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THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC

The Commission of the Argentine Republic takes pleasure in offering this volume, descriptive of the growth and position of the Argentine Republic, as a souvenir of the Panama-Pacific-Exposition of 1915.

HORACIO ANASAGASTI,
Commissioner-General.

San Francisco, May, 1915.

# The
Argentine Republic

PANAMA-PACIFIC-EXPOSITION
SAN FRANCISCO, 1915

Copyrighted, 1915, by
The Argentine Commission of the Panama-Pacific-Exposition,
San Francisco, 1915
——
All Rights Reserved
Press of
J. J. Little & Ives Co.
New York

ARGENTINE
NATIONAL COMMISSION

PANAMA-PACIFIC EXPOSITION,
SAN FRANCISCO, 1915
———
President
DR. ANGEL GALLARDO
Vice-Presidents
MR. AGUSTIN DE ELIA
DR. FRANCISCO A. BARROETAVEÑA
Treasurer
MR. ELISEO F. CANAVERI
Members
ENGINEER HORACIO ANASAGASTI
DR. ABEL BENGOLEA
DR. CUPERTINO DEL CAMPO
ARCH. JULIO DORMAL
MR. CARLOS GUERRERO
MR. GUSTAVO HERTEN
MR. JUAN B. MIGNAQUY
ENGINEER DOMINGO NOCETI
ENGINEER LUIS F. NOUGUES
MR. RICARDO PILLADO
MR. LUIS E. ZUBERBUHLER
Commissioner-General
ENGINEER HORACIO ANASAGASTI

ARGENTINE COMMISSION
AT THE
PANAMA-PACIFIC EXPOSITION
SAN FRANCISCO, 1915
———
Commissioner-General
ENGINEER HORACIO ANASAGASTI
Special Delegate of Fine Arts
DR. CUPERTINO DEL CAMPO
Vice-Commissioner General and Commissioner of Agriculture
MR. ENRIQUE M. NELSON
Commissioner of Education and Social Economy
MR. ERNESTO NELSON
Delegate from the Ministry of Justice and Public Instruction
Secretary General and Live-Stock Commissioner
MR. LUIS VERNET BASAULDO
Executive Secretary
MR. ALBERTO M. D'ALKAINE
Commissioner of Liberal Arts and Transportation
ENGINEER SALVADOR POSITANO
Commissioner of Varied Industries and Food Products
ENGINEER EUSEBIO GARCIA
Commissioner in Charge of the Information Bureau
DR. GUILLERMO KOCH
Sub-Commissioner of Fine Arts
MR. JUAN CARLOS OLIVA NAVARRO
Sub-Commissioner of Agriculture
MR. H. M. CURREN
Honorary Assistant
MR. ALFREDO J. DECK
Assistants
MR. HERMAN BUCHER
MR. ENRIQUE HAYMES
MR. ARTURO FAUZON
MR. GUILLERMO L. AGUIRRE
MR. LUIS FRUGONI

### INTRODUCTION

In order to add clearness to the brief description of the Argentine Republic presented in this little work, it has been thought desirable to depart from the traditional method of submitting a mass of statistical and historic matter and, instead, to furnish a rapid, though comprehensive, survey of the main features of interest, such as will at once convey to the reader the actual situation and potentialities of the "Land of the Silver River."

For the fulfilment of this purpose, it has been necessary to closely condense the facts and figures relating to the growth of the Argentine Republic, to its Constitution, laws, commerce, the high standard of its culture and the protection afforded, without distinction, to all residents within its territories, by the national charter of its freedom and by the advanced nature of its legislation.

The character and scope of the Argentine exhibits at the Panama-Pacific Exposition eloquently testify to the importance of the Republic as a field for an interchange of commerce with the United States, and, it is hoped, that the statements and suggestions contained in this volume will add impetus to the obviously growing desire to strengthen the commercial and friendly objects which animates the people of both countries.

THE ARGENTINE COMMISSION.

San Francisco, 1915.

## THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC

SOME OF ITS PHYSICAL FEATURES

The evolution of the Argentine Republic of to-day from the position of an obscure Spanish dependency laboring under the disabilities of colonial government, into one of the great countries of the world whose watchwords are "progress" and "freedom," may be said to date from May 25, 1810, when the people of Buenos Aires declared their independence and established the United Provinces of the River Plate. From that date forward, until May 25, 1853, when the Federal Constitution of the Argentine Republic was proclaimed at Santa Fé and even to a later period, the history of that country bears many points of resemblance to the early history of the United States. Just as the United States had to subdue savage Indians, to enter into war and to offer great sacrifices to develop the resources of vast uninhabited territories in order to establish the principles of liberty and justice, the Argentine Republic has successfully conquered the same difficulties and, to-day, is inviting the rest of the world to add to its developments and to share its wealth. In the disposition of its territories, in its form of government and in its constitution and laws, the Argentine Republic has modelled its policy upon that of the United States.

Situated in the southern portion of South America, the Republic, which is divided into fourteen Provinces (States) and ten National Territories, is bounded on the north by Bolivia, Paraguay and Brazil; on the east by Paraguay, Brazil and Uruguay; and on the south and west by Chile. It embraces the most important sections of the vast estuary of the River Plate, with its entire line of coast on the Atlantic Ocean. Within its extensive areas, covering about 1,150,000 square miles, the possibilities of production are practically unlimited owing to the wealth of the soil and the variety of its climate, which includes the sub-tropical, the temperate and the cold regions. Yet, in none of these is to be found the extreme, as may be judged by health statistics and by the figures of the rates of mortality and longevity, which are respectively lower and higher than in any country of Europe.

Geographically, the Argentine Republic may be divided into three sections: the western, or Andine, the Pampean, and the Mesopotamian. The western is mountainous and comprises the long strip sheltered by the Cordillera of the Andes and its ramifications. It contains numerous valleys of varied character and abounds in mineral wealth. The northern and Andine provinces and the western part of the southern territories are included in this division. The Pampean section embraces the southern and central part of the Republic from the eastern portions of the Province of Salta, with the Territories of Formosa and the Chaco, down to the territories in the south; they include the plains stretching south and extending through the rich Provinces of Santa Fé and Buenos Aires. This section, as its name indicates, is one vast plain rolling towards the south-east. It is crossed by innumerable rivers and streams which descend from the Andes, and either lose themselves in the Pampa, or become tributaries of the great river system of the Paraná, or flow on till they join the Atlantic Ocean. In this section there are some few isolated ranges of hills, besides numerous lakes and lagoons with swamps and salt marshes, while a rich and varied vegetation gives sustenance to millions of cattle. The Mesopotamian section lies between the Rivers Paraná and Uruguay and comprises the Provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes, and the territory of Misiones. At its southern extremity is the beautiful delta of the Paraná studded with islands of rich soil and fertile vegetation. Advancing northwards, the land becomes undulating with tree-clad hill slopes, intersected by a network of rivulets and streams which water rich meadows and woodland and stretch to the north over a great part of the Province of Corrientes. Here the land dips in a remarkable manner, forming great lagoons and marshes and once more changes its character in the Territory of Misiones, where hills abound, covered with forests which extend far inland. There are also various systems and ranges of mountains, the principal chain being that of the Andes, which extends from north to south as far as Tierra del Fuego, and constitutes a giant boundary wall between Argentina and Chile; but even the barrier created by this great chain of mountains—at some points of a height approaching 15,000 feet—to rapid communication between the two countries has been removed by the opening of railway communication which now permits of the journey from one side of the mountains to the other, to be performed, during the greater part of the year, in a comparatively few hours.

Other physical features of the Argentine Republic have been so much more fully referred to elsewhere in these pages that it is merely necessary for the purposes of this brief sketch to make some reference to the Constitution in its relation to national progress.

As stated above, the Federal Constitution of the Argentine Republic is almost a counterpart of the American Constitution and is based upon the broadest principles of liberty and justice, with even fewer limitations in regard to foreign residents than are imposed by the Constitution of the United States. Nor is there any doubt that in an almost equal degree to its great natural resources, the remarkable development and advance of the Republic is due to its liberal Constitution and to the legislation enacted in terms of its provisions. The principles it embodies have been carried into practice in all its laws. In that Republic there is perfect religious and civil freedom; there are no restrictions upon healthy immigration, or upon the nationality of land owners. The right is accorded to every inhabitant, native or foreign, to engage in any lawful commerce or occupation, to petition the authorities, to enter, remain upon, travel over, or leave Argentine territory at will; and to use and dispose of property and to form part of any society or association having lawful purposes.

THE ARGENTINE PAVILION AT THE PANAMA PACIFIC EXPOSITION

INTERIOR VIEW OF THE ARGENTINE PAVILION AT THE PANAMA PACIFIC EXPOSITION

Under its provisions the right of property is inviolate and prerogatives of blood, of birth, or titles of nobility are not recognized, all men being equal under the law. The composition of the judiciary, the executive and the legislative branches of government, differs only from that of the United States in that all judges are appointed and not elected.

Each of the fourteen Provinces of the Republic has its own Constitution, which cannot be in conflict with the Federal Constitution which provides a necessarily limited degree of autonomy in the government of the Provinces. The Federal Constitution prohibits the State Government from usurping such functions of the Federal Government as entering into treaties with foreign Powers, enacting laws affecting interstate or foreign commerce, navigation, citizenship, naturalization, the coining of money, or the establishment of custom houses. The organization of its tribunals and the creation of its own laws and forms of procedure is an absolute State right; but the Federal, Civil, Commercial, Penal and Mining Laws are in force throughout the Republic, the Custom Houses and Tariffs being also under the supreme control of the Federal Government. These restricted autonomous powers were wisely provided to prevent the conflict of laws which is of frequent occurrence under other Federal systems. The protection of the moral and material interests of foreign residents of the Republic, or of foreigners having interests therein, is scrupulously enforced by the Courts according to the Constitution where such questions are involved; and frequent decisions have been given by the Federal Tribunals in that direction in order to maintain the inviolability of the Constitution which was framed in the interest of the Argentine nation and of "all the people of the world who may reside in Argentine territory."

THE PROGRESS OF TWO DECADES

In the succeeding review of the progress achieved by the Argentine Republic during the past twenty years, by a comparison of the facts and figures relating largely to commercial movement, uniformity of date has been overlooked and particular years have been selected, in some cases, for the reason that official figures have not been available to equalize the comparisons, although most of the figures given are embraced within the period named.

The factors which, in a material sense, contribute chiefly to the progress of a nation, are its sources of production, its means of communication both within and beyond its territories, its domestic and fiscal legislation and the labor and enterprise of its people. It is therefore to these matters that it is principally intended to draw attention, in so far as they pertain to the national industries, to home and foreign trade, to railways, to ports and shipping, to finance and to the general advance in all matters of a kindred nature; and as this purpose will be better served by a straight-forward and concise formulation of official figures shorn of all comment which might tend to obscure their real significance, the form in which they are presented will convey, at a glance, the extraordinary growth of the Argentine Republic:

AREA UNDER CULTIVATION

The area under cultivation in 1892 for Wheat, Linseed, Corn, Alfalfa, and similar products totalled 3,700,000 hectares (250 hectares being equal to nearly one square mile) and in 1912 to 22,987,726 hectares, showing an increase of the cultivated areas of more than six times the extent of twenty years previously.

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS

In 1895 the total exports of the Argentine Republic amounted to $120,067,790, and the total imports for the same year to $95,096,438, whilst in 1913 the value of the exports reached $483,504,547, and the imports $421,352,542.[A]

[A] All figures relating to money signify gold dollars, except where otherwise stated.

MILEAGE OF RAILWAYS

In 1895 the total length of railways in operation was 8,820 miles and in 1913 21,000 miles, with many thousands more projected and since placed under construction.

TONNAGE OF SHIPPING

The aggregate tonnage of vessels entered at and cleared from Argentine ports in the year 1900 was 25,241,618, whilst in 1913 the total tonnage was 56,604,833.79.

POPULATION

The national census of 1869 gave the population of the country as 1,830,214, whereof the city of Buenos Aires had 187,346 inhabitants. According to the census of 1895, the total population amounted to 3,954,911, with that of the capital at 663,854. A new census, taken May, 1913, is now being compiled, but from figures supplied we know the population of the city was at that time 1,560,000 inhabitants. According to the Division of Statistical and Rural Economy, the entire population of the Republic in 1911 was estimated to be 7,467,878. The latter figures are necessarily based upon incomplete returns and have probably been estimated upon a ratio of increase established by earlier calculations; but all indications point to the probability that on the completion of the new census, during the present year, the total population of the Republic will approach 10,000,000.

INVESTMENT OF FOREIGN CAPITAL

The investment of foreign capital in the Argentine Republic has assumed far greater proportions during the past twenty years than in any other corresponding period since its formation. As one example of importance, it may be stated that the total capital invested in private and government-owned railways in the year 1895 amounted to $485,360,121, whilst in 1913 the capital employed in railways operating in the Argentine Republic reached $1,210,475,331, of which over ninety per cent is British. In 1895 the foreign capital invested in the Republic, including, at that time, about $400,000,000 of External National Debt, barely exceeded $1,000,000,000. An official estimate of foreign capital invested in the country at the end of 1910 gave the following figures:

| $Gold
1. | Loans and various Argentine Bonds | 691,831,000
2. | Railways | 804,413,000
3. | Banks | 37,541,000
4. | Ports | 22,164,000
5. | Street car lines | 91,576,000
6. | Freezing plants | 8,392,000
7. | Gas and electric companies, water works and sanitary works | 58,035,000
8. | Land and loan companies | 160,800,000
9. | Other companies | 41,650,000
10. | Mortgages and properties | 150,000,000
11. | Commerce and credit | 200,000,000
| Grand total | $2,266,402,000

GOLD RESERVES

The vast increase in exports during latter years has naturally attracted considerable imports of gold; and, as showing the wealth and stability of the Republic, it may be mentioned that the Conversion Fund created by law in 1901 to secure the national issues of paper and nickel currency (which was then to consist of appropriations from certain sources of revenue until a total of $30,000,000 had been obtained) showed at December 31st, 1913, gold reserves in the Caja de Conversion to be $233,197,727, or considerably more than 60 per cent. of the entire issues of paper and nickel currency.

CUSTOM HOUSE REVENUE

The Custom House Revenue on import duties for 1903 amounted to $37,191,857, and in 1913 to $98,978,745.

When it is remembered that the Argentine Republic covers an area of about one-third of the United States and that up to the present time not nearly one-fifth of its productive soil has been placed under cultivation, the figures relating to its production will leave little doubt that the world, in the not distant future, will find in that favored land one of the main sources of its food supply. But it is not alone in the development of the agricultural and pastoral industries that the great advance of the Republic is to be noted. In every form of national activity the forward march of the Argentine Republic has made itself felt far beyond its own borders; while from a purely commercial point of view it has become a centre of universal interest and has added materially to the enrichment of the commerce of many of the countries of Europe.

ONE OF THE RECEPTION ROOMS OF THE ARGENTINE PAVILION AT THE PANAMA PACIFIC EXPOSITION

ANOTHER INTERIOR VIEW OF THE ARGENTINE PAVILION AT THE PANAMA PACIFIC EXPOSITION WHERE THE ARTISTIC RICHNESS OF THE MURAL DECORATIONS CAN BE APPRECIATED

In legislation there have been many notable advances during the past twenty years and, in some cases, examples worthy of being followed by older communities. Amongst the most important legislative measures, those dealing with immigration, colonization, electoral reform, land settlement, education, labor, animal and sanitary laws, may be singled out for special mention. The immigration laws have been framed, since their inception, with a view to inviting foreigners to share in the development and enjoyment of the national wealth. No restrictions are imposed upon the entry of immigrants other than those which have for their object the exclusion of the criminal classes or persons who are physically or mentally unsound. Not only can the immigrant acquire rich government land on conditions unequalled in other new countries, but provision is also made for the supply of the necessary funds to furnish the colonist with implements and other equipment to enable him to reap an ample reward for his labors. The naturalization laws impose no difficulties in the acquisition of citizenship, although there is absolute freedom on the part of the alien resident to hold land and property and to enjoy all the privileges conferred upon inborn citizens, except that of voting at Congressional or Presidential elections. Even certain public positions may be held by foreigners without naturalization. In electoral matters, the law recently passed to enforce compulsory voting at elections has already produced excellent results and has succeeded in removing attempts at coercion and the exercise of undue influence in the return of candidates for elective offices; and most of these legislative reforms have been effected during the past twenty years.

Although not precisely within the period under review, the enactment of the Conversion Law of 1891 has had such far-reaching effects upon the financial situation and general stability of the Republic that it should not be omitted from a record of national legislation dating from even four years later. Prior to the passage of that law, violent fluctuations in the premium of gold, induced by speculation, led to so much disturbance of commerce as to render it necessary to place the national currency on a more substantial basis. With that object in view an average was taken and the value of paper currency was fixed by the law at 44 per cent of the value of gold, in other words, making $227.27, currency, equal to $100 gold. The law further provided for the establishment of a Conversion Fund, which was to be formed by the appropriation of certain sources of revenue and to be added to by annual increments until it reached a total of $30,000,000 gold, which with the gold reserves then existing and to be accumulated were to be employed exclusively for the public exchange of gold and paper at the rate fixed. As shown in the figures relating to gold reserves, the accumulation of gold held in the Caja de Conversion for the purposes of the law, at December 31, 1913, amounted to $233,197,727, representing upwards to 60 per cent of the entire national currency in circulation, a proportion not exceeded by any other country of the world; and with the resumption of exports upon a normal scale, which will constantly bring more gold to the Republic, the relation of gold reserves to currency issues will, in a comparatively short time, be such as to justify the creation of a definite and exclusive gold standard as the monetary system of the Republic.

STATUE OF GENERAL SAN MARTIN, BUENOS AIRES

ONE OF THE PALATIAL RESIDENCES IN BUENOS AIRES

The Argentine Republic has achieved many triumphs in diplomacy and many legitimately claim to have made new international law for all the countries of the American continent. One of the most important steps yet taken in this direction was the formulation, in 1902, of the now universally accepted doctrine establishing the principle that contractual debts by Sovereign States to foreign private subjects, or citizens, should not be collected by the employment of armed forces. This doctrine was propounded by the then Argentine Minister of Foreign Affairs in a Note addressed to the United States Government as the result of the occupation, at that time, of the territorial waters of an independent state by the warships of some of the European Powers, for the avowed purpose of compelling payment to their subject of claims for damages and for the fulfilment of the service of a national debt due to foreign creditors and then in default. This Note aroused world-wide attention and the subject was dealt with diplomatically by many of the countries of Europe which had commercial relations with the Latin-American Republics. It formed the subject of frequent discussion at various Pan-American Congresses, and was particularly favored in the United States, where, subject to certain slight modifications, it was regarded as a logical pendant to the Monroe Doctrine. At the Second International Peace Conference at the Hague, in 1907, the Doctrine was submitted for the approval of the Conference by the American Delegation with slight modifications and was accepted, without dissent, by the Delegates of all the countries represented. It is not necessary here to enter into a discussion of the merits or importance of this Argentine doctrine. Suffice it to add, however, that the negation of its main purpose would be to endanger the existence of the Monroe Doctrine by shattering the principal object with which that policy was conceived and established.

Another great international movement in which the Argentine Republic assumed a leading part and which is likely to have far-reaching effects in advancing the friendly relations of the United States with the sister American Republics, was the recent mediation of the "A. B. C." Powers (Argentine, Brazil and Chile). The events of that particular time are too fresh in the memory of the American public to need description of detail. It is sufficient to say that the mediation referred to averted a war which would probably have involved the sacrifice of countless lives and of countless millions. But the initiation of the policy of mediation entered into on that occasion has even more importance than that which attaches to it as having prevented a great and unnecessary war. It has served, firstly, to show that the great advance made by the leading South American Republics is not merely an advance made for selfish purposes, but for the benefit of the whole of the Latin nations of the American continent. The great statesmen of those countries, whilst recognizing the occasionally intemperate political acts which take place in some of the lesser Republics, have placed a cloak of protection around the weaker sisters of their countries to prevent attacks upon their national independence and sovereignty. By their offer of mediation in the critical situation which had then arisen on this continent, they also gave birth to a policy which, independently of its humane aspect, is calculated to secure the real objects of legitimate Pan-Americanism. The United States has invariably exhibited a spirit of justice and of generosity in all its relations with the other American Republics, and the "A. B. C." mediation has not only strengthened this wise policy on the part of the United States, but has demonstrated the capacity and the influence, without actual intervention, of the most important Latin Republics to save the less advanced countries from a sacrifice of their national independence.

Still another step of diplomatic importance has recently been taken by the Argentine Ambassador at Washington by a submission of a lengthy resolution to the governing body of the Pan-American Union (consisting of the Secretary of State of the United States and the Ambassadors and Ministers of the other twenty American Republics) with a view to providing means for the restriction of hostilities by belligerents in neutral waters. This course was adopted in consequence of the hardships and difficulties imposed on the South American Republics and on other neutral countries through the present war in Europe and through the prevailing indefinite character of the international rules and of international law in the definition of the respective rights of neutrals and belligerents. Whilst it would be difficult to assume that any reforms will be effected during the continuance of the present war in Europe or immediately thereafter, it is reasonable to suppose that the substantive portions of the Argentine Ambassador's resolution will influence succeeding international Conferences to so regulate these vital matters as to confine naval operations within limits which, in future wars, will not place so heavy a burden upon the coastal and oversea trade of neutral countries.

In its relations with the different countries of the world the Republic enjoys the most friendly intercourse and shares the privileges accorded to the great Powers in international commercial treaties. It has never failed to fulfil its national obligations either at home or abroad; it has no ambitions for territorial expansion and desires only to maintain internal and external peace in order to extend the country's material prosperity and the welfare of its inhabitants.

PRIMARY EDUCATION

Primary Education owes its present state of development to that master Patriot, Pedagogue and President of the Republic, Domingo F. Sarmiento, who as a personal friend and student of the noted American Educator had every opportunity to introduce the best that he considered practicable into the educational system of Argentina.

The education of youth of Argentina is the concern of state authorities who work in harmony with the educational bodies of its cities, towns and villages. The exception to it consists in the control of the Primary schools of the Federal city of Buenos Aires by the National Board of Education, together with some other exceptions to be mentioned later on.

One of the more recent and far-reaching developments of this Federal control is the fact, that in some of the provinces (States) Primary schools are established and subsidized by the Federal Government, where local conditions are equal to the needs of popular education.

Argentina maintains therefore in some of the provinces the regular State controlled as well as Federal Government controlled Primary schools; likewise are many of the Special type schools controlled by the National Government.

In 1894 there were 3000 Primary schools, Public and Private, which increased during the next twenty years to 7877 schools; likewise did the teaching force of these schools grow from 7800 to over 26,000 teachers. The pupils attending these Primary schools in 1894 numbered 280,000, whereas in 1914 the attendance increased to 890,000 pupils. The expenditures incurred for the maintenance of these schools show an even more remarkable increase of service and efficiency. The total expenses for Primary Education in 1894 were 9,370,000 pesos; in 1914 the expenditures rose to a figure, six times that of 1894, 56,635,000 pesos.

In 1894 the Normal schools, 35 in number, had an enrollment of 1376 pupils, preparing themselves for the teaching career in Primary schools; in the year of 1914 the number of Normal schools increased to over 70 in number and the enrollment to 8970 students, more than six times of its enrollment twenty years ago. During this same period the expenditures in this particular department of public education rose from 2,000,000 pesos to that of 10,000,000 pesos.

SECONDARY EDUCATION

The Secondary schools are responding also to the modern demands of a democratic conception of education. From mere preparatory institutions for the Universities they are fast becoming schools of advanced education to an increasing number of men and women.

In 1894 the students of Secondary schools numbered 3000, which number rose to 10,000 in 1914, the expenditures having increased from 1,000,000 pesos to nearly 6,000,000 pesos in the year of 1914.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION

PRESIDENT ROCA SCHOOL, BUENOS AIRES

THE RODRIGUEZ PEÑA SCHOOL, BUENOS AIRES

Technical education is also a matter of recent development, there having been organized and are maintained in flourishing condition two distinct types of technical schools. One kind provides technical training in the various trades for young men from 12 to 15 years, while the second type serve to train the young men for positions as foremen and superintendents. For this purpose these schools give a more extensive and intensive instruction along theoretical and practical science as far as it applies to these various trades. There are 4 large schools of each one of these two types, supported and controlled by the National Government at a yearly expense of 1½ millions of pesos. In addition to these, there are 15 Trade schools for girls, also under the control of the National Government, giving instructions in the trades wherein girls predominate, such as millinery, dressmaking, flower-making, telegraph operators, stenographers and typewriters, glove-making, and so forth.

COMMERCIAL EDUCATION

Of recent development and also under control of the National Government are the Commercial schools for men and women, which provide adequate modern instruction in salesmanship and bookkeeping and all other affiliated activities of commerce. These schools graduate pupils with the rank of Bachelors of Commercial Science and also train the certified Public Accountants. A more recent addition to the scope of these schools is the Degree of Doctor, given for advanced work in Economic Sciences. The National Government spends about 1½ millions of pesos for this branch of education.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION

Agricultural education in Argentina is of a twofold type, general and special. The Special or so-called REGIONAL schools, look towards the education of future workers in special fields, such as, for example, the sugar industries of Tucuman. These schools specialize on the intelligent development of special industries all over Argentina. The curriculum of all these schools is intensely practical, but cover and maintain a sufficient scientific background as these practical studies require in the various industrial fields. These schools are also under the control of the National Government, through the Department of Agriculture.

The schools which provide for the thorough scientific instruction underlying all agricultural occupations are under the control of the National Universities of Buenos Aires and La Plata. The annual cost of all agricultural schools is about 3½ millions of pesos, including the expenses incurred in the maintenance of experimental stations, class excursions and University extension teaching.

MILITARY EDUCATION

Military education comprises 7 Army and 9 Navy schools for machinists, mechanics, electricians, the officers of the Army and the Navy, Pilots, Seamen and so forth, to which 2 million pesos were devoted in 1914. Practical instruction is offered in warships and particularly in the Training-ship Presidente Sarmiento, which visited the Panama-Pacific International Exposition at San Francisco during the month of May of 1915, during her 15th cruise of instruction.

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

The Universities of Argentina maintain the traditional faculties of Jurisprudence, Belles Lettres and Philosophy, Pure and Applied Science, to which recently have been added such departments as Pedagogics, Agriculture, and other newer departments. The enlargement of the activities of these Universities, especially the creation of the University of La Plata, is proof of Argentina's advancement in this field. The La Plata University has been instrumental in the exchange of Professors and has encouraged in many ways the visits of public men of note of Europe and North America, thus recognizing the desirability of maintaining and fostering the most pleasant relations between Europe and the United States of America.

Recent statistics show that the University at Buenos Aires had on its register 1,051 students in the Law Faculty; 210 in that of Philosophy and Letters; 2,501 of Medicine; and 602 of Exact Sciences. The La Plata University, according to the same figures, had 2,184 students, and the University of Córdova 584.

In point of fact, in all the liberal arts and professions, the Argentine Republic takes one of the first places. Literature, Music and Art are also at a very high standard and it is perhaps appropriate to mention here in regard to music that not only is its study general throughout the country but, that in Buenos Aires alone, there are upwards of sixty Conservatories of Music where instruction is received in the higher branches.

In regard to the national defences, Article 21 of the Constitution provides for compulsory service by all Argentine citizens in defence of the country. The regular army, though comparatively small, has attained a high state of efficiency, which may also be said of the reserve forces. During latter years considerable and important additions have been made to the Argentine Navy, notably by the recent construction in the United States of the Rivadavia and the Moreno, which, to-day, without doubt, are among the finest battleships afloat. In other naval matters, such as gunnery, dry docks, naval bases, armaments, repairing shops and technical instruction, there has been a remarkable advance in the last twenty years.

While the figures given here in connection with Argentine exports indicate increased production for home consumption, it is also desirable to demonstrate the progress made by the Republic in latter years in the establishment and development of national industries, as well as in exported articles. The new era of industrial expansion which set in about the year 1903, shows equally remarkable advance in regard to industries already then established and the creation of others which in time will assume considerable importance. Metallurgical industries have made rapid strides not only in numbers but also in the value and extent of their production; and, there is little doubt, that as the exploitation of the many iron and copper mines to be found in the Republic is proceeded with, this branch of national industry will attain still greater proportions. Other new industries for which the Republic offers a most suitable field are those of Cotton, Tobacco, Textile Fabrics, Oils, Rice, Silk and Forestal productions. Some of these have been largely extended during the last ten or twelve years, notably those pertaining to the production of hard-woods and their extracts, furniture and other wood manufactures. The latter industries especially are likely to receive a great impetus through the action of the Government in devising efficient means for new methods of exploitation and conservation of the forests, as foreshadowed in the Message of the President to Congress in 1913.

To demonstrate the extraordinary development of the stock breeding industry, it is only necessary to state that according to the last Agricultural and Livestock Census taken in 1908, the Republic was shown to possess 29,116,625 head of cattle, 67,211,754 sheep, 3,945,036 goats, and 7,531,376 horses, being an increase over the census of 1895 of approximately 30 per cent in the number of head of cattle and of nearly 50 per cent in the number of horses. This numerical increase, however, does not fully express the high degree of development reached in this national industry and particularly in regard to cattle and horses. In the years intervening between those two censuses, hundreds of millions of dollars were expended on the purchase and importation of pedigree stock, which have placed Argentine bred animals on a standard of equality with many of those raised in the old countries. This may be seen by the values stated in the respective years named. In 1895 the stock of cattle was valued at $221,000,000 and in 1908 at $410,000,000, whilst the horses were valued in the first census at $26,000,000, the value given in 1908 was over $90,000,000.

COLON THEATRE (TEATRO COLON), BUENOS AIRES, ONE OF THE FINEST OPERA HOUSES IN THE WORLD

PLAZA HOTEL, BUENOS AIRES

The founding in 1858 of the Argentine Rural Society by a group of social spirited breeders and land owners, was the starting point of the expansion of this industry and owing to the ideas and methods introduced by that Association, it was found necessary in more recent years to create the Ministry of Agriculture, which includes within its sphere of operations not only the governmental control of the agricultural and pastoral industries, but also the entire range of the Republic's foreign commerce. The annual shows of the Rural Society in Buenos Aires attract visitors from all parts of Europe and it has been conceded that for the variety and all-round quality of the animals exhibited, they excel the regularly established shows of Europe. At the 1913 exhibition of the Argentine Rural Society, the locally-bred champion Short-horn Bull, "Americus," created a world's record by realizing the unprecedented price of about $35,000 ($80,000 currency), whilst even larger sums have been obtained for yearlings produced in the country. Nor is this surprising when it is stated that Argentine breeders have paid the highest known prices for pure pedigree stock, in which general statement may be included the payment of more than $150,000 each for three famous Derby winners. The breeds of cattle most encouraged in Argentina are Shorthorns and Herefords, Lincolns predominating in Sheep and Clydesdales and Percherons in Horses. Still, there are hundreds of millions of acres of rich pasture lands not yet stocked, so that when the time comes to place these vast areas under cultivation, the number of animals that could be maintained is almost illimitable. It should be further added that the climatic conditions of the country permit of all its animals being reared in the open; and as showing the possibilities awaiting those who enter this field of national industry, it may be pointed out that in hundreds of cases where land has been rented and cultivated for the purpose of fattening cattle, the lessees have been enabled within a very few years to become absolute owners of the land as a result of their profitable operations.

The Dairy and Flour industries have likewise shown great improvement, whilst considerable promise is held out by the establishment and development of other industries, such as the cultivation and export of fruits, the breeding and fattening of hogs, poultry farming, bee-culture and the manufacture of vegetable and animal oil products.

The vigilant economic policy undertaken by the present government of the Republic is likely to exercise a very beneficial effect upon the future of these and other industries when normal conditions are restored. The questions of roads, canals, ports, transport charges and other matters which affect the development of commerce were all being considered with a view to improvement prior to the outbreak of war; and even at the present time work is proceeding for the deepening of existing channels and the extension of ports and docks. Immigration has necessarily been checked through the war, but when this disturbing element no longer exists, renewed vigor will be applied to a general extension of industrial establishments in every direction where the natural resources of the Republic can be made available.

THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC IN THE SAN FRANCISCO EXPOSITION

Of all the great Expositions held in the United States to celebrate some distinct occurrence or achievement in the history of the country, none has assumed the importance or splendour of the World's Fair at San Francisco, created to commemorate America's immeasurable service to the cause of humanity by the construction of the Panama Canal to link up the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Conceived and decided upon in times of general peace, most of the nations of the earth were invited to participate; and though laboring at the time under certain difficulties induced by universally disturbed economic conditions, many of the countries subordinated these considerations to the higher purpose of cementing the bonds of international friendship by accepting the invitation of the United States to take part in the great Exposition of San Francisco, formed to crown the colossal work initiated by Ferdinand de Lesseps and carried into execution by American skill, labor and courage. Not least amongst the countries willing to make sacrifices to share in this noble work was the Argentine Republic which, in the face of many obstacles to adequate representation, at once entered into the spirit of the undertaking and after assembling its leading authorities in all the branches of national arts and industries, decided to assume its appropriate part in the glorification of the American Continent by the effort to show that the nations of the south were advancing step by step with the great Republic of the north. Preliminary action was at once taken to organize influential committees representing all the States and Territories of the Republic, an immense sum of money was voted by Congress and full preparations were set on foot to secure a practical and eloquent manifestation of the phenomenal progress and of the social and political economy of the Argentine Republic. No sooner had these measures been adopted than a series of perturbations, culminating in the outbreak of the war in Europe, occurred to create an unfavorable ambient and to sow doubts and mistrust forshadowing failure for the great enterprise. In spite, however, of the fears and even of the opposition thus created, the Argentine Government through its organized Committees proceeded uninterruptedly with the completion of its plans and has been able to organize the most important representation it has yet had in any foreign Exposition.

The Argentine section of the International Exposition of San Francisco admittedly holds high rank in every aspect of its participation, not excluding the magnificence of its Pavilion and the area of space allotted to Argentine exhibits, which reflect the indisputable importance and advance of the Republic. The spaces occupied in the various Palaces of the Exposition embrace an area of 3,000 square meters which, added to the 4,000 meters occupied by the Pavilion and Garden, gives a total area of 7,000 square meters and constitutes a space record over all previous exhibitions in which the Argentine Republic has so far assisted. The areas excluding the Pavilion and Garden are divided as follows:

(1) | Agriculture | 1,140 | square | meters
(2) | Various Products | 550 | " | "
(3) | Food Products | 385 | " | "
(4) | Education and Social Economy | 320 | " | "
(5) | Liberal Arts | 230 | " | "
(6) | Mining and Metallurgy | 215 | " | "
(7) | Fine Arts | 160 | " | "
| Total | 3,000 | " | "

The Argentine Pavilion, which has been accorded a prominent position amongst other palatial constructions of the Exposition, conveys an expressive idea of the higher standard of national art, both from the architectural and decorative standpoints. In the centre portion of the Pavilion there is a beautiful Conference Hall and a spacious gallery in which there will be kinetoscopic and dioramic exhibitions of characteristic views of national life and activity and of some of the natural beauty spots of the country, such as the Iguazú Falls, the Nahuel Huapi and others. There is a Buffet for the testing and tasting of exclusively Argentine products, whilst other surrounding installations include a Library of national authors, a Reading Room, an Information Bureau, a Reception Hall and the various offices of the Commission. The principal frontage of the Pavilion is composed of two high laterals which coil on a central figure crowned by a handsome dome reaching to a height of 50 meters. Approach is obtained by a wide "stoop" which gives access to a porch adorned with caryatides forming a vestibule, the porch being decorated with a symbolic "vitrail" and enclosed in an imposing arch 21 meters high. On the right and left of this entrance there are two sculptured plaques, respectively, representing the profiles of San Martin and Washington, and throughout the graceful halls and buildings, all designed by Argentine architects and constructed by Argentine workmen, there are beautiful and graphic pictorial representations of the Port and City of Buenos Aires, of the Campo de Mayo, of the Puerto Militar, of the Immigrant Hotel and the natural fields and forests of Quebracho.

MARBLE AND ONYX ENTRANCE AND STAIRCASE OF THE JOCKEY CLUB, BUENOS AIRES

THE MAY AVENUE (AVENIDA DE MAYO), BUENOS AIRES

The main divisions of Argentine exhibits have been sub-divided into so many departments and classifications as to render it difficult within the necessarily brief limits of this work to describe in detail the character of each of the sub-divisions and of the respective exhibits they contain. It will, therefore, suffice for the object in view to furnish merely an outline of the plans adopted by the Argentine Commission to demonstrate the high grade of excellence and perfection of the national products and industries. The most important of the buildings comprising the Argentine section is the Palace of Agriculture, which covers an area of about 1,400 square meters and embraces a collection of about 2,000 samples of classified products covering the entire field of agriculture, including those of the crops of 1913-1914 and 1914-1915. In each sample of the collection there is specified the name of the product, the weight and measure in kilos and hectolitres, the weight in pounds per bushel, the output in pounds per acre, the zone of production, the name of the exhibitor and, in many cases, indications of the nature of the soil and other physical conditions. The arrangement of the exhibition of the various products has been moreover much simplified by the adoption of the plan of enclosing them in boxes with glass covers, giving to each product a unit of measure in a square of 15 centimeters, thus permitting the sample, once placed in its original packing, to remain unchanged and to be easily removed and classified, whilst by this arrangement space has been economized and facilities given for the addition of photographs and explanatory notes which serve the double purpose of giving useful information and decorative effect.

Other features of interest in this section comprise a collection of tobaccos cultivated in Argentina and on a wall of about 3 square meters in dimension there is exhibited a large illustration of a national tobacco manufactory in full operation. Considerable attention has been devoted to this particular department, one cabinet alone having cost $6,000 to construct. In the section set apart for textile products, there is an artistically arranged exhibition of samples of wool consisting of about 300 separate collections contributed in more, or less, equal proportion by public bodies and individual producers. The beautiful cabinet containing these samples also has a number of photographic views relating to the products shown as well as pictorial reproductions of sheep-shearing and other mechanical operations as carried out on the larger farms of the Republic. There are likewise shown here many classified samples of cotton and a variety of vegetable fibres.

The collection of woods and other forestal products is another centre of attraction for visitors and gives a clear idea of the riches enclosed in Argentine forests. The collection consists of upwards of a thousand samples representing, in their varied forms, a hundred classes of different woods. In addition to the great variety of this exhibit, its interest has been added to by the contribution of a number of maps and photographic views by the Forest Department of the Ministry of Agriculture. To make the Agricultural Section of the Argentine Republic more attractive and of added practical value, a number of the official Departments of the Republic have contributed statistics, plans and graphic illustrations pertaining to the methods and progress of this branch of industry. The drawings, paintings and statistics shown by the Board of Rural Economy demonstrate the enormous growth and progress made in this direction, whilst the exhibits of the Argentine Meteorological Office and the National Board of Agriculture furnish every necessary detail in regard to climatic and meteorological conditions and the provision made against agricultural plagues. Added to all this, there is a collection of photographic views relating to pastoral and agricultural production which may be considered to excel both in detail and variety.

The development of other Argentine national industries is to be seen in the Palace of Industry, which occupies a rectangular space of 30 meters frontage by 18 deep, on the Central Avenue. In this section are shown samples of a great variety of articles produced in the numerous factories devoted to the production of cloth, shoes, hats, decorative ornaments, electric light fittings, crockery, construction material, tools, implements, mechanical products, glassware, matches, tannery, saddlery and many others. As in all the other Argentine sections, the exhibition is made more complete by the display of splendid photographs which assist in demonstrating the rapid advance in the number and character of Argentine manufactures.

The justification of the description of the Argentine Republic as the "universal provider" of foodstuffs is to be found in the section assigned to such products, notwithstanding the absence of an exhibition of chilled and frozen meats, together with some of their by-products, as a result of circumstances which have temporarily impeded the operations of the great packing houses. The vast proportions of this branch of industry may be gathered from the admirable collection of photographs displayed. The regrettable fact that the Argentine Republic is unable to offer any practical demonstration of its meat-producing capacity through circumstances over which neither the country nor the producers had any control is, to some extent, however, compensated for by the large and interesting exhibition of many of its other leading food products. The milling industry is amply represented by samples of excellent quality from the raw material down to such by-products as biscuits, nutritious pastes, sweets, candies and all the other articles made from it. Here important space is also given to such articles of general consumption, as preserved fruits, condensed milk, sterilized and antiseptic, lard, cheese, conserved vegetables, etc. Beverages, wines, beer and liqueurs are abundantly represented, whilst there are numerous exhibits of other alcoholic products, oils and vinegars. A prominent feature of this section is the diorama illustrating field sports and fishing and an interesting collection of embalmed animals, particularly birds and fishes, of many different species and dimensions.

In the Mineral and Metallurgy Department of the Exposition, the Argentine Republic has an effective display of a general collection of minerals and three special exhibits of petroleum and combustibles, borates, salts and materials for construction. In regard to these, more attention has been given to the object of securing typical samples which demonstrate the character of the various ore deposits, than to the consideration of the actual number of samples. In the collection of petroleum and combustibles, there are samples from the following deposits: Commodore Rivadavia, Laguna de la Brea, Cerro Buitres, San Rafael, Cacheta, Covunco (Neuquen), Cerro Sotena, Challaco, Mina Carmelo (Salta), Yacuiba, Garrapatal (Jujuy). This collection contains 39 different samples, with specific details and statistics especially tabulated in every case. The exhibition of marbles and stones for purposes of construction is most complete. Here are to be seen the famous marble onyx of San Luis and of San Rafael, the marbles from the Sierras of Cordoba (represented by 15 varieties), and specimens of the large granites of Sierras Bajas, Olavarría, etc. There is also a collection of mineral waters in which are included those mostly used in the thermal establishments of Rosario de la Frontera; whilst, as a decorative contribution to the exhibition there is a plastic representation of the Sierras of Famatina, showing a part of its wonderful aerial railway, together with an admirable series of photographs, maps, and diagrams embracing practically every branch of the mineral and metallurgical industries.

The designation of "Palace of Liberal Arts" is a somewhat inadequate description of the Argentine exhibits of Liberal Arts in the generic sense of the words, as, in addition to the branches of study usually embodied in that classification, there are included under that head many exhibits of a scientific and technical character which, for the demonstration they afford of national progress in the direction referred to, might well have formed a separate collection. Here are to be seen a complete series of drawings, maps, statistics and plans of works graphically depicting, with full details, the principal river systems and general workings of the rivers and ports of the Republic, all prepared by the Department of Public Works. Nearly every technical division of the Government Departments is represented in this section, many of the exhibits having been sent by the General Board of Railways, the Board of Bridges and Roads, the Board of Architecture, the Board of Health, the Board of the Capital and various Divisions of the War Cabinet, each unit containing photographs, plans and diagrams indicating the advance that has been made in all these important public works. Amongst other features of interest contained in this section, special mention should be made of the representation of the National and Foreign Press, which furnishes unquestionable evidence of the high state of efficiency and general excellence as well as the enterprise of Argentine journalism. Here also are the exhibits of the literary, scientific and educational works produced in the Republic and the contributions of the National Centre of Engineers, of the Argentine Graphic Institute, of the Central Society of Architecture, of the Society of Architects and Construction of Works, etc., etc., all combining to illustrate the high degree of Argentine progress in the field of Liberal Arts.

In an earlier chapter reference is made to the great advance made by the Argentine Republic, in recent years, in the development of education, to which cause successive Governments have given ever-increasing thought and attention, whilst Congress has, year by year, sympathetically supported the Government policy by augmented money votes for the addition to the number and the improvement of educational institutions. In the Palace of Education and Social Economy which was voluntarily accorded a place of honor by the Exposition Commission amongst the principal Palaces of the Fair, there has been formed a collection of detailed exhibits pertaining to Argentine national education which points to the very great importance given to this subject by the authorities of the Republic. The efforts of every official element in educational matters have been brought into play with a result that leaves no doubt, either as to the desire for, or the standard of culture in the Argentine Republic. This exhibition, moreover, is not only an effective exponent of national progress but will also serve to remove an easily understood, though generally prevailing ignorance in many foreign countries of true conditions in Argentina. In order to add perfect completeness to the educational exhibits, a new departure has been made to show full details of every branch of teaching, official and private, primary, secondary, university, commercial, industrial, agricultural, professional, etc., etc., for all classes and ages, by means of plans, statistics and some 6,000 photographs representing 150 leading institutions and upwards of 100,000 students and pupils whose physical characteristics at once reveal the predomination of the higher European types. As may be imagined, these illustrations represent the scholarly activities of the country in their widest aspect and are not merely photographs of special groups of children such as are frequently shown in educational exhibitions. The statistics, which form an instructive addition to the pictorial matter, have been so compiled and tabulated as to make their full value and significance easy of comprehension and there is every reason to believe that those which accompany the illustrations of the agricultural sections and experimental stations will be of special interest to the majority of American visitors to the Exposition.

In regard to the group of exhibits corresponding to the section of Social Economy contained in the same artistically arranged building, much detail is furnished concerning many of the social and charitable institutions of the Republic, in reference to which there is an absence of information abroad. The co-operation of the Argentine Social Museum and other important public bodies has enabled the Commission to present a comprehensive exhibition of views and of the methods of operation of the various national Associations established, as asylums, refuges, hospitals, poor-houses and other organizations for the protection of women and children and for the prevention of crime, as well as demonstrations of the work performed by these bodies, some of which also have for their purpose the extension of social improvement, of public order, economy, hygiene, labor, the construction of dwellings and other objects of public advantage. In this section there is also an exhibition of works of arts produced by Argentine artists embracing a careful selection of paintings and examples of sculpture representative and characteristic, in every sense, of national art; and with a view to demonstrating the artistic progress of the country, this collection is made up of only recent works, not one of which has previously been shown in any foreign Exposition.

SARMIENTO SCHOOL, BUENOS AIRES

THE CENTURY SCHOOL (ESCUELA DEL CENTENARIO)

This shadowy outline of the nature and quality of the Argentine exhibits at the San Francisco Exposition, though utterly incomplete as a description of their importance and value, will convey a general idea of the position attained by the Argentine Republic in all those moral and material factors which go to make up a great nation; and if to these elements are added the initiative and beneficial labors of Argentina in the international sphere, a sense of pride should be awakened in the hearts of all Americans that in the arts of peace, the widely separated, though great, countries of the American Continent, stand out as shining examples, worthy of emulation even by many countries of the old world.

INTERCHANGE OF COMMERCE

In 1895 the exports from the United States to the Argentine Republic amounted in value to $6,686,999 and the imports from that country to $8,947,165. In 1912 the exports from the United States amounted to $53,158,179 and the imports to $29,847,016. These figures sufficiently indicate the results likely to follow the active campaign of the manufacturers and commercial bodies in this country, recently initiated as a consequence of the war. The conditions arising out of the great upheaval caused by that world disaster have furnished the occasion for the exercise of an effort without parallel in the United States in any previous attempt to secure a larger share of South American trade. In this movement the Argentine Republic must necessarily be the main objective, owing to the vastness of its resources and commercial activities. Yet, although there is no doubt that the United States should and will constitute a still greater source of supply to that country of manufactured products, machinery and other articles, not only during the war, but for a long period after its close, it is necessary to consider that in order to secure a permanent extension of international trade upon a scale of magnitude apparently justified by superficial conditions, serious attention should be given to matters of reciprocal interests and the past relations of the Argentine Republic with the European countries to which it has freely opened its markets.

In this connection the words "reciprocal interests" must be taken rather in a literal sense than in the sense of reciprocity, as that expression is usually understood when applied to international treaties. Even though the question of tariffs does not now form so insuperable an obstacle to a large interchange of commerce between the two countries as was formerly the case, the fact that the balance of Argentine's trade with the leading countries of Europe has always been in her favor, renders it a condition precedent to a permanent expansion of international commerce that there must be a greater quality of interest than exists at present. In other words, the United States must offer corresponding advantages to the Argentine Republic to attract a transfer of a considerable share of her commerce from European competitors.

In the instances of Great Britain, Germany and France, with which countries the Argentine Republic has always transacted the greater part of her foreign trade, there has not only been a steady and ever-increasing growth in the consumption of Argentine national products, but those countries have likewise furnished huge amounts of capital for the establishment on Argentine soil of industrial and commercial undertakings, which, by their own necessities, create a natural extension of commercial interchange. It must also be remembered that the main products of the Argentine Republic are also the main products of the United States, where they are protected by High Tariffs, whereas, in Great Britain, which is Argentina's principal customer, there are no duties upon the imports of foodstuffs. In these circumstances it is obvious that some means must be found whereby the interests of Argentina in her commercial relations with the United States must be made more reciprocal, either by the introduction of American capital for the development of local industries, or by the remission, at least, of a substantial portion of the duties now imposed upon Argentine exports to the United States.

The enormous growth of population which has changed the position of the United States from an exporting to a consuming country, so far as foodstuffs are concerned, will, doubtless, in course of time, considerably ameliorate the restrictive conditions which have heretofore operated as a barrier to large exports of Argentine products to this country. On the other hand, the production of the Argentine Republic, by reason of the largely increased area placed under cultivation year after year, maintains her exporting capacity at a constantly higher level. Thus, given equal conditions in other respects, the United States might ultimately become as free a market for Argentina's meat and grain as any of the countries of Europe. Under similar circumstances as those indicated, there could also be infinitely larger imports of raw material which could subsequently be re-sold to the Argentine Republic in manufactured form.

The countries which have hitherto occupied the first place in Argentine foreign trade are those which not only gave initial impulse to the development of national industries by the founding of banks and the construction of railways, but likewise by the creation of adequate steamship services. There are to-day upwards of 33,000 kilometers of railway in operation in the Republic, with an aggregate capital of considerably over $2,000,000,000, more than 90 per cent, of which is entirely British, whilst the oversea communications are conducted by regular and rapid services of steamships flying the flags of the maritime countries of Europe. The great traction companies in the capital and the provinces are British; the street electric railways established on an important scale throughout the Republic are British; the foremost Light and Power concerns are German; with the exception of the National Bank of the Republic and the branch of the National City Bank of New York recently opened, the banking interests are largely European, whilst the great majority of the principal industrial and commercial enterprises are also European. Of the $400,000,000 of the Argentine External Debt, practically the whole of the issues making up this vast sum are in the hands of European investors and, in normal times, as further capital is called for to meet the requirements of any of the established enterprises, or of others formed on similar lines, it is invariably forthcoming from Europe; and to these advantages which the Argentine Republic enjoys in her commercial relations with the older countries, there is the additional fact that she derives all her immigration from northern and southern Europe.

Let us now examine the American interests, the most encouraging features of which are the establishment of a branch bank of the National City Bank of New York and the unqualified success in the United States of the loans recently made by that enterprising institution and other American bankers to the Argentine Republic. These two factors point to the realization, by those who are best able to judge, of the necessity for a new basis of intercourse in the future; and that this fact is understood in the Argentine Republic may be seen by the appreciative opinions of the press and the public authorities of that country. In other forms of industrial or commercial enterprises, American interests are comparatively insignificant. The acquisition and establishment of local freezing plants by the American packing houses, though important in extent, involve considerations of too controversial a character to be dealt with in this survey of the commercial relations of the two countries. It is considered desirable, therefore, to treat only of such branches of industry, commerce and finance as embrace the general field of foreign enterprise. The only American interest in railways is in the Argentine Railway Company, which consists of a combination of three or four minor lines in the north and north-eastern provinces, with a small proportion of American capital. In the great cattle raising and agricultural industries there is little or no American capital employed and it is also conspicuous by its absence from the lengthy list of land, mortgage and finance companies established in the Republic. It is true that there are many manufacturing concerns of the United States represented by agencies, but apart from the Customs revenue this representation brings to the country it is in no sense a contributor to its development.

ANOTHER PRIVATE RESIDENCE IN BUENOS AIRES

WATER WORKS BUILDING, BUENOS AIRES

An impartial examination of these circumstances raises the question as to how, without some changes in the directions pointed to, the United States may hope to share with Europe, on anything like equal terms, the profitable and ever-growing trade of the Argentine Republic? To sum up the situation, it may be asked, in what way can the United States equalize the advantages which Europe offers to the Argentine Republic by way of the purchase of her products, the large and constant supply of capital and the labor of its emigrants? There are many articles of merchandise and items of machinery in regard to which Europe cannot successfully compete with the United States, notwithstanding the greater facilities for transportation; but there are also numberless articles of American production which could find a ready market in Argentine if the surrounding conditions approached a greater measure of equality.

An analysis of the figures of the foreign trade of the Argentine Republic for the past twenty years establishes the fact that the United States is in a position to successfully compete with Europe in many lines far beyond the limits already reached; and there is certainly no lack of effort or inclination on the part of American manufacturers to enter into such competition. It is therefore reasonable to assume that there are other causes operating to check a growth in the volume of American trade with the Argentine Republic.

There are no laws in the Argentine Republic, either of a fiscal or domestic nature, which are calculated to affect ruling market prices, or which admit of inequality of treatment. Tariffs are based upon a reciprocal policy, the tariff laws of the Argentine Republic being so framed as to permit the Executive to relax and reduce in favor of those countries which accord similar treatment to her national products. Credits are intrinsically sound and in ordinary periods are usually regulated with foreign countries by purchase at ninety, or one hundred-and-twenty days' sight drafts. In the discussion of this point it may also be urged that the statements so generally made in regard to the alleged long credit demanded by Argentine buyers owe their origin to the conditions prevailing in regard to shipping matters in days gone by, when the steamship services between North and South America were more irregular and far less rapid than is the case to-day. It was no fault of the Argentine importer that merchandise was frequently tied up for weeks together in an American port and that the trip took much longer than it now does. Yet, those delays caused the exporter to wait weeks and frequently months longer than was necessary to receive his money. Hence, the currency of the statement that long credit is an indispensable condition to trading with Argentine. At the present moment the Argentine Republic is gradually recovering from the effects of a financial and commercial crisis brought about through conditions which it had no power to change; and, in order to secure immediate results, it may be necessary at the present time to extend the customary terms of credit, but this may be done with perfect safety and with commensurate profit if the exporter avails himself of the services created by the National City Bank of New York and others for the investigation of prospective buyers.

Irrespective, however, of all other conditions, satisfactory banking and shipping facilities are essential requirements of an extended commerce between the United States and the Argentine Republic. The establishment of an American bank has paved the way for the removal of many of the difficulties hitherto imposed on the American exporter, but there still remains the important question of ocean transport. The service of steamships now in regular operation between North and South American ports is wholly inadequate to support a rapidly developing trade unless the ships now running are substituted by vessels of adequate speed and capacity. To secure this object some provision would have to be made to cover the increased cost of construction and of operation of the larger vessels and also to overcome the difficulty of return cargoes. Practically all of the European steamships trading with South America carry full return cargoes, but owing to the reasons already given and principally because of the fact that the shipments from Argentina to the United States are at present limited to a small number of products, the services established between North and South America cannot compete in the matter of freight until they are placed on a similar footing as the European lines in regard to return cargoes, which, under existing conditions, are unavailable and must remain so until either the laws or the needs of the United States will permit of larger and more general imports from the Argentine Republic.

The figures already given in the relation to the trade of the United States with the Argentine Republic show a considerable balance, almost amounting to forty per cent in favor of the former. Now let us see what are the proportions of Argentine trade with some of the countries of Europe. Argentine imports from the United Kingdom in 1912 amounted to $118,669,226, and her exports to $121,373,858. In the same year her exports to Germany amounted to $53,995,175, and her imports to $63,941,503. To France the exports were valued at $36,052,009, and her imports $37,618,578. To Belgium her exports totalled $37,258,225, and her imports $20,370,530. These figures speak for themselves and taken in conjunction with the other solid inducements offered by the countries of Europe in return for the benefits of a larger trade with the Argentine Republic, should form a subject for serious consideration in the effort to secure for the United States a proportionate share of Argentine commerce.

THE CITY OF BUENOS AIRES

Favored by nature and by the conditions under which it was founded, the City of Buenos Aires from its earliest days has been endowed with elements which have considerably influenced the vast growth and development that have made it the leading Latin city of the new world. Situated on the banks of the River Plate and at the gateway of the Atlantic, nature has largely contributed towards making it a great commercial centre. At the time of its foundation, it attracted but few of the adventurers, who, in their quest of gold, migrated to other parts of South America, the wealth of the soil and the abundance of the flocks and herds having brought to its shores a less turbulent and more laborious class of immigrants who sought a new home and a new outlet for their activities in the "City of Good Airs." The pure European origin and the commercial spirit of the new inhabitants soon produced changes in pre-existing conditions and in marking out the path for the present Argentine metropolis to become the hub of South America. Founded in 1535 by Pedro de Mendoza, and subsequently destroyed and twice depopulated, the modern rise of the capital of what is now the Argentine Republic may be said to date from 1824, after the formulation of the Monroe Doctrine and the recognition of the independence of the people of Buenos Aires by the United States and Great Britain. At about that time efforts were initiated to provide the means of facilitating the transport of its products to foreign markets and in order to establish the necessary facilities for that purpose, Buenos Aires raised (in England) its first loan of $5,000,000. To that comparatively small financial transaction may be traced the reasons for the enormous investment of foreign capital—chiefly British—which has since enabled the country to serve humanity by the increasing development of its numerous sources of wealth. Following this preliminary introduction of foreign capital, there was established a regular line of sailing packets between Buenos Aires and Montevideo and, later, a line of steamers between Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro, which progressive measures were added to an official bank and, within the next thirty years, a line of railway extending in a westerly direction from the capital.

These were the beginnings of the evolution of modern Buenos Aires, which now properly ranks as the second Latin city of the world. Nor is it by any means alone to material progress that the City of Buenos Aires owes its present proud position. The spirit and qualities of its early founders are manifested to-day in the outward expression of all the attributes of a highly civilized and enlightened community. The architecture and adornments of the city, the culture, education and manners of the inhabitants, their inborn courtesy and generous instincts combine to explain the admiration which all who visit the city never fail to entertain and express. The cosmopolitan character of the population, the palatial residences—the broad and spacious avenues, museums, libraries, art galleries and other unmistakable signs of the high degree of culture of the citizens, fully justify the description of Buenos Aires as the Paris of the western hemisphere.

Originally built up on Spanish lines of single-story houses and narrow streets, the mason has been superseded by the architect and many of the old narrow thoroughfares by wide and beautiful avenues intersecting the central portions of the city. The domestic architecture of the time of Rozas was gradually succeeded by the introduction of the architectural beauty of the period of the Renaissance and subsequently by the various Grecian orders, culminating in the advent of European architects and artists who evolved many unique and distinct styles which are to-day illustrated in a number of the imposing and artistic edifices that adorn the city and, with the surrounding parks, trees, gardens, flowerbeds and running waters, both in the centre and in the suburbs, reveal a panorama of unsurpassing beauty. Many of the ancient houses with flat roofs and severely simple facades have been substituted by highly ornamented dwellings of two, three, or more stories; and, with a desire to add to the embellishment of the city, the Municipality offers a gold medal and a diploma to the architect, and an immunity from payment of the building tax to the owner, of the building for the most artistic façade, the jury being composed of representatives of different bodies exercising authority in relation to such matters as architecture, surveys, public works, engineering and fine arts. By the employment of these methods, Buenos Aires, in recent years, has made notable advance in architecture, not only in regard to private dwellings, but also in its public buildings and the unquestionable increase in number and quality of the monuments, statues, and sculptural groups dotted over every part of the city. During the last twenty years there have been constructed new avenues and thoroughfares of great width and length lined by handsome buildings, paved with asphalt and lighted with huge electric globes, whilst the Municipality has spared no expense in widening many existing streets to meet the growing demands of the population and to give more light and air to quarters of the city which are densely inhabited.

The æsthetic side of the city of Buenos Aires is to be found in its splendid museums, art galleries and public and private libraries, of which there are many of unquestionable merit. Amongst these, special mention should be made of the Natural History Museum, which is of great interest from the point of view of educational value and intellectual progress. The Zoological, Botanical, Mineral, Archeological and Ethnographical specimens, numbering many thousands, have been classified on a scientific basis by eminent authorities over a period of many years and form a collection of objects and curiosities of nature unexcelled for their variety and interest. The National Historical Museum possesses a collection of historic trophies and works, manuscripts, ancient coins and other objects, over 4,000 in number. Here are also halls and galleries, containing portraits of the Viceroys, pictures of naval and military battles, trophies of the war with Great Britain, the room in which San Martin lived and died, furniture, uniforms, arms, decorations and a variety of other articles of great historic interest. On the same order and limited to its expressed purpose, there is a Museum of Arms which contains a collection of weapons with records of their authenticity attached. In this collection there are many specimens of rare weapons and accoutrements of different periods ranging from the fourteenth to the eighteenth centuries. There are, besides, many flags and other articles associated with the wars of different periods. Of much more recent date and, perhaps, also of greater practical interest, is the Natural Agricultural Museum, the objects of which are to promote the knowledge of agriculture by instructive exhibits and to demonstrate the measures best adapted to the scientific methods of cultivation and to overcome the natural drawbacks besetting that branch of national industry. The collection comprises upwards of twenty thousand specimens of agricultural products of every description as well as statistics and information pertaining to rural economy.

The libraries of the city are both extensive and numerous and contain in addition to modern works of importance in different languages bibliographical treasures of different periods representing the world's various cycles of literature.

The public and private art galleries of the city with their varied collections embrace a great number of old masters and of modern productions in painting, sculpture, pottery, engraving and every form of art representing all known periods and all nations. First amongst these exhibitions is the Museum of Fine Arts, which contains a number of important works collected and arranged with great skill and taste, whilst many of the private galleries have been especially erected in the palaces of wealthy residents for the purpose of housing some of the priceless objects which are to be found in the capital of the Argentine Republic.

A feature of striking interest in the life of Buenos Aires is the number and excellence of the many hospitals, asylums and other charitable organizations established to provide for the afflicted and poorer classes of the community. Apart from those endowed by the various foreign colonies residing in the city, the majority of these institutions are largely supported by State aid in form of appropriation or specific revenues. On the other hand, vast sums are privately subscribed to those not entirely of an official character.

As a great commercial centre, the aspect and movement of the city are equally striking. The port, docks, railroad depots, wharves, warehouses, street railways, lighting and other signs of industrial activity abound in every direction and make Buenos Aires to the Argentine Republic what New York is to the United States. It is, moreover, the principal mart for the agricultural and pastoral products of many of the leading ranches of the Republic and draws to its periodical sales of wool, hides, cattle and sheep, buyers from many foreign countries.

Buenos Aires, like many other great capitals, is confronted with the difficulty of a congestion of traffic owing to the large increase of population and the narrowness of the streets in the older sections of the city, but this problem is being gradually solved by the construction of new broad diagonal avenues and by the building of subways which are now being rapidly extended. With all these evidences of progress on every side, it will not be a surprising revelation to add that Buenos Aires possesses some of the greatest newspapers, one of the finest Opera Houses and the finest Club Houses in the world. There are other large and flourishing cities in the Republic, such as Rosario, Santa Fé, Córdova, La Plata (capital of the province of Buenos Aires) and Bahia Blanca, but the City of Buenos Aires is the brain and heart of the Republic and must always maintain its supremacy as the leading metropolis of Latin America.

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