had now sent his ambassador to assure the King of Siam
of his good and peaceable intentions, and of his desire to confirm
the bonds of amity with a nation which had behaved with so much
disinterestedness towards his family, during the anarchy of the civil
war which had driven them from the throne.

An embassy which the same king had some time ago sent to the Barman
Court had excited distrust and jealousy in the Siamese, who regard the
Barmans as their natural and most implacable enemies. Watchful at all
times of the conduct of the Cochin-Chinese, and uncertain how the new
king of that country might be affected towards them, this unexpected
embassy to the Court of Amarapura awakened their fears. An embassy was
immediately sent to Cochin-China, for the avowed purpose of discovering
the motives of the embassy to Ava, as well as to sound the inclination
of the new king towards the Siamese. The present embassy, therefore,
might be considered as complimentary to the Siamese, while the
distinction with which it was received evidently shewed that they were
flattered by it. It would perhaps be deemed more curious than useful
or flattering, to contrast the reception which this ambassador, a
simple messenger from a comparatively small state, received, with that
which had so lately been bestowed upon the mission from the Governor
General of British India. It is sufficient to observe, that even the
Prince Chroma Chit, one of the principal members of the Government, was
known to express his regret publicly that the Cochin-Chinese ambassador
should have arrived at such a time, as the English gentlemen could not
fail to make unfavourable comparisons.

About a week after the arrival of the ambassador at Paknam, it would
appear that all the necessary preparations for conveying him to the
capital had been made ready. A numerous set of boats was appointed for
his service. In these he embarked with his train of followers, and
proceeding by easy stages up the river, treated with entertainments and
every mark of distinction and civility by the way, he arrived at Bankok.

The weather was mild and agreeable, particularly calculated to display
a procession of this nature to every advantage. The scene, too, was
interesting beyond expectation; it was both beautiful and picturesque.
The rapidity with which the boats and barges moved, the order and
regularity with which innumerable rowers raised and depressed their
paddles, guided by the shrill notes of a song that might well be
deemed barbarous, together with the singular and barbaric forms, the
brilliant colours, the gilded canopies of the boats, the strange and
gaudy attire of the men, the loud and reiterated acclamations of
innumerable spectators,--gave to the transient scene an effect not
easily described.

It was now, for the first time, that we had an opportunity of seeing
those singular and highly ornamented royal barges which had attracted
the attention of M. Chaumont and suite, ambassador to Siam from the
Court of Louis XIV. The description given of them by Loubere, in his
_Histoire de Siam_, will, with very little alteration, apply to those
now in use. They are in general from sixty to eighty feet, or more, in
length, about four in breadth, and raised about two feet in the middle
from the water, the bow and stern rising boldly to a considerable
height. They are highly-ornamented with curious and not inelegant
devices, all of which are neatly carved on the wood and gilt. The form
is that of some monstrous or imaginary animal. In the centre there is
erected a canopy, generally well gilt, and hung with silken curtains,
or cloth interwoven with gold tissue. The space under the canopy is
calculated to contain but one or two persons, the rest of the boat
being entirely occupied by the rowers, often to the number of forty or
fifty.

The procession moved in the following order:

Four long boats in front, with numerous rowers, dressed in red jackets,
and wearing tall conical caps of the same colour. These boats were
covered with a light awning of mats.

Six richly-ornamented boats, with gilded canopies, in the form of a
dome, and richly carved. In these were the assistants and suite of the
ambassador. Each boat carried two small brass swivels in front; the men
were dressed as in the former. About forty rowers were in each boat.

A very handsome, richly-ornamented barge, with a gilt canopy of a
conical shape, and rich curtains; in which was the ambassador, bearing
the letter from the King of Cochin China.

Four or six boats similar to those in front.

In the course of a few days after his arrival at Bankok, he was
admitted to an audience of the king, without going through those forms
which had been pointed out as necessary to be observed by the Agent to
the Governor General. The Cochin-Chinese ambassador neither visited the
Prince Chroma-Chit, nor his deputy the Pra-Klang, Suri-Wong, before he
had obtained an audience of the king.

His first, and public interview with the king is said to have been
friendly and somewhat familiar. No business is ever transacted on
such occasions. The king, seated under a rich canopy, received the
ambassador in the hall of audience, according to his more usual custom.

The ambassador was carried to the palace by his own followers in a
palanquin, preceded by a number of armed men. He got out of his vehicle
at the inner gate, and walking up to the hall of audience, without
laying aside his shoes, took his seat in the place allotted to him,
taking his own interpreter along with him.

Although no business was transacted, the interview lasted for a
considerable time. The hall, as on the occasion of our introduction at
court, was crowded with persons of various rank.

On the _20th_, the ambassador paid his first visit to the Pra-klang,
on which occasion we had an opportunity of seeing him and his suite,
our chambers being so situated as to afford a view of all that passed
during the interview. The Siamese choose the early part of the night
to pay their visits. The Pra-klang, on this occasion, had lighted
his rooms in the handsomest style, and had disposed of his gayest
furniture with all the taste he was master of. A new carpet and cushion
were produced for his own use, while the old one was abandoned to
his visitor, who was also to occupy the place the chief was wont to
recline on during visits, the latter retiring to a more distant part of
the room.

All the servants and retainers of the chief were summoned to attend
on this important occasion, and now lay prostrate on the floor, like
so many inanimate images, at one end of the room, in a double row. A
number of lights were placed outside, and persons bearing torches were
posted from the bank of the river to the house.

It was evident that the Pra-klang was anxious to make as great display
as possible before the stranger, and though the taste exhibited
throughout, and more particularly in the too profuse decorations of
the room, were widely different from what we are accustomed to admire,
yet it must be admitted that the effect produced was altogether
surprising, and far beyond what we could have anticipated from a
people unquestionably very rude in many of the arts of civilized life.
It deserves to be mentioned, however, that the glass manufacturer of
Europe had contributed not a little towards this display.

The ambassador seemed little inclined to abate one jot of his dignity
on this occasion. After keeping the anxious chief and his bustling
attendants in suspense for several hours, he at length appeared with
twenty or thirty attendants, and some persons bearing presents in boxes.

The ambassador was rather an elderly man, below the middle stature, of
a thin, lanky, and spare habit, with sharp eyes and sunk cheeks. He was
remarkably fair for an Asiatic. He wore on his head a piece of black
crape, loosely rolled into the form of a turban. He had on a loose
gown, with wide sleeves, of the same material and colour as his turban,
and both he and his suite were habited in black. Several chobs were
carried before him, and three black umbrellas were held over him. A few
menials were dressed in jackets of coarse red cloth and conical caps,
surmounted by a plume of red hair.

The address of the ambassador was both dignified and easy. He stood on
the threshold for an instant, surveying the room, regardless of the
chief, and advanced to the carpet in the centre of the place. He here
made a slight salutation by raising his right hand towards his face.
His interpreter and a few others seated themselves by him. Sweetmeats
were now introduced, and after the lapse of an hour or so, they parted.

On the _17th May_, the noisy ceremony called Khon-chook terminated, on
which occasion the English and Portuguese in the place, consisting of
Mr. Crawfurd and suite, Mr. de Sylveira, the Portuguese consul, and
his secretary Mr. Baptiste, Captain M’Donnell of the John Adam and
two of his mates, Captain Smith and Mr. Storm of the brig Phœnix, and
two Portuguese from Macao, were invited by the Pra-klang to a dinner
prepared in the European fashion.

I have before remarked that it is an invariable and very ancient custom
amongst the Siamese to preserve a lock of hair on the forehead of their
children, which is guarded intact until a certain period of their age,
when it is cut with great ceremony. The ceremony is called Khon-chook,
and takes place at the 11th, 13th, or 15th year of age, according to
the inclination of the parents. It is a time of great festivity and
shew. The relations and friends of the family make presents according
to the extent of their ability; the priests are frequently assembled
to say prayers; are fed and presented with new robes of yellow cloth,
that being the only colour they are permitted to wear. Different bands
of national music are assembled, and the festivities are kept up with
unceasing attention for the space of five days. On this occasion,
the eldest, and favourite son of the Pra-klang, a puny, sickly, but
intelligent boy, had attained the proper age for the performance of
this ceremony. The rank and situation of the father was such as to
command a very bountiful supply of presents. Of these we may instance
that of the Prince Chroma-chit, who is said to have given four catties
of silver, equal to 240 ticals, and that of the Agent to the Governor
General, who gave five. The tical is somewhat less than a third more
in value than a rupee.

This ceremony would appear to be more agreeable to the tenets and
practice of the Hindu than of the Bauddhic religion. The priests of the
latter took no farther interest in it than to repeat certain prayers
at particular periods, whilst the tonsure is, in fact, performed by
a Brahman, with great ceremony, and an affectation of mystery, after
he had repeated a set of unintelligible prayers. A few Brahmans are
maintained in the country for the due performance of this particular
ceremony. The Siamese entertain considerable respect for the professors
of the Hindu faith. It is not to be expected however that Brahmans so
situated, exiled from the soil which originated and cherished their
faith, would long preserve its tenets in purity. The prayers of the
priests of Buddha were repeated by several persons at once, in a sort
of recitative style, and, as usual, in the Pali or sacred text, a
language altogether unintelligible to the vulgar, and but imperfectly
understood even by the greater number of priests. The multitude listen
to these prayers with the most perfect indifference. They neither
observe decorum nor respect on such occasions, each seeming by his
conduct to imply that this was a business which touched him little,
either as regards this world or the next. Even in the temple, their
respect for the sanctity of the place, which the presence of their
idols might be supposed to command, is but little observable. Both
priests and laymen are often seen squatted on the pavement playing at
chess, and other games of chance, before the shrines of the gods.

Several of the best bands of music were assembled on this occasion,
and relieved each other in succession. One of these consisted of
female performers only; the others of male performers, whose music was
occasionally interspersed with the plaintive notes of a female voice.
The difference of the several bands consisted chiefly in the greater or
less power, or body of the music, if I may so express it; the softest
and most pleasing being that of the female band.

The Siamese are naturally very fond of music, and even persons of
rank think it no disparagement to acquire a proficiency in the art.
This music is for the most part extremely lively, and more pleasing
to the ear of an European, than the want of proficiency in the more
useful arts of civilized life would lead him to expect of such a
nation. Whence this proficiency has arisen may be somewhat difficult to
explain, more especially as the character of their music partakes but
little of that eccentricity of genius and apparent heaviness of mind
and imagination, for which they are, in other respects, so remarkable.
We have no means of ascertaining what is of domestic origin, or how
much they may be indebted to foreign intercourse for the improvement
of their music. On inquiry we were told that the principal instruments
were of Barman, Pegu, or Chinese origin, and that much of the music had
been borrowed from the two first mentioned nations, particularly from
Pegu.

It is somewhat singular that these nations again consider the Siamese
as superior in musical skill, and attribute to the latter the invention
of the principal instruments, as may be seen in Colonel Symes’s account
of those countries.

It might be supposed that the Siamese had borrowed their music from
the same source that they have their religion, the softness, the
playful sweetness and simplicity of the former seeming to harmonize in
some degree with the humane tenets, the strict morality and apparent
innocence of the latter. The prominent and leading character, however,
of the music, appears to be common to the Malays, and other inhabitants
of the Indian islands, as well as to the whole of the Indo Chinese
nations.

My friend Captain Dangerfield, himself an adept in musical science,
remarks, that the music of the Siamese differs from that of all
barbarous tribes, in being played upon a different key--on that, if I
understand him right, which characterizes the pathetic music of certain
European nations. There is certainly no harsh or disagreeable sound,
no sudden or unexpected transition, no grating sharpness in their
music. Its principal character is that of being soft, lively, sweet,
and cheerful, to a degree, which seemed to us quite surprising. They
have arrived beyond the point of being pleased with mere sound--the
musician aimed at far higher views, that of interesting the feelings,
awakening thought, or exciting the passions. Accordingly they have
their different kinds of music, to which they have recourse according
as they wish to produce one or other of these effects.

Their pieces of music are very numerous. A performer of some notoriety,
who exhibited before us, stated that he knew one hundred and fifty
tunes. This man brought with him two instruments, the one a wind,
the other a stringed instrument. The former, called klani, resembled
a flageolet, as well in form as in the tones, which however, were
fuller, softer, and louder, than those of that instrument. His manner
of blowing on it resembled that of a person using the blow-pipe. He was
thus enabled to keep up an uninterrupted series of notes.

The other, a more curious, as well as more agreeable instrument, is
called tuk-kay, from its fancied resemblance to a lizard, though in
point of form, to me it appears to approach nearer to that of a Chinese
junk. It is about three feet long, has a hollow body, and three large
sounding holes on the back, which is of a rounded form. It is composed
of pieces of hard wood, inlaid with mother-of-pearl. Three strings, one
of brass wire, the others of silk, supported on small bits of wood,
extend from one end of the instrument to the other, and are tuned by
means of long pegs. The performer pressing his left hand on the cords,
strikes them at proper distances, with the fore-finger of the right.

There is another instrument, called khong-nong[7], the music of which
is also very pleasant. It consists of a series of small cymbals of
different sizes, suspended horizontally in a bamboo frame, forming a
large segment of a circle. It is sometimes so large, that the performer
may sit within the circle of the instrument, his back being then turned
to the vacant space.

The tones of this instrument are very pleasing. It is usually
accompanied by the instrument called ran-nan; this is formed of flat
bars of wood, about a foot in length, and an inch in breadth, placed
by the side of each other, and disposed so as to form an arch, the
convexity of which is downwards. Both this and the last-mentioned
instrument are struck with a light piece of wood, or a small mallet.

The task were more tedious than useful or entertaining to enumerate all
the musical instruments used by the Siamese. They have herein displayed
much ingenuity, and no inconsiderable proficiency, combining various
instruments so as to produce a very pleasing effect. In conclusion, we
may observe, that there is a very remarkable difference between the
character of their vocal and instrumental music, the former being as
plaintive and melancholy, as the latter is lively and playful.

_20th May, 1822._--Though but little of an agreeable or satisfactory
nature has occurred respecting the commercial or political objects of
the mission since our arrival, it seems proper that we should here
take a brief and cursory view of these transactions. As the subject
was unavoidably rendered one of public notoriety, and often became
matter of conversation between Captain Dangerfield and the Agent to
the Governor General, occasionally even at the table of the latter, it
became no very difficult matter to gain some insight into the affair; I
mean that persons who, like myself, were unconnected with political and
commercial matters, could thus become in some degree acquainted with
what was going forward: the more so, as the Portuguese of the place,
and the captains and officers of the two English ships in the river
were favourably situated for acquiring the fullest information on the
subject. From these sources my information has been principally drawn.

FOOTNOTES:

[6] According to Loubere, Pra-Klang is the same title as Barkalan.

[7] See RAFFLES’ _Java_, Vol. 1. 470.




CHAPTER V.

    INTERVIEW WITH THE PRA-KLANG.--MR. FINLAYSON CALLED UPON TO VISIT A
    CASE OF CHOLERA IN THE PALACE.--MISSION NOT VISITED BY ANY PERSONS
    OF RESPECTABILITY.--PARTIES AT THE COURT OF BANKOK.--NOTHING
    GRANTED IN FAVOUR OF COMMERCE.--AGENT TO THE GOVERNOR GENERAL
    LEAVES WITHOUT AN AUDIENCE.--BANKOK, THE DWELLINGS MOSTLY FLOATING
    RAFTS. INHABITANTS MOSTLY CHINESE. MANUFACTURES OF TIN, LEATHER,
    CAST-IRON VESSELS.--BALACHANG.--SIAMESE EAT FLESH, BUT DO NOT
    KILL.--PALACES AND TEMPLES, OR PRACHADIS OF BANKOK.--IMAGES OF
    BUDDHA EXCESSIVELY NUMEROUS.--ANALOGIES BETWEEN THE PYRAMID OF
    EGYPT AND THE BAUDDHIC DAGOBA.


It has already been mentioned that the Agent to the Governor General
had visited the Prince Chroma-Chit, previously to his introduction to
the king. On that occasion, however, neither political nor commercial
matters were so much as touched upon, as will be seen by reference to
the account of the interview given by Lieutenant Rutherfurd, the prince
having merely observed, relative to such matters, that the Pra-klang
would, in ordinary matters, be the medium of communication between
them, but that he would at all times receive the Agent to the Governor
General.

Sometime after the audience of the king had taken place, the Agent had
a second interview with this prince; but neither on this occasion did
the objects of the mission enter into the subjects of conversation,
either directly or indirectly.

Mr. Rutherfurd and I accompanied Mr. Crawfurd on this occasion. The
interview took place at the particular request of the prince, who
also named the hour of audience. We reached his mansion, a dirty and
mean-looking building, though spacious within and tolerably well fitted
up, at the appointed hour. We were shewn into an open court, at one end
of the edifice, as a waiting-room; this place was neither decent nor
respectable. A crowd of noisy, dirty, and ill-bred slaves or attendants
crowded round the place, or were lolling on the floor, never taking
the least notice of us, unless to shew intentional insolence. One or
two small rushlights placed upon the floor cast a dim and gloomy light
around the room, by the aid of which we could discover in a niche, a
number of small wooden images, partly Chinese, and partly Siamese. In
this place the Agent to the Governor General was kept waiting upwards
of two hours. The chief Suri-Wong happening to come in, stated that the
prince was at prayers, and that this was the cause of delay. Yet the
hour had been named by the prince himself.

At length, however, it was intimated that the prince was ready to
receive the Agent according to the usual custom of the Siamese; we
found him extended upon his back, and rolling about upon a small piece
of carpet. He took no notice of us on our entrance; the attendants, who
were all prostrate, near to the threshold, directed us to sit down upon
a piece of handsome carpet, near to the door, and at a distance from
the prince; which might be deemed more than respectful. Mr. Crawfurd’s
interpreter was not permitted to enter with him, but by perseverance he
forced his way near to the door, where he had to undergo many a severe
pinch and other insults from the out-door attendants, who wished to
drive him away.

The conversation turned upon the government of our Indian possessions,
and particularly on that of Ceylon. The prince hearing that I had been
in that country, for which they entertain the highest respect, calling
it by the name of Lanka, and regarding it as the source from which
they have drawn their religion, put numerous questions respecting the
state of the Bauddhic religion, the number, size and condition of the
temples, pra-chadis and images, as compared with those of Siam.

He then inquired into the state of medicine amongst the people of
Europe, asked how many diseases the human body was subject to, whether
they all admitted of cure, and so forth. This sort of conversation
lasted for nearly two hours, at the end of which, conceiving probably
by our manner that we were heartily tired, both by his questions, as
well as by the constrained posture which we were obliged to assume
in sitting upon the floor, he told us that we might depart. The
conversation of the prince would lead us to infer that he is a man
of more curiosity than talent, though in respect to the latter, he
did not appear to be particularly defective. He seemed desirous that
vaccination should be introduced into the kingdom, and inquired, as it
were incidentally, if it were possible to procure a gentleman of the
medical profession from Bengal. On being told that such a person might
be procured by his writing to the Governor General on the subject, he
took no further notice of the matter.

Some time in the course of this month, I was requested to wait upon the
prince, about midnight, on account of a lady of rank in the palace, who
was said to be labouring under a severe attack of cholera morbus. He
expressed his thanks for the promptitude with which I had attended to
his request; stating that the person on whose account I had been called
was now considered to be somewhat better, and that she had fallen
asleep; that however in the course of a few minutes he should receive
another report, and begged that I would remain, in order to accompany
him to the palace of the king, if the report should be unfavourable.
In the meantime he ordered betel, _&c._, to be laid before me, and
commenced a conversation in which he seemed much interested, respecting
the sick lady, and our method of cure in this disease. A report
came that she was better and still asleep; he asked if the latter
circumstance were favourable, and seemed surprised when told that in
this disease, in particular, sleep was in general rather apparent than
real, and therefore a very fallacious symptom, and to be judged of
correctly by actual inspection only. He now shewed great eagerness to
obtain some portion of the medicines used in the cure of cholera. In
answer to his demands on this subject, I replied that it was necessary
I should see the sick person before I could say with accuracy what
would be proper for her; that he must necessarily be but imperfectly
acquainted with the manner of describing diseases, and that I myself
was but very imperfectly acquainted with the language through which we
communicated; and that therefore I could not be supposed to acquire
very correct information on the subject of the disease in question;
and that besides, it happened that medicines which were proper at one
period of the disease were hurtful at another.

He was by no means satisfied with these reasons; for after a few
minutes he returned to the same subject, saying that he should wish to
have some of my medicines by him, to give to his people in the event
of their being seized with the complaint. With this request I readily
complied, and gave the necessary instructions, which were carefully
written down by an attendant. He continued in conversation on this and
other subjects, for nearly three hours; when, becoming impatient at
this idle and unnecessary occupation of my time, I told him that it was
my wish to depart as it did not seem likely that my advice would be
required. With this request he complied, again stating his obligations
to me, and that he would request me to attend in the morning on the
lady, if she should not be better. The poor lady, however, was not
destined to see the light of another day. It had happened, as I had
forewarned the prince, that after the more violent symptoms of the
disease had subsided, she fell into a state of stupor, which the
attendants had mistaken for that of sleep, and she never awakened again.

At one period of her illness, they certainly appeared disposed to break
through all ceremony, and, for once at least, to admit an European into
the interior apartments of the women. The fallacious change which had
taken place some time previous to death, seems alone to have prevented
them from breaking through the rule.

But to return from this digression, to the objects of the mission. It
has been already mentioned that to Chroma-Chit[8], an illegitimate
son of the reigning king, the commercial affairs of the nation are
intrusted; besides which he is inspector of the eastern maritime
provinces of Chantibond and Bombasoi. He is but the fourth in point
of rank among the king’s ministers, though commonly, but erroneously,
considered to be the first and even heir to the throne, by the few
Europeans who visit Bankok. This notion has arisen from their being
unacquainted with the others, with whom, as they have no business
to transact, and being for the most part incurious respecting such
matters, they have but little chance of becoming acquainted. It was
only after repeated inquiry, that we were enabled to ascertain his
rank. Of the princes superior in rank to Chroma-Chit, we know nothing
but by report, as we have neither visited nor been invited to visit
or to meet them, the prince Chroma-Chit and his assistant Suri-Wong
being the only persons of any rank whom we obtained an opportunity of
visiting. Neither did any persons of respectability visit us, unless
we might by chance induce them in passing to step into our rooms, or
unless they wished to procure medicines, which was sometimes the case.
We had anticipated this circumstance, and were not therefore much
surprised at being left so much to ourselves.

It had been well for the success of the mission, if our acquaintance
had not extended to persons of meaner condition. But from what has been
already stated, it will be seen, that persons, destitute alike of rank,
of respectability, of authority, and above all of honesty and good
faith, were left to conduct the affairs of the mission with the British
Agent. This was but a sorry compliment to the government of Bengal,
which, with a degree of liberality equalled only by its disinterested
conduct, held forth to the Siamese far greater advantages than it asked
for its own subjects.

The Siamese are too low in the scale of nations to be able to form
a just estimate of the advantages of friendly intercourse with such
a government. It is to be suspected too that the mean-spirited and
grovelling persons who conduct the commerce of the kingdom, have
greatly thwarted the objects of the mission, by misrepresenting
its real views. What else was to be expected of such men as the
Malay Kochai, and a tribe of exiled and emigrant natives of the
coasts of Malabar and Coromandel, whose interests depend solely upon
the exclusion of Europeans from the country; or at least upon the
prevention of a free trade.

Yet it was with such persons chiefly, I might almost say exclusively,
that the negotiations had been carried on; with the exception of a few
interviews with the Pra-Klang. Even the Prince Chroma-Chit, much less
the other ministers of the government or the king, obtained nothing
directly from the British Agent, but always through the medium of
others, and generally through Kochai Sahac. Mr. Crawfurd at length
discovered that this man was totally unworthy of his confidence, and
that his conduct was altogether worthless, but it was now unfortunately
too late. The cunning and duplicity of Kochai were calculated to
deceive. He is in fact an agent employed only for mean purposes, and
to agitate affairs which his principals might consider discreditable
to themselves. It might, doubtless, have been foreseen that nothing
liberal or honest could come from such a quarter. It had been well,
too, to have rejected all communication with agents of such inferior
rank and worthless conduct. They are apt to injure national as well as
individual character.

It must be confessed, however, that it is no easy task to conduct
affairs to a favourable termination with such people as the Siamese;
and that it is much more easy to detect difficulties than to surmount
them; to discover errors than to obviate or to remedy them. We arrived
in the country ignorant of the manners of the people, and of the state
of political opinion; for even in this despotic government the spirit
of party is not unknown. That knowledge which we subsequently acquired
would, doubtless, have been of the first importance to the British
Agent, had he possessed it on landing in Siam.

The history of past negotiations is sufficient to prove that
neither privileges, nor immunities, nor advantages of any kind, are
to be gained from the Ultra-Gangetic nations, by submission, by
condescension, or even by conciliation, or by flattery. They despise
the former as a proof of weakness; the latter, as arguing a mean
spirit. Threats and aggression are neither justifiable nor necessary. A
dignified, yet unassuming conduct, jealous of its own honour, open and
disinterested, seeking its own advantage, but willing to promote that
of others, will doubtless effect much with nations of this stamp of
character, and must in the end be able to accomplish the object desired.

It deserves to be mentioned that the king’s ministers are divided
into two parties. The Prince Chroma-Chit, enriched by the commerce
of the nation, and supported by the influence which the management
of the treasury has thrown into his hands, stands at the head of one
party, and exerts a degree of influence in the councils of the king,
to which his rank alone does not appear to entitle him. He is more
feared than beloved or respected by the people. He and his party are
more remarkable for their wealth, than for respectability. They are
well disposed to extend the limits of foreign commerce, as bringing
the means of increasing their own power and influence, but they are
either too ignorant or too weak to effect this on sound principles.
The other and more respectable party, consisting of the princes
Chroma-Lecong, chief judge, Chroma Khun, minister of the interior, and
Chau-Chroma-Sac, commander of the forces, entertain no very exalted
opinions of the advantages of commerce in general, oppose the plans of
the others, and are unwilling to lay aside their ancient prejudices.

The business of the mission, as has been already observed, was agitated
in detail with the Malay Kochai. It is stated that Mr. Crawfurd drew
up a treaty consisting of thirty-nine articles. These were listened
to with great attention, and it seemed as if matters were going on
very successfully for the mission. After they had all been agitated,
however, they were successively thrown aside, till nothing whatever
remained of the treaty which could be interpreted into a concession in
favour of commerce, unless we consider the reduction of the duties,
one or two per cent., as deserving of that appellation; and even this
paltry matter they refused flatly on the very first occasion, by
telling Mr. Storm, when concluding some commercial transactions with
them, that they would not reduce the duties until five English ships
should visit the port annually, or until after the lapse of a specified
number of years.

This was in fact the _coup-de-grace_.

Nothing whatever had been granted in favour of commerce. The business
of the mission had now come to an end.

It was stated by Mr. Crawfurd, that the king was to grant an interview
to the Agent of the Governor General on his taking leave. We have heard
nothing further of this matter. It is the acknowledged custom of the
court to grant such interview[9]. The ambassador from Cochin China had
obtained his audience of leave, and dropped down the river this day,
(11th June,) on his return home.

The king of Siam did not condescend to return a written answer to the
Governor-General of British India. It was stated that the Pra-klang
would write to him, on which Mr. Crawfurd represented that in this case
the letter must be addressed to the secretary of government.

It now appeared, however, that this office was delegated to a person
of still inferior rank, the Pra-klang’s assistant, Pya-pee-pat Ko-sa.
This letter was written in the Siamese and Portuguese languages. That
in the latter was shewn to me by the writer. It went merely to specify,
that Mr. Crawfurd had brought presents and a letter from the Governor
General. That the tenor of this letter stated that England had enjoyed
profound peace for some years past,--that Bengal did so also,--that
the Governor General was desirous to contract friendship with the king
of Siam,--that all British ports were as free to the Siamese as to
our own subjects. In reply, the letter from Pya-pee-pat stated that
British vessels may at all times visit Bankok; but nothing was said of
privileges, or freedom of commerce, or even of the reduction of duties.

The Chuliahs and Portuguese, or rather the descendants of the latter,
were assembled at the house of the Pra-klang, to deliver this letter
to the Agent of the Governor General, but neither the Pra-klang
himself, nor even his assistant, attended. It would appear that there
was something informal in the letter, or that they would not give the
letter written in the Siamese language. It had not, therefore, been as
yet delivered over to the British agent.

_June 11th._--The Cochin Chinese ambassador and suite passed down the
river, in two praus, adorned with numerous standards, on their return
to their country.

_June 12th._--It had been reported for several days back, and
occasionally stated by Mr. Crawfurd, that the delay which has occurred
in the delivery of the letters to the British mission, had led the
Siamese government to consider further of the matter, and that they now
intended to grant documents, in the form of a commercial treaty. In
the course of the evening of this day, the documents alluded to were
produced, and delivered to the Agent in our presence. They consisted
of the Siamese and Portuguese letters formerly alluded to, the former
wrapped up in silk, and sealed, intended to be delivered to Mr.
Prinsep; the other, said to be an exact translation of the former, was
open, and intended for the inspection of the Agent of the Governor
General. To these were now added a brief letter, also in Siamese and
Portuguese, from the Pia-chulah, the head chuliah or moorman of the
place, inferior in rank to Pya-pee-pat, and an under-collector of the
customs. This was addressed to Mr. Crawfurd, and a sealed copy was sent
for Mr. Prinsep. This states merely that English ships will be received
into the port, on their complying with the usual rules, landing their
guns and small arms at Bankok, paying the usual export and import
duties, and port charges. That the Pia-chulah will assist them in
disposing of their cargoes; and that no more than the usual duties will
be exacted.

_June 17th._--Sufficient time had elapsed since we arrived in this
place, to have enabled us to gain a tolerable acquaintance with the
city and its environs. Unfortunately, however, for my pursuits, it had
so happened, that I was able to turn this tedious and irksome delay
to little advantage; for having been seized with a slight bilious
fever on the passage from the coast of Borneo to that of Cambodia,
which was soon after followed by an attack of pneumonia, attended
with several relapses, I have been reduced to the necessity of keeping
much at home. A few visits to the city have been all that we have yet
accomplished. The country affords but little facility for walking, or
travelling in any way, so that we have been able to penetrate but a
mile or two in any direction, except by water. All attempts to proceed
into the interior, and even to Yuthia, have been jealously watched,
and our requests have been carefully evaded, though not directly
refused. Thus situated, we are but ill qualified as yet to speak of the
agriculture of the country, or the condition of the peasantry. Frequent
conversations with respectable individuals among the natives, together
with what we have ourselves occasionally seen, have given us some
insight into the habits of the people, their manners, their laws, their
religion, &c.

Bankok, as being the capital of the kingdom, deserves to be more
particularly mentioned. Though but of modern date, it has become the
chief city in the kingdom, a distinction which it owes chiefly to
its having been rendered the seat of government, by the Chinese king
Pia-tac. Previous to his time, the place was of little importance, and
noted chiefly for the excellence of its fruits, which were sent in
great abundance to Yuthia, at that time the capital.

The capture and plunder of the ancient city by the Barmans, together
with the disastrous events which followed, induced many of the
inhabitants to abandon the place. Pia-tac collecting the scattered
remains of the dispirited inhabitants around him, was soon in a
condition to establish a new city. The site of Bankok offered several
advantages over that of Yuthia. He constructed a fort on the right bank
of the river, the walls of which, as well as his palace, if a building
of such wretched appearance deserve that name, are still to be seen.
The successes of Pia-tac, in his wars against the Barmans, enabled him
to realize his views with regard to Bankok. Since this time it has
constantly been on the increase. The successors of Pia-tac have had
it equally in view to aggrandize the place. They have built several
new palaces, and other public buildings; but the edifices on which
the greatest care, labour, and expense, have been bestowed, are the
temples, including the usual ornamental building, called Pra-cha-di,
of a spiral form, probably the sepulchral monument of Buddha. The
palace of the present king is situated on the left bank of the river,
nearly opposite to the old palace of Pia-tac, upon an island from
two to three miles in length, though of inconsiderable breadth. The
palace, and indeed almost the whole of this island is surrounded by a
wall, in some parts of considerable height, here and there furnished
with indifferent-looking bastions, and provided with numerous gates
both towards the river and on each side. Both the king and several of
his ministers reside within this space. The persons attached to the
court are very numerous, and also reside here, in wretched huts made
of palm-leaves. There is, in fact, but little distinction between this
place, and other parts of the town, except it be that you see few
Chinese there, and that the shops are of inferior quality. The greater
part, however, of the space included by the wall, consists of waste
ground, swamps, and fruit-gardens.

The city is continuous with the palace, extending on both sides of the
river to the distance of three or four miles; it lies principally on
the left bank, and the most populous as well as the wealthiest part
lies nearly opposite to the house of the Pra-klang, but a little lower
down. The town is built entirely of wood, the palaces of the king,
the temples and the houses of a few chiefs being alone constructed of
brick or mud walls. The mildness of the climate, the cheapness of the
materials used in building, and the few effects of which the natives
are possessed, render them indifferent to the destructive ravages of
fire. The ruin occasioned by this element they regard with perfect
indifference. From the great length which the city occupies along the
banks of the river, it might be supposed to be a place of vast extent:
this, however, is not the case. The Siamese may be said to be aquatic
in their disposition. The houses rarely extend more than one or two
hundred yards from the river, and by far the greater number of them are
floating on bamboo rafts secured close to the bank. The houses that are
not so floated are built on posts driven into the mud, and raised above
the bank, a precaution rendered necessary both by the diurnal flow of
the tides, and the annual inundations to which the country is subject.
It has been said that there are but few, I had almost said, no roads
or even pathways. To every house, floating or not, there is attached a
boat, generally very small, for the use of the family. There is little
travelling but what is performed by water, and hence the arms both
of the women and men acquire a large size from the constant habit of
rowing.

The few streets that Bankok boasts are passable on foot only in
dry weather: the principal shops, however, and the most valuable
merchandise, are found along the river in the floating-houses. These
floating-houses are occupied almost exclusively by Chinese. In the
most populous parts of the town the latter would appear to constitute
at least three-fourths of the whole population; and if we were to
form an estimate of those that are to be seen at all hours moving up
and down the river in boats of various kinds, often forming a very
animated scene, the proportion would be still greater on the side of
the Chinese. There are but very few parts of Bankok where the Chinese
do not appear to exceed the natives in number. The greatest uniformity
prevails in the appearance of the houses--a handsome spire here and
there serves to enliven the view, and these are the only ornaments
which can be said to produce this effect, for the singular architecture
displayed in the construction of the temples and palaces can hardly be
considered in this light.

A more particular account of the floating-houses has been given above:
like every other building in the place, they consist of one floor
only. The houses generally have a neat appearance; they are, for the
most part, thatched with palm-leaves, but sometimes with tiles. They
are divided into several small apartments, of which the Chinese always
allot the central one for the reception of their household gods. The
shops, forming one side of the house, being shut up at night, are
converted into sleeping apartments. The whole is disposed with the
greatest economy of space: even the narrow virandas in front, on
which are usually disposed jars of water, pots with herbs and plants,
bundles of firewood, _&c._ They have become so habituated to this
sort of aquatic life, as scarcely to experience any inconvenience
from it. The walls and floors of the houses are formed of boards, and
considering the nature of the climate, such buildings afford very
comfortable shelter. The houses of the common people are equally
wretched in appearance with those of a common bazar in India. Those
occupied by the Chinese are in general neater and more comfortable.
The latter people are not only the principal merchants, but the only
artificers in the place. The most common trades are those of tin-smith,
blacksmith, and currier. The manufacture of tin vessels is very
considerable, and the utensils being polished bright, and often of very
handsome forms, give an air of extreme neatness to the shops in which
they are displayed. Were it not for the very extraordinary junction
of the trade of currier, such places might readily be mistaken for
silversmiths’ shops. The occupations just mentioned are carried on in
the same shop conjointly, and by the same individuals. The preparation
of leather is carried on to a great extent, not for the purpose of
making shoes, which are scarcely used, but for covering mattresses and
pillows, and for exportation to China. After tanning, the leather is
dyed red with the bark, I believe, of a species of Mimosa. The hides
used are principally those of the deer, which are to be had in the
greatest abundance. Besides these, they use that of the ox and buffalo.
Leopards’, tigers’ skins, _&c._, are preserved with the fur on, and
exported to China. There are, in the place, one or two manufactories
of shallow cast-iron pots, also conducted by Chinese: the process is
extremely simple, and the articles are sold remarkably cheap. From the
practice of these and other trades, the Chinese derive a very handsome
livelihood; they are consequently enabled to procure more generous food
than the natives. It is even a common boast with the labourers of this
class, that they live better than the first chiefs of the country.
Their food, however, is gross and rich to excess; pork is their
principal and favourite diet, oil is reckoned scarce less savoury, and
their vegetables are invariably brought to table floating in a sea of
fat. A Chinese thus expends more money on eating, in one week, than a
Siamese in two or three months, and his superior industry will enable
him to do so.

The food of the Siamese consists chiefly of rice, which is eaten with
a substance called Balachang, a strange compound of things savoury
and loathsome; but in such general use, that no one thinks of eating
without some portion of it. Religion offers but a feeble barrier
against the desire to eat animal food, and the Siamese easily satisfy
their conscience on this score. They conceive that they have obeyed
the injunction of the law, when they themselves have not killed the
animals. They do not hesitate to purchase fish, fowls, _&c._, alive in
the market, desiring the seller to slay them before he delivers them
over, well contented that the crime must remain attached to the latter.
Their devotion, at times, goes the length of inducing them to purchase
numbers of living fish for the purpose of turning them loose again,
and the king has often in this manner given liberty to all the fish
caught on a particular day. Yet the privilege of fishing is sold by
the king to the highest bidder, and from this source he derives a very
considerable annual revenue. The Siamese, however, are more choice in
their food, and less indulgent of their appetites than the Chinese.

The town derives but little architectural ornament from the state
of its public buildings, if we except the sacred edifice called
Pra-cha-di. The palaces are buildings of inconsiderable size
individually, in the Chinese style, covered with a diminishing series
of three or four tiled roofs, sometimes terminated by a small spire,
and more remarkable for singularity than for beauty. The palace of the
king is covered with tin tiles.

Many of the temples cover a large extent of ground; they are placed
in the most elevated and best situations, surrounded by brick walls or
bamboo hedges, and the enclosure contains numerous rows of buildings,
disposed in straight lines. They consist of one spacious, and in
general lofty hall, with narrow but numerous doors and windows. Both
the exterior and interior are studded over with a profusion of minute
and singular ornaments of the most varied description. It is on the
ends, and not on the sides of the exterior of the building, that the
greatest care has been bestowed in the disposition of the ornaments. A
profusion of gilding, bits of looking glass, China basins of various
colours, stuck into the plaster, are amongst the most common materials.
The floor of the temple is elevated several feet above the ground, and
generally boarded or paved, and covered with coarse mats.

The fabulous stories of Hindu theology figure in all the absurdity
that gave them birth, upon the interior walls. The wildest imagination
would seem to have guided the artist’s hand; yet here and there he has
portrayed, by accident, perhaps, more than by design, human passions
with a degree of spirit and of truth worthy of better subjects.
Notwithstanding the great demand there is for painting in this way,
the circumstance is singular and remarkable, that this divine art
should not only continue in its infancy among them, but that their
performances should not even indicate a capacity of attaining to
greater flights. If, as some believe, Asia has given birth to the
arts, the experience of ages has proved that she is quite incapable of
carrying them to perfection.

Here, for the first time, did I observe obscene paintings in a temple
dedicated to Buddha. In Ceylon they would have been deemed altogether
profane. We were amused to find suspended in a very handsome temple,
two coarse paintings of French ladies, in rural costume.

At one end of the temple a sort of altar is raised, on which is placed
the principal figure of Buddha, surrounded by innumerable lesser ones,
and by those of priests; and here and there is disposed the figure
of a deceased king, distinguished by his tall conical cap, peculiar
physiognomy, and rich costume. The figures of Buddha have a cast of
the Tartar countenance, particularly the eye of that race. They are
very commonly disfigured by having tattered umbrellas of cloth or paper
suspended over the head, or tied to it, and by having rags of dirty
cloth wrapped round them, it being reckoned devout to deck the statues
in this way; though as the images are all gilt, and in general well
cast, this gives them a very sorry appearance. It will scarcely be
credited how numerous the images of Buddha are in the temples. They
are disposed with unsparing profusion on the altar, of all sizes, from
one inch to thirty feet in height. In the outer courts of the temple
they are disposed in still greater number. The arrangement observed in
the temple called Wāāt-thay-cham-ponn, may be given as an instance of
what occurs in the rest.

This consists of a number of temples, Pra-cha-dis[10], and buildings
allotted for the accommodation of priests, enclosed in an ample square,
rather more than a quarter of a mile on each side. The principal
temples are further surrounded by a piazza open only towards the
temple, and about twelve or fifteen feet in breadth, and well paved.
Against the back wall, a stout platform of masonry extends round the
temple, on which are placed gilded figures of Buddha, for the most
part considerably larger than the human size, and so close to each
other as to leave no vacant place on the platform. Of these statues the
greater number are made of cast iron, others are made of brass, others
of wood or of clay, and all with careful uniformity. Several hundreds
of such images are thus seen at one glance of the eye. In other and
less spacious passages, minor figures, chiefly of clay or wood, are
heaped together in endless numbers. They would appear to accumulate so
fast, that it seems probable the priests are at times reduced to the
necessity of demolishing hosts of them.

From what has been said, it will be seen that images are here
manufactured in vast numbers. The expense in gilding alone, for every
image is gilt, must be great. Some are of enormous size; in this
temple there is one about thirty feet high. The attendants attempted
to persuade us that it was made of copper, but the application of the
knife proved it to be of hard wood in different pieces. This statue is
erect, and stands alone in a building apparently erected as a covering
for it. The more common posture in which Buddha is represented is that
of sitting cross-legged, in a contemplative attitude, the soles of the
feet turned up. In other instances he is reclining on a pillow, the
attitude also contemplative. These three are the only postures in which
the natives of Ceylon represent him. Here he is to be seen asleep, and,
as I have been told, there are even some figures that represent him as
dead.

The minor arrangements of the temples are hardly deserving of notice.
The apartments allotted for the accommodation of the priests are clean,
neat, substantial, and comfortable, without ornament or superfluity.

The Pra-cha-di of the temple called Wāāt-thay-cham-ponn, is the
handsomest of the kind in Bankok, and indeed deserving of notice on
account of its architectural beauty.

The Pra-cha-di, called, by the Bauddhists of Ceylon, Dagoba, is a solid
building of masonry, without aperture or inlet of any sort, however
large it may be. It is generally built in the neighbourhood of some
temple, but is not itself an object or a place of worship, being always
distinct from the temple itself[11]. In its origin, it would appear to
have been sepulchral, and destined to commemorate either the death of
Buddha, or his translation into heaven. Even at the present time, these
ornamental buildings are thought to contain some relic of Buddha. This
one in particular makes a light and handsome appearance: the lower part
consists of a series of dodecahedral terraces, diminishing gradually
to nearly one half of the whole height, where they are succeeded by a
handsome spire, fluted longitudinally, and ornamented with numerous
circular mouldings. The minor ornaments are numerous, and towards the
summit there is a small globe of glass. The total height would appear
to be about two hundred and fifty feet from the ground.

Minor edifices of this sort are common in every temple. They are in
general raised upon a base of twelve sides, but sometimes of eighteen.

We have no accurate data to enable us to estimate the population
of Bankok. It has been stated that the Chinese constitute at least
one-half of the whole. The remainder is composed of Siamese, native
christians of this place and of Cambodia, Barmans, Peguers, and natives
of the Malay islands and of Laos[12]. These occupy distinct portions of
the town, and associate only with each other.

FOOTNOTES:

[8] This prince, it is understood, has since succeeded to the throne,
and commenced his reign by allowing a general freedom of commerce to
his subjects and foreigners, except in the articles of fire-arms,
opium, and some few royal monopolies, which are still retained.

[9] For an account of the embassy in 1685, from Louis XIV. to the court
of Siam, the reader may consult the work of the jesuit Tachard; Des
Farges’ relation of the revolutions in Siam in 1688; Extracts from a
voyage with the armament of M. du Quesne, in 1690; and also the Memoirs
of Count Forbin, and the Universal History. The French interest was
chiefly indebted for the favourable reception and lofty honours with
which the monarch of Siam was pleased to honour his good friends and
faithful allies, the Chevalier de Chaumont and suite, to the good
offices of Constantine Phaulkon, prime minister of Siam, a native of
Cephalonia, who had commenced his career in the service of the English
company. Can we imagine that the events of those days are forgotten by
the statesmen of Siam?

[10] Literally the roof of the Pra or Lord.

[11] The design of the small chambers in the Pyramids of Egypt has been
variously explained; some considering them as sepulchral depositories,
and others as the adyta of the more sacred and retired mysteries. The
truth possibly may be that each conjecture is correct, and that in the
office of a sepulchral shrine, as well as in form, the Pyramid and the
Dagoba exactly coincide.

Among the Mackenzie collection in the Library of the Honourable East
India Company, is a volume of drawings representing the ruins of
Amarawati, an ancient city on the Kishna river, in which the form of
the interior of the Dagoba, or sepulchre of Buddha is amply illustrated.

Several circumstances and ceremonies in the religion of Buddha would
seem to identify its origin, in a great measure, with that of ancient
Egypt. The physiognomy, the form, and the stature of Buddha are as
distinctly Ethiopic as they are different from those which characterize
the various tribes which inhabit either the western or eastern parts
of the Asiatic continent. That it is a religion foreign to Asia, the
uncertainty which still exists with regard to the country or district
which gave it birth would seem to render probable. The proofs which
have been brought forward in favour of Ceylon, and of Magadha, would
seem to rest upon very slender foundations. Several festivals in this
religion bear a strong resemblance to the ceremonies performed by the
ancient Egyptians on the rising of the Nile. That called Periharah is
of this nature. The Pyramids of Egypt, are they not the prototype of
the Dagobah, or Pra-cha-di? Instead of considering these stupendous
monuments of human labour as the tombs of earthly kings, ought we not
rather to regard them as owing their origin to religious motives? It
is scarcely possible to believe that any other motive could induce men
to undertake or to execute works of such magnitude. The small chambers
found in the interior of some of them might have contained, or at least
had been intended to contain relics, such as bones of their deity.
This conjecture receives confirmation from Sir Everard Home’s account
of those bones which he examined at the desire of Lieutenant-Colonel
Fitzclarence, and which, when compared with the skeletons in the
Hunterian Museum, were decidedly those of the Bos genus. These bones
were found in the sarcophagus of the pyramid of Cephrenes. See
_Fitzclarence’s Route through India and Egypt to England_, page 499.
In addition it may be remarked, that Mnevis and Apis, the sacred
bulls, were considered as emblems of the God of Justice, and that
Dharma Rajah, or the King of Justice, is a very common appellative of
Buddha.--_Editor._

[12] Laou or Laos is the country north of Siam Proper, and immediately
adjoining the southern border of the Chinese province of Yunnan; from
this circumstance, from the reported difference of language, and from
the boundary of Siam not including the Northern Laos, the people of
Laos are, in all probability, nationally distinct from the Siamese.




CHAPTER VI.

    PHYSICAL FORM AND CHARACTER OF THE SIAMESE.--MANNERS AND
    CUSTOMS.--TREATMENT OF THE DEAD, AND FUNEREAL OBSEQUIES OF
    THE MONARCH.--LAWS.--ADULTERY.--THEFT.--HISTORY.--STATE OF
    DEFENCE.--REVENUE.--SIAMESE NUMERALS.--KALENDAR.--ANNUAL FESTIVAL
    AT THE CLOSE OF THE YEAR.--RELIGION.--LAWS OF BUDDHA.--PROVINCE
    OF CHANTIBOND THE RICHEST PORTION OF THE TERRITORY OF SIAM.--ITS
    PRODUCTS.--MINES OF GOLD AND OF PRECIOUS STONES.--ZOOLOGICAL
    REMARKS.


I have already, on more than one occasion, briefly alluded to the
physical form of the Siamese. At present I shall make such observations
as more extensive experience has enabled me to collect.

That the Siamese are one of the numerous tribes which constitute
that great and singular family of the human race, known generally by
the appellation of Mongols, will appear to most persons sufficiently
obvious. If they do not possess, in the most acute degree, the peculiar
features of the original, they are at least stamped with traits
sufficiently just to entitle them to be considered as copies. There is,
however, one general and well-marked form, common to all the tribes
lying between China and Hindostan. Under this head are comprehended the
inhabitants of Ava, Pegu, Siam, Cambodia, and even of Cochin-China,
though those of the latter country more resemble the Chinese than
the others. This distinctive character is so strongly blended with
the Mongol features that we have no hesitation in considering these
nations as deriving their origin from that source. It appears to me
that to this source also we ought to refer the Malays[13], who cannot
be said to possess national characters, at least of physiognomy and
physical form, sufficiently distinct and obvious to entitle them to
be considered as a distinct race. Where there is a difference between
the Malays and the tribes mentioned, it is more to be referred to the
condition of the mental faculty, than to that of bodily form; to the
state of manners, habits of life, language; in short to circumstances
altogether, or in great part, produced by mind. In other respects they
would appear to differ but little from the tribes mentioned above.
Traces of a much ruder people are to be met with in the mountainous
districts of these kingdoms, particularly in the peninsula of Malacca.
Our knowledge of these is much too scanty to enable us to trace their
filiation. Though generally asserted, there are no records to prove
that they are the aboriginal inhabitants of the country, at least of
any other part of it than the wilds and impenetrable forests which they
continue to occupy. The woolly-headed race, and another resembling the
Indian, are not uncommon[14]. Their origin will probably ever remain
uncertain.

The following observations will be found to apply to the several
nations already mentioned, and in general to the Chinese also, whom I
consider as the prototype of the whole race. A multitude of forms are
to be seen in every nation, not referable to any particular family or
variety of the human race. For our present purpose, we must select
such only as possess the peculiar form in the most characteristic
degree. But as all the requisites of this form are not always developed
in a very acute degree in all, we must collect from a multitude of
instances, what appears to be the predominating tendency. In this way
we may make out a portrait of the whole.

The stature of the body would appear to be much alike in all the tribes
of the Mongol race, the Chinese being perhaps a little taller, and the
Malays lower than the others. In all it is below that of the Caucasian
race. The average height of the Siamese, ascertained by actual
measurement of a considerable number of individuals, amounts to five
feet three inches.

The skin is of a lighter colour than in the generality of Asiatics to
the west of the Ganges; by far the greater number being of a yellow
complexion, a colour which, in the higher ranks, and particularly
amongst women and children, they take pleasure in heightening by
the use of a bright yellow wash or cosmetic, so that their bodies
are often rendered of a golden colour. The texture of the skin is
remarkably smooth, soft, and shining.

Throughout the whole race there is a strong tendency towards obesity.
The nutritious fluids of the body are principally directed towards
the surface distending and overloading the cellular tissue with an
inordinate quantity of fat. The muscular textures are in general soft,
lax, and flabby, rarely exhibiting that strength or developement of
outline which marks the finer forms of the human body. In labourers and
mechanics, particularly the Chinese, the muscular parts occasionally
attain considerable volume, but very rarely the hardness and elasticity
developed by exercise in the European race. On a simple inspection,
we are apt to form exaggerated notions respecting their muscular
strength, and capacity for labour. A more close examination discovers
the reality, and we find that something more than volume is necessary
to constitute vigour of arm.

In point of size, the limbs are often equal to, if not larger than
those of Europeans, particularly the thighs, but this magnitude of
volume will be found to depend upon the cause alluded to above. The
same circumstance gives to the whole body a disproportionate bulk; and
hence they form what is called a squat race.

The face is remarkably broad and flat, the cheek-bones prominent,
large, spreading, and gently rounded. The glabellum is flat and
unusually large. The eyes are in general small. The aperture of the
eye-lids, moderately linear in the Indo-Chinese nations and Malays, is
acutely so in the Chinese, bending upward at its exterior termination.
The lower jaw is long, and remarkably full under the zygoma, so as to
give to the countenance a square appearance. The nose is rather small
than flat, the alæ not being distended in any uncommon degree; in a
great number of Malays, however, it is largest towards the point. The
mouth is large, and the lips thick. The beard is remarkably scanty,
consisting only of a few straggling hairs. The forehead, though broad
in the lateral direction, is in general narrow, the hairy scalp
descending very low. The head is peculiar. The diameter from the front
backwards is uncommonly short; and hence the general form is somewhat
cylindrical. The occipital foramen in a great number of instances is
placed so far back, that from the crown to the nape of the neck is
nearly a straight line. The top of the head is often unusually flat.
The hair is thick, coarse, and lank, in some shewing a disposition to
curl on the forehead, but this is more peculiar to the Malays. The
colour is always black.

The limbs are thick, short and stout, and the arms rather
disproportionate in length to the body.

The arms, particularly in Malays, are uncommonly long. The foot is,
in general small, but the hand is much larger than in the natives of
Bengal.

The trunk is rather square, being nearly as broad at the loins as over
the pectoral muscles. There is in this respect the greatest difference
between them and the inhabitants of either India, who are in general
remarkable for small waists. The diameter of the pelvis is particularly
large, and the dimensions of the cavity would appear to be somewhat
greater than in the other races.

From this account of their form, they would appear to be admirably
calculated to execute and to undergo the more toilsome and laborious,
but mechanical, operations which are the usual lot of the labouring
classes of mankind. They have the frame, without the energy of London
porters. The greater number of them are indeed more distinguished
for mechanical skill, and patience under laborious occupations, than
for brightness of imagination or mental capacity. Others of them are
equally remarkable for indolence and aversion to labour.


MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE SIAMESE.

TREATMENT OF THE DEAD.

The treatment of the dead is not amongst the least singular of the
customs peculiar to the Siamese. It is more or less expensive according
to the rank which the individual held in the community, or the ability
of his relations. The poorest amongst them are negligently and without
ceremony thrown into the river. Those a little higher in the scale of
society are burnt; often very imperfectly, and their partially-consumed
bones are left to bleach on the plain, or to be devoured by ravenous
beasts. Children, before the age of dentition, are interred in a
superficial grave, to one end of which an upright board is attached.
Women who have died pregnant are interred in a similar manner. After
the lapse of a few months, however, their remains are taken up for the
purpose of being burnt.

With the exceptions mentioned, the practice of burning the dead
extends to all ranks. The ceremony may be witnessed almost daily in
the environs, and within the precincts of the temples. The latter are
generally provided with a lofty shed, of a pyramidal form, open on all
sides, and supported on tall wooden posts, of sufficient height to
admit of the combustion of the body without injury to the roof. Nor is
even this simple shed common to all. The avarice of the priesthood,
taking advantage of the weaker feelings of the human mind, has even
here established distinctions at which death mocks. The poorer sort,
therefore, raise the pile at a humble distance from the roof of pride.

A singular custom takes place in many instances previous to the
ceremony of combustion. It is that of cutting the muscular and soft
parts of the body into innumerable small pieces, until nothing is left
of the corpse but the bare bones. The flesh thus cut up is thrown to
dogs, vultures, and other carnivorous birds, which on this account
resort to such places in great numbers. We found one of those pyramids
covered with vultures, and the enclosure much frequented by dogs. The
scene was loathsome and disgusting in the extreme, and sufficiently
attested the prevalence of this custom. The practice is looked upon
as charitable and laudable, and the Siamese arrogate to themselves
no small share of merit in thus disposing of the body as food, the
material of life, to the beasts of the field, and to the birds of the
air. It seems probable that this singular practice is connected with
their notions of a future existence, and may have derived its origin
in some way from the ancient doctrine of Metempsychosis, so strongly
inculcated by their religion[15].

A different custom prevails among the higher orders of Siamese, which,
considering that the body is finally destined to be consumed by fire,
is as unaccountable as the other is barbarous and unfeeling. The
custom I allude to is that of embalming the dead. But what seems most
singular in this custom is, that the body has no sooner undergone that
degree of preparation which renders it capable of being preserved for
a longer period, than it is destined to be totally consumed. Were it
not for this apparent inconsistency, we should have little hesitation
in attributing the origin of this practice to that warmth of filial
affection, and the well known devotion to their ancestors, for which
the Chinese are so remarkable.

The art of embalming, as known to the Siamese, is extremely imperfect,
notwithstanding that it has been practised from very ancient times.
Its actual state is characteristic of that general ignorance of the
ornamental, as well as of the useful arts of civilized life, which I
have already hinted at on several occasions.

The process is for the most part left to the relations of the deceased,
who call in the assistance of the more experienced.

After washing the body with water, the first step is to pour a large
quantity of crude mercury into the mouth. Persons of the highest
rank alone, however, can have recourse to a material so expensive.
The others substitute honey in its stead, but it is said with a less
favourable result. The body is now placed in a kneeling posture, and
the hands are brought together before the face, in the attitude of
devotion. Narrow strips of cloth are then bound tightly round the
extremities, and the body is compressed in a similar manner. The object
of the ligatures is to squeeze the moisture out of the body. They act
also in preserving the required posture, and with this object the more
flexile tendons of the extremities are divided. In this posture the
body is next placed in an air-tight vessel of wood, brass, silver,
or gold, according to the rank of the deceased. A tube, or hollow
bamboo, inserted into the mouth of the deceased, passes through the
upper part of the box, and is conducted through the roof of the house
to a considerable height. A similar bamboo is placed in the bottom,
and terminates in a vessel placed under it to receive the draining
off from the body. If the deceased is of the rank of a prince, the
sordes thus collected is conveyed with great formality and state, in a
royal barge, highly ornamented, to be deposited at a particular part
of the river below the city. That collected from the body of the king
is put into a vessel, and boiled until an oil separates, which oil is
carefully collected, and with this they, on certain occasions, (as when
his descendants and those of his family go to pay their devotions to
his departed spirit), anoint the singular image called Sema, usually
placed in the temple after his death.

Notwithstanding the precaution of using the tubes and the tight box,
the odour, it is said, is often most offensive. In a few weeks,
however, it begins to diminish, and the body becomes shriveled and
quite dry.

The body thus prepared by this rude process is, at the proper period,
brought forth to be burnt, the relations having in the mean time made
every necessary arrangement for the solemn occasion. Early in the
morning a number of priests are assembled at the house of the deceased;
having received robes of yellow cloth, and been feasted, they repeat
prayers in the Pali language, after which the body is carried forth to
be burned. The priests receive the body as it approaches the temple,
and conducting it towards the pile, repeat a verse in the Pali
language, which has been thus interpreted to me:

    Eheu! mortale corpus,
    Ut fumus hic nunc ascendit, sic et
    Animus tuus ascendat in cœlum[16].

After the body has been destroyed, the ashes, or rather the small
fragments of bone which remain, are carefully collected, and the use
that is made of them is somewhat singular. The priests are again called
in; prayers are again repeated in the Pali language, and various
requisite ceremonies are performed, after which the ashes which had
been collected after combustion, are reduced to a paste with water, and
formed into a small figure of Buddha, which being gilded, and finished
by the priests, is either placed in the temple, or preserved by the
friends of the deceased.

This last ceremony is attended with considerable expense, and,
therefore, the poorer orders, when unable to engage priests for its
performance, keep the ashes of their relations by them, until they are
in a condition to have it carried into effect in a becoming manner.

It must be confessed, that in matters of this sort, the Siamese shew
the greatest regard to the memory of their relations and ancestors.
Where death and its dread apparatus are thus brought daily home to
the feelings,--where the mind is accustomed to view the disgusting and
humiliating phenomena that attend the last scene of mortality, it might
be thought that a stupid insensibility, if not scornful indifference,
would be the general result. We have no reason to believe that such is
the case with the Siamese. The care and attention they have bestowed
upon the remains of their relations, seem but to endear their memory
the more to them. The fear of death is, besides, of that nature, that
neither the most deliberate reason, nor the most obtuse feeling, can
lay it altogether aside. On the minds of the multitude more especially,
this fear operates strongly, and produces effects in proportion to
their degree of intelligence. Where there is already a strong tendency
towards superstition, this bias is still more heightened, and there
are perhaps few nations more strongly imbued with this sentiment than
the Siamese; and, in general, all the tribes of Mongol origin. With
them judicial astrology still holds the rank of the most important of
sciences, and is cultivated with the most scrupulous attention. Its
pretended results are required on all important occasions, either of
a public or a private nature. Nor are the most gross and revolting
superstitions confined to the vulgar, as the following anecdote
respecting the present Pra-klang, Suree-wong Montree, will shew.

This gentleman hearing of the wonderful effects said to be produced
by mercury, became extremely desirous to make proof of the popular
belief, that this metal when reduced to a solid state, confers on its
fortunate possessor the most extraordinary power, and amongst others
that of travelling into the most distant regions of the globe, without
other effort than that of the will to do so. The prospect of seeing
neighbouring kingdoms in all their nakedness was irresistible, and the
terms were so easy, and attended with so little labour, as to be quite
inviting even to the phlegmatic imagination of the Pra-klang, whose
fat, ponderous, and unwieldy corporation was more than enough to have
excited doubts of success. A quantity of the metal was procured. The
most expert magicians, alchymists, and astrologers were assembled on
the occasion, but their united skill failed to produce the much desired
effect. They boiled, and they roasted, and they tortured in every
possible way the stubborn slippery metal, but all to no purpose. The
poor Pra-klang, ashamed and disappointed, instead of flying through the
air, saw himself reduced to the sad necessity of carrying his unwieldy
bulk about the streets of Siam for the rest of his life.

Further proofs of the superstitious nature of this people were easily
furnished. The belief in the agency of evil spirits is universal, and
though disclaimed by the religion of Buddha, they are more frequently
worshipped than the latter. Nor will the darker periods of German
necromancy and pretended divination be found to exceed, in point of the
incredible and the horrible, what is to be observed amongst the Siamese
of the present day.

It is usual to inter women that have died pregnant; the popular
belief is that the necromancers have the power of performing the most
extraordinary things when possessed of the infant which had been thus
interred in the womb of the mother: it is customary to watch the grave
of such persons, in order to prevent the infant from being carried
off. The Siamese tell the tale of horror in the most solemn manner.
All the hobgoblins, wild and ferocious animals, all the infernal
spirits are said to oppose the unhallowed deed; the perpetrator, well
charged with cabalistic terms, which he must recite in a certain fixed
order, and with nerves well braced to the daring task, proceeds to the
grave, which he lays open. In proportion as he advances in his work
the opposing sprites become more daring; he cuts off the head, hands,
and feet of the infant, with which he returns home. A body of clay is
adapted to these, and this new compound is placed in a sort of temple;
the matter is now accomplished, the possessor has become master of the
past, present, and future.

The funeral ceremonies observed on the death of a king are somewhat
different from those mentioned above, but the principle is the same.
All the people go into mourning. All ranks and both sexes shave the
head, and this ceremony is repeated a third time. An immense concourse
is assembled to witness the combustion of the body. The ceremony is
said to constitute the most imposing spectacle which the country at any
time can boast.

Within the first enclosure a line of priests are seated, reciting
prayers from the sacred books, in a loud voice. Behind them the new
king has taken his station. In the succeeding enclosures the princes
of the royal family and other persons of distinction have taken their
places. It will be seen by the manner in which the funeral-pile is
lighted, how much attention has been bestowed upon the arrangement even
of the most trivial matters. A train is laid from the pile to the place
where the king stands, others to those occupied by the princes of the
family, with this distinction in their distribution, that the train
laid to the king’s station is the only one that directly reaches the
pile. That of the next person in rank joins this at a little distance,
and so of the others, in the order of rank. These trains are fired all
at the same moment.

The outer circle of all is allotted to the performance of plays,
gymnastic exercises, and feats of dexterity, and sleight of hand. The
plays are divided into Siamese, Barman, Pegu, Laos, and Chinese; and
they are so called more from the performers being of these several
countries, than from any essential difference in the drama.

The external forms of reverence for the deceased king are impressive
and unbounded; and the image formed from his ashes, being placed
upon the altar, claims scarce less devotion than that of Buddha
himself. That during life, while he yet grasped the sceptre, and made
his subjects tremble, he should impiously assume the attributes of
divinity, and claim from the unwilling mind the adoration due only
to the Deity, seems even less strange, and less revolting, than this
shameful, because voluntary prostitution of human intellect.


LAWS.

Where the government is perfectly despotic, it will readily be
conceived that law and right are but empty names, at least, as far
as regards the king, and his under-despots; that, in fact, power is
law, and right, and justice. Yet where the interests of these are
not directly involved, we shall find in the system of laws a marked
attention to distributive justice on the part of government. Necessity
itself dictates this policy, without which no government could long
exist. Under this form of administration the laws are often strictly
equitable, and severely just. Yet though the laws are good, the
propounders of them are in general corrupt; and where the channels of
justice are tarnished, it matters little to the people that they have
derived good laws from their ancestors.


ADULTERY.

The laws regarding this crime have undergone considerable changes, and
seem to have kept pace with the state of civilization. Anciently, the
punishment was left entirely in the hands of the injured husband, the
government taking no cognizance of the affair. He could put one or both
of the offending parties to death in what manner he chose. Compensation
in money or goods often reconciled the parties. Subsequently, this
unlimited power was taken out of the hands of the individual, and the
law declared that the husband had a right to put both the offending
parties to death upon the spot, but not one alone. The punishment,
to be legal, must have been inflicted instantly, and without
deliberation. The present laws have left no part of the punishment in
the hands of individuals; the crime is punishable only by fine. The
amount of the fine, though fixed, is in proportion to the rank of the
criminal. Thus, a man of low rank, offending in this manner, his equal,
or one of superior rank, pays two catties of silver, about two hundred
Bengal rupees, or twenty-five pounds sterling. A man of rank again pays
six catties.

It is reckoned a capital crime to seduce any female belonging to the
palace.


THEFT--DEBT.

The laws regarding theft are in many instances particularly severe.
After restoring the property or its value to the rightful owner, a
fine is imposed, and the culprit is cast into prison, for a longer
or shorter period, during which he is obliged not only to maintain
himself, but he is made to pay for light, and even for his lodging. Of
the greater number of debtors, begging is the only means of existence.
They are supplied with food by the people as they pass along in chains
through the bazar. Their necessities impel them to greater crimes, and
they ultimately become involved in perpetual slavery. Yet the Siamese
are undoubtedly a very charitable people, and appear to take delight
in assisting the needy, feeding the hungry, and helping the wretched.
Nor is this virtue in them connected with ostentation. Wherever want
exists, wherever distress is observed, there their aid is freely
bestowed.


HISTORY.

My information on this subject is extremely scanty, and extends back
but a few years.

The principal event which has occurred of late years in the history
of Siam, is the capture of the old capital Yuthia, by the Barmans,
under their ambitious and enterprising leader Luong Pra, whom Captain
Symes calls by the name of Alompra. This took place in the year 1767.
The king was at the same time taken prisoner, and by this decisive
blow, the Barmans may be said to have effected the entire conquest of
the country. Yet their footing was insecure. The people were rather
dispirited than subdued, and their long-cherished hatred of the Barmans
had undergone no change. In this state of things, a leader soon started
up amongst them, who though of foreign extraction, speedily acquired
influence from success.

Pe-ya-tac, the son of a wealthy China-man, by a Siamese woman, had been
brought up as a menial in the palace of the king, who became attached
to him as he grew up. He obtained the government of the province
called Muong-tac, where he conducted himself to the satisfaction of his
master, and amassed great wealth.

The war with the Barmans was soon followed by famine. Pe-ya-tac had,
on the approach of the enemy, removed with his wealth to the province
of Chantibond. In this remote quarter, his generosity fed multitudes
who were starving. He collected around him the dispirited inhabitants,
and ventured to make head against the enemy. His first efforts were
crowned with success; his followers increased in number, victory led on
to victory, until he saw the enemy expelled, and himself at the head
of the nation. He declared himself king, and removed the capital of
the kingdom from Yuthia to Bankok. He fortified the place, and built
himself a palace which is still to be seen. Every second or third year,
he was involved in war with the Barmans, whom he always repulsed. He
not only recovered all the former dominions of the kingdom, but added
to them. Having subdued his enemies, he next turned his attention to
the peaceful arts.

He readily appreciated the superior industry of his countrymen,
and granted them peculiar privileges. He behaved with the greatest
moderation, and is still extolled for his regard of justice.

In the latter years of his reign, his conduct became greatly changed.
The combined influence of suspicion and fanaticism rendered him an
object of general dread. At the same time the most sordid avarice took
possession of his mind, and led to the commission of numerous acts of
cruelty. The father of the present king headed a conspiracy against
him, and put him to death. The massacres which took place on this
occasion were less numerous than was to have been expected from the
existing state of society and public opinion.

We know but little of the character of the successor to Pe-ya-tac,
but that the kingdom readily yielded to him. He died in 1782, and the
present king ascended the throne at the same time.

The first public act of the present king’s reign was inauspicious.
He was yet scarcely seated on his throne, before he put to death his
nephew, the Prince Chau-pha, with upwards of a hundred persons of
rank, who were supposed to be too much attached to the latter. The
pretensions of Chau-pha to the throne were, if they had any existence,
but ill-supported. His popularity was the cause of his ruin. The death
of so many persons of distinction, some of whom had rendered themselves
famous in war against the Barmans, was displeasing to the people, and
occasioned considerable discontent, which nothing but the subsequent
good conduct of the king could have overcome.

The present king has been engaged in almost constant wars with the
Barmans; and it is the boast of his reign that he has lost nothing in
the contest. The Malay and other dependent states have made no effort
to throw off the yoke. Yet the kingdom is but little indebted to the
government for the tranquillity which it has enjoyed. Nothing can be
conceived more weak, or more contemptible, than the measures instituted
for its defence.

It would seem as if it feared its own subjects as its greatest enemies;
as if it dreaded domestic sedition, more than an attack from abroad.
The country lies open in every quarter, without even a shew of defence.
Thus it must ever be with governments founded on despotism. All
confidence must be destroyed, where the interests of the people are
trampled upon.


REVENUE.

The land-tax is paid chiefly in kind. Besides this, a considerable
revenue is derived from the privilege of fishing in rivers, and
of distilling arrack. Other taxes are levied in a more odious and
oppressive manner, as in the case of commercial and other monopolies.
The principal of these are monopolies of sugar, pepper, benzoin, agila
wood, and, in short, of all valuable commodities. They are delivered
to the king at a fixed price.

Arrack is consumed almost exclusively by the Chinese, and the
manufacture of it is entirely in their hands.

The privilege of distilling arrack at Bankok, is let for eighteen
peculs of silver = 72,000 ticals[17],

  At Yuthia, for    6 peculs
    Sohai           1   do.
    Ta Saim         1   do.
    Rahain          1   do.
    Camphen         1   do.
    Cha-nāāt  0 20 catties
    Korāāt    2
    Ban-chang       3
    Kan-būri     0 20 catties
    Chan-pon        0 30   do.
    Pat-thee        0 20   do.
    Chia            0 8    do.
    To-long         0 30   do.

Fruit trees, &c., are taxed as follows:--

  1 Mangoe tree     1 fuang[18].
    Mangosteen      1   do.
    Durian          1 tical each tree.
    Cocoa-nut       1 fuang for eight trees.
    Areca nut       1  do.   for 100 trees.
    Piper betel     1  do.        do.
    Tobacco         2 fuangs for 100 plants.
    Sugar cane      2  do.   per bed.

No other fruits pay duty.

The revenue derived from fruit trees alone, is said to amount to 7000
catties of silver.

That derived from the gambling houses is said to equal that from arrack.

The privilege of fishing in rivers is said to be let for eight peculs.


NUMERALS.

The notation of the Siamese seems to be exactly similar in principle
to our own, and is evidently derived from the mode used in Sanskrit,
from some ancient form of which the notation of Arabia and the west has
branched off.

  1 Nung.
  2 Sōng.
  3 Sāām.
  4 Sēē.
  5 Hāā.
  6 Hōc.
  7 Chāyt.
  8 Pāyt.
  9 Kao.
  10 Seep.
  11 See-bayt.
  12 Seep-sōng.
  13 Seep-sāām.
  14 Seep-see.
  15 Seep-hāā.
  16 Seep-hōc.
  17 Seep-chayt.
  18 Seep-payt.
  19 Seep-kao.
  20 Y-seep.
  21 Y-see-boyt.
  30 Sāām-sēēp.
  40 See-seep.
  50 Hāā-seep.
  60 Hoc-seep.
  70 Chayt-seep.
  80 Payt-seep.
  90 Kao-seep.
  100 Roy.


DAYS OF THE WEEK.

  Days.      Siamese name.    Signification of Siamese name.

  Sunday     Van-a-thed       Day of the sun.
  Monday     Van-chan             do.    moon.
  Tuesday    Van-ang-khān      do.    star ang-khan.
  Wednesday  Van-phoodh           do.    do. phoodh.
  Thursday  Van-pra-hadh    Day of the star pra-hadh.
  Friday    Van-sookh           do.         sookh.
  Saturday  Van-sao             do.         sao.


NAMES OF THE MONTHS.

  Months.   Siamese name.       Literally.
  January    Duan-aij.         1st. month.
  February   Duan-jee.         2d. do.
  March      Duan-sāām.  3d. do.
  April      Duan-see.         &c. &c.
  May        Duan-hāa.
  June       Duan-hōk.
  July       Duan-ched.
  August     Duan-ped.
  September  Duan-kao.
  October    Duan-seep.
  November   Duan-seebet.
  December   Duan-seep-song.

The Siamese year commences with the first moon in December. At the
close of the year there is a grand festival, called the feast of
the souls of the dead. At this period also the Siamese propitiate
the elements; the fire, the air, the earth, and water. Water is the
favourite element. Rivers claim the greatest share in this festival.
Rice and fruits are thrown into the stream; a thousand fantastic
toys are set afloat on the water; thousands of floating lamps cast a
flickering light upon the scene, and the approach of evening is hailed
as the season of innocent amusement, as well as of religious duty.

The Siamese affect to bestow great attention upon the construction
of their calendar. There is little difference between it and that
of the Chinese; and it is very doubtful if they could construct one
without the assistance of the latter, which they procure regularly from
Pekin. Formerly a Brahman was entertained at court for the purpose of
regulating the calendar. That office is now executed by a native of the
country, by name Pra-hora.

The Siamese years are divided as below into duodecennial periods, thus:

  Years.  Siamese name.  In English meaning.
  1st.      Chouat            Rat’s year.
  2d.       Cha-lou           Cows’ do.
  3d.       Khān           Tiger’s do.
  4th.      Thō            Hare’s do.
  5th.      Maron             Dragon’s do.
  6th.      Maseng            Snakes’ do.
  7th.      Mā-mia         Horses’ do.
  8th.      Ma-may            Goats’ do.
  9th.      Vock              Monkey’s do.
  10th.     Ray-ka            Fowls’ do.
  11th.     Chō            Dog’s do.
  12th.     Khun              Pig’s do.


RELIGION.

Our inquiries respecting the origin of the Bauddhic religion amongst
the Siamese have been attended with but little success; nor do they
leave us much ground to hope that any documents or writings they
possess are calculated to throw any certain or steady light upon this
interesting, but very obscure, subject.

The general persuasion amongst the priests, however, is, that it had
its origin in the country called Lanka[19], which they acknowledge to
be Ceylon, for which island they still entertain the highest reverence,
and imagine that there the doctrines of their faith are contained in
their greatest purity. Others maintain that it had its origin in the
country called Kabillah Path, the common name amongst the Siamese for
Europe; while others again assert it to be of domestic origin, and
taught by a man sent from God.

The person who taught them this religion is known under various names,
as,

    Ong-Sam-ma, Sam Puttho, which is said to mean Omnipotens.

    Sommonokodam, i. e., one who steals cattle. Phut, and Phuti. (Pati,
    a lord?)

    Prā-phut, the high Lord.

    Pra-phuti-roop, i. e., the image of the high Lord.

    Before he was considered sacred, his name was Prā-si Thāāt.

    He is said to have been born of a father called Soori-soo-thoght,
    and of a mother called Pra-Soori-maha-maya.

Other names of Buddha:--

    Y-thee-pee-so. Pā-kā-wā. Ora-hang.

They state that 2340 years have elapsed since the religion was first
introduced; a date which is said to be stated in their sacred books,
and particularly in that called Pra-sak-ka-rah, which was written by
Buddha himself, or at least under his direction.

He commenced the task of converting men, by teaching them a more
civilized mode of life, directing them to avoid rapine and plunder;
to cultivate the soil and to lay aside their ferocious manners, and
to live in peace with each other, and with all other animals of the
creation.

His commands were, at first, but five; they were afterwards increased
to eight. The five first alone are essential to the salvation of man,
and he who observes them will assuredly merit heaven. These five are
more particularly calculated for the lower orders; but it is very
meritorious to observe the other three.

Commands of Buddha:--

    1.[20]Panna Thi-bāt, ham-mi kha Satt.

    You shall not kill an animal or living creature of any kind.

    2. Ad thi ma than, ham-mi hai lac sab.

    You shall not steal any thing.

    3. Kham-mi sumi cha-chān, ham-mi hai somg sel năi phi ri yan than
    puun.

    You shall not have intercourse with the wives of other men.

    4. Moo-sa va tha, ham mi hai phût kohoc sab plab.

    You shall not speak an untruth or any falsehood on any occasion.

    5. Sura me rai, hai mi hai dūūm kin sung nam maou.

    You shall not drink any intoxicating liquor, or any substance
    calculated to intoxicate.

    6. Ka me sumitsa cham, ham-mi hai non kab mia.

    During the increase of the moon, you shall not, on the 8th, or on
    the 15th, have connexion with woman.

    N.B. These two days are called von-prā, i. e., Dies Domini, the
    days of the Pra.

    7. Vi ka la po chana, ham-mi hai kin khong nōek vela.

    You shall not eat after mid-day.

    8. Oocha se jana, ham mi hai nōn nūa thiang an vi chit ang gnam.

    It is not becoming to sleep on costly, soft, rich, and elevated
    beds. You shall sleep on a clean mat.

There are, as has been already observed, set days, on which it is
proper to worship at the temples, as on the 8th and 15th of the moon.
There are also other days that are held sacred, and they are pointed
out as such by persons who profess to be acquainted with judicial
astrology. This sort of divination, however, is not cultivated by
the priests, who affect to consider it as profane and improper. Yet
when the astrologers have pointed out particular days as proper for
devotion, or as being lucky or the contrary, the priests observe them.

It is customary for every Siamese to enter the rank of priests in the
course of his life. He may remain in it or leave it at pleasure.


PROVINCE OF CHANTIBOONA, OR CHANTIBOND.

The reverses of fortune which this province has undergone, within a
comparatively short period, have been remarkable. It for a long time
belonged to the ancient kingdom of Cambodia, but on the partition of
that admired and beautiful, but unfortunate country, was seized upon by
the Cochin-Chinese. It has since passed into the hands of the king of
Siam, and has constituted an integral part of his dominions since the
reign of the Chinese king.

Chantibond is a mountainous country, forming the eastern boundary of
the kingdom of Siam, dividing it from Cambodia, and situated at the
head of the Gulf of Siam. It is said to be one of the richest and most
valuable provinces of the king of Siam. It is singularly beautiful and
picturesque, diversified by lofty mountains, extensive forests, and
fertile vallies and plains. The passage thence to Cambodia is of short
distance, a ridge of mountains dividing the two countries. It possesses
a good and convenient harbour, well protected by numerous beautiful
islands in front. The river is obstructed in a great measure at its
mouth, but affords convenient and safe navigation to small vessels and
boats. It once possessed an extensive and profitable commerce, which
has been upon the decline since the place fell into the hands of the
Siamese. The produce of the country is annually removed to Bankok, and
the commerce with foreign ships is prohibited.

The principal productions are pepper, the cultivation of which may
be increased almost to an unlimited extent, benzoin, lac, ivory,
agila wood, rhinoceros’ horns, hides of cows, buffaloes, deer, &c.,
gamboge, some cardamoms, and precious stones, the latter of inferior
quality. The forests abound in excellent timber, and afford the best
materials for ship-building: accordingly, many junks are built at this
place. Many of the islands in front of the port, and particularly that
called Bangga-cha, produce abundance of precious stones. The island
Sa-ma-ra-yat, to the east of the harbour, is said to produce gold. In
the former of these islands, there is a safe and convenient harbour.

At a short distance from the coast, there is a very high mountain,
called Bomba-soi, commanding an extensive view both of Chantibond and
of Cambodia.

The amount of population is uncertain, some stating that it amounts to
nearly one million, while others reckon it under half that number. It
is composed of Chinese, Cochin Chinese, Cambodians, and Siamese; but by
far the greater number are Chinese, in whose hands are all the wealth,
and the richest products of the country. There are also from two to
three hundred native Christians in the place, who, like those in other
parts of Siam, are placed under the care of the bishop of Metellopolis,
Joseph Florens, a Frenchman.

The place is governed by a man of Chinese extraction, appointed by the
king of Siam.

Of pepper, the principal object of culture, the annual produce, at the
present time, is said to amount to 20,000 peculs. It is sold to the
king on the spot, for eight ticals a pecul. The price in Bankok is
eighteen.

The cardamoms produced in Chantibond are reckoned of inferior quality.
Those of Cambodia are reckoned the best. They are purchased on the spot
by the king, for 120 or 140 ticals, and re-sold at Bankok for 270, 280,
and even 300. They are carried exclusively to China, where they are
held in high esteem.

The agila wood of Chantibond is reckoned among the best, and is only
equalled by that of Cochin China.

The consumption of this highly odoriferous substance is very
considerable even in Siam, but the greatest part is exported to China.
Its use is of the highest antiquity, and it has in general been
allotted chiefly for sacred purposes, for the service of the temple,
and the solemn ceremonies of funeral rites. Much of it is consumed in
the combustion of bodies of persons of distinction. The Chinese would
appear to use it chiefly in their temples, both public and private,
and as every Chinese house is furnished with a small temple for the
reception of their household gods, the consumption of this wood by them
must be very extensive. It is used in a very economical and neat mode.
A quantity of the wood is first reduced to a fine powder, which, being
mixed with a gummy substance, is laid over a small slip of soft wood,
about the size of a bull-rush, so as to form a tolerably thick coating.
These small sticks are stuck on end in the temple, and being lighted,
give out a feeble but grateful perfume, the substance burning with a
slow and smothered flame. This sort of taper is made up into bundles,
wrapt up in fine paper, and sold in almost every shop.

The odoriferous principle in agila wood resides in a black, thick,
concrete oil, resembling tar or resin while burning[21]. It is disposed
in numerous cells, and gives to the wood a blackish, dotted appearance.
It is generally asserted that this is the effect of a disease in the
tree; but the opinion may well be called in question. It would rather
seem to be the natural effect of a necessary modification of the living
principle of the plant itself, no more partaking of the nature of
disease than an inevitable and destined change and termination of life
can be said to constitute such a state.

The odoriferous part is found in comparatively few trees, and those
chiefly where the trees have either died, or have been possessed of
feeble remains of vitality. The perfect trees, those bearing leaves,
or fruit in perfection, rarely possess any part of it: neither does
it appear to depend much upon the size of the tree, small ones often
affording it in large quantity, while large ones yield very little or
none at all. Is it not probable that it proceeds from an effort of
nature to support the feeble remains of vegetable life? In this case,
the juices of the plant, like the blood of animals, retreat towards
the centre, where they still, for a time, maintain the feeble spark.
The oil, in the case of this plant, is secreted in larger quantity; and
accumulating in the thicker and central parts of the tree, and towards
the root, forms the substance in question.

The Siamese name this substance--Nuga-mai, also, Mâi-hoâm. For a
botanical description of the tree, see Loureiro, page 327. Roxburgh has
also described this tree under the title Aguillaria Agallocha. Loureiro
states, that a particular, and that the most valuable variety of this
wood, is called Colambac, or Calampac. This last is represented by the
Siamese as the produce of a tree totally different.

The cause which has been assigned above for the scantiness of my
information on matters of general interest, will apply with still
greater force to the subject of natural history. Ill health, and
the restrictions under which we were placed by the government, have
rendered this subject almost a complete blank; a circumstance the more
to be regretted, for that we had reason to expect an ample accession to
our knowledge in this quarter. The few facts which I have been enabled
to collect, I shall now briefly relate.

In speaking of the peninsula of Malacca, I have said, that its
unfrequented forests seemed to contain zoological treasures yet unknown
to us. A similar remark is no less applicable to the kingdom of Siam
generally. There seems every reason to believe that an extensive search
would be attended with the happiest results to the science of natural
history. Restricted as we were from researches of this nature, we have
discovered animals in the classes Mammalia, Aves, and Reptilia, which
are either imperfectly, or altogether unknown to the European world.

Of that uncommon variety of the elephant, the white or Albino, a
description has already been given. This, however, cannot be considered
other than a variety of the common elephant of the country, which does
not appear to differ in any considerable degree from that of Hindostan
and Ceylon. All the elephants here were less in size than the Ceylon
elephant; their tusks were also shorter, and less curved; although in
one or two of those we saw, a greater degree of symmetry was noticed
than is common in this animal.

At Bankok, the elephant is hardly available to any useful purpose, few
roads existing on which he can walk. They are kept about the palace,
and used only on state occasions. The king is said to have a great
number in his possession. They are employed as beasts of burden with
the troops in the interior of the country.

A description has also been given above, of a species of white Simia.
This, likewise, is a genuine Albino. I was informed by several persons,
that about two years ago, the king had in his possession an Albino of
the deer kind. Albinos among buffaloes are in this country very common,
often indeed the most frequent and only variety of that animal, and
generally exceeding in bulk the common or original black one. It is
of frequent occurrence in the Malay Islands, and in all agricultural
countries, from Penang as far east as Java.

This prevalence of the leucæthiopic habit among so many of the more
perfect and larger animals of the Class Mammalia is deserving of
remark. How far the habit is developed by peculiarity of climate, it is
difficult to determine; the geographical limits, however, within which
this variety of animal occurs, with unwonted frequency, are not very
extensive.

It is, perhaps, but little connected with this subject to state, that
on the coasts of Siam we saw, on two occasions, a species of Porpoise
of a white colour, with a slight cast of pink. Viewing these animals
from a distance, it is of course impossible to say whether they were
of the leucæthiopic habit or not. The fact that this distinction has
not hitherto been observed in any animal with cold blood, would seem
unfavourable to the first supposition.

The Royal Tiger is extremely common in the interior parts of the
country. Their bones, as well as skins, constitute a considerable
article of commerce with China; and, from the very great numbers in
which they are exposed for sale, we may infer their frequency. The
bones are said to be used as medicine by the Chinese, and a quantity of
them may be seen suspended in every medicine-shop. The Black Tiger is
by no means rare. Both this and the former, I consider smaller than the
Bengal Tiger.

Leopards would also appear to be common. Many of the handsomest skins
are exposed in the shops on the river. Of this animal I have observed
no variety. No Jackalls, Hares, or Rabbits were seen.

FOOTNOTES:

[13] If we compare the Malays with the more acute forms of the Tartar
race, with the Chinese on the one hand, or with the Arabs or Hindoos
that frequent their islands, on the other, we may be disposed to
consider them as forming a different race. Their affinity with the
Indo-Chinese nations, whom we have every reason to consider as of
Tartar origin, is, however, quite unequivocal; and it is through this
medium, it appears to me, that we ought to trace their filiation.
The sea-coasts of the peninsula of Malacca, Sumatra, and a few other
places in that neighbourhood, will be found to afford the best forms
illustrative of the character of this tribe; as for instance, the
people called _Orang Laut_. In the better-cultivated islands, the
physical form is much modified, as well as the manners, by intermixture
with other tribes; probably with those who preceded them in the
possession of the country. Let the inhabitants of the places referred
to be compared, not directly with the Chinese, but with the Siamese,
Barmans, &c., and little doubt will be entertained as to the probable
origin of this people.

[14] A comparison of languages, both in the grammar and vocabulary,
may yet produce much light on the interesting subject of the family
origin of nations. A comparative vocabulary of some of the Indo-Chinese
languages was published by the lamented Dr. John Leyden; to render such
a compilation perfect, it should embrace, not merely the more obvious
dialects, but those of the inland recesses. Is there any affinity
between the language of the tribes who inhabit the hilly wildernesses
of the Goand country, of Rajemahal and Malwa, and those similarly
situated on the Malay peninsula, Kassai and Asam?--or extending the
investigation, do any ancient languages of the east bear affinity to
those of Ethiopia or Africa?--_Ed._

[15] A custom somewhat similar is not unknown to the Bauddhists of
Ceylon. During the late war in that country, a chief of some rank was
sentenced to undergo the punishment of death by decapitation. It was
intimated to him that government would not prevent his relations from
rendering to his body the funeral rights of his country. He replied
that it was his desire that his body might be left to be devoured by
the jackals and other wild beasts.

[16]

    Ah! mortal is the body, as now ascends this smoke,
    So may thy soul ascend to heaven.


[17] The tical is about twenty-five per cent. more valuable than the
Sicca rupee.

[18] A fuang is the eighth part of a tical.

[19] The Barmans entertain the highest reverence for Magadha; a
deputation from his Majesty of Ava visited the sacred places in that
vicinity a few years ago. Possibly this veneration for localities
changes according to political circumstances.

[20] According to Loubere, this enactment suffers various
interpretations, some abstaining from feeding on vegetables so as
to hurt the seed, and so, says he, eat only fruit; others vary the
practice of the law in the opposite direction, and hang themselves out
of devotion, which action, if performed on a certain sacred tree, is
considered as having great merit.

[21] It is, perhaps, a combination of an essential oil with resin.




CHAPTER VII.

    DEPART FROM SIAM.--SECHANG, OR DUTCH
    ISLANDS.--INHABITANTS.--ENORMOUS YAM.--BAY OF SIAM.--GEOLOGICAL
    REMARKS.--PULO PANJANG.--TWO BROTHERS ISLANDS.--PULO
    CONDORE.--GEOLOGY.--INHABITANTS.--HOSPITABLE CHARACTER.--CAPE
    ST. JAMES CURRENT.--BAY OF COCOA NUTS.--GEOLOGY, &C.--VUNG
    TAO.--COSTUME.--GOVERNOR OF KAN-DYN, A SINGULAR CHARACTER,
    TAKES CHARGE OF AN OFFICIAL COMMUNICATION TO THE GOVERNOR OF
    SAIGON.--INHABITANTS VERY POLITE.--DRESS ALMOST EXCLUSIVELY IN
    SILK.--PHYSIOGNOMY AND FORM.--HABITATIONS.--COSTUME.--SHOPS.--ROYAL
    BOATS.


Our residence at Bankok was not of a nature to excite regret on leaving
it. The mean, suspicious, and weak conduct of the Government, selfish
in all its measures, regardless of the welfare of its subjects, was
more calculated to excite feelings of contempt than of respect. The
restrictions under which they had placed the members of the mission
were certainly unnecessary, and are an additional proof of the
weakness, as well as of the ignorance of the Government. All attempts
to visit the interior of the country were unavailing. It has already
been stated that the Government of Siam is altogether despotic, and
circumstances have been related which will throw some light upon the
state of manners under this condition of government. I may here briefly
remark, before taking final leave of the Siamese, that the manners
of the highest ranks are far from engaging. We should here look in
vain for that courtly ease, and that polished exterior, so common to
almost all Asiatics of high rank. An offensive coarseness, a manifest
disregard to the feelings of others, and arrogance unbounded, have
usurped its place.

Bad government has not been able to produce effects so baneful on the
manners of the lower orders of the people. If we except low cunning
and falsehood, twin crimes, bred under the wing of despotism, we
shall find, in the manners of the latter, more that is deserving
of praise than of blame. They are kind and charitable towards each
other, peaceable and quiet subjects, and remarkable for fidelity and
honesty in their transactions. Towards strangers they are affable,
and extremely kind, polite, and attentive: they at once inspire them
with confidence; they are communicative and obliging. They have, on
all occasions, appeared to us the more amiable part of the people, and
with a very few exceptions, they were the only class that either shewed
us attention, or from whom we could gain any information. From this
class I do not separate the priesthood, in general very attentive to
strangers.

On our leaving the capital, the Court did not confer the least mark of
attention on the mission, not even so far as to learn the period of our
departure. Presents for the Governor General, consisting of Elephants’
Teeth, Agila Wood, Benzoin, Cardamoms, Pepper, Sugar, and Tin, had
been previously delivered. The Chief, Suri-Wong, asked Mr. Crawfurd to
visit him on the day of our embarkation, and on the following night,
Chroma-chit made a similar request.

Our departure from Bankok had taken place earlier than we had
contemplated, for it had been long maintained by Captain M’Donnel,
that the ship could not get over the bar of the river before the
month of September. A difference of opinion had now occurred amongst
the navigators, and it was determined that the trial should be made,
after lightening the ship as much as was consistent with safety. The
resolution was gratifying to all of us.

We embarked in the evening of the 14th of July, and on the
16th we began to drop slowly down the river. On the 18th, we
passed[22]Packnam, and on the 24th, we crossed the bar. The S. W.
monsoon blows right in upon the river, and there is consequently great
labour and difficulty in warping a ship over a mud-bank upwards of ten
miles in extent.

On the 2d of August we moved over to some islands in front of the
river, called Sechang, or Dutch Islands, for the purpose of completing
our quantity of water, taking in ballast, and fitting the ship for sea,
the rigging having been all taken down while she lay at Bankok.

On the 4th of August, we anchored in a fine deep bay, formed by the
islands just mentioned.

We availed ourselves of the necessary delay of the vessel at this
place, to make daily excursions to the surrounding islands.

The name Sechang is properly applicable only to the principal island
of the group; the next in point of size, about a mile distant to the
W., is called Ko-kan. The other islands are of trifling extent; some of
them, like the large ones, are covered with rather stunted wood, and
others are merely bare rocks, appearing above water. The two larger
islands bear marks of a considerable extent of former cultivation, and
on both, a few miserable looking inhabitants are still to be found.
The quantity of level ground is too scanty to maintain a population of
any extent, and the few persons we found here, had been compelled by
the King of Siam to live on the spot. It is difficult to conceive any
other motive for this species of banishment, than political ambition;
for such islands must be totally unproductive to the government. It
should at the same time be acknowledged, that nothing is expended in
their occupation. Though by their own account compelled to adopt this
residence, the few people whom we found here, in appearance, at least,
abundantly miserable, seemed to attach no particular hardship to their
lot.

Upon a small sandy beach, at the northern extremity of Ko-kan, are
twelve small huts, with two apartments in each, constructed of
palm-leaves, which the occupiers must have carried with them from the
inhabited parts of the continent. Of these huts, some were now empty,
but a part of the population, consisting of two or three old women, as
many old men, and a considerable number of sickly children, came out to
meet us on our landing. Premature old age had seized upon those that
had grown up, whether from the scantiness of their food, its inferior
quality, or uncertain supply, or from cares inseparable from this rude
condition of society, is perhaps doubtful. Their shrivelled limbs,
their wrinkled and contracted features, their half-famished forms,
their scanty dress, bespoke a people supremely wretched; yet their
wants were but few, nor did they importune us for the gratification
of them. The men that were present were reserved, if not sullen, and
viewed us with little interest, or perhaps with suspicion. The women,
on the contrary, were evidently pleased at our approach, and gave
every demonstration that our visit was welcome to them. Here, where we
might have expected selfishness in the most exclusive degree, we were
delighted to witness nothing but the most disinterested kindness. A
plantain, a yam, and a few pepper-corns, reared by their own hands,
were, in their eyes, commodities of the highest value,--yet these,
though they had but a scanty supply of them, were instantly produced,
and we were eagerly solicited to take them with us. They neither asked
for, nor expected any thing in return, and they seemed surprised, as
well as delighted, when on a subsequent visit Mr. Crawfurd made them
presents of cloth.

Fish forms the principal article of their food, and the surrounding
seas afford an abundant supply; but such is the poverty, or want of
energy or ingenuity in these poor creatures, that they are often very
ill-supplied from this quarter.

These poor people had laid at our feet all that was valuable in their
eyes. They gained confidence during our visit, and all of them became
more familiar. Mrs. Crawfurd had accompanied us to the village, and
her presence conferred a degree of interest upon the scene not easy
to be described. The men, stupid with wonder, seemed to look upon her
as a being of another creation; and indeed, if we cast our eyes upon
the contrast in the female forms now before us, their wonder will not
appear surprising, and these rude and wretched savages might well doubt
that they had but little connexion with our race. Never, perhaps, was
savage life more strikingly contrasted with refined; an accomplished
female, brought up in all the elegance and refinement of the first
metropolis in the world, stood opposed to the rude, scarce human forms
of the savage islanders of the Gulf of Siam!

With more confidence, but with no less surprise and wonder, the women
and children seemed anxious to approach a form which was eminently
pleasing to them, but were withheld by a sort of awe. Such a scene were
worthy of the painter’s skill.

We now ascended a neighbouring hill, on which were cultivated the
Dioscorea alata, Convolvulus Batatus, Zea Mays, and Capsicum. The
energy of vegetation in the Dioscorea seemed to have been too great
for the moderate share of industry exerted by the natives in their
rude agriculture. This luxuriant plant had spread over all the cleared
ground, choking every plant near it, and obstructing even its own
growth by the over-abundant production of stem. We have observed this
tendency in the same plant, on the opposite island. Yet it is not to be
found in the forest, nor of indigenous growth. I have never seen it but
in spots that have once been cultivated, nor have I observed solitary
plants of it. Other species of this genus are common in the forest, and
are in general solitary.

It is deserving of remark in this place, that we found on the various
islands which form this bay, and particularly upon the lesser ones, a
considerable number of plants, whose economy bears a striking analogy
to that of Dioscorea; like that useful plant, too, they belong to the
natural order Asparagi, of Jussieu. They are all creeping plants,
elegant in their form, producing abundance of fine foliage, ascending
to the tops of the tallest trees, often covering them, as it were, with
a mantle. The most extraordinary of these is a plant bearing affinity
both to Dioscorea and to Menispermum, but differing from both in some
essential generic characters. The great beauty of the creeping stem,
suspended in elegant festoons from the branches of the surrounding
trees, were sufficient to attract attention. But the most singular
property of this herbaceous plant is the disposition which it has of
forming tuberous roots of a most extraordinary size, a circumstance
the more singular, because, independent of the small size of its stem,
scarcely larger than a quill, it is found growing in the most arid and
steril situations, without a particle of earth to conceal its roots;
neither are its leaves succulent, nor its stem nor root of a texture
apparently fitted to convey a large proportion of vegetable juice, both
being rather hard and fibrous. The singular tuberosity of this plant
is formed at the exit of the root from the rock or surrounding stones,
and is, in general, buried about one-fourth under the surface. The part
exposed is globular, of a dirty-white colour, warty, and internally
the yam is tough and fibrous rather than spongy. One brought on board,
on account of its size, weighed 474 lb., and measured 9-1/2 feet in
circumference; others, of still greater size, were not uncommon. It
will be conceived, that such vast masses of vegetable matter are
but little adapted to become the food of man; it is, however, not
altogether neglected for that use, though but rarely had recourse to.
For this purpose, the farinaceous matter is separated from the juice,
vegetable fibre, and other products, by drying, maceration, _&c._ The
root is also used in medicine.

Of all the tuberous roots this would appear to be by far the largest
and most extraordinary. In other plants of the kind, the tuberosities
are proportionate to the size of the plants, and their visible means
of nourishment. In this, the yam is of the most gigantic size, and
its stem extremely small. The means of nourishment are by no means
apparent. Earth and water, the ordinary sources of vegetable nutriment,
are almost altogether wanting; the stem is not of a structure to
require any thing but simple support from the surrounding trees. There
remains no visible source but the atmosphere, to which its numerous
leaves are amply exposed, through the aid of the surrounding trees.

To the botanist these islands afford a most interesting field; and,
notwithstanding the numerous visits which we have made to them,
much still remains to be done. We never returned from them without
considerable numbers of plants that were new to us, amongst which there
are some undescribed in our systematic catalogues.

The islands abound in plants of that beautiful natural order Apocyneæ;
we found several most elegant species of Hoya amongst them. The plants
of the order Euphorbiæ are still more numerous. Ficus, several tall
species.

Of the Caprifolia there is a considerable number; but it is remarkable
that Rhizophora is not amongst them, neither are there any plants of
similar habits. The absence of alluvial soil upon the sea-coast is
probably the cause.

We were somewhat surprised to find that there were no palms. We had
found them on similar islands not far distant.

The Aroideæ are numerous; several of the plants very handsome,
exceeding the usual size of plants of that genus.

The arborescent form of vegetation prevails, but attains no
considerable height.

On the larger islands the tamarind-tree occurs frequently, and in
situations which might lead us to conclude it to be of indigenous
origin. For the most part, however, it is found in places that were
formerly cultivated, where they have in all probability been planted.
The tree is of inconsiderable size, and produces but little fruit.

For a further account of the rich vegetable products of these islands,
I must refer to the botanical catalogue.

The zoology of these islands is scarce less interesting, though more
limited, than its vegetation. Of the class Mammalia, the number of
species is extremely scanty. A species of rat, and a white squirrel,
were the only members of this class that occurred to us. The latter is
rare, about eight inches in length; an active, lively, and handsome
animal.

A species of white porpoise is common in the seas about these islands.
It is of a clear white colour, with a very slight tinge of pink. I
estimated its length to be about eight or nine feet.

Of birds we procured a fine species of black Pelican, a blue-coloured
Heron, several specimens of Columba litoralis, and a variety of the
same bird of a bluish cast; another handsome species of Columba, of an
iron-brown colour, a green-coloured species of the same bird; a species
of Falco of a white colour, and a few others, together with some
curious fish, of which, as well as of the former, figures have been
taken. Amongst the more curious objects, will be found a very beautiful
species of Lacerta, and several large species of Cancer, found by the
people at the watering-place. Descriptions of these will be found in
the catalogues.

In the examination of the rocky shores and bare cliffs of Sechang, the
geological student will find an ample field for speculation. We have
visited few islands whose structure has interested us more.

For an account of the mineral masses, see the Catalogue, and the
accompanying specimens. I shall here attempt, what these, in their
insulated state, are not well calculated to convey, some information
respecting their relative position, &c.

At various distant points on several of the islands, are to be seen,
chiefly at the time of low water, extensive masses of a coarse-grained
granite, abounding in plates of gray and black mica, and possessing
a considerable degree of slaty structure, the mica being disposed
chiefly in parallel laminæ. There is reason to suppose that this rock
constitutes the base of the islands, as well as of the bay formed
by them. On its horizontal surface, it terminates abruptly, without
ascending into elevated or peaked masses, having a rough, horizontal
surface, rarely rising above high-water mark. It is not to be seen
at any distance from the sea-shore, being there concealed by the
superincumbent rocks.

On this horizontal surface of the granite are placed two principal
superincumbent rocks, quartz-rock, and granular limestone. These seem
to rest alike upon the granite of their base, their relative position
being lateral with regard to each other. They are much intermixed, and
often alternate with each other. The quartz-rock rises into the highest
peaks; the limestone often laps over it, so as to appear to have it for
its base.

The quartz-rock varies in appearance. The grey and the white are the
principal varieties; in both there is a considerable proportion of
calcareous matter, and they effervesce briskly. Some parts are compact,
with a fracture nearly conchoidal; such are often traversed by small
seams of pure white quartz. Other parts are distinctly slaty, and here
the strata are displaced, contorted, and curved; such parts are soft;
penetrated by caves of considerable extent.

Masses of pure quartz abound in some parts of this rock.

The granular limestone is also of various appearance. It is intermixed
with small veniform portions of dolomite, finely crystallized. Both the
dolomite and granular varieties are completely soluble in sulphuric
acid.

On the smaller islands, the quartz-rock is intersected by retiform
veins of iron ore.

Both are stratified rocks; direction of the strata from east to west,
dipping to the north.

On the morning of the 13th we landed on the principal island, in
pursuit of white squirrels. Mr. Crawfurd following a narrow path-way
in the jungle, pursued it to the distance of nearly a mile, when it
suddenly opened upon a small plain, neatly cultivated with Indian corn,
chillies, yams, and sweet potatoes. It was on all sides surrounded by
hills and thick woods, and had an appearance of neatness, comfort, and
simplicity, calculated to convey an exaggerated, if not erroneous,
notion of its actual state. The cultivated part might extend to eight
or ten acres, a space too extensive for the labours of the feeble
hands of its actual occupants, who had been simply left in charge of
the rude plantation. These were a very old man and woman, the former a
Chinaman, the latter a native of Laos. They were both nearly blind. The
man, on whom we had stolen unobserved, paid at first but little regard
to his visitors. The old woman welcomed us with clamorous expressions
of hospitality. She lamented that she had nothing to offer us but some
plantains and Indian corn. Their hut, though small, was clean and neat.
The transition from civilized life to this rude spot appeared to have
occasioned no regrets on the part of either. However miserable the
condition of rude life, man easily yields to it. No pair could live in
more rude simplicity than this. A few vegetables and the pure stream
were their only viands; the face of unrestrained nature seemed to smile
upon them; yet it was but a fallacious smile; whatever was necessary
for their comfort sprung from the labour of their own hands. Their
wants were but few and easily satisfied. They felt the effects neither
of luxurious habits, nor of capricious appetites. They were exempt from
many of the miseries that accompany a more civilized state. Age alone
had laid his hand upon them, and they were gradually sinking into the
grave. Deafness was added to the loss of sight; yet they complained
only of the loss of the latter. They had naught to complain of but the
loss of that sweetest of our senses; that which adds delight to all the
rest.

The soil was here abundant, and apparently good, consisting of
vegetable mould in considerable proportion, intermixed with lime and
quartz. It was much too good to have been formed from the detritus
of quartz-rock. I may express a doubt whether the rock which we have
called by that name is fairly entitled to it.

In other parts, and particularly on the smaller islands, the soil, on
the contrary, is evidently of the nature of that formed from such a
rock,--steril, dry, earthless, stony.

Several streams of excellent water will be found on various parts of
this island, and a very fine one on the east side, to which a foot-path
leads from a fine sandy beach. On the sloping sides of the hill at this
place, is built a small Pra-cha-di or Dagoba.

The junks usually take shelter under a projecting point, which
terminates the sandy beach. The place is also convenient as affording
excellent water. Though it answers their purpose, it will not that of
European ships. Our men found out a convenient watering-place, about a
mile beyond, on the same side of the island, towards the north.

Notwithstanding the apparent natural luxuriance of these islands, they
will be found, with regard to man, to be rather steril. The proportion
of level ground is besides very inconsiderable, and the hills are too
steep to admit of easy or profitable culture. It is not therefore
likely that they will ever become settlements of any extent on their
own account.

As a depôt favourable to commercial enterprise, much might be said in
favour of their occupation. The bay is spacious and safe at all times,
the entrance wide, the anchorage good, the defence of the place would
not be difficult. It seems probable that the trade of Siam and of
Cochin China might be brought to centre here. It lies quite contiguous
to the countries which produce pepper, cardamoms, agila wood, Benzoin,
&c., articles of great demand in China.

The principal island lies in lat. 13° 12´ N., and long. 155° E.

_August 14th._--The ship being now completed for sea, weighed anchor,
and stood over, with a fair light wind, for the west side of the
gulf. On the following morning both sides of the bay were in sight.
We were within twelve or fifteen miles’ distance of the west coast.
Its appearance is singularly picturesque, yet greatly dissimilar from
that of the opposite side. The most marked difference consists in the
absence of islands on this, while on the opposite they are innumerable.

An extensive low ground, covered with thick woods, stretches along the
sea-coast. We could here see abundance of palms growing; the Palmyra
appeared to be the most common. Appearances would lead us to infer this
low ground to be well inhabited. The lofty mountains in the back-ground
render this country singularly picturesque. Sam-rayot, signifying three
hundred peaks, the name by which the Siamese designate this tract, is
expressive of its appearance. The mountain ranges run in the direction
of north and south. They are very elevated, extremely rugged on their
flanks, as well as summits, projecting into innumerable bold conical
peaks. It is perhaps a singular circumstance, considering that the
direction of these mountain ranges is from north to south, that they
are steepest towards the east, while, of mountains so distributed, it
has been observed, that the steepest acclivities lie towards the west.

Another singular circumstance in the appearance of these mountains,
is that of the insulated situation of some of the loftiest peaks, or
rather mountains. Three of the latter are perfectly conical, lofty, and
very steep, and their position is perfectly insular, miles intervening
between them and the mountain ranges from which they stand detached.
They are situated upon the flat, apparently alluvial, ground already
mentioned.

The greater hardness of the granitic mass in these will hardly account
for this circumstance.

_16th._--Continued our course along the west side of the gulf, until
we had nearly gained Point Kui. From this part of the coast we could
descry the islands off Cape Liant on the opposite side of the gulf.
The mountain ranges which were first visible when we were opposite to
Sam-ra-yot, stretch southward as far as the eye can trace them, without
apparent deviation of form or altitude.

On the 17th, we stood over to the opposite coast. We had now the
regular monsoon from the south-west. The wind steady, and the sea
moderate, but the weather almost constantly cloudy and damp. A small
species of swallow abounds in this part of the bay. Several of them
alighted on the ship, and suffered themselves to be taken.

On the morning of the 19th, Pulo Panjang, an island about three miles
long, surrounded by several lesser ones, situated a little way within
the entrance of the gulf, and distant from the land on both sides,
came in sight. The situation might be considered singular. It has been
rarely visited by Europeans, and the accounts we have of it, as well
as of its geographical position, are very imperfect. On viewing scenes
unfrequented by man, the imagination is but too apt to disappoint the
sober expectations of experience. From the familiar and the common,
it leaps at once into the extravagant, captivated with the visionary
fabric of its own creation.

The imperfection of our knowledge, independent of the peculiar
situation of P. Panjang, in an extensive gulf, little subject to the
influence of storms, had awakened expectation, which the magnitude of
the island, the tabular form of its central range of hills, and the
appearance of bold, precipitous rocks, were calculated to augment on a
more close inspection.

But nature does not always appear under new forms when we most expect
them. At four p. m. we cast anchor on the north side of the island,
about its middle, and immediately landed. An aspect more steril than
ordinary seemed to forbid our approach. The shores were rocky and
precipitous, and though there was but little swell in the sea, we
found some difficulty in reaching the shore. From the centre of the
island to the sea-shore, the land was abrupt and steep, there being
not the smallest extent of level ground. It is everywhere covered with
vegetation, of which a great part of that nearest the beach and exposed
to the direct influence of the monsoon, is stunted, herbaceous, and
disposed in what may be called laid plains or ledges, as if the herbage
had received the impression of pernicious blasts.

The coast of this island is everywhere surrounded by large fragmented
masses of sandstone, in which there is, on the whole, but little
variety of appearance. In situ, it is disposed in large, nearly
horizontal, tabular masses, at a distance wearing somewhat of a slaty
appearance. The sand-stone is for the most part red, at other times
white or gray. It is coarse-grained and gritty, presenting no vestige
of organic remains; here and there it is coloured with iron. The cement
in most parts seems to be calcareous. Here and there, large masses of
conglomerate are found; the masses that I have seen were all detached,
but in some parts the surface of the sand-stone shewed where they had
adhered; the structure of this was complex; iron seemed to form the
cement; rounded pebbles of quartz, sand-stone, iron ore and jasper,
with small bits of clay-slate, form the aggregate. Scattered over the
beach, there were found masses of coarse jasper.

Such were the principal, and almost the only mineral masses exposed to
our view, and of which, we have every reason to believe, the whole of
the island is composed.

It is not to be expected that such an island as this would afford many
zoological specimens. Of the Mammalia, we saw two animals; a handsome
species of gray-coloured Sciurus, which we had the good fortune to
procure, and a small species of Vespertilio, which fluttered about
amongst the thickest shades of the forest.

Of the Aves, we saw several of that species of Falco taken at the
Sechang Islands, the Columba alba in great numbers, and a singular
species of Columba, of a black colour and a white tail. All our
endeavours to procure the latter were unsuccessful. These, with the
blue-coloured Heron, and a small bird of the Passerine kind, were all
that we saw here.

Of vegetable productions, we procured a hardy species of vine, Vitis
Labrusca, common in the forest; it was covered with great quantities of
grapes, which, though not yet quite ripe, were not ungrateful to the
taste. The vine stretches along the trees, often to the distance of
fifteen or twenty yards.

We found also two species of Palm, and an elegant tree of the Nat. Ord.
Guttiferæ was discovered by Mr. Crawfurd; its affinity to Garcinia is
well marked, but as the leading characters do not agree with those of
that plant, it is not improbable that ours will form a new genus.

An elegant species of Begonia, apparently the Begonia crenata, grows
in the greatest abundance on the bare rocks, and on the sides of the
hills. Pandanus, Scævola, Ixora, Momordica, Calophyllum, and Erythrina,
are common here; but as we had seen all the species to be found here
in other places, it is unnecessary to take further notice of them. A
species of Scolopendrium, usually found on trees, is here terrestrial;
it grows to an immense size, the fronds being from three to four feet
in length; the greater beauty of the frond, and its singular magnitude,
are the only circumstances in which it differs from our Scolopendrium
vulgare.

The Island Pulo Panjang is, on the whole, inhospitable, affording
no temptation whatever to man to take up his abode on it. It is
unprotected against the vicissitudes of the weather, it is fully
exposed to the pernicious influence of either monsoon; it is steep,
rugged, and unproductive, and totally destitute of level ground. It has
no safe port, nor convenient anchorage, and the few streams of water
that trickle down the rocks afford but a scanty and uncertain supply.
The shores of the island are so near to its central ridge of mountains,
that but few streams can be formed.

We lay off the island all night, and set sail at an early hour on the
following morning, after an unsuccessful attempt to procure the black
pigeon we had seen here on the night before.

_August 20th._--We continued an easterly course, and about noon had
come in sight of False Pulo Ubi. About four a. m. of the 21st, we
passed the Island of Pulo Ubi, and towards evening, the barren islands
called the Two Brothers. The latter are abrupt, precipitous, and
naked rocks, covered with myriads of a species of Sterna. A large and
handsome species of Pelican, with a black body and white bill, was seen
flying about here.

On the approach of night, we had a distinct view of Pulo Condore, a
mountainous island, with a singular sharp peak in its centre. We stood
towards the island till we were within six or eight miles of it, when
the ship lay-to for the night.

On the morning of the 22d, we cast anchor under the shelter of a bold,
elevated ridge of mountains, in a spacious and beautiful bay. After
breakfast we landed on the rocks opposite, and proceeded along them
until we came to an extensive sandy plain.

The physical features of Pulo Condore may be described in few words;
the chief characteristic being a number of very steep ranges of hills,
irregularly distributed, in some parts forming semicircular bays, in
others narrow inlets, and in the interior disposed in deep basins,
ravines, and plains of small extent. It is everywhere covered with
vegetation, which on those parts most exposed to the influence of the
monsoon is stunted, almost exclusively herbaceous, and disposed in
numerous narrow and parallel ledges; while that which grows in ravines,
vallies, and other sheltered places, attains a loftier magnitude.
Towards the summits of the hills, there is scarce any vegetation.
The paucity of the Gramineæ in all these islands, and in all kinds
of soil, is a singular circumstance in intertropical vegetation. The
peculiar form and modification of vegetable life in the islands we have
lately visited, as well as in this, cannot, I imagine, be altogether
attributed to the influence of the monsoons.

It seems to me that much is owing to the nature of the soil, or more
properly of the rocks forming these islands. In all of them the rocks
are either strictly primitive, or composed of materials which once
constituted such formations. In some the mountain masses are so steep,
that whatever soil is formed is constantly carried off into the sea.
In others, the mass is of such hardness, as scarcely to yield any
detritus for ages. Such is the case here, where the rocks are composed
of granite and sienite, so hard as scarce to be fractured by any
means. It detaches large and solid masses, but yields little earth.
The material is besides unfavourable to the growth of plants. Yet the
force of vegetation, aided by the climate, and a constant source of
moisture, is such as to overcome every difficulty; and where we should
expect nothing but sterility and nudity, we find all is beauty, and
life, and luxuriance; so easily does nature, with means which seem to
us impossible, accomplish the greatest ends.

Of the geology of this island I have little more to say than has
already been mentioned, that the rocks are of the form described, and
that they are composed of granite and sienite, both of extreme hardness.

On the sea-shore we found, in full blossom, several fine trees, of the
Barringtonia speciosa, a tree well deserving of the encomium which its
beautiful appearance has elicited from authors. We had found its seeds
cast on the shores of islands in the straits of Malacca; but had not
seen the tree till now. We found here several other interesting plants.
Amongst them was another species of vine, the fruit of which made an
excellent tart.

The only quadruped which we saw in the woods, was a large species
of black squirrel. A specimen of this animal was caught alive, but
unfortunately escaped from its cage on board the ship. We were informed
that monkeys and wild hogs are to be found on the island, and that of
birds there is great variety.

After leaving the rocky coast and steep sides of the hills, we came
to a sandy plain, several miles long, through which two considerable
streams of fresh water discharge themselves into the sea.

About the middle of this plain, protected on two of its sides by an
elevated sand bank, we discovered the scanty remains of what had once
been an English factory or fort. Some native soldiers from Macassar,
who had been in the service of our countrymen, rose upon them, and
massacred the greater number, a few only escaping, by flying to their
boats. This happened in 1704.

At the extremity of this plain we came to a village of considerable
size, said to contain 300 inhabitants.

It is surrounded by plantations of cocoa-nut trees, which although they
grow in great abundance, are rather stunted in the stem, and their
fruit, as well as the fluid it contains, has a peculiar and rather
bitter taste. A few scattered plants of the Ricinus communis, Jasminum,
and some other low bushes, afford ample shelter to their houses, which
are even lower, though neat and apparently comfortable. Here, as in
most parts of India, the Vinca rosea grew luxuriously in every part
of the village. At the short distance of even fifty yards beyond it,
though there was no ascertainable difference in the soil or other
circumstances, you look in vain for a single plant.

We found here a numerous, interesting, and lively people, who no longer
had any complexion of the savage state. The colony was originally from
Cochin China, and might be supposed to be little less civilized than
that accomplished people; besides the intercourse with that country is
frequent. Some of the inhabitants, however, bore a strong resemblance
to the Malay race. A number of boys and girls were engaged at play upon
the beach; on our approach they behaved in the most respectful manner,
and it was to us a sight as gratifying as it was unexpected, to find so
much urbanity, hospitality, and politeness in this little community.
They left off play on our approach, and being joined by several elderly
persons, conducted us to an open hut, with an elevated bamboo floor,
in which the chief or governor of the place was accustomed to receive
visitors. We were here soon surrounded by a considerable number of
respectable people, among whom there were but one or two women, who
kept at a distance. Here we remained for some time, in expectation
of seeing the chief, who was rather tardy in making his appearance.
This individual was a fine old man, of an animated and interesting
appearance, as, indeed, were the greater number of the people, being
equally removed from the clumsy, loutish form and coarse, incurious
manner of the Siamese, as from the more muscular and developed frame,
and the oblique and morose character of the Chinese. All the old
men wore a thin, straggling beard. Our friend conversed with great
animation. He had not seen an European ship for many years; he had
been born on the island, which paid a tribute in turtle, and in oil
obtained from that animal, to the king of Cochin China. There are
several villages on the island, and the total number of the inhabitants
is said to amount to 800. They subsist chiefly by the products of their
fisheries, which they either carry to Cochin China, or dispose of to
junks and coasting praus, in return for grain. The quantity of rice
raised in the island is very limited. They have some buffaloes; fowls
are common. They raise yams, pumpkins, melons, capsicum, limes, and a
little Indian corn. Some cocoa-nuts were brought at our request. On our
proposing to visit the houses of the inhabitants, the chief conducted
us to his own, the largest and best in the place. A few spears and a
tomtom lay before the door. A number of persons were here assembled,
and in one corner of the room were the women of the chief. An old man
happening to sit beside me, I endeavoured to converse with him through
the medium of signs. He was much pleased with this mark of attention,
and paid me many civilities, offering betel and samsoo. I took a piece
of coarse white cloth, and wrapt it round his head by way of turban, at
which he was quite delighted. He called to a boy, and ordered him to
bring a fowl; it was in vain that I represented to him that I wished
for nothing in return, and when I refused his gift, he coolly unfolded
the cloth from his head in order to return it. I now gave him a small
piece of money, but he was not to be overcome in this way either; and
the only condition on which he would receive this also, was that of my
taking two more fowls in return.

I might have added other traits of conduct favourable to the candour
and disinterestedness of the simple inhabitants of Pulo Condor; but
this one speaks loudly. At parting, the old man extended his arms, and
expressed, in very significant terms, that he had been pleased at our
meeting. The principal people, with the chief, proposed to visit us on
board. I was happy to find my old friend among the number, and had the
pleasure of giving him great delight by presenting him with an English
knife.

We looked here in vain for the grape mentioned by Dampier, as growing
on trees in the woods. We found a species of vine, however, which
afforded a grape of tolerable size, and not ungrateful to the taste. We
saw numbers of trees in the forest, which the natives had cut in the
manner mentioned by Dampier, for the purpose of obtaining a sort of
resin or pitch.

In the evening we sailed from this place, and passed out through a wide
channel towards the north, with islands on each side.

On the morning of the 23d, the high land of Cape St. James was in
sight, and on the evening of the same day we came to anchor some miles
off from the mouth of the river. Cape St. James is the extremity of
a ridge of hills of moderate height, (about 300 feet,) forming the
left bank of the mouth of the river. It is seen at a great distance;
the land on the opposite side of the river is extremely low, and an
extensive sand bank stretches out in front of this low land to the
distance of several miles. This bank produces a singular effect at the
period of ebb tide. As we were sailing along, at some distance from
its outer edge, the depth of water being eleven fathoms, we observed
the sea towards the land to be of a muddy colour, and its edge quite
abrupt and defined. On its border there was a distinct ripple with a
slight noise, and the whole extended as far as the eye could reach. It
was in rather quick motion, and advancing towards the sea, and soon
left us in the middle of it. I have seen currents similar to this, but
of less extent, off the Maldive Islands.

On the 24th we came to anchor, near to the Bay of Cocoa-nuts, a few
miles within Point St. James, and with the evening tide stood up
the river to a village called Kan-dyu. From Cape St. James to this
village, the distance is about nine miles. The river here forms a fine,
spacious, and beautiful bay, of a semi-circular form, being bounded on
the left by the ridge of hills already mentioned. While the ship lay at
anchor near to the Bay of Cocoa-nuts, we landed on the rocks opposite.

The formation of the rocks here approaches very nearly to that which we
had observed at Pulo Condor; the materials of the granitic compounds
were however differently aggregated, and the mass here was more easily
frangible than in the former place. Granite and sienite were the only
rocks we discovered; in both, small veins of a rich iron ore were
observable. The granite was seamed in every direction; and it was not
possible to say that either rock was stratified. They appeared to exist
in equal quantity, and to alternate with each other on the rounded
sides of the hills.

We found the bamboo growing in abundance on the hills, and in a
few places the Nipa fruticans. We found also an elegant species of
Tradescantia, with a blue flower. We could hear the notes of the jungle
cock, or Phasianus gallus, in the woods, but there were on the whole
very few birds to be seen here.

As the ship was proceeding up the river with the tide, a boat came off
from the village of Vung-tao, in which was an old man and six or seven
others. The visit, it would appear, had been voluntary on their part;
they wished to point out what they considered to be the proper course
of the ship, and seemed very anxious to procure our continuance near
their village during the night. The people of this boat were affable,
and remarkably polite and animated, but rather too loquacious. They
were all decently clad; their common dress consisted of a close shirt
of black or white cotton cloth, which reached down to the thighs; a
pair of coarse loose trowsers, which reached to the knee, and a piece
of coarse cloth or handkerchief, wrapped round the head. Persons in
better circumstances wear a black crape turban of large size, and the
other parts of their dress are made of silk.

These men stated that the principal person in authority here, resided
at Kan-dyu. They offered to take a letter to him, which was sent.

On the 25th, the Chief of Kan-dyu paid us a visit on board, and took
charge of an official communication, written in English and French, to
the Governor of Lower Cochin China, who resides at Saigon. Mr. Crawfurd
was naturally anxious to see that city, the first in the empire, in
respect of commercial importance; and in his communication requested
permission to visit the place, and to confer with the Governor on the
subject of his mission.

Whilst we waited here for an answer from Saigon, we paid occasional
visits to the neighbouring village of Kan-dyu, built upon the banks of
a creek, in a situation somewhat swampy, the banks being shaded with
mangrove. The manners of the people here were so different from those
of the Siamese, that we could not but feel both surprised and pleased
at the contrast. The Governor of Kan-dyu is a singular character in
many respects: he is upwards of sixty years of age, has a long, spare,
lanky visage, in which he exhibits, in the most lively and animated
manner, a considerable variety of passion. It was truly ludicrous to
see with what rapidity his features passed from the serious to the
whimsical, from vacancy to the intensity of anger or disappointment.
The manners of the people in general were polite, I should say
refined; they were kind, attentive, and obliging; they courted rather
than shunned our society, and seemed to have less of the weakness or
ostentation of natural pride than any of the tribes we had yet met.
Their curiosity was naturally excited by the contrast which they could
not but draw between themselves and us, but in the gratification of
this feeling, or in its expression, was neither coarseness nor absence
of good-breeding; and the greatest liberty they ventured to assume
was that of simply touching our dress, with the design, I presume,
of ascertaining the materials of its texture, they themselves having
little notion of any other fit for this purpose than silk, in which all
ranks are almost exclusively clothed.

In point of stature, the Cochin-Chinese are below the standard of
the Malays and Siamese; they are at the same time less bulky, and
less clumsily made, yet even they too have something of squatness
in their figure. The general form of the face is round, and that
in an extraordinary degree; it is short, the direct and transverse
diameters being very nearly equal. The forehead is short, but broad;
the cheek-bones wide, not particularly salient; the chin is large and
broad; they want the fulness of the coronoid process of the lower jaw,
so large in the Malays and Siamese. The affinity to the Tartar race is
obvious, but less so than in the former. The beard is grisly and thin;
the hair coarse, copious and black; the eyes are more round than those
of the Chinese or Siamese, they are also smaller, but more lively; they
are, as usual, intensely black. The nose is small, but well formed,
without flatness or alar expansion; the lips are moderately thick; the
cheeks are destitute of hair, and the beard, as has been said, is very
scanty. The general form of the head is globular.

There is no unusual degree of obesity at any age. In females, at an
early period, it is, however, more developed than in men. The body is
well proportioned, and the limbs are well made, though for the most
part small. The colour is remarkably fair; in many it is more so than
is that of the inhabitants of the southern parts of Europe.

They are good-natured, polite, attentive, and indulgent to strangers.
Their manners are agreeable, and they are for the most part found in a
lively, playful humour, and strongly disposed to indulge in mirth. They
are the gayest of Orientals, yet the transition from mirth to sorrow,
and the more hateful and mean passions, seems to cost them nothing;
it is as rapid as it is unaccountable, insomuch that to a stranger
their conduct appears quite unreasonable, as well as fickle. Like the
monkey race, their attention is perpetually changing from one object to
another.

The houses are large and comfortable, constructed in general with mud
walls, and roofed with tiles. The palm-leaf is but little used. The
interior disposition of the house is somewhat peculiar. About one half
forms an open hall, in which they receive visitors, transact business,
and, if shop-keepers, dispose their wares. In the back part of this
hall is placed an altar, and other emblems of religion. The private
apartments are disposed in recesses behind; these are in the form of
square chambers, open on one side only. Their beds are formed of a
bench raised about a foot, and covered with mats.

The costume of the Cochin Chinese is more convenient than elegant. In
both sexes it is much alike, consisting of two or more loose gowns with
long sleeves, reaching to the knee, and buttoned close round the neck.
Beneath this they wear a pair of wide pantaloons, and, on occasions of
ceremony, persons of distinction throw a large black mantle of flowered
silk over the whole. The head is covered with a turban of crape; that
of the men is in general black. Over the turbans, females wear a large
hat, similar to a basket.

Dress is with all ranks an object of great attention; even the poorest
among them are clothed from head to foot, and the populace thus make a
more decent and respectable appearance than other eastern nations.

At this place we entered several of the houses, and were entertained
with kindness and hospitality. The bazar of Kan-dyu is well supplied
with fish, ducks, fowls, eggs, and whatever else is necessary for the
comfort of the natives. The shops are individually poor, and almost
every house is a shop. They are in general held by women. If they
furnish little to gratify the curiosity of a European, they supply in
abundance all that is necessary and useful to the native inhabitants.
The practice of smoking tobacco is universal, as is that of chewing
betel. Their _cheroots_ are made by wrapping the tobacco up in paper.

On the morning of the 28th of August, an answer was received from the
Governor of Saigon, who despatched a mandarin of rank to wait upon
the Agent to the Governor General, and to invite him to visit the
city. He was accompanied by several lesser mandarins, and had brought
with him three large, handsome, and highly ornamented barges, for
the accommodation of the Agent to the Governor General. The larger
contained from thirty to forty rowers each. The rowers were dressed in
coarse red cloth, faced with yellow. They wore a light cap, surmounted
with a plume of feathers. Thus dressed, they made a very handsome
appearance. Every thing here is done by soldiers; the meanest offices
fall to their lot, and these rowers were a detachment of the military
force.

Mr. Crawfurd was doubtful whether he should have time to visit Saigon,
as it was possible he might be delayed there, until it was too late to
get to Turon, the south-west monsoon being about to cease. The mandarin
assured him that he should be permitted to return in three days, and
used such arguments as convinced us that they were very anxious that he
should visit the Governor of Saigon.

On this assurance of the mandarin, Mr. Crawfurd consented to go, and
asked me to accompany him. Being uncertain how we should be received,
he left instructions with Captain Dangerfield to sail in the course
of ten days, in the event of his not hearing from him in that time;
to proceed to Turon, and to communicate his arrival to the court.
Lieutenant Rutherford was to accompany him. Mrs. Crawfurd remained also
on board.

FOOTNOTE:

[22] Packnam is a term of frequent occurrence in Siam, apparently
signifying the mouth of a river.




CHAPTER VIII.

    THE AUTHOR PROCEEDS TO SAIGON.--RIVER OF
    SAIGON.--SAIGON.--SUPERSTITIOUS EMBLEMS.--M. DIARD.--COCHIN
    CHINESE FEMALES AND MORALITY.--MARKETS.--MANUFACTURES.--BINGEH
    AND SAIGON.--FORT.--CONFERENCE RESPECTING THE GOVERNOR GENERAL’S
    LETTER.--RETINUE OF THE MANDARINS.--HOSPITALITY OF THE CHINESE
    SETTLERS.--AUDIENCE OF THE GOVERNOR OF SAIGON.--COMBAT BETWEEN
    A TIGER AND ELEPHANTS.--PROCEED TO TURON.--COAST OF COCHIN
    CHINA.--FISHING TRIBES.--BOATS.--TURON BAY.--GEOLOGY, &C.--VISIT
    TURON.--A LIMITED NUMBER ALLOWED TO VISIT HUE.--WRETCHED
    ACCOMMODATIONS FOR THE PASSAGE.


At six, P.M., we left the ship, a salute being fired on the occasion,
and the ship’s crew giving us three cheers. The barge selected for our
accommodation was comfortably as well as elegantly finished. Continuing
to row all night, notwithstanding that it rained incessantly, we were
at day-light but a short way from Saigon, and reached it at nine,
A.M. Each boat is furnished with a suitable number of officers. The
discipline of the men rests chiefly with the second, whose rank may
be equal to that of serjeant or corporal. He cheers the rowers by the
repetition of a few wild notes, which can scarce deserve the name
of a song; and he beats time to the stroke of the oar by means of
two short sticks of hard wood. The discipline of these soldiers is
severe, for even this petty officer has the power of inflicting several
hundred lashes of the rattan for slight offences. The rattan is kept in
constant exercise, as we found on our arrival at the town.

The river of Saigon is about the size of that of Siam, but appears
to carry a greater body of water. It is navigable to ships of all
sizes. It is less tortuous than most rivers, and its waters are less
turbid. Its banks are mostly covered with mangrove. We found amongst
them a very elegant species of Rhizophora, but observed no cultivation
until we were within twenty or thirty miles of the town. The number
of boats that were passing and repassing was but infrequent. As we
approached the town, we were surprised to find it of such extent. It
is built chiefly on the right bank of the river. We had already passed
a distance of several miles, and were still in the midst of it. The
houses are large, very wide, and for the climate, very comfortable.
The roof is tiled, and supported on handsome large pillars, of a
heavy, durable, black wood, called Sao. The walls are formed of mud,
enclosed in frames of bamboo and plastered. The floor is boarded, and
elevated several feet from the ground. The houses are placed close to
each other, disposed in straight lines, along spacious and well-aired
streets, or on the banks of canals. The plan of the streets is superior
to that of many European capitals.

We were now conducted to a house that had been prepared to receive
us. Several thousands of the people, besides a numerous guard of
soldiers, armed with lances, were collected to receive us. The crowd
conducted themselves with a degree of propriety, order, decency, and
respect, that was alike pleasing as it was novel to us. All of them
were dressed, and the greater number in a very comfortable manner. They
all appeared to us remarkably small; the rotundity of their face, and
liveliness of their features, were particularly striking. The mandarin
who had accompanied, conducted us to our house, and placed us in the
hall, upon benches covered with mats, opposite to each other. A number
of people were in attendance to take up our baggage, and to make such
arrangements in our quarters as we should deem necessary. The house
was one of the best in the place. It was difficult to say, whether it
partook more of the temple, or of the court of justice. In every house,
in every building, whether public or private, even in the slightest
temporary sheds, is placed something to remind you of religion, or, to
speak more accurately, of the superstitious disposition of the people;
and, as the emblems of this nature have for the most part a brilliant
appearance, they produce an effect as agreeable to the first glance
as it is striking. At one end of this hall was an altar, dedicated to
Fo, ornamented with various emblematical figures, and hung round with
inscriptions. It was easy to perceive, that affairs of state and of
religion were here inseparable. Each partakes of the same gold and
the same varnish. Immediately behind this, were placed our private
apartments. A crowd of soldiers at all times filled the court and the
ante-room, and a guard was placed in attendance at the gate and wicket.

At noon, two mandarins of justice came to confer with the Agent to
the Governor General. We received them upon our benches, immediately
in front of the altar of Fo. They were men that had passed the age
of fifty, short in stature, of easy and affable manners. They were
dressed in black turbans, and black robes of silk. They commenced the
conversation by making inquiries respecting our accommodations; then
turned to the objects of the mission, inquiring how long since we had
left Bengal; whether the letter for the king of Cochin China was from
the king of England, or from the Governor General of India; what were
the precise objects of the mission; whether we had orders to visit
Saigon, or the contrary; and if we had been at the court of Siam. To
all of these queries the answers were so plain and so candid, that
it seemed impossible they could either misunderstand or misrepresent
them. On one or two subjects, they shewed the greatest anxiety. We were
earnestly and repeatedly asked, if we came into their country with
friendly or with hostile intentions. This subject was urged with so
much earnestness, that it was impossible not to forgive their fears,
though groundless, and to participate in feelings which appeared to
proceed solely from the love they bore their country.

They now requested that the letter to the king of Cochin China should
be sent for, in order that the Governor or Viceroy of Saigon might be
enabled to forward a translation to court, together with a full report
upon the subject of our visit, but it was thought improper to comply
with this request for the present. They seemed quite satisfied with the
answers that were given, and continued the interview for nearly six
hours, conversing almost all the while on matters of business. Before
their departure they ordered provisions for our use; and soon after
arrived a living pig, ducks, fowls, eggs, sugar, plantains, and rice.

In the evening, we were visited by M. Diard, a lively and
well-educated Frenchman, of the medical profession, who had been led
into these countries by his desire to prosecute subjects of natural
history. He had already traversed most of the Indian islands, in
which he has made numerous and valuable zoological discoveries, the
subject which has principally attracted his attention. Already he has
discovered four or five new species of Simia, and as many species of
the genus Sciurus. In Java, he discovered that the large deer of that
place was a species altogether unknown to naturalists. He thinks that
he has discovered a fourth species of Rhinoceros, and is satisfied
that the Sumatran species is a distinct one. The number of new species
of birds which he has discovered is very considerable. M. Diard is
evidently a man of great enterprise and acuteness, and admirably
qualified for the arduous pursuit in which he is engaged. He is fond
of adventure, and ingenious in overcoming obstacles. From him we may
expect a full account of the zoology of these countries. He has wisely
assumed the costume, and adopted the manners of the people among whom
he resides. If there be any thing amiss in the character of Diard,
it is, (and it is with hesitation and doubt that I make the remark,)
perhaps, a disposition to over-rate the number, extent, and value of
his discoveries; and perhaps too, an ardour of zeal, which may be apt
to lead one beyond the precise limits of accurate observation. He has
been about a year in Cochin China, and four months at this place. It
is with the greatest difficulty that he can obtain from the government
permission to visit any part of the interior. He had but very few
objects of natural history, in consequence, to shew us.

_August 30th._--On going out in the morning, the guard placed at the
gate seemed doubtful whether he ought to let me pass. On my approach,
however, he drew back respectfully; but strenuously objected to
allow any of our people to pass the gate, till seeing me wait for
the painter, he permitted him to accompany me. An early visit to the
market-places served to confirm the observations I have already made
respecting the manners of the people. The Cochin Chinese cannot, I
think, be considered as a handsome people in any way, yet, amongst the
females, there are many that are even handsome, as well as remarkably
fair, and their manners are engaging, without possessing any of that
looseness of character which, according to the relation of French
travellers, prevails amongst this people. The conduct of both sexes is
agreeable to the strictest decorum. Chastity, in which they have been
accused to be wanting, would appear to be observed, in the married
state, with as much strictness as amongst their neighbours, or any
other Asiatic nation. The breach of it is held criminal, disgraceful,
and liable to punishment. It is not so, however, with regard to young
and unmarried females. Here the utmost latitude is allowed, and, for
a trifling pecuniary consideration, the father will deliver up his
daughter to the embraces of the stranger or visitor. No disgrace, no
stigma attaches to the character of the female, nor does this sort of
connexion subsequently prevent her from procuring a suitable husband.

Such commodities as are used by the natives were to be found in great
abundance in every bazar. No country, perhaps, produces more betel
or areca-nut than this. Betel-leaf less abundantly; fish, salted
and fresh; rice, sweet potatoes, of excellent quality, Indian corn,
the young shoots of the bamboo, prepared by boiling; rice, in the
germinating state, coarse sugar, plantains, oranges, pumeloes, custard
apples, pomegranates, and tobacco, were to be had in the greatest
quantity. Pork is sold in every bazar, and poultry of an excellent
description is very cheap. Alligator’s flesh is held in great esteem,
and our Chinese interpreter states that dog’s flesh is sold here.

The shops are of convenient size, in which the wares are disposed to
the best advantage. One circumstance it was impossible to overlook,
as it exhibits a marked difference of taste and manners in this people
from that of the nations of India. Articles of European manufacture
have, amongst the latter, in many instances, usurped the use of their
own; and you can scarce name any thing of European manufacture which
is not to be had in the bazars. Here, with the sole exception of three
or four case bottles, of coarse glass, there was no article whatever
to be found that bore the least resemblance to any thing European.
A different standard of taste prevails. A piece of cotton cloth was
scarce to be seen. Crapes, satins, and silks, are alone in use, the
greater number of them the manufacture of China or of Tonquin, there
being, in fact, little or no manufacturing industry here.

The articles which they themselves had made were not numerous. I may
specify the following: handsome and coarse mats, matting for the
sails of boats and junks, coarse baskets, gilt and varnished boxes,
umbrellas, handsome silk purses, in universal use, and carried both
by men and women; iron nails, and a rude species of scissors. Every
thing else was imported from the surrounding countries. In exchange,
their territory affords rice in abundance, cardamoms, pepper, sugar,
ivory, betel, _&c_. There are a few wealthy Chinese who carry on an
extensive trade here; the bulk of the people is miserably poor, and
but few amongst them are in a condition to trade but upon the most
limited scale. Few of the shops in the bazars appear to contain goods
of greater value than might be purchased for forty or sixty dollars,
and the greater number are not worth half that sum.

It is difficult to conceive that a population so extensive can exist
together in this form, with trade on so small a scale: there are, in
fact, two cities here, each of them as large as the capital of Siam.
That more recently built is called Bingeh; the other, situated at the
distance of a mile or two, is called Saigon. The former is contiguous
to a fortress which has been constructed of late years, on the
principles of European fortification. It is furnished with a regular
glacis, wet ditch, and a high rampart, and commands the surrounding
country. It is of a square form, and each side is about half a mile in
extent. It is in an unfinished state, no embrasures being made, nor
cannon mounted on the rampart. The zig-zag is very short, the passage
into the gate straight; the gates are handsome, and ornamented in the
Chinese style. We could not procure any information respecting the
population of the two cities.

A mandarin of higher rank, together with the two we saw yesterday,
came to transact business with the Agent of the Governor General; a
protracted conversation, in all respects similar to that which had
taken place yesterday, was commenced by him. He insisted that the
letter, as well as Mr. Crawfurd’s credentials, should be sent for;
this point was acceded to, and a boat was immediately despatched to
the ship, for the letter to the King of Cochin China. The mandarins
continued with us till a late hour in the evening.

_31st_, at _eleven_ a.m.--The letter arrived, and in the course of
an hour thereafter, the mandarins who had visited us first, came to
ascertain its authenticity, and to report upon the contents of it.
It was late in the evening before they could be made to understand
the subject of it, or the nature of the Governor General’s proposals
respecting commerce. An English copy of the letter, and translations in
Portuguese and Chinese, were furnished to them. M. Diard was present
at, and took a part in, the conferences that were held with the
mandarins.

_Sept. 1st._--It would appear that the Governor of Saigon had no
objections to offer upon the subject of the documents which had
been furnished yesterday; a mandarin now returned for copies of
them, stating that those which had been first furnished were to be
immediately despatched to Court. As soon as these had been furnished,
we set out in a boat with M. Diard, to visit Saigon. The distance of
this town from the citadel is about three miles, but there are houses
along the banks of the river the greater part of the way. The paucity
of junks and coasting vessels in the river was accounted for by the
lateness of the season. The number of boats that were passing and
repassing was, however, very considerable. The country here presented
the appearance of extreme fertility; the banks were covered with areca
and cocoa-nut trees, plantains, jack, and other fruit-trees. Numerous
navigable canals intersect the country in every direction, offering
every facility for the increase of commercial industry. Here, as in
Siam, the more laborious occupations are often performed by women, and
the boats upon the river are in general rowed by them. A practice,
as ungallant as it is unjust, prevails both here and in Siam; that
of making females only to pay for being ferried across rivers, the
men passing always free. The reason alleged for the practice is, that
the men are all supposed to be employed on the King’s service. It is
lamentable to observe how large a proportion of the men in this country
are employed in occupations that are totally unproductive to the state,
as well as subversive of national industry. Every petty mandarin is
attended by a multitude of persons.

The town of Saigon is built upon a considerable branch of the great
river, and upon the banks of numerous canals. It is the centre of the
commerce of this fertile province, the town of Bingeh being but little
engaged in such pursuits. A few settlers from China carry on trade on
an extensive scale, but the Cochin Chinese are for the most part too
poor to engage in occupations of this nature.

We landed about the middle of the town, and after proceeding a short
way, we entered the house of a Chinese. He received us with great
civility, and invited us to partake of refreshments; he said that he
was anxious for traffic with the English, and had now upon his hands
commodities suited for that trade.

We passed several hours in visiting various parts of the town, and
returned to our quarters in the evening highly gratified with all we
had seen, and with the most favourable impression of the manners and
disposition of the people. The attention, kindness, and hospitality we
experienced, so far exceeded what we had hitherto observed of Asiatic
nations, that we could not but fancy ourselves among a people of
entirely different character. We were absolute strangers, who had come
to pass a few hours only in the town; yet in almost every street we
were invited by the more wealthy Chinese to enter their houses, and to
partake of refreshments. They could not have known beforehand that we
were to visit the place, yet some of the entertainments laid out for us
were in a style of elegance and abundance that bespoke the affluence,
as well as the hospitality, of our hosts.

Amongst others, we were invited by three brothers who had been settled
in the country for some time. They wore the Cochin-Chinese dress, and
in appearance differed but little from the native inhabitants. Their
manners were engaging, perfectly easy and polite; their house was both
handsome and spacious, nor did any thing appear wanting to render it
a very superior mansion, even in the opinion of an European. They
received us in a large, well furnished ante-room; a table was soon
covered with a profusion of fruit, the most delicate sweetmeats, and a
variety of cakes and jellies. They insisted upon attending us at table
themselves, nor could they be induced to seat themselves while we were
present. Tea was served out to us in small cups; a large table was
also spread for our followers, who were supplied with sweetmeats in
profusion. Our hosts conversed but little; they were apparently as much
pleased with our visit, as we with the kind reception they had given us.

Let others say from what motives so much hospitality and attention
were bestowed upon perfect strangers by these intelligent and
liberal-minded Chinese; for my own part, I must do them the justice to
believe that they were of the most disinterested nature.

The bazars of Saigon contain in greater abundance all that is to be
found in those of Bingeh. Coarse china and Tonquin crapes, silks and
satins, Chinese fans, porcelain, &c., are the more common wares in the
shops. The streets are straight, wide, and convenient. The population
extensive. We entered a very handsome Chinese temple, built in good
taste, and highly ornamented. The Cochin Chinese temples, though
apparently dedicated to the same objects of worship, are of inferior
appearance.

_Sept. 2d._--We were told that the Governor would give an audience to
the Agent of the Governor General at an early hour. About ten a.m.
the mandarin, who had conducted us from the ship, came to say that
the Governor waited our arrival. Being asked what conveyance had been
prepared for us, he said that we must proceed on foot. This being
objected to, five elephants were sent for. These were furnished with
haudahs, such as are used by the natives of India. A few minutes
brought us into the citadel, where the Governor resides. His house,
though large, is plain, and without ornament, in the interior or
exterior. It is situated nearly in the centre of the fort, in an
open space. When we had arrived within fifty yards of the entrance,
we were requested to descend from our elephants, and to proceed the
remainder of the way on foot. A crowd of soldiers, armed chiefly with
spears, occupied both sides of the court. The Governor, surrounded by
the mandarins, was seated in a large hall, open in front. We advanced
directly in front of him, and taking off our hats, saluted him
according to the manner of our country. Chairs had been provided, and
we took our seats a little in front, and to the right of the mandarins.
In the back part of the hall sat the Governor, upon a plain, elevated
platform, about twelve feet square, and covered with mats, on which
were laid one or two cushions. On a lower platform to his left, and
a little in front, was seated the Deputy Governor, a fine-looking
old man, who appeared to have passed the age of seventy. Directly
opposite to the latter about a dozen mandarins, dressed in black silk
robes, were seated in the Indian manner, on a platform similar to that
opposite; and behind these stood a number of armed attendants, crowded
into one place. In front of the Governor, two Siamese, who had come
hither on their private affairs, lay prostrate on the ground, in the
manner that they attend upon their own chiefs.

The Governor of Saigon is reputed an eunuch, and his appearance in
some degree countenances that notion. He is apparently about fifty
years of age, has an intelligent look, and may be esteemed to possess
considerable activity both of mind and body: his face is round and
soft, his features flabby and wrinkled; he has no beard, and bears
considerable resemblance to an old woman: his voice, too, is shrill and
feminine; but this I have observed, though in a less degree, in other
males of this nation. His dress is not merely plain, but almost sordid,
and to the sight as mean as that of the poorest persons.

He had requested that the letter from the Governor General of Bengal
should be brought with us to the audience. Seeing it in my hand, he
inquired what it was I held; and having examined the gold cloth in
which it was contained, he returned it, at the same time observing that
having, according to the custom of the country, taken copies, it must
not be again opened.

He now inquired how long it was since we left Calcutta, and what our
respective ages were. He observed that it was customary for kings only
to write to kings;--“How then,” said he, “can the Governor General of
Bengal address a letter to the King of Cochin China?” He seemed to
comprehend what the objects of the mission were, and to view them in a
favourable light. “All ships,” he observed, “are permitted to trade
with Cochin China. If,” he continued, “the subjects of the King of
Cochin China visit Bengal or any other British settlement, it is right
that while there they should be amenable to the laws of the country,
and be judged by them. In like manner the subjects of other nations
resorting to Cochin China must be governed and judged by the laws in
use in that country; that otherwise there could be no strict justice.”
He asked if we were going direct to Turon, or the port of Hué, and what
conduct the Agent of the Governor General meant to pursue on arriving
at that place. He was told that a report of our arrival should be
immediately forwarded to court from that place; on which he observed
that the mandarin of elephants was in charge of matters of this nature,
and would give all requisite information on the subject of commercial
affairs.

I have above described, in general terms, the nature and extent of the
conversation that transpired. The mandarins appeared to be perfectly at
their ease in the presence of the Governor, exhibiting neither fear nor
awe of any kind. They frequently addressed questions to us during the
interview. The conversation was carried on through the medium of the
Portuguese language, by means of a native called Antonio.

Towards the close of the conversation, M. Diard came in, dressed in
the style of a mandarin, and took his seat beside us. Tea was offered
to us, according to the usual custom.

In front of the hall was a cage containing a very large tiger, which
the governor had caused to be caught, in order that he might exhibit
to us a fight between that fiercest of animals, and the elephant.
We were asked if the spectacle would be agreeable to us, and on our
replying in the affirmative, he gave the necessary directions on the
subject. In the midst of a grassy plain, about half a mile long, and
nearly as much in breadth, about sixty or seventy fine elephants were
drawn up in several ranks, each animal being provided with a mahawat
and a hauda, which was empty. On one side were placed convenient seats;
the governor, mandarins, and a numerous train of soldiers being also
present at the spectacle. A crowd of spectators occupied the side
opposite. The tiger was bound to a stake, placed in the centre of the
plain, by means of a stout rope fastened round his loins. We soon
perceived how unequal was the combat; the claws of the poor animal
had been torn out, and a strong stitch bound the lips together, and
prevented him from opening his mouth. On being turned loose from the
cage, he attempted to bound over the plain, but finding all attempts
to extricate himself useless, he threw himself at length upon the
grass, till seeing a large elephant with long tusks approach, he got
up and faced the coming danger. The elephant was by this attitude,
and the horrid growl of the tiger, too much intimidated, and turned
aside, while the tiger pursued him heavily, and struck him with his
fore paw upon the hind quarter, quickening his pace not a little. The
mahawat succeeded in bringing the elephant to the charge again before
he had gone far, and this time he rushed on furiously, driving his
tusks into the earth under the tiger, and lifting him up fairly, gave
him a clear cast to the distance of about thirty feet. This was an
interesting point in the combat; the tiger lay along on the ground
as if he were dead, yet it appeared that he had received no material
injury, for on the next attack, he threw himself into an attitude of
defence, and as the elephant was again about to take him up, he sprung
upon his forehead, fixing his hind feet upon the trunk of the former.
The elephant was wounded in this attack, and so much frightened, that
nothing could prevent him from breaking through every obstacle, and
fairly running off. The mahawat was considered to have failed in his
duty, and soon after was brought up to the governor with his hands
bound behind his back, and on the spot received a hundred lashes of the
rattan.

Another elephant was now brought, but the tiger made less resistance
on each successive attack. It was evident that the tosses he received
must soon occasion his death. All the elephants were furnished with
tusks, and the mode of attack in every instance, for several others
were called forward, was that of rushing upon the tiger, thrusting
their tusks under him, raising him, and throwing him to a distance. Of
their trunks they evidently were very careful; rolling them cautiously
up under the chin. When the tiger was perfectly dead, an elephant was
brought up, who, instead of raising the tiger on his tusks, seized him
with his trunk, and in general cast him to the distance of thirty feet.

The tiger fight was succeeded by the representation of a combat of
a different description. The object of it was, to shew with what
steadiness a line of elephants was capable of advancing upon, and
passing the lines of the enemy. A double line of entrenchments was
thrown up, and in front of it was placed upon sticks, a quantity of
combustible matter, with fire-works of various descriptions, and a few
small pieces of artillery. In an instant the whole was in a blaze, and
a smart fire was kept up. The elephants advanced in line, at a steady
and rapid pace, but though they went close up to the fire, there were
very few that could be forced to pass it, of all them shuffling round
it in some way or other. This attack was repeated a second time, and
put an end to the amusements.

The governor now called us to the place where he was seated, and said
it would be agreeable to him if we would remain another day, to see
the city; and that a comedy should be prepared for our amusement. Mr.
Crawfurd stated our reasons for wishing to depart, and we took our
leave of him, much gratified with the attention he had shewn us.

_Sept. 3rd._--The boats we had come in were in attendance at an early
hour. We embarked at six a.m., and reached the ship about five p.m. of
the same day.

On the following morning, we weighed anchor, and continued our voyage
to Turon with a strong s.w. wind. On going out of the river, the ship
had very nearly struck upon a shoal or bank, not marked in the charts.

_Sept. 14th._--The voyage from Cape St. James to the western bound of
the bay of Turon, was accomplished in moderate weather, and with a
fair wind, until we approached the bay, when the winds, though light,
became contrary. We have in consequence been off this point for the
last four days, without being able to get into the harbour though so
near, a strong current, apparently from the gulf of Tonquin, carrying
the ship to the westward. The coast of Cochin China, from Cape St.
James to the bay of Turon, is singularly bold and picturesque. A
continuous and lofty chain of mountains stretches throughout the whole
of this distance, in the direction of the sea-coast, that is from S.E.
to N.W. There rarely intervenes any considerable distance between the
mountains and the sea-shore, the latter being either abrupt, bold, and
precipitous, or begirt with a narrow sandy beach. The ranges of hills
are numerous, and for the most part are seen to rise above each other
in gradual succession, as they recede from the sea. Their abrupt,
acuminated, and ridgy forms, their steril summits, their steep flanks,
leave little room to doubt that the greater part, and the whole of the
western half of these mountains are granitic. Near to the middle of the
chain, they become less bold and less elevated, while their forms are
rounded at top. With this change, increased fertility of the soil, and
a country better adapted for the support of man, comes into view. Here
human industry struggles against the inequality of the soil. Numerous
fields are observed to occupy the sides of the hills, and a vast fleet
of boats plying in the open sea, indicates the existence of a numerous
population. Some of the islands along the coast are also cultivated
in a similar manner. Indian corn, the smaller kinds of grain, as the
Cynosurus coracanus, some species of pulse, yams, sweet potatoes, and
capsicum, are all that such soils can be expected to produce; and
together with an abundant supply of fish, would appear to constitute
the food of the inhabitants of this part of the coast. Their boats are
in shape similar to those of the Malays, but are differently rigged,
having a large square shaped sail in the middle, and one at each end,
somewhat similar to the former. At a distance they look like small
ships. They are extremely numerous, several hundreds of them being
sometimes in sight, and all under sail. They are not to be induced to
visit ships upon their passage this way.

Such numerous fleets of boats naturally suggest scenes of industry,
social happiness, and domestic comfort, connected with them. We imagine
that in them we see the active aim that is to furnish to thousands of
their fellow-citizens a large proportion of their daily sustenance.
We imagine that this numerous body of men cannot but acquire wealth
themselves, while they at the same time enrich the state. How different
the picture which a more close inspection portrays! With scarce a rag
of clothes to cover them; without either house or home, other than that
which their frail bark, covered with a sorry matting, affords, with
a scanty supply of poor and perhaps, unwholesome, food; in this way
does a numerous but wretched population lead a life of misery. The more
barbarous of the _Orang Laut_ are not more squalid, or more wretched,
than many of the fishing tribes that occupy the coasts of Cochin China.
The facility with which subsistence, though a miserable one, is to be
procured in this occupation, will account for the great numbers that
are engaged in fishing. It requires no funds, and but little industry,
to put a family in the way of providing for itself. Hence every boat
is for the most part the residence of a single family, and as the
source from which they derive their subsistence is inexhaustible, there
appears to be no limit to the increase of marriages amongst them. A man
of ordinary industry is capable of constructing with his own hands,
the machinery and materials necessary for the existence of himself and
family. Of these, the boat is the principal and an indispensable part,
and here we observe a much cheaper and easier mode of constructing
them than is generally adopted throughout these seas. The practice of
hollowing out single trees must be painful, tedious, and difficult.
The Cochin Chinese have substituted, in its stead, a sort of basket
work, of very close texture, of which they form both the bottom and
the greater part of the sides of the boat. This close basket-work,
or matting, is made of split rattans, and being stretched upon the
frame, is well covered with pitch. The upper work is, however, formed
of one or two planks, and the boat is further strengthened by a deck
of the same materials. In the centre there is a small space covered
with matting, the sole accommodation of the occupiers; bamboos serve
for masts; the bark of trees is made into tackling; a few mats, sewed
together, are the only sails, all of which, as well as fishing nets
and lines, are made by every man for his own use. Thus equipped,
they launch into the deep, carrying with them all that they possess,
wander from bay to bay in quest of a subsistence, which their squalid
and wretched forms would lead us to believe to be precarious and
inadequate. Though for the most part under the shelter of a bold and
rocky coast, they are to be found at times far out at sea. The night
and their idle time are invariably spent under the shade of trees,
or on some sandy beach. Here they indolently saunter away their time
till necessity again calls for exertion. Their share of toil may be
considered moderate; the structure of their boats being such as to
admit of their sailing with all winds, and in every direction.

On the _15th September_, we succeeded in gaining the bay of Turon. A
salute of twenty-one guns was fired from the ship as soon as she had
cast anchor; a small fort on shore returned three.

The bay of Turon is completely land-locked, and were its entrance as
easy as its interior is safe, it would be justly numbered among the
best of harbours. The difficulty we experienced in gaining it was no
doubt, in some degree, to be attributed to the lateness of the season,
the contrary winds having by this time set in, which together with a
current of great strength, carried the ship to the westward.

We found ourselves here transported as it were into a fine, tranquil
lake, surrounded almost on every hand by bold and lofty hills, covered
with wood to their summit. Though there was here an assemblage of
all that is usually considered favourable to the production and
developement of the rich and beautiful in natural scenery, the general
effect fell short of our expectation. We had, in fact, passed beyond
that favoured belt of the equatorial region, on which nature has
so lavishly bestowed her richest and most striking beauties. The
activity and energy of vegetable life, which had so often attracted
our admiration by the vast and varied forms to which it gave birth,
was no longer sustained. A prospect more steril, and less varied,
met the eye. A soil more than usually barren, supported more stunted
forms of arborescent vegetation. Extensive sandy beaches for the
most part surrounded the shores, except where they are rendered more
bold by the projection of granitic rocks. The great extent of the
bay, indeed, forming a basin of a circular form, the serrated tops of
the mountain ridges, partially enveloped in mist and gray clouds, the
number of boats that are always to be seen sailing to and fro, and
the bold forms of a few rocks, confer upon this harbour a peculiar
interest. In point of scenery, however, it is greatly inferior to that
of Trincomalee, to which the absence of cultivated land, and the want
of human habitations, assimilate it in other respects. Here and there
on the shores of the bay are to be found the huts of a few wretched
creatures who live by fishing: whilst agriculture may be said to have
no existence. Neither the betel, nor the cocoa-nut, is to be seen, nor
a palm of any description; a few acres of rice ground are scarcely
deserving of mention. The sweet potatoe and the Sesamum orientale
thrive better; yet every thing indicates an ungrateful soil.

To the botanist, the mountains that surround the bay afford a field
for researches as interesting, as it is inexhaustible. It would be
difficult to specify any locality that produces a greater variety of
plants than this. The taller wood on the hills being cut down for
fuel, appears to be highly favourable to the production of herbaceous
plants. The daily excursions of our party were the means of adding many
valuable plants to my collection. To the kindness of Mr. Crawfurd,
I am indebted for a considerable portion of these; he not only gave
directions for the necessary accommodations for my servants, who had by
this time become experienced collectors, but was himself successful in
making discoveries.

When we had been some hours at anchor, a mandarin of respectable
appearance came off, accompanied by a considerable number of followers,
dressed in uniform. This mandarin was a remarkable contrast to the
generality of his countrymen. He talked but little, and that very
slowly; he asked few questions, yet shewed considerable curiosity.
He was about forty years of age, had a thin person, short stature,
and like the rest of his countrymen, a round face. His manners were
uncommonly good. He was well dressed, according to the costume of the
country. It is scarcely requisite to observe that the object of his
visit was to ascertain whence we came, and what were our views. We
learned from him that our arrival had been expected for some time. He
inquired first of all, if the letter for the King of Cochin China was
from the King of England: he then desired to have a list of the names
of the persons on board.

After remaining several hours, he took his leave, stating that he
should report the arrival of the mission to his superior, the chief
mandarin of Fai-Foh, he himself being a mandarin of letters, and chief
of the village of Turon.

This man returned on board on several occasions; on one of which he
carried with him a letter from the chief of Fai-Foh to the Agent of the
Governor-General, together with presents of fish, fruit, ducks, fowls,
pigs, and a bullock. It was rumoured that we should be invited to visit
Fai-Foh, while an answer was expected from the capital. This appears,
however, to have been merely a vague rumour, and we have heard nothing
further of it since.

_20th Sept._--Mr. Crawfurd visited the mandarin of Turon, who had been
now several times on board. Lieut. Rutherford and myself accompanied
him on this occasion. The village of Turon lies nearly three miles
distant from the usual place of anchorage. The approach to it is
through an extensive shallow bank, which lies against the mouth of
the river; at which place, and on the left bank, there is a small,
nearly quadrangular fort, surrounded by walls of sand and a ditch.
On the opposite side of the river, at a considerable distance, we
observed several redoubts. The walls of the fort were well manned as
we approached; every man was armed either with a lance or musket, and
these alternated with each other. The appearance they made was rather
imposing.

We proceeded to a public building, where, after waiting for a short
time, we were joined by the mandarin. Refreshments were ordered, and he
conversed on indifferent subjects. A number of attendants, all of them
well dressed, occupied the room. Some of them were seated at a distance
on low platforms, while others stood erect. We were soon after joined
by a mandarin of the army, commander of the fort, and equal in rank to
the other man. He was a little, meagre, smart man, about the middle
age. His dress was superior to that of the other, more in point of
quality than in form. He was accompanied by about thirty well-dressed
soldiers, armed with spears. He excused himself, on account of
sickness, for not waiting upon Mr. Crawfurd sooner.

Taking our leave of the mandarins, we passed on to the village. It is
disposed in a straggling form, along the bank of the river, to the
distance of a mile or more. The houses are neat, comfortable, and
clean. They are generally surrounded by a paling of small sticks. We
observed little or no culture of any sort. The Jatropha curcas formed
hedges; the Calophyllum inophyllum shaded walks. A few Convolvuli and
other flowers were all that we found here. The bazar is an indifferent
one, but poorly supplied even with fish. The people behaved towards us
with remarkable civility.

_23rd._--Each day adds considerably to the number of our plants.

In the evening, the mandarin of Turon came on board, accompanied by
an interpreter, who spoke the Portuguese language, from the capital.
He came to inform Mr. Crawfurd, that two barges had been sent from
Hué for the purpose of taking him to that place; that these would
afford accommodation for ten persons, and requested that no more than
that number might be brought, for that his orders on the subject were
peremptory.

This communication was a disappointment to us all. Our curiosity,
augmented and heightened by what little we had already seen of the
country, was thus doomed to be disappointed at the very moment we
thought its gratification within our reach. It was evident that the
whole party could not proceed to the capital; and yet it may be
supposed that all were anxious to see a country so little known and so
little frequented by Europeans,--a country which, adopting the example,
and policy, and discipline of European nations, yet not involving
itself in the slightest degree in their interests, or the dangers of
their influence, has, within the period of a few years, made advances
in civilization, in political strength, and in military science, which
render it formidable to the surrounding nations.

After much discussion, it was finally agreed, that fifteen persons,
including the crew of the ship’s long boat, required for the transport
of our baggage, should be allowed to proceed.

It next remained to be decided what persons were to accompany Mr.
Crawfurd. Captain Dangerfield, his assistant, represented that his
situation gave him the first claim, and that he would not waive it
without sufficient reason, an argument which was forgotten when Mr.
Crawfurd represented that I spoke the Portuguese language, and that
therefore I should be more useful on this occasion than one who did
not. Matters being thus arranged, the requisite number of followers
was selected. It was made a particular request that none of the sepoys
might be brought.

Had nothing been said respecting the number of persons that were
to proceed in the boats, it might have been supposed that the
government had concluded that they had sent what they conceived to
be ample accommodation for the whole. But they had already been put
in possession of the fullest information on every subject regarding
the mission: and a list of the number of persons constituting it had
been transmitted, together with other documents. They were therefore
perfectly aware of our numbers. Had the mission, as fitted out from
Bengal, appeared at court, it would have made an appearance both
respectable and imposing; but this, it was very obvious to perceive,
the court was desirous to avoid. Not only did they strenuously and
firmly oppose every thing like a decent and respectable appearance
in the mission, but they carried this conduct so far as to infringe
even upon the personal comforts of the reduced number that were to
proceed. It was evident that their object was to render the mission as
obscure as possible, and to give it an indifferent reception. This was
subsequently rendered the more conspicuous by their sending persons of
mean condition to confer with Mr. Crawfurd on the subject of the letter
to the king. The governor of Saigon, who had behaved in a polite and
courtly manner toward us, had said, that on our arrival at Hué, the
Mandarin of Elephants would transact business with the Agent to the
Governor General; but this personage was contented to send his deputies
for that purpose.

On the _24th_, about three p.m., the two barges sent from the capital
came alongside. The mandarin who commanded them was the finest figure
of a man we had yet seen since we entered the country. He was advanced
in years, yet hale and even athletic. He was, in fact, a perfect
figure of an old soldier, inured to toil and accustomed to hardships.
He proposed that we should sail towards evening, and stopped to dine
with us. The Cochin Chinese make no difficulty of eating of whatever
is placed before them: and both this man, who sat with us at table,
and his followers, partook of almost every dish. They are, in fact,
rather coarse feeders. When we came to examine the boats, we found the
accommodation they afforded more wretched than we had anticipated.
The boats, indeed, made up in length for what they wanted in breadth;
they are fashioned like canoes, very narrow, but extremely long. They
contained forty rowers each, and were provided with a few small brass
swivels. The only accommodation left for us, was a narrow, close place,
covered with a paltry bamboo matting, of a rounded form, one end of
which was left open to creep in at. It was not sufficiently high to
allow even of our sitting erect. We had, of course, concluded that
the two boats were to be at our disposal, but to this arrangement
the Mandarin strenuously objected, insisting on keeping the best
accommodation for himself. When we came to take possession of our hut,
we found it barely sufficient for two persons to squeeze into side by
side in a recumbent posture.




CHAPTER IX.

    VOYAGE FROM TURON BAY TO HUE’.--MOUTH OF THE RIVER OF
    HUE’.--POLITENESS OF THE COCHIN CHINESE HAS NOT TENDED TO
    AMELIORATE THE TREATMENT OF FEMALES.--ARRIVE AT HUE’.--PERPETUAL
    WATCH KEPT OVER THE MEMBERS OF THE MISSION.--MILITARY
    COSTUME.--THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL’S LETTER TO THE KING SENT
    TO THE MANDARIN OF ELEPHANTS.--THE CHINESE TRANSLATION
    ALTERED.--INTERVIEW WITH THE MANDARIN.--CANAL SURROUNDING THE
    CITY.--BEAUTIFUL PROSPECTS ON THE RIVER OF HUE’.--NEATNESS
    OF THE VILLAGES.--HORSES.--SOIL.--FORTIFIED CITY.--FRENCH
    MANDARINS.--CONFERENCE WITH THE MANDARIN OF ELEPHANTS.--DIFFICULTY
    RESPECTING AN AUDIENCE WITH THE KING.--AN ENTERTAINMENT
    SERVED.--FURTHER DISCUSSION.--THE AUDIENCE WITH THE KING
    REFUSED.--BEAUTY AND STRENGTH OF THE FORT.--INHOSPITALITY OF THE
    GOVERNMENT.--ROYAL BARRACKS.--ARTILLERY STORE-HOUSES.--ENORMOUS
    GUN.--CITADEL.--REMARKS ON THE FRENCH INTEREST AT COURT.--THE
    PRESENTS FROM THE GOVERNOR GENERAL AND AN AUDIENCE
    REFUSED.--POVERTY OF THE BAZAR.


Collecting together whatever seemed most essential during our
excursion, we took possession of our boat about six p.m., and left the
ship, which as on the former occasion, fired a salute. Neither the
painter, nor any one likely to be of much use in procuring objects of
natural history, was permitted to accompany me.

It was feared that, at this season of the year, we should experience
tempestuous weather, a prospect not altogether agreeable to us,
considering that we were to go to sea in an open boat. The Mandarin
comforted himself with the knowledge that the coast, though bold and
rocky, abounded in excellent harbours, which he could at all times
gain without much difficulty. Fortunately, however, the weather was
agreeable during the whole of the passage, and though we obtained
little aid from our sails from the time we left Turon Bay, we reached
the mouth of the river of Hué at three p.m. on the 25th, after a
passage of twenty hours.

It was thought that the ship’s long boat would have kept pace with the
barges, but it turned out quite otherwise. She fell into the rear from
the commencement, and did not reach Hué for a day and a night after our
arrival.

From Turon to Hué, the country, as seen from the ocean, bears a similar
appearance to that between the former place and Saigon. It is bold,
rugged, and picturesque. The chain of mountains is continued; the
ridges bear the same forms and direction. There can be little doubt
but that they are of granitic structure. As you approach the river of
Hué, they increase in altitude, and the peaks become more acuminated.
Yet the aspect is, perhaps, more sterile. On the approach of morning,
however, we were delighted with the union of grandeur and beauty
in the vast prospect before us. The dense white clouds yet rested
tranquilly mid-way upon the mountains, whilst their bold summits were
seen to project into the pure ether. The darker shade of the valley
contrasted admirably with the lighter colour of a few scanty patches
of cultivation. Industry laboured at the oar, and a multitude of small
boats gave life and animation to the scene.

The nature of the soil was too evident, from the situation of numerous
villages erected upon bare and sandy beaches. These had no vestige of
cultivation or of vegetation in their neighbourhood. They depended
solely for subsistence upon the fisheries; and upon the dry sands we
often saw small boats drawn up to the number of several hundreds in
the same place. On the left bank of the mouth of the river of Hué,
there is constructed a small, but remarkably neat fort, with a rampart
surrounded by a stone wall, and the guns mounted _en barbet_. This
place commands the entrance into the river very completely, but does
not appear capable of affording much resistance to a force capable of
using artillery with advantage. The place is remarkably clean and neat.
The walls were almost covered with soldiers, armed with muskets and
lances. To man the walls of a fort is considered by the Cochin Chinese
complimentary, and to be equivalent to our custom of firing a salute as
a mark of distinction.

A little way beyond the fort, the Mandarin brought the boats to anchor.
Here we waited nearly six hours, and when towards evening we expressed
a wish to take a short walk on shore, it was hinted that we must not go
far. A number of people, soldiers and others, followed us. There was
indeed nothing to be seen but a number of miserable huts built upon a
barren and sandy beach.

The mouth of the river of Hué is rather narrow, considering the size
of the river which here discharges itself. On one side it is confined
by an elevated and extensive sand bank, which stretching along-shore,
forms a boundary to an extensive sheet arm of the river, which seems
to stretch towards the W. in search of an outlet. A less elevated
sand bank, on which is erected the fort alluded to, confines it on
the opposite side. At time of high water, there are, it is stated,
sixteen and eighteen feet upon the bar. The entrance is formed by the
sand banks mentioned, and is not more than two or three hundred yards
in length. When you have passed this, you seem to have entered a vast
fresh-water lake, and to be completely excluded from the sea.

The scenery becomes now very interesting. Islands, covered with
cultivation, are visible at a distance; several vast rivers appear to
pour their waters into one basin. Thousands of boats are seen returning
from, or proceeding to sea. There were women in all the boats, and they
seemed to have more than their due share of whatever labour was going
forward. The superior politeness which we had remarked amongst these
people has not ameliorated the condition of females in society.

Whilst we remained here, the Mandarin had sent to Hué to communicate
our arrival, and to request orders. He was directed to wait the arrival
of the ship’s boat, and to send ours on towards the capital. About
nine p.m., we again proceeded, and came to anchor about midnight. The
distance we had traversed may have been about nine miles.

_Sept. 26th._--At this place we remained till morning in our boat.
There was no appearance whatever of a town, yet they declared that we
were now close to it; few houses were visible. The bank was marshy, and
overgrown with weeds; so that it was difficult to approach the land,
but by the assistance of a narrow board. Several spears were stuck up
against a hedge, within which, we were informed, stood the house the
Mandarin of Elephants had allotted for our reception. About seven p.m.
a handsome boat came along-side, and soon after we were requested to
land, and to take possession of our quarters, which we found ample and
convenient. The place was everywhere surrounded by armed soldiers; but
the only inconvenience we experienced arose from the number of persons
who occupied the house with us, and who, by their incessant loud
talking, left us not a moment’s quiet by night or by day. They were
spectators of all our actions, and never permitted themselves to lose
sight of us, but occupied the rooms with us, as well when we were at
meals, as at other times. We were instructed not to pass the sentries,
but to remain within the house until we should be presented at court.
Even our servants were watched with the strictest observation; and it
was not without difficulty that they would grant permission to one of
them at a time to go to the bazar close by, though accompanied by one
of their own people. Nothing could exceed their strictness in this
particular.

Compared with the troops of the native princes of India, and of
the king of Siam, the soldiers we saw here made a very respectable
appearance. Though exceedingly short in stature, they are well made,
and of a robust form. They would appear to be well calculated to act
as light troops; their dress is both convenient and shewy. It would,
perhaps, be difficult to devise one better adapted to the nature of the
climate, the comfort of the soldier, and at the same time uniting that
smartness of appearance so constantly aimed at in military costume.

The principal parts of the dress are as follow:

A conical helmet, without peak, made of basket work, lackered, and in
general gilt: this is strong, but light, and perfectly water-proof. On
the summit of this some wear a plume of red horse-hair and feathers; in
others the plume is wanting. This helmet is worn over the common turban
of the country, and bound by straps under the chin. In dry weather, and
when the men are off duty, the helmet is thrown over their shoulder,
suspended by the straps, in which state it resembles a small shield.

The body is covered with a loose jacket of red serge, or coarse red
cloth, with a short, close collar; this habit is wide, has long
sleeves, is fastened in front by loops and small buttons; it reaches
down to the knee, and is slit on each side; it is turned up with blue
or yellow; over this they wear one or two habits, according to the
state of the weather; these are of yellow serge, the borders of various
strongly-contrasted colours. In shape these exactly resemble the other
habit, except that they have no sleeves. A pair of wide trowsers,
scarce descending below the knee, and made of coarse red or white
silk, completes the dress. The arms, as has been already stated, are
either a musket or spear. The greater number of the former appear to be
of French manufacture. They are furnished with a bayonet like ours, but
they are considerably lighter. They appear to take better care of their
fire-arms than even European soldiers do. They always carry a cover for
the lock, and, on the approach of rain, they carefully wrap up their
muskets in a cloth cover. The accoutrements are similar to those of our
own soldiers, but the leather of which they are made is ornamented with
gilded figures. The cartouche-box is smaller than an English soldier’s.
I had the curiosity to look into one, and found the contents as follows:

    A set of men for playing at chess;

    A small bottle of scented oil;

    A small horn, with pricker, containing apparently priming powder;

    A bundle of small, hollow bamboos, each containing a charge of
    powder, stopped at one end with paper;

    No ball, or shot.


To the outside of the cartridge-box is attached a bucket of
basket-work, for the purpose of containing a couple of sticks, about
six inches long, and an inch broad, a necessary part of the equipment
of every soldier. A similar bucket is attached to the shaft of the
lance. It is by striking these sticks against each other that the
sentinels give note of their watchfulness, and not by passing the
word as with us. The noise is sufficiently loud and shrill. They beat
three strokes every half hour, and it passes thus through the chain of
sentries.

The lance is about twelve feet long. The shaft is of bamboo, admirably
adapted for this purpose; the head about eight inches long. Two bundles
of red horse-hair ornament the summit.

We had scarcely entered our lodging, when a messenger came from the
Mandarin of Elephants to obtain the letter for the king, in order
to its being examined previously to its being submitted to him. Mr.
Crawfurd delivered the letter, together with Portuguese and Chinese
translations, the latter executed by the missionaries at Serampore.

In the course of the day, the mandarin sent some trifling presents of
rice, oil, salt, candles, &c., and a small sum of money, about fifteen
or twenty dollars.

The Mandarin of Turon came to visit us in the evening, and conversed
with us for several hours.

_27th._--The clerk who came yesterday for the letter, now returned with
the Chinese translation, stating, that there were certain expressions
in it which rendered it unfit to be laid before the king. Mr. Crawfurd
had, on the previous day, told him that he would alter any expression
that did not accord with the notions of propriety entertained by the
court. What the objections now were, I am unable to say. Mr. Crawfurd
mentioned one which was to this effect,--that the Governor General
wrote as if he were writing to his equal. This man and several others,
together with Mr. Crawfurd’s Chinese interpreter, were all day occupied
in making the required alterations.

_28th._--The same personage returned with a request to have another
copy of the Chinese translation. It was said that this was intended for
the governor of Saigon; but, on visiting the Mandarin of Elephants,
he told us that he meant to keep that copy by him. About noon, this
copy was finished, and a messenger came to say, that the Mandarin
of Elephants desired to have an interview with the Agent to the
Governor-General. A comfortable and neat boat, rowed by soldiers,
dressed in red, was sent to convey us. We set out at one o’clock,
accompanied by some Cochin Chinese, who were usually waiting at our
quarters. We were two hours in reaching the Mandarin’s house, and the
distance could not be less than six miles from our quarters. We were
nearly at an equal distance from the town, though we had been told that
we were quite close to it. The river is so much divided by islands of
various dimensions, and so intersects the country in every way, that
it is difficult to state more of its course than the general direction
which it takes, and this is, for the most part, from west to east.
In ascending the river, to reach the Mandarin’s, we soon quitted the
branch which we first occupied, and turning to the right, entered a
fine and wide canal, partly natural and partly artificial. This canal
surrounds three sides of the capital, and at both extremities joins
the great river, which lies in front of the fourth. The canal is about
forty or fifty yards wide at its lowest part, where we entered; it
becomes narrower as you ascend, and, at the upper extremity, it is
little more than eighteen or twenty yards across. It is maintained
in perfect order. The sides are regularly sloped, and supported by
embankments, where requisite. Its depth would appear to be, in most
parts, about eight feet. It affords the double advantage of an outward
defence to the place, for which it was doubtless originally intended,
as it bounds the glacis throughout its course, and is extremely
serviceable, as affording water-conveyance to the various parts of an
extensive city.

We had seen little more than the bare walls of our habitation since
our arrival. The most beautiful and luxuriant scenery now burst upon
our view, and we were soon agreed that the banks of the river of Hué
presented the most beautiful and interesting scenery of any river we
had seen in Asia. Its beauties, however, are the gifts of nature more
than of art. A vast expanse of water, conveyed by a magnificent river
through a fertile valley, not so wide but that the eye can compass its
several parts; ridges of lofty and bold mountains in the distance; the
cocoa-nut, the areca, the banana; the sugar-cane, hedges of bamboos,
that wave their elegant tops in the air; rows of that beautiful plant
the hibiscus, are the principal materials which, grouped in various
forms, delight the eye of the spectator. From this we must not separate
the no less interesting prospect of numerous and apparently comfortable
villages. In these the most remarkable circumstance is the neatness and
cleanliness of the houses of the natives, and the cheerful, contented,
and lively disposition of the people. The houses of the better sort
are substantial and large, covered with tiles, the walls being partly
made of brick and mortar, and partly of wood. Besides, they exercise
considerable taste in adorning their grounds and little gardens with
flowers and ornamental trees.

Though we were in the immediate vicinity of a large city, few people
were to be seen; these were at work in the fields, collecting weeds
from the canal, or passing on the public roads. We were still more
surprised to find so few boats upon the river, and of junks we saw
no more than three or four. It is true, that the commercial season
had gone by, yet a large city must have great and constant demand for
transport, at least by means of boats. Besides, the former remark was
alike applicable to Saigon, yet at that place vast numbers of boats
were constantly visible. It is difficult to conceive how so much
solitude should exist under such circumstances. Of those who were
passing on the roads, some were mounted on small ponies, active, but
neither handsome nor strong. There are no horses in the country, and it
is only the lower orders that ride these; nor have we seen them used
for any other purpose.

In our excursions, we observed a considerable extent of the landscape:
on the right bank, which is at no great distance from the hills, it
is diversified into low and high ground, and often rises into hills
of moderate size, the sides of which are cultivated. The general
extent of cultivation is but limited, and the quantity of ground fit
for the production of rice very small; and wherever this is the case,
countries in these latitudes must be considered as poor. Nor can this
place, therefore, be exempted. It is indebted to Saigon and Tonquin
for the supplies of rice. Considerable diversity of soil exists here;
in some parts it is a dry, friable, and almost pure sand; in others,
it consists of stiff clay, and elsewhere these are intermixed. The
alluvion which this great river has formed is extremely small.

As soon as we had entered the canal, we found ourselves in front of
one face of the Fort. The term Fort, which has been applied to this
place, is apt to convey erroneous notions, though it is perhaps as much
a fort as a place of such vast extent can well be. It is, in fact, a
fortified city; and if the French had compared it with such places
as Delhi and Agra, instead of Fort William, the comparison had been
more just. The fortifications of this place are, without question, of
a most extraordinary nature, whether considered in the magnitude of
extent, the boldness of design, the perseverance in execution, or the
strength they display. The Fort appears to be built with the greatest
regularity, and according to the principles of European fortification.
It is of quadrangular form; each side appeared to us to be at least a
mile and a half in length. The rampart is about thirty feet high, and
cased with brick and mortar. The bastions project but little, contain
from five to eight embrasures, and are placed at a great distance from
each other. The walls are in excellent order. We could not distinctly
see whether there was a ditch at the foot of the wall, but were told
that there is. The glacis extends to the canal, and is about 200 yards
in breadth. In many parts, it is rather higher on the banks of the
canal than towards the Fort, but is everywhere commanded by the latter.
Numerous sheds for boats, and for other purposes, are erected on the
glacis.

An enemy on the opposite side of the canal would, in many parts, find
shelter in the brushwood and hedges, and even villages, within reach
of the guns of the Fort, and thence would find the means of attacking
the place with little exposure of his men. But it is not to be expected
that such places are capable of much resistance. They may serve as a
temporary defence against a sudden alarm, and against a tumultuary
attack from irregular troops; but a handful of brave and enterprising
men would soon possess themselves of the place.

The gates are ornamented in the Chinese style, but the approaches are
calculated for the purposes of defence. Within the walls is contained a
square building, surrounded by lofty walls, and apparently very strong.
This is probably the citadel. We had but a very imperfect view of it.

There appeared no reason to doubt that we were brought by this
circuitous route, in order that we might see the extent of the
fortifications.

On leaving the canal, we entered the great river. At the point of their
junction, the view is uncommonly fine; the body of water very great,
the country opposite beautiful and much diversified. The ground here
would appear to be adapted chiefly for the cultivation of sugar-cane,
Indian corn, vegetables, and such seeds as are adapted to a dry soil.
We passed the houses of several persons of rank; they were surrounded
with stone walls and bamboo hedges. The roads in front were good.
After we had proceeded about a mile on the great river, we came to the
house of the Mandarin of Elephants. We waited for a few minutes in our
boat, when we were told to land. As we approached the house, we met
the two French mandarins, Messrs. Vannier and Chaigneaux, who entered
the house along with us. They were dressed in silk robes, according
to the Cochin-Chinese fashion. They are both of them fine-looking old
men, of an amiable expression of countenance. The former had served in
the American war, and appeared to be about sixty-five years of age;
the latter is somewhat younger. They both left France on the breaking
out of the Revolution, and devoted themselves to the service of the
late King of Cochin China, who raised them to their present rank. They
were the companions of the King in his misfortunes as well as in his
prosperity: of twenty Frenchmen who were in his service, they are the
only survivors.

In the court of the mandarin’s house was a crowd of vagrant-looking
people, some dressed in masks, some with painted faces, and hideous
looks. I was informed by M. Chaigneaux that these were players, and
that a Chinese comedy was now performing; and that this and the other
festivities were going forward in consequence of the marriage of the
mandarin’s son, who had just carried home his bride, a lady of high
rank. The music, which was harsh, shrill, and disagreeable, ceased
as we entered. The mandarin was seated upon a small table or bench,
covered with a carpet and furnished with handsome cushions, at one
end of a large, plain, and neat, but rather naked room, open on two
sides. Behind him were the apartments of the women, separated only by
a curtain; they were spectators of the play, and continued here during
the whole time we were present.

On the opposite side of the hall were also suites of apartments, now
occupied by the players, who made their appearance from that quarter.
To the right and left, were disposed a crowd of people in three or four
rows. They consisted of men, women, and children, and many of them
appeared to be miserably poor. Few or no soldiers were present, but one
or two attendants bore swords. We walked up to where the mandarin sat,
and bowed to him. Without quitting his seat, he returned our salute,
and pointed to a couch on his left, where we seated ourselves; the
French mandarins sat in chairs on each side of us. The conversation
which ensued was carried on in French, on our part, and partly in
Portuguese, the French mandarins being the medium of communication in
the former, and a native Christian in the latter.

When we were seated, the chief asked if there was any thing else to be
communicated than what was contained in the letter to the King. Mr.
Crawfurd replied, that the letter contained almost every thing that was
to be said; but that he had a few words to state on commercial matters,
which he would now, or at any time the mandarin thought most proper,
enter upon. The mandarin desired that he might now enter upon whatever
he had to propose.

Mr. Crawfurd then said, that what was chiefly required was that
permission might be granted to British ships to trade to the ports of
Cochin China, mentioning in particular Saigon, Turon-bay, and Tonquin;
and that instructions might be delivered to him respecting the duties
demanded, and the regulations by which the commerce of these places
was conducted. To this the mandarin answered, that the ports of Cochin
China were open to all nations, that the duties had of late been very
considerably diminished, first by the late King, and latterly by
the present; that he would furnish a table or scheme of the duties
collected at different ports; that he would always expedite the affairs
of traders, by immediate attention to them, well knowing the importance
of expedition in matters of that nature.

Mr. Crawfurd said, that this being the case, there was nothing for him
to ask, and that the regulations were very liberal. The mandarin now
observed, that the matter being so very simple, our affairs would soon
be settled; that until they were so it was not usual for strangers
to appear in public; but that being done we had merely to signify to
him when we wished to go abroad, and that he would send a boat for us
and people to conduct us. He farther observed, that he would send the
tariff, and an answer to all matters to-morrow.

Whilst this conversation was going forward, in a loose and somewhat
desultory manner, M. Chaigneaux brought forward the affair of the
damaged muskets sent from Madras by Messrs. Abbot and Maitland. The
mandarin was well acquainted with the circumstance, and it was very
evident that it was now agitated with no good intention.

Mr. Crawfurd now took occasion to ask the mandarin when he might expect
to have the honour of obtaining an audience of the king. We were but
little prepared for the answer to this: that the business of the envoy
being entirely of a commercial nature, it altogether precluded the
possibility of his being admitted into the presence of the king; and
that it was an affair for the cognizance of his ministers. To this Mr.
Crawfurd answered, that it was right that commercial affairs should be
conducted by the king’s ministers, and that he should be happy to have
the honour of conferring with them on this subject, but that commerce
was not the sole object either of the letter to the king or of the
mission; that he had been sent from a distant country, by a powerful
and mighty government, to congratulate the king of Cochin China on his
succession to the throne. That this was of itself to be considered as
an honourable distinction of the king of Cochin China; and that the
obvious and general tendency of the mission was to unite and to cement
the bonds of friendship between the two nations. That the determination
not to receive the envoy of the Governor General of India, a man of
the most exalted rank, the intimate friend of his sovereign, looked
up to by all the world, and holding correspondence with the greatest
kings of the east, was the more surprising, and indeed altogether
unaccountable, for that the late king had received the envoy of the
Governor General, and had given him two public audiences. He concluded
by requesting, that the Mandarin would represent this matter to his
majesty, and obtain from him an early answer. The mandarin answered
that he had already communicated with the king upon the subject, and
such was his determination. That had the Agent to the Governor General
come on any other than commercial affairs, he would have been presented
to the court, but that it was altogether contrary to its customs to
give audience on such occasions. That had Mr. Crawfurd been the envoy
of the king of England, or of any king, he would have been received.
That in this case it was as if the governor of Saigon had sent an
envoy to the imperial court. It was contrary to usage, contrary to the
customs of the country, and could not be done; but for the satisfaction
of Mr. Crawfurd the matter should be again represented to the king.

In the interval, tea had been served, and, at this part of the
conversation, the table was covered with roast pigs, geese, fowls,
and fruit. The subject of the damaged guns was again introduced by M.
Chaigneaux.

We were requested to sit down to dinner. The mandarin continued upon
his seat, a tranquil spectator of what was going on around him. The
meat was served up on China dishes, and the fruit on japanned trays. A
few small liqueur glasses, of coarse manufacture, were placed upon the
table, together with a bottle of common French claret. The knives were
also French, with gilt handles.

After we had partaken of a little fruit, the things were removed, and
the chief asked if we had a desire to see the comedy. Mr. Crawfurd said
that he should wish first to say a few words on the subject of the late
conversation. The Portuguese interpreter was now requested to explain
that it must be well known to the mandarin, and to the court at large,
as it was also to the two French gentlemen now present, that in the
year 1804, the envoy of the Governor General of Bengal, Mr. Roberts,
who was sent in a capacity similar to that of Mr. Crawfurd, had been
received honourably at court, and had obtained two audiences of the
king; that therefore this was a clear and unequivocal proof that it was
not contrary to the usage of the court, that he should be received by
the king; that the envoys of the Governor General were received with
distinction at the courts of the first monarchs of India, and that very
lately he had obtained an audience of a neighbouring monarch, that
of Siam. He concluded by begging that the matter might be taken into
serious consideration.

The Mandarin stoutly asserted and reiterated his assertion that Mr.
Roberts had not obtained an audience of the king. He was reminded that
documents proving the contrary, written by the express order of the
king, were in the possession of the government of Bengal, and that both
Messrs. Vannier and Chaigneaux, who were present on that occasion,
could now testify to the fact. M. Chaigneaux stoutly denied that he
knew any thing of the matter, said that he was sick, and absent. M.
Vannier neither could nor did deny the matter, but remained silent.
The Mandarin knew that nothing but the truth had been stated; yet he
equivocated in the most palpable manner; saying at one time that he
had not been admitted; at another, that it was during war, when any
one might have been admitted to the king; and that since that time the
customs of the court had been altered; and that the magnificence of
the court was reserved solely for the greatest occasions. It was here
observed that the change which had taken place in court etiquette was
not known; and that with respect to the manner in which the mission
was to be received, it was for the king to decide whether the audience
should be public or private. On this the old gentleman dryly observed,
that it was indeed very natural that we should use every expedient to
gain an audience of the king, having come so far for that purpose,
and plainly insinuated that it was all to no purpose. The coolness of
his manner, and the direct inference of the remark, were too much for
us, and we could contain our gravity no longer. The Frenchmen seemed
equally surprised with the Mandarin at seeing us laugh so heartily.
The old gentleman was in fact quite at a loss what to say; and at
last dwelt upon the argument that the etiquette of the court had
been changed. He promised to return an answer to all matters on the
following day.

The players were now introduced. Their performance was so grotesque and
ridiculous, unmeaning and tiresome, that it is not worthy of further
observation. The music also was abominable. We were soon tired of both,
and requested permission to retire. The French gentlemen accompanied us
to our boats.

We returned home by a different route from that by which we came, so as
to make the circuit of the fortress, but it was now dark, and we could
see but little.

_Sept. 29th._--No answer came from the Mandarin regarding the subjects
agitated yesterday. He sent to say that a boat would be sent to take
us to see the place; and in the evening the French gentlemen came to
accompany us. Proceeding up the river, we passed along that part of
the fortress which the darkness had prevented us from seeing on the
preceding evening. This part of the wall has been finished, in the
course of the present year, in a very complete manner. The present
king, however, is not altogether pleased, as his predecessor was, with
the principles of Vauban. He has accordingly built the embrasures on
a plan of his own[23] invention. The order of them is quite reversed,
that is, they are narrow towards the ditch, and wide towards the
rampart! This is the case with all the embrasures on this side of
the fort, and they would seem to be the only objectionable part of
the work. We were now more struck than ever with the great beauty,
magnitude, regularity and strength of this extraordinary work, for such
it is in every point of view. Nothing can be more neat and regular than
all the works, the glacis, the covered way, the ditch, the walls, and
the ramparts. Some of the bridges are made of stone and mortar, others
of wood, supported on blocks of masonry, and all of them remarkably
neat.

When we had passed nearly mid-way along this front, we entered the
place by a principal gate, neatly and strongly built in the European
style, and with simple and few ornaments. The glacis is covered with
short grass, and about 200 yards in breadth. The wet ditch is about
thirty feet broad, supported on each side by masonry, and being on a
level with the river, it always contains water. The wall cannot, I
should think, be less than from twenty to thirty feet high. The French
gentlemen told us that the length of each side was 1,187 toises of six
feet each, and that the walls would contain 800 pieces of cannon. On
entering the gate we turned to the right, and passed along the rampart.
As much care has been bestowed on the construction of the interior
as of the exterior. The place is laid out in squares or quadrangles,
the roads are wide and convenient, and a navigable canal, which leads
to the granaries and magazines, passes through the place. The town,
if so it may be called, is rather paltry; the greater part of the
ground appears to be laid out in ill-cultivated gardens, attached
to miserable, but probably only temporary, huts. The bazars have an
appearance of poverty, yet the regularity of the streets gives an air
of great neatness to the place, and the view both of the country and
town, as seen from the rampart, must be considered very fine. After
passing for more than a mile along the rampart, we were conducted to
the public granaries, consisting of a vast number of well-built,
substantial store-houses. The greatest attention has been bestowed upon
every thing; and the powder-magazines are erected in the midst of tanks.

We were, however, unfortunate in the day we had chosen. It now
commenced to rain with great violence, and the crowd of idle spectators
who had inoffensively followed us so far, began to disperse. We
next passed on towards the palace and the citadel. I could not help
reflecting on the different reception we had experienced at Saigon,
and at this place. There the people were anxious to shew us every
attention, and their hospitality was unbounded. Here we passed in front
of a palace, where there were numerous officers and persons of rank
that saw us, yet though we were on foot, without umbrellas, without
the means of conveyance, overtaken by the rain and drenched with wet,
there was no offer of assistance made from any quarter. It is easy to
conceive what appearance we made under these circumstances.

The palace of the king is surrounded on every side by handsome and
well-built rows of barracks. These were uncommonly clean and very
complete in their structure. The arm-racks, the arms of the men, the
platforms on which they sleep; the apartments for officers, were all
disposed with the greatest neatness and regularity. The men though not
armed, were disposed with regularity in the verandahs; and all of them
in uniform. Of some regiments the uniform is blue, with red sleeves; of
others, white with red, and so forth. The officers are distinguished
by a circular patch of embroidery in front of each shoulder. These
barracks would lose little in comparison with the best we have in
England.

When we had passed through several suites of these, we were proceeding
on towards our boats, being unwilling to continue longer in the wet.
The commander of artillery wished, however, to shew us his department,
and sent to recal us. His department was indeed well worth seeing. We
had not seen one gun on the walls of the fort, but here was a display
calculated to surprise us. It were an endless task to enumerate all
the different sorts of iron and brass guns, their sizes, and other
circumstances connected with them. Four very large buildings, or
sheds, were entirely filled with guns mounted and dismounted, of every
description. There were also a considerable number of mortars, and an
ample supply of shot and shells. A great number of very fine brass guns
were pointed out to us that had been cast by the late king, and among
them nine of immense size. The officer of artillery observed that the
latter were too large to be serviceable in war, but that the king had
intended them as a memorial both of himself and of the works executed
during his reign. They were mounted upon carriages, finished with as
much care as the guns themselves. The gun-carriages in general were
uncommonly well finished, and made of a hard and durable wood called
Sao, procured chiefly from the province of Dong-nai or Saigon.

The palace of the king is so completely surrounded by the barracks,
that except on passing one or two of the gates, we could see nothing
whatever of the buildings. The citadel is a small quadrangular
building, with strong and lofty walls, close to the palace. It is
altogether an edifice not calculated to excite any peculiar interest.

It had now become so dark that we could see nothing more of the
buildings, and therefore returned to our boat. What we had seen was
well calculated to give us very favourable notions of the capacity of
the Cochin Chinese. Every thing was in a style of neatness, magnitude,
and perfection, compared to which, similar undertakings by other
Asiatics were like the works of children. These wear the semblance of
the preparations of a bold, enterprising, and warlike people. Such
were the sentiments which a view of these objects was calculated to
produce. A more extensive acquaintance with the people tended to
qualify them. It was already easy to perceive that the master-mind
which had projected and created such great works no longer influenced
their continuance. He had set that in motion which his successors,
it may be suspected, are scarce equal to carry on or to preserve.
Above all, it was easy to perceive that the genius which had directed
every thing was French. The late king shewed, doubtless, a great and
unprejudiced mind in following their plans. But another Pharaoh has
arisen who knows not[24] Joseph. The French interest, there seems
every reason to believe, declines daily, and with the two Mandarins
of that nation, one of whom is about to return to his native country,
it will probably cease altogether. The proposals made by the French
court since the peace, and their attempts to enter into a more close
union, have been kept a profound secret. Whatever may have been their
nature, it is clear that they have been rejected by the Cochin Chinese.
China, and not France, is the example which the present court follows
in every thing. No Frenchmen have been received into its service since
the death of the late king; and though we have reason to believe that
the councils of the two, now in office, have not been favourable to the
interests of the mission, it is alike evident that they were totally
incapable of influencing the court in favour of the proposals of their
own countrymen. When they saw that we were surprised and disappointed
at the determination of the court to refuse an audience to the envoy of
the Governor General of India, they insinuated indirectly that there
were others who had also been refused; and subsequently told us more
plainly that we ought to be the less concerned at this refusal, for
that M. Cargariau, Captain of the French frigate Sybil, bearing letters
and presents from the French minister of marine, had been refused an
audience of the king in 1817. It was to little purpose that we told the
Frenchmen that the cases were by no means parallel; like the Mandarin
of Strangers they always dwelt as a _dernier resort_ upon the change of
court etiquette that had taken place.

With this manifest decline of French interests and councils, it remains
to be proved, whether without such influence, the Cochin Chinese are
capable of maintaining that spirit which has raised their country
to its present rank, and advanced it beyond the condition of its
neighbours.

_1st Oct._--We went to visit M. Chaigneaux, but not finding him at
home, we proceeded towards the principal bazar accompanied by his
nephew, an intelligent young man. We had seen but a small part of the
bazar, when a petty officer informed Mr. Crawfurd that we must have an
order from the Mandarin of Strangers,--on which we turned back. The
bazar was well supplied with the more coarse and common articles of
Chinese, but afforded very little of domestic, manufacture.

Soon after our return home, the assistant to the Mandarin of Strangers,
the same old man that had come to take the letter for the king, came
from the former to say that as the English had not yet had any commerce
with the country, and could not therefore have gained any advantages,
his majesty could not think of accepting the presents; but that if
the English should return another year, he would then accept whatever
was agreeable to him, paying for the same, in money, or in produce;
that with respect to the ceremony of being presented at court, it was
necessary to have all the mandarins in their robes, and all the court
in their full dresses; that this was a great ceremony, reserved for the
envoys of kings; that had Mr. Crawfurd come from the king of England,
he would have been presented, but that in the present case it was as if
the governor of Saigon sent an envoy to a monarch.

He added further that the tariff should be sent, and that the English
should be permitted to trade to all the ports of Cochin China and
Tonquin, on paying the established duties. He advised that the ship’s
long boat should be sent back without delay, for that the bad season
might otherwise prevent her altogether from returning; that we
ourselves might proceed either by sea or by land to Turon bay.

This was probably the most favourable, and perhaps the only,
opportunity for making a representation on the subject of the
presentation. Such representation might, it is possible, though in my
opinion not at all likely, have produced some delay or alteration in
the commercial concerns, and this was doubtless Mr. Crawfurd’s reason
for expressing his satisfaction at the arrangements that had been
made. There remained, in fact, nothing to be asked on the subject of
commerce; so that they had made no concessions, no sacrifices whatever
on that account. They would receive our ships as they did those of the
Chinese, the French, the Dutch, the Americans. Where we had no favour
to ask, no boon to solicit, we might, it seems to me, have urged what
is due to a great government, and has been accorded by other nations of
India, with the greater warmth.

Before this man had left us, Messrs. Vannier and Chaigneaux came to
visit us. They had been sent by the king to explain what had been said
by the assistant to the Mandarin of Strangers. Their communication was
to the same effect as that of the other. It was on this occasion that
they mentioned that M. Cargariau had not seen the king.

_October 3._--After passing the morning with M. Chaigneaux, we visited
the principal bazar. It consists of a spacious street about a mile in
length, with shops on either side the whole of its length. Many of the
shops are mere paltry huts, made of palm-leaves; the rest are more
substantial houses, constructed chiefly of wood, and have tiled or
thatched roofs. Here, also, the poverty of the shops was particularly
striking. A very large proportion contained nothing but shreds of gilt
and coloured paper used in religious ceremonies, and at funerals.
Chinese porcelain, of a coarse description; fans, lacquered boxes,
Chinese fans, silks, and crapes, the two latter in small quantity;
medicines without number, coarse clothes made up, large hats made of
palm-leaf, and a sort of jacket of the same material; rice, pulse, and
fruit; sago, made from the seeds of a species of nymphæa, were the
common articles exposed for sale. There were but few, and those very
coarse articles of manufactured iron, as nails, hatchets, and chisels,
which bore a high price.

The Cochin Chinese carry purses, in which they put their betel and
tobacco; these are very neat, and usually thrown over the shoulders of
the men; they are made either of plain blue silk, or embroidered in
gold, and may be had at all prices, from half a dollar to fifteen. Men
of rank have them carried by their servants. In this bazar the shops
are held almost entirely by natives of the country. There are scarcely
any Chinese amongst them.

FOOTNOTES:

[23] This mode of constructing embrasures had been long before
strenuously recommended by some military writers.

[24] Possibly we may be allowed to doubt the validity of our author’s
opinion on this point; it may be that the monarch of Cochin China in
1822, had heard of the drama of Constantine Phaulkon, M. Chaumont, and
the Jesuits, which was acted by command of His Majesty the French king
in 1688, at Bankok and Louvo.

For an account of the extraordinary alliance projected between the
kings of France and Cochin China, and which was disconcerted only by
the breaking out of the French revolution, see the historical sketch in
Barrow’s Cochin China from p. 250 throughout. The political importance
attaching to such a connexion is incalculable; every one must in this
agree with the opinion of Mr. Barrow, that “it is difficult to say what
the consequences of such a treaty might have been to our possessions in
India, and to the trade of the East India Company with China; but it
is sufficiently evident that it had for its object the destruction of
both.”




CHAPTER X.

    PHYSIOLOGICAL EXTERIOR OF THE COCHIN CHINESE.--COSTUME.--MORAL
    CHARACTER.--RELIGION.--BRUTALIZING EFFECTS OF A DESPOTIC
    GOVERNMENT.--MILITARY SERVITUDE.--POPULATION.--RAINS AND
    INUNDATIONS.--COSTUME OF THE RAINY SEASON.--VISIT TO THE
    TACOON.--TABLETS AND BOXES ORNAMENTED WITH THE MYA SHELL.--LETTER
    AND PRESENTS FOR THE GOVERNOR GENERAL.--THE AGENT DECLINES
    ACCEPTING THE PRESENTS FOR THE GOVERNOR GENERAL.--REGULATIONS
    RESPECTING TRADE.--EXTENT OF PERMISSION RETRACTED.--A
    REPAST.--ROTTEN EGGS AND CHICKENS IN THE SHELL A CHINESE DELICACY,
    AND TOKEN OF ROYAL FAVOUR.--THE MANDARIN OF HAN.--LETTER TO
    THE GOVERNOR GENERAL REFUSED.--PITIFUL SPIRIT OF THE COCHIN
    CHINESE GOVERNMENT.--CHINESE PLAYER.--THE KING OF THE DRAMA
    BAMBOOED.--FINAL INTERVIEW WITH THE MANDARIN OF STRANGERS.--RETURN
    TO TURON.--BEAUTIFUL COUNTRY.--CANAL.--SALT-WATER LAKE.--GRAND
    SCENERY.--ROUTE.--BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS.--PALANQUINS AND
    BEARERS.--GRANITIC COUNTRY.--EXCELLENT ROADS.--RE-EMBARK.


We had by this time seen a large proportion of the people, and our
intercourse with them had brought to light traits of moral character,
which, under a less intimate acquaintance, had lain concealed; while
at the same time we gained a more intimate knowledge of their physical
form. It is extraordinary how little diversity there exists in the
latter, in regard either of stature or of features.

In their physical exterior, they present a compound which accords not
very correctly with any of the tribes whose peculiarities we have
before attempted to describe. In some respects, indeed, the resemblance
is sufficiently obvious; yet in others it is much less so, if not
rather of an opposite character. It appears to me, however, that a
strict analysis of the aggregate in their physical form, will lead to
the conclusion that this nation also has sprung from the Tartar race,
and that it constitutes a variety of that great and widely-disseminated
branch of mankind.

In point of stature, the Cochin Chinese are, perhaps, of all the
various tribes that belong to this race, the most diminutive. We
remark that they want the transverse breadth of face of the Malays;
the cylindrical form of the cranium, as well as the protuberant and
expanded coronoid process of the lower jaw of the Siamese, and the
oblique eyes of the Chinese. In common with all of these, they have
a scanty, grisly, straggling beard; coarse, lank, black hair; small
dark eyes; a yellowish complexion; a squat, square form; and stout
extremities.

I shall here, however, enter more at large into the description of
this variety. It is no very difficult task, at least for an attentive
observer, to seize upon those points in the form of the Cochin Chinese,
which serve to distinguish them both from the neighbouring and other
nations. It is more difficult to convey, in accurate and precise terms,
correct notions of these distinctions to others. The subject of the
filiation of nations, though one of the deepest interest, is still
involved in much obscurity. We see impressed upon the whole of the
human race, through every variety, every modification of climate, under
every condition of barbarous or of civilized life, one general, one
universal form, from which there is, in fact, no deviation. It is true,
that there are tribes so different from others in appearance, that
we almost conclude that they constitute different species of animal
beings. Yet the difference is, perhaps, in all cases, more apparent
than real, more imaginative than natural. When we would inquire into
the origin, the history, the connexions, of a particular tribe, or the
prevalence of a particular form or feature, we are often compelled to
confess that we are at a loss to discover characters in all respects
satisfactory. The interest of the subject will always claim for it the
patient investigation of reflecting men, and will in time, doubtless,
remove many of the difficulties in which it is at present involved.

To return to the subject of the Cochin Chinese. In the consideration
of their external form, the circumstance which chiefly strikes an
European observer is their diminished form. Their squat and broad shape
augments the effect of this characteristic, so that they appear more
diminutive than they actually are. Of twenty-one persons, taken chiefly
from the class of soldiers, the others being citizens, the average
height was five feet, two inches, and three-fourths: of eleven of the
same persons, the average length of the arm amounted to 12.4 inches: of
the fore-arm, 10.15 inches, and the girth of the chest at the broadest
part, to two feet, nine inches. It has been remarked, that the Cochin
Chinese are of a yellowish colour. It is very rare to find amongst them
any that are very black. Many of the females in particular are as fair
as the generality of the inhabitants of the south of Europe.

The globular form of the cranium, and the orbicular shape of the
face are peculiarly characteristic of the Cochin Chinese. The head
projects more backwards than in the Siamese; it is smaller and more
symmetrical, in regard to the body, than in the tribes already noticed,
and the transverse diameters both of the occiput and sinciput are very
nearly equal. The forehead is short and small, the cheeks round, the
lower part of the face broad. The whole countenance is in fact very
nearly round, and this is more particularly striking in women, who are
reckoned beautiful in proportion as they approach this form of face.
The eyes are small, dark, and round. They want the tumid, incumbent
eyelid of the Chinese, and hence they derive a sprightliness of aspect
unknown to the latter. The nose is small, but well formed. The mouth
is remarkably large, the lips are prominent but not thick. The beard
is remarkably scanty, yet they cultivate it with the greatest care.
There are amongst them those who can number scarce one dozen of hairs
upon the chin, or on the whole of the lower jaw. That on the upper
lip is somewhat more abundant. The neck is for the most part short.
Before quitting this part of the subject, I may remark that there is
in the form of the head a degree of beauty, and in the expression of
the countenance a degree of harmony, sprightliness, intelligence, and
good-humour, which we should look for in vain either in the Chinese or
Siamese.

The shape of the body and limbs in the Cochin Chinese, differs but
little from that of the tribes already noticed. The chest is short,
large, and well expanded; the loins broad; the upper extremities are
long, but well formed; the lower are short, and remarkably stout. There
is this remarkable difference from the others of the same race, that
here the tendency to obesity is of rare occurrence. The limbs, though
large, are not swollen with fat. The muscular system is large and well
developed, and the leg in particular is almost always large and well
formed. The Cochin Chinese, though a laughing, are not a fat, people.

The costume of the Cochin Chinese may be described in a few words.
The subject is more deserving of attention, in that it also presents
them to us in a peculiar light different from that under which their
neighbours appear. Though living not only in a mild, but warm climate,
the partiality for dress is universal. There is no one, however mean,
but is clothed at least from the head to the knee, and if their dress
is not always of the smartest, it is owing more to their poverty than
to their want of taste. Nor is it comfort or convenience alone that
they study. They are not above the vanity of valuing themselves on
the smartness of their dress, a failing which often leads them into
extravagance. You will often see a well-dressed man without a single
_quhan_ in his possession.

The principal and most expensive article in their dress is the turban.
That of the men is made of black crape, of the women of blue. On
occasions of mourning, it is made of white crape.

A loose jacket, somewhat resembling a large shirt, but with wide
sleeves, reaching nearly to the knee, and buttoning on the right side,
constitutes the principal covering of the body. Two of these, the under
one of white silk, are generally worn, and they increase the number
according to their circumstances and the state of the weather. Women
wear a dress but little different from this, though lighter, and both
wear a pair of wide pantaloons, of various colours. The dress of the
poorer class is made of coarse cotton, but this is not very common,
coarse silks being more in vogue. Those of China and Tonquin are worn
by the more opulent classes. Shoes also are worn only by the wealthy,
and are of Chinese manufacture, clogs, in fact, rather than shoes.

After this account of the physical exterior of the Cochin Chinese, I
shall add a few words respecting their moral character. Any account
of a matter so intricate, must, on so short an acquaintance, be
necessarily imperfect. The subject, in its different bearings, is
besides so extensive, that I can at most but hint at a few points.

Of these the most important and most remarkable is religion. The
nation may, in fact, be said to be without any religion whatever.
They have neither religious instruction nor instructors, priests, nor
any body of men, whose function is to encourage its cultivation, or
by their conduct to set an example to the great body of the people.
Every man is free to act in this matter as he thinks fit. The better
sort affect to follow the precepts of Confucius. The theism of the
Chinese is as cold-hearted and unaccompanied by feeling, as it is
crude, undefined, and uncertain in its principles. It appears to
have no effect whatever on their conduct, nor do they entertain any
intelligible notions on the subject. It would appear to be fashionable
to profess it; but they neither talk of it, nor have any means of
knowing what fashion perhaps alone induces them to profess.

The human mind, under every condition of life, has formed to itself
certain notions of a future state. The untutored mind, led away by its
fears, soon becomes involved in the intricate mazes of superstition,
in which the mind too often paints undefined, unreal terrors. Such is
the case with the Cochin Chinese, whose religion, if it is ever thought
of, consists in the ceremony of placing on a rude altar some bits of
meat and a few straws covered with the dust of scented wood, or in
scattering to the winds a few scraps of paper covered with gold foil;
or in sticking a piece of writing on a post or door, or to a tree. You
inquire in vain for the motives of such acts. The objects of their
fear are as numerous as they are hideous. One form of superstition
is observed by sea-faring people, another by those who live upon the
coast, and a different form by those inhabiting agricultural districts.

Thus, if not absolutely without religion, the Cochin Chinese can
scarcely be said to derive moral feeling from this source. It may,
perhaps, with truth be observed, that it is better that a people should
have no religion than a false one. The nation in question will furnish
an argument in favour of this opinion. It might be supposed that the
first, the necessary consequence of the want of religion, would be a
total disregard of right and wrong: this, however, is not the case, for
in many respects the Cochin Chinese are superior to their neighbours,
who are devoted to their national religion. If they are destitute
of that aid which is derived from true religion, they are likewise
free from the degrading trammels of a false one. A more direct engine
than that of religion itself, has modified, if not formed, the moral
character of the people; it is that of an avaricious, illiberal, and
despotic government, the effect of which, so sedulously pursued through
a course of ages, it is melancholy and revolting to human nature to
contemplate. It has involved the whole body of the people in perpetual
and insurmountable poverty; it has debased the mind; it has destroyed
every generous feeling; it has crushed in the bud the early aspirations
of genius; it has cast a blasting influence over every attempt at
improvement. Such being the character of the government, it will not
appear surprising that the moral character of the people should in many
respects be brutalized. What is defective in their character has been
occasioned by perpetual slavery and oppression; yet notwithstanding all
this, they display traits of moral feeling, ingenuity, and acuteness,
which, under a liberal government, would seem capable of raising them
to an elevated rank amongst nations. But they are perpetually reminded
of the slavery under which they exist; the bamboo is perpetually at
work, and every petty, paltry officer, every wretch who can claim
precedence over another, is at liberty to inflict lashes on those
under him. But the tameness with which they submit to this degrading
discipline, alike applicable to the people as to the military, is the
most extraordinary circumstance. Their obedience is unlimited, nor do
they, by word or by action, manifest the slightest resistance to the
arbitrary decisions of their tyrants. It will not appear surprising
that this system should render them cunning, timid, deceitful, and
regardless of truth; that it should make them conceited, impudent,
clamorous, assuming, and tyrannical, where they imagine they can be so
with impunity. Their clamorous boldness is easily seen through, and
the least opposition or firmness reduces them to the meanest degree of
submission and fawning.

Such are the more revolting traits in their character: they are in a
great measure counter balanced by a large share of others that are
of a more amiable stamp. They are mild, gentle and inoffensive in
their character, beyond most nations. Though addicted to theft, the
crime of murder is almost unknown amongst them. To strangers, they
are affable, kind, and attentive; and in their conduct they display a
degree of genuine politeness and urbanity quite unknown to the bulk
of the people in other parts of India[25]. They are besides lively
and good-humoured, playful, and obliging. Towards each other, their
conduct is mild and unassuming, but the omission of accustomed forms
or ceremonies, the commission of the slightest fault, imaginary or
real, is followed by immediate punishment. The bamboo is the universal
antidote against all their failings. Like the Chinese, this nation
is addicted to the worship of ancestors, and reveres the memory of
relations. This may, in fact, be considered as the only trait of
religion that exists amongst them. Whatever may have been its origin,
whether, like most institutions of a similar nature, it has degenerated
into a set and formal ceremony that touches not the heart, we ought
perhaps to consider it as of an amiable nature. The political aim of
the institution, the only one of the kind in which the government takes
a part, inculcating it strongly upon the minds of the people, is not be
overlooked. It is that of preventing its subjects from going abroad,
and thereby contributing to retain them in a state of ignorance and
slavery.

The Cochin Chinese are more industrious than we should be apt to
suspect, considering the oppressive nature of the government. Where the
government interferes but little, as in the fisheries on the coast,
their industry is indeed very conspicuous, and there seems every reason
to believe that, were they freed from oppression, they would be equally
so in other branches. They are capable of supporting a large share
of fatigue; and the quantum of daily labour, as for instance in the
operation of rowing, or of running, is in general very considerable.
But the greatest obstacle to the developement of industry proceeds from
the oppressive nature of the military system, by which about two-thirds
of the male population are compelled to serve as soldiers, at a low
and inadequate rate of pay. Of all the grievances they labour under,
it would appear that they consider this the most oppressive. It not
only takes from agriculture and other occupations, the hands necessary
for such labours, but by the idle habits which the military service
generates in the men, it renders them unfit to return to that condition
of life. The consequence of this system may easily be conjectured,
though not perhaps to the full extent. Almost all kinds of labour are
performed by women, whom it is not unusual to see guiding the plough
and sowing the seed. Besides, the labour of women is paid at an equal
rate with that of the men. The daily wages for either is one mas and
their food, or two mas, without it. Another great evil arising out of
the military system of levy, consists in the destruction of family
connexions and ties. From the age of seventeen to twenty, a selection
of the youth is made for military service, from which there is no
retiring until age or infirmity has rendered them incapable of further
service. It is true that, from time to time, they are allowed to
return to their homes on leave of absence; but it is to be feared that
a temporary residence of this nature affords a feeble barrier to the
unsocial tendency of the system.

But in order to form correct notions of the effect of the military
system, we ought to know precisely the proportion taken out of a
certain number of the people. This proportion, however, has been so
differently stated by different persons, that it is extremely difficult
to assume any degree of probability on the subject. It has been stated
that usually two-thirds of the male population from twenty to fifty are
taken. It should be observed that the French gentlemen state that, in
general, one-third of the soldiers are on leave of absence.

The answers to our inquiries respecting the population of the country,
or of any particular town or district, have been attended with the same
degree of uncertainty, and therefore I have for the most part passed
the subject over in silence. It has rarely happened that we have had
an opportunity of conversing with persons sufficiently enlightened to
possess correct notions on this subject; and it seems very doubtful
if any exact data, calculated to provide an accurate estimate of the
amount, are in the possession even of the government. The French
gentlemen, speaking from conjecture, estimated the population of the
kingdom at 10,000,000. French writers have estimated it at three times
that amount. It is agreed by all that Tonquin is more populous than
Cochin China. The gold and silver mines alone of that country give
employment to no less than 10,000 industrious Chinamen, with their
families.

_Oct. 12th._--The Tacoon, or Mandarin of Strangers, sent to say, that
the letter for the Governor General of Bengal, and the papers relating
to commercial affairs were in readiness, and that he wished to deliver
them. A boat was sent for us at an early hour, and we set out for the
Tacoon’s house immediately after breakfast. We were several hours
in reaching the place, on account of the rapidity of the current.
From the 5th instant, with but one or two days of intermission, it
had rained almost constantly, and in such quantity, that the rains we
had experienced near to the line, in Siam and in Bengal, where they
are periodical, seemed insignificant compared with these. The waters
poured down in drenching torrents, frequently for two days and nights
without intermission. They were accompanied with but little lightning.
For the most part a strong wind from the north-east prevailed. The
barometer which, previous to this change in the weather, had scarcely
indicated any perceptible variation, even in its ordinary diurnal tide,
being almost constantly at 29.8, or from that to 29.85, now gradually
fell to 29.635, at which it continued stationary during the rain. The
thermometer at the same time scarcely varied from 77.5°.

The country was speedily deluged with water, and in a short time
the rooms we occupied were scarce an inch above the level of the
inundation, it having already overflowed the other parts of the house.
Our neighbours in the same street were in still worse plight, the water
having already entered their houses. The people were now seen moving
about the streets in boats, where but the day before they had passed
on dry ground. The lower orders make use of a dress well calculated
to defend the body against injury from wet; and in no country perhaps
is such a dress more required. It is made of palm-leaves closely sewed
together, and reminds you, by its appearance, of the Siberian dressed
in shaggy skins. It consists of a hat, in the shape of a basket, that
comes down over the shoulders, and is from two and a-half to three feet
or more in diameter. It is bound under the chin. The body is covered
by a round jacket without sleeves. The hat and jacket are impervious
to water. There were few to be seen abroad at this time who were not
dressed in these useful, but rude habiliments. From these they derive
so much protection, that the rain apparently occasions but little
interruption to their occupations.

When we arrived at the Tacoon’s house we found the two French mandarins
in their boats, and ready to enter with us. The Tacoon was seated
as before, and dressed in plain robes of blue silk. Behind him was
suspended, against the wall, a board on which were written some Chinese
characters; the letters were executed in mother-of-pearl, and from the
manner in which the light was reflected from their surface, appeared
as if they were embossed in the richest style. The workmanship was of
extreme beauty; the chief seeing that it attracted my attention, took
care to inform us that he had caused it to be made in his own house. We
had already seen some very elegant boxes inlaid with mother-of-pearl.
Some of them displayed a correctness of taste, and a degree of beauty
which we had but little expected. They were not to be compared with
what we now saw. These boxes are only to be procured from the chiefs.
The best of them are said to come from Tonquin, and the shell, an
extremely thin, translucent, and elegant species of Mya, is brought
from the mouth of the river of Saigon. If the Japan boxes are more
elegant, these are the most durable. The colours never change, and the
varnish is excellent.

On this occasion there were but few people in attendance at the house
of the Tacoon. He received us as on the former occasion, without
quitting his seat, and we took our places at a table opposite to him,
upon a form covered with carpets, and opposite to four mandarins, who
were seated at the table with us.

It seemed as if the old man were pleased at having brought the affairs
of the mission to a favourable conclusion. He was in high spirits,
talked and laughed much and very heartily, and evidently wished to
impress us with notions favourable to himself and his countrymen. He
commenced the conversation, by observing that whatever might be the
custom in Europe, it was quite contrary to their notions of propriety
to open a letter intended for the king, and that the letter from the
Governor General of Bengal to the king of Cochin China had been opened
at Saigon. It was explained to him that this was done, contrary to the
inclination and to the great inconvenience of the Agent of the Governor
General, by the governor of Saigon, who insisted upon seeing the
original letter. It was added that the governor of Saigon had received
us in a very friendly manner, and that his motive in wishing to see the
letter seemed to arise from some doubts that he probably entertained
respecting the real objects of the mission. No further notice was taken
of the matter.

Some papers were lying before him on the table. He observed that
these were copies of the letter to the Governor General, and of the
commercial regulations; that correct copies should be delivered to the
Agent of the Governor General, but that it was their custom carefully
to seal up and enclose in a box the original letters, which were to be
delivered in that state to the Governor General.

The papers were now delivered to be read. The letter for the Governor
General was not in the name of the King, but from the Tacoon himself;
the general import was as follows: that Mr. Crawfurd had brought a
letter for the king, which, being in the English language, they could
not understand; but that having a Chinese interpreter with him, they
understood through the latter that the object of the letter was to
obtain for the English commercial intercourse with Cochin China; that
Mr. Crawfurd had offered, on the part of the Governor General, 500
muskets and two chandeliers. The English should be permitted to trade
on the same conditions as the Chinese, Portuguese, and French nations.
The King sent as a present to the Governor General, a few catties of
cinnamon of the first quality, some of inferior quality, some agila
wood, two rhinoceros’ horns, elephants’ teeth, and a few peculs of
sugar-candy. The Agent of the Governor General had been presented with
some agila wood, two elephants’ teeth, and the horn of a rhinoceros.
Such was the subject of the letter.

Mr. Crawfurd now expressed his satisfaction at the hospitality and kind
treatment we had experienced since our arrival, as well as with the
manner in which the objects of the mission had been conducted; that
he had no doubt, the more the two nations were acquainted with each
other, the better friends they would become; that he should accept of
the presents which the King had been pleased to offer to him, with all
becoming respect, and consider them as an honourable mark of personal
distinction; that with regard to the presents intended for the Governor
General, the mandarins must well know that things of this sort were by
no means necessary to ensure the friendship of powers so well disposed
towards each other; that he hoped, therefore, the King would not take
it amiss if he declined receiving them; that he would, however, do what
might be considered equivalent, he would go, as proposed at first, to
the hall of ceremonies to view them, and that he would report to the
Governor General that such things had been offered.

It seems as if the mandarins had been prepared to receive an answer of
this nature, and the French gentlemen observed that they had stated it
as their opinion that the presents for the Governor General would not
be received. The mandarin, in a good-humoured way, used every argument
that he could think of to induce Mr. Crawfurd to accept them; but being
assured repeatedly that this could not be done without an express
order to that effect, he desisted, and the matter seemed amicably, if
not satisfactorily, adjusted on both sides. The Tacoon said that the
letters should be delivered on the following day, and that at an early
hour a boat should be sent to convey us to the hall of ceremonies, in
the palace, where the presents would be laid out for inspection. He
had asked, on our entrance, whether we wished to return by sea or by
land; and on its being answered by land, he said that it was not at
present very practicable to go by sea; and that he would give us his
boat to convey us the first stage of our journey, which it would be
more agreeable to accomplish by water, the navigation being inland.
Palanquins and bearers should be provided to convey us the rest of the
way. Satisfied with this arrangement, we fixed our departure for the
morning of the 14th. He observed, that a certain number of bullocks,
hogs, goats, ducks, fowls, rice, and sugar, would be offered for the
use of the ship, and conveyed to Turon.

Mr. Crawfurd answered that he would accept them with pleasure, and
again expressed his satisfaction at the liberality of the commercial
regulations. During the time we remained here, the Mandarin had sent
his assistant to communicate respecting the commercial regulations.
It was agreed that the English should be permitted to trade to all
the ports of Cochin China; and that their ships should be measured
in the manner that the Chinese junks were. The Mandarin now observed
that permission had been granted to trade to the ports of Saigon, Han,
(Bay of Turon,) and Hué. This is, in fact, restricting it to the two
former; the difficulties attending the entrance of the latter, impeded
by a shallow bar at its mouth, and exposed to a wide and open sea,
rendering the permission almost of no avail. He observed that Tonquin
being a lately conquered country, the King had thought proper to
restrict the trade in the manner mentioned.

From the readiness with which leave had in the first instance been
granted to trade to all the ports in the kingdom, and from the surprise
which that communication excited in our very obliging friends, but
very certainly also our political enemies, the French gentlemen, when
the matter was mentioned to them incidentally by Mr. Crawfurd, there
appeared reason to suspect that the restrictions now made were of their
counselling. Mr. Crawfurd expressed his assent to these restrictions.

Whilst the latter part of the conversation was going forward,
preparations were making for a repast. The table was soon covered with
sweetmeats, jellies, roasted ducks and fowls, and a great variety of
fruits, of which we were requested to partake. The Mandarin now laid
aside the distant and formal manner which he had hitherto observed,
and, approaching the table, conversed with much familiarity, laughing
as before very loudly at times. Four or five young children had
collected round him. He observed that these were part of thirty-six
children who were now alive and in his house, and that the entire
number of whom he had been the parent was fifty-four. He said that he
was now sixty-six years of age, that he had served three kings, and
had filled the office he now holds for the last twenty-one years, and
that he expected to have more children born to him. All his children
had been born, he said, since the late king had ascended the throne.
Previous to that period, being engaged in war, flying from place to
place, pursuing or pursued, he had found how unfavourable such a life
is to the increase of families, but that he hoped he had profited by
the quiet which followed.

The mandarins opposite to us seemed to relish the repast. They devoured
rather than ate of it, and, with an avidity and coarseness of manner
which was altogether disgusting. Fat pork and rotten eggs they seemed
to consider as delectable morsels, and were not sparing of their powers
of consumption. It will appear scarcely credible to an European, that
both here and in many parts of China, fresh eggs are looked upon with
indifference, while those that have become to a certain degree putrid
are much esteemed, and that the latter cost in the market thirty per
cent. more than the former. Eggs that contain young ones are still
more highly esteemed, and, amongst the numerous dishes sent to us by
the king, were two plates full of hatched eggs, containing young that
were already fledged. We were assured that this was considered as a
mark of great distinction. Doubting still of the fact, we sent them to
the soldiers appointed as our guard, who gobbled them up in haste with
the most luxurious voracity.

The table was now cleared, and the conversation that followed was of a
general nature; when, to our great astonishment, the little mandarin
of Han, a man who had often visited us both here and on board ship,
without giving us any more favourable notion of his capacity than that
of his being a poor silly creature, with scarcely two ideas in his
head, got up, and, in a loud and sharp voice, exclaimed, that we had
come from the Governor of a province, that we had offered presents to
a great king, who, not receiving them, we were now returning without
the presents he had deigned to offer. Had the little man done that
justice to the bottle, which he did to the fat pork and hatched eggs,
one might have supposed this intemperate remark to have proceeded
from inebriety. It would appear, however, to have been the result of
pure folly, for on this, though not on all the occasions we had seen
him, he was apparently sober. Before he had time to proceed further,
Mr. Crawfurd replied, that he had not called for the opinion of this
mandarin, and would hear no more from him. That the matter having
been fully discussed with the Tacoon, in their presence, it was now
surely at rest. The little mandarin evidently felt this as a keen
rebuke. Mistaking the nature of the part which I had performed in the
transactions of the day, and conceiving himself to be on terms of great
intimacy with Mr. Crawfurd, he thought that such an observation could
only have come from me. So, rising again, with still more animated
energy, he observed, that there was but one name in the Governor
General’s letter, meaning thereby, that but one had a right to speak
there. He said nothing further, and sat down, apparently much offended;
the more so for that I could not help laughing at his mistake. The
Tacoon also laughed very heartily at the occurrence. The observation
however, though seemingly thrown out by accident, made some impression
upon the two mandarins, senior to that of Han; and the Tacoon, seeing
that it was likely to lead to further discussion, terminated the affair
by saying, that he would refer the matter to the king. Thus, by one
unlucky, unnecessary expression of a weak and foolish man, were our
plans entirely frustrated.

The conversation on our part was carried on entirely in the French
language, M. Chaigneaux acting as interpreter between us.

_Oct. 15th._--Two of the assistants to Tuan-kam, (Mandarin of
Elephants,) who had been present at our last interview with him, called
upon Mr. Crawfurd with a sealed copy of the Commercial Regulations.
They said, that the letter for the Governor General could not be
delivered unless the presents were accepted; that those intended for
Mr. Crawfurd and the ship should be delivered at Turon. They asked if
Mr. Crawfurd really wished to have the letter; and that if he would
accept of the presents for the Governor General, it would be made out
without delay. Mr. Crawfurd replied, that he had already delivered his
sentiments on the subject of the presents, and that as to the letter,
it was for the king to decide whether he should receive it or not. They
inquired when we wished to depart, and were told, on the day after
to-morrow. They said that we might visit the Tuan-kam on the following
day, which was agreed to. They now took their leave, apparently
disappointed at the result of the interview. It appeared that they
thought Mr. Crawfurd could not return to Bengal without an answer to
the letter to the king.

_16th._--We visited the Mandarin of Strangers. He had sent a clerk
early in the morning, to say that four men only would be provided
for carrying the baggage of Mr. Crawfurd, myself, a European clerk,
an interpreter, and servant. We had been requested to state the day
before, in writing, the number of persons that would be required for
this purpose, and had mentioned twelve. We were now not a little
surprised to learn that they had reduced this number to four, and
not conceiving that such an order could have been authorized by the
minister, sent the man away.

Since the affair of the presents had been last agitated, a marked
change had taken place in the conduct of those about Court towards
us. They descended to acts of petty meanness which were altogether
contemptible, and much more calculated to excite contempt, derision,
and pity, than any hostile feeling. It was but too evident that the
King was piqued at the refusal of the presents, and we had every reason
to believe that the mean conduct which his ministers now observed was
authorized by him. On this occasion we were landed at some distance
from the minister’s house, purposely, as it would seem, in order that
we might have to walk some way in the sun, and over bad roads. In the
court of the minister’s house there was, as usual, a crowd of idle
people, interspersed with players. The Chinese play would seem to be a
favourite amusement with the old man, for we found always a band of
players in attendance. The performance ceased as we entered the court.
We had here a good proof in what esteem the heroes of the buskin are
held. Not all their gibes and jokes are sufficient to raise them above
the discipline of the bamboo. The Richard of the piece, the Kean of the
party, was at this moment prostrate on the ground, with two men holding
him down, and a stout fellow inflicting blows upon a tender part
with all his might. The scene was inconceivably ridiculous. The gay,
gilded casque of the hero, contrasted with his rueful and lengthened
countenance, so abundantly expressive of the pain he suffered; the
gay flowing robes of flowered satin which formed his dress; his large
Tartar boots, &c., and the serious manner of those who held him in this
state, were altogether irresistibly laughable.

The Tuan Kayn received us on this occasion with even less ceremony than
formerly. He was dressed in a plain flannel or cloth jacket, of a green
colour, and a black turban, without any ornament whatever. Bare and
naked wooden benches were given us to sit on; the carpets, with which
they and two old chairs had formerly been covered, being now removed.
There was no one present but the chief himself, and a number of his
retainers, who had apparently assembled to witness the play.

The conversation was carried on through Mr. Crawfurd’s Chinese
interpreter.

The mandarin observed, that as the presents had not been accepted,
the king had thought proper to countermand the letter to the Governor
General; but that the supplies for the ship’s use should be delivered
at Turon. Mr. Crawfurd mentioned the subject of the people for our
baggage; he observed that this had been done by the express order of
the king himself, and that the order could not be reversed without much
delay. He seemed as if conscious of there being some degree of meanness
attached to this affair, for immediately thereafter he observed that
it was no arrangement of his, and that he had nothing to do with it.
He said that if English vessels came to trade, he would do all in his
power to assist them, and to expedite their business. Mr. Crawfurd
said, that as they were so anxious about the matter of the presents,
he would take them on board, but he could not answer for their being
received by our Government, and that he must protest against receiving
them in the name of the Governor General. He replied, that it was
better that matters should now rest as they were. This interview
lasted about half an hour. The old gentleman wished us a favourable
passage to Bengal, and we bade him adieu. On our way back we called
upon the French mandarins, and took leave of them. They had behaved
towards us, during our stay, with undeviating kindness, politeness, and
attention, and to them we are indebted for many acts of civility. In
whatever light they may have regarded the mission from Bengal, and it
is but natural that they should have considered it as hostile to the
interests of their country, they never allowed political feeling to
influence their conduct with regard to us; and on those occasions in
which they acted as interpreters, they appeared, as far as I am capable
of judging, to have done justice to the opinions of Mr. Crawfurd. If
they have in any way influenced the conduct of the Court, it has not
been in this particular.

On our return home, we engaged men to carry our baggage, and prepared
to depart on the following day. Our business being now over, we had
nothing further to detain us. The whole country was still inundated,
and the rain still fell in great quantity.

_Oct. 17th._--Two boats were in readiness about nine a. m. to take us
the first part of the journey by water; they were in charge of the old
man who had conveyed us from Turon. One of the boats, though a very
long vessel, offered but little accommodation, and was intended for our
baggage. We had been informed by the Tuan Kayn that he would send his
own boat for our accommodation. We were surprised to find it already
occupied by the old skipper. He was told that the boat had been sent
expressly for us, and that he must either leave it, or that we should.
He argued and refused to move into his own boat for some time, but
seeing us get up to go into it, he complied immediately. A third boat,
containing a military guard armed with spears, joined us. We had ever
since our arrival been guarded with the utmost strictness, and the
system had not yet ceased.

We proceeded up the river until we had passed the citadel a short way,
when we entered a fine canal on the left, and pursued its course almost
directly east, for the distance of eight or nine miles. The weather had
cleared up, and we had a fine day. We were much pleased with the great
beauty of the country, and the variety of its scenery. The low hills
opposite to the Fort were here and there cultivated with upland-rice,
and presented a beautiful appearance. The extensive plain on either
side of the canal was overflown; numerous villages were seen to line
its distant boundaries. This canal is said to have been constructed
by the father of the reigning king; it is about twenty yards in
breadth, and almost quite straight. Its banks are inhabited for about
two miles towards the river and occasionally are seen some large and
well constructed houses, surrounded by walls. It is altogether a work
of great labour, and of no less utility, as besides the advantage of
water-conveyance to a very considerable extent, it has enabled the
cultivator to turn into rice-fields extensive plains which formerly lay
waste through the want of irrigation. The soil taken from the canal has
been used chiefly for the manufacture of bricks, of which an immense
number has been used in the construction of magazines, and of the walls
of the fort.

We had travelled about eight miles, when the canal terminated in a
marsh, but its banks were still to be traced by thick tufts of coarse
grass, and numerous species of Sparganium, and of Carex, interspersed
with a few shrubs, as Melastoma and Pandanus. At the distance of four
miles farther, we came to the banks of a salt-water lake, in which the
canal terminates. At this place there resides a petty chief, to whom it
was necessary to shew our passport. A sluice separates the salt from
the fresh water, and prevents the former from entering the rice fields.
We stopped here only for a few minutes, when we passed with impetuosity
through the sluice into the salt-water lake, the water of the canal
being at this time elevated considerably above that of the latter. We
had now before us a vast and beautiful expanse of water, surrounded
by a bold and picturesque country, uniting within itself the sublime
and imposing beauties of alpine and temperate countries, with those
peculiar to the torrid zone. This is more correctly a bay than a lake;
the counterpart, and superior even in extent, as it certainly is in
beauty, to the bay of Turon. In other respects, however, it is not to
be compared with that excellent harbour, for though completely shut in
by the land, and surrounded by mountains that afford shelter against
every wind, the entrance from the sea is narrow, and there is said to
be but two fathoms of water in the deeper parts. For boats it affords
complete protection at all times; and a considerable number were now
passing in various directions. Numerous villages were to be seen at the
foot of the hills, where there is in most parts room for cultivation,
to a small extent, both of rice and of other grains.

In two hours we crossed the lake, and passing through a narrow canal
for the distance of two or three hundred yards, came to a neat and
populous village, surrounded on all sides by hedges of bamboo, so as to
be completely concealed. The soil here is rich, and affords excellent
crops of rice. We were directed to a large and commodious house, built
for the accommodation of travellers. Some of the lower orders of the
people were already at the place, and immediately procured fire, water,
and whatever assistance was required of them, but no person of rank, or
of authority, nor even the mandarin who conducted the boats, came near
us. The people in attendance instantly complied with whatever orders
our interpreters conveyed to them. Three interpreters had accompanied
us from the capital, of whom two spoke Chinese, and one, a native
Christian, Portuguese.

In the hall, or principal room, a number of platforms of various
heights were disposed for sleeping on. We were told not to occupy the
highest, for that the king slept on when he passed this way.

The people of the village soon collected round us in crowds in the room
we occupied. Mere curiosity had brought them to see us, and though they
were noisy, they did not attempt to touch any thing.

The necessary preparations were made by the interpreters to enable us
to depart early next morning. Our palanquins were produced, and bearers
were furnished from the village.

We were surprised to see so few animals in this day’s journey, the
country appearing favourable to the existence of several kinds. A
large species of black Fulica was almost the only bird we observed in
the marshes.

_18th._--We commenced our journey in palanquins, and reached the next
stage in four hours, the distance appearing to be about ten or eleven
miles. From the village to the foot of the hills, there is a distance
of nearly three miles, through a well-cultivated and fertile, as well
as beautiful, country. Though in the vicinity of the sea-shore, we
observed no cocoa-nut trees. Areca nuts, plantains, sweet potatoes,
betel leaf and tobacco, were the produce of the village gardens, as
rice was of the fields that surround them.

We found the palanquins that had been provided for us, well adapted to
the nature of the country, and at the same time both comfortable and
easy. They consist simply of a netting of cotton thread, in shape like
a sailor’s hammock, stretched at both ends by a stick, and suspended
from a slightly-curved pole or bamboo. The top is formed of palm
leaves, neatly laid over each other, and covered on the outside with
a durable, black varnish, which renders it water-proof. The sides are
furnished with water-proof curtains, which are let down or taken up
according to circumstances. The whole is extremely light; the position
in which the body is placed in this vehicle, is more agreeable and less
fatiguing than in the more costly and shewy palanquins of Bengal,
which require two men to carry them when empty, while in this two men
are able to carry the stoutest person, nor are more than this number to
be seen at any time under the pole. The Cochin Chinese, though short,
are remarkably stout and well made. They travel under the palanquin
faster than the Bengal bearers do, and make no stop until they reach
the end of their journey. We were told that two was the usual number of
bearers furnished for a palanquin.

They were furnished to us in greater numbers, for at some stages four
were provided, and at others six; yet there were never more than two
carrying at the same time. It was matter of surprise to us to see
with what facility and quickness they ascended and descended very
steep hills, leaping from stone to stone with the utmost certainty of
footing. Being from ill health unable to leave the palanquin, I was at
first somewhat alarmed at the boldness with which they proceeded, but
soon saw that my fears were groundless. They were always cheerful under
the greatest exertions they had to make, and when on one occasion,
where the road was exceedingly steep, I made an attempt to walk, I had
not proceeded above a few yards when they came round me, and would let
me journey no further in this way. The kind disposition of these poor
people was further exhibited by their attention in plucking flowers and
fruits as we travelled.

The first hill that we ascended appeared to be about 800 feet high and
very steep. From this we descended into an extensive plain, partly
cultivated at the base of the mountains, but the greater part marshy,
with a sandy soil, and overgrown with underwood. We found the village
in which we halted, like the former, neat, clean, and comfortable. The
houses erected for the accommodation of travellers are so much alike,
that I need say no more than has been said of the last.

We changed bearers at this place, and after three hours’ stay
recommenced our journey. We had again a very considerable hill to
ascend, but our bearers made very light work of it. When we had gained
the summit, a magnificent view opened before us. We looked down upon
another of those extensive lakes, or inland bays, which we have already
described. Descending the mountain, we passed along its left bank,
through a sandy soil, till we came to the junction of the lake with
the sea, by means of a narrow and shallow neck. Here, also, there is a
village, but a poor one, the inhabitants of which appear to live almost
entirely by fishing.

It will readily be conceived that the rugged country we were now
passing through affords but little ground capable of cultivation,
and that the population must therefore be necessarily very scanty.
What there is draws its maintenance more from the sea than from the
land, and every bay swarms with boats. The hills present the usual
luxuriance which vegetation assumes in other intertropical countries.
Here, however, it may be added, is exhibited a greater variety in the
products, though the general aspect of the vegetation is much the same.
The country here is throughout granitic, and presents the usual rugged
and bold appearance of all such countries. The roads, considering the
nature of the country, are excellent, and seem to have been constructed
with much labour.

_19th._--We crossed the narrow neck of water at this place, and
commenced the highest and steepest ascent we had yet attempted. The
road lay over masses of granite, and was extremely rugged; yet the
bearers advanced with the greatest facility over ground which might
have appeared impracticable to a less hardy people.

We soon gained sight of the bay of Turon from a great elevation. About
noon we reached the village below, on the shore of the bay; and, after
a hasty breakfast, embarked for the ship in one of the boats of the
natives.

_Oct. 20th._--On our return, we had the happiness to find our friends
and all on board in good health. For notwithstanding the politeness and
good humour of our friends the Cochin Chinese, we had already begun to
wish ourselves once more in the society of our countrymen. The party on
board had, during our absence at the capital, amused themselves chiefly
in making excursions to the various hills that surround the bay.
These excursions procured us fewer zoological additions than we might
reasonably have expected. Great numbers of a large species of Simia,
with a blackish face, red cheeks, arms and thighs, gray upon the body,
and furnished with a long tail, were seen in the woods.


END OF THE JOURNAL.

FOOTNOTE:

[25] In their persons, the Cochin Chinese are far from being a cleanly
people. Many of their customs are, in fact, extremely disgusting. Those
ablutions so much practised by all the Western Asiatics, are here
unknown; and their dress is not once washed from the time it is first
put on, till it is no longer fit for use.

There appears but little ground for an opinion commonly entertained of
this people, that they are dissolute, and that female virtue is held
in little repute. The conduct of both sexes in public is altogether
correct and decorous. The frailties of married women are said to be
looked upon by all ranks with the greatest indignation and abhorrence,
while the punishment awarded by the laws amounts to the greatest, and
even to revolting, severity. With respect to unmarried women, the
greatest liberty is conceded in matters of this sort, nor does even
public opinion oppose the smallest obstacle to the freest indulgence of
their inclinations. The utmost degree of liberty is conceded to them,
and the connexions they form with their male acquaintances, whether
temporary or durable, whatever consequence may follow, is in no manner
prejudicial to the woman’s future prospects, nor is she the less
respected by her future husband. The lesser chiefs make no scruple in
giving their daughters, for a sum of money, to any one who is to reside
for a short time in the country. Indeed, there seems to be little other
ceremony in matrimonial treaties than that of giving.




INDEX.


  Agar-agar, 84

  Agila wood, or lignum aloës. _See_ Aquillaria agallocha.

  Albino quadrupeds frequent in Siam, 262

  Alcedo, 21

  Alcyonium, 51

  Animal food used by the Siamese, 216

  Apocyneæ, 273

  Aquillaria agallocha, 94, 258

  Archipelago of Siam, 42

  Areca, 310
    Catechu, 25

  Argus pheasant, 32

  Asteria, 52, 94

  Astrology, addiction of Siamese to, 237

  Attap, 113

  Audience of the king at Bankok, 145, 164
    Hall of audience, 142


  Balachang, a Siamese condiment, 215

  Bambus verticillata, 11

  Bankok, arrival at, 114
    Of modern date, 209
    Floating bazar, 115
    Port of, regulations respecting English ships, 208
    Few roads in its vicinity, 212
    Manufactures, 214
    Palaces and temples, 156, 216, 219
    Various tribes inhabit, 223

  Barkalan, or Pra Klang, 164

  Barometer, 4, 82, 388

  Bauddhic and Egyptian religion, coincidences between, 221
    Prayers, 187

  Bay of Cocoa-nuts, 295

  Bazars of India and Cochin China, 311
    Of Kandyu, 301
    Of Saigon, 317. Of Hue, 369, 371

  Bingeh city, 312

  Birds, 21, 77, 114, 261, 275, 285, 287, 296, 408

  Boats, royal of Siam, 181, 107, 116, 134
    Procession of, 182
    Of Cochin China, 326

  Boats Chinese, 116

  Boletus, 1

  Bombasoi mountain, 257

  Borassus flabelliformis, 8, 25
    Caudata, 11
    Gomutus, 25

  Borneo, 81

  Brahmans in Siam, 159, 187

  Bromelia ananas, or pine-apple, species of, 30

  Buceros, 21

  Buddha, names of, 252
    Commands of, 253
    Of Siam and Ceylon contrasted 110, 111
    Images of, 218, 220

  Buggis, improve in naval architecture, 69


  Calampac, or Colambac, 260

  Calamus, 1, 30

  Calendar of the Siamese, 249, 250, 251

  Canal in Cochin China, beautiful scenery on, 404

  Cape St. James, singularity of ebb tide near, 294

  Cargariau, Captain, French envoy, 371

  Carimon, the little, 42

  Casuarina equisetifolia, 99

  Catechu or Gambir, 56

  Cerealia, 27

  Ceremonies at the public audience, negotiations respecting, 130
    Mode adopted, 133

  Certhia, 21

  Chantibond, a valuable province of Siam, 255
    Its products, 256
    Population, 257
    Amount of pepper produced, 257
    Cardamoms, 257

  Chatt, a Siamese ornament, 144

  Chau Pha, the prince, put to death by his uncle, 246

  Chinese have not the usual Asiatic air, 13
    Valuable settlers, 14, 115
    Soon acquire wealth under British government, 14
    Their houses, 62, 115
    Compared with those of the Malabar settlers, 16
    Addicted to gross feeding, 17, 63, 215
    Their activity, 61
    Its motive, 65
    Traits of character, 64
    Mental capacity, 66
    Comparative numbers, 67, 212
    Their emigration temporary, 67
    Insolence towards Europeans, 95
    Privileges of in Siam, 166, 168, 245
    Instance of the hospitality of, 315

  Chinese junks, 68
    Have no charts, 69

  Chinese symbolic characters a means of communication among tribes
      using different languages, 94

  Cholera morbus, a case of in Siam, 197

  Christians native, 257

  Chuliahs, or Malabar Moslems, 13

  Chroma Chit engrosses the administration of affairs, 128
    Interviews with, 127, 194
    Is desirous of introducing vaccination, 197
    Not the heir to the throne, but obtains it, 200

  Clove tree, 29

  Cochin China, Agricultural products, 310
    Manufactures, 311
    Paucity of Inhabitants seen, 350
    Beauty of its scenery, 408, 411

  Cochin Chinese, politics of, 179
    Respecting foreigners, 320
    Physiological appearance and national affinity, 298, 305
    Character and manners, 299
    Houses, 300
    Very attentive to dress, 301
    Boats, 302
    Troops, artillery, &c., 343, 365
    Fort, 340
    Are remarkably small, 305
    Females, 309
    Singular moral discriminations respecting females, 310, 384
    Promiscuous feeders, 310
    Poverty of the country, 312
    Contemptible spirit of the Cochin Chinese Court, 400
    Regulations affecting British commerce, 394

  Cochin Chinese ambassador received with honours at
      Bankok, 177, 182, 185

  Cocoa nut, 24

  Coffee tree, 29

  Columba, 21, 285

  Commerce of Siam a royal monopoly, 166
    European valuable to the Siamese, 169
    Concessions of Cochin China in favour of, 370
    Regulations respecting, 394

  Contortæ, 26

  Convolvulus pes capræ, 11
    Species 17

  Corals, 51

  Costume of Siam, 109
    Of Cochin China, 296, 300, 378
    Military, 302
    Of the rainy season, 389
    Cow and Calf Island, 2

  Crinum, 35

  Cycas revoluta, 80
    Circinalis, 25


  Dagoba, or Bauddhic monumental fane, comparison of, with Pyramids, 221
    Form of, 156

  Despotic government of the Siamese, 127
    Baleful effects of, 265, 381

  Dead, treatment of in Siam, 231
    A singular custom, 232
    Siamese mode of embalming, 233

  Diard, Mr., 307
    His discoveries in natural history, 308, 313

  Dioscorea, or Yam, 87
    Luxuriancy of its habit, 270

  Dugong, or Halicora, 52

  Duties, a reduction promised, 205


  Eggs rotten, a Chinese delicacy, 396

  Elate silvestris, 11

  Elephant, albino, 151, 261
    A spotted, 153
    Exhibition of elephants, 323

  Emblems religious, perpetual recurrence of, 305

  English factory, ruins of an old, 290

  Epidendrum, a gigantic species, 35
    Species, 26

  Equatorial regions, salubrity of, 47

  Erythrina indica, 28

  Etiquette of the court of Siam respecting shoes, 150
    Of Cochin China respecting letters, 319
    A pretext, 391

  Euphorbia, 11

  European manufactures scarcely to be met with in Cochin China, 311


  Felis, 20

  Factions or parties in the ministry of Siam, 203

  Females the labourers in Siam, 314

  Fern, 26

  Fever, intermittent, unknown at Singapore, 60

  Fish abundant, 269

  Flying, Siamese notions respecting the art of, 238

  French influence in Cochin China, 367, 395
    Mandarins, 353, 403

  Funeral pile, 111
    Obsequies of the Siamese, 235

  Fucus, a remarkable species of, 55

  Fu kok, or Pau kok Island, 92, 97
    Inhabitants, 98
    Plants, 98, 99
    Isles in its vicinity, 100

  Furs procurable at Bankok for the China market, 215


  Galeopithecus variegatus, 19

  Gambir, or Terra Japonica, 56

  Geology, 6, 36, 37, 42, 44, 79, 89, 275, 289, 295

  George Town, Penang, 15
    Population, 15
    Houses, 15

  Gold mines of Chantibond, 256
    Of Tonquin, 387

  Governor-general’s letter, 118

  Gramineæ, singular paucity of, 288

  Guns, enormous, 160

  Grapes, 294


  Hair, festival of cutting the lock of, 160, 186

  Halicora Dugong, 52

  Haya, a new genus of plants, 98

  Hot winds of India, the effects of, 48

  Hué, fort of, 351
    Canal of, 348
    River of, the most beautiful in Asia, 349


  Indian, a race resembling the Indians met with in the
      Peninsula of Malacca, 226

  Inn, or stage-house, in Cochin China, 407

  Intertropical winter, 21
    Its effect on plants, 22

  Islands, groups of, 89, 91


  Jasminum, 11

  Justicia, 11


  Kabouc, 37

  Kandyu and its governor, 297

  King of Siam is importunate for the presents sent by the
      Governor-general, 122, 123
    His name, 166
    Funeral obsequies, 240
    Idol formed from his ashes, 241

  Khon chook, ceremony of, 185

  Kochai Sahac, Malay interpreter, 122
    His character too late detected, 202


  Lacerta, 275

  Lake or bay, 405

  Languages, comparison of the inland, or aboriginal, recommended, 226

  Laurus, 1

  Laws of Siam respecting adultery, 242
    Theft and debt, 243

  Leather dye, 214

  Leopard, black, 32

  Letter to Governor-general of British India, notice respecting, 206
    From Governor-general to King of Cochin China, 313
    To Governor-general from Cochin China, 392, 399, 402

  Leyden, Dr., valuable comparison of languages by, 226

  Life savage and refined contrasted by exemplars, 270

  Luong Pra, the Barma monarch, 244


  Macassar soldiers murder an English garrison, 290

  Madrepore, 51

  Malacca contrasted with Penang, 39
    Nearly deserted, 39
    Its fruit and fish, 39
    Vicinity, 38

  Malay, or Mopla, interpreter.
    See Kochai Sahac.

  Malay Peninsula, western coast has numerous islands, 4
    Mountain ridges, 5

  Malays, 71
    Physiological aspect, 227
    Fishermen, or orang laut, 73

  Mammalia, 261, 274, 285

  Mandarins, their retinues numerous, 314
    An official visit from, 306
    Mandarin of Han, 397

  Mangroves, 58
    Utility of, 60

  Manufactures of Europe scarce at Saigon, 311

  Melastoma, 11

  Menam river, 102
    Plains on the banks, 113
    Depth, 114
    At Bankok, 116

  Mines of precious stones, 256

  Mission British arrives in Siam, 101
    Bad auguries from verbal communications, 104
    Visited only by people of low rank, 104, 201
    Visit the chief of Packnam, 105
    Restrictions on, 124
    Procession of, to the palace, 137
    Treated with disrespect by the crowd, 161
    Inhospitality towards, 163
    Received as a deputation from a province, 165
    Lodged in an outhouse belonging to the minister, 119
    Reflections thereon, 120
    Its affairs consigned by the court of Siam to low intriguers, 201
    Its reception contrasted with that of an embassy from
      Cochin China, 180, &c.
    Arrives in Cochin China, 295
    Visited by the chief of Kandyu, 297
    Arrive at Saigon, 303
    Conferences with Mandarins, 306, 313
    Audience of the Governor, 317
    Arrive in the bay of Turon, 328
    Limited number allowed to visit Hué, 335
    Strictly watched by armed men, 343, 404
    Arrive at Hué, 351
    Conference with the mandarin of elephants, 353
    With the mandarin of strangers, 389, 399
    Molluscæ, 51

  Monastery, a Siamese, 110

  Mongol race, physiology of, 227

  Monkies, white, 154

  Monopoly. _See_ Commerce.

  Morals and Religion, 379

  Morinda citrifolia, 28

  Motacilla, 11

  Mount Palmer, 33

  Mountains, isolated pyramidal, 281

  Musa paradisiaca, 30

  Mussænda frondosa, 26

  Music, royal band, 142
    Cultivated in Siam, 188
    Of Pegu, reported excellence of, 189

  Mya shell tablet, 389

  Mythology, Hindu, in Siam, 217


  Narcondam Island, 3

  Natunas Islands, 81

  Navigation of the Chinese, 70

  Necromancers of Siam, 239

  Negrais Cape, 2

  Neptunian goblet, 51

  Nipa fruticans, 25, 30

  Numerals, Siamese, 249

  Nutmeg-trees, 28


  Orang laut, or men of the sea, 74, 225
    Their physiological appearance, 75


  Packnam, meaning of the term, 266

  Painting, art of, in Siam, 218

  Palace at Bankok, 137, 138, 141

  Palanquin, a Siamese, 137
    Cochin Chin se and bearers, 408

  Palm-tree, proof of an intertropical climate, 8
    Varieties, 8, 11, 17, 23, 24, 35, 88, 285
    Geographical distribution, 24

  Pandanus, 8, 88
    Fibre used for cordage, 29

  Papra Straits, 10
    Botanical observations, 11

  Passer, 2, 21

  Patella, 8

  Peat, 31

  Pelican, 21

  Penang Shipping, 12
    Population, 13, 15
    Botany, 17
    Luxuriant vegetation, reflections, 18
    Highest altitude, 23
    Agricultural products, 27

  Pepper, 28
    Quantity capable of being furnished by Siam, 132

  Physiognomy of Ultra Gangetic nations, 229

  Physical exterior of the Cochin Chinese, 374
    Cranium, 376

  Physiological comparison of the Siamese, &c., 224
    Of the Malays, &c., 225

  Phœnix brig, 170

  Pia tac, or Pe ye tac, the Chinese King of Siam, 209
    Founds Bankok, 210
    History of, 244

  Pigeon, 88

  Plantain wild, 86
    Its seeds described, 87
    Supposed to be the original species, 87

  Plants, 8, 11, 24, 26, 54, 55, 80, 86, 98, 113, 270, 285, 288,
      289, 290, 296, 330, 333, 349, 405
    Physiology of, 22, 50, 91
    A new and very singular genus producing enormous tubers, 271

  Players, 401

  Pneumonia, the author attacked by, 208

  Policy of Siam, 175
    Reflections of the author upon, as regards British interests, 176

  Population, 387

  Portuguese interpreter, 103

  Porpoise albino, 262, 275

  Prachadi, 210, 221

  Pra Klang, 164

  Preparis Island, 2

  Presents to the court of Siam, 165
    Misrepresentation of the term suspected, 165
    Of the Governor-general refused by the court of Cochin China, 369
    The king of Cochin China’s presents to Governor-general
      refused, 393, 402

  Pteromys petaurista, or flying squirrel, 54

  Pteropus edulis, 9

  Pyramid, a sepulchral shrine, 221

  Pya-pee-pat of Bankok, corresponds with the governor-general, 206

  Pulo Condore, 287

  Pulo Dinding, 35

  Pulo Panjang, 282

  Pulo Ubi, 82


  Qualla Muda, 30

  Queda shore, 30
    Interior unexplored, 32


  Rains, vehement profluency of, 388

  Ramayana, 159

  Ran-nan, a musical instrument, 191

  Ray, singular species of, 98

  Religion of the Siamese, 251
    None better than a false one, 381

  Reptilia, 261

  Revenue of Siam, 247

  Rhizophora, 59, 304

  Richardson, Capt. 78
    Disturbance with the Chinese, forbids the demands of
      the Chinese, and demands an apology, 79

  Roberts, Mr., Envoy to Cochin China, 359


  Saigon, 312
    River and town, 304, 315
    Interview with the governor of, 318

  Salam, mode of making, in India, 134

  Samrayot mountains, 281

  Sampan, 73

  Scævola lobelia, 11

  Scene of wonder and regret, 143

  Scitamineæ, 23, 24

  Sciurus, 20

  Sea, luminous appearance of, by night, 33

  Sea fowl, paucity of, 77

  Sechang, or Dutch Islands, 267
    Inhabited by an act of compulsion, 268
    Commodious bay, adapted for the formation of a depôt, 280

  Sema, the image, 235

  Sentry sticks used by Cochin Chinese, 345

  Servility of the Siamese etiquette, 126

  Seyer Islands, 5
    Remarkable silence and absence of birds, insects, &c. 6

  Siam, policy of, 164
    Modern history of, 244
    State of defence, 247
    Bay, west coast, 280

  Siamese houses, 108, 113, 117
    Description of, 108
    Court, inhospitality of, 124
    Conduct of, to the mission, 125
    Inferior to the inhabitants of Ceylon, 157
    National family of, 224
    A humane people, 243
    General character of, 265
    Those of rank arrogant and coarse in their manners, 265

  Silks, the chief material of clothing in Cochin China, 311

  Simia, 412

  Singapore, 45
    Commanding situation of, as an emporium, 46
    Perpetual tranquillity of the air and ocean, 46
    No monsoon, or rainy season, but frequent showers, 47
    Tides near, 47
    Capacity of the soil not fully ascertained, 57
    Situation, 75
    Intermittent fever unknown, 60

  Slaves at Malacca, 41

  Soldiers, Siamese, of the body guard, and their equipments, 40

  Squirrel, white species of, 274

  Sterna, 2

  Storm, Mr., 170

  Sugar, 132, 167
    Amount in tons, 168

  Suri Wong Montree, the Praklang, or Barcalan, 132, 200
    Anecdote of, 237

  Surya vangsa, or race of the sun, 129

  Syngenesiæ, 11

  Swallow, a species of, 282


  Tanjung api, 81

  Taste of the Siamese grotesque, 157

  Taxes of Siam, 247

  Teak, black, considered ornamental, 108

  Temperature of the sea, 4
    Effects of, on vegetation, 49
    On animal life, 50

  Thermometer, 22, 77, 82

  Tical, 187

  Tides, 99

  Tiger, 31
    Common in Siam, 263
    Their bones and skins an article of commerce, 263
    Black, 263
    Combat with elephants, 321

  Trade, British with Siam, regulations of, 170

  Treaty drawn up, 204

  Trepang, 94

  Tuan Kayn, 401

  Tuberous plant, discovery of probably the largest species, 272

  Tuk-kay, a musical instrument, 190

  Two Brother’s Islands, 287


  Vaccination, 197

  Vegetable Phenomenon, 43

  Vespertilio, 20

  Vine, 285

  Votive offerings, 85

  Vulture, 21


  Ultra Gangetic nations, their policy, and arrogance, 172
    Imbecility, 173
    Hints how to negotiate with, 203
    Tendency to obesity remarkable among, 228

  Urtica, 29


   Wāāt-thay-cham-ponn, 219

  Water affected by the soil, 31, 35

  Woolly-headed race in the peninsula of Malacca, 226

  Worship of imps and goblins common in Siam, 239
    Of ancestors practised by the Cochin Chinese, 384


  Yellow fever, actual causes doubtful if known, 60

  Yuthia captured by the Barmans, 244
    British not allowed to visit, 209


  Zoological subjects observed, 11, 20, 21, 261, 274, 289, 412




  LONDON:
  PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES,
  Northumberland Court.




Transcriber's Note


A duplicate heading "INDEX" has been removed from the text.


The following apparent printing errors have been corrected:

p. xxix "Governor of Saigon," changed to "Governor of Saigon."

p. 3 "xeistence" changed to "existence"

p. 33 "LITTLECARIMON." changed to "LITTLE CARIMON."

p. 35 "4. " changed to "4.--"

p. 41 "hardship" changed to "hardship."

p. 94 "agallocha,Roxb. (Aloxylum agallochium,Lour.)" changed to
"agallocha, Roxb. (Aloxylum agallochium, Lour.)"

p. 107 "accommotion" changed to "accommodation"

p. 177 "was was brought" changed to "was brought"

p. 185 "disnified" changed to "dignified"

p. 192 "occcured" changed to "occurred"

p. 194 "kill. Palaces" changed to "kill.--Palaces"

p. 224 "Theft. History." changed to "Theft.--History."

p. 249 "Roy" changed to "Roy."

p. 250 "sookh" changed to "sookh."

p. 292 "were mained" changed to "we remained"

p. 391 "Governer General" changed to "Governor General"

p. 402 "through Mr" changed to "through Mr."

p. 404 "father o" changed to "father of"

p. 415 "audidience" changed to "audience"

p. 417 "hinese symbolic" changed to "Chinese symbolic"

p. 422 "Musænda" changed to "Mussænda"

p. 424 "Rains vehement" changed to "Rains, vehement"

p. 425 "Ranran" changed to "Ran-nan"

p. 425 "Scœvola" changed to "Scævola"

p. 427 "Tuan kayn" changed to "Tuan Kayn"

p. 427 "Tukkay" changed to "Tuk-kay"

p. 427 "Wāāt thay champonn" changed to "Wāāt-thay-cham-ponn"

Punctuation in the index has been regularised.


The following printed erratum has been incorporated into the text:

ERRATUM.

p. 48, l. 18, _for_ those, _read_ that.


The following possible errors have been left as printed:

p. 43 net work

p. 72 (note) _Raffles, in Asiatic Researches_

p. 249 Sāām-sēēp.

p. 249 Hoc-seep.

p. 249 star ang-khan.

p. 250 Duan-hāa.

p. 365 recal

Index entries for U and V were printed in reverse order.


There are many inconsistencies in the text, including:

&c. and _&c._

23d and 23rd

3d and 3rd

a. m., a.m. and A.M.

alongside and along-side

background and back-ground

Bombasoi and Bomba-soi

calendar and kalendar

Chinaman and China-man

claystone and clay-stone

Cochin China and Cochin-China

cocoa nut and cocoa-nut

everywhere and every where

eyebrows and eye-brows

Governor General and Governor-General

hind feet and hind-feet

Hue, Hue’ and Hué

japonica and Japonica

Kandyu and Kan-dyu

Kochai-Sahac and Khochai-Sahac

M’Donnell and M’Donnel

musquitoes and mosquitoes

outhouse and out-house

p. m., p.m. P. M. and P.M.

Praklang, Pra-klang and Pra-Klang

Prachadi and Pra-cha-di

praws, praus and Praus

repassing and re-passing

Samrayot, Sam-rayot and Sam-ra-yot

sandstone and sand-stone

semibarbarous and semi-barbarous

semicircular and semi-circular

Suriwong, Suri-wong, Suree-wong, Suri-Wong and Suri Wong

sweetmeats and sweet-meats

ultra-Gangetic and Ultra-Gangetic

viranda and verandah

Wāāt-thay-cham-ponn

In addition, upper and lower case and small capitals are used for
compass directions. The table of Siamese years on p. 251 uses
apostrophes inconsistently.