E-text prepared by Tor Martin Kristiansen, Michael, Sam W., and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)



THE STUDENT'S MYTHOLOGY

A Compendium of Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian,
Hindoo, Chinese, Thibetian, Scandinavian, Celtic, Aztec,
and Peruvian Mythologies,

In Accordance with Standard Authorities.

Arranged for the Use of Schools and Academies.

by

C. A. WHITE.

New Edition, Revised and Corrected.







New York.
A. C. Armstrong & Son,
714 Broadway.
1889.

Entered According to Act of Congress in
the year 1870, by
W. J. Widdleton,
In the Clerk's Office of the District
Court of the United States for
the Southern District of New York.
Copyright, 1882, by W. C. Bush.




PREFATORY NOTE.


The Student's Mythology has been in use in manuscript for nearly three
years in one of our largest academies, where it has been received with
much favor by both teachers and pupils. Even in that form, which
subjected them to the inconvenience of long dictations, it was
preferred to any of the ordinary text-books on the subject. Copies
were sought for the use of other institutions, and the principals of
the academy referred to, consented that the work should be prepared
for the press.

In carrying out the plan, the subject matter was carefully classified,
and such additions made as were deemed necessary for completeness. As
a farther precaution, the whole was submitted to the revision of an
eminent classical scholar.

Mythology is a subject which needs to be treated with peculiar care;
and text-books are often objected to by parents and teachers as still
retaining the taint of pagan corruption, and presenting dangerous
images to the youthful mind. It was this difficulty which first led to
the preparation of the present work. The Student's Mythology lays no
claim to any superiority in point of erudition; the text-books already
before the public leave nothing to be desired in this particular. It
is a practical work, prepared by an experienced teacher, and already
submitted to the decisive test of the schoolroom. It is not designed
for young persons who are already advanced in classical studies, but
rather for pupils who have not yet entered, or who, like the greater
number of those attending our female academies, are not likely ever to
enter upon any regular classical course. For the former, it may prove
a useful introduction to these studies, while the latter will find in
the work the most important and pleasing features of mythology.

With such views, it has been considered most judicious to present the
classic fables in their simplest, which is also their most poetic
form, giving the allegorical meaning attached to the ancient myths,
only where their application is clear and simple. For the same reason
the writer has avoided questions of comparative mythology, except in
cases where the analogies are too obvious to be passed unnoticed. The
work has been compiled with care from reliable sources, and will,
perhaps, be found to contain much that is new and interesting; many
articles, such as those on the public games, the theatrical
entertainments of the Greeks, the Assyrian, Chinese and American
mythologies, will be found a pleasing addition, as these subjects have
not been treated in the ordinary text-books. The chapter on the "Poets
of Classic Fable," and the "Supplement" containing a notice of the
ancient writers whose names occur in the body of the work, will, it is
hoped, be found generally useful.

Among the modern authors to whom the writer has been particularly
indebted, we may mention Calmet, Anthon, Tooke, Bulfinch, Huc and
Schlegel. In preparing the article on Druidism, Martin's "Histoire de
France," and the "Monuments Celtiques" of Reynaud, have been
consulted, together with the Irish Chroniclers and other standard
authorities. The matter of the Mexican and Peruvian mythologies, has
been chiefly taken from Clavigero and Prescott. Reference has been
made throughout to the New American Cyclopædia.

The work now completed is offered to the public in the hope that it
may render the subject of mythology more generally popular in our
schools, and obviate the dangers attending this otherwise attractive
study.




CONTENTS.


  CHAPTER I.

  Origin of Mythology--Divinities called Celestial                  15

  CHAPTER II.

  Greek and Roman Divinities--Jupiter--Juno--How represented--
    Parentage and Actions--Probable Origin of these Fables--
    Adventures of Jupiter--Story of Europa--Search of Cadmus--
    Punishment of Lycaon                                            23

  CHAPTER III.

  Apollo--His Parentage and Exploits--How represented--Story of
    Æsculapius--Banishment of Apollo from Heaven--Transformation
    of Hyacinthus and Cyparissus--Story of Admetus and Alcestis--
    Attributes of Apollo--Punishment inflicted on Marsyas and on
    King Midas--Story of Midas--Death of Phæton--Transformation
    of Daphne--Things Sacred to Apollo                              29

  CHAPTER IV.

  Mars (Ares)--His Parentage--How represented--Animals Sacred to
    Mars--Names given to Mars--His Temple--Priests called Salii     34

  CHAPTER V.

  Mercury (Hermes)--His Parentage--How represented--Offices of
    Mercury--Benefits conferred by Mercury on Man--Why considered
    the Patron of Thieves--Story of Io and Argus                    36

  CHAPTER VI.

  Bacchus (Dionysus)--Parentage of the God--How represented--Story
    of Semele--Infancy of Bacchus--Transformation of Nymphs into
    Stars--Silenus--How represented--Exploits of Bacchus--How
    worshipped--Plants Sacred to the God--Bacchanalia or Orgia--
    Story of Pentheus--Punishment inflicted on Alcithoe and her
    Sisters--Transformation of Mariners into Dolphins               39

  CHAPTER VII.

  Celestial Goddesses--Juno--Hera--Parentage of Juno--How
    represented--Iris, Messenger of Juno--Children of Juno--
    Jealousy of the Goddess--Transformation of Callista and
    Arcas into Bears--Sacrifices offered to the Goddess--Plants
    held Sacred to her                                              43

  CHAPTER VIII.

  Minerva--Pallas Athena--How represented--Origin of the Olive--
    The Palladium--Minerva, as the Patroness of Female Industry--
    Story of Arachne--The Bird of Minerva--Story of Medusa's Head   45

  CHAPTER IX.

  Venus--Aphrodite--Birth and Education of Venus--Marriage with
    Vulcan--How represented--Temples of Venus--The Graces--Cupid
    --Festivals of the Goddess--Birds and Plants Sacred to her--
    Sacrifices--Temple of Venus Calva--The Apple of Discord--
    Decision of Paris--Story of Hippomenes and Atalanta--Death of
    Adonis--Origin of the Red Rose--Names of the Graces             49

  CHAPTER X.

  Latona--Leto--Her Parentage--Persecution of Juno--Birth of
    Apollo and Diana--Transformation of Lycian Peasants into
    Frogs--Punishment of Tityus--Latona a Personification of
    Night--How represented by Painters and Sculptors                54

  CHAPTER XI.

  Aurora--Eos--Attributes of the Goddess--How represented--Story
    of Cephalus and Procris--Marriage of Aurora with Tithonus--
    Transformation of Tithonus--Memnon--His Death and Obsequies--
    Vocal Statue                                                    56

  CHAPTER XII.

  Terrestrial Gods--Saturn--His Parentage--How represented--His
    History--The Golden Age--Sacrifices offered to Saturn--The
    Saturnalia--Modern Carnival--Janus--Contradictory Accounts
    of his Origin--Temple of Janus--Quirinus at Rome                61

  CHAPTER XIII.

  Vulcan--Hephæstus--Parentage of this God--Why banished from
    Heaven--Occupation of Vulcan--His Most Celebrated Works--
    Marriage with Venus--The Cyclops--Vulcania--Temple on Mount
    Etna--Cacus--Cæculus--Other Works of Vulcan                     64

  CHAPTER XIV.

  Æolus--Supposed origin of the Fable--Momus--His Parentage--
    Criticisms passed on other Divinities--His Banishment from
    Olympus                                                         67

  CHAPTER XV.

  Terrestrial Goddesses--Vesta--Hestia--Her Parentage and
    Attributes--How represented--Worship of Vesta at Rome--
    Vestal Virgins--Their Obligations and Privileges--Anecdote      69

  CHAPTER XVI.

  Cybele--How called by the Greeks--Parentage and Attributes--How
    represented--Temple of Cybele on Mount Dindymus--Sacred Image
    --Festival of Megalesia--Galle and Corybantes--Bona Dea--
    Story of the Vestal Claudia                                     72

  CHAPTER XVII.

  Ceres--Demeter--Parentage and Attributes--How represented--
    Story of Proserpine--Eleusinian Mysteries--Rites practiced
    --Story of Triptolemus--Sacrifices offered to Ceres--Feasts
    called Ambarvalia--Described by Virgil                          75

  CHAPTER XVIII.

  Themis--Origin and Attributes--Astræa changed into the
    Constellation Virgo--Erigone--Nemesis--Her Office--Temple
    of Nemesis at Rhamnus                                           80

  CHAPTER XIX.

  The Muses--Their Number, Names and Attributes--Why there are
    Nine Muses--Punishment or the Daughters of Pierus               82

  CHAPTER XX.

  Gods of the Woods, and Rural Deities--Pan--Names given to this
    Deity--His Origin--How represented--Famous Action related of
    Pan--Origin of Pan's Reeds--Satyrs and Fauns--Terminus--
    Vertumnus--Pales                                                84

  CHAPTER XXI.

  Goddesses of the Woods--Diana--Parentage and Attributes of this
    Goddess--How represented--Habits of Diana--Her Attendants--
    Punishment of Chione--Story of Niobe--Temple of Diana at
    Ephesus--Burned by Erostratus--Despoiled by Nero--Plundered
    by the Goths--Nymphs--Naiades--Oreades--Oceanides--Dryades
    and Hamadryades--Arethusa--Story of Echo--Transformation of
    Narcissus                                                       87

  CHAPTER XXII.

  Gods of the Sea--Neptune--Poseidon--Parentage of the God--How
    represented--Offices of Neptune--Feasts held at Rome in his
    Honor--Children of Neptune--Triton--Phorcus or Proteus--
    Sirens--Ulysses--Orpheus--Scylla and Charybdis--Melicertes--
    Thetis--Glaucus                                                 93

  CHAPTER XXIII.

  Infernal Deities--Pluto--Hades--Parentage of the God--His
    Kingdom--Representations and Emblems--Dis--Plutus--Hell--
    Cerberus--Fates--Furies--Judges of the Dead--Punishment
    inflicted on the Condemned--Giants--Ixion--Sisyphus--
    Tantalus--The Belides--Salmoneus--Elysium                       99

  CHAPTER XXIV.

  Fabulous Monsters--Centaurs--Geryon--Harpies--Briareus--The
    Chimæra--Explanation of this Fable--The Sphinx--Fabulous
    History--Statue of the Sphinx in Egypt                         105

  CHAPTER XXV.

  Household Divinities--Penates--Offices and Attributes--Lares--
    Their Offices--Sacrifices offered to the Goddess Mania--
    Honors paid to the Lares--Virtues worshipped as Divinities     108

  CHAPTER XXVI.

  Demigods and Heroes--Their Origin--Hercules--His Parentage--
    Twelve Labors of the Hero--Field of Narbonne--Death of
    Hercules                                                       114

  CHAPTER XXVII.

  Jason--Expedition in search of the Golden Fleece--Medea--Her
    Revenge--Theseus--Tribute imposed on the Athenians--Departure
    of Theseus--Destruction of the Minotaur--Ariadne--Death of
    Ægeus                                                          119

  CHAPTER XXVIII.

  Castor And Pollux--Their Parentage--Death of Castor--
    Constellation Gemini--Prometheus--His Parentage--His
    Impiety--Pandora's Box--Punishment of Prometheus               123

  CHAPTER XXIX.

  Orpheus--Story of Eurydice--Death of Orpheus--Transformation
    of Thracian Women into Trees--Arion--Amphion                   125

  CHAPTER XXX.

  Atlas--His Parentage--Transformed by Perseus into a Mountain--
    Explanation of the Fable--Pleiades--Hyades--Hesperides--Orion
    --His Parentage, Exploits and Death--Transformation into a
    Constellation--Perseus--His Parentage--Rescue of Andromeda--
    Death of Acrisius                                              129

  CHAPTER XXXI.

  Bellerophon--Victory over the Chimæra--His Presumption and its
    Punishment--Deucalion--Legend of the re-peopling of the Earth
    after the Deluge--Probable Explanation--Dædalus--Labyrinth--
    Death of Icarus--Ceyx--Alcyone--Halcyon Birds                  134

  CHAPTER XXXII.

  Meleager--The Calydonian Hunt--Erisichthon, Nisus and Scylla     140

  CHAPTER XXXIII.

  Poets of Classic Fable--Homer--Hesiod--Virgil--Ovid              145

  CHAPTER XXXIV.

  Heroes Celebrated by the Poets--Agamemnon--Sacrifice of
    Iphigenia--Quarrel with Achilles--Murder of Agamemnon by
    Ægisthus and Clytemnestra--Achilles--His Parentage--
    Discovered by Ulysses at the Court of Lycomedes--His
    Quarrel with Agamemnon--Death of Patroclus--Exploits
    during the Siege--Death of Achilles--Sacrifice of
    Polyxena--Transformation of Hecuba                             152

  CHAPTER XXXV.

  Ulysses--His Marriage with Penelope--Feigned Insanity--Exploits
    during the Siege of Troy--Lotus Eaters--Slaying of the Sacred
    Cattle by the Sailors--Their destruction--Ulysses in the
    Island of Calypso--Cast on the Shores of Phæacia--His Arrival
    in Ithaca--Suitors of Penelope--Her Deliverance by Ulysses     156

  CHAPTER XXXVI.

  Orestes--Education at the Court of Strophius--Pylades--Murder
    of Clytemnestra--Orestes pursued by the Furies--Discovery of
    Iphigenia at Tauris--Circumstances added by the Tragic Poets
    --Hector--Character and Exploits of the Hero; his Death--Fate
    of Astyanax--Œdipus--Eteocles and Polynices--Theban War--
    Heroism of Antigone                                            164

  CHAPTER XXXVII.

  Æneas--His Parentage--His Flight from Troy--Interview with
    Andromache at Epirus--Prophecy of Helenus--Æneas driven by a
    Storm on the Coast of Africa--Received by Dido at Carthage--
    Departure of Æneas--Death of Dido--Funeral Games--Descent
    into the Infernal Regions--Landing of Æneas in Italy--War--
    Death of Turnus and Marriage of Æneas with Lavinia--His Death  171

  CHAPTER XXXVIII.

  Sibyls--Story of the Cumæan Sibyl--Legend of the Sibylline
    Books--Their destruction--Opinions entertained regarding
    these Verses--Divination by Omens--The Augurs--Different
    Classes of Omens--Anecdote                                     176

  CHAPTER XXXIX.

  Oracles--Oracle of Jupiter at Dodona--Manner of giving
    Responses--Oracle of Delphi--Account given by Diodorus--
    The Pythia--Remarkable Responses--Unsuccessful attempts made
    to plunder this Temple--Despoiled by Nero and others--Oracle
    of Trophonius--Story of the Hero and his Brother--Agamedes--
    Discovery of the Oracle--Peculiar Rites observed by the
    Votaries--Oracle of Jupiter Ammon--Its Situation--Temple
    founded by Bacchus--Expedition sent by Cambyses--Ruins still
    existing--Fons Solis--Account given by Belzoni--Oracle of
    Esculapius at Epidaurus--Remarkable Embassy sent to Epidaurus
    by the Roman Senate--Treatment of Votaries in the different
    Oracles of Esculapius--Oracle of the Castalian Fount--Anecdote
    of the Emperor Hadrian--Opinions entertained with regard to
    these Oracles--Quotation from Milton                           180

  CHAPTER XL.

  Classic Games--Why connected with Mythology--Olympic Games--By
    Whom instituted--Time and Manner of their celebration--
    Olympiads--Nature of the Contests--Qualifications required of
    the Competitors--Prize awarded to the Victors--Honors bestowed
    --Horse and Chariot Races--Philip of Macedon--Alcibiades--
    Cynisca--Intellectual Contests--Herodotus--Dionysius--Pythian
    Games--By whom instituted--Time of their Celebration--Prize--
    Nemean Games--Crowns bestowed--Isthmian Games--Why so called--
    Instituted in Honor of Melicertes--Garland bestowed on the
    Victor                                                         191

  CHAPTER XLI.

  The Greek Drama--Peculiarities of the Greek Theatre--Description
    of the Theatre of Bacchus at Athens--Stage Machinery--Dress of
    the Actors--Masks--The Chorus--Measures of the Choral Dance--
    Chorus of the Furies--Story of Ibycus--Attempt made to revive
    the Ancient Chorus--Time occupied by Theatrical Entertainments
    --Their cost--Comparison with the Roman Amphitheatre           197

  CHAPTER XLII.

  Celebrated Statues--The Olympian Jupiter--Minerva of the
    Parthenon--Subsequent Fate of this Temple--Apollo Belvidere
    --Diana à la Biche                                             206


  _PART II._

  CHAPTER I.

  Egyptian Divinities--Osiris--Apis and Serapis--Parentage of
    Osiris--His Death and Sepulture--Isis--Attributes--Emblematic
    representation--Rites of Isis forbidden at Rome--Condemned by
    Juvenal--Apis--Manner of transmigration--Festivals in Honor
    of Apis--Discovery of a Successor--Oracles obtained from this
    Divinity--Germanicus--Harpocrates--Quotation                   209

  CHAPTER II.

  Eastern Mythology--Divinities of the Assyrians--Baal or Bel--
    Tower of Babel--Proper Names of the Phœnicians and
    Carthaginians--Worship of Baal introduced among the
    Israelites by Achab--Reproaches of Jeremias--Moloch--Nations
    devoted to his Worship--Human Sacrifices--Representation of
    this God--His Worship forbidden by Moses--Valley of Hinnom--
    Quotation from Milton--Astaroth or Astarte--Sacrifices in
    Honor of this Goddess--Abuses attending her Festivals--Thammuz
    identical with Adonis--Mourned by the Assyrian Women--Lines
    from Milton--Vision of Ezekiel--Oannes--Dagon                  213

  CHAPTER III.

  Persia--The Zend-avesta--Doctrines of Zoroaster--Ormuzd or
    Ormasdes--Ahriman--Worship of Fire--The Guebers--Perpetual
    Fires--Bakoo--Magic and Astrology--Parsees of Hindostan        218

  CHAPTER IV.

  Hindoo Mythology--Brahma--The Vedas--Doctrine of the Vedas--
    Brahma, Vishnu and Siva--Offices of these Deities--Avatars of
    Vishnu--Krishna--Siva--Doctrines regarding the Soul--
    Metempsychosis--Castes--Buddha--His Doctrines--Buddhism
    suppressed in India                                            222

  CHAPTER V.

  China--Absence of any State Religion in China--Doctrine of the
    Lettered--Confucius--His Writings--Honors paid him in China--
    Difficulties occasioned among Christian Missionaries--Lao-tze,
    founder of the Religion of Tao or Reason--His Writings--
    Chinese Buddhists--Temple of Buddha at Pou-tou--General
    Feeling of the Chinese with regard to Religion                 229

  CHAPTER VI.

  Thibet--The Grand Lama--Prevailing Religion of Thibet and
    Tartary--Lamaseries--The Grand Lama, a Perpetual Incarnation
    of Buddha--His transmigrations--Mode of discovering his
    Successor                                                      236

  CHAPTER VII.

  Mythology of Scandinavia--Compared with that of Greece and
    Rome--The Eddas--Account of the Creation--Form of the Earth
    --Asgard, Odin--Names of this Deity--Valhalla--Thor--Recovery
    of Thor's Hammer--Frey and Freya--Bragi--Heimdall--Vidar--
    Hodur--The Valkyrior--Loki and his Progeny--Death of Baldur--
    His Funeral--Loki's Punishment--The Elves--Runic Letters--
    Ragnarok, the Twilight of the Gods                             238

  CHAPTER VIII.

  Celtic Mythology--Druidism--Derivation of the Word Druid--
    Origin of Druidical Worship--Account given by Cæsar--
    Characteristics--Divinities worshipped by the Druids--Esus--
    His Attributes--Bel--Teutates--Camul--Tarann--Priests--Their
    Duties--Bards--Their  Influences--Druids, properly so called--
    Sacred Plants--Mystic Writing of the Druids--Their Political
    Authority--Druidesses--Of the Loire--Of the Island of Sena--
    Human Sacrifices offered by Druidesses--Virgins of Tara--
    Sacrifices offered by the Druids--Victims chosen--Belief of
    the Druids in a Future State--Festivals of the Druids--
    Festival--Solstices--Beltane or Beal-Tinne--Ceremonies
    observed in Ireland--St. Patrick at Tara--First of November--
    Breton Legend--Superstitious Practices belonging to the Day--
    Suppression of Druidism in Gaul--In England--Mona--Iona--
    Druidical Monuments--Menhirs--Dolmens--Cromlechs--Stonehenge
    --Carnac--Popular Superstitions                                257

  CHAPTER IX.

  Mexico--Mythology of the Aztecs--Its Peculiar Characteristics--
    Belief of the Aztecs with regard to the Supreme Being--
    Subordinate Deities--Huitzilopotchli--Legend of Quetzalcoatl--
    Household Divinities--Belief of the Aztecs with regard to a
    Future State--Singular Ceremony--Rites of Burial--Aztec
    Priests--Priestesses--Mexican Temples--Pyramid of Cholula--
    Sacrifices--Their Number--Victims offered annually to
    Tezcatlipoca--Cannibal Repasts--Montezuma                      274

  CHAPTER X.

  Mythology of the Ancient Peruvians--Belief in One God--Worship
    of the Sun, Moon, and Stars--Legend of Manco-Capac--Pretended
    Origin of the Inca Race--Legend of the Deluge--Tradition of
    White Men from the East--Temple of the Sun in the Island of
    Titicaca--Temple of Cuzco--Peruvian Priesthood--Sacrifices
    offered to the Sun--Festivals of the Sun--Feast of Raymi--
    Resemblance of certain Peruvian Rites to those observed by
    the Ancient Romans--Virgins of the Sun--Burial Rites of the
    Peruvians--Cupay                                               284

  SUPPLEMENT.

  Notice of Authors, etc., mentioned in this Volume--Æschylus--
    Cæsar--Cicero--Demosthenes--Diodorus--Euripides--Herodotus--
    Justin--Juvenal--Mæcenas--Pelasgi--Plinius--Procopius--
    Simonides--Sophocles--Strabo--Titicaca--Varro                  292




MYTHOLOGY.




CHAPTER I.


_Ques._ What is Mythology?

_Ans._ This word is derived from the Greek, _Mythos_, a myth or fable,
and _logos_, a discourse. A myth is, properly speaking, an allegory or
fable invented to convey some important moral or religious truth, or
illustrate some operation of nature. Mythology includes also the
historical myths, or the narratives of gods, demigods, and heroes,
which were current among the heathen in ancient times.

_Ques._ Why is it necessary to become acquainted with these fables?

_Ans._ Because ancient literature and art cannot be fully understood
or appreciated without some knowledge of Mythology. It was mingled
with every theme of the classic poet, and inspired the highest skill
of the painter and sculptor.

These subjects keep their place to some extent in modern art, and
mythological allusions are so frequent in our literature that an
acquaintance with classic fable is considered a necessary part of a
liberal education.

_Ques._ Did all the heathen nations worship the same deities?

_Ans._ The mythology of different nations varied as to the names and
attributes of their divinities. There are, nevertheless, so many
points of resemblance, that it is believed by many that the principal
mythical systems had one common origin. To trace these analogies, and
the developments which gave rise to so great a diversity, is the
province of comparative mythology.

_Ques._ In what important point do all these systems agree?

_Ans._ In the rite of sacrifice. We meet everywhere the same
offerings: flowers, first fruits, libations of milk, honey, and wine;
also sacrifices of animals, which were either partaken of by the
votaries or consumed as holocausts upon the altar.

This mode of worship varied but little in ceremonial, and the
sacrifices of the different heathen nations resembled, in their
exterior form, those offered to the true God by the ancient
patriarchs. The idea of propitiating the deity in such a manner seems
to have been universal both in the old and the new world, and we are
forced to believe that it was drawn from a common fount of primeval
tradition.

_Ques._ How did the belief in the heathen deities originate?

_Ans._ When the early traditions of the human race became corrupt, the
sublime idea of one God, self-existent and eternal, was lost or
obscured. We find it, though vaguely perhaps, in the character and
attributes of certain divinities, as the Zeus (Jupiter) of the Greek,
and the Alfâdur of Scandinavian mythology. There are passages in the
early Greek poets which show clearly a belief in the unity of God. In
the verses attributed to the mythic poet Orpheus, and generally known
as Orphic Remains, we find the following:

    "One self-existent lives; created things
    Arise from him; and He is all in all.
    No mortal sight may see Him, yet Himself
    Sees all that live; * * *
              * * * For He alone
    All heavenly is, and all terrestrial things
    Are wrought by Him. First, midst and last he holds
    With His omniscient grasp."

The same idea is expressed in the verses of the poet Aratus, quoted by
St. Paul in his address to the Athenians on the Hill of Mars.

Instead of ministering spirits obeying the will of the Supreme Being,
and communicating that will to man, there arose a number of inferior
deities, each exercising some peculiar and partial sovereignty. The
god whom the warrior invoked in battle was powerless to bless the
field he cultivated in time of peace; the power of Jupiter was
worshipped in the rolling thunder; but when the earth trembled or
fiery torrents burst from the mountain top, the wrath of Pluto must be
appeased, and sacrifices were offered to the infernal powers. The
strife and turbulence of nature were attributed to the gods, who
became in some manner identified with the elements they were supposed
to govern.

The honors paid to the memory of departed heroes assumed, in the
course of time, the character of religious worship. Hence arose a
class of demigods, whose real achievements, transmitted by popular
tradition and embellished by the poets, became altogether legendary
and mythical.

_Ques._ Were the Greek and Roman mythologies the same?

_Ans._ They were, to a great extent. The ancient Latins had,
undoubtedly, their own gods and their peculiar superstitions, but they
do not appear to have had any regular mythology. When the Romans
received the arts and sciences from the Greeks, they adopted, also,
their divinities and their entire system of religion.

They shared a tradition, which seems to have been universal, of a
time of primeval innocence, when man dwelt in a peaceful world,
ignorant alike of sorrow and of sin. This was the Golden Age. Avarice
and discord were unknown; men had not learned to slay animals for
food, nor had the earth been disturbed by the plough. Neither the
labors of the husbandman, nor the merchant's traffic disturbed the
joyous leisure of that happy time; no ships ploughed the seas, and the
glittering steel rested harmless in the mine. Ovid thus describes the
days of innocence:

    "The Golden Age was first, when man, yet new,
    No rule but uncorrupted reason knew,
    And, with a native bent did good pursue.
    Unforced by punishment, unawed by fear,
    His words were simple, and his soul sincere;
    Needless was written law where none oppressed;
    The law of man was written in his breast:
    No suppliant crowds before the judge appeared,
    No court erected yet, nor cause was heard,
    But all was safe; for conscience was their guard.
         *   *   *   *   *   *   *
    No walls were yet, nor fence, nor moat, nor mound,
    Nor drum was heard, nor trumpet's angry sound,
    Nor swords were forged; but, void of care and crime,
    The soft creation slept away their time."

The Silver Age was far inferior to that of gold; but virtue still
dwelt on earth, and the Immortals had not altogether departed from the
abodes of men. Jupiter then divided the year into seasons, shortened
the winter days, and let loose the northern blasts, so that men were
obliged to build dwellings, and cultivate the ungrateful soil.

Their first habitations were caves and grottoes, leafy coverts of the
forest, or huts rudely constructed of the trunks of trees and
interwoven boughs.

The Brazen Age came next; men grew fierce and warlike, but were not as
yet altogether impious.

The Iron Age gave birth to all the calamities that afflict mankind.
Avarice and violence reigned supreme; men were not satisfied to till
the earth, but dug into its hidden mines, and drew thence gold and
iron, potent instruments of ill to man.

The same poet says:

    "Then land-marks limited to each his right;
    For all before was common as the light.
    Nor was the ground alone required to bear
    Her annual income to the crooked share,
    But greedy mortals, rummaging her store,
    Digged from her entrails first the precious ore
    (Which next to hell the prudent gods had laid,)
    And that alluring ill to sight displayed.
    Thus cursed steel, and more accursed gold,
    Gave mischief birth, and made that mischief bold:
    And double death did wretched man invade,
    By steel assaulted, and by gold betrayed."

                                _Dryden's Ovid._


MOUNT OLYMPUS.

_Ques._ Where were the gods supposed to dwell?

_Ans._ On the summit of Mount Olympus, in Thessaly. This mountain
hides its head, covered with perpetual snows, in a belt of clouds.
The Greeks imagined above these, a sublime abode reposing in eternal
sunshine, and free from the storms which vexed the lower world. A gate
of clouds, guarded by the goddesses of the seasons, opened to permit
the passage of the Celestials when they descended to earth. Each god
had his own dwelling, but all were obliged to repair, when summoned,
to the palace of Jupiter. Even those deities whose usual abode was on
the earth, in the waters, or in the lower shades, were compelled to
assemble in Olympus at his command. Here they feasted on ambrosia and
nectar, discoursed upon the affairs of heaven and earth, and were
delighted at intervals by the music of Apollo's lyre, and the songs of
the Muses.

Vulcan was smith, architect and chariot builder to the gods. He built
their dwellings on Olympus, and constructed the furniture in so
wonderful a manner, that the tripods and tables were endowed with
motion, and ranged themselves in order without the aid of hands. The
robes of the different divinities were wrought by Minerva and the
Graces. Everything of a solid nature was constructed of metal.


THE GODS--DIFFERENT CLASSES OF DEITIES.

_Ques._ Did the Greeks believe that the gods resembled men?

_Ans._ Yes; in many particulars. They supposed them to have the same
passions, both good and evil. They were immortal, yet could suffer
pain and receive wounds. Instead of blood a fluid called ichor filled
their veins. The deities resembled men also in form, but they were,
with some exceptions, of majestic stature and shone with celestial
beauty. They could render themselves invisible at will, and were
otherwise endowed with supernatural powers. There was this restraint
upon their wonder-working gifts: no divinity was permitted to reverse
the act of another. For example, when an offended god subjected a
mortal to some cruel transformation, no other deity, not even Jupiter
himself, could undo the spell.

_Ques._ Into what classes were the gods divided?

_Ans._ Ancient writers differ in the classification of the Greek and
Roman divinities. According to one division, which we will follow, the
Celestial gods were: Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, Mercury and Bacchus. The
goddesses were: Juno, Minerva or Pallas, Venus, Aurora and Latona.

To these higher divinities, Saturn, Janus, Vesta and others were
sometimes added. There were also Terrestrial divinities, Gods of the
Sea, Infernal deities, etc. etc.




CHAPTER II.

GREEK AND ROMAN DIVINITIES.

Celestial Gods.


JUPITER, (Greek, _Zeus_.)

_Ques._ Who was Jupiter?

_Ans._ He was the king and father of gods and men. He is generally
represented as a majestic man with a beard, sitting on a throne of
gold and ivory. He brandishes the thunder in his right hand; giants
lie prostrate under his feet, and an eagle stands at his side. Jupiter
is sometimes called Jove, and as the eagle was sacred to him, it is
often called the bird of Jove.

_Ques._ Relate the story of Diony´sius and Jupiter's cloak.

_Ans._ The statues of this god were sometimes decorated with much
magnificence. It is related that Diony´sius, the tyrant of Syracuse,
visited a temple in Sicily, where he saw a statue of Jupiter arrayed
in a mantle of wrought gold. This he took possession of, and ordered
in its place a woolen cloak. Diony´sius justified the act on the plea
that the latter garment would be more comfortable for the god at all
seasons, as it was neither so heavy in summer, nor so cold in winter.

_Ques._ Of whom was Jupiter the son?

_Ans._ He was the son of Saturn and Ops. According to the fable,
Saturn promised his brother Titan, that after his death, the latter
should succeed him in his kingdom. To ensure this, Titan made Saturn
promise farther to destroy all his male children. In fulfillment of
this engagement, Saturn devoured them as soon as they were born. Ops,
or Rhea, his wife, succeeded in concealing Jupiter from him. She sent
him secretly to Crete where he was educated on Mount Ida, by the
nymphs, or, according to some, by the priestesses of Cyb´ele. The goat
which suckled him was placed afterwards amongst the constellations.
Ops saved Neptune and Pluto in the same manner.

_Ques._ What were Jupiter's first exploits?

_Ans._ Titan was so much enraged against Saturn for failing to destroy
all his male children, that he assembled the giants, generally called
Titans, to avenge the injury. They overcame Saturn, and bound him with
Ops, or Rhea, in hell. Jupiter conquered the Titans, and delivered his
father and mother. He afterwards took up arms against Saturn himself,
whom he overcame and banished. He then shared his power with his two
brothers, Neptune and Pluto; to Neptune he gave the command of the
seas and rivers, while Pluto received for his portion the
subterranean world, or infernal regions.

_Ques._ What natural phenomena were attributed to Jupiter?

_Ans._ Thunder, lightning, rain, clouds, snow, and rainbows. These
were sent by Jupiter either as signs or warnings, or else to punish
the transgressions of men, particularly the perversion of law and
justice. It seems certain that the ancients regarded Jupiter as a
righteous power, the enemy of tyrants, and the protector of the poor
and innocent. It is hard to reconcile this character with the fables
which ascribe to this god actions in the last degree base and
criminal.

_Ques._ How would you explain this seeming contradiction?

_Ans._ Many of these stories were simply allegories, illustrating the
dominion of Jupiter over the natural world. Others were invented at
later times; and all were embellished by the poets with but little
regard for moral or religious sentiment. Whatever their origin, there
can be no doubt that they had an unfavorable influence on the pagan
world, and that they contributed to weaken whatever respect remained
for public or private virtue.

_Ques._ Relate some of these fables.

_Ans._ Jupiter was married to Juno, to whom he first appeared in the
form of a crow. He constantly excited her jealousy by his admiration
of mortal women, and this gave rise to many adventures, celebrated by
the poets.

_Ques._ What was the story of Euro´pa?

_Ans._ Jupiter was struck by the beauty of Euro´pa, daughter of
Age´nor, king of Phœnicia. He took the form of a snow-white bull, and
mingled with the herd that grazed in the meadow where the young
princess was gathering flowers. Euro´pa, attracted by the beauty and
gentleness of the animal, caressed him, crowned him with flowers, and
at length fearlessly mounted on his back. He immediately plunged into
the sea, and carried her to the unknown shores of Europe, which was
named from her.

_Ques._ On what was the story of Euro´pa probably founded?

_Ans._ It is probable that some sea captain, or pirate, was attracted
by the beauty of the young princess, and carried her off. When her
father grieved at her loss, the courtiers, and perhaps the oracles,
pretended that it was a god who had taken her away. As this report was
flattering to his pride, he would of course be pleased to hear it
everywhere repeated. This, however, did not prevent Age´nor from
making every effort to recover his lost child.

_Ques._ Relate the story of Cadmus.

_Ans._ Cadmus, the son of Age´nor, was ordered by his father to go in
search of his sister Euro´pa, with the further injunction, that he
should never return to his native land without her. The search proved
fruitless, and Cadmus, not daring to appear before his father, went to
consult the oracle of Apollo as to what he should do. He was directed
by the god to follow a young heifer, which he would meet in the
fields, and to mark the place where she should lie down to rest. He
was to build a city on that spot, and call the surrounding country
Bœotia. Cadmus obeyed these instructions; while preparing to offer
sacrifice to Jupiter on the site of his intended town, the solemnity
was interrupted by a terrible event. The attendants of Cadmus, in
searching for water, had entered a grove sacred to Mars, which was
guarded by a mighty dragon. On perceiving him, they turned to fly, but
were either crushed in the serpent's folds, or suffocated by blasts of
the monster's fiery breath. Cadmus, awaiting their return, and
becoming impatient at the delay, proceeded to the spot, and found his
servants lifeless, while the dragon was basking at his ease upon the
grass. The hero, aroused to vengeance, attacked the monster. A
terrible combat ensued, in which Cadmus, through the assistance of
Minerva, was victorious. As he gazed upon his expiring foe, he heard a
frightful voice which threatened him with the vengeance of the god
whose grove he had desecrated. Cadmus was at first dismayed, but
Minerva told him to sow the dragon's teeth in the ground, and await
the result. Where the teeth were planted, armed men immediately sprung
up. Cadmus threw a stone among them, upon which they turned their
weapons against one another, and continued to fight until all were
killed except five. These assisted the hero in building his city.

Cadmus married Hermi´one, the daughter of Venus; they had four
daughters, all of whom suffered persecution, either in their own
persons, or in those of their children. Cadmus and Hermi´one were so
much afflicted by the misfortunes of their descendants, that they
petitioned the gods to deprive them of life. They were soon after
changed into serpents.

_Ques._ Relate the punishment of Lyca´on.

_Ans._ During the Iron Age the wickedness of men had grown to such a
height that Jupiter resolved to satisfy himself of the truth of the
reports that reached him. For this purpose he descended to earth, and
assuming the disguise of a poor traveller, sought hospitality of
Lyca´on, king of Arcadia. The impious prince had just received an
ambassador from the Molossians. He ordered him to be slain, and his
flesh to be served for the entertainment of his guest. Jupiter was
seized with indignation; he overturned the tables, destroyed the
palace with lightning, and when the tyrant strove to fly, he was
transformed into a savage wolf.




CHAPTER III.


PHŒBUS--APOLLO.

_Ques._ Who was Apollo?

_Ans._ He was the son of Jupiter and Lato´na. This god was, with his
twin-sister Diana, born at Delos, an island in which Lato´na had taken
refuge from the anger of Juno. This goddess, jealous of Lato´na, sent
the serpent Python to destroy her. One of the first exploits of Apollo
was to kill the Python with his arrows.

_Ques._ How is this god generally represented?

_Ans._ As a young man, comely and graceful. He wears a laurel crown
over his flowing hair; his garments are embroidered with gold; in his
right hand he carries his bow, and bears on his shoulder a quiver
filled with arrows. Apollo and his sister Diana presided respectively
over the sun and moon. The sun is often called Phœbus, or Apollo, and
in ancient pictures the head of the god is represented as darting
rays. Apollo, like other divinities, had many names.

_Ques._ What was the cause of Apollo's being driven from heaven?

_Ans._ He had a son named Æsculapius, who was so skilled in medicine
that he was even able to restore the dead to life. Hippol´ytus, son of
Theseus, king of Athens, was killed by sea-monsters. Æsculapius, by
bringing him to life, so offended Jupiter that the latter killed him
with a thunderbolt. Apollo was much grieved, and, as he could not take
revenge on Jupiter, he killed the Cyclops who forged the thunderbolts.
For this reason Jupiter banished Apollo from heaven.

_Ques._ How did he occupy himself in his banishment?

_Ans._ He guarded the flocks of Admetus, king of Thessaly. Here he had
the misfortune accidentally to kill Hyacinthus, a boy to whom he was
much attached. Apollo mourned deeply for the youth, and caused a
flower to spring from his blood, which is called the hyacinth.
Cyparis´sus was also beloved by the god. The boy grieved so deeply at
having unintentionally killed a favorite deer, that he begged Apollo
to make his mourning perpetual. The god heard his prayer and changed
him to a cypress, the branches of which tree were always used at
funerals. After many adventures and wanderings, Apollo was restored to
the favor of Jupiter, and to heaven.

_Ques._ What favor did Apollo confer on King Admetus?

_Ans._ He obtained from the Fates, that when Admetus should be about
to end his existence, his life might be prolonged, provided another
died willingly in his stead. When the fatal day came, Alcestis, the
wife of Admetus, devoted herself to death for her husband. Admetus
grieved so deeply at her loss that Proser´pine actually relented, but
Pluto remained inexorable. Hercules, however, descended to the shades,
and rescued Alcestis, who was restored to her husband. Euripides has
founded one of his most beautiful tragedies upon this story.

_Ques._ Over what sciences did Apollo preside?

_Ans._ He presided over physic, music, poetry, and rhetoric; and the
nine Muses were subject to him. He regulated the day by guiding the
chariot of the sun.

_Ques._ What else is said of Apollo?

_Ans._ Many absurd and impossible adventures are told. He seems to
have been very vain of his musical skill, as we see from the
punishment he inflicted on Mar´syas, and King Midas for coming in
conflict with him on that point.

_Ques._ Relate these stories.

_Ans._ Apollo was challenged by Mar´syas to a contest in music. The
god was not content with defeating the presumptuous musician, but
flayed him alive, and afterwards changed him into a river, which is
still known by his name.

The punishment inflicted on King Midas was not so cruel. This prince
had the bad taste to declare his preference for the vulgar music of
Pan, in a contest which that god had with Apollo. The insulted deity
caused his ears to grow in length and shape like those of an ass.
Midas endeavored to cover the deformity by his hair, and since it was
impossible to conceal it from his barber, he bound him to silence by
great promises. This man, however, found it so painful to keep the
secret to himself, that to obtain relief, he dug a little hole in the
ground, and whispered it to the earth. What was his dismay at hearing
the hollow reeds which grew upon the spot, whispering, whenever the
wind blew: "King Midas has asses' ears!"

_Ques._ Is anything else related of King Midas?

_Ans._ Yes; he had kindly and hospitably entertained Silenus, the
preceptor of Bacchus, and in return, the god bade him choose any
recompense he pleased. Midas demanded that whatever he should touch
might be turned into gold. This prayer was granted, and he was at
first overjoyed to see plants, stones and all around him transformed
into glittering metal. He soon perceived his folly, however, for when,
pressed by hunger, he tried to partake of the food placed before him,
it was suddenly converted into gold, and when he would have quenched
his thirst, the water was changed into a golden stream. Famished in
the midst of plenty, Midas prayed the god to withdraw the fatal gift.
Bacchus kindly consented, and ordered him to bathe in the river
Pac´tolus. Midas obeyed, but the virtue which left his body was
communicated to the waters of the stream, which was famous ever after
for its golden sands.

_Ques._ Who was Phæton?

_Ans._ He was the son of Phœbus and Clym´ene. At the earnest
solicitation of his mother, he repaired to the palace of the Sun for
the purpose of having his parentage publicly acknowledged. The youth
was kindly received, and Apollo swore by the Styx to grant him any
favor he should ask. Phæton immediately prayed that he might be
allowed to drive, for one day only, the chariot of the Sun. Apollo
tried to dissuade him from his foolish wish, but in vain. The rash
youth was not able to control the fiery horses of the Sun; they
departed from their usual track, and heaven and earth were threatened
with one universal conflagration. Jupiter perceived the danger, and
struck Phæton with a thunderbolt. His body was hurled into the river
Po, where it was found and buried by the nymphs of the place. As his
sisters were weeping around his tomb, they were changed by Jupiter
into poplars.

_Ques._ Who was Daphne?

_Ans._ A nymph beloved by Apollo: she was changed into a laurel while
she was flying from the pursuit of the god.

_Ques._ What things were especially sacred to Apollo?

_Ans._ Among plants, the laurel; among animals, the wolf; and among
birds, the hawk, the crow, and the swan were sacred to this god.




CHAPTER IV.


MARS--ARES.

_Ques._ Who was Mars?

_Ans._ He was the son of Jupiter and Juno, and was worshipped as the
god of war.

_Ques._ How was he represented?

_Ans._ As a warrior in splendid armor, standing in a chariot driven by
Bello´na, a distracted woman, who holds a torch in her hand. Mars is
fierce in aspect and brandishes a spear. Sometimes Discord is
represented going before him in tattered garments, while Anger and
Clamor follow in his train. Fear and Terror are the horses which draw
the chariot.

_Ques._ What animals were sacred to Mars?

_Ans._ The dog, on account of its sagacity in the pursuit of prey; the
horse, for its uses in war; the wolf, for its rapacity and cruelty;
the raven, because it follows armies, watching for the carcasses of
the slain; and the cock, as an emblem of the vigilance which guards
against surprise.

_Ques._ What other names had Mars?

_Ans._ He was called Quiri´nus when he was quiet, Gradi´vus when he
was raging; therefore the Romans built him two temples, one to Mars
Quiri´nus within the walls, that he might keep the city in peace; and
one without, to Mars Gradi´vus, that he might defend them against
their enemies. Among the Romans, priests called Salii attended to the
sacrifices of Mars, and on festival days went about the city dancing
with their shields. Their name comes from the Latin word "to dance,"
and was considered appropriate, because Mars is inconstant in his
temper, and inclines now to this side, now to that, in time of war.
Except the story of his attachment to Venus, the poets relate but
little of Mars.

Bellona, the goddess of war, was, according to some, the sister of
Mars. She is generally represented as above, but some poets have
described her as rushing through the ranks of war, waving a flaming
torch, and exciting the combatants by her cries. The temple of Bellona
at Rome, was without the city, near the Carmental gate. Here the
Senate gave audience to such ambassadors as they were not willing to
admit within the walls. A pillar stood before the temple, over which
the herald cast a spear when he proclaimed war. The priests of
Bellona, when officiating, held naked swords, with which they gashed
their arms and shoulders, making libations of their own blood, to the
terrible goddess.




CHAPTER V.


MERCURY--HERMES.

_Ques._ Who was Mercury?

_Ans._ He was the son of Jupiter and Ma´ia, the daughter of Atlas. On
his mother's account, sacrifices were generally offered to him during
the month of May.

_Ques._ How is Mercury represented?

_Ans._ As a young man of cheerful countenance, having wings fixed to
his helmet and his sandals, and carrying a rod in his hand, which is
also winged, and entwined with serpents.

_Ques._ How are these different equipments named?

_Ans._ The rod was called Cadu´ceus, and possessed a wonderful faculty
for quieting all disputes. His helmet was called Pet´asus, and his
winged sandals Talaria.

_Ques._ What were the offices of Mercury?

_Ans._ They were various; his most important function was to carry the
commands of Jupiter. Mercury is commonly called the messenger of the
gods. He also swept the room where the gods supped, and made their
beds.

_Ques._ What else is said of Mercury?

_Ans._ He was the inventor of letters, and excelled in eloquence. The
Greeks worshipped him as the patron of orators, under the name of
Hermes. Mercury was also the inventor of weights and measures, and the
patron of commerce.

_Ques._ Were all his talents equally honorable?

_Ans._ No; he was most skillful in the art of thieving. On the very
day of his birth, he stole some cattle from King Admetus, although
Apollo was keeping them; and while that god was bending his bow
against him, he contrived to steal his quiver. While yet an infant, he
stole the tools of Vulcan, the girdle of Venus, and the sceptre of
Jupiter. He intended also to steal Jove's thunderbolts, but was
fearful they would burn him. Mercury was, therefore, the patron of
thieves.

_Ques._ Relate the history of Io and Argus.

_Ans._ Io, the daughter of In´achus, was beloved by Jupiter. He strove
to hide her from the anger of Juno by transforming her into a cow. The
goddess suspected the deceit, and begged the beautiful heifer as a
gift. Jupiter was afraid to refuse, and Juno consigned the unhappy Io
to the guardianship of Argus. Escape seemed hopeless, as Argus had a
hundred eyes, of which he closed only two in sleep, while the others
watched. Jupiter commanded Mercury to slay Argus and deliver Io. To
effect this, it was necessary to set all his eyes to sleep. Mercury
disguised himself as a shepherd, entered into conversation with
Argus, and at length played so sweetly on his pipe, that, one by one,
the keeper's hundred eyes were closed. The god then drew his falchion,
and cut off the head of Argus with a single blow. Juno was grieved for
her servant, and placed his eyes in her peacock's tail. Io, still
persecuted by Juno, wandered over the earth, and at length arrived,
faint and weary, on the banks of the Nile. There she prayed Jupiter
either to restore her to her original form, or to terminate her
misfortunes by death. Juno was touched with compassion, and allowed
Jupiter to grant her request. Io was restored to human form, and
married to Osiris, king of Egypt; she was afterwards worshipped in
that country under the name of Isis.

The statues of Mercury were simply wooden posts, surmounted by a rude
head with a pointed beard. They were set up in the fields, and at all
cross roads. The Greeks had pillars of stone, which they called Hermæ,
but the head which surmounted them was not always that of Mercury.
These pillars were sometimes placed, by the Athenians, at the
entrances of their houses as a protection against thieves. On one
occasion, all the Hermæ in Athens were mutilated in the same night.
Alcibiades was accused of this sacrilege, and was obliged to take
refuge in Cergos from the indignation of the people.




CHAPTER VI.


BACCHUS--DIONYSUS.

_Ques._ Who was Bacchus?

_Ans._ He was the son of Jupiter and Sem´ele and was worshipped as the
god of wine.

_Ques._ How is he represented?

_Ans._ As a young man, crowned with ivy and grape leaves; he sits in a
chariot, drawn sometimes by panthers and lynxes, and sometimes by
tigers and lions. He carries in his hand a thyrsus--that is, a staff
encircled by ivy and grape leaves; a troop of demons and drunken
satyrs follow him.

_Ques._ What was the story of Sem´ele?

_Ans._ She was destroyed by the jealousy of Juno. This goddess visited
Sem´ele in the shape of an old woman, and persuaded her to ask Jupiter
to visit her with all the glory which encompassed him in heaven. All
happened as Juno desired, and Sem´ele was consumed by the lightnings
which surrounded Jupiter. Bacchus did not share his mother's fate, but
was conveyed to Naxos, where he was educated by some nymphs.

_Ques._ How did Bacchus reward their care?

_Ans._ He transformed them into the stars known as the Hyades.

_Ques._ Who aided the nymphs in their care of Bacchus?

_Ans._ An old man named Silenus. He was considered a demi-god.

_Ques._ How is Silenus represented?

_Ans._ He seems to be the personification of drunkenness; he is
sometimes represented as seated intoxicated on a cask of wine, his
head crowned with grape leaves, and his face stained with the lees of
wine; sometimes as mounted on an ass, and following the car of
Bacchus.

_Ques._ What were the first exploits of Bacchus?

_Ans._ He distinguished himself in the combats between the gods and
giants, taking the form of a lion to strike terror into the latter.

_Ques._ What other actions are attributed to him?

_Ans._ He taught men how to plant the vine and till the ground. He is
said to have subdued India, and many other countries of the East.

_Ques._ How was he worshipped?

_Ans._ The goat and the hog were offered to him in sacrifice; and the
ivy, the fir, the bindweed, the fig and the vine were consecrated to
him.

_Ques._ What feasts were held in his honor?

_Ans._ The feasts of Bacchus were various. The Bacchanalia or Orgia
were the most celebrated. They were at first participated in by women
only but afterwards men were admitted to join in these rites. The
women were called Bacchantes, and ran about with their hair
dishevelled, shouting and singing in a distracted manner. The Roman
Senate at length abolished this festival.

_Ques._ Relate the story of Pentheus?

_Ans._ Pentheus was king of Thebes. He not only refused to acknowledge
the divinity of Bacchus, but endeavored to prevent the celebration of
his orgies. Having presumed to intrude on the revels of the
Bacchantes, they were seized by a sort of madness, and rushing upon
the unhappy man, tore him to pieces. The mother of Pentheus, and her
sisters, were the leaders in this act, which was considered to have
been performed under a divine impulse.

_Ques._ What was the punishment inflicted on Alcitho´e and her
sisters?

_Ans._ These were Theban maidens who ridiculed the orgies of Bacchus.
During the celebration of these rites, they remained at home, plying
the distaff and the spindle, and singing over their tasks. For this,
Alcitho´e and her sisters were transformed by the power of Bacchus
into bats; and the spindle and yarn with which they worked were
changed to ivy.

_Ques._ Relate the transformation of mariners into dolphins?

_Ans._ A ship touched at Chios for a supply of fresh water. The
sailors who went on shore, found near the spring a boy of uncommon
grace and beauty. They bore him to the ship, still heavy with sleep
and wine, and declared their intention of selling him at the next
port. Acœ´tes, their captain, tried to dissuade them from the crime,
the more so, as he perceived that there was something more than mortal
about the captive youth. In the meantime Bacchus, for it was he,
awaking from his slumber, begged the sailors to land him at Naxos.
This the captain promised, but when they had set sail, the mariners
took possession of the ship, and steered in another direction. The god
now revealed himself. The sails and cordage suddenly appeared hung
with grapes and ivy; spotted panthers lay at his feet, and when the
terrified sailors tried to leap overboard, they were suddenly changed
into dolphins. The captain was spared, and landed with Bacchus on the
shores of Chios.

_Ques._ What is the origin of the history of Bacchus?

_Ans._ He was probably some prince who taught the people to till the
ground, and cultivate the vine. They disgraced his memory in after
times by the drunken revels they held in his honor.




CHAPTER VII.

Celestial Goddesses.


JUNO--HERA.

_Ques._ Who was Juno?

_Ans._ She was the daughter of Saturn and Ops, and was both sister and
wife of Jupiter.

_Ques._ How is she generally represented?

_Ans._ As seated in a golden chariot drawn by peacocks. She holds a
sceptre in her hand, and is crowned with roses and lilies. Iris was
the messenger of Juno, as Mercury was of Jupiter.

_Ques._ How is Iris represented?

_Ans._ With wings, because of her swiftness, and sometimes also as
riding on a rainbow.

_Ques._ How did Iris differ from Mercury?

_Ans._ Mercury was often employed in messages of peace; but Iris was
frequently sent to promote strife and dissension.

_Ques._ What children had Juno?

_Ans._ Vulcan, Mars and Hebe. Hebe was called the goddess of youth, on
account of her extraordinary beauty, and Jupiter made her his
cup-bearer. She offended him by an unlucky fall, and Ganymede was
appointed in her place.

_Ques._ What were Juno's faults?

_Ans._ She was very jealous, and took the most cruel revenge on the
mortal woman whom Jupiter loved. She transformed Callista and her son
Arcas into bears, and was extremely displeased when Jupiter placed
them among the constellations.

The goddess carried her complaint to Ocean´us, bidding him to observe,
when the shades of night should darken the world, how her rival was
exalted. The god of Ocean was moved, and promised Juno that he would
never receive either Callista or her offspring in his watery domain.
Hence it is, that the Greater and the Lesser Bear continually circle
around the pole, and never sink, like the other stars, beneath the
waves of Ocean. In the fables of Bacchus and Hercules, Juno displays
the same character, extending to these heroes the enmity she bore
their mortal mothers.

Juno was chiefly honored at Argos, Samos and Platæa. The victims
offered to her were kine, ewe lambs, and sows. The cow was consecrated
to her, and at Argos the priestess of Juno always rode in a chariot
drawn by oxen. The sacred plants of the goddess were, the willow,
pomegranate, the dittany and the lily. The peacock was chosen as the
bird of Juno, because it was supposed by its cry to indicate a change
of weather.




CHAPTER VIII.


MINERVA--PALLAS ATHENA.

_Ques._ Who was Minerva?

_Ans._ She was the goddess of wisdom and of war. She had no mother,
but sprang full armed from the head of Jupiter.

_Ques._ How is Minerva represented?

_Ans._ As clothed in complete armor. She has a golden helmet on her
head, holds a lance in her right hand, and her left rests upon a
shield to which is affixed the head of Medusa. The cock and the owl
are also represented on the shield.

_Ques._ Why was Minerva said to have sprung full armed from the head
of Jupiter?

_Ans._ The poets signify by this, that wisdom comes direct from the
deity.

_Ques._ Why is Minerva sometimes crowned with olive?

_Ans._ Because the olive is the emblem of peace, and war should only
be made that a secure peace may follow; also because she bestowed the
olive on men.

_Ques._ On what occasion did Minerva give the olive to men?

_Ans._ When Cecrops built a new city, Neptune and Minerva contended
about its name; and it was resolved that whichever of the two deities
should confer the most useful gift on man, might give a name to the
city. Neptune struck the ground with his trident, and a horse
appeared; but Minerva caused an olive to spring out of the earth. The
latter was judged the more useful gift; and Minerva named the city,
calling it Athe´na or Athens, after her own name in Greek.

_Ques._ What was the Palladium?

_Ans._ When the Trojans were building the temple and castle of Minerva
in Troy, a statue of the goddess fell from heaven into the castle,
which was still unroofed. The oracle of Apollo declared that Troy
would be safe so long as this statue, called Palladium, from Pallas, a
name of Minerva, remained within the walls. When the Greeks besieged
Troy, they found that all their efforts to take the city were of no
avail; they determined, therefore, to steal the Palladium. Ulysses and
Diome´des crept into the city through the common sewers, and brought
away the image. Troy was soon afterwards taken and destroyed. Minerva
was a virgin, and was the patroness of modest and virtuous women.

_Ques._ Did Minerva excel only in the art of war?

_Ans._ No; she invented the distaff and spindle, and excelled in
every branch of female industry. The fate of Arach´ne shows how much
she prized her reputation for skill in embroidery.

_Ques._ Who was Arach´ne?

_Ans._ She was a maiden of Lydia, who had the presumption to challenge
Minerva to a trial of skill in weaving. The goddess wrought into her
work the most beautiful designs, but it would seem that Arach´ne's
performance surpassed hers: for Minerva, seeing it, was fired with
envy, and struck the unhappy maiden on the face with her shuttle.
Arach´ne could not endure this insult, and hung herself from a beam.
Minerva immediately changed her into a spider, and permitted her to
live only that she might weave unceasingly.

_Ques._ Why was the owl chosen as the bird of Minerva?

_Ans._ Because this bird sees in the dark; and wisdom distinguishes
what is hidden from common eyes.

_Ques._ What is the story of Medu´sa's head?

_Ans._ Medusa was one of three sisters, the daughters of Phorcus.
These maidens were called Gorgons, and were all immortal, except
Medu´sa. The latter was at one period distinguished for her personal
beauty, and particularly for her flowing hair; but having offended
Minerva, that goddess changed her locks into serpents, and rendered
her appearance so frightful that all who beheld her were changed to
stone. The hero Perseus undertook an expedition against the Gorgons,
and as he saw the whole country around covered with figures of men and
animals changed into stone by the sight of the monster, he was obliged
to use great precaution to avoid the same misfortune. He looked,
therefore, not at Medu´sa, but at her reflection in his polished
shield, and when he perceived that she was asleep, Minerva guiding his
sword, he struck off her head. Mercury had lent Perseus his wings, and
as he flew over the Lybian desert bearing Medu´sa's head, the blood
fell upon the burning sands, and produced the serpents which have ever
since infested that region. From the blood of Medu´sa, also, when her
head was cut off, sprang the famous winged horse called Peg´asus. This
wonderful steed flew to Mount Helicon, the residence of the Muses,
where, by striking the earth with his foot, he produced the fountain
Hippocre´ne. All who drank of its waters were inspired by the Muses
with a poetic spirit. Perseus went through many other adventures in
which Medu´sa's head did him good service, by changing his enemies
into stone. He afterwards gave the head to Minerva, who fixed it on
her shield.




CHAPTER IX.


VENUS--APHRODITE.

_Ques._ Who was Venus?

_Ans._ She was the goddess of love and beauty. She sprang from the
froth of the sea; for this reason the Greeks called her Aphrodi´te,
from Aphros, meaning foam. As soon as she was born, she was placed
like a pearl in a shell instead of a cradle, and the god Zephyrus (the
west wind) wafted her to the shores of Cyprus.

_Ques._ By whom was she educated?

_Ans._ She was educated and adorned by the Horæ or Hours, who carried
her to heaven as soon she became of age. All the gods were astonished
at the beauty of Venus, and many demanded her in marriage; but Jupiter
betrothed her to Vulcan, an ugly and deformed divinity.

_Ques._ How is Venus represented?

_Ans._ Sometimes as a young virgin rising from the sea, or riding on
the waves in a shell, while Cupids, Nereids and Dolphins are sporting
around her--again, she is pictured as traversing the heavens in an
ivory chariot drawn by doves. She wears a wonderful girdle called the
Cestus, her doves are harnessed with golden chains, and Cupids flutter
around her on silken wings. Venus is always crowned with roses.

_Ques._ What was there remarkable in the Cestus of Venus?

_Ans._ It had the property of conferring grace, beauty, and
irresistible attractions on the wearer.

_Ques._ Where had Venus temples?

_Ans._ In many places. The most celebrated were at Paphos, Cytherea,
Idalia and Cnidos.

_Ques._ Who were the companions of Venus?

_Ans._ The Graces were her attendants, and she was generally
accompanied by her son Cupid, who was the god of love.

_Ques._ How is Cupid represented?

_Ans._ As a beautiful boy with wings, carrying a bow and arrows; he
has sometimes a band over his eyes to show that love is blind.

_Ques._ What do you say of the festivals of Venus?

_Ans._ They were various, and accompanied by much that was disgraceful
and immoral. The swan, the dove, and the sparrow were sacred to this
goddess; and among plants, the rose, the myrtle and the apple.
Incense, fruits and flowers were the ordinary sacrifices laid on her
altars but birds were sometimes offered.

_Ques._ What remarkable temple was raised to Venus in Rome?

_Ans._ There was a temple dedicated to Venus Calva, or the Bald;
because when the Gauls besieged Rome, the inhabitants made ropes for
their military engines with the long hair of the Roman women.

_Ques._ On what occasion was the prize of beauty adjudged to Venus?

_Ans._ All the gods and goddesses had been invited to the marriage of
Peleus and Thetis, Discordia, or Discord being the only one excluded.
This goddess was determined to revenge the slight; she entered
secretly, when all were assembled, and threw among them a golden apple
on which was written: "For the fairest." A violent quarrel immediately
arose between the goddesses, for each believed herself to be the most
beautiful. Juno, Minerva, and Venus disputed so eagerly, that Jupiter
himself was not able to bring them to an agreement. He resolved,
therefore, to refer the matter to the decision of Paris, who was then
feeding his sheep on Mount Ida. This prince was the son of Priam, king
of Troy. An oracle had foretold before his birth that he was destined
to cause the destruction of his native city. He was, therefore,
exposed on Mount Ida, where he was found and cared for by some
shepherds. After he had grown up, he acquired a great reputation for
the prudence with which he settled the most difficult disputes; hence
the difference between the goddesses was referred to his decision.
When they appeared before him, they began to court his favor with
promises. Juno offered him great power; Minerva, wisdom; but Venus
promised to give him for a wife the most beautiful woman in the world.
Paris then pronounced Venus the fairest. He was soon after
acknowledged by his father, King Priam; and Venus fulfilled her
engagement by aiding him to carry off Helen, the beautiful wife of
Menela´us, king of Sparta. This gave rise to the total destruction of
Troy; and the prediction of the oracle with regard to Paris was
accomplished.

_Ques._ What was the story of Hippo´menes and Atalanta?

_Ans._ Atalanta was the daughter of King Cœneus, and was equally
renowned for her beauty and her swiftness in running. As an oracle had
declared that marriage would be fatal to her, she freed herself from
the importunity of her suitors by a singular expedient. She caused it
to be proclaimed that any one who sought her hand should contend with
her in running, with the understanding that she would marry him who
should excel her in the race, but that those who were beaten should
suffer death. Hard as were these conditions, many suitors presented
themselves, but they were all unsuccessful, and were put to death
without mercy. Hippo´menes determined to undertake the race, but
first, he had recourse to Venus. This goddess gave him three golden
apples gathered in the garden of the Hesper´ides, and directed him as
to their use. When Hippo´menes saw that Atalanta was going to
outstrip him in the race, he threw down a golden apple; the princess
paused to admire and take up the glittering fruit, while Hippo´menes
passed on. A second and a third time did he try the same expedient,
and with such success that he reached the goal and won his bride.
Hippo´menes was ungrateful to Venus, who revenged herself by changing
him into a lion, and the beautiful Atalanta into a lioness.

_Ques._ Who was Adonis?

_Ans._ He was a beautiful youth, the son of Cin´yras, king of Cyprus,
and was beloved by Venus. He was killed by a wild boar, while hunting
with that goddess. Venus grieved much for her favorite. To commemorate
his cruel fate she caused the flower anemone to spring from his blood.

According to the poets, the rose was formerly white. When Venus was
hastening to the assistance of Adonis, her foot was wounded by a
thorn, and some drops of blood fell upon that flower, which then
assumed its present crimson hue.

_Ques._ Who were the Graces?

_Ans._ They were inferior goddesses, who presided over the banquet,
the dance and all social enjoyments and elegant arts.

_Ques._ How many were there?

_Ans._ They were three in number. Their names were Euphro´syne,
Agla´ia and Thalia. They are represented as beautiful young women,
standing in graceful attitudes with their hands joined.




CHAPTER X.


LATONA--LETO.

_Ques._ Who was Latona?

_Ans._ She was the daughter of Phœbe and Cœus the Titan. When she
was driven from heaven by the jealousy of Juno, she found an asylum in
the island of Delos, where she gave birth to Apollo and Diana. Terra
(the earth) had promised Juno to give no shelter to her rival, but the
island of Delos formerly floated in the sea, and was at that time
hidden under the waters. Neptune, pitying the forlorn state of Latona,
caused it to emerge from the sea, when it became fixed and immovable
for her use.

_Ques._ Relate the transformation of Lycian peasants into frogs.

_Ans._ Latona, while wandering with her babes in the country of Lycia,
in Asia, arrived, exhausted by heat and fatigue, on the borders of a
clear pool. She was about to quench her thirst in the cool waters,
when some clowns rudely hindered her. She begged them to have
compassion, and not deny her so small a refreshment; but they mocked
her prayers, and when she tried to approach they waded into the pool,
and, stirring up the mud, defiled the waters so that it became unfit
to drink. The goddess was so much incensed, that she changed the cruel
rustics into frogs, and condemned them to dwell forever in the muddy
pool.

The punishment of Niobe will be related in another place. The
sufferings of the giant Tityus in hell, were also the penalty of an
insult offered to this goddess.

The Greeks personified Night, under the name of Latona; hence she was
said to have been the first wife of Jupiter, the mother of Apollo and
Diana, (the sun and moon) and the nurse of the earth and stars. The
Egyptians had the same allegory, with a little variation, as,
according to them, she was grandmother and nurse of Horus and
Bu´bastis, their Apollo and Diana.

This goddess is generally represented on ancient monuments, as a large
and beautiful woman, wearing a veil. In paintings, the veil is always
black; in cutting gems, artists sometimes availed themselves of a dark
colored vein in the stone, to produce the same effect, and represent
the shades of night. The veil is sometimes studded with stars.




CHAPTER XI.


AURORA--EOS.

_Ques._ Who was Aurora?

_Ans._ She was the goddess of the morning and sister of the sun and
moon. She is represented as seated in a golden chariot drawn by
milk-white horses; her countenance is brilliant, and her fingers are
red like roses.

_Ques._ What did this represent?

_Ans._ The beauty of the morning heavens.

_Ques._ Relate the story of Ceph´alus and Procris.

_Ans._ Ceph´alus, a beautiful youth, was beloved by Aurora, who
carried him with her to heaven; but he regarded the goddess with
indifference, and insisted on returning to his young wife Procris.
Aurora allowed him to depart, but prevailed on him to visit his house
in disguise, that he might judge of the constancy of his bride.
Ceph´alus found his wife lamenting his absence and refusing all
consolation, but when she discovered her husband in the supposed
stranger, she was so indignant at his suspicion that she fled from him
and joined the attendants of Diana. She was afterwards reconciled to
Ceph´alus, and gave him two presents which she had received from
Diana. These were, a dog that was always sure of its prey, and an
arrow which never missed its aim, and returned immediately to the hand
of the owner. Ceph´alus was extremely fond of hunting, and when
fatigued, he often rested in the shade and invited the presence of
"Aura," or the refreshing breeze. This word was mistaken for the name
of a nymph by some persons who carried the tale to Procris. Being
jealous in her turn, she determined to watch, and discover her rival.
When Ceph´alus returned from hunting, Procris concealed herself in the
grove; she started upon hearing the name Aura, and caused a rustling
among the leaves. Ceph´alus immediately threw his unerring dart, which
returned to his hand stained with the blood of his beloved wife. He
hastened to the spot, but it was too late, and Procris expired in his
arms, acknowledging she had fallen a victim to her own groundless
jealousy.

_Ques._ To whom was Aurora married?

_Ans._ She chose for her husband Titho´nus, the son of Laom´edon, king
of Troy. This prince was endowed with wonderful beauty; but when
Aurora begged of Jove that he might be exempted from death, she forgot
to ask at the same time for the bloom of immortal youth. When
Titho´nus became old and decrepit, Aurora still watched over him with
the tenderest care, "giving him ambrosial food and fair garments."
When Titho´nus could no longer move his aged limbs, and his feeble
voice was scarcely heard, the goddess was moved with compassion, and
changed him into a grasshopper.

_Ques._ Who was Memnon?

_Ans._ He was king of the Ethiopians, and son of Titho´nus and Aurora.
When Troy was besieged, Memnon came with an army to aid the kindred of
his father. In the first engagements he slew Antil´ochus, the son of
Nestor, and threw the whole army of the Greeks into disorder.
Achil´les, however, appeared on the field, and changed the fortune of
the day. The Trojans were routed in their turn, and Memnon fell by the
hand of the Grecian hero. Aurora watched the combat from the heavens,
and when she saw Memnon fall she directed the winds to convey his body
to the banks of the river Æse´pus in Paphlagonia. Here they raised his
tomb in a sacred grove, and his obsequies were celebrated with solemn
pomp. The sparks, as they rose from the funeral pyre, were changed
into birds, which divided into two flocks, and fought together until
they fell into the flames and were consumed. According to the poets,
Aurora was never consoled for the loss of her son; she mourns
unceasingly, and the drops which sparkle in the morning on the grass
and flowers are the tears which the goddess continues to shed during
the long hours of night. Ancient history mentions many persons of the
name of Memnon, particularly a general who distinguished himself in
Persia against Alexander the Great. The Memnon of fable was in all
probability an Egyptian, and not an Ethiopian king. His statue is
still an object of curiosity to travellers.

_Ques._ Where is this statue, and for what is it remarkable?

_Ans._ It is one of two colossal figures which are directly opposite
the great temple of Luxor. They are called by the Arabs, Shama and
Dama. The statue of Memnon is the more northerly of the two, and was
formerly celebrated for its vocal powers.

It is commonly asserted by ancient writers that when the first rays of
the rising sun fell upon this statue, it acknowledged the presence of
Aurora, and uttered a sound like the sudden breaking of a harp-string.
By some, it was compared to a blow struck on hollow brass.

_Ques._ Was there any foundation for such a belief?

_Ans._ It appeared quite certain that the sounds of which we have
spoken, were really heard from this statue at sunrise; the only
question is as to the means by which they were produced. The Colossus,
although in a sitting posture, measures fifty-two feet in height, and
the throne on which it rests is thirty feet long and eighteen broad.
These dimensions were sufficient to admit of any internal machinery
that might be required to produce the mysterious sounds. Such was the
supposition of the Persian king Cambyses, who had the statue cleft
asunder from the head to the middle of the body, but without
discovering anything. Humboldt conjectured that the sound might be
attributed to the nature of the stone, or to the action of the sun's
rays upon the air confined in the cavities of the statue. A much more
reasonable solution of the mystery has been furnished by Mr.
Wilkinson, an intelligent English traveller. He discovered in the lap
of the statue a stone, which, on being struck, emits a metallic sound.
There is a hollow space hewn in the block behind this stone,
sufficiently large to admit of a person lying within it, entirely
concealed from observation. Mr. Wilkinson tried the experiment, and
was convinced that he had discovered the secret of this famous statue.

The face of the Memnon, like that of the Sphinx, has been mutilated by
the Arabs; the positions of the figures which are yet uninjured show
that the whole must have presented a beautiful and imposing
appearance. The base of the throne is covered with ancient
inscriptions in Greek and Latin, commemorating the visits of different
illustrious persons, and testifying that they had heard the mysterious
voice of Memnon.




CHAPTER XII.

Terrestrial Gods.


SATURN.

_Ques._ Who was Saturn?

_Ans._ He was the son of Cœlum and Terra. He was married to Ops, or
Rhea, and was the father of Jupiter, Neptune and Pluto. As we have
already learned, Saturn devoured the rest of his male children.

_Ques._ How is he represented?

_Ans._ Saturn is represented as an old man armed with a scythe, which
signifies that time mows down everything in its course; and he holds
in his hands an infant which he is about to devour, because time
destroys all that it brings forth.

_Ques._ How did Saturn lose his kingdom?

_Ans._ He was deposed by Jupiter, and was obliged to take refuge in
Italy, where he taught the people the arts of civilized life. Janus,
king of Italy, made Saturn partner of his kingdom, and that part of
the country was called Latium, from a Latin word which meant to hide;
it was sometimes also called Saturnia. Saturn's government was so
wise and beneficial that his reign was called the Golden Age. The
poets tell us that all men then lived on a perfect equality, property
was held in common, and the earth brought forth its fruits without
labor.

_Ques._ What sacrifices were offered to Saturn?

_Ans._ He was worshipped with human sacrifices, which seems strange
when we consider that he was so mild a king. The planet Saturn was
supposed by the ancients to exercise a malignant influence.

_Ques._ What were the Saturnalia?

_Ans._ They were solemnities instituted by Tullus Hostilius, king of
Rome. In early times the festival lasted one day, but after Julius
Cæsar, it was prolonged to three, four, or five days.

_Ques._ How were these days observed?

_Ans._ They were a season of general rejoicing; the Senate did not
sit, schools gave holidays, and friends sent presents to one another.
It was unlawful to proclaim war or execute criminals during this
festival. Servants might, at this time, say what they pleased to their
masters, who could not take offence; also, in memory of the freedom
and equality enjoyed in Saturn's reign, they sat at table while their
masters served, and reproved the latter freely if they were guilty of
any awkwardness. Lastly, servants and common people were allowed to
wear purple cloaks, a distinction reserved at other times to the
patricians. The Saturnalia is probably represented in some degree by
the modern Carnival. Saturn is thought by some persons to have been
the same as Noah.


JANUS.

_Ques._ Who was Janus?

_Ans._ He was an ancient Italian deity, of whose origin very
contradictory accounts are given. He was supposed to have reigned in
Italy in the time of Saturn, and to have associated that god with him
in the kingdom. He was generally represented with two faces, and was
called hence, Janus Bifrons. He had many temples in Rome. The gates of
the chief temple, that of Janus Quiri´nus, were always open in time of
war, and closed when the Romans were at peace. It is a remarkable
circumstance that the gates of Janus were closed but three times in
seven hundred years. They were shut for the first time in the reign of
Numa; again, after the first Punic war; and Augustus closed the temple
the third time when he had given peace to the world. This occurred
just before the coming of our Lord. The first month of the year is
named from Janus.




CHAPTER XIII.


VULCAN--HAPHÆSTUS.

_Ques._ Who was Vulcan?

_Ans._ He was the son of Jupiter and Juno, but was cast down from
heaven on account of his deformed appearance. He landed in Lemnos, but
broke his leg in the fall, and remained lame ever afterwards.

_Ques._ How was Vulcan represented?

_Ans._ As a smith standing by an anvil with tools in his hand.

_Ques._ What was his occupation?

_Ans._ He had a blacksmith shop in Lemnos, where he manufactured
Jupiter's thunderbolts, and the arms of the other gods. Vulcan was the
god of fire, and the patron of blacksmiths and armorers.

_Ques._ What were the most celebrated works of Vulcan?

_Ans._ The armor of Achil´les and of Æne´as, the beautiful necklace of
Hermi´one, the crown of Ariadne, and the brazen palace of the sun. The
shield of Achil´les was enamelled with metals of various colors, and
embossed with beautiful historical designs.

_Ques._ To whom was Vulcan married?

_Ans._ Vulcan was married to Venus, but that goddess behaved
treacherously towards him and attached herself to Mars.

_Ques._ Who were the servants of Vulcan?

_Ans._ The attendants of Vulcan were called Cyclops, because they had
each one eye in the middle of the forehead; they were the offspring of
Neptune and Amphitri´te.

_Ques._ How was Vulcan worshipped?

_Ans._ The Romans celebrated feasts in his honor called Vulcania. At
these they sacrificed animals by throwing them into the fire to be
burned to death. The Athenians also kept feasts of Vulcan, and there
was in Sicily, upon Mount Etna, a famous temple dedicated to him.

_Ques._ What was peculiar about this temple?

_Ans._ The approach to it was guarded by dogs, whose scent was so keen
that they could discover whether the persons coming to the temple were
virtuous or wicked. To the servants of Vulcan might be added Cacus,
who stole the oxen of Hercules; and the robber Cæ´culus, from whom the
noble Roman family of the Cæcilii derived their name. He was the
founder of the city of Præneste. One fable is, that certain shepherds
found Cæ´culus, when an infant, lying unhurt in a glowing fire, from
which circumstance he was supposed to be the son of Vulcan. The
shepherd, Polyphemus, resembled the Cyclops, and was, like them, a
son of Neptune. The monster devoured several of the companions of
Ulysses, but the hero, having made him drunk with wine, put out his
single eye with a firebrand and escaped. He embarked in haste, pursued
by the monster; his companions shouted defiance as they weighed
anchor, and the blind Cyclops, directed by the sound of their voices,
hurled a rock into the sea, by which their vessel was almost swamped.
Warned by this danger, they rowed silently until they reached the open
sea. Some writers have imagined that the Cyclops were a race of
miners, who, descending into the deep recesses of the earth, and
coming forth again, had a lamp attached to their foreheads, to give
them light. This, at a distance, would appear like a large, flaming
eye, and might give rise to the fable of one-eyed monsters. This
explanation is, however, far fetched and improbable.

_Ques._ Can you name any works of Vulcan, beside those already
mentioned?

_Ans._ Yes, he made for Alcinoûs, king of the Phæacians, gold and
silver dogs which guarded his house. To Minos, king of Crete, he gave
the brazen man Talus, who passed around the island three times every
day, to guard it from invasion. For himself, Vulcan formed golden
handmaidens, whom he endowed with reason and speech.




CHAPTER XIV.


ÆOLUS.

_Ques._ Who was Æ´olus?

_Ans._ He was the god of the winds; he could imprison them in a dark
cave, or, by setting them free, create tempests.

_Ques._ What was the origin of this fable?

_Ans._ It is believed that Æ´olus was a skillful astronomer who dwelt
in a volcanic island. By noticing the clouds of smoke, and how they
rose, he was enabled to foretell storms a long time before they
happened; hence the ignorant believed that he could bring high winds
and tempests whenever he pleased.


MOMUS.

_Ques._ Who was Momus?

_Ans._ He was the son of Night and Sleep; the name Momus signifies a
jester. His occupation was to criticise the other gods, and censure
their actions.

_Ques._ Give an example?

_Ans._ Neptune, Vulcan, and Minerva contended for the prize of skill;
Neptune made a bull, Minerva a house, and Vulcan a man. Momus was
called upon to decide their merits, but he blamed them all. He said
that Neptune was imprudent in not placing the bull's horns in his
forehead, before his eyes, that he might give a stronger and surer
blow. He found fault with Minerva's house, because it was immovable
and could not be carried away if it were placed among bad neighbors.
He said that Vulcan was the worst of all, because he did not put a
window in the man's breast so that his thoughts might be seen. No god
could escape the censure of Momus. When he could find nothing to
criticise in the person of Venus, he complained of the noise made by
her golden sandals. Momus was at length driven from Olympus.




CHAPTER XV.

Terrestrial Goddesses.


VESTA--HESTIA.

_Ques._ Who was Vesta?

_Ans._ She was the daughter of Saturn and Ops or Rhea, and was,
therefore, the sister of Jupiter. She was considered the guardian of
homes and firesides, and was a household divinity. Statues of Vesta
were placed by the Romans at the entrance of their houses; hence the
word vestibule, which we still use.

_Ques._ How is Vesta usually represented?

_Ans._ As seated on the ground, and leaning upon a drum, while various
domestic animals are grouped about her.

_Ques._ What was the character of this goddess?

_Ans._ She was esteemed very holy, and was the patroness of household
virtues. When Jupiter asked her to choose whatever gift she would,
Vesta desired that she might remain always a virgin, and receive the
first oblations in all sacrifices. Fire was the emblem of this
goddess, and in her temple, at Rome, a sacred fire was suspended in
the air, and watched by the Vestal Virgins. If this fire chanced to be
extinguished, all public and private business was suspended until the
accident had been expiated.

_Ques._ What laws existed with regard to the Vestal Virgins?

_Ans._ The penalties for neglect of their duties were severe. If the
sacred fire was extinguished through their negligence, they were
sometimes cruelly punished, and if any Virgin infringed the rule which
forbade her to marry, she was buried alive; being shut up in a vault
underground, with a lamp, and a little bread, wine, water and oil. The
sacred fire of Vesta was watched by these priestesses for nearly
eleven centuries. We are told that during this period, twenty Vestals
were condemned to death. Of these, seven were permitted to take their
own lives, thirteen suffered the terrible punishment we have
described. The last execution of this kind took place in the reign of
the emperor Domitian.

_Ques._ What were the privileges of the Vestal Virgins?

_Ans._ In recompense for these severe laws, the Vestals were treated
with extraordinary respect. They had the most honorable seats at games
and festivals, and even the consuls and magistrates gave them
precedence; their testimony was taken in trials without any form of
oath, and if they happened to meet a criminal going to execution, he
was immediately pardoned. Public documents of great importance were
generally entrusted to their care.

A striking instance of the respect felt for these Virgins, is related
by a Roman historian. Appius Claudius Audax, a consul who had rendered
himself obnoxious to the people, was attacked in the midst of a
triumphal procession by the plebeian tribunes, who endeavored to pull
him from his chariot. His daughter, who was a Vestal Virgin, ascended
the triumphal car, and took her place by her father's side. The tumult
immediately subsided, and the procession proceeded quietly to the
capital.

_Ques._ How many Vestal Virgins were there?

_Ans._ The number has been variously stated. Some authors mention six,
others seven, as the number actually in office. They were chosen
between the ages of six and ten; for ten years they were employed in
learning their duty; they remained in office for ten, and ten other
years were employed in instructing the novices. If there were seven
Vestals always in office, the entire number must have been twenty-one.
The thirty years being ended, the Vestals returned to their families.
The law then permitted them to marry, but it was considered
discreditable to do so.




CHAPTER XVI.


CYBELE.

_Ques._ Who was Cyb´ele?

_Ans._ This goddess, sometimes called by the Greeks, Rhea, and by the
Latins, Ops, is considered to be a personification of the earth. She
is goddess, not of cities only, but of all things which the earth
contains. She was the daughter of Cœlum, and the wife of Saturn.

_Ques._ How was Cyb´ele represented?

_Ans._ Generally as riding in a chariot, drawn by lions. She wears a
turreted crown, and is clothed in a many-colored mantle, on which are
represented the figures of various animals. In her right hand she
holds a sceptre, and in her left, a key. This last emblem seems to
signify that the earth locks up her treasures in the winter season.
Cyb´ele is always represented with the dignified and matronly air
which distinguishes Juno and Ceres.

_Ques._ How was she worshipped?

_Ans._ Sacrifices were first offered to this goddess in Phrygia and
Lydia. Her temples were generally built on the summits of mountains;
that on Mount Dindymus near Pessi´nus, in Galatia, was particularly
celebrated. Her statue in this temple was simply a large aerolite
which had fallen in the vicinity, and was regarded by the people as
the heaven-sent image of their great goddess. At the close of the
second Punic war, the Romans, directed, it is said, by the Sibylline
books, sent an embassy to Attalus, king of Pergamus, requesting that
he would permit the so-called image to be removed to Rome. The monarch
consented, and the sacred stone was carried in triumph to the Italian
capital. There it was placed in a stately temple built for the
purpose, and a solemn festival, called Megalesia, was celebrated
annually, in honor of Cyb´ele. During these solemnities, priests
called Galli and Corybantes ran about like madmen, with cries and
howlings, making, at the same time, a terrific noise with the clashing
of cymbals, the sound of pipes and other instruments. In their frenzy,
they cut their flesh with knives, and performed many other
extravagances, but the people regarded them with reverence, as they
were believed, while in this state, to possess the gift of prophecy.

The divinity worshipped by the Roman women under the name of Bona Dea,
or Good Goddess, is believed to be the same as Cyb´ele.

Ancient writers relate an extraordinary incident connected with the
arrival of the image of Cyb´ele in Rome. The ship which bore the
sacred stone was stranded on a shoal in the Tiber. Claudia, a Vestal
Virgin who was suspected of having violated her vow, attached her
girdle to the prow, and drew the ship safely into port. Her innocence
was established by this prodigy.




CHAPTER XVII.


CERES--DEMETER.

_Ques._ Who was Ceres?

_Ans._ She was the daughter of Saturn and Ops, and was worshipped as
the goddess of fruits and corn. It is supposed that she first invented
and taught the art of tilling the earth, and sowing wheat and other
grains, so that men ate wholesome bread, where before they had lived
on roots and acorns.

_Ques._ How is Ceres represented?

_Ans._ As a beautiful and majestic woman, with golden hair, and
crowned with ears of wheat; in her right hand she holds poppies and
ears of corn, and in her left, a flaming torch.

_Ques._ Explain these emblems.

_Ans._ The hair of Ceres is golden, to represent the color of ripe
corn; she holds a lighted torch, because when her daughter Proser´pine
was stolen by Pluto, Ceres kindled a torch from the flames of Mount
Etna, to light her on her search throughout the world. She holds a
poppy, because when she was so grieved that she could neither rest
nor sleep, Jupiter gave her a poppy to eat.

_Ques._ Relate the story of Proser´pine (Perse´phone).

_Ans._ None of the goddesses were willing to marry Pluto, or share his
gloomy kingdom. He determined, nevertheless, to obtain a wife, even if
he had to do so by violence. Proser´pine, the daughter of Jupiter and
Ceres, was gathering daffodils with her companions in the plains of
Enna, when Pluto suddenly appeared among them in a chariot drawn by
black horses. As the maidens fled in terror, he seized Proser´pine,
and striking the waters of the fountain Cy´ane with his trident, he
opened a passage, through which he descended with his prize. Ceres,
ignorant of what had occurred, wandered through the world in search of
her daughter. At length, arriving at the fountain of Cy´ane, she
perceived the girdle of Proser´pine still floating on its waters; and
the nymph Arethusa informed her of what had taken place. Ceres
repaired immediately to Olympus, where she made her complaint to
Jupiter, and demanded that Pluto should restore her daughter. Jupiter
promised to grant her request, in case Proser´pine should not have
tasted food in the infernal regions. Ceres descended thither, and
Proser´pine prepared joyfully to accompany her mother, when
Ascal´aphus reported that he had seen her eat some seeds of
pomegranate. The hopes of Ceres were thus destroyed, but Proser´pine
was so indignant at the treachery of Ascal´aphus, that she changed
him immediately into an owl. Jupiter endeavored to appease the
resentment of Ceres by permitting Proser´pine to divide the year,
spending six months with her mother on earth, the other six with Pluto
in the infernal regions.

_Ques._ What were the most famous solemnities instituted in honor of
Ceres?

_Ans._ The Eleusian or Eleusinian Mysteries. They were named from
Eleusis, a town in Greece where they were celebrated.

_Ques._ What rites were practiced during these mysteries?

_Ans._ We cannot tell with any certainty. The penalty of death was
decreed against any one who should betray the secret, or even witness
the ceremonies without having been regularly initiated. Disclosures
were made, however, which seem to prove that the person to be
initiated was first introduced into a dark subterranean cave, where he
was terrified with the most fearful sights and sounds. After this, if
his courage did not fail, he was suddenly introduced into a lovely
garden, and the ceremonies concluded with feasting and dancing.

_Ques._ Who were admitted to these rites?

_Ans._ Athenians only; but Hercules, to whom no one dared refuse
anything, was initiated, and after him, other distinguished foreigners
were admitted to what were called the Lesser Mysteries. The Athenians
were eager to be admitted to these rites, because they believed that
the souls of those who had not been initiated were left to wallow in
mud and filth in the lower regions.

_Ques._ What do the early Christian writers say of these mysteries?

_Ans._ They speak of them as being almost as immoral as the festivals
held in honor of Bacchus.

_Ques._ Who is said to have instituted them?

_Ans._ Triptol´emus, the foster-child of Ceres.

_Ques._ Relate the story of Triptol´emus.

_Ans._ When Ceres was seeking Proser´pine by sea and land, she was
kindly entertained by Celeus, king of Eleusis, in Attica. She rewarded
his hospitality by taking care of his young son, whom she nourished
during the day with celestial food; but in the night, she covered him
with fire. Under this extraordinary treatment, the infant, in a few
days, became a beautiful young man. His mother, Meganira, wondered at
this, and resolved to discover the cause. She watched Ceres at night,
and when she saw her covering Triptol´emus with living coals, she
cried out in terror, and rushed into the room to save him. Ceres
punished her curiosity with death, but she adopted Triptol´emus, and
sent him through the world to teach mankind the use of corn. He
executed the commands of Ceres, and wherever he went, instructed men
in sowing, reaping, and other arts of husbandry. Triptol´emus is
usually represented as a young man, seated in a splendid chariot
drawn by flying serpents.

_Ques._ What sacrifices were offered to Ceres?

_Ans._ Young heifers, swine and ears of corn, wine, milk and honey
were used in the libations.

_Ques._ What were the Ambarvalia?

_Ans._ They were feasts kept in the beginning of harvest, preparatory
to reaping. The animal to be offered in sacrifice, was led around the
fields, the husbandmen and country rustics following with shouts and
songs. Virgil says of these festivities:

    Let ev'ry swain adore her power divine,
    And milk and honey mix with sparkling wine;
    Let all the choir of clowns attend this show,
    In long procession, shouting as they go;
    Invoking her to bless their yearly stores,
    Inviting plenty to their crowded floors.
    Thus in the spring, and thus in summer's heat,
    Before the sickles touch the rip'ning wheat,
    On Ceres call; and let the lab'ring hind
    With oaken wreaths his hollow temples bind;
    On Ceres let him call, and Ceres praise,
    With uncouth dances, and with country-lays.

                                       GEORG. I.




CHAPTER XVIII.


THEMIS--ASTRÆA--NEMESIS.

_Ques._ Who was Themis?

_Ans._ She instructed both gods and men, and was generally considered
the goddess of law and justice. Her origin is uncertain; but she is
said to have been a Titaness.

_Ques._ Who was Astræ´a?

_Ans._ She was also goddess of justice; according to some, she was the
daughter of Jupiter and Themis. When the Titans took up arms against
Jupiter, Astræ´a descended to earth, and mingled with the human race.
This intercourse was uninterrupted during the Golden Age; in the
Silver Age, Astræ´a dwelt in the mountains, and descended only amid
the shades of evening, when she was unseen by men. When the Brazen Age
commenced, she fled altogether from the human race, being the last
among the Immortals to abandon the earth. Jupiter then changed her
into the constellation Virgo, one of the signs of the zodiac. This
constellation is represented by the figure of a woman holding scales
in one hand, and a sword in the other. The scales have been variously
explained, but they are generally supposed to be an emblem of justice.
According to some, Erigo´ne, a maiden who hung herself in despair, at
the death of her father, was changed into the constellation Virgo.

_Ques._ Who was Nem´esis?

_Ans._ She was the daughter of Night, and the goddess of just
vengeance. It was her office to follow and punish guilty men. She had
wings, but generally went on foot, which signifies that the punishment
of crime, although sure, is generally slow. An ancient poet says:

    "Vengeance divine to punish sin moves slow;
    The slower is its pace, the surer is its blow."

_Ques._ What do you say of the temple of Nem´esis at Rhamnus?

_Ans._ This temple was but a short distance from the plain of
Marathon. The Persians had brought with them a great block of Parian
marble for the trophy which they intended to erect in honor of their
expected victory. This marble fell into the hands of the Athenians,
and a sculptor, said by some to have been Phidias, afterwards carved
from it a beautiful statue of Nem´esis, which was placed in the temple
of Rhamnus. A fragment was found in the ruins of this edifice, which
is supposed to be the head of this statue; and has been presented as
such to the British Museum.




CHAPTER XIX.


THE MUSES.

_Ques._ Who were the Muses?

_Ans._ They were the daughters of Jupiter and Mnemo´syne, and were
supposed to preside over the liberal arts and sciences.

_Ques._ How many Muses were there?

_Ans._ They were nine in number, and each presided over some
particular department of literature, art or science. Their names were:

Calli´ope, who was the Muse of epic poetry, she holds in her hand a
roll of parchment, or a trumpet.

Clio presided over history. She holds a half opened scroll.

Melpo´mene was the Muse of tragedy. She leans on a club, and holds a
tragic mask.

Euter´pe was the patroness of music. She holds two flutes.

Er´ato inspired those who wrote of love. She plays on a nine-stringed
lyre.

Terpsich´ore presided over choral dance and song. She appears dancing,
and holds a seven-stringed lyre.

Ura´nia, the Muse of astronomy, holds a globe, and traces
mathematical figures with a wand.

Thalia, the Muse of comedy, holds in one hand a comic mask, in the
other a crooked staff.

Polyhym´nia presided over eloquence. She holds her fore-finger to her
lips, or carries a scroll.

The Muses are sometimes represented as crowned with palms, and seated
in the shade of an arbor, playing upon different instruments; or
again, as dancing in a circle with joined hands, while Apollo is
seated in their midst.

_Ques._ How have some writers accounted for the number of Muses?

_Ans._ They say that in ancient times there were but three Muses. The
citizens of Sicyon employed three sculptors to execute statues of
these goddesses, promising to choose from among the nine images, those
which they should consider the most beautiful. When the statues were
finished, they were found to be so skillfully wrought, that it was
impossible to make a choice. They were all placed in the temple, and
the poet Hesiod afterwards assigned them names and attributes.

_Ques._ What punishment did the Muses inflict on the nine daughters of
Pierus, king of Æmathia?

_Ans._ These maidens challenged the Muses to a contest in music; they
were defeated and transformed into magpies by the indignant goddesses.
Tham´yris, a musician of Thrace, was struck blind for the same
offence.




CHAPTER XX.

Gods of the Woods, and Rural Deities.


PAN.

_Ques._ Who was Pan?

_Ans._ He was a woodland deity, and was honored by the Romans as the
god of shepherds and the patron of fishing and fowling. The Latins
sometimes called him Incubus or the "Nightmare," and at Rome he was
worshipped as Lupercus, or Lynceus. His origin is uncertain, but he is
said by some authors to have been a son of Mercury and a nymph of
Arcadia.

_Ques._ How is Pan represented?

_Ans._ As half man, and half goat, having a human head ornamented with
horns, and a garland of pine: he holds in one hand a crooked staff,
and in the other a pipe of uneven reeds. The music which he made on
this rude instrument was so sweet as to cheer the gods.

_Ques._ What famous action is related of Pan?

_Ans._ When the Gauls, under their King Brennus, made an irruption
into Greece, and were about to plunder the temple of Apollo at Delphi,
Pan suddenly showed himself, and so terrified them that they fled in
disorder. Hence it comes that any sudden and unreasonable terror which
spreads through an assemblage of persons, particularly an army, is
called a panic.

_Ques._ What was the origin of Pan's reeds?

_Ans._ A beautiful nymph, named Syrinx, was so persecuted by this god,
that she prayed the water-nymphs to help her, and change her into
reeds, which they did. Pan saw the transformation, and was much
grieved. He took some of the reeds away for a remembrance. On applying
them to his lips, he found they produced the most melodious sounds, so
that he formed them into a rustic pipe. Milk and honey were offered to
Pan.


SATYRS AND FAUNS.

_Ques._ Who were these?

_Ans._ They were hideous monsters who dwelt in forests, and were, like
Pan, half man and half goat.


TERMINUS.

_Ques._ Who was Terminus?

_Ans._ He was the god of boundaries. His statue was only a square
stone, or a painted log of wood. It is probable that the Romans did
not suppose Terminus to be a person, but only used the name as another
term for justice, which forbids any one to trespass on another's
boundaries.

Landmarks and boundary stones were considered sacred by the Romans;
they were crowned with garlands on festivals, offerings were laid upon
them, and it was death for any one to remove one. When Constantine
embraced Christianity, and placed the cross on his standard, he
replaced these Terminal stones by the Christian emblem, and the custom
of erecting wayside crosses, which became afterwards almost universal,
is said to date from this epoch.

Terminus had a temple on the Tarpeian rock. It is said that when
Tarquin the Proud wished to build a temple to Jupiter on the spot, the
god of boundaries refused to give way.


VERTUMNUS.

_Ques._ Who was this deity?

_Ans._ He is generally reckoned as one of the rural divinities, and
was worshipped as such by the ancient Sabines. The name comes from the
Latin word verto, (to turn or change,) and was bestowed upon him in
allusion to his power of taking any form he pleased. Vertumnus
presided over the seasons; he was the husband of Pomona. Statues of
this god were erected in every town of Italy. His festival called
Vertumnalia, was kept in October.




CHAPTER XXI.

Goddesses of the Woods.


DIANA.

_Ques._ Who was Diana?

_Ans._ She was the daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and the twin-sister
of Apollo. This goddess had three names. On earth she was called
Diana, and was honored as the goddess of woods and hunting; in heaven
she was called Luna, and was identified with the moon, as her brother
Apollo was with the sun. In hell, she was called Hec´ate, and as
spirits were supposed to be subject to her, she was invoked under the
latter name in all magical incantations.

_Ques._ What were the habits of Diana?

_Ans._ She shunned the society of men, and frequented the woods,
attended by a train of virgins who had resolved, like her, never to
marry.

_Ques._ Who were the attendants of Diana?

_Ans._ Sometimes the Ocean´ides or daughters of Ocean´us; sometimes
the woodland nymphs. Diana often led a chorus of the Muses and Graces,
and joined them in singing the praises of her mother Latona.

_Ques._ How is Diana represented?

_Ans._ As a very stately and beautiful woman, dressed in the garb of a
huntress; she holds a bow in her hand, and a quiver of arrows is hung
across her shoulders. Her feet are covered with buskins, and a bright
silver crescent glitters on her forehead. Sometimes she is represented
as seated in a silver chariot drawn by hounds.

_Ques._ Who was Chi´one?

_Ans._ She was a nymph beloved by Apollo. She spoke scornfully of the
beauty of Diana, and the goddess, in revenge, pierced her tongue with
an arrow.

_Ques._ Relate the story of Ni´obe.

_Ans._ She was the daughter of Tan´talus, and the wife of Amphi´on,
king of Thebes. She was enriched with all the gifts of nature and
fortune, and being made insolent by prosperity, she insulted Latona,
and refused to offer incense at her shrine. Ni´obe had seven beautiful
sons, and as many lovely daughters, and had boasted of their number as
rendering her superior to Latona. The indignant goddess called upon
Apollo and Diana to revenge the insult offered to their mother, and
humble the haughty Ni´obe. This they effected by slaying, in one day,
all the children of the unhappy queen. Her sons expired by the arrows
of Apollo, and her daughters by those of Diana. Amphi´on killed
himself in despair, and the wretched Ni´obe, widowed and childless,
wept without ceasing until the pitying gods changed her into stone.
This story has furnished the subject of a very beautiful group of
statuary, in which Ni´obe is represented as vainly endeavoring to
shelter, beneath her mantle, the youngest and last of her children.

_Ques._ Where was the most celebrated temple of Diana?

_Ans._ At Ephesus in Asia Minor; it was so beautiful that it was
counted among the seven wonders of the world. Two hundred and twenty
years were spent in the building, although an incredible number of
workmen were employed. The entire length of the temple was 425 feet,
and the breadth 220; the whole was supported by 127 superb columns,
each the gift of a king. The statue of the goddess was of ebony, and
the most skillful painters and sculptors were employed in the
decorations of the edifice.

A man named Erostratus, who was anxious to make himself famous, by
whatever means, set fire to this magnificent building. This event took
place on the very day on which Alexander the Great was born.

The temple was but partially destroyed, and was soon afterwards
restored to its former splendor. The inhabitants of Ephesus seem to
have been particularly attached to the worship of Diana. We read in
the Acts of the Apostles that when they began to make converts in that
city, the people were very indignant; in their zeal for their goddess
they ran about the streets for the space of about two hours, crying,
"Great is Diana of the Ephesians!"

This temple was despoiled by Nero, who removed many costly offerings
and images, together with a large quantity of silver and gold. It was
afterwards plundered by the Goths in the reign of Gallienus; and the
materials of the building have been since used in the construction of
other edifices. The great dome of Santa Sophia, in Constantinople,
rests upon pillars of green jasper which were removed from the temple
of Diana by order of Justinian.

Two pillars of the great church of Pisa were also taken from this
temple, which has been so completely destroyed that the exact site is
not known.


NYMPHS.

_Ques._ Who were the Nymphs?

_Ans._ They were graceful young women who attended on Diana and the
greater goddesses. Some, also, had charge of certain fountains and
rivers, and were called Na´iades; the nymphs of Ocean were Nere´ides
and Ocean´ides. The Ore´ades were mountain nymphs, and others presided
over groves and even single trees.

_Ques._ What were the woodland nymphs called?

_Ans._ Those who watched over the forests, and always lived among the
trees, were called Dry´ades, from a Greek word which means an oak; the
Hamadry´ades were so called because they were attached, each to some
particular oak. The Hamadryad was born with the tree, flourished and
died with it. This belief lingered for a long time amid the German
forests, as also the superstition about water spirits.

_Ques._ What was the story of Arethusa?

_Ans._ This nymph was the daughter of Ocean´us, and an attendant of
Diana. She was admired by the god of the river Alphe´us, but refused
to listen to his addresses. As she fled from his presence, he pursued.
The terrified nymph had sped through all Arcadia; the shades of
evening were gathering, and Alphe´us pressed close upon her fainting
steps. In this extremity, Arethusa prayed to Diana for relief, and was
immediately dissolved into a fountain. Alphe´us resumed his watery
form, and sought to mingle his current with hers, but Diana opened for
her a passage under the sea, and she rose in the island of Ortygia, in
Sicily, still followed by the stream of the Alphe´us. In proof of this
fable, and of the Grecian origin of this famous fount, it was asserted
that a cup which fell into the river Alphe´us in Greece, rose in the
fountain of Arethusa, and that its clear waters were reddened with the
blood of the victims slain at the Olympic games.

_Ques._ Who was Echo?

_Ans._ Echo was a nymph, the daughter of Air and Tellus; she was one
of Juno's attendants, but offended that goddess by her talkativeness.
She was so far deprived of speech, that she could only repeat the
last words of every sentence which she heard. Echo loved the youth
Narcissus, and seeing that he despised her affection, she pined away
till nothing remained of her but her voice and bones. The latter were
changed into stones, but the voice is still heard among rocks and in
solitary places, repeating always the last words that are spoken.

_Ques._ What was the fate of Narcissus?

_Ans._ One legend is that he saw his image reflected in a fountain,
and, not perceiving that it was but his own shadow, gazed at it, lost
in admiration, until he was changed into the flower that bears his
name. According to another version, Narcissus had a twin-sister who
resembled him closely in form and feature, and was his constant
companion. This sister died young, and Narcissus, deeply lamenting her
death, used to go to a neighboring fountain, and try to recall the
image of his sister by gazing at his own reflection in the waters.

_Ques._ Were there many rural divinities?

_Ans._ Yes, a great number; but only a few were well known. Among
those we may mention Pomona, the goddess of orchards, and Flora, the
goddess of flowers. Pales was the goddess of shepherds and pastures.
The Romans celebrated feasts, called Pallia, in her honor. They
offered milk, and cakes of millet, that she might drive away the
wolves, and prevent diseases among the cattle.




CHAPTER XXII.

Gods of the Sea.


NEPTUNE--POSEIDON.

_Ques._ Who was Neptune?

_Ans._ He was the son of Saturn and Ops, and was worshipped as the god
of the sea, and the father of rivers and fountains.

_Ques._ How is he represented?

_Ans._ As standing upright in a chariot made of a sea-shell; for a
sceptre, he holds a trident, that is, a fork with three barbed tines;
he is arrayed in a blue mantle, and is generally accompanied by his
queen Amphitri´te. Neptune's chariot is drawn by sea-horses, and his
attendants, who swim on either side, are human only to the waist, the
body terminating like that of a fish. Whenever Neptune's chariot moved
upon the waters, the sea grew calm, and tempests were appeased.

_Ques._ What were the offices of Neptune?

_Ans._ He conducted ships safely to port, and presided over
horse-races.

_Ques._ Why was he supposed to preside over horses?

_Ans._ In memory of his contest with Minerva, when he produced a
horse by striking on the ground with his trident. Neptune was obliged
by Jupiter to aid Apollo in building the walls of Troy.

_Ques._ How was Neptune worshipped?

_Ans._ Neptune had an altar in the Circus at Rome where sacrifices
were offered, and plays were acted, representing the carrying off of
the Sabine women. The solemn games in honor of this god were called
Consualia, and were celebrated in the month of March. While these
lasted, horses were released from work, and mules were adorned with
garlands.

_Ques._ Who were the most remarkable of Neptune's children?

_Ans._ Triton, and Phorcus or Proteus.

_Ques._ What is told of Phorcus?

_Ans._ He was vanquished by Atlas, and drowned in the sea; after which
the people worshipped him as a god. There was another Phorcus who had
three daughters, concerning whom a remarkable circumstance is related.
The sisters had but one eye for their common use; each one wore it in
turn, in the middle of her forehead. They were the guardians of the
Gorgons, of whom Medusa was one. The hero Perseus, when about to
attack Medusa, visited them, and, watching his opportunity, while one
of the sisters was handing the eye to the other, he snatched it from
her, and left all three in darkness.

_Ques._ For what was Proteus remarkable?

_Ans._ For his power of transforming himself instantaneously into any
shape he wished.

_Ques._ Who was Triton?

_Ans._ He was the son of Neptune and Amphitri´te, and was his father's
companion and trumpeter. The upper half of his body was like that of a
man, but below the waist he resembled a fish; his tail was cleft and
crooked, and his hair resembled wild parsley.

_Ques._ What other sea-monsters were celebrated?

_Ans._ The Sirens, also Scylla, and Charybdis.

_Ques._ Who were the Sirens?

_Ans._ They were monsters who had the faces of women, but the bodies
of flying-fish; they dwelt near the promontory of Peloris, or in
islands called Sirenusæ, south of Italy. By the magical sweetness of
their singing, they allured all who sailed by those coasts; and after
they had lulled them into a trance, drowned them in the sea.

_Ques._ What was there remarkable in the songs of the Sirens?

_Ans._ They blended the notes of different musical instruments with
their voices, and adapted the style and matter of their songs to the
inclination of their hearers. They had bold and stirring strains to
entice the ambitious, softer melodies for the lovers of pleasure, and
with still different notes, they drew on the covetous to their
destruction.

_Ques._ Did any escape who passed those coasts?

_Ans._ History mentions only two; Ulys´ses and Or´pheus. The first was
warned against the danger by the enchantress Circe; he therefore
stopped the ears of his companions with wax, and had himself firmly
bound to the mast of the ship, by which means he passed the fatal
coasts in safety. Or´pheus overcame them in their own art; for he sang
the praises of the gods, accompanying himself upon his lyre, and made
such divine melody that the music of the Sirens attracted no
attention. The Fates had decreed that the Sirens should live until
some one who passed by, had listened to their songs unmoved. When they
saw themselves overcome by Or´pheus, they knew that their hour had
come, and flung themselves headlong into the sea, where they were
transformed into rocks.

_Ques._ Who was Circe?

_Ans._ She was a skillful enchantress. Having poisoned her husband,
the king of the Sarmatians, she was obliged to fly into Italy, where
she fixed her dwelling on the promontory Circæum. She presented to all
travellers an enchanted cup; and after they had drunk, transformed
them into wolves, swine or other animals. Ulys´ses escaped by throwing
an herb into the cup, which rendered it powerless; he then rushed upon
the sorceress with his sword, and forced her to restore his companions
whom she had transformed. After this, Circe entertained Ulys´ses in a
friendly manner.

_Ques._ What did the poets endeavor to teach by the fables of the
Sirens' song, and the cup of Circe?

_Ans._ They wished to signify by the singing of the Sirens, the
allurements of vice, and the dangers of listening to its seductions;
by the story of Circe, they showed that when men drink of the cup of
sensual pleasure, they become soon degraded to the level of the
beasts.

_Ques._ Who was Scylla?

_Ans._ The fable relates that she was the daughter of Phorcus, and
that she was transformed by the jealousy of Circe, into a frightful
monster. Scylla was so much grieved by this transformation, that she
cast herself into the sea, where she was changed into a rock, made
famous by the many shipwrecks that occurred upon it. Over against this
rock is the whirlpool of Charybdis, about which the poets relate a
similar fable. They say that Charybdis was a very ravenous woman, who
stole Hercules's oxen. For this theft, Jupiter struck her dead with a
thunderbolt, and changed her into the whirlpool which bears her name.
The ancients placed Scylla and Charybdis in the straits of Messina. It
was considered a great feat to steer successfully between them.

_Ques._ Who was Melicertes?

_Ans._ He was the son of Athamas, king of Thebes, and of Ino, the
daughter of Cadmus and Hermi´one. Ino offended Juno, and the goddess,
in revenge, deprived Athamas of reason. The king, in his frenzy, took
the queen and her children for wild beasts, and pursued them through
the palace. He killed his son Learchus by dashing him against a wall,
but Ino escaped, and threw herself into the sea with Melicertes in her
arms. At the intercession of Venus, Neptune endowed them both with
immortality. Ino became a sea-goddess under the name of Leucothea,
while Melicertes was worshipped as Palæmon. He was supposed to have
power in saving vessels from shipwreck, and was, therefore, invoked by
mariners. The Romans called him Portunus, and honored him as the god
of shores and harbors.

_Ques._ Who was Thetis?

_Ans._ She was a sea-goddess, the daughter of Nereus and Doris, and
sister of the Nere´ides. She was endowed with such beauty that Jupiter
himself sought her in marriage; but Prometheus, the Titan, prophesied
that Thetis would give birth to a son who should be greater than his
father. Jupiter thereupon desisted from his suit, and Thetis was
betrothed to Peleus, king of Thessaly. Their marriage was celebrated
with much pomp, all the deities of Olympus honoring the nuptial rites
with their presence. Achilles, the son of Thetis, fulfilled the
Titan's prophecy by his heroic exploits.




CHAPTER XXIII.

Infernal Deities.


PLUTO--HADES.

_Ques._ Who was Pluto?

_Ans._ He was the son of Saturn and Ops, and the brother of Jupiter
and Neptune. In the division of his father's kingdom, the infernal
regions were allotted to him, and he is therefore called the king of
Hell.

_Ques._ How is Pluto represented?

_Ans._ He is seated on a throne in the midst of clouds and darkness;
he wears a crown of ebony, and holds a key in his hand instead of a
sceptre.

_Ques._ What does the key signify?

_Ans._ It seems to imply, that when once the dead are received into
Pluto's kingdom, the gates are locked upon them and there is no
escape.

_Ques._ What does Pluto's name signify?

_Ans._ The Greek name Pluto, and the Latin word Dis, signify wealth,
because this god is supposed to control the hidden treasures of the
earth. The thunder that happens in the night time is attributed to
Pluto, and he is often styled the Infernal Jupiter.

_Ques._ Was Pluto the same as Plutus?

_Ans._ No; Plutus was the god of riches, and was supposed to be the
son of Jason and Ceres. He is described as being blind and lame,
injudicious, and timorous.

_Ques._ What does this mean?

_Ans._ Plutus is blind and injudicious, because he passes over the
virtuous to heap riches on the wicked; he is lame because riches come
slowly, and timorous, because the rich watch their treasures with
great fear and anxiety.

_Ques._ To whom was Pluto married?

_Ans._ As we have learned before, Pluto was married to Proser´pine,
daughter of Ceres.


HELL.

_Ques._ How was Hell described?

_Ans._ The entrance to the infernal regions was by a wide, dark cave,
through which the departed souls were obliged to pass; they next came
to a gloomy grove, and a black lake, called Avernus; this was overhung
with such poisonous vapors that no birds could fly over it. The
ferryman, Charon, was always waiting on the shore to carry the dead to
the other side of the lake. The ghosts of those who had not been
buried with funeral rites, were obliged to wander for a hundred years
by the gloomy waters of Avernus, before Charon could carry them to the
other side. This superstition made the ancients very careful about
burying their dead.

_Ques._ What do you say of the rivers of Hell?

_Ans._ The Styx was the most remarkable. When any of the gods swore by
the Styx, the oath was sacred; if any deity was guilty of breaking
such an oath, he was deprived of nectar, and excluded from the table
of the gods for a year and nine days. Lethe was also a river of Hell;
the name means oblivion; it is so called, because when the dead drank
of its waters, they forgot all that had passed upon this earth.

_Ques._ What monster kept the gate of Pluto's palace?

_Ans._ Cer´berus; a three-headed dog, whose body was clothed with
snakes instead of hair.


FATES--FURIES.

_Ques._ Who were the Fates?

_Ans._ They were three sisters, the daughters of Chaos, who were
appointed to watch over the thread of human life. Their names were,
Clotho, Lach´esis and At´ropos; Clotho drew the thread between her
fingers; Lach´esis turned the wheel, and, at the appointed moment,
At´ropos cut the thread with her scissors.

_Ques._ Who were the Furies?

_Ans._ They were three sisters, Alec´to, Tisi´phone, and Megæ´ra. They
are called by the poets the Daughters of Night; their office was to
torment the wicked during life and after death.

_Ques._ How were they represented?

_Ans._ As hideous women with terrible countenances; they had twining
serpents instead of hair, and carried snaky whips and lighted torches
in their hands. They were often called by the Greeks Eumen´ides.

_Ques._ Of what were the Furies an emblem?

_Ans._ Of the evil passions of men, and the remorse which torments the
wicked. When the ancients said of a man, that the Furies had taken up
their abode with him, they meant that the remembrance of his crimes
did not leave him any repose.


JUDGES OF THE DEAD.

Punishments inflicted on the Condemned.

_Ques._ Besides Pluto, who were appointed judges of the dead?

_Ans._ Minos, Rhadamanthus and Æ´acus. These were princes, who
governed so justly during life, that the fate of the dead was
entrusted to them.

_Ques._ What offices were assigned to each?

_Ans._ Rhadamanthus judged the Asiatics, Æ´acus the Europeans; and
when a very difficult case arose it was referred to Minos.

_Ques._ Who were the most famous among the condemned?

_Ans._ The giants whom Jupiter conquered. Typhon was the most
enormous; when he was overthrown, Jupiter was obliged to lay the
whole Island of Sicily upon him to keep him down. Briareus was
another giant, remarkable for having fifty heads and a hundred hands.
According to the ancient poets, he is imprisoned under Mount Etna, and
whenever he tries to move he causes terrible eruptions of the volcano.
Tityus was still more cruelly punished. He was chained to the ground
in the infernal regions, and such was his stature, that he covered
nine acres. A frightful vulture fed continually upon his liver, which
grew as fast as it was consumed, that his punishment might be eternal.

_Ques._ Who was Ixion?

_Ans._ He was the son of Phlegyas, or, according to some, of Mars. He
boasted falsely that he had gained the affections of Juno. For this
insolence Jupiter cast him down into hell, where he was fastened to a
wheel which revolved continually.

_Ques._ Who was Sis´yphus?

_Ans._ He was a famous robber who was slain by Theseus. In hell, he
was obliged to roll a huge stone up a steep mountain. When it touched
the top it rolled down again, so that he was tormented with unceasing
toil.

_Ques._ Who was Tan´talus?

_Ans._ He was the son of Jupiter. He invited the gods to a feast, at
which he served up the flesh of his son Pelops to try their divinity.
In hell he is tormented by continual hunger and thirst. He stands up
to his lips in a cool fountain, whose waters recede whenever he
attempts to drink. Branches laden with tempting fruit hang over him,
but they are carried out of reach by a sudden gust of wind whenever he
attempts to pluck them.

_Ques._ Who were the Beli´des?

_Ans._ They were fifty maidens, daughters of Dan´aus and
grand-daughter of King Belus, from whom they are called. They all
murdered their husbands on the wedding night, for which crime they are
obliged to draw water from a deep well until they have filled an
immense sieve. Their labor is therefore perpetual.

_Ques._ Who was Salmo´neus?

_Ans._ Salmo´neus was king of Elis, and was cast into hell for
imitating Jupiter's thunder.

_Ques._ What became of the souls of good men?

_Ans._ After being purified from whatever slight offences they had
committed in life, they were conducted to a place abounding in
delights, called Elysium. When they had passed many ages in this
blissful abode they returned to earth, but before doing so, they drank
of the river Lethe, that they might forget the happiness they had
enjoyed.




CHAPTER XXIV.


FABULOUS MONSTERS.

_Ques._ Were there any fabulous monsters besides those of Hell?

_Ans._ Yes, many; the Centaurs, who were half man and half horse; also
Geryon, who was king of the three Balearic Islands, now known as
Ivica, Minorca and Majorca. For this reason, he was said to have three
heads and three bodies, and passed into fable as a monster. He was
probably a wicked and cruel prince. There were also the Harpies, which
had the faces of women and the bodies of birds.

_Ques._ What was the Chimæra?

_Ans._ A fabulous monster, which vomited fire. It had the head and
breast of a lion, the body of a goat, and the tail of a dragon.

_Ques._ What was intended by this fable?

_Ans._ Poets thus described a volcano in Lycia, on the summit of which
were lions; in the middle was pasture-land frequented by goats; and
the lowest part was infested by serpents. Bellerophon made this
mountain inhabitable, and was therefore said to have killed the
Chimæra. At present anything which is quite imaginary is called a
Chimæra.

_Ques._ What was the Sphinx?

_Ans._ It was a monster with the head and shoulders of a woman, the
wings of a bird, and the paws of a lion. She infested the country
about Thebes, so that the people, in their distress, went to consult
the oracle of Apollo. An answer was given that no remedy could be
found until some one should solve the riddle that the Sphinx had
proposed, and which she had learned from the Muses. The question was
this: "What animal is that which goes on four feet in the morning, on
two at noon, and on three in the evening?" The Thebans often met to
try their skill, and when they had failed, the Sphinx carried off and
devoured one of their number. At length Hæmon, son of Creon, was
destroyed by the monster, and the king made a public proclamation,
that he would give the throne, with the hand of his sister Jocasta, to
that man who should solve the riddle. Œdipus, who was then at Thebes,
came forward and answered the Sphinx, that the animal was Man, because
when an infant he creeps on all fours; in manhood, he walks on two
feet, and when old uses a staff as a third foot. Upon hearing this
answer, the Sphinx dashed her head against a rock, and expired.

_Ques._ Why is the story of the Sphinx interesting?

_Ans._ Because there still remains in Egypt an enormous statue of the
monster, carved in solid rock. Formerly, little was visible save the
head and neck, but the sand which has been gathering around it for so
many centuries, is now cleared away. The body is one hundred and
twenty-five feet long; and the fore-paws extend about fifty feet more.
The face has been much disfigured by the arrows and lances of the
Arabs, who are taught by their religion to hold all images of men or
animals in detestation.

_Ques._ What was the Phœnix?

_Ans._ A fabulous bird of which there never existed more than one at
the same time. It excelled all other birds in beauty of plumage, and
fed only on frankincense and sweet gums. When the Phœnix had attained
the age of five hundred years, it built a funeral pile of odorous
wood, on which it was consumed. A new Phœnix also immediately arose
from the flames. The first care of the young bird was to collect the
ashes of its parent, which it carried, enclosed in myrrh, to the
temple of the Sun in Egypt.




CHAPTER XXV.

Household Divinities.


PENATES--LARES.

_Ques._ What were the Pena´tes?

_Ans._ This name was given to a certain class of household deities,
which were worshipped by the Romans in the penetralia, or innermost
part of their dwellings. The greater Pena´tes governed kingdoms and
provinces; others presided over cities; and the lesser Pena´tes
watched over particular houses and families.

_Ques._ What were the Lares?

_Ans._ They were, according to some, the children of Mercury and the
nymph Lara; they were domestic gods, and presided over houses, streets
and roads. They warded off danger from without, while the Pena´tes
watched over the interior of the dwelling. The spirits of ancestors
sometimes watched as Lares, over the fortunes of families. This idea
of the spirits of the deceased watching over their descendants, made
the Romans wish to bury the dead within, or very near their dwellings.
This custom was condemned by the laws of the Twelve Tables. Besides
the spirit which watched over the family, each individual was supposed
to have his Lar, or familiar genius, who watched over him from his
birth. In early times, children were sacrificed to the goddess Mania,
who was supposed by some to be the mother of the Lares. After the
expulsion of the Tarquins, Junius Brutus abolished this barbarous
rite, and substituted little balls of wool, and heads of garlic and
poppy, in place of the human heads which had been formerly offered.
The ordinary altar of the Lares was the domestic hearth; hogs, sheep
and steers were among the sacrifices offered to these divinities, but
the first fruits of the season were always laid upon the hearth. No
family repast was properly begun, unless some portion of the viands
had been first cast into the fire; in the more solemn form of
marriage, the bride always threw a piece of money on the hearth, to
the Lares of her family, and another on the cross roads, that they
might grant her free passage to her husband's house. The Roman boy, on
attaining the age of fifteen, put off his childish dress, and
consecrated the golden bulla, which he had worn around his neck from
infancy, to the domestic Lares.

The soldier whose term of service had expired dedicated his arms to
these powerful genii; while captives, and slaves restored to freedom,
hung up their fetters, in token of gratitude, by the altar of the
Lares.

_Ques._ How were the Lares represented?

_Ans._ Variously; sometimes as children, sometimes as young warriors,
but always accompanied by a dog.


Virtues Worshipped by the Ancients. Vices.

_Ques._ What Virtues were particularly honored as divinities?

_Ans._ The ancients not only worshipped the different Virtues, but the
abstract idea of virtue itself was personified as a goddess. The
Romans dedicated two temples, one to this divinity, and another,
adjoining, to Honor. As the temple of Honor could only be reached by
passing through that dedicated to Virtue, the votaries were reminded
that it was by walking in her paths, that true honor was to be
attained.

_Ques._ What were the emblems of Truth?

_Ans._ She was generally represented as a beautiful and modest virgin,
with garments as white as snow. She was the daughter of Time, or
Saturn, because Time always brings truth to light.

Fides, or Fidelity, had a temple near the Capitol, which was said to
have been founded by Numa Pompilius. The symbols of this goddess were,
a white dog, two hands joined, or sometimes two maidens with joined
hands.

_Ques._ What were the emblems of Peace?

_Ans._ Pax, or Peace, was represented as a matron holding ears of
corn, and crowned with olives and laurel. Her particular symbol was a
caduceus, a white staff anciently borne by ambassadors when sent to
treat of peace. A magnificent temple was dedicated to this goddess in
the Roman Forum.

Justice was worshipped by the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. Her
emblems have been described in the article on the goddess Astræa.

Hope had a temple at Rome in the herb market. It was destroyed by
lightning.

Misericordia, or Mercy, had an altar at Athens This was a public
sanctuary for the unfortunate, and it was unlawful to take any one
from it by force. This altar is said to have been erected by the
kindred of Hercules, after the death of that hero.

Pudicitia, or Modesty, had two temples, much frequented by the Roman
matrons. The second of these was founded under peculiar circumstances.

Virginia, the daughter of Aulus, a patrician of high rank, married
into a plebeian family. The noble ladies of Rome were so indignant at
this alliance, that they would not permit her to enter the temple of
Pudicitia, nor to offer sacrifice with them. She desired to repair
this public affront by some memorable action. For this purpose, she
built, in the Via Longa, a temple similar to that from which she had
been expelled, and dedicated it likewise to Pudicitia. Virginia then
assembled the plebeian matrons, and exhorted them to honor this Virtue
in such a manner, that however the patrician ladies should surpass
them in power or rank, they might still excel in modest behavior and
purity of life. The two temples were from that time distinguished as
Pudicitia Patricia, and Pudicitia Plebeia.

_Ques._ Was Fortune honored as a goddess?

_Ans._ Yes, the ancients worshipped under this name, a certain unseen
power which was supposed to exercise a supreme dominion over human
affairs. Fortune had many splendid temples in Italy. Servius Tullius
dedicated two at Rome; one to Bona Fortuna, the other to Fors Fortuna.
This capricious goddess was sometimes represented with her eyes
bandaged, her feet winged, and her right hand resting on a wheel. In
the temple of Fortune at Thebes, the goddess held Wealth, represented
as an infant, in her arms.

The goddess Salus, or Health, was much honored by the Romans. In
ancient times, certain days in the year were set apart for her
worship. Her emblems were a bowl and a serpent.

Liberty was honored as a divinity. Her emblem was the peculiar cap
with which we are familiar from the representations on our own coins.

_Ques._ Were not the Vices also honored by the ancients?

_Ans._ It is certain that both the Greeks and Romans erected temples
and altars to certain vices, but it does not appear that their
intention was to do them honor. In some instances, they strove to
propitiate the powers of evil, that they might abstain from doing them
harm. When they built a temple at Rome to Febris, or Fever, they
undoubtedly wished to appease the demon or malignant deity who was
supposed to send this calamity. The same superstition has been
remarked among the modern Hindoos, who are said to have dedicated
temples to thunder and lightning, earthquake, pestilence, etc. The
Vices were always represented in such a manner as to excite
abhorrence. We have an instance of this in the altar erected to
Calumny at Athens.

Apelles drew an allegorical picture, in which the odious features of
this Vice were strikingly portrayed. A man sits in a listening
attitude, beckoning Calumny to approach. Two counsellors, Ignorance
and Suspicion, stand near him. Calumny is beautiful in form and
feature, but has a malignant countenance, and flashing eyes. Envy goes
before, while Fraud and Conspiracy accompany her on either side.
Repentance follows with woful mien and torn garments. She looks behind
her, as if calling upon Truth, who is seen advancing slowly in the
distance.

Discord, Fraud, etc., were represented with appropriate symbols.




CHAPTER XXVI.

Demigods and Heroes.


_Ques._ Who were the Demigods?

_Ans._ They were brave men, who had rendered themselves famous in life
by illustrious actions. After their death, their countrymen believed
that they were admitted among the gods, and gave them divine honors.
The circumstance of a mortal taking his place among the gods, was
called an Apotheosis.

_Ques._ Who was the most famous of the Demigods?

_Ans._ Hercules, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena. Juno hated him on his
mother's account, and resolved upon his destruction. For this purpose
she sent two monstrous serpents to kill him as he was sleeping in his
cradle. The infant hero awoke, and seizing the serpents in his hands,
strangled them both. Juno was not discouraged, and when Hercules was
grown up, devised new means to destroy him. She persuaded Jupiter to
put Hercules under the authority of Eurys´theus, king of Mycenæ, who
imposed upon the hero twelve Labors, or tasks, of great danger and
difficulty. Hercules was in doubt as to whether he should submit to
this injustice, and consulted the oracle of Apollo at Delphi. The
oracle told him that he must obey Eurys´theus, which he accordingly
did. Hercules had been carefully instructed by the Centaur Chiron, and
he was now equipped for his labors by the liberality of the gods. He
received a sword from Mercury, a bow from Apollo, a golden breastplate
from Vulcan, horses from Neptune, and a robe from Minerva.

_Ques._ Relate the Twelve Labors of Hercules.

_Ans._ They are briefly as follows:

_First._ He killed a terrible lion which raged in the Ne´mean forest.
Hercules is usually represented as clothed in the skin of this animal,
and leaning on the club which was his ordinary weapon.

_Second._ He destroyed the Hydra, a serpent with fifty heads, which
lived in the marshes of Lerna, and ravaged the surrounding country.

Hercules noticed that where he cut off one of the heads of this
serpent, two immediately sprang up. He commanded an attendant to burn
the wound with a firebrand, and by this means he at length cut off the
last head.

_Third._ He captured the savage wild boar of Mount Erymanthus, in
Arcadia, and brought it bound to Eurys´theus. The tyrant was so
frightened at the sight of the animal, that he shut himself up in a
brazen apartment of his palace.

_Fourth._ He caught, after a chase which lasted an entire year, a
famous stag which was sacred to Diana. It had golden horns and brazen
feet.

_Fifth._ He killed, or drove away from Lake Stympha´lus, certain
voracious birds which fed on human flesh.

_Sixth._ He defeated the Amazons, and obtained as a spoil, the girdle
of their queen, Hippol´yte.

_Seventh._ Three thousand oxen had been kept thirty years in the
stables of Au´geas, which had never been cleaned during the entire
period. Hercules was required to perform this task, which he effected
by turning the course of a river through the stables.

_Eighth._ He tamed the wild bull of Crete, and brought him bound to
Eurys´theus.

_Ninth._ He overcame Diome´des, tyrant of Thrace, who fed his horses
with the flesh of his guests. Hercules caused him, in turn, to serve
as food to these same horses.

_Tenth._ He overcame Ger´yon, who had three heads and three bodies.
Hercules brought into Italy the oxen of this monster, which were
accustomed to feed on human flesh.

_Eleventh._ He killed the dragon that watched the golden apple in the
garden of the Hesper´ides, and bore away the precious fruit.

_Twelfth._ Hercules descended alive into the infernal regions, and
brought from thence the three-headed dog, Cerberus.

_Ques._ Did Hercules perform any other great actions?

_Ans._ A vast number of exploits are attributed to him. There is a
plain near Narbonne, in France, covered with stones. The ancients said
that Hercules was contending on this spot with two giants, when, his
arrows becoming exhausted, he prayed to Jupiter for aid. The god sent
down a shower of great stones, with which Hercules put the giants to
flight.

_Ques._ Relate the death of Hercules?

_Ans._ This hero had slain the Centaur Nessus to revenge an insult
offered to his wife, Deiani´ra. When the monster was dying, he gave
Deiani´ra a charmed philter, telling her that if Hercules ever gave
her cause to doubt his affection, she could secure his constancy by
making him wear a garment which had been sprinkled with this potion.
The credulous Deiani´ra accepted the philter, which was nothing else
but the venom of the hydra which had been infused into the Centaur's
blood; and it was not long before her jealousy led her to use it as
she had been directed. Hercules had plundered Œchalia, and carried
off, among other captives, the beautiful I´ole, daughter of the king
of that city. The hero, who wished to keep a festival, and to offer
sacrifice in honor of his victory, sent for a splendid robe befitting
the occasion. Deiani´ra's jealousy was excited against I´ole by the
reports of the messenger, and she sent her husband a tunic
impregnated with the venom of the hydra. The poison soon began to
work, and Hercules endeavored in vain to tear off the tunic, which
clung to his flesh and consumed even the marrow of his bones. In his
fury he caught the youth who had brought him the garment, by the foot,
and hurled him into the sea. He then fled in his agony to the summit
of Mount Œta, where he erected a funeral pyre with forest trees which
he tore up by the roots. On this he laid the skin of the Ne´mean lion
and his famous club, after which he ascended the pile and directed his
followers to set it on fire. All refused except Philocte´tes, who
pitied the sufferings of the dying hero, and obeyed his command. He
received the bow and arrows of Hercules as a reward for this service.
While the pyre was blazing, Jupiter sent a thunder-cloud, in which
Hercules was conveyed to Olympus. Here he was endowed with
immortality, and, according to some accounts, was reconciled with
Juno, who gave him her daughter Hebe in marriage.




CHAPTER XXVII.


JASON.

_Ques._ Who was Jason?

_Ans._ He was the son of Æson, king of Thessaly, and was celebrated on
account of his expedition in search of the Golden Fleece. He is also
known as the husband of the famous sorceress Mede´a.

_Ques._ What was the Golden Fleece?

_Ans._ Phryxus, son of Athamas, king of Thebes, received from his
mother a ram of a golden color, or, according to fable, with a fleece
of pure gold. Some time after, Phryxus and his sister Helle, to escape
from their step-mother Ino, attempted to cross the sea on this ram.
Helle became terrified, and was drowned in the straits which are
called from her, Hellespont. Phryxus arrived in safety at Colchis,
where he sacrificed the ram to Jupiter, who placed it among the signs
of the Zodiac. The fleece was hung in a grove sacred to Mars, where it
was guarded by bulls who breathed flame from their nostrils, and also
by a sleepless dragon. When Jason demanded his father's throne, his
uncle, who wished to continue in the government, persuaded him to
undertake an expedition for the recovery of the Golden Fleece. Jason,
with some brave companions, among whom were Hercules, Orpheus, Castor
and Pollux, went on board a ship called the Argo, from which
circumstance they were called Ar´gonauts. On arriving at Colchis, they
demanded the fleece, which the king, Æetes, promised to Jason on
condition that he would tame the wild bulls that guarded it, kill the
dragon, sow his teeth in the ground, and afterwards destroy the
soldiers who should spring from them. Jason accepted the conditions,
but would inevitably have perished, had not Mede´a, the king's
daughter, saved him by her magical arts. Jason obtained the fleece,
and fled by night from Colchis, carrying with him Mede´a, whom he
married, in fulfilment of the engagement which he had made.

_Ques._ What else is related of Mede´a?

_Ans._ She lived for some time happily with Jason, upon whom she
conferred an additional favor by restoring his aged and decrepit
father to the vigor and beauty of youth. Jason was ungrateful for
these benefits, and divorced Mede´a in order that he might marry
Creusa, the daughter of the king of Corinth.

_Ques._ What was Mede´a's revenge?

_Ans._ She murdered, in the sight of their father, the two children
whom she had borne to Jason, and consumed his palace and bride in a
conflagration raised by her art. As Jason was about to rush upon the
sorceress, she rose in the air in a flying chariot, and escaped to
Athens.


THESEUS.

_Ques._ Who was Theseus?

_Ans._ He was the son of Æ´geus, king of Athens. The Athenians were
obliged to send every year, as tribute to Crete, seven of the noblest
of their young men, and as many maidens. These were usually devoured
by a horrible monster called Minotaur, whom Minos, the king of Crete,
kept in the Labyrinth.

_Ques._ What was the Labyrinth?

_Ans._ It was a building with fifteen hundred rooms above ground, and
as many underneath. These apartments had so many doors, and were
connected by such intricate windings, that no one who was conducted a
certain distance into the edifice, could find the entrance again.

Theseus resolved to deliver the Athenians from this dreadful tribute,
and when the lots were about being cast for the fourth time, he
offered himself as one of the victims. Æ´geus strove to dissuade the
young hero, but in vain; and the tribute ship departed as usual under
black sails, which Theseus promised his father to change for white, in
case of his returning victorious.

When they arrived in Crete, the youths and maidens were exhibited
before King Minos; and Ariadne, the daughter of the king, was so much
struck by the courage and generosity of Theseus that she resolved to
save his life. For this purpose she gave him a ball of thread which
she directed him to attach to the entrance of the Labyrinth, and to
unwind as he proceeded. Theseus followed her instructions, and when he
came to where the Minotaur lay, he slew him, and found his way out by
the thread. The whole band then embarked for Athens.

_Ques._ What became of Ariadne?

_Ans._ She accompanied Theseus on his flight, but he was so ungrateful
as to abandon her on the island of Naxos, where she had fallen asleep
on the shore. Ariadne was afterwards married to Bacchus, who gave her
a crown composed of seven stars, the same which we admire in the
heavens as the Corona Borealis, or Northern Crown.

_Ques._ Of what negligence was Theseus guilty on his return to Athens?

_Ans._ He forgot his promise to his father with regard to the color of
his sails, and Æ´geus, who watched every day for his son's return,
saw the black sails in the distance. He believed from this that his
son was dead. In his despair he cast himself into the sea, which was
called Æge´an from his name. Theseus, after performing many other
wonderful actions, was banished from his country, and died in
obscurity.




CHAPTER XXVIII.


CASTOR AND POLLUX.

_Ques._ Who were Castor and Pollux?

_Ans._ They were twin brothers, the sons of Jupiter and Leda. Castor
was mortal like his mother, and when he died, Pollux grieved so much
that Jupiter permitted him to share his immortality with his brother.
It was arranged, therefore, that they should live every alternate day.

_Ques._ What Constellation is named from these brothers?

_Ans._ Gemini, or the Twins, the third sign of the Zodiac.


PROMETHEUS.

_Ques._ Who was Prometheus?

_Ans._ He was the son of Iapetus and Clymene, one of the Oceanides. He
formed a man out of clay, and gave it life by means of fire which he
stole from heaven.

_Ques._ What pretty fable is connected with this?

_Ans._ The poets tell us that Jupiter was so much displeased at the
theft, that he sent Pando´ra to Prometheus with a mysterious box, in
which were imprisoned all the evils which have since afflicted the
human race. Prometheus, suspecting something wrong, refused to touch
the box, upon which Pando´ra carried it to his brother Epimetheus. He
was less cautious, and opening the casket, set free the evils and
miseries which flew abroad through the world. When he saw what he had
done, he shut the box quickly, and prevented Hope, which was lying at
the bottom, from escaping also. This signifies that in the midst of
all human miseries, hope yet remains. The fable may have been derived
from some ancient tradition of Eve's curiosity, the fall of man, and
the hope left him amid so many misfortunes.

_Ques._ How was Prometheus punished?

_Ans._ Jupiter commanded Mercury to chain him to a rock on Mount
Caucasus; there an eagle fed on his liver, which was continually
renewed. Prometheus had, at one time, rendered Jupiter a service. The
king of the gods remembered this, and permitted that after a certain
time, Hercules should kill the eagle and set him free.




CHAPTER XXIX.


ORPHEUS.

_Ques._ Who was Orpheus?

_Ans._ He was the son of Apollo and the Muse Calliope. He played so
sweetly on the lyre accompanying the music with his voice, that he
tamed wild beasts, stayed the course of rivers, and drew the very
trees to gather around him as he sung. Orpheus married the beautiful
nymph Eury´dice; but on the very day of their nuptials she was stung
in the foot by a venomous serpent, and died, leaving Orpheus
overwhelmed with grief. Trusting to the magic of his lyre, he repaired
to the infernal regions. Here, "at the music of his golden shell," the
wheel of Ixion stopped; Tantalus forgot his thirst; the vulture ceased
to prey on the vitals of Tityus; Cerberus fawned at the musician's
feet, Proserpine was melted to tears, and the stern king of Hell was
moved to pity. Eury´dice was permitted to return to the upper world,
but only on condition that Orpheus did not look upon her before they
passed the confines of Pluto's kingdom. Orpheus forgot this in his
eagerness, and Eury´dice vanished from his sight. In his despair, he
now shunned all intercourse with mankind, and retired to woods and
solitary grottoes, endeavoring to forget his misfortune in the charms
of music. Orpheus was murdered during the orgies of Bacchus, by the
Thracian women, who were incensed at the coldness with which he had
treated them. After tearing him to pieces, they threw his head into
the river Hebrus, and were surprised to hear its murmur, "Eury´dice,
Eury´dice!" as it was carried down the stream to the Ægean Sea.
Bacchus was indignant at the cruelty of the Thracian women, and
changed them into trees.


ARION.

_Ques._ Who was Arion?

_Ans._ He was a famous musician who resided at the court of Periander,
king of Corinth. Impelled by a minstrel's love of wandering, he felt
desirous of visiting foreign countries, and departed from Corinth,
notwithstanding the earnest solicitations of Periander, who warned him
in vain of the danger to which he might be exposed. After some time
spent in Italy and Sicily, Arion desired to return to Corinth, and
embarked for this purpose at Sarentum, taking with him the riches that
he had amassed. During the voyage the mariners agreed among themselves
that they would murder Arion, and seize his treasures. The unhappy
musician offered in vain to abandon everything to their cupidity, if
they would but spare his life. The only favor he could obtain was the
choice of a grave. If he desired to be laid on shore under the green
turf, they would carry his lifeless body to land, and give it
sepulture. If he cared not for this, he must immediately cast himself
into the sea. Arion chose the latter alternative, but begged that he
might die as became a bard, after having played for the last time upon
his lyre, and sung his own death-song. The mariners granted his
request, not from pity, but they desired to hear so famous a minstrel;
music had charms even for their rude hearts.

Arion attired himself in festal robes; his mantle was of purple
fringed with gold, and his brow was adorned with a golden wreath. He
struck his lyre with the ivory wand, and sung a sweet and mournful
melody. Then, commending himself to the friendly Nereides, he sprang
into the sea. The waves closed above him, and the ship held on its
way. The inhabitants of the deep had gathered around as Arion sung,
and now, as he was struggling in the waves, a dolphin took him on his
back, and carried him safe to shore. Periander received his friend
with a cordial welcome, and listened with wonder to the story of his
escape. When the ship arrived, he ordered the mariners to be brought
before him, and inquired if they knew anything of Arion. They replied
confidently that they had left him well and happy at Sarentum. Upon
this Arion stepped forth, clothed in gold and purple, and holding his
lyre as when he had cast himself into the sea. Overcome with terror,
the guilty men confessed their crime, and suffered the punishment they
had so well deserved. This event was commemorated by a statue of brass
which was consecrated at Tænarus. It represented a man mounted on a
dolphin.


AMPHION.

_Ques._ Who was Amphi´on?

_Ans._ He was the son of Anti´ope and Jupiter. He obtained the kingdom
of Thebes, which he governed conjointly with his twin-brother Zethus.
Amphi´on cultivated the art of music; he was instructed by Mercury,
who gave him a golden lyre with which he is said to have built the
walls of Thebes, causing the stones to move and place themselves in
order, as he played. Amphi´on married Ni´obe, and became the father of
seven sons and as many daughters, who were all slain by Apollo and
Diana. He is said to have killed himself in despair. The legend of the
building of the walls of Thebes, is probably an allusion to the old
Dorian and Æolian custom of erecting the walls of cities with public
solemnities, and to the sound of musical instruments.




CHAPTER XXX.


ATLAS.

_Ques._ Who was Atlas?

_Ans._ He was a king of Mauritania, the son of the Titan Jap´etus, and
the nymph Clym´ene; he was, therefore, brother of Prometheus. He is
represented as sustaining the heavens on his shoulders. Atlas had been
warned that he would suffer much from a son of Jupiter. When Perseus
was returning from the conquest of the Gorgons, he arrived in the
dominions of Atlas, of whom he claimed the rites of hospitality,
declaring at the same time his divine parentage. The king, remembering
the prophecy with regard to Jupiter's offspring, repulsed him harshly.
This conduct brought upon Atlas the calamity which he feared; for
Perseus, indignant at so much inhumanity, showed him the head of
Medusa, and changed him into the mountain which bears his name.

The fable, that Atlas sustained the heavens on his shoulders, has been
explained by saying he was an astronomer, who observed the motion of
the heavenly bodies from the summit of a lofty mountain, to which his
name was afterwards given.

_Ques._ Who were the children of Atlas?

_Ans._ By his wife Peli´one, he had seven daughters, who were called
Pleiades; they were changed into stars, and form the beautiful group
which we admire in the constellation Taurus. Atlas had seven other
daughters who underwent the same transformation; they were placed in
the head of Taurus, and were called by the Greeks, Hyades, from a word
which signifies "to rain."

The Hesperides, or Western Maidens, were three celebrated nymphs,
concerning whose parentage ancient writers are not agreed. Hesiod
speaks of them as the daughters of Night, but according to others,
they were the offspring of Atlas and Hesperis. At the bridal of
Jupiter and Juno, the different deities brought nuptial presents;
among these, Juno most admired some branches loaded with golden
apples, which were offered by the goddess of the Earth. She begged the
Earth to plant them in her gardens, which extended as far as Mount
Atlas. The Hesperides were directed to watch these trees, but they
proved unfaithful, and frequently plucked the apples for themselves.
Juno sent, therefore, a terrible dragon to guard the precious fruit.
This monster was the offspring of Typhon, and had a hundred heads, so
that it never slept.


ORION.

_Ques._ Who was Ori´on?

_Ans._ His origin is doubtful; according to some writers, he was the
son of Neptune and Eury´ale. The accounts given of his exploits and of
his death are many and contradictory. According to one legend, Ori´on
was a famous hunter; having boasted that he could subdue the wildest
and fiercest animals, the earth was displeased at his presumption, and
sent a scorpion to sting him. The hero was changed, after death, into
a constellation which is known as the most resplendent group in the
winter heavens.


PERSEUS.

_Ques._ Who was Perseus?

_Ans._ He was the son of Jupiter, and of Danaë, the only daughter of
Acrisius, king of Argos. This prince had been warned by an oracle that
his daughter would have a son, who was destined to deprive him of
life. Acrisius resolved, in consequence, that Danaë should never
marry. To guard against the possibility of such an event, he
imprisoned her in a brazen apartment which he had diligently guarded.

Jupiter had seen and admired the young princess, and he now found
means to visit her by transforming himself into a shower of gold,
which we may take for a poetical manner of saying that he bribed the
guards. When Acrisius discovered that his precautions had been of no
avail, he enclosed Danaë and her infant son in a coffer, which he cast
into the sea. The coffer was carried by the waves to the island of
Seriphus, where a fisherman named Dictys drew it ashore in his net. He
was much surprised at beholding Danaë and the infant Perseus, and
brought them immediately to Polydectes, who reigned in that island.
Polydectes received the strangers kindly, but when Perseus was grown,
he strove to effect his destruction by engaging him in an expedition
against the Gorgons. This adventure has been already related, in the
article on Minerva. It was followed by the rescue of Androm´eda, which
is too remarkable to be omitted.

_Ques._ Who was Androm´eda?

_Ans._ She was the daughter of Cepheus, king of Ethiopia. Her mother,
Cassiopeia, had boasted that she was fairer than Juno and the
Nereides. The offended nymphs complained to Neptune, who sent a
sea-monster to ravage the dominions of Cepheus. The people, in their
distress, had recourse to the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, but the god
declared that the country could not be freed from this calamity,
unless Androm´eda were given up to be devoured by the monster. Cepheus
consented to the sacrifice, and his daughter was chained to a rock by
the sea-shore, where she was abandoned to her fate.

Perseus, returning through the air, from his conquest of the Gorgons,
saw the unhappy maiden and resolved to rescue her. He asked her hand
as his only reward, which Cepheus readily promised.

When the sea-monster appeared, Perseus showed him the head of Medusa,
and changed him into a rock, which was long famous upon that coast.
Phineus, who had been betrothed to Androm´eda, opposed her marriage
with Perseus, and changed the nuptial solemnities into a scene of
discord and bloodshed.

The head of the Gorgon again procured for Perseus an easy victory. He
warned his friends to avert their eyes, and displayed the frightful
trophy, upon which Phineus and his followers were changed into stone,
in the very attitudes in which they fought.

Polydectes, who had persecuted Danaë in the absence of Perseus, was
punished in the same manner. The hero afterwards fulfilled the oracle
by killing his grandfather, whom he did not know, by an accidental
blow of a quoit.

Perseus, Androm´eda, Cepheus, and Cassiopeia were changed, after
death, into the constellations which bear their names.




CHAPTER XXXI.


BELLEROPHON.

_Ques._ Who was Beller´ophon?

_Ans._ This hero was the son of Glaucus, and grandson of Sis´yphus,
king of Corinth. Having accidentally killed one of his relatives, he
fled, as was usual in such circumstances, and was received with much
kindness by Prœtus, king of Argos. Beller´ophon had not, however,
been long at Argos when the king was prejudiced by a calumnious
report, and became jealous of the young hero. As he was ashamed to
violate the rights of hospitality, he despatched Beller´ophon to his
father-in-law, Joba´tes, king of the Lycians, with sealed letters in
which he requested that prince to put the bearer to death. Joba´tes
was also unwilling to imbrue his hands openly in the blood of a guest;
he resolved, therefore, to effect his purpose indirectly, by engaging
Beller´ophon in dangerous enterprises.

The first task imposed upon the hero, was the slaying of the Chimæra,
a fabulous monster which we have already described, and which was
then spreading terror through the kingdom of Lycia. Before proceeding
to the combat, Beller´ophon took counsel of the soothsayer, Polyi´dus,
who advised him to procure, if possible, the winged steed Peg´asus.
For this purpose, he directed him to pass the night in the temple of
Minerva. There the goddess visited him in a dream, and gave him a
golden bridle, instructing him as to its use. On awaking, Beller´ophon
found the bridle in his hand, and repaired immediately to the spring
at which Peg´asus was accustomed to drink. The winged steed submitted
to the golden bit, Beller´ophon mounted him fearlessly, and was borne
through the air to his combat with the Chimæra. When he returned to
Joba´tes with the spoils of the monster, the king sent him to fight
against certain people, called Sol´ymi, whom he had much difficulty in
subduing. He next defeated the Amazons, a nation of female warriors,
and destroyed a party of Lycians, who laid an ambush for him on his
return. Joba´tes perceived from these exploits that his guest was
indeed allied to the gods, and abandoned all further designs against
him. He even gave him his daughter in marriage, and declared him his
successor in the kingdom.

Beller´ophon might have ended his days in happiness and prosperity,
had he not irritated the gods by his pride. He conceived the project
of mounting to heaven on his winged steed; Jupiter was indignant, and
sent a gad-fly which stung the horse, and caused him to throw the
presumptuous rider. Beller´ophon, lame and blind from his fall,
wandered in lonely places, avoiding the haunts of men, until death
came to relieve his misery.


DEUCALION.

_Ques._ Who was Deucalion?

_Ans._ He was king of Thessaly, and son of Prometheus. During his
reign, there occurred so great a flood that the whole earth was
covered with the waters. Of the entire human race, only Deucalion and
his wife, Pyrrha, were saved. When the waters abated, the ship in
which they were carried rested upon Mount Parnassus, and they
consulted the oracle of Themis, to know by what means the earth might
again be peopled. The oracle directed that they should cast behind
them the bones of their Great Mother. Understanding by this expression
the earth, which is the common mother of all, they gathered stones
which they cast behind them, as they had been commanded, when a great
prodigy ensued. The stones thrown by Deucalion assumed human form and
became men, and those thrown by Pyrrha were changed into women.

_Ques._ How is this fable explained?

_Ans._ It is supposed that Deucalion and Pyrrha were remarkable for
their piety and virtue; and that by precept and example, they subdued
the ferocity of their subjects. In this manner they softened those
who before were hard like stones, so that gentleness and humanity
began to reign among them.


DÆDALUS.

_Ques._ Who was Dæd´alus?

_Ans._ He is said to have been a native of Athens, eminent for his
skill in architecture and statuary. His nephew Perdix wrought with
him, and showed much inventive genius. Having observed the teeth of a
serpent, or, according to some, the backbone of a fish, Perdix
invented the carpenter's saw, and applied it to the cutting of timber.
By this and other efforts of skill, the young man excited the jealousy
of Dæd´alus, who killed him by casting him down from the summit of the
Acropolis. Perdix was transformed into a partridge, a timid bird which
seems still mindful of its fall, and keeps to low coverts, avoiding
high places and lofty flights. For this murder, Dæd´alus was sentenced
to banishment by the Court of the Areop´agus. He found an asylum with
Minos, king of Crete, for whom he constructed the famous Labyrinth.
Having incurred the displeasure of Minos, Dæd´alus was imprisoned in a
lofty tower. As there seemed no other means of escape, he resolved on
attempting a flight through the air. For this purpose, he made wings
for himself and his son Ic´arus, which were so skilfully contrived,
that, by their aid, they mounted boldly in the air, and directed
their flight over the sea. Ic´arus disregarded his father's
instructions, and approached so near the sun that its heat melted the
wax which united the feathers of his wings. He could no longer sustain
himself, and was drowned in that sea which is called Icarian, from his
name. Dæd´alus arrived in Sicily, where he was employed by Coc´alus,
king of that island, in the erection of many splendid edifices.

Various explanations have been given of the fable of Dæd´alus. The
most probable opinion is that there really existed an architect of
that name, whose fame was such that all the improvements made in those
early times in architecture and sculpture were attributed to him by
popular tradition. He introduced the use of masts and sails in ships,
and he is said to have been the first who represented statues in
natural and lifelike attitudes, and with open eyes. Dæd´alus is also
mentioned as the inventor of the axe, plumb-line and augur.


CEYX--HALCYONE--THE HALCYON BIRDS.

_Ques._ Who was Ceyx?

_Ans._ He was a king of Trachinia, who married Halcy´one, a daughter
of the god Æolus. Ceyx was drowned on his way to consult the oracle of
Claros. Halcy´one was apprised of the sad event in a dream, in which
she saw her husband stand before her, with pallid countenance and
dripping garments. She hastened to the strand at break of day, and
gazing over the waters, beheld the body of Ceyx borne towards her by
the waves. In her despair, she cast herself into the sea, but the gods
took pity on the faithful pair, and transformed them into halcyons.
According to the poets, it was decreed that the sea should remain calm
while these birds built their nests upon it. Notwithstanding the
querulous, lamenting note of the halcyon, it was regarded by the
ancients as a symbol of tranquillity, and as it seemed to make its
home upon the waters, it was consecrated to Thetis. Pliny tells us
that these birds constructed their floating nests during the seven
days immediately preceding the winter solstice, and laid their eggs in
the seven days succeeding. These are the "halcyon days" of antiquity,
and this expression is still used to denote a period of bright and
tranquil happiness.

The only bird of modern times which at all resembles the halcyon
described by Pliny and Aristotle, is the _Alcedo Ispida_, a species of
martin called by the French, martin-pêcheur. This martin, however,
makes its nest on shore, lays its eggs in the spring, and has no
connection with calm weather. The large sponge-like ball which was
taken by the ancients for the floating nest of the halcyon, was in
reality a zoöphyte, of the class named by Linnæus, halcyonium.




CHAPTER XXXII.


MELEAGER--THE CALYDONIAN HUNT.

_Ques._ What was the story of this prince?

_Ans._ Meleager was the son of Œneus and Althea, king and queen of
Calydon. After his birth, the Fates entered the chamber of Althea, and
foretold that the life of the child should expire with a billet of
wood then burning on the hearth. Althea immediately seized and
quenched the brand, which she secured in an oaken chest. Meleager had
already attained the years of manhood when he took part in the
expedition generally known as the Calydonian hunt. Œneus had, upon
one occasion, in offering sacrifice to the gods, neglected the honors
due to Diana, and the goddess, in revenge, sent a wild boar of
enormous size to lay waste the fields of Calydon. The boldest hunters
feared to attack the monster, whose eyes shone with fire, while its
bristles stood erect like spears, and its tusks resembled those of an
Indian elephant. The cornfields and vineyards were trampled down in
its path, and the terrified husbandmen everywhere fled in dismay. At
length Meleager called on the heroes of Greece to join in a hunt and
destroy the common foe. There came on the appointed day, Castor and
Pollux, Theseus and his friend Pirothous, Peleus, afterwards father of
Achil´les, Telamon, father of Ajax, Nestor, then a youth, and many
others of heroic fame. All eyes were, however, attracted by the fair
huntress Atalanta. Her girdle was of burnished gold, an ivory quiver
hung from her shoulder, and she carried a bow in her left hand.

They soon reached the monster's lair. Roused by the baying hounds, he
rushed forth, trampling down and slaying the nearest huntsmen. In vain
Jason threw his spear, praying that Diana might guide his arm. It
glanced aside, and the weapon of Telamon proved equally harmless,
while Nestor was obliged to seek safety in the branches of a tree. The
first wound was inflicted by an arrow from the bow of Atalanta.
Meleager, following up this advantage, despatched the monster with his
spear. The heroes crowded around to congratulate the victor, who
offered the head of the boar and the bristling hide to Atalanta. The
huntress accepted the trophies, but the uncles of Meleager, indignant
that a woman should bear off the honors of the day, snatched them
rudely from her. Meleager forgot, in his anger, the ties of kindred,
and slew the offenders on the spot.

As Althea was going to the temple to return thanks for her son's
victory she beheld the bodies of her murdered brothers. When she
learned that they had fallen by the hand of Meleager, the Furies took
possession of her soul. Entering hastily into the palace, she
snatched the fatal brand, so long preserved, and cast it into the
flames. At the same moment Meleager started with sudden pain, his
strength ebbed away, and as the brand fell to ashes, the soul of the
hero was breathed forth on the light winds.

When the deed was accomplished Althea killed herself in despair. The
sisters of Meleager wept his loss, until Diana, pitying their sorrow,
changed them into birds called Meleagrides.


NISUS AND SCYLLA.

_Ques._ Relate the story of their transformation?

_Ans._ Nisus was king of Megara; this city was closely besieged by
Minos, but all his efforts were vain, as the Fates had decreed that it
should not be taken, so long as a purple lock which grew on the head
of Nisus, remained uncut. Scylla, the daughter of this prince, admired
the majestic person of Minos, and the valor which he displayed.
Believing that he would reward her treachery by making her his queen,
she cut the fatal lock while her father slept. Minos received the gift
with horror, and, when the city was taken, refused to permit Scylla to
accompany him to Crete. In despair, she clung to the prow of his ship;
but Nisus, who had just been transformed into a hawk, swooped down
upon her from the sky. Scylla cast herself into the sea, and was
transformed at the same moment into a lark.


ERISICHTHON.

_Ques._ Who was Erisichthon?

_Ans._ He was a profane person and a despiser of the gods. There stood
in a grove sacred to Ceres, a stately oak which overtopped the trees
around as they did the garden shrubs. Erisichthon commanded his
attendants to fell the tree, and when they hesitated, he snatched an
axe himself, and struck the sacred wood. Blood flowed from the wounded
trunk, and a voice from the Dryad dwelling in the oak, warned him of
the punishment which awaited his impiety. Erisichthon persisted in his
crime, and at length the tree, severed by repeated blows, and drawn
with ropes, sunk to the ground, prostrating half the grove in its
fall. The indignant Dryades went to Ceres in mourning garb, and
invoked vengeance on the head of their impious foe. The goddess was
moved, and delivered Erisichthon into the power of Famine. As the
Fates had decreed that this goddess and Ceres should never meet, an
Oread was sent to the ice-clad plains of Scythia, where Famine chiefly
dwelt. Arriving at Mount Caucasus, the nymph found her in a stony
field, tearing up with teeth and claws the scanty herbage. The pale
goddess obeyed the command of Ceres, and visiting the dwelling of
Erisichthon, she breathed upon him as he slept. Awaking he craved
food, but the more he consumed, the more his hunger raged. In vain
the unhappy man spent all his substance to obtain relief; he was
reduced to misery and famished as before. He had one daughter called
Mestra, an only child, whom he sold to procure food. The maiden
scorned to be a slave, and standing with her purchaser on the
sea-shore, she lifted her hands, and invoked the aid of Neptune. The
god immediately changed her form, so that she appeared to be an aged
fisherman mending nets.

The master, strangely surprised at the sudden disappearance of his
slave, questioned the supposed fisherman. Mestra replied that she had
seen no one, and he proceeded to search for the fugitive elsewhere.
She then resumed her own form, and returned to her father, who was
well pleased to find that he had still both his daughter and the money
for which he had sold her. He again resorted to this base expedient,
but as often as Mestra was sold, she was transformed, by the favor of
Neptune, now into a horse, now an ox, and now a stag; and so escaped
from her purchaser.

All means proved insufficient to supply the wants of the unhappy
Erisichthon, who was compelled by hunger to devour his own flesh
before death came to end his misery.




CHAPTER XXXIII.

Poets of Classic Fable.


HOMER--HESIOD--VIRGIL--OVID.

_Ques._ Who was Homer?

_Ans._ Everything relating to this poet is involved in obscurity. The
two biographies of him which were formerly attributed to Herodotus and
Plutarch, are evidently fabulous; their real authors are not known.
Nothing is known certainly regarding Homer's parentage, his
birth-place, or even the exact era in which he lived. Seven cities
contended for the honor of having given this great poet to the world;
these were Smyrna, Chios, Col´ophon, Sal´amis, Rhodes, Argos and
Athens.

Smyrna appears to have the best claim, and it is considered certain
that the poet was by birth an Ionian; the Ionic is the dialect
employed in his works, with a slight mixture, however, of the Æolic,
and other forms. With regard to the time in which Homer lived, there
is much difference of opinion among the learned, some placing him in
the ninth, others in the tenth century before our era. The latter
opinion is the more probable.

According to the account generally given, Homer was for many years a
schoolmaster in Smyrna. He afterwards abandoned this occupation, and
spent some time in travelling.

He made several voyages in the company of a sea captain named Mentes;
but at length his sight became so much affected that he was obliged to
remain on shore at Ithaca. While in this island, he was kindly
entertained by a wealthy man named Mentor, who related to him the
traditionary tales on which he afterwards founded the Odyssey.

Becoming totally blind, Homer returned to Smyrna, where he probably
composed the greater part of his poems. He afterwards led a wandering
life, gaining wealth and fame by the recitation of his verses. He died
at Ios, one of the Cyclades, where he was buried. The fame of Homer is
founded on his two great poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. The first
of these has been always considered among the finest productions of
human genius. Homer is distinguished not only for his sublimity, but
for the high moral tone which pervades his works.

_Ques._ Who was Hesiod?

_Ans._ This poet flourished about half a century later than Homer. He
was a Bœotian, and in his youth tended sheep upon Mount Helicon. He
emigrated afterwards to Orchomenos, in western Bœotia, where he died.

The only complete works of Hesiod now extant are the "Works and
Days," and the Theogony, or "Birth of the Gods." The latter work
consists of a long and rather tedious catalogue of the gods and
goddesses; it is valued as containing an accurate account of the
Grecian deities. The description of the Battle of the Titans and the
Gods, at the close of the work, is considered one of the most sublime
passages in classic poetry; Milton has borrowed from it in his Battle
of the Angels.

_Ques._ When did Virgil flourish?

_Ans._ Publius Virgilius Maro was born near Mantua in the year 70,
B. C. He received a liberal education, and inherited from his father a
considerable estate. Of this he was deprived during the civil troubles
which distracted Italy, but it was afterwards restored at the
intercession of a powerful friend. His gratitude towards this kind
benefactor, and the happiness felt by the poet in the peaceful
possession of his patrimony, form the subject of his first pastoral
poem or Eclogue. Virgil enjoyed the favor of Augustus, with the
friendship of Mæcenas and other generous and powerful patrons; his
life was, therefore, spent in ease and prosperity. He died at
Brundusium, in the year 19, B. C.

The Eclogues, sometimes called also Bucolica or Bucolics, are ten
short pastoral poems. The fourth, entitled Pollio, has given rise to
much speculation on account of its striking coincidence with
Scripture. Many suppose that the poet was acquainted with the
prophecies of Isaiah.

The Georgics treat of agriculture, the care of cattle, the raising of
bees, etc. These peaceful arts had been much neglected in Italy during
the civil wars; Virgil hoped to revive the taste for rural pursuits,
by his beautiful descriptions of country life. The Æneid, the last and
greatest of his works, is an epic poem in twelve books. It is a
history of the wanderings of Æneas, and the settlement of the Trojans
in Italy.

Virgil is considered inferior to Homer in sublimity, but he exceeds
him in sweetness and in the beauty of his descriptions. The moral, and
even to a certain extent the religious spirit which pervades his
writings is beyond praise, and places him almost alone among the poets
of antiquity.

_Ques._ When did Ovid write?

_Ans._ Ovidius Naso was born in the year 43, B. C., at Sulmo (now
Sulmona), a town about ninety miles distant from Rome. The date of his
birth is rendered memorable in history by the murder of the great
Cicero. Ovid belonged to an equestrian family; he was educated at
Rome, and enjoyed every advantage that splendid capital afforded. He
showed his taste for poetry at an early age, but was dissuaded from
cultivating this art by his father, who wished him to apply
exclusively to the study of eloquence. Ovid gained some distinction as
an orator; but when the death of his elder brother left him sole heir
to an ample fortune, his natural inclination prevailed, and he gave
himself up to literary pursuits. A career of unexampled prosperity
was now opened to the poet. He enjoyed the favor of Augustus, and the
friendship of the most distinguished men in Rome; his verses were
universally admired, they were sung in the streets and at
entertainments, or were recited in the theatre amid bursts of
applause. Ovid was not content with the nobler pleasures of fame and
friendship, but plunged without restraint into all the vices and
follies of which the Roman capital was the centre. This career of
prosperity and pleasure was brought suddenly to a close. Ovid was
banished by Augustus to Tomi, (now Temiswar) on the shores of the
Euxine.

The decree was executed with the utmost severity. But one wretched
night was allowed to the poet to deplore his fate, and take leave of
his friends. His wife begged in vain to be allowed to accompany her
husband in his exile. It is not known by what crime the unfortunate
poet merited so severe a punishment. The immoral tendency of some of
his poems, was the ostensible reason set forth by the emperor; but
these verses had been written many years before. It is evident,
therefore, that he must have offended Augustus in some manner which
the latter did not choose to make public. Ovid wrote, in his exile,
poems appropriately named "Tristia," in which he bewails his hard
fate, and describes the scenes by which he was surrounded. From the
severity of the climate, and the inroads of the barbarians, the fields
were without grain, the hills without vines; no stately oaks clothed
the mountain-side, no willows drooped along the banks; a scanty growth
of wormwood alone covered the desolate plains. Spring brought with it
neither birds nor flowers. In Summer, the sun was obscured by clouds;
the Autumn shed no fruits, but through every season of the year, the
wintry winds blew with prodigious violence, and lashed the waves of
the boisterous Euxine on its desert shore. The only animated object
was the wild Sarmatian driving his car, yoked with oxen, across the
icy waste, himself wrapped in furs, his shaggy hair and beard
sparkling with the hoar frost and flakes of snow. Such was the abode
for which the poet was compelled to exchange the theatres, the
porticoes and gardens of Rome, the court of Augustus, and the sunny
skies of Italy. He died in the ninth year of his exile, and the
sixty-first of his age.

The poems of Ovid, however beautiful otherwise, are all more or less
objectionable on account of their immoral tendency; the corruption of
the author's private character has left its impress on all his works.

The claim of Ovid to be numbered among the poets of mythology, rests
chiefly on his Metamorphoses. This is a collection of legends of all
the transformations said to have taken place in heathen mythology,
beginning with the earliest times, and closing with the changing of
Julius Cæsar into a star. The stories are not themselves original;
they are principally Greek and Oriental fictions, interspersed,
perhaps, with a few Latin or Etruscan fables. There are, in all, two
hundred and fifty of these stories. Ovid was engaged in correcting
this, his greatest work, when he was surprised by the sentence of
banishment. In a fit of impatience and despair, he threw it into the
flames. Some of his friends possessed copies, and the poem was thus
preserved.

If the Metamorphoses had been destroyed by this rash act, we would
have lost many interesting fables which have been rendered immortal by
the beauty of Ovid's verse and his graceful fancy.

The Tristia are not so generally admired. They turn principally on the
poet's personal misfortunes; and this subject, however absorbing to
himself, soon becomes wearisome to the reader. Ovid composed a poem in
the harsh dialect spoken by the Getæ who dwelt on the borders of the
Euxine Sea. The barbarians listened with delight to his recitations,
until their anger was excited by his constant complaints of their rude
manners and inhospitable climate.




CHAPTER XXXIV.

Heroes Celebrated by the Poets.


AGAMEMNON.

_Ques._ Who was Agamemnon?

_Ans._ He was king of Mycenæ, and commander-in-chief of the Grecian
forces during the siege of Troy. The combined fleet was detained for a
long time at Aulis, owing to the wrath of Diana, whom Agamemnon had
offended by killing one of her favorite deer. Calchas, the soothsayer,
was consulted; he declared that the goddess could only be appeased by
the sacrifice of Iphige´nia, the oldest daughter of the monarch. She
was accordingly led to the altar, but Diana was moved with pity, and
carried the maiden with her to Tauris, leaving a hind in her place.
The quarrel of Agamemnon with Achil´les, and the troubles that
resulted, form the principal subject of Homer's Iliad. In the division
of captives, after the taking of Troy, Cassandra, one of the daughters
of Priam, fell to the lot of Agamemnon. This princess had been endowed
by Apollo with the gift of prophecy, but as she refused afterwards to
listen to the suit of that god, he decreed that no one should attach
any credit to her predictions. It was so in the present instance.
Clytemnestra, the queen of Agamemnon, believing, and perhaps hoping,
that her husband would not return, had given a promise of marriage to
Ægisthus, who already considered himself king of Mycenæ. Cassandra
warned Agamemnon against returning thither, but her prediction was
disregarded. Agamemnon was assassinated immediately on his arrival at
Mycenæ; according to the tragic poets, it was Clytemnestra who dealt
the fatal blow.


ACHILLES.

_Ques._ Who was Achil´les?

_Ans._ He was the son of Peleus, king of Phthio´tis in Thessaly; his
mother was Thetis, a sea-goddess. Many incredible stories are told
concerning the manner in which the hero was nursed in his infancy.
According to one account, his mother designed to make him immortal,
and for that purpose anointed him with ambrosia during the day, and
laid him in the fire at night. The fears of Peleus interrupted this
strange treatment, and Achil´les remained subject to death. Calchas
had declared that Troy could not be taken without his aid, and Thetis,
who was aware that her son was destined to perish if he joined the
expedition, disguised him in female attire, and concealed him among
the daughters of King Lycome´des. Ulysses was sent to discover his
retreat, which he effected by the following stratagem. Attired as a
travelling merchant, he presented himself at court, and displayed
before the queen and her maidens, various articles of female attire.
Some pieces of armor were disposed among the merchandise; by the order
of Ulys´ses, a trumpet was suddenly blown, when the disguised
Achil´les betrayed himself by seizing the armor. The young warrior was
then obliged to join the expedition. During the siege, Achil´les had a
dispute with Agamemnon, concerning some female captives; considering
himself wronged, he withdrew from the contest, and no entreaties could
induce him to return to the field. The death of his friend Patroclus,
who fell by the hand of Hector, at length aroused him to action.
Achil´les' armor, which he had lent to Patroclus, had become the spoil
of Hector, and it was upon this occasion that Vulcan fabricated for
the hero, the famous suit which is described in the Iliad. Arrayed in
this Achil´les performed prodigies of valor, and at length killed
Hector, after a desperate combat. According to Homer, Achil´les took
an ignoble revenge on the dead body of his foe, which he dragged at
his chariot-wheels, three times around the tomb of Patroclus. The
corpse of the Trojan hero was yielded at last, to the tears and
supplications of Priam, and a truce was granted to the Trojans, for
the performance of the funeral rites. Achil´les was himself slain soon
after; his ashes were mingled in a golden urn with those of
Patroclus, and a tomb was erected to both heroes, on the promontory of
Sigœum.

The vindictive spirit of Achil´les knew no repose, even in death.
After the fall of Troy, his ghost appeared to the Greeks, and
commanded them, with fearful menaces in case of refusal, to sacrifice
on his tomb, Polyxena, one of the daughters of Priam. The unhappy
maiden was torn from her mother's arms, and immolated by Pyrrhus, the
son of Achil´les. Hec´uba learned soon after the sad fate of her son
Polydorus. This young prince, who had been commended by Priam to the
care of Polymnestor, king of Thrace, was treacherously murdered by
that monarch. The bereaved mother planned a terrible revenge.
Promising disclosures with regard to hidden treasures, she induced
Polymnestor and his children to visit her in secret. Then, aided by
her fellow captives, Hec´uba murdered the young princes and put out
the father's eyes. While endeavoring to escape from the vengeance of
the Thracians, she was suddenly transformed into a dog.




CHAPTER XXXV.


ULYSSES.

_Ques._ Who was Ulys´ses?

_Ans._ He was king of Ithaca, and had been, like many other princes of
Greece, a suitor of the beautiful Helen. Believing that he had no hope
for success among so many competitors, Ulys´ses asked the hand of
Penel´ope, daughter of Icarus. His suit was granted; but when he was
about to depart with his bride, Icarus was so much grieved, that he
tried to persuade Penel´ope to remain with him, and not accompany her
husband to Ithaca. Ulys´ses bade her act according to her inclination,
saying that she was free to remain, if such was her desire. Penel´ope
made no reply, but dropped her veil over her face. Icarus urged her no
longer, and when she was gone, he erected a statue to Modesty, on the
spot where they parted. When the Grecian princes were called upon to
revenge the abduction of Helen, Ulys´ses was unwilling to leave his
peaceful kingdom, and sacrifice the happiness he enjoyed in the
company of Penel´ope. Hearing that Palame´des had come to summon him
to the field, he pretended to be insane. He yoked a horse and a bull
together, and began ploughing the sands of the sea-shore, sowing salt
instead of grain. Palame´des caused Telem´achus, the infant son of
Ulys´ses, to be laid before the plough, and the manner in which the
father hastened to remove the child, convinced every one that his
insanity was feigned. He was obliged, therefore, to join the
expedition against Troy, but he never forgave Palame´des for having
exposed his stratagem. The manner in which Ulys´ses revenged himself
is not calculated to give us a very high opinion of the hero. During
the siege, he brought forward a false accusation against Palame´des,
which he supported so well, that the latter was condemned, and put to
death.

Ulys´ses distinguished himself during the war, by his wisdom and
prudence in council, and his courage on the field of battle. We have
already spoken of the part which he took in carrying off the Palladium
of Troy. As a reward for his services, he received the armor of
Achil´les, which Ajax had disputed with him.

After the fall of Troy, Ulys´ses embarked with the intention of
returning to Greece, but he met with so many extraordinary adventures,
that it was only after ten years of peril and hardships, that he was
permitted to land upon the shores of Ithaca.

The Odyssey, the second of the two great poems attributed to Homer,
is a history of the wanderings of Ulys´ses. After some adventures of
minor importance, the ships of the hero were overtaken by a storm
which drove them southward for nine days, and as many nights, until
they reached the country of the Lotus-eaters. When the tempest abated,
Ulys´ses sent some of his companions on shore. They were kindly
entertained by the Lotus-eaters, who regaled them with their own
favorite food, the lotus plant. This was of such a nature, that all
who partook of it forgot home and friends, and were filled with a sort
of indolent contentment, so that they had no other desire than to
remain always in that country. Ulys´ses was obliged to have these men
dragged away by force, and even then, it was necessary to bind them
with ropes to the benches of the ship.

The escape of Ulys´ses from the cavern of the Cyclops and from the
enchantments of Circe has been already related. After passing safely
between Scylla and Charybdis, Ulys´ses landed in the island of
Thrinakia, where the cattle of Hyperion (the Sun) fed in verdant
pastures. Circe had warned the voyagers that these flocks should be
held inviolate, however pressing their wants might be. They were
detained a long time at Thrinakia by contrary winds; and Ulys´ses
bound his companions by an oath that they would not touch the sacred
herds. They were, however, so pressed by famine that they ventured one
day, in the absence of Ulys´ses, to slay a number of the sacred
cattle; vainly endeavoring to propitiate the offended god, by offering
a portion in sacrifice. Ulys´ses returning to the shore, was struck
with horror at their temerity, the more so on account of the fearful
signs which followed. The skins crept on the ground, and the joints of
meat lowed on the spits while roasting.

As the wind was now favorable, Ulys´ses hastened to fly from the fatal
island. The vengeance of the god pursued them on the sea, and a
terrible storm arose, in which all perished, except Ulys´ses himself,
who was spared as having taken no part in the sacrilege. He formed a
raft from the fragments of his ship, and was at length cast by the
waves upon the island of the nymph Calypso. This goddess entertained
Ulys´ses with much kindness, and even offered to share her immortality
with the hero, if he would consent to forget Ithaca and dwell forever
in her happy island. Jupiter, however, sent Mercury to Calypso, with
the command that she should dismiss Ulys´ses, and provide him with all
that was necessary for his homeward voyage.

The goddess reluctantly obeyed; a raft was constructed and furnished,
and Ulys´ses departed from the island. He sped prosperously for some
days, and was almost within sight of land, when a violent storm arose,
in which he would have perished had he not been aided by a
compassionate sea nymph; Minerva, also, smoothed the billows before
him, and he swam safely to land.

The Phæacians, on whose shores he had been cast, received him kindly,
and fitted out a ship in which he sailed for Ithaca. Ulys´ses was
asleep when the vessel touched the strand. The Phæacians carried him
on shore without awaking him, and placed near him a chest filled with
costly gifts, after which they sailed away. Neptune was so much
displeased with the Phæacians for aiding Ulys´ses, that, as their
vessel was returning to port, he transformed it into a rock, which
continued ever after to obstruct the mouth of their harbor.

The arrival of the hero could not have occurred more opportunely for
the deliverance of his wife, the faithful Penel´ope. When a long time
had elapsed after the fall of Troy, and no tidings were received of
Ulys´ses, it was generally believed that he had perished. More than a
hundred nobles of Ithaca and the surrounding islands, became suitors
for the hand of Penel´ope; she however still cherished the hope of her
husband's return, and refused to entertain any proposal of marriage.
The suitors nevertheless persisted; they remained in the palace, which
they filled with riot and feasting, and continually urged Penel´ope to
choose a husband from among their number. She promised, at length,
that she would do so when she had completed a certain web of
embroidery on which she was engaged. They agreed to wait, and
Penel´ope deceived them for a long time, plying her needle diligently
during the day, and undoing the greater part of her work at night.
This device succeeded for three years, at the end of which time the
suitors became so importunate that Penel´ope could no longer resist.
She promised, therefore, that she would marry that man who should send
an arrow from the bow of Ulys´ses, through twelve rings suspended in a
line. The conditions were accepted: and it was on the very eve of the
day appointed for the contest, that Ulys´ses landed in Ithaca. It was
necessary to conceal his return; for this purpose the hero disguised
himself as a beggar, and by the aid of Minerva, so changed his whole
appearance that it was impossible for any one to recognize him. In
this character he was kindly received by Eumæus, a swine-herd, from
whom he learned all that had transpired, and the present distress of
Penel´ope.

Telem´achus, the son of Ulys´ses, had been absent for a long time in
search of his father. He had visited the courts of the other kings who
had taken part in the Trojan war, but without obtaining any certain
tidings. While still engaged in this quest, Minerva bade him return to
Ithaca; he obeyed, and the goddess contrived that he should arrive on
the same day with his father, and meet him in the hut of Eumæus. After
mutual explanations, and affectionate greetings, the two heroes
consulted as to what measures they should take for the punishment of
the suitors, and the deliverance of Penel´ope. It was resolved that
Telem´achus should proceed to the palace, and mingle with the suitors,
as formerly; that Ulys´ses should also go, but in the disguise of a
beggar. Such persons were often admitted, in ancient times, to the
halls of chieftains and princes, where they entertained the guests
with stories of their wanderings, and were regaled with a portion of
the viands. On their arrival at the palace, they found the usual scene
of riot and festivity. The suitors received Telem´achus with affected
joy, although secretly mortified at the failure of their plots against
him. As Ulys´ses entered, a dog which lay in the court, half dead with
age, raised his head in sudden recognition, fawned upon his old
master, and expired. It was Argus, whom Ulys´ses had often led to the
chase.

The banquet proceeded, but Telem´achus had much difficulty in
dissembling his feelings when the suitors made his father a subject of
mockery; and one of them carried his insolence so far as to strike the
disguised hero. At length, the time arrived for the contest of skill
which was to decide the fate of Penel´ope. Twelve rings were suspended
at equal distances, and Telem´achus brought from the armory the mighty
bow of Ulys´ses, with its quiver of arrows; taking care, at the same
time, to remove all other weapons from the hall.

The first thing to be done, was to bend the bow, in order to attach
the string. This Telem´achus tried to do, and was obliged to confess
that his strength was unequal to the effort. He passed the bow to one
of the suitors, who was compelled to yield it in turn, amid the
raillery of his companions. When several had failed in the same
manner, Ulys´ses begged that he might be allowed to try his skill. The
request was received with shouts of derision, and some would have
driven the insolent beggar from the hall. Telem´achus interfered, and
remarking, with affected indifference, that they might as well gratify
the old man, bade him try. Ulys´ses took the bow, and the suitors were
amazed to see him handle the mighty weapon as if it had been a
plaything. Their surprise was still greater, when, having adjusted the
cord, and chosen an arrow from the quiver, he took such steady aim
that the arrow sped unerringly through all the rings; he then
exclaimed, "Now for another mark!" and aimed a second shaft at the
most insolent of the suitors. He fell dead, and as the others rushed
forward, Telem´achus placed himself by his father's side, with Eumæus
and other armed retainers. The suitors, deprived of their weapons, and
terrified at the aspect of the injured prince, whom they recognized
too late, turned to fly, but Eumæus secured the doors. A desperate
struggle ensued, in which all were slain, and Ulys´ses was left master
of his palace and his kingdom. The Odyssey concludes with a
description of the rejoicings which followed, and the happiness
enjoyed by Ulys´ses and Penel´ope after their long separation.




CHAPTER XXXVI.


ORESTES.

_Ques._ Who was Orestes?

_Ans._ He was the son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra. At the time of
his father's assassination, Orestes, then a child, was saved by his
sister Electra, who sent him secretly to their uncle Strophius, king
of Phocis. Here he formed a friendship with Pylades, the son of that
monarch, which was so true and constant that it passed into a proverb.
Orestes was urged by messages from his sister Electra, to avenge the
murder of his father, and her counsels were confirmed by the responses
of the oracle of Apollo at Delphi. Orestes, accompanied by his friend
Pyl´ades, repaired in disguise to Mycenæ. Here he announced himself to
Clytemnestra as a messenger from Strophius, bringing news of the death
of her son Orestes. The guilty queen feigned to grieve at these
tidings, but Ægisthus made no effort to conceal his satisfaction.
Orestes was now seized with horror at the thought of the deed which he
was about to commit, but the reproaches of Electra, and the
remembrance of his father's cruel fate, banished every thought of
pity, and he slew Clytemnestra and Ægisthus with his own hand. This
act, however justified by the guilt of Clytemnestra, and the express
command of the gods, was abhorrent to nature, and could not pass
unavenged. Orestes was pursued by the Furies, and wandered frantic and
despairing from land to land, always accompanied by the faithful
Pyl´ades.

The oracle of Apollo was consulted, and the Pythia declared that
Orestes would not be delivered until he had visited the Tauric
Chersone´sus, and brought from thence to Argos, a certain statue of
Diana, from the temple of that goddess. It was the custom at Tauris,
to sacrifice all strangers at the altar of Diana; Orestes and Pyl´ades
were accordingly seized on their arrival, and carried as victims to
the temple. The officiating priestess was no other than Iphigenia, the
sister of Orestes, whom Diana had saved when she was about to be
immolated at Aulis. Perceiving that the strangers were Greeks, she
offered to spare the life of one, on condition that he would be the
bearer of a letter to Greece.

This proposal gave rise to a memorable contest of friendship, each
desiring to sacrifice himself for the other. Pyl´ades at length
yielded to Orestes, and consented to take the letter. His surprise was
great on perceiving that it was addressed to Orestes himself; an
explanation followed, and Iphigenia resolved to fly from Tauris with
her brother. Their plans were so well laid, that they not only
succeeded in escaping unobserved, but were also enabled to carry off
the statue of Diana, which they brought to Argos.

Orestes reigned many years in Mycenæ, and was married to his cousin
Hermi´one, daughter of Menela´us and Helen. Pyl´ades married Electra,
the sister of his friend.

The tragic poets add many incidents to the story of Orestes. They say
that when pursued by the Furies, he took refuge in the temple of
Apollo, at Delphi. By the command of that god, he repaired to Athens,
where he was tried by the court of Areop´agus. The judges were divided
in their sentiments, but Minerva interfered in behalf of Orestes, and
he was acquitted.


HECTOR.

_Ques._ Who was Hector?

_Ans._ He was the son of Priam and Hec´uba, and the most valiant of
all the Trojan chiefs who fought against the Greeks. The Fates had
decreed that Troy should not be taken as long as Hector lived. The
hero knew that he was destined to fall before the walls of his native
city, and that he could at best only postpone the ruin of his country
for a little time. Not discouraged by this, he performed prodigies of
valor, and slew, with his own hand, Patroclus, the friend of
Achil´les. He next went out to meet Achil´les himself, notwithstanding
the remonstrances of Priam and Hec´uba, and the tears of his wife
Androm´ache. He fell as we have seen, and this event was shortly
followed by the overthrow of his father's kingdom. Hector was not only
distinguished as a warrior and a patriot; he was equally admirable as
a son, husband, and father; and his character is perhaps the noblest
which has been described by any writer of antiquity.

When Troy was taken, Calchas excited much uneasiness among the Greeks,
by a prediction, that if Asty´anax, the son of Hector, were permitted
to live, he would one day avenge his father's death, and raise Troy
from its ruins. Diligent search was therefore made for the child, who
had been concealed by his mother in the recesses of Hector's tomb.
Here he was discovered by Ulys´ses. Disregarding the prayers of the
unhappy Androm´ache, the Grecian commanders precipitated the boy from
the summit of a lofty tower.


ŒDIPUS--ETEOCLES AND POLYNICES.

_Ques._ What was the story of these princes?

_Ans._ Œdipus was the son of La´ius, king of Thebes. He was exposed
by his father immediately on his birth, to avoid the fulfillment of an
oracle which declared that La´ius was destined to fall by the hand of
one of his children. Œdipus was found by a herdsman, who brought him
to Pol´ybus, king of Corinth. This monarch was childless, and adopted
the infant as his own.

When Œdipus was grown to manhood, he desired to learn something of
his real parentage, and went to consult the oracle of Delphi. The god
warned him to shun his native country, declaring that if he returned
thither, he would become the murderer of his father, and be guilty of
crimes which would draw upon him the vengeance of the gods. Œdipus
understood this of Corinth, and instead of returning to that city,
proceeded to Thebes. Here he slew his father La´ius in an accidental
encounter, and, after his victory over the Sphinx, which we have
already mentioned, he fulfilled the other predictions of the oracle.

Œdipus reigned many years in Thebes before he discovered his
parentage, and the crimes which he had unknowingly committed. In his
despair, he put out his eyes, and went into exile, leaving the throne
to his sons Ete´ocles and Polyni´ces. It was agreed between the
brothers that they should reign each a year alternately. Ete´ocles
first ascended the throne; but when the year had expired, he refused
to resign the crown. Polyni´ces was indignant at this breach of faith,
and fled to Argos, where he married the daughter of King Adrastus.
This monarch assembled a large army to enforce the claims of his
son-in-law. The command of the expedition was given to seven
chieftains, who were to attack each one of the seven gates of Thebes.

After all the Argive leaders, except Adrastus, had perished before the
walls, it was proposed that Ete´ocles and Polyni´ces should decide the
war by single combat. The brothers fought with such animosity that
both fell, mortally wounded. The battle was then renewed, and the
Argives were totally defeated. Creon, the uncle of the fallen princes,
was now king of Thebes; he had the body of Ete´ocles honorably buried,
but he left the remains of Polyni´ces exposed to the dogs and
vultures, and forbade, under pain of death, that any one should bestow
on him the rites of sepulture. He thus carried his vengeance beyond
the grave, as, according to Greek superstition, the souls of the
unburied were excluded for a hundred years from the Elysian fields.

Antig´one, the daughter of Œdipus, had, meanwhile, accompanied her
father in his exile, and watched over him with touching devotion until
death released her from this filial duty. She no sooner learned the
cruel order of Creon, than she resolved, at whatever hazard, to
perform the funeral rites for Polyni´ces. She succeeded in approaching
the corpse, which she covered with earth, making the usual libations.

While thus engaged, Antig´one was seized and brought before Creon. She
defended nobly the pious act which she had performed, and was
condemned by the tyrant to be entombed alive.

The misfortunes of Œdipus and his children have been celebrated by
three Greek tragedians: Æschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. In the
tragedy of Sophocles which bears her name, the character of Antig´one
is beautifully drawn. We have the sternest heroism, tempered always by
the tenderness of filial piety and sisterly devotion. The whole
presents the finest ideal of womanly excellence which can be found in
the writings of any ancient poet.

The following lines are taken from Dale's translation of the
Antig´one. Creon reproaches the heroine with having violated the laws;
she replies:

          "Ne'er did eternal Jove such laws ordain,
    Or Justice, throned amid th' infernal powers,
    Who on mankind these holier rites imposed--
    Nor can I deem thine edict armed with power
    To contravene the firm unwritten laws
    Of the just gods, thyself a weak frail mortal!
                        ... I knew before
    That I must die, though thou had'st ne'er proclaimed it,
    And if I perish ere th' allotted term,
    I deem that death a blessing. Who that lives
    Like me encompassed by unnumbered ills,
    But would account it blessedness to die?
    If then I meet the doom thy laws assign,
    It nothing grieves me. Had I left my brother,
    From my own mother sprung, on the bare earth
    To lie unburied, that, indeed, might grieve me;
    But for this deed I mourn not." ...




CHAPTER XXXVII.


ÆNEAS.

_Ques._ Who was Æne´as?

_Ans._ He was a Trojan chief, the son of Venus and Anchi´ses. He was
born on Mount Ida, where he was nurtured by the Dryads until he had
attained his fifth year, when he was brought to his father. Anchi´ses
was not on friendly terms with the family of Priam, but this coldness
did not prevent Æne´as from exerting himself to the utmost in defence
of his country. Excepting Hector only, there was no Trojan who so
distinguished himself by his valor. When Troy was taken, Æne´as made
his escape from the burning city, bearing on his shoulders the aged
Anchi´ses, and leading his little son Ascanius by the hand. His wife
was separated from him in the confusion and darkness, and perished by
the sword of the enemy. Anchises bore with him the sacred Penates of
Troy, and his household gods. Æne´as was joined by the greater part of
the Trojans, both men and women, who had escaped from the horrors of
that fatal night. They concealed themselves in the neighboring
mountains until the Greeks had departed, after which they constructed
a fleet of twenty sail. In the second year after the destruction of
Troy, the remnant of the Trojans embarked under the guidance of Æne´as
in search of new settlements. After many wanderings and adventures,
they landed at Epi´rus, and were rejoiced to learn that Hel´enus, one
of the sons of Priam, was reigning in that country. He had married
Androm´ache, and the meeting of Æne´as with the widow of the great
Hector is the subject of a very beautiful passage in the Æneid. The
Penates of Troy had appeared at night to Anchi´ses, and revealed to
him that Italy was the land allotted by the Fates to the exiled
Trojans. Æne´as recalled a prediction of Cassandra to the same effect;
and Hel´enus, who was endowed with the gift of prophecy, now confirmed
what had been already foretold. He rendered his exiled countrymen all
the assistance in his power, and dismissed them at length, loaded with
costly gifts. Æne´as was destined to pass through many perils before
landing on the shores of Italy. In the seventh year of their
wanderings, the Trojans were driven by a storm on the coast of Africa;
here they were kindly entertained by Dido, who was then engaged in the
erection of her new city of Carthage. The queen admired the great
qualities of the Trojan chief, and felt her heart moved with
compassion at the sight of so much undeserved misfortune. She
resolved, therefore, to share her throne with the hero, and to offer
his followers a permanent settlement in the country. This proposal
seems not to have been displeasing either to Æne´as or to the Trojans.
Forgetful of the decrees of fate, they lingered many months in idle
pleasure, and Æne´as was only roused to action by the direct
intervention of the gods. Jupiter sent Mercury to the hero, commanding
him to embark without delay, and proceed to his destined settlement in
Italy. Æne´as obeyed, and made the necessary preparations for
departure, disregarding the tears and reproaches of the queen.

When Dido found that all was unavailing, and that the Trojans had
already embarked, she killed herself in despair.

Æne´as spent some time in Sicily, where he celebrated funeral games in
honor of his father, who had died there the preceding year. He left
with Acestes, a Trojan prince who governed a part of the island, the
women, the aged men, and all who were likely to be useless in the wars
which awaited him. Æne´as next landed at Cumæ, in Italy. This was the
abode of a famous Sibyl, of whom we will speak elsewhere. She foretold
to the hero much that was to happen during his settlement in Italy;
but in order that he might be fully informed of the future destinies
of his race, she offered to conduct him to the world of shades. Æne´as
having plucked, in the sacred grove, a golden bough as a gift to
Proser´pine, descended with the Sibyl to the dreary realms of Pluto.
After seeing much that was wonderful, and passing through regions
inhabited by different classes of departed souls, they entered the
happy plains of Elysium. This was the abode of the heroes and other
favorites of the gods. Here, in a fragrant meadow, Æne´as found the
shade of Anchi´ses, who showed him the souls which were destined to
return to earth, and become the future heroes of Rome. Anchi´ses also
recounted to Æne´as the glorious deeds which they were one day to
perform. In this passage, Virgil takes occasion to gratify the vanity
of Augustus and the great families of Rome, by introducing their names
and actions in the prophetic discourse of Anchi´ses.

Returning to upper air, Æne´as took leave of the sibyl, and pursued
his voyage along the Italian coast, anchoring at length in the mouth
of the Tiber.

The country around was governed by a prince named Latinus, the son of
Faunus and the nymph Marica. This prince had one child, a daughter
named Lavinia. Her hand had been promised to Turnus, prince of the
Rutulians, but Latinus was warned by an oracle that his destined
son-in-law was to come from afar, and that Lavinia was to wed a
foreigner. When Æne´as sent an embassy to Latinus, requesting
permission to settle in the country, that prince believed that the
Trojan chief was the person pointed out by the oracle, and invited
him to his palace. All now seemed to promise a peaceful settlement to
the harassed Trojans, but the enmity of Juno was not yet appeased. She
sent the Fury Alecto to the palace of Turnus, with orders to excite
this prince against the stranger, who was about to rob him of his
promised bride. A long war ensued, which forms the subject of the
concluding books of the Æneid. At length Turnus fell in a personal
combat with Æne´as. The hand of Lavinia was the price of victory, and
from the Trojan hero were descended the founders of Rome.

The Æneid concludes with the death of Turnus, but we have some further
particulars handed down by tradition. Æneas built a city, called from
his bride, Lavinium. Here he governed his Trojan and Italian subjects,
who became one people under the common name of Latins. The new kingdom
was attacked by several of the neighboring princes, led by Mezentius,
king of Etruria. Æneas defeated the allies, but was killed in the
moment of victory. The family of Julii, made illustrious by Julius
Cæsar, claimed descent from Iulus, grandson of Æneas.




CHAPTER XXXVIII.


SIBYLS--AUGURS.

_Ques._ Who were the Sibyls?

_Ans._ The Sibyllæ, or Sibyls, were certain females, supposed to be
inspired by Heaven, who flourished at different times and in different
parts of the world. According to the historian Varro, they were ten in
number. The most celebrated was the Cumæan Sibyl, of whom the poets
give the following account. Apollo sought the love of the young
prophetess, and promised to give her whatever she should demand. The
sibyl desired that she might live as many years as she had grains of
sand in her hand; but as she forgot to ask for health and youthful
bloom, this long life proved rather a burden than a benefit. She had
rejected the suit of Apollo, and the god refused, therefore, to
withdraw his gift or mitigate the severity of her lot. This sibyl had
already lived seven hundred years when Æne´as came to Italy, and six
centuries still remained of the time granted by Apollo. She
accompanied Æne´as on his visit to the lower world. According to a
well-known Roman legend, one of the sibyls came to the palace of the
second Tarquin with nine volumes, which she offered to sell at a very
high price. The king declined the offer; the sibyl immediately
disappeared and burned three of the volumes. Returning soon after, she
asked the same price for the remaining six books; and when Tarquin
again refused to buy them, she burned three more, and still persisted
in demanding the same sum of money for those that were left. This
extraordinary conduct astonished the monarch, and with the advice of
the Augurs he bought the books, upon which the sibyl disappeared and
was never seen after. These books were preserved with great care, and
were called the Sibylline Verses. A college of priests was appointed
to take charge of them, and they were consulted with the greatest
solemnity, whenever the state seemed to be in danger. When the Capitol
was burned in the troubles raised by Sylla, the Sibylline Verses are
said by some to have perished in the conflagration. It is believed,
however, on good authority, that they were in existence as late as the
fourth century, when they were destroyed by command of the Emperor
Honorius. Various collections were afterwards made, which are
generally admitted to be forgeries.

Different opinions have prevailed with regard to the prophecies of the
sibyls, some of which, it is said, pointed clearly to the advent of a
Redeemer, the time of his coming, and the submission of Rome to the
new dispensation. It has been thought that these passages were
invented by later Christian writers, but Bishop Horsley, a learned
English divine, thinks it more reasonable to suppose that the
sibylline books contained the records of prophecies which were granted
in primitive times, to nations outside of the patriarchal and Jewish
races. He cites in favor of this opinion, the fact that St. Justin, in
his apology addressed to the Emperor Marcus Antoninus, appeals
confidently to the sibylline prophecies, and at that time, about the
middle of the second century, it was not possible that the Christians
should have added anything to them. There are also passages in the
fourth Eclogue of Virgil which prove that the expectation of a
Saviour, and the belief that the time of his advent was approaching,
existed even among the pagans.


Divination by Omens--The Augurs.

_Ques._ Who were the Augurs?

_Ans._ They were priests whose office it was to observe and interpret
omens. This science was derived from the ancient Etrurians. There were
five principal classes of omens from which the Augurs were supposed to
foretell future events, the good or ill success of an undertaking,
etc. The first were drawn from the phenomena of nature, such as
thunder, lightning, comets, etc. The second kind of omen was obtained
by observing the cries and the flight of birds. In the third class we
may place the appetite of the sacred chickens; when they did not eat,
the omen was so bad that it was considered unlucky to give battle, or
undertake anything of importance. It happened once that a Roman
commander, (Claudius Pulcher,) when about to engage the fleet of the
enemy, was warned by the Augurs that the sacred chickens would not
eat. He replied, with very natural contempt, that if they would not
eat, they might drink, and had them thrown into the sea. It is
believed that the terrible defeat the Romans suffered on that day was
owing, in great part, to the discouragement of the sailors, who
supposed that their commander had forfeited the favor of the gods by
this act of sacrilege.

Omens were drawn from the appearance of the entrails of animals
offered in sacrifice, also from the meeting with quadrupeds in any
unaccustomed place.

The fifth class of omens was taken from different casualties, such as
spilling salt, stumbling on the threshold, sneezing, meeting a hare,
wolf, fox, etc. Some of these last superstitions prevail, more or
less, to the present day.




CHAPTER XXXIX.


ORACLES.

_Ques._ What do you understand by oracles?

_Ans._ The places where the heathen divinities were supposed to answer
those who consulted them, were called oracles. This word was also
applied to the responses given.

_Ques._ Name some of the more famous oracles?

_Ans._ Among the most celebrated were, the oracles of Jupiter at
Dodo´na; of Apollo, at Delphi; of Trophonius, near Lebe´dea in
Bœotia; of Jupiter Ammon, in the deserts of Lybia; of Æsculapius at
Epidaurus; and the Castalian Fount.

_Ques._ Describe the oracle of Dodo´na.

_Ans._ Dodo´na was a town of Epirus, probably situated in the valley
now called Joannina, but the exact site has not been ascertained. In
the earlier times Jupiter gave answers to his votaries by means of a
so-called vocal oak or beach. Brazen instruments, suspended from the
higher branches, clashed together when moved by the wind. The
priestesses who were appointed to explain the responses of the oracle
could attach whatever meaning they pleased to these inarticulate
sounds. Later, the Corcyrians presented to the temple a brazen caldron
surmounted by a figure of the same metal; the statue held in its hand
a whip, the lash of which consisted of three chains, each having an
astragalus (a small bone) at the end. These, when moved by the winds,
struck the caldron, and produced so continuous a sound that four
hundred vibrations were sometimes counted before it ceased.
Demosthenes tells us that the responses delivered to the Athenians at
Dodo´na were carefully preserved in the public archives; their
reverence for the oracle did not, however, prevent them from accusing
the priestess of being influenced by bribes when they were
dissatisfied with her answers.

The oracle of Dodo´na was probably the most ancient in Greece. The
temple was founded by the Pelasgi long before the siege of Troy; it
was partially destroyed by the Ætolians during the Social War, and it
would seem that it never recovered from this disaster. The town
existed many centuries later; and we read of a bishop of Dodo´na who
attended the council of Ephesus.

_Ques._ What does Diodorus tell us concerning the oracle at Delphi?

_Ans._ This historian relates that a shepherd, while feeding his
flocks on the side of Mount Parnassus, observed that his sheep and
goats, on approaching a certain cavity in the earth, began to skip
and dance about in an extraordinary manner. As he drew near to examine
the cause of this phenomenon, the vapors, exhaling from the earth,
affected him in the same way; his body was convulsed, and he spoke
words which revealed futurity. Others experienced similar effects, and
the exhalation was supposed to have a certain divine property. The
cavity was approached with reverence; a tripod was placed over it; and
a priestess or Pythia was appointed to preside. The words which she
uttered when under the influence of the vapor were considered to be
inspired by Apollo; crowds came to consult the oracle; a temple was
built, and the city of Delphi arose insensibly around the spot.

As the oracle grew in repute it became necessary to appoint a second
and a third Pythia to answer those who came to consult the god. The
Pythia could not prophesy until she had become intoxicated by the
vapor from the sanctuary. This effect was not produced at all times,
and on some days it was not permitted to consult the oracle. Spring
was considered the most propitious season. When Apollo was favorably
disposed, his approach was made known by the moving of a laurel that
stood before the gate of the temple. The sacred tree was then seen to
tremble in every leaf.

The Pythia was obliged to prepare by fasts, sacrifices and
purifications before she ascended the tripod. When under the influence
of the mysterious vapor, her hair stood erect, her eyes flashed, she
foamed at the mouth, and a convulsive trembling seized her whole body.

She then spoke prophetic words, which were carefully noted by the
attendant priests. The oracles were sometimes in verse, but more
commonly in prose; in the latter case they were immediately versified
by poets employed for that purpose.

Many remarkable oracles are recorded by Herodotus as having been
delivered at Delphi, but as a general thing the answers were
ambiguous, and so cautiously worded as to seem true, whatever might be
the event. Such was the answer given to Crœ´sus, king of Lydia, when
he consulted the oracle concerning the result of his expedition
against the Medes. The Pythia told him that by crossing the river
Halys he would ruin a great empire, but as she did not say what
empire, whether his own or that of his enemies, the oracle could not
fail of being fulfilled. There is no doubt that the Pythia was often
influenced by persuasion or bribes, and many illustrious persons were
accused of having bought the oracles they desired.

The temple of Apollo at Delphi was enriched by the offerings of
different princes, and the surrounding nations vied with one another
in the magnificence of their gifts. The building was destroyed by fire
in the year 548 B. C., but was soon rebuilt. Xerxes, after having
forced the pass of Thermopylæ, sent a detachment of his army to
plunder the treasures of Delphi. The expedition was unsuccessful,
owing, as the Delphians asserted, to a manifest interposition of the
deity. Afterwards, Philome´lus, a Phocian general, seized these
treasures to pay his troops. He is said to have carried off, in gold
and silver, a sum equal to ten million dollars. Still later Delphi was
threatened by the Gauls, under their king Brennus. According to
Pausanias, the city and temple were saved by Pan, as we have seen in
the account given of that god; but others declare that the invaders
possessed themselves of great booty. Sylla also plundered Delphi, and
Nero took from it, at one time, no less than five hundred statues of
bronze.

The temple was finally dismantled by Constantine the Great, who
adorned his Hippodrome with the sacred tripods.

No traces are known to exist of the cavern whence issued the sacred
vapor, but some have thought it might be discovered by searching in
the central part of the ruins of the ancient city.

_Ques._ Who was Trophonius, and for what was his oracle remarkable?

_Ans._ Trophonius, and his brother Agame´des were the architects of
the temple of Apollo at Delphi. According to one legend, when the
edifice was finished, they asked the god to reward them for their
labor. Apollo promised that he would recompense them on the seventh
day, and bade them live happily during the interval. On the seventh
night the brothers died in their sleep. The oracle is said to have
been discovered on the following occasion: In a time of severe drought
the Bœotians consulted Apollo at Delphi, and were directed to seek
aid from Trophonius in Lebadea. They proceeded thither, and seeing a
swarm of bees enter a chasm in the earth, they followed and discovered
a deep cavern. Here they found the oracle of Trophonius, and the aid
they sought.

_Ques._ What ceremonies were observed in consulting this oracle?

_Ans._ The votary was first purified by solemn ablutions; then, after
offering sacrifice, and drinking of a water called Lethe, or oblivion,
he descended by means of ladders into the first, or upper cavern. The
opening into the lower cave was extremely narrow, and there was
apparently nothing to aid the descent. Here, those who were courageous
enough to advance, lay upon the ground with their feet within the
entrance, taking care to hold in each hand a certain composition of
honey. They were then carried downwards with great force, as by the
current of a rapid river. In the mysterious depths of the lower cave,
the future was revealed, but not to all in the same manner; some saw,
others heard what they desired to know.

It has been frequently asserted that those who entered the cave of
Trophonius never smiled and we should judge, from the accounts given
by ancient writers, that they were subjected to a treatment closely
resembling what we now call animal magnetism, or mesmerism.

_Ques._ Where was the temple of Jupiter Ammon?

_Ans._ It was situated in an oasis of the Libyan desert, called by the
ancients Ammon, and by the modern Arabs, Siwah. It is about five
degrees west of Cairo.

The temple is said to have been founded by Bacchus under the following
circumstances. While marching through the Libyan desert, Bacchus came
to a barren waste of sand where his whole army was in danger of
perishing for want of water. He called on Jupiter for aid, and a ram
suddenly appeared, which guided them to a verdant oasis, in the midst
of which sparkled a clear fountain. Bacchus erected on the spot, a
temple which he dedicated to Jupiter. As the surrounding country was
called Hammo´des from Hammon or Ammon, sand, the god was worshipped
here under this title, and was always represented as having the head
and horns of a ram. The temple soon became celebrated as an oracle,
and was enriched, like that of Delphi, by splendid offerings. When
Camby´ses invaded Egypt, he sent a large body of troops across the
desert to seize its treasures. As nothing was ever heard of this
expedition, it seems probable that the Persians were purposely misled
by their Egyptian guides, and thus perished in the desert. Alexander
the Great visited the temple of Jupiter Ammon to question the oracle
as to his parentage; and the priests, who were undoubtedly apprised of
the object of his visit, did not wait to be questioned, but saluted
the king as the son of Jupiter. The site of this temple was discovered
in the last century by an English traveller, but the latest and best
account is given by Belzoni, who visited it in 1816. The oasis is
about six miles in length, with an average breadth of four miles. It
is fertile and produces in abundance, rice, wheat and fruits. The
ruins of the temple are not extensive; they are, however, interesting,
as many pieces of sculpture, including figures of goats with rams'
heads, are found in a good state of preservation. In a beautiful grove
of palms, towards the centre of the oasis, is the famous Fons Solis,
or Fountain of the Sun, which does not, however, correspond with the
description given by Herodotus. According to that historian, this
fountain was always tepid at dawn, icy cold at noon; it grew warm
again towards sunset, and was boiling hot at midnight. Belzoni says
that this account is quite exaggerated, although the water of the
fountain felt to him much warmer at midnight than at noon-day. The
truth seems to be that little or no change takes place in the
fountain, which is well shaded and very deep. The great change which
really takes place in the atmosphere is probably the cause of the
apparent variation in the temperature of the fountain. Belzoni had no
thermometer with him, so that he was unable to test the truth of this
supposition.

_Ques._ Where was the oracle of Æsculapius?

_Ans._ This god was consulted by the sick in many places, but his most
celebrated oracle was in his native city of Epidaurus in Argolis. This
oracle was so famous that in the year 293 B. C., when a terrible
pestilence was raging in Rome, the Senate sent a solemn embassy to
Epidaurus to implore the aid of Æsculapius. The god was propitious,
and accompanied the returning embassy in the form of a serpent.
According to another account, the priests sent to Rome a sacred
serpent which they nourished in the temple.

_Ques._ What was particularly remarkable in the oracles of Æsculapius?

_Ans._ It would seem that the priests, who had probably some skill in
medicine, made use of every means calculated to encourage the
votaries, and inspire them with a confident hope of recovery. They
were obliged to sleep in the temple, and we should judge, from the
accounts given by ancient writers, that they were subjected to a
treatment closely resembling what we now call animal magnetism, or
mesmerism.

The temple of Epidaurus was plundered by Sylla to defray the expenses
of the war against Mithridates.

_Ques._ Where was the Castalian Fount?

_Ans._ There were two celebrated springs of that name; one on Mount
Parnassus, which was sacred to the Muses, and another near Daphne, in
Syria. This last was believed to impart the knowledge of futurity to
those who drank of its waters. The oracle of this fountain promised
the empire to Hadrian, while he was yet in a private station. When he
ascended the throne, he had the fountain shut up with stones.

_Ques._ What opinions did the early Christian writers hold with regard
to the heathen oracles?

_Ans._ They believed that although the responses were to be
attributed, as a general thing, to mere human jugglery and imposture,
there were occasions in which it was impossible to doubt the direct
agency of evil spirits. We read in Scripture that Satan spoke by the
mouths of the possessed, and none were more likely to fall under this
demoniac influence than the priests and other ministrants in these
shrines of imposture. Many instances are recorded where Christians
imposed silence on oracles by pronouncing the name of Jesus Christ, or
by the sign of the cross; and sometimes the same effect was produced
by their simple presence in the temple.

_Ques._ At what period did the oracles cease to give responses?

_Ans._ No exact date can be assigned; as Christianity spread, these
impostures fell gradually into disrepute, and were at length entirely
abandoned. It has been asserted that the oracles became silent at the
birth of Christ, but this is an error. Milton, however adopts this
idea in his beautiful Hymn of the Nativity:

    "The oracles are dumb;
    No voice or hideous hum
      Rings through the arched roof in words deceiving.
    Apollo from his shrine
    Can no more divine,
      With hollow shriek the steep of Delphos leaving.
    No nightly trance or breathed spell
    Inspires the pale-eyed priest from the prophetic cell."




CHAPTER XL.


CLASSIC GAMES.

_Ques._ Why is a notice of these games appropriate in this place?

_Ans._ Because they were closely connected with the religious
observances of the Greeks. They were begun and ended with solemn
sacrifices, and formed a part in the celebration of the principal
festivals held in honor of the gods. These remarks apply also to the
Greek drama.

_Ques._ What games were solemnized in Greece?

_Ans._ They were of four kinds: the Olympic, the Pythian, the Ne´mean,
and the Isthmian.

_Ques._ Who instituted the Olympic games?

_Ans._ They were very ancient; their first institution was attributed
by the Greeks to Hercules. They were revived by Iphitus, king of Elis,
who obtained for them the solemn sanction of the Delphic oracle. The
Olympian games were celebrated at intervals of forty-nine and fifty
lunar months alternately, so that they fell sometimes in the month
Apollonius, (July); sometimes in the month Parthenius, (August). The
time of their celebration was a period of sacred truce, sufficiently
prolonged to enable persons to attend the games from every part of
Greece, and return to their homes in safety. The interval between the
celebrations was called an Olympiad, and the Greeks usually counted
time in this manner. The Olympiads were reckoned only from the year
776, B. C., although the games had been revived by Iphitus more than a
century earlier. The Olympic festival lasted five days. The games
consisted of chariot, horse and foot races; leaping, wrestling,
boxing, throwing the discus or quoit, etc. All persons were admitted
to contend in these games who could prove that they were free, of pure
Hellenic blood, and that their characters had never been stained by
any base or immoral act. So great was the importance attached to race,
that even the kings of Macedon were obliged to prove their Hellenic
descent before they were allowed to enter as competitors. It is almost
impossible for us to realize the importance attached by the Greeks to
a victory gained in any of these exercises. The prize itself was a
crown of wild olive. This was cut from a tree in the sacred grove of
Olympia, which was said to have been brought by Hercules from the land
of the Hyperboreans. A palm branch was at the same time placed in the
victor's hand, and his name was proclaimed by the herald. On his
return home, more distinguished honors awaited him. He entered his
native city, not by the gate, but through a breach made in the walls
for his reception. Banquets were given to him by his friends, at which
odes were sung in honor of his victory. The horse and chariot races
held the highest rank, and singularly enough, the honor of the victory
belonged to the owner of the horse or chariot, although he himself
should not have been present at the games.

The Greek historians relate that three couriers were received by
Philip of Macedon on the same day, each being the bearer of joyful
tidings. The first announced that his general had gained a great
victory; the second, that his horse had won the prize in the Olympic
games; while the third brought news of the birth of his son,
afterwards Alexander the Great. This passage is sufficient to show
what importance was attached to such a victory, when we see it thus
classed as an event of equal importance with the success of an army,
and the birth of an heir to a great kingdom.

Alcibiades on one occasion entered seven four-horse chariots in the
Olympic games, and carried off the first, second and third prizes. The
poet Euripides celebrated this victory, and Alcibiades, after offering
solemn sacrifices to Jupiter, feasted the entire multitude assembled
to witness the games. Ladies were admitted to dispute the prizes at
Olympia, and many are mentioned as successful competitors. Cynisca,
the sister of Agesilaus, king of Sparta, first opened this path of
glory to her sex, and was proclaimed conqueror in the four-horse
chariot race. This victory, till then unexampled, was celebrated with
all possible splendor. A magnificent monument was erected in Sparta in
honor of Cynisca, and the Lacedæmonians, who were generally
indifferent to the charms of verse, engaged a poet to transmit this
new triumph to posterity. The princess dedicated a brazen chariot in
the temple of Apollo at Delphi; in this votive offering, the
charioteer was also represented; which proves that she had not driven
the chariot herself at the games. This is a feat which, it is
believed, no woman ever attempted. The portrait of Cynisca, drawn by
the great Apelles, was afterwards placed in the same temple.

_Ques._ Were any other exercises admitted at the Olympic games?

_Ans._ Yes; there was also an intellectual competition, which was
perhaps more lively and ardent than any other, as the victory in such
a contest was more highly esteemed. The best writers and poets of
Greece repaired to the Olympic games, believing that the approbation
of so illustrious an assembly was the most certain means of
establishing a great reputation in a little time. It was thus that
Herodotus read his history to assembled Greece. It was received with
enthusiastic applause, and the names of the nine muses were
immediately given to the nine books which compose the work. Dionysius
was not so fortunate. This prince believed himself the most excellent
poet of the time, and employed professional readers to recite some of
his pieces at Olympia. When they began to read these verses their
clear and harmonious voices pleased the ear, and they were listened to
at first with great attention, which gradually decreased as they went
on, until the whole assembly burst forth into hooting and shouts of
laughter, so absurd did the pretensions of the royal poet appear.

What we have said of the Olympic Games, may be applied with some
little variation to those solemnized in other places.

_Ques._ By whom were the Pythian Games instituted?

_Ans._ According to Greek fable, by Apollo himself, in commemoration
of his victory over the serpent Python; according to the more probable
historic account, they originated at the time when the Delphic oracle
had already gained some reputation. The Amphictyonic council was
charged with the superintendence of the games, which were celebrated
at first every ninth, and afterwards every fifth year. The crown
bestowed was of bay.

_Ques._ Where were the Ne´mean games celebrated?

_Ans._ At Ne´mea, a city of Argolis, celebrated as the haunt of the
lion slain by Hercules. They were said to have been restored by that
hero, and were celebrated every third year. The crowns bestowed on
the victors were of parsley, because these were originally funeral
games, and it was customary to lay chaplets of parsley on the tombs of
the dead. The ruins of Ne´mea are to be seen near the modern village
of Kutchumadi.

_Ques._ Why were the Isthmian Games so called?

_Ans._ They were named from the Isthmus of Corinth, where they were
celebrated. They were instituted in honor of Melicertes, who was
changed into a sea deity. After falling into neglect, these games were
restored by Theseus. They were celebrated every five years, and
continued to be solemnized even after the destruction of Corinth by
the Romans. The victors were at first rewarded with garlands of pine
leaves, but this custom was changed, and the pine was replaced by a
crown of withered parsley.




CHAPTER XLI.


THEATRES.

_Ques._ Did the theatrical representations of the Greeks resemble
those of modern times?

_Ans._ They differed widely, both in the arrangement of the drama, and
the mode of representation. The greatest distinction lay, perhaps, in
the structure of the theatre itself.

_Ques._ Describe the general plan of a Greek theatre?

_Ans._ It was quite open above, and the dramas were always acted in
the light of day, beneath the bright canopy of a southern heaven. The
Romans at a later period introduced awnings to screen the audience
from the sun, but the Greeks would have regarded such a precaution as
a mark of effeminacy; and it must be admitted that their milder
climate rendered it almost unnecessary. If a storm or a shower came
on, the play was, of course, interrupted; the gods and heroes
disappeared, and the audience sought shelter in the lofty colonnade
which always ran behind their seats. They chose to suffer these
occasional inconveniences, rather than shut themselves up in a close
and crowded house, and forfeit the sunny brightness of what was to
them a national, and even, in some sort, religious solemnity. To have
covered in the stage itself, and imprisoned gods and heroes in a
gloomy apartment artificially lighted, would have appeared to the
ancients in the highest degree absurd.

The great theatre of Bacchus, at Athens, is the only structure of the
kind of which a complete description has reached us. It may serve to
give a general idea of these edifices.

This theatre stood on the southeastern side of the eminence which was
crowned by the noble buildings of the Acropolis. From the level of the
plain below, a semicircular excavation ascended far up on the slope of
the hill. Round the concavity, seats for an audience of thirty
thousand persons arose, range above range; higher still, the whole was
enclosed by a lofty portico adorned with statues and surmounted by a
balustraded terrace. For the convenience of entering and leaving, the
tiers of benches were divided at intervals, by passages extending
around the theatre, and again transversely, into wedge-like masses, by
flights of steps which radiated from the lowest tier to the portico
above. The lower seats, being more conveniently placed for seeing and
hearing, were esteemed the most honorable, and were reserved for the
high magistrates, the priests and the Senate. Below, was the
semicircular orchestra, or pit, which was generally occupied by the
chorus. Elevated above the orchestra, and opposite the lower seats,
was the stage itself. This had a very wide front and but little depth.
The actors usually spoke in the central part, called logeum, or
pulpitum. Behind this, the stage grew deeper, and formed a quadrangle
called the proscenium. This was enclosed by lofty buildings of
stone-work, representing externally a palace-like mansion, and
containing within withdrawing rooms for the actors, and receptacles
for the stage machinery. When the nature of the play rendered it
necessary, these buildings were concealed by painted scenes. In the
greater number of tragedies, however, the whole action might be
carried on appropriately enough in the portico or court of a palace.
There were also contrivances by which a portion of the interior might
be exposed to view. The rank of the personages was generally indicated
by the particular door at which they entered; that in the centre of
the proscenium being reserved for royalty. Wonderful effects were
produced by the use of the machinery which was disposed behind the
walls of the stage. Supported by ropes, or iron cranes, carefully
concealed, gods appeared in the air, descended on the stage, and
performed their allotted part in the drama. Heroes also ascended to
Olympus, and were hidden at length from view by scenic clouds. In the
Prometheus of Æschylus, Oceanus passes through the air, mounted on a
griffin, and a choir of fifteen ocean nymphs is introduced in a flying
chariot. In another piece, Aurora descends and carries off the dead
body of Memnon. Ghosts and infernal deities ascended from beneath the
stage, where there were appropriate contrivances for their
introduction. When it was necessary to conceal the stage, the curtain
was not dropped, but drawn up from beneath the floor.

_Ques._ Was there anything peculiar in the dress of the actors?

_Ans._ The costumes were splendid, and carefully adapted to the rank
and character of the personages represented. The actors wore masks
which covered the entire head. When gods or heroic personages were
represented, the masks were larger than life, and the disproportion of
the size of the head with the rest of the body, was obviated by two
different contrivances. The cothurnus, or buskin, was soled with
several layers of cork, which added at least three inches to the
height of the actor, and the dress was judiciously padded, so as to
give the whole figure the necessary heroic dimensions. Women were not
admitted on the Greek stage; the female parts were always performed by
men, wearing appropriate wigs and masks.

It has been supposed that the use of masks must have embarrassed the
actors, and made them appear stiff and unnatural. This may have been
true to a certain extent, but we must remember that, at the distance
at which the actors were placed from the greater part of their
audience, the changes of expression, and the play of feature would
have been quite lost, while the large and finely colored masks may
have had a very good effect. Nothing would have seemed more out of
place to the Greeks, than to see the part of Apollo or Hercules
performed by an actor with strongly marked or ordinary features.

The masks were lined with brass, and so constructed that instead of
muffling the voice, they gave it depth and volume, almost as a
speaking trumpet would have done.

_Ques._ What was the Chorus?

_Ans._ It was a choir of singers, varying in number from fifteen to
fifty. In the intervals between the acts of the drama, the chorus
chanted verses corresponding to the action of the piece, sometimes
pouring forth hymns of thanksgiving or supplication to the gods;
sometimes chanting odes on the instability of human affairs as
exemplified in the scenes which they had just witnessed. At other
times the chorus broke forth into lamentations over the untimely fate
of some personage of the drama, or denounced the anger of the gods on
the head of a tyrant. Besides this more legitimate action of the
chorus, it was occasionally permitted to take part in the dialogue.
Even in this case they always remained in the orchestra.

The singing was always accompanied by dances which varied according to
the nature of the piece. All the movements of a tragic chorus were
slow and grave, while in the lighter pieces, the music and the
measures of the dance were quick and lively. The dress of the chorus
varied in the same manner. In certain tragedies, these singers
personated the Eumenides or Furies. These were generally robed in
black, with purple girdles. They brandished whips, wreathed with
serpents, in their fleshless hands, and their aspect was rendered
still more terrible by the frightful masks which appeared beneath
their snaky tresses. We are told that when Æschylus introduced such a
chorus in one of his tragedies, the terror of the spectators was such
that many fainted, and several children died of fright.

In this connection we have an interesting story. Ibycus, a lyric poet,
was on his way to the Isthmian games, when he was waylaid by two
robbers. The unhappy bard called in vain for aid; no human help was
near; but his last, despairing cry was echoed by the hoarse scream of
a flock of cranes which was passing overhead. The dying poet heard,
and looking upwards, prayed the birds to discover and avenge the crime
which they alone had seen. The murderers heard this appeal, to which,
however, they paid no heed at the time. The body of Ibycus was found
and recognized, and the multitude assembled to witness the Isthmian
games were sorely disappointed and dismayed at the sad tidings of his
death. They crowded the tribunals and demanded vengeance on the
murderers, but no trace could be found which might lead to their
discovery. The festival proceeded, the fate of Ibycus being still on
every tongue. The assembled people were assisting at a dramatic
representation, when the dread chorus of the Furies advanced with
measured step, and made the circuit of the Theatre. The sound of
instruments was heard no more as their choral hymn swelled and rose,
thrilling the hearts of all who heard. They sang of the happiness
enjoyed by the pure of heart, of the good man whose dwelling was never
darkened by their shadow. Then the blood of the listeners grew cold
with fear as they told of the vengeance which it was theirs to wreak
on the secret murderer, on him whose crime had been vainly hidden from
mortal eye. Thus they sang in measured cadence, and passed from view,
while a solemn stillness settled on the vast assembly. At this moment
a voice was heard from the upper benches, exclaiming, as if in sudden
terror, "Behold, comrade! yonder are the cranes of Ibycus!" and a
flight of cranes was seen passing directly over the Theatre. The name
of the murdered poet caught the ears of the multitude. Each one asked
what this exclamation might mean, and what had the cranes to do with
him. A cry was raised to seize the man who had spoken, and the one to
whom his speech had been addressed. The wretched murderers, thus
betrayed by their own guilty fears, confessed the crime, and suffered
the punishment they had deserved. Attempts have been made by French
and German tragedians, to revive the ancient chorus, but without
success, as it is entirely unsuited to the modern drama.

_Ques._ Were dramatic entertainments as frequent in ancient times as
in our own?

_Ans._ No; but they took place several times in the year, forming a
necessary part in the celebration of the principal festivals. The best
actors were engaged long beforehand, and were subject to heavy fines
if they failed to appear on the appointed day. When such an
entertainment was about to take place, the people hastened to the
theatre at the dawn of day, that they might secure good seats, as the
performance commenced at a very early hour. There were three or four
distinct representations during the day, divided by short intervals of
repose. During these, the audience walked in the neighboring groves,
amused themselves, and partook of the refreshments which they brought
with them. When different dramatic poets contended for the prize of
excellence, they generally presented two or three pieces each, so that
twelve complete dramas were sometimes performed on the same day.

_Ques._ Were these theatres free to all?

_Ans._ No; each person was obliged to pay a small sum for admission.
When Pericles wished to gain the favor of the Athenians, he reduced
the entrance fee to two oboli, and obtained a decree that even this
trifling sum should be furnished by the magistrates to the poorer
class of citizens. The theatres themselves were erected, and in a
great measure maintained at the expense of the state. The cost of the
entertainments must have been heavy, if we are to judge by the
descriptions given of the scenic arrangements. It is even said that
when groves were required, living trees from the forest were planted
on the stage.

Whatever may have been the faults of the Greek drama, there is no
doubt that it was intended to inculcate principles of religion and
morality.

The theatrical entertainments of the Greeks, and their public games,
form a striking contrast to the inhuman sports of the Roman
amphitheatre.




CHAPTER XLII.


CELEBRATED STATUES.

_Ques._ What are the most celebrated statues of the heathen
divinities?

_Ans._ The Olympian Jupiter, the Apollo Belvidere, the Diana à la
Biche, the Minerva of the Parthenon and the Venus de Medicis.

_Ques._ What was the Olympian Jupiter?

_Ans._ This statue, now lost, was forty feet in height, on a pedestal
of twelve feet. It was considered the finest work of art of the great
Athenian sculptor, Phidias, and there are still in existence busts
taken from it, which are remarkable for their calm majesty of
expression. The material was what the Greeks called chryselephantine;
that is, the flesh was composed of plates of ivory skillfully laid on;
but the drapery and ornaments were pure gold. This circumstance is
sufficient to account for the destruction of the statue. It was
executed for the temple of Jupiter at Olympia, which was worthy of
such an adornment, being one of the most magnificent edifices in
Greece.

_Ques._ Describe the Minerva of the Parthenon?

_Ans._ The statue was of the same dimensions and was composed of the
same materials as the Olympian Jupiter; it was also the work of
Phidias. The Parthenon was one of the most beautiful of the Greek
temples, and was enriched by the hand of Phidias with statues and
other ornaments. This magnificent temple would have been sufficient in
itself to confer immortal glory on the administration of Pericles. It
existed in its full beauty for more than a century after his death. It
was first despoiled by Lachares, who stripped the statue of Minerva of
its golden adornments. It is said he obtained in this manner an amount
of precious metal equal to nearly half a million of dollars. The
temple itself resisted the attacks of time; it was used successively
as a Christian church and a Turkish mosque, and was still entire when
the Venetians besieged the citadel of Athens in the year 1687. The
Turks converted the Parthenon into a powder magazine; it was
unfortunately struck by a bomb, and the entire edifice was reduced to
its present ruinous condition. Some of the sculptures and bas-reliefs
which once adorned this temple may now be seen in the British Museum.
They are called "Elgin Marbles," because they were brought from Greece
by Lord Elgin.

_Ques._ Describe the Venus de Medicis?

_Ans._ This statue, still perfect, is so called from having been in
the possession of the Medicis family. An inscription on its base
informs us that it was carved by Cleomenes, an Athenian sculptor, 200
B. C. The artist has succeeded in producing a figure quite perfect in
form; but there is nothing spiritual about the Venus, which is,
therefore, far inferior to the Jupiter and Minerva.

_Ques._ Describe the Apollo Belvidere?

_Ans._ This statue is so called from the Belvidere gallery of the
Pope's palace. The artist is unknown, but it is believed to be a Roman
work. The god is represented as having just discharged an arrow from
his bow against the monster Python. The form and attitude are perfect,
but the face is particularly admired for its expression of majesty and
power.

_Ques._ Describe the Diana à la Biche?

_Ans._ This beautiful statue, now at the Louvre, is considered the
counterpart of the Apollo. The goddess is engaged in the chase, and a
hind is running by her side. One hand is lifted to draw an arrow from
the quiver.




PART II.




CHAPTER I.

Egyptian Divinities.


OSIRIS--APIS--SERAPIS--ISIS--ANUBIS--HARPOCRATES.

_Ques._ Who was Osiris?

_Ans._ Osiris, Apis and Serapis, are three different names of one and
the same god. Osiris was the son of Jupiter and of Niobe, the daughter
of Phoroneus. He conquered Egypt, which he governed so well and wisely
as to receive divine honors from his subjects even during his life. He
married, as we have already learned, Io, the daughter of Inachus, who
was more generally known to the Egyptians by the name of Isis.

Osiris was cruelly murdered by his brother Typhon. Isis, after a long
search, found his body, which she laid in a monument in an island near
Memphis. Osiris became from that time the tutelar deity of the
Egyptians. He was regarded as identical with the sun, while Isis was
supposed, like Cybele, to personify the earth.

_Ques._ How was this goddess represented?

_Ans._ As a woman with the horns of a cow, sometimes, also, as crowned
with lotus. Heads of Isis are common among the decorations of Egyptian
temples. After the worship of this goddess was introduced into Rome,
her image was adorned with different emblems. The mysterious rites of
Isis became a cloak for much secret vice, and were repeatedly
forbidden at Rome. Tiberius caused the images of the goddess to be
thrown into the Tiber; her worship was, however, afterwards revived.
The abuses attending it are mentioned with indignation by the poet
Juvenal.

_Ques._ Who was Apis?

_Ans._ He was the sacred bull of Memphis. The Egyptians maintained
that the soul of Osiris passed after death into the body of Apis; and
that as often as the sacred animal died, the soul passed into the body
of its successor.

Sacrifices were offered to this strange divinity; his birth-day was
celebrated with great magnificence, and it was believed that during
this festival the crocodiles forgot their usual ferocity, and became
harmless. A temple, two chapels, and a court for exercise, were
assigned to this god, whose food was always served in vessels of gold.
It may be doubted whether the poor animal was capable of appreciating
these extraordinary honors; he was not permitted, however, to enjoy
them beyond a stated period. If he attained the age of twenty-five
years, he was drowned by the attendant priests in the sacred cistern;
his body was then carefully embalmed, and buried in the temple of
Serapis.

On the death of Apis, whether it occurred in the course of nature or
by violence, the whole country was plunged into mourning, which lasted
until his successor was found. The animal into whom the divinity had
passed, was known by many extraordinary marks; a square white spot on
the forehead, the figure of an eagle on the back, a white crescent on
the right side, and the mark of a beetle under the tongue. The priests
always succeeded in finding an animal with these extraordinary marks,
and the happy event was immediately celebrated throughout Egypt.

_Ques._ How did the people obtain replies from the oracle of Apis?

_Ans._ By various signs: the votary having proposed a question,
offered food to the sacred animal; if he ate, it was considered a
favorable omen. It was also a good augury if he entered, of his own
accord, a particular stall. When Germanicus offered food to Apis, the
animal refused to eat, and this circumstance was afterwards considered
as ominous of the early fate of the Roman prince.

_Ques._ Who was Harpocrates?

_Ans._ Horus or Harpocrates was the son of Osiris. He was worshipped
as the god of Silence, and is represented as a boy, seated on a
lotus-flower, with his finger on his lips.

Besides the gods we have mentioned, the Egyptians worshipped the dog,
the wolf, the crocodile, the ibis, and many other animals. They even
attributed divinity to certain plants and roots. Juvenal, in one of
his Satires, thus ridicules their superstition:

    Who has not heard where Egypt's realms are nam'd
    What monster gods her frantic sons have fram'd?
    Here Ibis gorged with well-grown serpents, there
    The Crocodile commands religious fear:
    Where Memnon's statue magic strains inspire
    With vocal sounds that emulate the lyre;
    And Thebes, such, Fate, are thy disastrous turns,
    Now prostrate o'er her pompous ruins mourns
    A monkey-god, prodigious to be told!
    Strikes the beholder's eye with burnish'd gold:
    To godship here blue Triton's scaly herd,
    The river progeny is there preferr'd:
    Through towns Diana's power neglected lies,
    Where to her dogs aspiring temples rise!
    And should you leeks or onions eat, no time
    Would expiate the sacrilegious crime.
    Religious nations sure, and blest abodes,
    Where every orchard is o'er-run with gods.




CHAPTER II.

EASTERN MYTHOLOGY.

Deities of the Assyrians.


BAAL, OR BEL--MOLOCH.

_Ques._ Who were these divinities?

_Ans._ The names Baal and Moloch seem to have been, at first,
different appellations of the Sun; later they assumed another
signification, and were applied to distinct deities.

_Ques._ Where was the Sun worshipped under the name of Baal or Bel
(the Lord)?

_Ans._ In Babylon. The famous tower of Babel or Belus, was there
devoted to his worship, although the highest apartment of the edifice
served also as an observatory, and was the repository of the most
ancient astronomical observations. Some writers have imagined that the
Chaldeans and Babylonians worshipped Nimrod under the name of Belus,
but it is generally believed that with these nations, and the ancient
Canaanites, this was one of the many appellations of the Sun.

_Ques._ What proof have we of the popularity of this god among the
Phœnicians and Carthaginians?

_Ans._ In their proper names; as among the former, Eth_baal_,
Jerub_baal_; among the latter, Hanni_bal_, Asdru_bal_.

_Ques._ By whom was the worship of Baal introduced among the
Israelites?

_Ans._ By King Achab or Ahab. They offered human sacrifices to Baal in
groves, or high places, and on the terraces of their houses. Jeremias
reproaches the Jews with building "the high places of Baalim, to burn
their children with fire for a holocaust to Baalim." This text shows
the extent to which the apostate Hebrews carried this abominable
worship.


MOLOCH.

_Ques._ Who was Moloch?

_Ans._ He was a divinity of the Ammonites. The Phœnicians were also
particularly devoted to his worship. Young children and infants were
offered as holocausts to this cruel god. These horrid sacrifices were
most frequent in Carthage. When the Sicilian Agathocles threatened
that city, we are told that five hundred infants, many the first-born
of noble parents, were consumed in one day on the altar of Moloch.

_Ques._ How was this god represented?

_Ans._ By a brazen image, which was so contrived that when a child
was laid upon its extended arms, they were lowered, and the little
victim immediately fell into the fiery furnace placed at the foot of
the idol.

_Ques._ Was Moloch worshipped by the Jews?

_Ans._ Yes; it would seem that they were addicted to this idolatry
before their departure from Egypt, since Moses in many places forbids
the Israelites, under pain of death, to dedicate their children to
Moloch, by passing them through fire. Solomon built a temple for his
worship on the Mount of Olives. Later human sacrifices were offered to
him in the valley of Hinnom, called also Tophet, which lay to the east
of Jerusalem.

_Ques._ Where does Milton refer to this god?

_Ans._ Assuming that the demons or fallen angels received the worship
of men, under the names of different heathen divinities, he thus
describes Moloch amid the host of Satan:

    "First, Moloch, horrid king, besmear'd with blood
    Of human sacrifice, and parents' tears;
    Though, for the noise of drums and timbrels loud,
    Their children's cries unheard, that passed through fire,
    To his grim idol. Him the Ammonite
    Worshipp'd in Rabba and her watery plain,
    In Argob and in Basan, to the stream
    Of utmost Arnon; nor content with such
    Audacious neighborhood, the wisest heart
    Of Solomon he led by fraud to build
    His temple right against the temple of God,
    On that opprobrious hill: and made his grove
    The pleasant valley of Hinnom, Tophet thence
    And black Gehenna call'd, the type of Hell."

_Ques._ Who was Astaroth?

_Ans._ This goddess, called by the Greeks Astarte, represented the
moon, in the same manner as Baal was held to be identical with the
sun. The Hebrews always connected the worship of these two divinities.
According to Cicero, Astarte was the Syrian Venus, and it is certain
that in her worship, and the festivals celebrated in her honor, there
is some foundation for this idea. Where human sacrifices were offered
to Baal, wheaten cakes, wine and perfumes were laid upon the altar of
Astaroth.

Notwithstanding these more innocent offerings, her worship was
rendered infamous by the license which prevailed during these
festivals, and the open immorality practised by her votaries.


THAMMUZ.

_Ques._ Who was Thammuz?

_Ans._ This was another name for Adonis, whose story is of Eastern
origin. His death, which we have already referred to in connection
with the goddess Venus, is said to have taken place in the mountains
of Libanus, from which the river Adonis flows to the sea. The Assyrian
women mourned for him in the autumn-time. It was believed that at this
season the river changed its color, and ran red, as if tinged with
blood. To this Milton alludes:

            "Thammuz came next behind,
    Whose annual wound in Lebanon allured
    The Syrian damsels to lament his fate
    In amorous ditties all a summer's day;
    While smooth Adonis from his native rock
    Ran purple to the sea, supposed with blood
    Of Thammuz yearly wounded."

The prophet Ezekiel, in relating the iniquities committed in
Jerusalem, says that he saw women sitting by the north gate of the
temple, who mourned for Adonis. (In the Hebrew, Thammuz.)


OANNES.

_Ques._ Who was Oannes?

_Ans._ He was a god of the Assyrians, half man, half fish, who was
said to dwell in the sea, from which he came at stated times, to
instruct the Babylonians in wisdom and science. Oannes is the Dagon of
the Philistines.




CHAPTER III.


PERSIA.

_Ques._ What was the religion of the ancient Persians?

_Ans._ We derive our knowledge of their religion principally from
their Zend-avesta, or Sacred Book.

_Ques._ What does the Zend-avesta contain?

_Ans._ The doctrines of Zoroaster, an Eastern sage, who is thought to
have lived in Bactria about twelve hundred years before our era.

_Ques._ Was the Zend-avesta written by Zoroaster?

_Ans._ But a small portion, if any, of the Sacred Books were written
by him, but the most ancient passages, which are in verse, were
probably written soon after his time, when the knowledge of his
doctrines was still preserved. The Parsees, or modern followers of
Zoroaster, now scattered through India, say that the Zend-avesta
formerly consisted of twenty-one books, but that the greater part were
lost in the troubled times that followed the conquest of Persia by
Alexander the Great.

_Ques._ What is the form of the Zend-avesta?

_Ans._ It is in the form of a dialogue, in which Ormuzd, the supreme
deity, replies to the inquiries of Zoroaster, and teaches him his will
with regard to his creatures.

_Ques._ What were the doctrines of Zoroaster?

_Ans._ This philosopher was more enlightened than his contemporaries,
and was probably acquainted with primitive tradition. He taught the
existence of one supreme Being called "the Eternal," who created two
other mighty beings, and imparted to them a portion of his own eternal
divinity.

_Ques._ Who were these deities?

_Ans._ Ormuzd, or Oromasdes, who remained faithful and pure, governs
the world with all the attributes which are given to the true God.
Ahriman, on the contrary, uses all his energies for evil; and is, in
all respects, considered as a sort of independent demon, endowed with
infinite and untiring malice.

_Ques._ What part did each of these divinities take in the creation?

_Ans._ Ormuzd created men and angels, the sun, moon and stars, and
everything which can contribute to the welfare or pleasure of his
creatures. Ahriman created the wild beasts, poisonous serpents, etc.,
and sent diseases, earthquakes and storms. The Persians thus believed
in two independent principles, one of good, and one of evil, but they
worshipped only the first.

_Ques._ Did they not worship the sun?

_Ans._ They probably did in later times, but the early followers of
Zoroaster reverenced the sun and fire as emblems of Ormuzd. Perpetual
fire was kept burning on their altars. The Parsees of Hindostan say
that they have sacred fire which has never been extinguished since the
time of Zoroaster. All the sacred fires were originally lit from that
which Zoroaster brought from heaven. The Guebres, as these people are
sometimes called, often built their temples over subterranean fires.

_Ques._ Is there any such fire now reverenced by them?

_Ans._ Yes, near the town of Bakoo in Georgia, on the Caspian Sea,
there is a perpetual flame issuing from a limestone rock. It is
watched by priests, and is much venerated by the surrounding tribes.
Pilgrimages are made to this sacred fire from all parts of Asia.

_Ques._ What is the cause of this phenomenon?

_Ans._ Bakoo and the surrounding country abound in naphtha and
petroleum. The sacred fire is simply a jet of inflammable gas escaping
from the rocks, which, once lit, burns perpetually, as the supply is
inexhaustible.

_Ques._ Were the Persians attached to magical arts?

_Ans._ Yes, their priests mingled the fables of astrology with their
astronomical learning; hence, from the word magi, is derived our word
magician.

_Ques._ Where did the Persians offer their sacrifices?

_Ans._ Generally on the tops of lofty mountains.

_Ques._ When was the religion of Zoroaster suppressed in Persia?

_Ans._ After the conquest of Persia, by the Arabs, which took place in
the seventh century, those who refused to embrace the Koran fled to
Hindostan, where they still exist under the name of Parsees. At Bombay
they are an active, intelligent and wealthy class.




CHAPTER IV.

Hindoo Mythology.


BRAHMA--THE VEDAS.

_Ques._ What are the Vedas?

_Ans._ The Vedas are the Sacred Books of the Hindoos, and are much
reverenced by them. They maintain that they were composed by Brahma,
the Supreme Deity, at the creation.

_Ques._ When do the Hindoos think that the world was created?

_Ans._ At an incredibly remote period; they say the present
arrangement of the Vedas was made by a sage named Vyasa, some five
thousand years ago.

_Ques._ What is the more correct opinion?

_Ans._ That they were written in the second thousand years before our
era, a little later, probably, than the Books of Moses.

_Ques._ Had the Hindoos then conquered the country which now bears
their name?

_Ans._ No; they were only crossing the borders of India.

_Ques._ In what form are the Vedas written?

_Ans._ In poetry. The principal Veda contains ten thousand double
verses. These works are heavy and uninteresting, but very important to
historians.

_Ques._ Why so?

_Ans._ Because they throw light on the early history of the Indian and
European races.

_Ques._ What do the Vedas teach of God?

_Ans._ They teach one supreme deity, called Brahma, and like the
Persians seem to have some idea of the Trinity, speaking of Brahma,
Vishnu, and Siva, as one God. The modern Hindoos, however, worship
them as distinct divinities.

_Ques._ What are the offices of these gods?

_Ans._ Brahma created all things, Vishnu preserves them, and when the
end of the world is come, which the Vedas say will occur in about
twelve million years, Siva will destroy them.

_Ques._ What is there peculiar in the history of Vishnu?

_Ans._ His Avatars, or incarnations, which are numerous, but ten are
more especially celebrated.

_Ques._ What was the first Avatar?

_Ans._ The first Avatar was when Vishnu assumed the form of a fish,
and saved Manu, the father of the human race, from a universal deluge.

_Ques._ What is the ninth Avatar?

_Ans._ In the ninth Avatar, Vishnu appeared in the form of Krishna, a
sort of Indian Apollo; the last of the Sacred Books is that which
contains the life of Krishna.

_Ques._ What is there remarkable about this life?

_Ans._ So many circumstances closely resemble corresponding events in
the life of our Saviour, that it is impossible the coincidence should
be accidental. It is supposed this book was written after our era by
some one who had heard imperfect accounts of the life of our Lord.

_Ques._ What is to be the tenth Avatar?

_Ans._ The tenth Avatar is called Kalki, in which Vishnu will come to
judge the world, destroying the wicked and rewarding the good.

_Ques._ What do you say of Siva?

_Ans._ Siva, or Mahadeva, as he is more generally called, has a vast
number of followers. His worshippers and those of Vishnu form two
distinct sects. Brahma, having finished his work, has but one temple
in India. It is doubtful whether the worshippers of Juggernaut belong
to the sect of Vishnu, or of Siva.

_Ques._ What do the Hindoos believe of the soul?

_Ans._ They think that every soul is a part of Brahma, as a spark is a
part of the fire, and that finally all souls will be absorbed into
Brahma, as drops of water are lost in the ocean. They also believe in
metempsychosis.

_Ques._ What is metempsychosis?

_Ans._ The transmigration of souls. The Hindoos believe that if a man
lead a pure life, his soul will pass, after death, into another human
body, but that if he has been wicked, it will enter into the body of
some unclean animal. They think the soul will transmigrate many times
before being finally united to Brahma. This belief makes many of the
Hindoos afraid to kill animals for food, lest they may possess human
souls, and be perhaps their own friends or relations.

_Ques._ What are Castes?

_Ans._ They are different classes into which the Hindoos have been
divided from the earliest times.

_Ques._ How many castes are there?

_Ans._ Four; the Brahmins or priests, who sprung from the head of
Brahma; the Warrior caste, which issued from his arms; the
Agriculturists and Traders, who came from his thighs, and lastly, the
Sudras, or laborers, who sprung from his feet.

_Ques._ Is there much distinction between the castes?

_Ans._ Yes; they cannot under any circumstances intermarry; nor can a
member of a lower caste ever pass to a higher. Only, if he lead a good
life, he may console himself with the hope of being born in a higher
caste the next time.

_Ques._ Is there any caste lower than the Sudras?

_Ans._ No regular caste, but there exists a most unhappy race called
Pariahs, who are treated with the utmost contempt, and employed only
in the vilest offices. They cannot enter the house of any one
belonging to a pure caste, and they are not only unclean themselves,
but are supposed to contaminate everything they touch. Different
accounts are given as to the origin of these Pariahs.

_Ques._ Are the Hindoos allowed to eat flesh?

_Ans._ The three higher castes are forbidden it altogether. The Sudras
may eat every kind but beef, but the Pariahs are under no restriction
whatever. The idea seems to be that they are so vile that no kind of
food could pollute them.

_Ques._ Are the castes ancient?

_Ans._ So much so, that it is impossible to say when they were first
established. The Pariahs are being gradually raised from their
degradation by the efforts of Christian missionaries.


BUDDHA.

_Ques._ Who was Buddha?

_Ans._ Buddha is said by the Vedas to have been a delusive incarnation
of Vishnu, but his followers give a different account.

_Ques._ What do they say?

_Ans._ They say that he was a mortal sage, called Guatama, and also
Buddha, or the Wise.

_Ques._ When did Buddha live?

_Ans._ We cannot ascertain exactly, but it is probable he was a
contemporary of Solomon--that is, he lived about one thousand years
before our era. He was the son of a king, and was distinguished by
wisdom, virtue and every personal gift. He was so disgusted with the
wickedness of men, that he retired into a desert place, where he spent
six years in prayer and meditation. At the end of this time, he began
his career as a religious teacher. He preached first in Benares, but
his doctrines were received with so much favor that he lived to see
them spread over all India. Buddha died at the age of eighty.

_Ques._ Was Buddhism tolerated by the Brahmins?

_Ans._ It appears that for several centuries it was, and that it
extended to Ceylon, and the Eastern peninsula.

_Ques._ What are the doctrines of the Buddhists?

_Ans._ They reject the Vedas altogether, and the religious observances
prescribed in them. They allow animal food, and acknowledge no
distinction of castes. Bloody sacrifices are prohibited. One of the
duties of a priest of Buddha is to study the medicinal properties of
plants in order to benefit his fellow men. We may see, therefore, that
Buddha had more reasonable and humane ideas than those who composed
the Vedas, and that he was probably a true sage among his people.

_Ques._ Is Buddhism common in India?

_Ans._ No; after being tolerated for a long time, a fierce and
continued persecution was raised against it. This had the effect of
suppressing the sect almost entirely in India, and of spreading it in
the adjacent countries.

_Ques._ When was the worship of Buddha first introduced into China?

_Ans._ About the year 65 of our era. From China it spread to Corea,
Japan and Java.

In Japan, Buddhism has, to a great extent, supplanted the Sinto
religion, the ancient faith of Japan. The word Sinto signifies spirit
worship; the priests of this sect teach that the world is governed by
an infinite number of spirits. The chief of these animates the sun;
others rule the moon, stars, and different elements.

The worship of the sun is the most important exterior part of their
religion, and the Japanese were so much attached to this form of
idolatry, that the Buddhists have incorporated it with their own
rites.




CHAPTER V.


CHINA.

_Ques._ Is Buddhism universally followed in China?

_Ans._ There is, strictly speaking, no state or national religion in
China, but all forms of worship are tolerated, unless they are
considered politically dangerous. Among the pagan Chinese three
principal religions are admitted, which are now considered equally
good, although there were formerly bitter wars between their
followers.

_Ques._ What are these?

_Ans._ The first, of which Confucius is in some sort the founder, is
called the "Doctrine of the Lettered;" the second is regarded by its
professors as the primitive religion of the ancient inhabitants of
China. The priests are called Tao-sse, or Doctors of Reason, from the
principal doctrine of their great teacher, Lao-tze, who considered
primordial reason as the creator of all things. The third religion is
Buddhism, which, as we have seen, was introduced into China in the
first century of our era.

_Ques._ Who was Confucius?

_Ans._ Confucius is the Latinized name of a philosopher whom the
Chinese call Kung-fu-tse, (Reverend Master Kung). He was born in the
year 551 B. C., and died in 479; eleven years before Socrates was
born. Confucius was carefully educated in virtue and learning by his
widowed mother. At her death he retired, according to Chinese custom,
for the appointed three years of mourning. During this time, he
devoted himself to the study of ancient writers, and noticing how
completely the morality of the old sages was forgotten in China, he
determined to restore their usages and doctrines. After careful
preparation, he set himself up as a teacher, and his disciples were
soon numbered by tens of thousands. Confucius travelled through the
neighboring countries, preaching wherever he went; he was at one time
prime minister of the empire, but his last years were spent in
retirement with some chosen disciples. We read that he paid a visit to
Lao-tze, and was so confounded by the sublime wisdom of that
philosopher, that on his return home he remained three days buried in
profound thought, refusing to speak, or answer any of the questions
put to him by his disciples. Confucius enjoyed unbounded popularity
during life, but the honors paid to him after death, have no parallel
in history. His tablet is in every school in China and both master and
pupils are required to prostrate themselves before it at the beginning
and end of each class. Every town has a temple erected in his honor,
and his statue is to be found in every literary institution. Confucius
left one grandson, Tse-tse, whose descendants constitute the only
hereditary nobility in China. In the seventeenth century, they
numbered eleven thousand males.

_Ques._ What were the doctrines of Confucius?

_Ans._ This philosopher did not originate any religious creed: he was
simply a teacher of morality. It is thought, from many passages in his
writings, that he believed in one Omnipotent God. He does not,
however, inculcate any such doctrine, nor does he ever speak of any
future reward as a motive for virtuous actions. Filial piety and other
social and domestic virtues are strongly inculcated. It would be well
for the Chinese of the present day, if their conduct corresponded to
the maxims of their great teacher, whose morality, though often
defective, contains much that is to be admired. It is a proof, if any
were needed, that human motives are too weak to have any lasting
influence on the passions of men; and the Chinese, particularly the
followers of Confucius, seem to have lost even the last traces of
natural religion.

_Ques._ Why then do they persevere in his worship?

_Ans._ The honors paid to Confucius, as well as to the souls of their
ancestors, constitute an external religion for official persons and
literary men. There seems to be no sort of belief connected with
these observances.

_Ques._ What difficulties did this cause among the Christian
missionaries?

_Ans._ Some of these missionaries believed that the honors paid to
Confucius were purely civil observances; and that the worship of the
souls of deceased relations, the oblations made at their tombs, etc.,
were simply national customs to which no superstitious idea was
attached. As they were assured of this by the most learned men of the
Empire, they permitted the newly converted Chinese to continue these
observances. Others, however, considered that, among the ignorant,
these rites always degenerated into superstition, and often into
idolatry. The dispute was referred to Rome, and after a careful
inquiry, the latter opinion prevailed; the rites in honor of
Confucius, together with the worship of ancestors, were forbidden to
the Chinese Christians.

_Ques._ Who was Lao-tze?

_Ans._ He was a Chinese philosopher, contemporary with Confucius. With
regard to his life and actions, many absurd and impossible things are
related. His name, Lao-tze, means 'Old Child;' and the Chinese say
this appellation was given him because he was born already old, and
with gray hair. The followers of Lao-tze believe in a spiritual world,
in spiritual manifestations, and in the transmigration of souls. This
doctrine is called the religion of Tao, or Reason. The priests are
now only cheats and jugglers, living on the superstition of the
people, to whom they sell charms and spells.

Notwithstanding the degraded character of his followers, the writings
of Lao-tze prove that he was a true sage, a man of noble and elevated
ideas. He has been compared favorably with Plato, and some have
claimed that the Chinese philosopher travelled as far west as Athens.
Be this as it may, it is certain Lao-tze spent some time in Persia and
Syria. The Ten Tribes had just been dispersed over Asia by the
conquests of Salmanasar; and it is not possible that a sage so eager
in the pursuit of religious knowledge, should have failed to learn
something of the ancient prophecies and the Mosaic law.

_Ques._ What did Lao-tze teach with regard to God?

_Ans._ In his writings he declares plainly that the world was erected
by a threefold divinity. His followers, however, like the rest of the
Chinese, have no definite idea of God.

_Ques._ What class of Chinese follow the doctrines of Buddha, or Fo?

_Ans._ At present the Chinese Buddhists belong principally to the
lower classes. Formerly this religion was in higher repute, but the
magnificent temples of Buddha are now going gradually to decay, and
there seems no prospect that any attempt will be made to restore them.
The Bonzes, or Buddhist priests, are ignorant and degraded, and are
allowed to live in the greatest poverty. They are not permitted to
marry; to keep up their numbers they buy young children, who may be
had in China for a few sapecks, and these are trained for the service
of Buddha. These Bonzes have sunk so low in public estimation, that
they are often hired to perform inferior parts on the stage.

_Ques._ Where is the most celebrated temple of Buddha?

_Ans._ In Pou-tou, an island in the Archipelago of Chusan. This temple
retains many traces of its former magnificence, and is particularly
remarkable for a triple statue of Buddha. There are three gigantic
figures, richly gilt, which represent the divinity in the past, the
present and the future. In this temple is a hall dedicated to the
Goddess of Porcelain, and every part of the edifice is crowded with
hideous idols of the lesser divinities.

_Ques._ What is the general feeling of the Chinese on religious
subjects?

_Ans._ They are entirely indifferent, and have but a vague idea of the
existence of anything beyond the present life. This indifference is
the greatest obstacle with which the Christian missionaries have to
contend in China.

_Ques._ Do the Chinese ever argue among themselves on points of
belief?

_Ans._ Never. When Chinese, who are strangers to each other, meet, a
polite formula is to ask "To what sublime religion do you belong?"
Then one will call himself a Buddhist, another a follower of
Confucius, etc., upon which politeness requires that each one should
speak slightingly of his own religion, and praise the sect to which he
does not belong. These compliments end by all repeating in chorus a
proverbial phrase to the effect that all men are brothers, and
religions are of no consequence.

_Ques._ If such total indifference prevails in China, on the subject
of religion, how does it happen that Christianity should be so
severely persecuted?

_Ans._ This arises partly from the political fears of the Chinese
government, and its jealousy of strangers. The missionaries are, of
course, foreigners, and it is natural that the emperors should imagine
them to be working in the interest of the great western nations whose
power they so much fear. There are other reasons; the purity of
Christian morals has been always a reproach to pagan society, and the
spirit of darkness never fails to rouse the prejudices and passions of
men against the progress of the faith. In ancient Rome, where the
idols and superstitions of every conquered nation found a ready
welcome, Christianity obtained a foothold only after three centuries
of persecution.




CHAPTER VI.

Thibet.


THE GRAND LAMA.

_Ques._ What is the prevailing religion of Thibet?

_Ans._ Buddhism prevails in Thibet and Tartary. The people of these
countries are more thoughtful than the Chinese, and more earnest with
regard to religious matters. Their priests, called Lamas, live
together in large communities. They are given to study, and their
dwellings, or Lamaseries, often contain large and valuable libraries.
Many of the Lamas are addicted to demon worship and sorcery, but these
are generally looked upon with aversion by the more virtuous among
their brethren.

_Ques._ Who is the Grand Lama?

_Ans._ He is a sort of High Priest of Buddhism residing in Lassa, the
capital of Thibet; he is invested with an entirely supernatural
character.

_Ques._ How is this?

_Ans._ The Buddhists believe that the confinement of the soul in a
human body is a state of misery, and the punishment of sins committed
in a former state of existence. They maintain, however, that pure
spirits, from time to time, assume our human nature voluntarily, in
order to promote the welfare of mankind. Such are the Lamas, and since
the victories of Genghis Kan in the East, the Lama residing in Thibet
has been considered the Chief Pontiff of his sect, and a perpetual
incarnation of Buddha. He is also a temporal sovereign, although he is
controlled by the Chinese government.

_Ques._ How is the line perpetuated?

_Ans._ When the Lama dies, his soul enters immediately into the body
of some child, so that he is simply said to transmigrate.

_Ques._ How is the child discovered?

_Ans._ This is an affair of some difficulty, but the inferior Lamas
always succeed in finding the hidden divinity. The child into whom
they supposed the Lama's soul has entered, is required to remember the
most private acts of the Lama's life, to recognize, as familiar
objects, the articles which he was accustomed to use, etc. The
children thus examined have sometimes answered in so extraordinary a
manner that many have supposed Satan was permitted to aid in the
imposture.




CHAPTER VII.

MYTHOLOGY OF SCANDINAVIA.


_Ques._ What does this mythology include?

_Ans._ The ancient superstitions of that portion of Northern Europe
now known as Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Iceland.

_Ques._ What is the general character of Scandinavian mythology?

_Ans._ It has none of the grace and poetic beauty which characterize
the fables of Greece and Rome; and it differs equally from the more
mystical superstitions of the Persians and Hindoos. In warm and
fertile regions, the temper, even of the barbarian, is softened into
harmony with the scenes around him, and his superstitions, though
still sensual, are more gentle and refined. On the other hand, the
wild and rugged North made its own impress on the Scandinavian tribes,
and their superstitions were gloomy and extravagant, with sometimes an
element of savage grandeur and sublimity.

_Ques._ Was this mythology transmitted by oral tradition only?

_Ans._ This must have been the case for a long time; as the oldest of
the Eddas was compiled only in the eleventh century, and the stories
which it contains of the Northern gods and heroes, had been long
familiar to the people in the recitations of their bards. The
Scandinavian Skalds or bards were, like the Celtic, historians as well
as minstrels.

_Ques._ Who composed the Eddas?

_Ans._ It is impossible to say. The oldest, or poetic Edda, was
compiled by Sâmund Sigfûsson, an Icelandic priest, about the middle of
the eleventh century. He was educated in France and Germany, and spent
some time in Rome before his return to Iceland. He was induced to
compile the Edda, principally, it would seem, from a patriotic desire
of preserving the ancient legends of his race. The word Edda means
ancestress, and it is so called because it is considered the mother of
Icelandic poetry. The Sagas were written in Denmark and the
Scandinavian peninsula.

_Ques._ What account do the Eddas give of the creation?

_Ans._ They say that in the beginning, there was neither heaven nor
earth, but a world of mist, in which flowed a mysterious fountain.
Twelve rivers issued from this fountain, and when they had flowed far
from their source, froze into ice, which, gradually accumulating, the
great deep was filled up. Southward from the world of mist, was the
world of light. From this a warm wind flowed upon the ice, and melted
it. The vapors rose in the air and formed clouds, from which sprung
the Frost Giant and his progeny; also the cow Audhumbla, by whose milk
the giant was nourished. The Frost Giants were the enemies of gods and
men. From the ice of the lower deep a god arose, who married a
daughter of the giants, and became the father of three sons, Odin,
Vili and Ve. These slew the giant Ymir, and out of his body formed the
earth on which we live. His bones were changed into mountains, his
hair into trees; of his skull they made the heavens, and of his brain,
clouds charged with hail and snow. Odin next regulated the days and
seasons by placing the sun and moon in the heavens, and appointing
them their respective courses. As soon as the sun shed its rays upon
the earth, the plants and trees began to bud and sprout. The three
gods walked by the side of the sea, admiring their new creation, but
seeing that it was uninhabited, they resolved to create man. Aske and
Embla, the first man and woman, were therefore formed, the man out of
an ash, and the woman out of an alder. They were the parents of the
whole human race.

_Ques._ What idea had the ancient Scandinavians of the form of the
earth?

_Ans._ Their notions on the subject were childish in the extreme. They
thought that the ash tree Ygdrasill, supported the entire universe.
This tree had three roots, one of which extended into Asgard, the
dwelling-place of the gods; another into Jotunheim, the abode of the
giants; and a third into Niffleheim, the region of darkness and cold.
Under the tree lies Ymir, and his efforts to throw off the weight
cause earthquakes. The root that extends into Asgard is carefully
tended by three Norns, who correspond to the Fates of Greek mythology.
Asgard could only be entered by crossing the bridge Bifrost, (the
rainbow).

_Ques._ Describe Asgard.

_Ans._ It contained gold and silver palaces, the dwellings of the
gods, but the most famous and beautiful of these was Valhalla, the
residence of Odin. This god is represented as seated on a throne which
overlooks all heaven and earth. On his shoulders sit the ravens, Hugin
and Munin, who fly every day over the whole world, and on their return
report to him all that they have seen. At Odin's feet lie two wolves,
to whom he gives all the meat that is set before him, as he himself
stands in no need of food. Mead is for him both food and drink.

_Ques._ How is Odin's name sometimes written?

_Ans._ Woden; and from this comes the name of the fourth day of the
week, Woden's day, changed to Wednesday.

_Ques._ Has Odin any other name?

_Ans._ He was sometimes called Alfâdur, (All father,) but this name is
occasionally used in a way that seems to prove that the Scandinavians
had an idea of a divinity superior to Odin, Uncreated and Eternal.

_Ques._ What were the delights of Valhalla, and who were permitted to
enjoy them?

_Ans._ None were admitted to Valhalla but heroes who had fallen in
battle. Women, children, and all who had died a peaceful death, were
excluded as unworthy. The joys of Valhalla consisted in eating,
drinking and fighting. They feasted on the flesh of the boar
Schrimnir, which was cooked every day, and became whole again every
night. The goat Heidrun supplied them with never-failing draughts of
mead, which they drank from the skulls of their slaughtered enemies.
For pastime, they fought, and cut one another to pieces. When the hour
of feasting came, they recovered from their wounds, and were whole as
before.


THOR.

_Ques._ Who was Thor?

_Ans._ He was Odin's eldest son, and was god of thunder. His mighty
strength depended upon three things--his hammer, his belt of strength,
and his iron gloves. The giants at one time obtained his hammer, and
he was obliged to use a very singular stratagem to recover it.

_Ques._ What was this?

_Ans._ Thor was most anxious to recover his hammer, but the giant
Thrym had buried it eight fathoms deep under the rocks of Jotunheim.
Loki undertook to negotiate with Thrym; but the giant demanded the
hand of the goddess Freya, and refused to restore the hammer on any
other terms. Thor was much troubled, as he knew how vain it was to
expect that the bright goddess of love and song would consent to dwell
in the dismal regions of Jotunheim. The artful Loki proposed that Thor
should array himself in the garments of Freya, and accompany him to
the abode of the Frost Giants. Thor consented, and Thrym welcomed his
veiled bride with great joy, attributing her silence to a modest
reserve. He was much surprised, however, to see her eat for supper
eight salmons, besides a full grown ox and other delicacies, washing
down the repast with proportionate draughts of mead. Loki bade him not
to wonder at this, as her thoughts had been so much occupied by her
approaching nuptials that she had not eaten for many days. When Thrym
was startled by the fiery eyes he saw gleaming from beneath the bridal
veil, Loki again made an excuse which satisfied him, so he brought the
hammer, and laid it on the lap of the supposed bride. Thor seized the
weapon, and finding his wonted strength restored, he threw off his
disguise, and rushed upon Thrym, whom he slew with all his followers.

Loki had served Thor in this adventure; on another occasion he
incurred his wrath by an injury offered to Sif or Sifa, his wife. The
hair of this goddess flowed around her in sunny waves that shone like
gold. She was proud of this adornment; and Loki, willing to punish her
vanity, and always ready for mischief, found means to cut off her hair
while she slept.

The goddess was inconsolable, and Thor sought the insolent offender,
intending to crush him with his redoubtable hammer.

Loki was terrified, and sought the dwelling of the Gnomes. These
skillful workmen gave him a head of hair which they had spun from the
purest gold, and which was so wonderfully wrought that it would attach
itself to the head of the wearer, and increase in length like ordinary
hair. Sifa was enchanted with the golden locks, and the cunning Loki
escaped the threatened punishment.

From Thor's name is derived the word Thursday.


FREY AND FREYA.

_Ques._ Who was Frey?

_Ans._ He was one of the greatest of the gods. He presided over rain,
sunshine, and the fruits of the earth. From his name comes our word
Friday.

_Ques._ Who was Freya?

_Ans._ She was the sister of Frey or Freyr. She loved music, Spring
and flowers, and was a friend of the elves, or good fairies. Freya
was invoked by lovers, and seems to have been a sort of Scandinavian
Venus.


BRAGI.

_Ques._ Who was Bragi?

_Ans._ He was god of poetry, but he scorned all lighter strains, and
was the patron of those only who sung the praises of the gods and the
deeds of warriors.

Iduna, his wife, kept in a casket certain apples which the gods, when
they felt age approaching, had only to taste to renew the vigor and
bloom of youth. On the approach of the Great Twilight, and the end of
time, this fruit was to lose its magic power.


HEIMDALL.

_Ques._ Who was Heimdall?

_Ans._ He was the watchman of the gods, and was stationed at the
extreme verge of heaven to guard the bridge Bifrost. The gods
continually feared that the giants might force their way over the
shining arch, and invade Valhalla.

Heimdall required less sleep than a bird, and his sight was so keen
that he could distinguish the smallest object, for a thousand leagues
around, even in the darkest night. His quickness of hearing was
equally wonderful; he could hear the wool growing on the sheep's
backs, and the grain sprouting in the fields. He possessed a horn of
such construction that when he blew upon it, the sound spread in
widening circles until it reached the uttermost confines of the world.
Heimdall was not permitted to marry, lest any care for wife or
children might interrupt his unceasing watchfulness.


VIDAR.

_Ques._ Who was Vidar?

_Ans._ He was the god of silence. His strength was almost equal to
that of Thor; he was often employed like Mercury as messenger of the
gods. He had sandals which sustained him equally in the air, and upon
the water.


HODUR.

_Ques._ Who was Hodur?

_Ans._ He was a blind deity, endowed with prodigious strength. He was
mild and benevolent, but certain terrible predictions concerning him
inspired such terror in Asgard that it was not lawful for any god to
pronounce his name. Hodur seems to have been a personification of
night.


THE VALKYRIOR.

_Ques._ Who are the Valkyrior?

_Ans._ According to the Scandinavian tradition, they are warlike
virgins, the messengers of Odin, and their name signifies "Choosers of
the slain." Odin is desirous of collecting a great many heroes in
Valhalla, that he may be able to meet the giants in the final contest
at the end of the world. He sends the Valkyrior, therefore, to every
battle field to make choice of those who shall be slain. When they
ride forth on their errand, mounted upon war steeds and in full armor,
their shields and helmets shed a strange flickering light, which
flashes up over the northern skies, and is called by men, "Aurora
Borealis," or "Northern Lights."


LOKI AND HIS PROGENY.

_Ques._ Who was Loki?

_Ans._ Loki was an evil deity, the contriver of all fraud and
mischief. He was very handsome, but of fickle and malicious temper.
Loki had three children, the wolf Fenris, the Midgard serpent, and
Hela, or Death. The gods were not ignorant that these monsters were
growing up, and would one day bring much evil upon gods and men.
Odin, therefore, sent a messenger to bring them to him. When they
came, he threw the serpent into the deep ocean by which the earth is
surrounded. The monster soon grew to such an enormous size, that,
holding his tail in his mouth, he encircled the whole world. Hela was
cast into Niffleheim, where she receives as her subjects all who die
of sickness or old age. The wolf Fenris gave the gods much trouble
before they succeeded in chaining him. He broke the strongest fetters
as if they were made of cobwebs. Finally, the mountain spirits
fashioned a chain which he could not break. It was fabricated of the
roots of stones, the noise made by the footfall of a cat, and other
equally absurd and imaginary material.


BALDUR THE GOOD.

_Ques._ Who was Baldur?

_Ans._ He was the son of Odin, good and exceedingly beautiful. He was
tormented by terrible dreams, indicating that his life was in peril.
He told these things to the assembled gods, who resolved to do all in
their power to protect him. Frigga, the wife of Odin, exacted an oath
from the elements, fire, air, water, and from everything animate and
inanimate upon the earth--stones, plants, rocks and animals--that they
would do no harm to Baldur. The gods were so well satisfied with this,
that they amused themselves with throwing sticks, stones and all
manner of weapons at the hero, who was not harmed by anything. Loki,
with his usual malice, was determined on Baldur's death, but did not
know exactly how to bring it about. He assumed, therefore, the form of
an old woman, and went to see Frigga. The goddess asked him what the
gods were doing at their meetings. The disguised Loki replied that
they were throwing darts and stones at Baldur, without being able to
hurt him.

He inquired of Frigga, in his turn, if it were really true that she
had exacted an oath of all created things, to spare Baldur. "Aye,"
said Frigga; "all things have sworn, save a mistletoe which was
growing on a mountain side, and which I thought too young and feeble
to crave an oath from." As soon as Loki heard this, he went away
rejoicing. Having cut down the mistletoe, he repaired to the place
where the gods were assembled, and put the bough among the sticks
which they were casting in sport at Baldur. It was thrown with the
rest, and Baldur fell to the ground pierced through and through. The
gods were overwhelmed with grief, and broke forth in the wildest
lamentations. Then Frigga came, and asked, who among them would show
his love for her, and for Baldur, by procuring the deliverance of the
hero. Not having fallen in battle, Baldur had passed into the power of
Hela, who ruled over the gloomy regions of Hell, or Niffleheim.
Hermod, the son of Odin, offered to repair thither, and pay to Hela a
mighty ransom for the return of his brother Baldur. He set out,
therefore, mounted on Odin's horse Sleipnir, which had eight legs and
could outstrip the wind. For nine days, and as many nights, the hero
rode through darksome glens where no object could be discerned in the
gloom. On the tenth, he came to a dark river, which was spanned by a
bridge of gold; this was the entrance into Hell, and Hermod rode over
it fearlessly, although it shook and swayed under his living weight.
He passed the night in discourse with Baldur, and the next morning
preferred his petition to Hela. He offered any ransom she might name
for Baldur's return, assuring her that heaven and earth resounded with
lamentations for the hero. Hela would take no ransom, but wished to
try if Baldur were really so beloved. "If," said she, "all things in
the world, both living and lifeless, weep for him, then shall he
return; but if any one thing refuse to weep for him, then shall he be
kept in Hell."

On hearing the result of Hermod's mission, the gods made proclamation
throughout the world, beseeching all created things to weep for
Baldur's deliverance. All complied with this request; both men and
animals, all, even to the savage beasts of the forest, shed tears for
the hero. The trees and plants shed crystal drops like rain, and even
the rocks and stones were covered with a glittering dew. One old hag
only, sat in a cavern, and refused to weep, saying,

    "Thankt will wail
    With dry tears
    Baldur's bale-fire.
    Let Hela keep her own."

It was strongly suspected that this hag was no other than Loki
himself, who never ceased to work evil among gods and men. Thus Baldur
was prevented from coming back to Asgard.


Funeral of Baldur.

_Ques._ How was the hero buried?

_Ans._ Baldur's body was borne to the sea-shore, and placed upon a
funeral pile which was built of his own ship, the largest in the
world. All the gods were present, and even the Frost and Mountain
Giants were touched with kindness and came to do him honor. When the
wife of Baldur saw the funeral pile prepared, she died of grief, and
her body was consumed with that of her husband.


Loki's Punishment.

_Ques._ How did the gods revenge the death of Baldur?

_Ans._ They pursued Loki, who made use of his magical power to escape
their wrath. He changed himself at one time into a salmon, and hid
among the stones of a brook. He was taken, however, by Thor, who
caught him by the tail, and compressed it so, that all salmons ever
since have had that part remarkably thin. Being restored to his
natural form, Loki was bound with chains in a gloomy cavern. A serpent
was suspended over his head, whose venom falls upon his face drop by
drop. One comfort is allowed him; his wife Siguna sits by his side,
and catches the drops as they fall, in a cup; but when she carries it
away to empty it, the venom falls upon Loki, which makes him howl with
horror, and twist his body so violently that the whole earth shakes.


The Elves.

_Ques._ Who were the Elves?

_Ans._ They were beautiful spirits, clothed in transparent and
delicate garments. They loved the light, and were kindly disposed to
mankind. The country of the Elves was called Alfheim, and was the
domain of Freyr, the god of the sun, in whose light they were always
sporting.

_Ques._ Were all the fairies equally beneficent?

_Ans._ No; the Night Elves, also called Gnomes, and sometimes
Brownies, were at times exceedingly malicious. They were ugly,
long-nosed dwarfs of a dark brown complexion, and were never seen
except at night, because the sun's rays had the power of changing them
into stones.

_Ques._ Where did these dwell?

_Ans._ The Gnomes dwelt in mountain caverns and the clefts of rocks.
They were particularly distinguished for their knowledge of the
mysterious powers of nature. They were also skillful workers in wood
and metal, and were acquainted with the secret stores of gold and
silver which the gods had hidden in the earth. Many stories are
related of their malicious pranks; but they sometimes favored the poor
and friendless in an unexpected manner.

The principal works of the Gnomes were Thor's hammer, and the ship
Skidbladnir. This vessel was so wonderfully wrought, that while it was
large enough to carry all the deities with their war and household
implements, it could be folded together so small as to be carried in
the hand.


Runic Letters.

_Ques._ What are Runic letters?

_Ans._ One may occasionally meet in Norway, Denmark, or Sweden with
great stones of different forms, engraven with characters called
Runic, which appear, at first sight, very different from any letters
we know. They consist almost invariably of straight lines in the shape
of little sticks, either single or in groups. Divination was anciently
practiced among the northern nations by means of sticks of different
lengths. These were shaken up, and from the chance figures they
formed, the priests predicted future events. When alphabetic writing
was introduced, the letters naturally took the form of the ancient
runes. The magic verses were of various kinds. The noxious, or, as
they were called, the bitter runes were recited to bring evils on
their enemies; the favorable averted misfortune; some were medicinal,
others employed to win love, etc. In later times, the runes were used
for inscriptions, of which more than a thousand have been found.

The language is a dialect of the Gothic, called Norse, still in use in
Iceland. The inscriptions may, therefore, be read with certainty; but
they throw very little light on history, being principally epitaphs on
tombstones.


Ragnarok, the Twilight of the Gods.

It was a firm belief of the northern nations, that a time would come
when all the visible creation, the gods of Valhalla, the inhabitants
of earth, men, giants and elves, would be destroyed, together with
their habitations.

This fearful day will not be without its forerunners. First will come
a triple winter, during which clouds of snow, driven by piercing winds
from the four quarters of the heavens, will fall unceasingly on the
earth; tempests will sweep the sea, and the sun will impart neither
heat nor gladness. Three such winters will pass away without being
tempered by a single summer. Three other winters will then follow,
during which war and discord will convulse the universe. The solid
earth will tremble, the sea will leave its bed, and the heavens will
be rent asunder.

During this convulsion of nature, armies will meet in combat, and so
great shall be the slaughter, that wolves and eagles will banquet upon
the flesh of kings and heroes. The wolf Fenris will now break his
bands; the Midgard serpent rise out of the sea, and Loki, released
from his chains, will join the enemies of the gods. The Eddas give a
wild description of the last great battlefield on which the powers of
good and evil shall contend, and on which all alike, whether gods or
demons, are doomed to perish. When all are slain, the world will be
wrapped in flames, the sun will become dim, the stars will fall from
heaven, and time shall be no more.

After this universal destruction, Alfâdur (All-Father) will cause a
new heaven and a new earth to rise out of the abyss. This new earth
will produce its fruits without labor or care; perpetual spring will
reign, and sin and misery will be unknown. In this blissful abode,
gods and men are to dwell together in a peace which the powers of evil
can never again disturb.


Germany.

The Mythology of the Teutonic or Germanic race is neither so
picturesque nor so well defined as that of Scandinavia. Odin and
other Scandinavian divinities were worshipped by the tribes who dwelt
along the borders of the Northern Ocean; in other parts of Germany,
Druidism prevailed. The Germans had, however, their own deities and
their own superstitions. Tuisco (sometimes written Tuesco or Tuisto)
was worshipped by the Saxons as the god of war. The third day of the
week takes its name from this divinity.




CHAPTER VIII.

CELTIC MYTHOLOGY.


DRUIDISM.

_Ques._ From what is the term Druid derived?

_Ans._ There exists much difference of opinion on this point. The word
has been variously deduced from the Saxon, "dry," a magician, from the
German, "druthin," a master or lord, from the Celtic, "deru," an oak,
etc. The best informed writers now refer it to the compound Celtic
word "derouyd," from "De," God, and "rouyd," speaking. It would,
therefore, seem to signify those who speak of or for God.

_Ques._ Where did Druidism prevail?

_Ans._ In some parts of Germany, in Gaul, and in ancient Britain and
Ireland.

_Ques._ Where did it originate?

_Ans._ Various theories have been advanced on this subject. Some refer
it to the Siva-worshippers of Hindostan, others to the Magi of Persia;
but all agree as to its Eastern origin.

_Ques._ Who is the earliest writer on this subject?

_Ans._ Julius Cæsar. His account is considered perfectly reliable,
although, to render it more intelligible, he gives to the Celtic gods
the names of the Greek and Roman divinities whom they resemble.

_Ques._ What were the principal characteristics of Druidism?

_Ans._ The belief in one Supreme Being: in the immortality of the
soul, and a future state of rewards and punishments. This last
doctrine takes with them, as with the Hindoos, the form of
metempsychosis. The religion of the Druids was farther characterized
by the use of circular temples, open at the top; the worship of fire
as the emblem of the sun, and the celebration of the ancient Tauric
festival, (held on the first of May, when the sun enters Taurus.)

_Ques._ What name did the Druids give to the Supreme Being?

_Ans._ Esus, or Hesus; although this is sometimes mentioned as the
appellation of a subordinate divinity. Superior to the Roman Jupiter,
or the Zeus of the Greeks, Esus had no parentage; was subject to no
fate; he was free and self-existent, and the creation of the world was
his own voluntary act. The Druids taught that excepting this Supreme
God, all things had a beginning, but that nothing created would ever
have an end. Notwithstanding these enlightened ideas, they reverenced
many other divinities. The Assyrian Baal was worshipped among the
Celts as Bel or Belen. As he represented the sun, the Romans
recognized in him their god Apollo. Diodorus Siculus, a contemporary
of Cæsar, makes the following statement on the authority of an ancient
Greek writer.

"Apollo," he says, "is worshipped with solemn rites by the inhabitants
of a large island, which lies off the coast of Gaul, in the Northern
Ocean. This island is inhabited by the Hyperboreans, so named because
they live beyond the region of the north wind. The god has there a
remarkable temple, circular in form, and a magnificent forest is
consecrated to him." It is generally supposed that the temple alluded
to by Diodorus, was the Druidical circle of Stonehenge, of which we
shall speak later.

_Ques._ Who was Teu´tates?

_Ans._ This name is thought to be derived from "Tut-tat," signifying
"parent of men." This god was much honored by the Gauls, who
attributed to him the invention of letters and poetry. According to
the Triads, (Druidical verses,) he "wrote upon stone the arts and the
sciences of the world." In his more beneficent character, the name
Gwyon was often given to this divinity. He resembles, both in name and
attributes, Thoth, the Mercury of Egypt and Phœnicia. The ancient
Gauls had no idols, nor did they ever attempt any visible
representation of their deities. When the Romans established their own
worship in the country, they endeavored, according to their usual
policy, to conciliate the conquered tribes by adopting their gods, and
placing their images in the temples which they built. We read that
Zenodorus, a famous sculptor, said by some to have been a native of
Gaul, executed a statue of Teu´tates which cost forty million
sestertia. He spent six years upon this great work.

Camul, the Celtic Mars, Tarann, the god of thunder, and many other
divinities of inferior rank, were worshipped in Gaul and Germany.

_Ques._ How was the Druid priesthood divided?

_Ans._ Into three orders; the priests, the bards, and the Druids,
properly so called.

_Ques._ What were the duties of the priests?

_Ans._ They studied the hidden laws of nature and the mysteries of
earth and heaven. They offered public and private sacrifices, and
obtained a knowledge of the future from the entrails and the blood of
victims, or from the flight of birds. They also cured maladies with
certain mysterious charms. The bards held a still higher rank: they
preserved in their verses the mystic learning of the priests, the
traditions of their race, and the great actions of their heroes. No
sacrifice was duly offered without their sacred chant; they encouraged
the warrior going to the field of combat, and received him on his
return with notes of triumph. To live in heroic song was the
aspiration of every Celtic warrior, and to the coward or traitor,
there was no penalty so terrible as the denunciation of the sacred
bards. Music was the only gentle art known to the rude tribes of Gaul
and Britain, and they were, perhaps for this reason, the more
susceptible to its influence. The character of these minstrels was
peculiarly sacred in their eyes, on account of the gifts of prophecy
and second sight which they were believed to possess in moments of
inspiration.

The verses of the bards were never committed to writing, and a long
and painful course of oral instruction was necessary before a
candidate could be admitted to take his place in this influential
class. According to Cæsar, twenty years was the ordinary novitiate
required.

The bards of Gaul seem to have passed away with the religious system
to which they belonged; but in the British islands, they continued,
although divested of their sacred character, to be a highly esteemed
and privileged class. We may judge of their influence in keeping alive
the patriotic spirit of the people, from the fact that Edward I.
ordered their extermination as the surest means of extinguishing the
feeling of nationality among the Welsh tribes. In Ireland and
Scotland, the bards gradually passed away with the decline of the
feudal system, and the power of the native princes and chieftains
whose glory they sung.

_Ques._ Who were the Druids, properly so called?

_Ans._ They were priests of the highest order, who remained secluded
in caves and grottoes, or in the depths of oak forests, where they
were supposed to study the deeper mysteries of nature and religion,
and to consult more directly the secret will of the divinity. They
were also the teachers of youth.

The Druids must have possessed some knowledge of the motions of the
heavenly bodies, since they counted the year by lunations;
astronomical instruments have also been found among the druidical
remains in Ireland, which prove that they had made a certain progress
in this science. Like the Persians, they mingled astrology and
divination with their observations of the celestial bodies. The
healing art was also practised by the Druids. The effect of their
remedies was not, however, attributed to any natural cause, but rather
to a mysterious virtue residing in certain plants, and rendered
efficacious by the magic rites with which they were gathered.

The mistletoe, when found growing on the oak, was esteemed
particularly sacred; it was an antidote against poison, a remedy in
all diseases, and a preservative against the machinations of evil
spirits. To possess the proper efficacy, it should be gathered in
February or March, on the sixth day of the moon. As soon as the
mistletoe was found growing on the no less sacred oak, the Druids
assembled; a banquet and a sacrifice were prepared, after which a
priest in white vestments cut the plant with a golden sickle while two
others received it reverently into a white mantle spread beneath. Two
milk-white heifers were instantly offered in sacrifice, and the rest
of the day was spent in rejoicing. In like manner, the samolus, or
marsh-wort, possessed no virtue unless it were sought fasting, and
gathered with the left hand, without looking at it. They plucked the
helago, or hedge hyssop, barefooted, and without a knife, after
ablutions, and offerings of bread and wine. The vervain and other
plants had also their distinct ceremonial.

Amber was valued for certain mysterious properties; it was
manufactured into beads by the Druids, and these were given as charms
to warriors going to battle; such beads are sometimes found in their
tombs.

_Ques._ Were the Druids acquainted with the art of writing?

_Ans._ They were, at least in Gaul and Ireland. Their alphabet
contained seventeen letters, and resembled the characters used by the
ancient Pelasgi. It is probable, therefore, that they received it from
the early Greek colonists. Writing was employed for ordinary affairs,
whether public or private, but the mystic learning of the Druids was
handed down by oral tradition only. The few inscriptions they have
left are in symbolic writing, which resembles the runes of
Scandinavia, and originated in the same manner from the rods and
branches of certain plants used in divination. These inscriptions are
called in Ireland "ogham;" they are principally straight lines,
grouped in different ways.

_Ques._ Did the Druids exercise any political authority?

_Ans._ Yes; they were the legislators of the people, and had the right
of deciding in all controversies. There was no appeal from their
sentence, and those who ventured to resist were excommunicated and
outlawed.

The college of Druids was governed by a chief or Arch-druid, chosen by
vote from among their number. The elections were eagerly contested,
and were often attended with much bloodshed. The Arch-druid held his
office for life.

_Ques._ Who were the Druidesses?

_Ans._ They were prophetesses or sorceresses, most generally wives or
daughters of the Druids, who exercised an unbounded influence over the
people. They were supposed to read the future, to conjure tempests,
and appease them again at will. The Gallic mariner often went to
consult them amid the reefs of the Armorican coast, and trembled with
superstitious awe as he saw them gliding like phantoms among the misty
crags, waving flaming torches, and mingling their wild chants with the
voices of wind and sea. Some of these sorceresses were obliged to
assist at nocturnal rites, where, with their bodies painted black, and
their hair dishevelled, they joined in a frantic dance, and abandoned
themselves to the wildest transports of frenzy. A peculiar rite was
practised by the Druidesses who resided in an island at the mouth of
the Loire. They were obliged once every year, between sunrise and
sunset, to demolish and rebuild the roof of their rustic temple. If
any of their number should let fall the least part of the sacred
material, her fate was sealed. She was torn to pieces by her
companions, amid paroxysms of wild frenzy which recalled to the Greeks
the orgies of their own Bacchantes. It is said that no year passed
without a victim.

The nine virgin priestesses who dwelt on the island of Sena, an almost
inaccessible rock off the promontory of Plogoff, on the coast of
Brittany, were regarded with particular veneration, and constituted,
perhaps, the highest religious authority among the ancient Gauls.
There was a class of Druidesses in Gaul and Germany, who, in addition
to practices of sorcery and incantation, presided at fearful rites.
Strabo tells us that when the Cimbri had taken prisoners of war, they
were offered in sacrifice by these terrible women. The chief Druidess,
standing by a rude stone altar, received the victim dragged thither by
her companions. She plunged her knife into his heart, and watched
carefully to obtain an omen, according as the blood should flow more
or less rapidly. This ceremony was repeated with other victims until
the augury was deemed decisive. The superstitions with regard to
witches and their nocturnal revels, which prevailed so long in Europe,
originated, no doubt, from popular traditions concerning these
sorceresses.

In Ireland, they do not appear to have played either so terrible or
so important a part. We only know that at Tara, certain virgins of
royal blood were consecrated to Baal and Samhain, (the moon,) and
watched the perpetual fire which burned on their altars. In one of the
civil wars so common in the island, a chief of Leinster destroyed this
sanctuary and massacred its inmates. The entire country united to
punish the perpetrators of this sacrilege; they were put to death, and
a perpetual fine was imposed on the province of Leinster.

_Ques._ What sacrifices were offered by the Druids?

_Ans._ In time of peace, fruits and cattle; in war, human sacrifices
were preferred.

_Ques._ How were the victims chosen?

_Ans._ They were generally captives taken in war, slaves or criminals.
In some cases, warriors and others devoted themselves voluntarily to
the altar, either to propitiate the gods, and obtain victory for their
people, or because they were weary of life, and desired to hasten the
moment of transmigration. These acts of self-immolation were esteemed
exceedingly meritorious. Cæsar supposes Teu´tates to be the same with
Dis or Pluto; but in the mythology of the Gauls, there were no
infernal regions, and consequently, there was no Pluto. The soul
passed into another body, and the transmigration was happy, or the
contrary, as the actions performed during its last state of existence
had been good or evil.

According to the Druids, death was but the central point of a long
life.

_Ques._ What was the usual mode of sacrifice?

_Ans._ Victims offered to Baal were always burned. On important
occasions, a great number were enclosed in a huge frame of wicker work
in which they were consumed together. In offerings to other gods,
different rites were observed.

These remarks apply chiefly to Gaul, Germany and Britain. Human
sacrifices were rare in Ireland.

_Ques._ What were the principal festivals of the Druids?

_Ans._ The Tauric festival, which has been already mentioned, was the
most ancient, dating from the time of the Chaldees, or Babylonians. In
Ireland and in the Highlands of Scotland, the first of May takes its
name from this solemnity, being called in Gaelic, Beltane; and in
Irish, Beal-Tinne, or the Fire of Baal. The solstices were also
celebrated as the chief points in the sun's annual course. Wherever
Druidism prevailed, there was in the centre of each great district or
canton, a perpetual fire in honor of Baal. On the feast of the god,
this was extinguished, and again lighted, after which all the fires
throughout the country were rekindled from this sacred source. This
rite was observed with particular solemnity in Ireland. There the
Druids assembled around the sacred or "parent fire," which the
Arch-druid extinguished. At this signal every fire disappeared, and,
in an incredibly short space of time, darkness settled on the island.
The chiefs and princes, together with the assembled people, then
assisted in silent awe, while the Druids performed their nocturnal
rites. At length the fire was rekindled; torches lighted at the sacred
flame were passed from hand to hand, and the country was soon
illuminated by the Baal fires which blazed on every hill. The chief
scene of these solemnities was Ouisneach, in the centre of the island,
but the same rite was performed in many other places.

According to what seems an authentic tradition, it was during such a
ceremony that St. Patrick obtained the opportunity of holding a public
disputation with the Druids in the presence of the king and chieftains
assembled at Tara. It was Easter Eve, and the Saint, who must have
been well aware of the penalty of death attached to such an act,
commanded his disciples to light the paschal fire at the moment when
all around was plunged in darkness. The flame was seen at Tara, and
the Druids called loudly for the punishment of the sacrilegious
strangers. They were seized and brought before the assembly, but the
result was favorable to the missionaries, and from that day may be
dated the rapid though peaceful decline of Druidism in Ireland.

The idolatrous rites peculiar to the season of the summer solstice
have been long forgotten but the custom of lighting fires upon that
day, still prevails. The bonfires of St. John's Eve (June 21st)
recall, at least, one feature of the ancient Druid festival.

_Ques._ What rites were observed on the first day of November?

_Ans._ The day was consecrated to the Moon, (called in Ireland
Samhain,) and was observed both in Gaul and in the British islands. It
would seem that the spirits of the departed were also propitiated at
this season, and many curious traditions are connected with its
observance.

Before the invasion of Cæsar, Britain was so little known to the
ancient Gauls, as to be still a land of mystery. They believed that on
every feast of the moon, the souls of those who had died during the
year, were obliged to repair thither for judgment.

Connected with this, Procopius relates an Armorican legend of which
some traces may yet be found in Brittany. At the foot of the
promontory of Plogoff, around the sacred isle of Sena, are scattered
rocks on which the sea breaks with an unceasing moan. Thither
assemble, on the night of judgment, the spirits of the dead. Faint
wailings are heard, and pale phantoms are seen gliding above the
waves, which they are not yet spiritual enough to cross without human
succor. At the hour of midnight the sailors and fisher men along the
coast hear mysterious voices calling at their doors. They rise and
find strange barks waiting on the shore. Scarcely have they entered
these, when the light craft is weighed down by a ghostly band. The
terrified pilot has no need of helm or sail, for the barks are borne
westwardly with incredible velocity. When they touch the misty shores
of Britain, there is a hollow murmur--the boats ride lightly on the
water--the souls are gone.

The superstitious observances which are still practised on November,
or All Hallow Eve, in Ireland, Scotland, and some parts of England,
are of pagan origin, and seem to be relics of this festival.

_Ques._ At what period may we fix the decline of Druidism?

_Ans._ It was suppressed in Gaul by the Roman conquerors, who built
temples, and introduced the worship of their own gods, adopting also
those of the conquered race. Druidism retired, step by step, before
this more classic heathenism, but found a temporary refuge in the
German forests and in Armorica. It was suppressed in Britain during
the reign of Nero. The persecuted Druids took refuge in the island of
Mona or Anglesea, whence they were driven by the Roman troops with
great slaughter. They found a last asylum in the island of Iona. Here
they maintained a certain influence up to the latter part of the sixth
century, when the inhabitants of the island were converted by the
preaching of St. Columba, the Apostle of the Highlands. This
missionary was a native of Ireland, where Christianity had been
established for nearly a century.

_Ques._ What traces still remain of the ancient Druidical worship?

_Ans._ Certain monuments, which are called, according to their form,
menhirs, dolmens or cromlechs.

_Ques._ What are the menhirs?

_Ans._ The word is derived from the old Breton man, stone; and hir,
long. They are upright blocks of stone, often terminating in a point;
and are for the most part rough and unshapely; the ordinary height is
from seven to twelve feet; but in some rare instances, they exceed
thirty feet in height. The purpose of these menhirs is not well
understood. Where they stand singly, or in groups of two or three,
they probably mark a spot rendered memorable by some important event.
Similar monuments were common in primitive times, as we learn from
Scripture; when the Israelites had crossed the dry bed of the Jordan,
Joshua placed twelve stones on the bank, as a remembrance of the
miracle. Jacob marked in the same manner the spot on which he had been
favored by a celestial vision. In certain places on the Scandinavian
peninsula, extensive groups of menhirs occur, scattered irregularly
over the plain; these are supposed to mark ancient battle-fields.
Where the stones are arranged in a "cromlech" or circular form, there
is generally a dolmen in the centre. The dolmen is a large flat
stone, placed like a table, upon two others which are set upright.
Some of these were evidently altars, as the flat stone on the top is
furrowed and slightly inclined to facilitate as it were the flowing of
blood. Dolmens are found also in straight lines, forming a sort of
covered gallery.

_Ques._ Where are the most remarkable of these monuments?

_Ans._ On the continent of Europe, the most extensive series is that
of Carnac in Brittany. In the midst of a wide heath, stand rude blocks
of gray granite, set on end; they are angular, and show no marks of
polish. These menhirs are arranged in eleven lines, forming regular
alleys. The blocks numbered formerly about ten thousand; but there are
now many gaps in the stony lines, as every house in the vicinity seems
to have been built from this convenient quarry.

At Stonehenge, in England, is a large cromlech arranged in two circles
and two ovals. There are in all about one hundred and forty stones, of
which the smallest are estimated to weigh ten or twelve, and the
largest seventy tons. In the centre of the work is a massive slab of
fine sandstone, supposed to have been an altar. This cromlech is
surrounded by a trench and an earthen embankment. Numerous ancient
_barrows_, or burial mounds, are found in the neighborhood. In
Ireland, monuments constructed of stone are sometimes found; but
circular earthworks are more common. In this country, as in Brittany,
many popular superstitions still attach to these remains of ancient
paganism. Almost within our own day, many an Irish peasant has made
his scanty harvest still smaller, rather than violate with the plough,
the grass-grown "rath," or Druid circle. Death within the year is the
supposed penalty of such an act. In Brittany, malignant dwarfs and
night-elves still haunt the deserted cromlech, and have power at
certain times, to wreak their malice on the belated traveller. Some of
these giant stones are themselves subject to mysterious laws. Once in
a hundred years, they are obliged, at the hour of midnight, to pass in
weird procession to bathe in the waters of the Northern Ocean.

Then for a few brief moments the stars look down on the riches
buried in ancient times beneath the enchanted circle. It is the
treasure-seeker's golden opportunity, but woe to the avaricious wretch
who lingers over the spoil. He is crushed by the swift returning
stones, and the morning sun finds the grim sentinels silent and
motionless as before, bearing no trace of their wild nocturnal march.




CHAPTER IX.

Mexico.


MYTHOLOGY OF THE AZTECS.

_Ques._ What peculiarity has been remarked in the mythology of the
Aztecs or ancient Mexicans?

_Ans._ Its incongruity. On the one hand we find their priests
inculcating the most sublime truths of natural religion, and the
purest maxims of morality, while on the other, their sacrifices and
public worship were marked by a spirit of unexampled ferocity.

_Ques._ How has this been explained?

_Ans._ It is supposed that the religion of the Aztecs was derived from
two distinct sources. The ancient Toltecs, who preceded them in
Mexico, were a comparatively humane and enlightened race; they
retained many of the highest principles of natural religion, united,
probably, with truths derived from primitive tradition. The Aztecs
seem to have adopted the religion of their more civilized predecessors
without abandoning their own dark and cruel superstitions. Hence the
contradictions and inconsistencies of their mythology.

_Ques._ What did the Aztecs believe of God?

_Ans._ They believed in one Supreme Lord and Creator, to whom they
attributed all the divine perfections. The prayers which they
addressed to Him recall, in many instances, the very phraseology of
Scripture.

_Ques._ Did the Aztecs worship any other deity?

_Ans._ Yes, they worshipped many subordinate divinities who were
supposed to preside over the elements, the changes of the seasons and
the various occupations of men. Of these gods, thirteen held the most
exalted rank, while the inferior class numbered over two hundred.

_Ques._ Who may be considered the chief of these subordinate
divinities?

_Ans._ Huitzilopotchli, a sort of Mexican Mars, who was, in fact, the
patron deity of the nation. His temples were the most stately of all
the public edifices, and his altars in every part of the empire were
continually reeking with the blood of human victims.

_Ques._ Who was Quetzalcoatl?

_Ans._ The Aztecs, like many nations of the old world, had their
Golden Age. During this blissful period, Quetzalcoatl, god of the air,
dwelt on earth, and instructed men in the use of metals, in
agriculture and every useful art. Under his beneficent rule, the earth
brought forth its fruits without care or labor: and such was the
fertility of the soil that a single ear of corn was as much as a man
could carry. The dyer's art was not needed, for the cotton took, as it
grew, the richest and most varied hues. The rarest flowers filled the
air with perfume, and the melody of birds was heard in every grove.
This happy state was not destined to last; Quetzalcoatl incurred the
anger of one of the greater gods, and was obliged to abandon the
country. He proceeded to the shores of the Mexican gulf, where he took
leave of his followers, promising that, when many years had rolled
away, he would revisit their descendants. He then embarked in a skiff
made of serpent's skins, and sailed eastward towards the fabled land
of Tlapallan.

Quetzalcoatl was described by the Mexicans as tall, with a fair
complexion, long, dark hair, and a flowing beard. They looked
confidently for the return of the benevolent deity, and this tradition
had no small influence in preparing the way for the future success of
the Spaniards.

It is evident that Quetzalcoatl was the name given by the Mexicans to
some beneficent ruler who instructed them in the arts of civilized
life. It is singular that he should have been described with every
characteristic of the European race; and some have conjectured that he
was indeed a native of the Eastern hemisphere, cast by some strange
accident among the simple natives of the New World.

_Ques._ Did the Aztecs worship any household divinities?

_Ans._ Yes; the images of their penates, or household gods, were to be
found in every dwelling.

_Ques._ What did the Aztecs believe with regard to a future life?

_Ans._ Their priests taught that the wicked were sent after death to
expiate their sins in a region of eternal darkness. Those who died of
certain diseases were entitled, after death, to a state of indolent
contentment; but the Aztec paradise, like the Elysium of the Greeks
and Romans, was reserved for their warriors and heroes. In this class
were included those who were offered in sacrifice. These privileged
souls passed at once into the presence of the Sun, whom they
accompanied with songs and choral dances in his journey through the
heavens. After a certain period, their spirits went to animate the
golden clouds which floated over the gardens of paradise, or, assuming
the form of singing birds, revelled amid the blossoms and odors of its
sacred groves.

_Ques._ What peculiar rite was practised by the Aztecs in the naming
of their children?

_Ans._ The lips and bosom of the infant were sprinkled with water.
During the ceremony they implored the Lord, that the holy drops might
wash away the sin that was given to it before the foundation of the
world, so that the child might be born anew.

_Ques._ How did the Aztecs bury their dead?

_Ans._ Immediately after death, the corpse was clothed in certain
sacred habiliments, and strewed with charms, which were supposed to be
necessary as a defence against the dangers of the unknown road which
the spirit was about to travel. The body was then burned, and the
ashes, carefully collected in a funeral urn, were placed in the house
of the deceased. In this mode of burial, we may notice a certain
resemblance to the funeral rites of the ancient Greeks and Romans.
There was, however, this distinction, that although the latter
occasionally sacrificed their captive enemies to the manes of a
departed warrior, this offering formed no necessary part of the burial
rite; on the other hand, the obsequies of an Aztec noble were always
accompanied by the sacrifice of unoffending slaves, the number of
victims being proportioned to the rank of the deceased.

_Ques._ Did the Aztec priests form a distinct order?

_Ans._ They were altogether distinct from the people, and formed a
numerous and powerful hierarchy. Their different functions were
exactly regulated; those who were best skilled in music formed the
choirs--Others arranged the festivals according to the calendar. Some
were engaged in the education of youth, and others had charge of the
hieroglyphical paintings and oral traditions, while the dreadful
rites of sacrifice were reserved to the chief dignitaries of the
order.

_Ques._ Were women permitted to exercise any sacerdotal functions?

_Ans._ Yes; the Aztec priestesses exercised every function except that
of sacrifice. They superintended the schools in which the daughters of
the higher and middle classes received their education. These schools,
as well as those for boys, directed by the priests, were under the
strictest discipline. Ordinary faults were punished with extreme
rigor; graver offences, with death.

_Ques._ How was this numerous priesthood maintained?

_Ans._ A certain quantity of land was annexed to each temple, and the
priests were further enriched by first fruits and other offerings.
This large provision became necessary from the fact that the Aztec
priests were allowed to marry. The law prescribed that any surplus,
beyond what was actually required for their support, should be
distributed among the poor. This, and other benevolent provisions,
seem very inconsistent with the cruelties practised in their public
worship.

_Ques._ What was the form of the Mexican temples?

_Ans._ They were solid pyramids, constructed of earth, but completely
cased in brick or stone. They were disposed in three or four stories,
each smaller than that below. At the top was a broad area, in which
stood one or more towers, containing images of the presiding deities.
Before these towers were generally placed, besides the dreadful stone
of sacrifice, two lofty altars on which burned perpetual fires. So
numerous were these sacred fires in the city of Mexico, that the
streets were brilliantly lighted even on the darkest night. The ascent
was made, in some cases, by a stairway which led directly up the
centre of the western face of the pyramid. More generally, it was so
arranged, that the religious processions were obliged to pass two or
three times around the pyramid before reaching the summit. The
Mexicans called their temples Teocallis, or "houses of God."

_Ques._ Are any of these structures still in existence?

_Ans._ Yes; of those which yet remain, the pyramid of Cholula is the
largest, and perhaps the most perfect. It measures 176 feet in
perpendicular height, and is 1425 feet square; it covers 45 acres. It
is very ancient, having been built before the Aztecs conquered
Anahuac, as that part of Mexico was formerly named.

_Ques._ What sacrifices were offered by the Aztecs?

_Ans._ Their sacrifices present the same striking contrasts which we
find in everything connected with their religion.--Some festivals were
of a light and joyous character, being celebrated with choral songs
and dances. Processions of votaries crowned with garlands, bore
offerings to the temple; fruits, ripe maize, and the sweet incense of
the copal and other odoriferous gums; while the birds and domestic
animals offered in sacrifice were consumed at the banquets with which
the festival concluded. These innocent rites were evidently of Toltec
origin; the dreadful practice of human sacrifice was introduced by the
Aztec conquerors, whose wars were often undertaken for no other
purpose than to procure victims for their altars.

_Ques._ Were these sacrifices numerous?

_Ans._ They were introduced only about two hundred years before the
Spanish Conquest. They were at first exceptional, but became more
frequent as the Aztec empire extended, until the number of those
sacrificed annually throughout the empire is calculated at twenty
thousand, which is the lowest estimate given. It was customary to
preserve the skulls of the victims in buildings erected for the
purpose. One hundred and thirty-six thousand of these ghastly relics
were counted in a single edifice. Women were occasionally offered in
sacrifice, but Tlaloc, the god of rain, could only be propitiated by
the blood of young children and infants. In seasons of drought, these
innocent victims, decked in the richest attire, and crowned with
flowers, were borne to the temple in open litters, their cries being
drowned in the wild chanting of the priests.

The feast of Tezcatlipoca, one of the chief gods, who was called the
"Soul of the World," was celebrated by the sacrifice of a single
victim, with regard to whom many peculiar ceremonies were observed. A
year before the sacrifice, a young man, distinguished for grace and
beauty, was chosen from among the captives. He was splendidly attired,
surrounded by every luxury, and was received everywhere with the
homage due to the divinity whom he was supposed to represent.

When the fatal day arrived, the victim, who had been trained to
perform his part with calmness and dignity, was conducted to the
temple. As the melancholy procession wound up the sides of the
pyramid, he played upon a musical instrument; at first, joyous airs,
which grew graver and more mournful as the cortege advanced, until at
length he broke his lute, and cast it aside. He then threw from him,
one by one, his chaplets of flowers, and stood unadorned before the
stone of sacrifice. The bloody work was soon accomplished, and the yet
palpitating heart of the victim was thrown at the feet of the idol.
The career of this captive, and his progress to the altar, was
intended as an allegorical representation of human life, which, joyous
at first, terminates in sorrow and in death. In speaking of human
sacrifices, we have yet to mention the most revolting feature. The
Mexicans, both men and women, feasted on the bodies of the victims;
and no Aztec noble would venture to entertain his friends on a
festival day without placing before them this loathsome food.

It is worthy of remark that Montezuma surpassed all his predecessors
in the pomp with which he celebrated the festivals of the Aztec gods,
and the number of human victims which he offered on their altars.




CHAPTER X.


PERU.

_Ques._ What deities were worshipped by the ancient Peruvians?

_Ans._ Like most of the races inhabiting the American continent, the
Peruvians believed in one Supreme God, immaterial and infinite. This
sublime doctrine did not, however, lead to the practical results that
might have been expected.

_Ques._ What name did the Peruvians give to this Supreme deity?

_Ans._ He was adored under the different names of Pachacamac and
Viracocha. They raised no temples in his honor; that which stood near
the present site of Lima, having been erected before the country came
under the sway of the Incas. It seems probable, therefore, that the
worship of this Great Spirit did not originate with the Peruvians.
Their entire system of religion was directed to the adoration of the
heavenly bodies. The Sun was adored as the father of the world, the
source of light and life. The Moon was honored as his sister-wife, and
the Stars were worshipped as her heavenly train. The planet known to
us as Venus was an especial object of devotion. The Peruvians named it
Chasca, or "the Youth with the long and curling locks;" they
worshipped it as the page of the Sun, whom he attends in his rising
and setting.

The Sun was honored also as the father of the royal Inca race; and,
connected with this belief, we have one of the few legends worthy of
note in the barren mythology of the Peruvians.

_Ques._ Relate this legend.

_Ans._ According to tradition, there was a time when the ancient races
of the continent were plunged in the most complete barbarism: the will
of the strongest was the only law; war was their pastime; they
worshipped the vilest objects in nature, and feasted on the flesh of
their slaughtered enemies. The Sun, the great parent of mankind, took
compassion on their degraded state, and sent two of his children,
Manco-Capac, and Mama Oello Huaco, to form men into regular
communities, and teach them the arts of civilized life. The celestial
pair advanced along the high plains in the neighborhood of Lake
Titicaca, as far as the sixteenth degree of south latitude. They bore
with them a golden wedge, and were directed to take up their abode
wherever the sacred emblem should sink into the earth of its own
accord. This prodigy took place in the valley of Cuzco, where the
wedge sank into the ground, and disappeared forever. Here the
children of the Sun entered upon their benevolent mission; Manco-Capac
instructing the men in the arts of agriculture, while Mama Oello
initiated the women into the mysteries of weaving and spinning. The
rude, but simple-hearted natives were not slow to appreciate the
benefits conferred by the messengers of heaven: a large community was
gradually formed, and the city of Cuzco was founded in the valley. The
monarchy thus formed, was governed by the Incas, who claimed descent
from Manco-Capac and Mama Oello, and always styled themselves,
Children of the Sun.

_Ques._ What was the origin of this legend?

_Ans._ It was evidently a fiction, invented at a later period to
gratify the vanity of the Incas, by attributing to their race a
celestial origin. The extensive ruins on the shores of Lake Titicaca
prove that this region was inhabited by a powerful, and comparatively
civilized people, long before the foundation of the Peruvian monarchy.

_Ques._ Are there any other Peruvian legends?

_Ans._ Among the traditions of this race, is one of the deluge, which
resembles in one or two curious particulars the Mexican legend on the
same subject. According to both these traditions, seven persons took
refuge in caves, in which they were preserved from the universal
destruction; and from these, the earth was re-peopled. The Peruvians
maintained that white and bearded men from the east had visited the
country in ancient times, and instructed the natives in the arts of
civilized life. This legend recalls the Mexican story of Quetzalcoatl,
and the coincidence is singular, because no communication is believed
to have existed between the two countries.

_Ques._ Where were the most celebrated temples of the Sun?

_Ans._ The most ancient of these edifices was in the island of
Titicaca, whence the founders of the Inca dynasty were said to have
proceeded. Everything belonging to this sanctuary was held in
particular veneration. Even the fields of maize which were attached to
the temple were supposed to partake of its sanctity; and the yearly
produce was distributed in small quantities through all the public
granaries, to bring a blessing on the rest of the store.

A Peruvian esteemed himself happy in securing even a single ear of the
sacred grain.

_Ques._ Describe the temple of Cuzco.

_Ans._ This edifice was constructed of stone, and covered a large
extent of ground in the heart of the city. The interior of the temple
has been described, by those who saw it in its glory, as being
literally a mine of precious metals. It was called by the natives
Coricancha, or "Place of Gold." On the western wall was the image of
the Sun; this was a massive golden plate, of enormous dimensions, on
which was emblazoned a human countenance darting forth rays on every
side. The image was richly ornamented with emeralds and precious
stones. It fronted the eastern portal of the temple in such a manner
that the first rays of the morning Sun fell directly on his golden
image, and were reflected from the rich ornaments with which the walls
and ceiling were encrusted. Every part of the temple glowed with the
precious metal, and even the exterior was encompassed with a broad
frieze of gold set in the solid stone-work of the edifice. Adjoining
the principal structure was the temple of the Moon. Her effigy was of
silver, but otherwise resembled that of the Sun. The same metal was
used in all the decorations of the building, as resembling in its pale
lustre the milder radiance of the beautiful planet.

One chapel was dedicated to the stars, another to thunder and
lightning, and a third to the rainbow. This last was decorated with a
many-colored arch of resplendent hues. Attached to the temple of Cuzco
were the celebrated gardens, sparkling with flowers of gold and
silver. Animals also were represented in precious ore, and the classic
fable of the golden fleece was realized in the llama of this fairy
garden.

_Ques._ Does anything now remain of this magnificent temple?

_Ans._ No; its riches became the prey of the conquerors, and the
desecrated shrine offered an inexhaustible supply of material for the
erection of other buildings. Fields of maize are now waving where the
golden gardens once sparkled in the sun, and the church of St.
Dominic, one of the most magnificent buildings of the New World,
occupies the site of the famous Coricancha. The temples of Peru were
many and magnificent; but Cuzco was to the Inca noble what Mecca is to
the devout follower of Mahomet, and he would consider that he had
neglected a sacred duty, if he had not made at least one pilgrimage to
the holy shrine.

_Ques._ From what class were the Peruvian priests generally chosen?

_Ans._ They were all, without exception, Inca nobles, and therefore
children of the Sun. The High Priest, called Villac Vmu, was second
only to the Inca, and was chosen from among his brothers or nearest
kindred.

_Ques._ What sacrifices were offered to the Sun?

_Ans._ Animals, ripe maize, flowers and sweet-scented gums. Human
sacrifices were rare, and were only offered on great occasions, such
as a coronation, a victory, etc. A child or a beautiful maiden was
then selected as the victim; but the cannibal repasts of the Mexicans
were unknown among the more refined Peruvians.

_Ques._ What were the principal festivals of the Sun?

_Ans._ The solstices and equinoxes were celebrated by four great
festivals; but the most solemn was the feast of Raymi, held at the
period of their summer solstice. This festival lasted many days. The
animals offered in sacrifice were served at the tables of the Inca
and of his nobles; but of the flocks belonging to the temple, a vast
number were slaughtered and distributed among the people.

_Ques._ What points of resemblance have been noticed between the
religious observances of the Peruvians and those of the ancient
Romans?

_Ans._ In the mode of procuring the sacred fire, the obtaining of
omens from the animals offered in sacrifice, and in some of the laws
with regard to the Virgins of the Sun. At the festival of Raymi, the
sacred fire was obtained, as under the reign of Numa, by means of a
concave mirror of polished metal. The sun's rays were in this manner
collected in a focus of sufficient intensity to ignite dried cotton.
When the sky was overcast, which was esteemed a very bad omen, the
fire was obtained by means of friction. This fire was watched by the
Virgins of the Sun.

_Ques._ Who were these?

_Ans._ They were maidens of noble birth who were dedicated to the
service of the Sun. They were taken from their families at an early
age, and placed under the care of elderly matrons, who instructed them
in their religious duties, and in every branch of female industry.
They spun garments, which they were taught to embroider with exquisite
skill. They also wove, of the fine hair of the vicuña, the hangings of
the temples and the garments worn by the Inca and his household. They
were completely secluded, even from their own nearest relatives. The
wives of the Inca, and they were numerous, were chosen from among the
Virgins of the Sun. With this exception, they were forbidden to marry.
The unhappy maiden who ventured to form in secret a less exalted
alliance, was condemned to the cruel punishment decreed in like
circumstances against the Roman Vestal. She was buried alive; her
accomplice was strangled, and the village to which he belonged was
razed to the ground and sowed with stones.

_Ques._ How did the Peruvians bury their dead?

_Ans._ The body was embalmed, not, as in Egypt, with gums and spices,
but by simple exposure to the cold, dry and rarefied atmosphere of the
mountains. The mummies are generally in a sitting posture. As the
Peruvians imagined that the wants and occupations of men would be the
same beyond the grave as in this life, costly apparel, arms, utensils
and sometimes treasures were placed in the tomb of a deceased noble.
That he might not lack attendance and society, his favorite wives and
domestics were sacrificed on his tomb.

The Peruvians believed in an evil spirit whom they called Cupay, but
they did not attempt to propitiate him by any form of worship. Cupay
seems, in fact, to have been only a personification of sin.




SUPPLEMENT.

_A BRIEF NOTICE OF AUTHORS, ETC., MENTIONED IN THIS VOLUME._


ÆSCHYLUS,

The earliest of the Greek dramatists, was born at Eleusis in Attica,
525 B. C. He distinguished himself in the battles of Marathon, Salamis
and Platæa. Æschylus has been called the father of Grecian tragedy, as
he was the first to give rules to the dialogue, and define the duties
of the chorus; he also planned the dress of the actors, the scenery
and the whole mechanism of the stage. Æschylus wrote sixty-six dramas,
in thirteen of which he obtained the victory over all his competitors.
He was at length defeated by a younger rival, Sophocles. He retired
the same year to the court of Hiero, king of Syracuse, and some
writers attribute this step to the mortification felt by the poet on
this occasion. Others say that he was accused as guilty of profanity
in exhibiting on the stage certain things connected with the
Eleusinian mysteries. The people were about to stone him, when he was
saved by the presence of mind of his brother Aminias. The latter had
won much glory in the Persian war, and now, while interceding for his
brother he dexterously dropped his mantle so as to expose the stump of
the arm he had lost at Salamis. The silent appeal was not without its
effect on the impulsive Athenians, and Æschylus was pardoned. He
deemed it prudent, however, to retire to Sicily, where he was kindly
entertained by Hiero. His death is said to have occurred in a very
extraordinary manner.

As he slept in the fields, an eagle which was flying over him with a
tortoise in his claws, mistook the bald head of the poet for a stone.
The bird dropped the tortoise for the purpose of breaking the shell,
and he was killed by the blow, thus verifying a prophecy that his
death would come from on high.

Of the dramas written by Æschylus, but seven remain. Of these, the
most admired is the "Prometheus Chained." The subject is the
punishment of Prometheus on Mount Caucasus; the scenery is grand and
terrific, and all the persons of the drama are divinities.


CÆSAR (Caius Julius),

The Roman general and dictator, holds a high rank among Latin authors.
During the most active period of his life, he found time to devote to
literary pursuits. Of the works written by him on various subjects,
both in prose and verse, we have only his "Commentaries," in ten
books. Seven of these treat of the Gallic war, the rest contain an
account of the Civil war. The hurry of military expeditions did not
prevent this extraordinary man from observing closely the manners and
customs of the different nations with whom he contended. We are
indebted to the Commentaries for almost all the accurate information
we possess with regard to the inhabitants of ancient Gaul.

Cæsar was not surpassed, even by the writers of the Augustan age, in
clearness and beauty of style. He exaggerates nothing, and his most
brilliant achievements are related with a certain modest simplicity
which is one of the characteristics of true greatness.


CICERO.

A Roman orator and statesman. He filled the highest offices in the
gift of his country, and took so prominent a part in public affairs,
that an account of his life would be also a history of his times.
Cicero wrote on the art of public speaking, on philosophy and
jurisprudence. This great man, who had saved Rome from the plots of
Catiline, and rendered many other signal services to his country, was
basely murdered by the order of the second Triumvirate, in the year 43
B. C.


DEMOSTHENES.

A famous Athenian orator, who defended the liberties of his country
against the aggressions of Philip of Macedon.


DIODORUS,

Surnamed Siculus, from Sicily, his birth-place. He was a celebrated
historian, contemporary with Julius Cæsar and Augustus. He wrote a
"General History" in forty books, of which we have now fifteen entire,
with scattered fragments of the others. Diodorus devoted thirty years
to this great work.


EURIPIDES,

A Greek tragedian, was born in 480 B. C., on the day rendered famous
by the victory of Salamis. After gaining a high reputation as a
dramatist, Euripides retired to Macedon, to the court of King
Archelaûs. On the death of the poet, the Athenians begged that his
body might be sent to Athens for interment. This request Archelaûs
refused, and Euripides was buried with much pomp at Pella, in Macedon.
This poet is inferior to Æschylus and Sophocles, not only in dignity
of sentiment, but in the moral tone of his dramas. Sophocles is said
to have observed that while he represented men as they ought to be,
Euripides described them as they were.


HERODOTUS,

Who has been called the Father of History, was born at Halicarnassus,
484 B. C. He spent many years travelling through Europe, Asia and
Africa, observing everywhere the manners and customs of the people,
and collecting materials for his great work. His account of the
Persian war is full of interest, and won for him great popularity
among his countrymen.

Herodotus relates many things which seem strange, and even incredible;
but these are either traditions of remote times, or accounts received
from other travellers. The general opinion is that where Herodotus
speaks from his own observation, or relates events of which the memory
was still recent, he may be relied upon as an accurate and truthful
historian.


JUSTIN (Saint).

A Christian writer of the second century. He is principally celebrated
for his "Apology for the Christians," addressed to the Emperor
Antoninus. It is written in a style at once eloquent and persuasive,
and it is believed that it had the desired effect, and was the
immediate cause of the edict issued by Antoninus in favor of the
Christians.

St. Justin addressed a second Apology to Marcus Aurelius, but with far
different success. This Emperor was too much under the influence of
the heathen philosophers whom he had assembled at his court, to judge
impartially in the matter. One of these, Crescentius, a bitter enemy
of the Christians, procured the death of their intrepid defender. The
martyrdom of St. Justin took place at Rome, about the year 161 A. D.


JUVENAL.

A Roman poet of the first century. He was born in the reign of
Caligula, but the exact date is not known. Juvenal is celebrated for
his satires, in which he attacked the vices and follies of his day,
not sparing the emperors themselves where their conduct was deserving
of reproach. Hadrian believed that one of the satires of Juvenal was
directed against himself; he had not the magnanimity to overlook the
offence, and Juvenal was exiled to Lybia, where he died soon after.


MÆCENAS.

Minister and favorite of the Emperor Augustus. He was distinguished
for the wisdom of his counsels, and his rare abilities as a statesman.
Although himself an indifferent poet, he was still a patron of
literature and literary men; Virgil, Horace, Ovid and other celebrated
writers of the Augustan age, were among his most intimate friends.
Such was the care with which Mæcenas sought out and rewarded every
species of merit, that his name is proverbially used to denote a
generous patron.

Admirable in his public capacity, he was in private life as indolent
and luxurious as the most effeminate oriental. His villas were laid
out with unexampled magnificence, and his banquets surpassed, in taste
and display, those given by Augustus himself.

The later years of Mæcenas offer a sad commentary on the value of
human greatness. His constitution, which had never been strong, was
weakened by excess. He was tormented by constant wakefulness, and this
great man, with the resources of the world at his command, would
probably have sacrificed both wealth and power for the common boon of
sleep enjoyed by the meanest of his slaves. In vain the physicians
exercised their skill; narcotics, monotonous sounds, distant music,
all failed to produce the desired effect. A stream was, at length,
conducted through a garden adjoining the chamber where he lay, and the
soft murmur of the falling waters procured a temporary alleviation. We
are told, however, that for three years preceding his death, Mæcenas
never slept.


PELASGI.

A name given to the most ancient inhabitants of Greece. They founded
colonies in Asia Minor, the islands of the Ægean Sea, and in Italy.
The Cyclopean remains in these countries are generally attributed to
the Pelasgi. These structures are remarkable for the immense size of
the stones of which they are built.


PLINIUS, (Secundus C.)

A Roman writer, generally known as Pliny the Elder; is equally
celebrated as a historian and a naturalist. It is not easy to
understand how one man could have followed so many different
avocations, filled high offices under different emperors, and yet have
found time for such a vast amount of composition. While still quite
young, Pliny served in Germany, where he commanded a troop of cavalry;
he afterwards practised as a pleader at the Roman bar, filled the
office of procurator in Spain, and we find him, at the time of his
death, in command of the fleet which guarded the coast of Italy.

The application of Pliny to literary pursuits was uninterrupted. He
rose to his studies at two in the morning, and during the entire day,
whether in the bath, at table, or sitting in his garden, he either
listened to reading, wrote, or dictated. Even on his journeys and
military expeditions, a secretary always sat in his chariot. We are
told that in winter Pliny was careful to provide him with a warm glove
of peculiar make, that his fingers might not be too much benumbed to
hold the stylus.

We have but one complete work of this author, his Natural History, in
thirty-seven books. It treats, not only of natural history, properly
so called, but also of astronomy, biography, history, physiology,
medicine and the fine arts. The portion which treats of animals
possesses now but little interest.

In many instances, the description is so vague as to leave us in doubt
as to the particular animal he would designate. He also mingles facts,
really observed, with fables of winged horses, monsters with human
heads and the tails of scorpions, etc. The ten books on botany are
open to the same objections. He attributes to many plants properties
altogether fabulous, and his work, although formerly much quoted on
these points, has rendered very little service to the art of medicine.
The case is different where he speaks of geography, history and the
fine arts. On all these points, he imparts much valuable information
of which we would otherwise be deprived. The Natural History may be
considered, from its wide range of subjects, a sort of Cyclopædia, and
it is said that if the Latin language were lost, it might be restored
from this work alone.

Pliny perished in the great eruption of Mount Vesuvius which destroyed
the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii. He observed the phenomena
accompanying it from the deck of his ship. Wishing to take a nearer
view, and also to succor some of his friends whose villas lay near
the scene of peril, he steered across the bay, and landed at the foot
of the mountain. The next morning, while pursuing his investigations,
regardless of the remonstrances of his friends, he was suffocated by
the noxious vapors of the volcano. His body was discovered three days
later, entirely uninjured, and in an attitude of repose.

C. Plinius Cæcilius Secundus, nephew of the preceding, is generally
distinguished as Pliny the Younger. Under the care of his uncle he
made such rapid progress in literature, that he was generally
accounted one of the most learned men of his age.

He began his career as an orator at the early age of nineteen. After
filling the high offices of quæstor, consul and augur, Pliny was
appointed by Trajan governor of Bithynia. It was from this country
that he wrote his celebrated letter in favor of the Christians. It is
interesting and important, as showing the progress of Christianity,
and bearing testimony to the purity of life which was the
distinguishing mark of its professors.

Pliny has left a collection of letters in ten books. They are
addressed to some of the most celebrated persons of the time, and are
valuable and interesting for the information they convey with regard
to public events, and the manners and habits of his contemporaries.
The style of these letters is studied, and they have none of the ease
and familiarity of friendly correspondence. It seems probable that
they were intended rather for posterity, than for the persons to whom
they were ostensibly addressed.


PROCOPIUS.

One of the most celebrated historians of the Eastern Empire. He
flourished during the reigns of Justin the Elder and Justinian, and
accompanied Belisarius as secretary on his military expeditions.


SIMONIDES.

This poet excelled particularly in elegiac verse. When the most
distinguished poets of Greece wrote verses in honor of those who fell
at Marathon, the elegy of Simonides took the prize, although Æschylus
was one of the competitors. The compositions of the great tragedian
were deficient in the tenderness and pathos for which Simonides was
particularly distinguished. The lament of Danaë, and a few scattered
fragments, are all that remain of his verses, but these are sufficient
to prove that his reputation in this respect was well deserved.

Simonides brought the epigram to all the perfection of which it was
capable. The most celebrated of his epitaphs is the monumental
inscription composed for the Spartans who died at Thermopylæ:
"Stranger, tell the Lacedæmonians that we lie here in obedience to
their laws."

Simonides was held in high esteem at the court of Hiero, king of
Syracuse. This prince having inquired of him concerning the nature of
God, the poet requested a day to deliberate on the subject. When Hiero
repeated his question on the morrow, he asked for two days. As he
continued in this manner, doubling the number of days, the king
required an explanation. Simonides replied that he postponed his
answer, because, the longer he meditated on the subject, the more
obscure it became, and the more he felt his inability to treat it in
an adequate manner.

Simonides was the master of Pindar; he lived to a very advanced age,
so that he became the contemporary of the Pisistratidæ and of
Pausanias, king of Sparta. This poet is accused of having become
mercenary in his old age, and Greek writers speak of him as the first
who wrote verses for money. In this connection, we have a story which
would show that the poet was not believed to have forfeited the favor
of the gods by his avarice.

While residing at the court of Scopas, king of Thessaly, he was
engaged by that prince to compose a poem in his honor for an
approaching banquet. Whether Simonides found the exploits of Scopas
too barren a subject for his muse, or that his piety led him to
introduce higher themes, we do not know; but when the verses were
recited before the assembled court, the praises of Castor and Pollux
were mingled largely with those of his royal patron.

A mortal might have been content to share his honors with the divine
pair; but Scopas grudged every line which did not celebrate his own
fame. When Simonides approached to receive his reward, the king gave
him half the appointed sum, saying, that was for his part; for what
related to Castor and Pollux, they would no doubt bestow a generous
recompense. The disconcerted poet returned to his place amid the jeers
and laughter of the guests. In a little while, a slave brought him
word that two young men on horseback were at the gate, and desired
earnestly to speak with him. Simonides went out, but found no one;
while he was looking to see which way the strangers had gone, the roof
of the palace fell with a terrible crash, burying Scopas and his
guests beneath the ruins.

On being informed of the appearance of the young men who had sent for
him--of their snow white steeds and shining armor, he knew that it was
indeed Castor and Pollux who had acknowledged, in this manner, the
homage of his verse.


SOPHOCLES.

Was the second in order of time of the great tragic poets of Greece.
In true dramatic excellence, he is generally considered the first. The
poet was only sixteen when he was selected to lead the chorus of
Athenian youths who celebrated with lyre and song the erection of the
trophy in honor of the victory at Salamis. In his twenty-fifth year,
he carried off the tragic prize from Æschylus. He gained the same
triumph over other competitors, taking the first prize on twenty-four
different occasions.

Irreproachable in private life, distinguished for his skill in every
manly exercise, and a rare excellence in the arts of poetry and music,
Sophocles was considered by his admiring countrymen as an especial
favorite of the gods. The remark of the ancient sage that no man is to
be accounted happy before he dies, was verified in the case of this
great poet. If the morning of his life was bright in the lustre of
national glory and personal renown, the evening was clouded by the
misfortunes of his country, and domestic unhappiness. Sophocles served
with courage, but without gaining much distinction, in the
Peloponnesian war, and was a witness of the miseries which that fatal
struggle brought upon Greece. He died in the year 405, B. C., a few
months before the defeat of Ægos-potamos completed the misfortunes of
Athens. He was deeply lamented by the Athenians, who seem to forget
the calamities of the time in their grief at the loss of so
illustrious a citizen. Sophocles wrote one hundred and thirty dramas,
of which seven remain. Of these, the Œdipus Tyrannus and the Antigone
are the most admired.


STRABO.

A celebrated geographer, born at Amaseia, in Pontus, about the year
24, B. C. He spent many years in travelling, at first for his own
gratification, and in the pursuit of knowledge, but afterwards by the
order of Augustus. He was already advanced in life when he compiled
his great work on geography. It is divided into seventeen books, and
contains much valuable and interesting information with regard to the
manners and customs of the nations he had visited.

Little was known at that time of the extent and form of earth. Strabo
imagined that the entire habitable portion was included between two
meridians, one of which passed through the island of Ierne, (Ireland,)
and the other through Ceylon.


TITICACA.

A lake in Bolivia, celebrated for the ruins of Tiahuanico on its
shores. They stand on an eminence which, from the water-marks
surrounding it, seems to have been formerly an island in the lake. So
great a change has taken place, that the level of the lake is now 135
feet lower, and its shores 12 miles distant. These ruins are believed
to be the most ancient on the American continent. The Peruvians knew
nothing of their origin, but had a vague tradition that they were
built by giants in a single night. They regarded them, therefore,
with superstitious awe, and connected them, as we have seen, with the
fables of their mythology. These ruins, like some in the the Old
World, are often called cyclopean, on account of the size of the
blocks of stone used in their construction. There are still remaining,
monolithic pillars, statues and doorways, sculptured in a style
entirely different from that observed on any other American monuments.
We may form some idea of the size of the blocks used, from the
measurement of one doorway, which is 10 ft. high, and 13 ft. broad,
with an opening, 6 ft. 4 inches, by 3 ft. 2 inches, the whole being
cut from a single stone.

Some of the buildings appear to have been of pyramidal form, and to
have covered several acres. Of the people who executed such stupendous
works, we know absolutely nothing, except that they preceded the
Peruvians, and were farther advanced in the arts of civilized life
than any nation existing on the continent at the time of its
discovery.


VARRO.

A Latin writer, celebrated for his extensive learning. He is said to
have composed five hundred volumes, all of which are now lost, with
the exception of two treatises; one on agriculture, the other on the
Latin language. The latter is dedicated to Cicero, an intimate friend
of the author.

The life of Varro was eventful: he was favored by Julius Cæsar,
proscribed by Antony, and passed his later years in literary ease
under the protection of Augustus. Speaking of Varro, St. Augustine
says, that "it is an equal subject of wonder, how one who read such a
number of books, could find time to compose so many volumes; and how
he who composed so many volumes, could have found leisure to peruse
such a variety of books."




_INDEX._


    A.

    Acestes, 173.

    Achab, 214.

    Achilles, 58, 152, 153, 166, 98.

    Acœtes, 42.

    Acrisius, 131

    Admetus, 31.

    Adonis, 53, 216.

    Adrastus, 168.

    Æacus, 102.

    Ægeus, 121, 122.

    Ægisthus, 153, 164.

    Æneas, 171.

    Æneid, 148.

    Æolus, 67.

    Æschylus, 170, 199, 202, 291.

    Æsculapius, 30, 188.

    Æson, 119.

    Æetes, 120.

    Agamedes, 184.

    Agamemnon, 152.

    Agathocles, 214.

    Ages of the World, 18.

    Agenor, 26.

    Aglaia, 53.

    Ajax, 141, 157.

    Ahriman, 218.

    Alcestis, 31.

    Alcithoe, 41.

    Alcibiades, 38, 193.

    Alcmena, 114.

    Alecto, 101.

    Alexander, 187, 193.

    Alfheim, 252.

    Alpheus, 91.

    Althea, 140.

    Amazons, 135.

    Ambarvalia, 79.

    Amphion, 88, 128.

    Amphitrite, 93.

    Anchises, 171, 174.

    Andromache, 167, 172.

    Andromeda, 132.

    Antigone, 169.

    Antilochus, 58.

    Apelles, 113, 193.

    Apis, Serapis, 209, 210.

    Apollo, Phœbus, 176, 26, 29, 30, 33, 259, 184, 182, 152.

    Arachne, 47.

    Arcas, 44.

    Arethusa, 91.

    Argonauts, 120.

    Argus, 37.

    Ariadne, 122.

    Arion, 126.

    Ascalaphus, 76.

    Ascanius, 171.

    Asgard, 241.

    Astaroth, Astarte, 216.

    Aske, 240.

    Astræa, 80.

    Astyanax, 167.

    Atalanta, 52, 141.

    Attalus, 73.

    Athamas, 97, 119.

    Atlas, 36, 129.

    Atropos, 101.

    Audax, Ap. Cl., 71.

    Augurs, 178.

    Aurora, Eos, 56.

    Avatars, 222.

    Avernus, 100.

    Aztecs, 274.


    B.

    Baal, Bel, 213, 258.

    Bacchanalia, 40.

    Bacchantes, 41.

    Bacchus, 32, 39, 122, 126, 186.

    Bakoo, 219.

    Baldur, 248.

    Bards, 260.

    Belides, 104.

    Bellerophon, 104, 137.

    Bellona, 35.

    Belus, 213.

    Belvidere, Apollo, 208.

    Bifrost, 241.

    Bona Dea, 73.

    Bonzes, 232.

    Bragi, 245.

    Brahma, 221.

    Brennus, 84.

    Briareus, 103.

    Buddha, 226.


    C.

    Cacus, 65.

    Cadmus, 26.

    Caduceus, 36.

    Cæculus, 65.

    Cæsar, Augustus, 63, 147, 149.

    Cæsar, Julius, 258, 292.

    Calchas, 152, 153, 167.

    Calliope, 82, 125.

    Callista, 44.

    Calypso, 159.

    Cambyses, 59, 187.

    Camul, 260.

    Carnac, 272.

    Cassandra, 152, 172.

    Cassiopeia, 132.

    Castalian fount, 189.

    Castes, 225.

    Cecrops, 46.

    Castor, 123, 141.

    Celeus, 78.

    Centaurs, 104.

    Cephalus, 56.

    Cepheus, 132.

    Cerberus, 101, 116.

    Ceres, Demeter, 17, 75, 76, 143.

    Cestus, 50.

    Ceyx, 138.

    Charon, 100.

    Charybdis, 158.

    Chimæra, 104, 134.

    Chione, 88.

    Chiron, 114.

    Cholula, 280.

    Cicero, 148, 293.

    Cinyras, 53.

    Circe, 96.

    Claudia, 73.

    Cleomenes, 208.

    Clio, 82.

    Clotho, 101.

    Clymene, 33, 123.

    Clytemnestra, 153, 164.

    Cœneus, 52.

    Confucius, 228-9.

    Consualia, 94.

    Constantine, 184, 86.

    Corcyreans, 181.

    Coricancha, 287.

    Corybantes, Galli, 73.

    Creon, 169.

    Creusa, 120.

    Crœsus, 183.

    Cromlechs, 271.

    Cupid, 50.

    Cuzco, 287.

    Cyane, 76.

    Cybele, 72.

    Cyclops, 30, 65.

    Cynisca, 193.

    Cyparissus, 30.


    D.

    Dædalus, 137.

    Dagon, 217.

    Danaë, 131.

    Danaus, 104.

    Daphne, 33.

    Deianira, 117.

    Delos, 54.

    Delphi, 181.

    Demosthenes, 181, 295.

    Deucalion, 136.

    Diana, 29, 87, 91, 152.

    Dictys, 132.

    Dido, 172.

    Diodorus, 181, 259, 295.

    Diomedes, 46, 116.

    Dindymus, Mt., 72.

    Dionysius, 23, 194.

    Dodona, 180.

    Dolmens, 272.

    Domitian, 70.

    Druids, 258, 261.

    Druidesses, 264.

    Dryades, 90, 143.


    E.

    Echo, 91.

    Eclogues, 147, 178.

    Eddas, 239.

    Electra, 164.

    Eleusinian Mysteries, 77.

    Elves, 250, 251, 252.

    Elysium, 174, 104.

    Embla, 241.

    Ephesus, Temple of, 89.

    Epidaurus, 188.

    Epimetheus, 124.

    Erato, 82.

    Erigone, 81.

    Erisichthon, 143-4.

    Erostratus, 89.

    Esus, 258.

    Eteocles, 168.

    Eumenides, 102.

    Euphrosyne, 53.

    Euripides, 170, 193, 295.

    Europa, 26.

    Euryale, 131.

    Eurydice, 125.

    Eurystheus, 114.

    Euterpe, 82.


    F.

    Fates, 101, 140.

    Fauns, 85.

    Fenris, 247-8, 255.

    Flora, 92.

    Fo, 233.

    Frey, 244.

    Freya, 244.

    Frigga, 248, 249.

    Frost Giants, 240, 249.

    Furies, 101, 201.


    G.

    Games, Classic, 191.

    Ganymede, 43.

    Georgics, 148.

    Genghis, Kan, 237.

    Germanicus, 211.

    Geryon, 104, 116.

    Giants, 209.

    Gnomes, 244, 252.

    Gorgons, 47, 132.

    Graces, 53.

    Gradivus, Mars, 35.

    Guatama, 226.

    Guebers or Guebres, 220.


    H.

    Hadrian, 189.

    Hæmon, 106.

    Halcyone, 138.

    Halcyons, 139.

    Hamadryades, 90.

    Harpies, 104.

    Harpocrates, 212.

    Hebe, 118.

    Hecate, 87.

    Hector, 154, 166.

    Hecuba, 155.

    Heimdall, 245.

    Hela, 245, 248, 259.

    Helen, 52, 155.

    Helenus, 172.

    Helicon, Mt., 48, 146.

    Hell, 100.

    Helle, 119.

    Hercules, 31, 77, 114, 191, 192, 195.

    Hermione, 166.

    Hermod, 249.

    Herodotus, 187, 194, 296.

    Hesiod, 146, 83.

    Hesperides, 116, 130.

    Hinnom, 215.

    Hippocrene, 48.

    Hippolytus, 30.

    Hippomenes, 52.

    Hodur, 246.

    Homer, 145.

    Huitzilopotchli, 275.

    Hyacinthus, 30.

    Hyades, 40, 130.

    Hyperboreans, 182, 259.

    Hyperion, 158.


    I.

    Iapetus, 123.

    Ibycus, 202.

    Icarus, 137, 156.

    Ida, Mt., 51, 24, 171.

    Iduna, 245.

    Iliad, 146.

    Inachus, 38.

    Incas, 285.

    Ino, 97, 119.

    Io, 38, 209.

    Iole, 117.

    Iona, 270.

    Iphigenia, 52, 165.

    Iphitus, 191, 192.

    Iris, 43.

    Isis, 38, 210.

    Isthmian Games, 196.

    Ixion, 103.

    Iulus, 175.


    J.

    Janus, 17, 61, 63.

    Jason, 119, 141.

    Jobates, 134.

    Jocasta, 106.

    Jotunheim, 241, 243.

    Juggernaut, 224.

    Juno, 25, 38, 39, 43, 51, 114, 175.

    Jupiter, 17, 19, 23, 131, 159.

    Jupiter Ammon, 186.

    Justin, (Saint,) 178, 296.

    Juvenal, 210, 212, 297.


    K.

    Kalki, 223.

    Krishna, 223.


    L.

    Labyrinth, 121, 137.

    Lachesis, 101.

    Laius, 167.

    Lama, Grand, 235-7.

    Laomedon, 57.

    Lao-tze, 228-231.

    Lara, 108.

    Lares, 108.

    Latinus, 174.

    Latona, 29, 54.

    Lavinia, 174.

    Leda, 123.

    Lemnos, 64.

    Lethe, 101, 104.

    Leucothea, 98.

    Loki, 247-250, 243, 251, 256.

    Lotus-eaters, 158.

    Lupercus, 84.

    Luxor, 59.

    Lycaon, 28.

    Lycomedes, 153.


    M.

    Mæcenas, 147, 297.

    Maia, 36.

    Mama Oello Huaco, 285.

    Manco-Capac, 285.

    Mania, 108.

    Marathon, 81.

    Mars, Ares, 34.

    Marsyas, 31.

    Medea, 119.

    Medusa, 47, 94.

    Megæra, 101.

    Megalesia, 73.

    Meganira, 78.

    Meleager, 140.

    Melicertes, 97, 196.

    Melpomene, 82.

    Memnon, 58.

    Menelaus, 52.

    Menhirs, 271.

    Mentor, 146.

    Mercury, Hermes, 36, 37.

    Mestra, 144.

    Metamorphoses, 150.

    Metempsychoses, 223.

    Mezentius, 175.

    Midas, 31.

    Midgard serpent, 247.

    Minerva, Pallas Athena, 27, 45, 51, 88, 166.

    Minos, 102, 121, 142, 137.

    Minotaur, 121.

    Mistletoe, rite of the, 262.

    Mnemosyne, 82.

    Moloch, 214.

    Momus, 67.

    Mona, 270.

    Montezuma, 283.

    Muses, 48, 82.


    N.

    Naiades, 90.

    Narcissus, 92.

    Nemesis, 81.

    Neptune, 17, 24, 54, 68, 93, 144.

    Nereides, 90.

    Nero, 184-90, 127.

    Nessus, 117.

    Nestor, 141.

    Niffleheim, 241, 246.

    Niobe, 88, 128.

    Nisus, 142.

    Norns, 241.

    Numa, 63, 110.

    Nymphs, 90.


    O.

    Oannes, 217.

    Odin, 240-2, 245-6.

    Odyssey, 146, 157.

    Oceanus, 87.

    Oceanides, 87, 90.

    Œdipus, 167, 106.

    Œneus, 140.

    Olympiads, 192.

    Olympic Games, 191.

    Olympus, Mt., 18.

    Ops, Rhea, 24.

    Oracles, 180.

    Oreades, 90.

    Orestes, 164.

    Orion, 131.

    Ormuzd, Ormasdes, 219.

    Orpheus, 96, 125.

    Osiris, 38, 209.

    Ouisneach, 268.

    Ovid, 148.


    P.

    Pachacamac, 284.

    Palamedes, 157.

    Pales, 92.

    Palæmon, 98.

    Palladium, 46, 157.

    Pan, 31, 84, 184.

    Pandora, 124.

    Pariahs, 225.

    Paris, 51.

    Parnassus, Mt., 181, 189, 136.

    Parthenon, 207.

    Parsees, 220.

    Patroclus, 154.

    Pausanias, 184.

    Pegasus, 48, 135.

    Pelasgi, 181, 263, 299.

    Peleus, 51, 98, 141, 153.

    Pelops, 103.

    Penates, 108, 171.

    Penelope, 156, 160.

    Pentheus, 41.

    Perdix, 137.

    Periander, 126.

    Pericles, 204.

    Perseus, 47, 94, 129.

    Peru, 284.

    Petasus, 36.

    Phæton, 33.

    Phæacia, 160.

    Phœnix, 107.

    Phidias, 81, 206.

    Philip, 193.

    Philoctetes, 118.

    Philomelus, 184.

    Phineus, 133.

    Phorcus or Proteus, 94.

    Phryxus, 119.

    Pierides, 83.

    Pleiades, 130.

    Pliny, 139, 299.

    Pluto, 24, 76, 99.

    Plutus, 100.

    Pollux, 123, 141.

    Polydectes, 132.

    Polybus, 168.

    Polydorus, 155.

    Polyhymnia, 83.

    Polyidus, 135.

    Polymnestor, 155.

    Polynices, 168.

    Polyphemus, 65.

    Polyxena, 155.

    Pomona, 92.

    Pou-tou, 234.

    Priests, Aztec, 278.

    Priestesses, Aztec, 279.

    Priam, 51, 154.

    Procris, 56.

    Procopius, 269, 302.

    Prœtus, 137.

    Prometheus, 98, 123.

    Proserpine, Persephone, 31, 76, 100.

    Proteus, 95.

    Pulcher, Cl., 179.

    Pylades, 164.

    Pyrrha, 136.

    Pythia, 165, 181.

    Pythian Games, 195.

    Python, 29, 195.


    Q.

    Quetzalcoatl, 275.

    Quirinus, Mars, 34.


    R.

    Ragnarok, 254.

    Raymi, 289.

    Rhadamanthus, 102.

    Runic Letters, 258, 263.


    S.

    Salii, 35.

    Salmoneus, 104.

    Samhain, 266.

    Sâmund Sigfûsson, 239.

    Santa Sophia, 90.

    Saturnalia, 62.

    Saturn, 17, 24, 61.

    Satyrs, 85.

    Scylla, 96, 142.

    Semele, 39.

    Sibyls, 176.

    Sibyl, Cumæan, 173, 176.

    Sifa, 243.

    Siguna, 252.

    Silenus, 32, 40.

    Sirens, 95.

    Sisyphus, 103, 134.

    Siva, 222.

    Skalds, 239.

    Solymi, 135.

    Sophocles, 170, 304.

    Sphinx, 105.

    Statues, 206.

    Stonehenge, 259, 272.

    Strabo, 306.

    Strophius, 164.

    Styx, 33, 101.

    Sudras, 224.

    Sylla, 158, 184, 189.

    Syrinx, 85.


    T.

    Tantalus, 88, 103.

    Tao-sse, 229.

    Tara, 268.

    Tarann, 260.

    Tarquin, 86, 177.

    Tauric festival, 258, 267.

    Telamon, 141.

    Telemachus, 157, 161.

    Terminus, 85.

    Tezcatlipoca, 281.

    Terpsichore, 82.

    Teutates, 259, 266.

    Thalia, 53, 83.

    Thammuz, 216.

    Thamyris, 83.

    Theatres, 197.

    Themis, 80.

    Theseus, 121, 141.

    Thetis, 98, 153.

    Thor, 242-4.

    Thoth, 259.

    Thrym, 242-3.

    Tisiphone, 101.

    Titan, 24.

    Tithonus, 57.

    Titicaca, 285, 306.

    Tityus, 103.

    Tlaloc, 281.

    Toltecs, 274.

    Triads, 259.

    Triptolemus, 78.

    Tristia, 149.

    Triton, 94.

    Trophonius, 184.

    Tse-tse, 231.

    Tuisco, 256.

    Turnus, 175.

    Typhon, 102, 209.


    U.

    Ulysses, 46, 154, 156, 96.

    Urania, 83.


    V.

    Valhalla, 242.

    Valkyrior, 247.

    Varro, 176, 307.

    Ve, 240.

    Vedas, 221.

    Venus, 49, 51, 53, 65, 171.

    Vertumnus, 86.

    Vesta, 69.

    Vestal Virgins, 70.

    Vidar, 246.

    Vili, 240.

    Viracocha, 284.

    Virgil, 147.

    Virgins of the Sun, 290-1.

    Virginia, 111.

    Virtues personified, 110.

    Vishnu, 222.

    Vulcan, Hephæstus, 19, 64, 68, 154.

    Vulcania, 65.

    Vyasa, 221.


    X.

    Xerxes, 183.


    Y.

    Ymir, 240.


    Z.

    Zend-avesta, 218.

    Zenodorus, 260.

    Zoroaster, 218.


    
    
         *   *   *   *   *   *   *




Transcriber's note:

A number of the page numbers in the index are incorrect, generally
only being out by a single page; as such, they have been preserved
as printed.

Archaic and variable spelling is preserved as printed.

Some names include acute accents to indicate pronounciation. The
positioning of these accents has been made consistent where there was
a variation in a few instances. However, other occurrences of the same
name may not include the accent. These have been preserved as printed.

Minor punctuation errors, e.g. omitted periods, have been corrrected.
Hyphenation and accent usage have been made consistent where there was
a prevalence of one form over another.

Page 270 contains the following paragraph: "The superstitious
observances which are still practised on November, or All Hallow Eve,
in Ireland, Scotland, and some parts of England, are of pagan origin,
and seem to be relics of this festival." There seems to be a specific
day missing from the reference to November, presumably 'first,'
although All Hallow Eve is generally regarded as being October 31st,
with November 1st being All Hallow, or All Saints Day. As it is
uncertain what precisely the author was referencing, the text is
preserved as printed.

The following amendments have been made to give consistency in the
table of contents or index with the main text:

    Page 7--Cœculus amended to Cæculus--"... Cacus--Cæculus ..."

    Page 7--Megalecia amended to Megalesia--"... Festival of
    Megalesia ..."

    Page 11--Ashtaroth amended to Astaroth--"... Astaroth or
    Astarte ..."

    Page 13--Bealtime amended to Beal-Tinne--"... Beltane or
    Beal-Tinne ..."

    Page 13--Tetzcatlipoca amended to Tezcatlipoca--"... Victims
    offered annually to Tezcatlipoca ..."

    Page 309--Ashtaroth amended to Astaroth--"Astaroth, Astarte,
    216."

    Page 309--Athropos amended to Atropos--"Atropos, 101."

    Page 313--Megalecia amended to Megalesia--"Megalesia, 73."

    Page 313--Athenæ amended to Athena--"Minerva, Pallas Athena,
    27, ..."

    Page 315--Vyassa amended to Vyasa--"Vyasa, 221."

The following typographic errors have been corrected:

    Page 31--presumptious amended to presumptuous--"The god was
    not content with defeating the presumptuous musician, ..."

    Page 40--personfication amended to personification--"He seems
    to be the personification of drunkenness; ..."

    Page 40--where amended to were--"What feasts were held in his
    honor?"

    Page 46--determed amended to determined--"... they
    determined, therefore, to steal the Palladium."

    Page 47--because amended to Because--"_Ans._ Because
    this bird sees in the dark; ..."

    Page 64--were amended to where--"... where he manufactured
    Jupiter's thunderbolts, ..."

    Page 67--be- amended to before--"... he was enabled to
    foretell storms a long time before they happened; ..."

    Page 91--refuse amended to refused--"... but refused to
    listen to his addresses."

    Page 91--repeated 'a' deleted--"... and was immediately
    dissolved into a fountain."

    Page 98--shipwreek amended to shipwreck--"He was supposed to
    have power in saving vessels from shipwreck, ..."

    Page 106--Hæman amended to Hæmon--"At length Hæmon, son of
    Creon, ..."

    Page 203--Iybcus amended to Ibycus--"... the fate of Ibycus
    being still on every tongue."

    Page 213--of amended to or--"Where was the Sun worshipped
    under the name of Baal or Bel ..."

    Page 260--excuted amended to executed--"... executed a statue
    of Teu´tates ..."

    Page 271--ef amended to of--"... extensive groups of menhirs
    occur, ..."

    Page 280--mearsures amended to measures--"It measures 176
    feet in perpendicular height, ..."

    Page 302--repect amended to respect--"... to prove that his
    reputation in this respect was well deserved."

The following amendments were made to the index:

    Page 312--there were two entries for Iphitus (one referencing
    p. 192 and incorrectly located before the entry for Ino). The
    two have been merged into a single entry in the correct place.

    Page 312--Japetus amended to Iapetus, and entry moved to correct
    place in index--"Iapetus, 123."

    Page 312--Lucothea amended to Leucothea--"Leucothea, 98."

    Page 315--page reference for Virgins of the Sun entry
    added--"Virgins of the Sun, 290-1."