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       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: _Frontispiece. Photo, Reid, Wishaw._ BREEDING SOWS OF THE
LARGE AND MIDDLE WHITE BREEDS.

The Middle White Sow in the forefront (the property of the Author) was
one of the best ever bred, "Holywell Countess Victoria."]


THE PIG



                            THE PIG
                BREEDING, REARING, AND MARKETING

                              BY

                        SANDERS SPENCER


                            London
                     C. Arthur Pearson Ltd.
                        Henrietta Street
                             1919


CONTENTS

  CHAPTER                                                 PAGE

  INTRODUCTION                                              13

  I. NON-PEDIGREE PIGS                                      19

  II. PURE BREEDS (with Standard Descriptions and
      Scales of Points)                                     26

  III. CROSS-BRED PIGS                                      39

  IV. DENTITION AND AGE OF PIGS                             49

  V. SELECTION OF THE BOAR                                  54

  VI. SELECTION OF THE SOW                                  63

  VII. THE SOW'S UDDER                                      67

  VIII. MATING THE YOUNG SOW                                72

  IX. THE FARROWING SOW                                     79

  X. WEANING PIGS                                           91

  XI. THE REARING OF YOUNG PIGS                             97

  XII. HOUSING OF PIGS                                     107

  XIII. THE EXHIBITION OF PIGS                             113

  XIV. PRESENT AND FUTURE PIG-KEEPING                      125

  XV. PIG-FATTENING                                        131

  XVI. A PIG CALENDAR                                      148

  XVII. DISEASES OF THE PIG                                157

  XVIII. THE CURING OF PORK                                171

  INDEX                                                    182


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  BREEDING SOWS OF THE LARGE AND MIDDLE WHITE
      BREEDS                                    _Frontispiece_

                                                   FACING PAGE

  LARGE BLACK BOAR, "DRAYTON KING"                          16

  PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS, EXHIBITED AT SMITHFIELD SHOW 1914   17

  A BERKSHIRE SOW                                           32

  LARGE BLACK SOW, "SUDBOURNE SADIE"                        33

  THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS                          48

  A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR                                       49

  TAMWORTH BOAR: BISHOP OF WEBTON                           64

  GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT SOW                                   65

  LARGE WHITE BOAR                                          80

  TAMWORTH SOW, "QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES"                      81

  MIDDLE WHITE SOW                                          96

  CUMBERLAND SOW                                            97

  LARGE WHITE SOW, "WORSLEY SUNBEAM"                       112

  LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR                                  113




INTRODUCTION


There are few points in the breeding of stock on which a greater
variation of opinion has been confidently expressed than on the origin
of the domesticated pig. It has been contended that our various types
had a common origin in the wild hog, and that the difference in form,
colour, and character amongst the local breeds is due, in the main, to
the requirements, imaginary or real, of the interested residents in the
particular districts. On the other hand, it is asserted with equal
confidence, and probably with the same amount of actual proof, that it
would be impossible so to improve the wild hog by selection as to render
it the equal of the domesticated hog. There must, therefore, have been
an infusion of blood of a cultivated breed of pigs to acquire even that
amount of success which was noticeable in the improved pig of a century,
or less, ago. Unfortunately, for this argument, it has not been possible
to obtain any information of value as to the alleged source of origin of
this cultivated breed of pigs.

Again, those pigs which possess in a marked degree early maturity, fine
quality of flesh, and those other characteristics of the improved pig,
are so various in colour, that one cultivated breed only could not have
been utilised in the general improvement.

All the ancient writers on pigs appear to have experienced the same
difficulty when endeavouring to discover the sources of origin of the
material which might have been used in the production of the pig which
in their time was looked upon as the domesticated and improved pig of
the period. This difficulty extends even to the present day. So far as
is known there exists no actual proof that the domesticated hog has been
evolved in any particular way other than by continued selection of those
animals for breeding purposes which possessed in the greatest degree
those particular qualities held in the highest estimation at the time.

Of course, the soil, climate, etc., of the district in which pigs are
reared have a certain amount of influence, but this is noticeable to a
much lesser extent with pigs than with horses, cattle, or sheep, since
under the present system of pig-breeding the greater portion of the food
used in the different districts is of a very similar character--indeed,
much of it has a common origin--having been imported from abroad.

As a rule, comparatively speaking very little difference is noticeable
in the development, form, and character of pigs bred in the various
parts of the country, whereas with some of the other domesticated
animals a very considerable change follows the removal of sheep of a
pure breed from one district to another. The quality and quantity of the
wool, flesh, and bone are all affected. An exactly similar effect is
noticeable when horses of a particular breed are moved from one district
to another. For instance, a Shire foal bred in the Fens may possess the
characteristic bone, flesh, and hair, yet if it be moved into portions
of the Eastern counties where the soil is of a totally different
character, it will when matured have lost, to a very considerable
extent, its peculiar characteristics of bone and hair. The changes
wrought may be due in small measure to climate, but the predominant
cause must be due to the variation in the food grown on soils of a
different character.

This question of the original cause or causes of the varying colour of
the pigs in different localities appears to be equally difficult of
solution. As to the continuation in certain districts of pigs of one
colour, custom and even prejudice have a great effect. So strong is this
prejudice that some persons will even declare that the pork of pigs of
the fashionable colour in the neighbourhood is superior to that from
pigs of any other colour. As this weakness is common in districts where
black and where white pigs are kept it must be admitted that prejudice
alone must be the foundation of the belief.

Probably the safest conclusion to arrive at with respect to the
variation in colour of the pigs noticeable in certain districts is that
in the long ago the native pig in the wild state was of the colour of
the soil and the herbage in which it sheltered, and was thus less
conspicuous to its enemies, whether human or animal. A marked instance
of this is to be found in the colour of the common or original pig found
in some parts of the country where the soil is of a decidedly red
colour. In the district referred to one actually hears some farms spoken
of as "red land farms." What more natural than to find in the districts
in which land of this hue predominates that the pigs should be a red
rusty hue such as was the original colour of that breed of pigs now
called the Tamworth breed.

Some persons, who do not agree with this theory of the origin of the
various coloured pigs, cite as a proof of their belief the fact that in
so many districts the pigs are of a mixed colour, and that this peculiar
marking is equally as general in localities as is any particular or
special colour in the pigs. This is perfectly true, and it is probably
due to exactly the same causes, fancy, prejudice, or custom. The
residents in certain districts have grown accustomed to certain things
or certain forms, and are loth to change; the manufacturer of any
article must humour the actual or fancied requirements of his customers
if he is to secure success; and in a similar manner the breeder of pigs
has to consider and to produce pigs of the form, size, and colour which
are most in demand. Further if, as confidently alleged, there is a
preference in some districts for pork from pigs of a certain colour,
then the butcher naturally offers a higher price for pigs of that colour
which most fully satisfy the fancies of his customers, and thus we find
a similarity of form and colour in the pigs of various districts.

As to the origin of these parti-coloured pigs, the explanation offered
is that even in pre-railway times there was a certain amount of
interchange of the different local breeds of stock. This would be
affected in various ways, which need not be specified.

At the present time we have several defined and distinct breeds of pigs
which have secured recognition at our principal agricultural shows.
Indeed it may be claimed that the exhibitions of live stock which have
become so general in all parts of the country have been one of the chief
factors in fixing to a certain extent the type and character of certain
local breeds. Within the memory of the present writer the classification
of pigs at our principal shows was of a very simple character; it
consisted of classes for pigs of a white colour and for pigs of any
other colour. There was no attempt at any definition as to size, form,
and quality of the pigs. These points were left entirely to the judges,
who naturally were led to favour pigs of the type which they bred. There
was thus a greater amount of uncertainty as to the success of an
exhibitor's stock than at the present time. This uncertainty--save as to
the members of the Show Committees or their friends--was increased by
the unfair system of withholding from the knowledge of the average
exhibitor the names of those selected to judge.

The necessity of some definition, if only of colour, quickly became
obvious. At first classes were established for pigs of certain colours;
then the prizes were offered for pigs of certain breeds, which were more
or less loosely defined. Now at the chief shows the pigs exhibited in
the various classes must be qualified for entry in the herd books of the
particular breeds.

At the Royal Agricultural Shows there have been classes for pigs of the
Large White, Middle White, Berkshire, Tamworth, Large Black and
Lincolnshire Curly Coated breeds; whilst for the next show classes for
pigs of the so-called Gloucestershire Old Spots breed are to be
included. As showing the changes which are in progress it may be noted
that two breeds of pigs which had classes provided for them at the Royal
and some other Shows have become extinct. These were the Small White and
the Small Black breeds--the sole cause of their disappearance being the
unsuitability of the pigs of the breeds to supply the present
requirements of the consumer.

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._

LARGE BLACK BOAR, "DRAYTON KING."

Owner, Terah F. Hooley. 1st Prize, Somerset County Agricultural Show,
1913.

To face page 16.]

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: _Block kindly supplied by E. F. Casswell, Manor House,
Graby, Folkingham._

PAIR OF L.C.C. GILTS, Exhibited at SMITHFIELD SHOW 1914. 1st Prize. Age
8 months, 1 week, 5 days. Weight 7 cwts.

To face page 17.]


THE PIG




CHAPTER I

NON-PEDIGREE PIGS


Although the more general use of so-called pedigree pigs has tended to
modify the characteristics of the various local breeds of pigs, yet it
is possible to find a certain number of pig breeders who adhere to the
type of pig which has been in the past most generally found in their
district. This type was undoubtedly fixed by the wants or fancies of
those resident in the particular portions of the country.

In the past it has been the practice when describing these local breeds
to write as though they were confined to certain counties. It may be
that pigs of a peculiar or characteristic type are more numerous within
the borders of various counties, but this is by no means always the
case. The habits and pursuits of the inhabitants rather than the soil
and climate--as with horses, cattle and sheep--have the greatest
influence on the form, size and quality of the local pigs, whilst use
and custom appear to determine the colour of the pig. We are of opinion
that it will be more instructive if we give a short description of some
of the more common types of these local breeds of pigs, and mention the
names of those counties in which they are more generally found.

Amongst the most distinct of these local breeds is that which is
variously termed the sheeted or saddle-backed pig, which in the United
States has a society to look after its interests, and where it bears the
name of

THE HAMPSHIRE

Just why our American cousins should have decided to call these sheeted
pigs Hampshires is not on the surface, since the oldest writers on pigs
give to the county of Sussex the credit of being their original home.
The description given by Sidney of the Hampshire pig is that "it is a
coarse and useful black pig, inferior to the Berkshire, and not in the
same refined class as the Essex." Richardson writes "The Hampshire breed
is not infrequently confounded with the Berkshire; but its body is
longer and its sides flatter; the head is long and the snout sharp. The
colour of the breed is usually dark spotted; but it is sometimes black
altogether, and more frequently white."

The sheeted pig has also been bred in the county of Essex for over a
century, but it is recorded that it was introduced into this county by a
Mr. Western who subsequently became Lord Western, and whose estate was
situated in Essex.

In Sidney's book _The Pig_, we read, "West Sussex, Hampshire, Berkshire,
Dorset, Shropshire and Wales had indigenous black or red and black
breeds of swine; and between the whites, the blacks and the reds the
parti-colours were produced which have since in a great degree
disappeared under the influence of prizes, generally awarded to pure
breeds of single colours."

Sidney also states "that Youatt and all the authors who have followed
him down to the latest work published on the subject, occupy space in
describing various county pigs which have long ceased to possess, if
they ever possessed, any merit worth the attention of the breeder."

The Rudgwick, which is another name for the sheeted pig, is included in
the list. Richardson at a still earlier date describes the Sussex breed
as "black and white in colour, but not _spotted_; that is to say, these
colours are distributed in very large patches; one half--say, for
instance, the fore part of the body white and the hinder end black; or
sometimes both ends black and the middle white or _vice versâ_; these
pigs are in no way remarkable; they seldom feed to over twenty stone.
They are well made, of middle size, and their skin covered with scanty
bristles. The snout tapering and firm, the ears upright and pointed, the
jowl deep and the body compactly round. They arrive at early maturity,
fatten quickly, and the flesh is excellent."

Richardson also writes, "There is another improved Essex breed, called
the Essex Half-Blacks, resembling that which I have described in colour,
said to be descended from the Berkshire. This breed was originally
introduced by Lord Western, and obtained much celebrity," etc. etc.

He then quotes from _The Complete Grazier_, sixth edition, as follows:
"They are black and white, short haired, fine skinned with smaller heads
and ears than the Berkshire, but feathered with inside hair which is a
distinctive mark of both; have short snubby noses, very fine bone, broad
and deep in the belly, full in the hind quarters, but light in the bone
and offal. They feed remarkably fast and are of an excellent quality of
meat. The sows are good breeders, and bring litters of from eight to
twelve; but they have the character of being bad nurses." If this
allegation were true at the time it was written, it is not at the
present time as the Half-Blacks or sheeted sows are both prolific and
first-rate mothers.

Malden describes the Sussex: "A large breed called the Rudgwick, was one
of the largest in England. There appears to be a doubt as to whether the
coloured pig was descended from the spotted Berkshire or the black and
white Essex. They were of medium size, of good quality generally, but of
somewhat heavy bone." The generally accepted view is that the Essex
sheeted pig was descended from importations from the county of Sussex.
These sheeted pigs are still occasionally met with in Essex, but the
system of crossing which is generally followed by pig breeders in the
county is gradually reducing its number, although even amongst the
cross-breeds the peculiar marking occasionally shows itself. At the time
of writing there is a movement on foot to form a society for the purpose
of reviving the breed. From the utility point of view the sheeted pig
has much to recommend it, but whether or not one or more of the breeds
of pigs whose pedigrees are already recorded do not possess at least
equal merits must be left for decision by others.

SPOTTED PIGS

In many districts are found other parti-coloured pigs, but in these the
black, the white, and the red colours show themselves in spots of
varying size and extent. Probably amongst the best types of these
spotted pigs is the one found over the greater part of the county of
Northampton, and portions of the counties of Leicester and Oxford
adjoining. In the former county the pigs have more of black than white
in their colouring, whilst in the two latter red spots are more often
seen. This is probably due to a stronger infusion of the blood of the
Staffordshire red pig which is now known as the Tamworth. The blood of
the Neapolitan pig through the Berkshire or the Small Black is credited
with being the origin of the darker coloured Northamptonshire spotted
pig. The qualities claimed for these spotted or "plum pudding" pigs as
they are locally termed, are prolificacy, quick growth, hardihood, and
the production of pork possessing a large proportion of lean to fat
meat. They are also good grazers, and grow to a size quite the equal of
the Berkshire. In form they are perhaps more suited for the fresh pork
trade than for the manufacture of bacon of the kind now so much in
demand.

THE LARGE WHITE AND BLUE PIGS

Those large, coarse-boned pigs with hair of a white colour and skins
more or less mottled with blue are gradually giving place to pigs with
finer hair, skin, bone, and quality of meat. The coarse lop ears are
being reduced in size and thickness, whilst the pig itself is becoming
less gaunt and its early maturity considerably increased by crossing
with the better quality Large White and the quickly maturing Middle
White. These coarse white with blue markings pigs were common in the
Fens of Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, the Isle of Ely and Lincolnshire, and
in the counties of Bedford, Cheshire, etc.

WHITE PIGS

Within the memory of persons now living, white pigs of varying types
were found in various parts of this country. Many of these white pigs
found in Norfolk, Suffolk, Shropshire, and Wales had little to recommend
them as they were flat sided, long legged, hard feeders, and required to
be comparatively old before they could be turned into pork. A vast
improvement has of late years been effected in these unprofitable swine
by crossing them with compact and early maturing pigs of different
colours, but mainly white pigs until the last few years, when Large
Blacks and even a few Gloucestershire Old Spots boars have been
introduced in Norfolk.

At one time white pigs of a small size were by no means uncommon in
Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex, Yorkshire, and parts of Berkshire, and other
counties. The origin of these small, compact, and early maturing pigs
appears to have been a cross of the imported Chinese on the neater and
shorter country pigs of a white colour. For a period these handsome
pigs were quite fashionable amongst the well-to-do, but the general
public objected to the pork produced by them, owing to its excessive
fatness. The bacon curers still more strongly objected to the short
sides and the very small amount of lean meat in the cured carcases.
During the last thirty years comparatively few of these pretty, but
useless, pigs have been bred.

BLACK PIGS

The description given of the two main types of white pigs would apply
equally well to the Black pigs common in this country, save with respect
to colour. The long flat-sided black pig was found in Essex, Suffolk,
Cambridgeshire, Sussex, etc. These pigs were noted for their
prolificacy, hardihood, and quick growth, whilst the sows furnished a
full supply of milk to their youngsters, but they were such slow feeders
that it became necessary to cross them with pigs which matured more
quickly. A type of black pig similar in form to the Small White was also
found in Essex and Suffolk, whilst in Devonshire, Dorset, and one or two
other counties the colour of the pigs was blue rather than black, and of
a somewhat larger size, but possessing the same weakness, too large a
proportion of fat to lean meat.




CHAPTER II

PURE BREEDS


The task of writing a description of the various breeds of swine has
been rendered less difficult by the formation during the past
half-century of societies for the registration of the pedigrees of the
pigs of the different breeds, and by the setting up of scales of those
points which pigs for entry in the particular herd books should possess.
The first of these societies was the National Pig Breeders Association,
of which the present writer was the honorary secretary for two years. At
the time of its formation the breeds of pigs most generally recognised
were the Berkshire, the Large, Middle, and Small Whites or Yorkshires,
and the Small Black breed. It was intended that the pedigrees of the
pure bred pigs of each of these breeds should be recorded by the
Association and published in one herd book.

There is no doubt that this would have been an ideal plan, and would
have resulted in a saving of much labour and expense, and decidedly more
convenient for those connected with the export trade. For reasons into
which it is not now necessary to enter, the breeders of Berkshires
determined to have a separate herd book; therefore, they started a
society which they named the British Berkshire Society, to distinguish
it from the American Berkshire Record.

Subsequently the Tamworth breed of pigs became recognised by the Royal
Agricultural Society, and the breeders of the red pig joined the
National Pig Breeders Association. Then the demand for Small White and
Small Black pigs ceased, so that eventually the pedigrees of Large
White, Middle White, and Tamworth pigs only were registered in the
N.P.A. Herd Book.

Subsequently the breeders of Tamworth pigs formed themselves into a
society presumably for propaganda work, and to conserve the interests of
breeders of Tamworth pigs. Of late years other breeds of pigs have been
brought to public notice, and have had herd books, and societies
specially devoted to their particular interests. The Large Black, Large
White Ulster, the Lincolnshire Curly Coated pigs, the Gloucestershire
Old Spots, and the Cumberland pigs have their pedigrees recorded. An
attempt was made some years since to resuscitate the Oxfordshire Spotted
pig, but it was not a continued success. It is quite possible that other
local breeds of pigs may find sufficient admirers to form societies to
bring before the public the many good qualities possessed by the pigs of
these breeds, but apart from local interest it is at least doubtful if
any permanent benefit will supervene from this multiplication of herd
books--save that it may increase the interest in pig breeding, a result
devoutly to be prayed for.

The issuing of the scales of points of those breeds of pigs whose
pedigrees are recorded in the various herd books has rendered it
unnecessary for us to endeavour to formulate the good qualities which
are presumably those which are more or less completely possessed by
these pedigreed animals, nor does the necessity exist for us to mention
those particular qualities which each breed is supposed by the admirers
of other breeds to lack. There is no doubt that each breed possesses
certain points which render it specially suitable for differing
localities and varying purposes.

Some persons who look upon a pig solely as an animal, as a converter of
various substances into pork, are of opinion that the tendency of those
responsible for the running of these societies is towards fancy points
to the detriment of the practical points. There appears to have been
some grounds for this view. The Small White, the Small Black, the
Berkshire, and the Large White have all been affected by the acts of
faddists. The three first-named breeds suffered from the aims of certain
of the breeders to reduce the size and to increase the so-called quality
until the consumers of pork refused to follow the fashion; whilst the
craze which has seriously affected the utility of the Large White pigs
has been exactly the opposite, i.e. an endeavour to so vastly increase
the size that they ceased to supply the kind of pork and the size of
joints which the general public demanded. It may be natural for fanciers
to declare that a Small White or a Small Black pig must be a small
animal, but this is only on comparison with the large breeds of the same
colour and characteristics. The usefulness of the pig in the commercial
world must be studied if any breed of pig is to hold its own on the
market.

The opposite extreme to that followed by the breeders of the small
breeds is that of the breeders of Large Whites, who look upon mere size
as the most important of the points to be studied. The mere increase in
bulk, in length of head and leg and weight of bone may appeal to the
mere fancier or faddist, but by paying undue attention to these fancy
points the actual object of the breeding and fattening of pigs is lost
sight of, and the consumer who is after all the one whose wants must
first receive study, is estranged and the commercial market is lost.

In the following pages will be found full particulars together with the
scales of points, as issued by the various societies, of the chief
breeds and varieties.

       *       *       *       *       *


STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE

LARGE WHITE

COLOUR.--White, free from black hairs, and as free as possible from blue
spots on the skin.

HEAD.--Moderately long, face slightly dished, snout broad, not too much
turned up, jowl not too heavy, wide between the ears.

EARS.--Long, thin, slightly inclined forward, and fringed with fine
hair.

NECK.--Long, and proportionately full to shoulders.

CHEST.--Wide and deep.

SHOULDERS.--Level across the top, not too wide, free from coarseness.

LEGS.--Straight and well set, level with the outside of the body with
flat bone.

PASTERNS.--Short and springy.

FEET.--Strong, even, and wide.

BACK.--Long, level, and wide from neck to rump.

LOIN.--Broad.

TAIL.--Set high, stout and long, but not coarse, with tassel of fine
hair.

SIDES.--Deep.

RIBS.--Well sprung.

BELLY.--Full, but not flabby, with straight under line.

FLANK.--Thick, and well let down.

QUARTERS.--Long and wide.

HAMS.--Broad, full, and deep to hocks.

COAT.--Long and moderately fine.

ACTION.--Firm and free.

SKIN.--Not too thick, quite free from wrinkles.

Large bred pigs do not fully develop their points until some months old,
the pig at five months often proving at a year or 15 months a much
better animal than could be anticipated at the earlier age and _vice
versâ_; but size and quality are most important.

OBJECTIONS.--Black hairs, black spots, a curly coat, a coarse mane,
short snout, inbent knees, hollowness at back of shoulders.

       *       *       *       *       *


MIDDLE WHITE

COLOUR.--White, free from black hairs or blue spots on the skin.

HEAD.--Moderately short, face dished, snout broad and turned up, jowl
full, wide between ears.

EARS.--Fairly large, carried erect and fringed with fine hair.

NECK.--Medium length, proportionately full to the shoulders.

CHEST.--Wide and deep.

SHOULDERS.--Level across the top, moderately wide, free from coarseness.

LEGS.--Straight and well set, level with the outside of body with fine
bone.

PASTERNS.--Short and springy.

FEET.--Strong, even, and wide.

BACK.--Long, level, and wide from neck to rump.

LOIN.--Broad.

TAIL.--Set high, moderately long, but not coarse, with tassel of fine
hair.

SIDES.--Deep.

RIBS.--Well sprung.

BELLY.--Full, but not flabby, with straight under line.

FLANK.--Thick and well let down.

QUARTERS.--Long and wide.

HAMS.--Broad, full, and deep to hocks.

COAT.--Long, fine, and silky.

ACTION.--Firm and free.

SKIN.--Fine, and quite free from wrinkles.

OBJECTIONS.--Black hairs, black or blue spots, a coarse mane, inbent
knees, hollowness at back of shoulders, wrinkled skin.

       *       *       *       *       *


TAMWORTH

COLOUR.--Golden red hair on a flesh coloured skin, free from black.

HEAD.--Fairly long, snout moderately long and quite straight, face
slightly dished, wide between ears.

EARS.--Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid and inclined
slightly forward.

NECK.--Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar.

CHEST.--Wide and deep.

SHOULDERS.--Fine, slanting, and well set.

LEGS.--Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone and set well outside
body.

PASTERNS.--Strong and sloping.

FEET.--Strong, and of fair size.

BACK.--Long and straight.

LOIN.--Strong and broad.

TAIL.--Set on high and well tasselled.

SIDES.--Long and deep.

RIBS.--Well sprung and extending well up to flank.

BELLY.--Deep, with straight under line.

FLANK.--Full and well let down.

QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail.

HAMS.--Broad, and full, well let down to hocks.

COAT.--Abundant, long, straight, and fine.

ACTION.--Firm and free.

OBJECTIONS.--Black hair, very light or ginger hair, curly coat, coarse
mane, black spots on skin, slouch or drooping ears, short or turned up
snout, heavy shoulders, wrinkled skin, inbent knees, hollowness at back
of shoulders.

       *       *       *       *       *


BERKSHIRE PIGS

COLOUR.--Black, with white on face, feet and tip of tail.

SKIN.--Fine, and free from wrinkles.

HAIR.--Long, fine, and plentiful.

HEAD.--Moderately short, face dished, snout broad; and wide between the
eyes and ears.

EARS.--Fairly large, carried erect or slightly inclined forward, and
fringed with fine hair.

NECK.--Medium length, evenly set on shoulders; jowl full and not heavy.

SHOULDERS.--Fine and well sloped backwards; free from coarseness.

BACK.--Long and straight, ribs well sprung, sides deep.

HAMS.--Wide and deep to hocks.

TAIL.--Set high, and fairly large.

FLANK.--Deep and well let down, and making straight under line.

LEGS AND FEET.--Short, straight, and strong, set wide apart, and hoofs
nearly erect.

IMPERFECTIONS.--A perfectly black face, foot, or tail. A white ear. A
crooked jaw. White or sandy spots, or white skin on the body. A rose
back. A very coarse mane, and inbent knees.

       *       *       *       *       *


LARGE BLACK PIG

SCALE OF POINTS

  HEAD.--Medium length and wide between the ears              5

  EARS.--Thin, inclined well over the face, and not extending
      beyond point of nose                                    4

  JOWL.--Medium size                                          3

  NECK.--Fairly long and muscular                             3

  CHEST.--Wide and deep                                       3

  SHOULDERS.--Well developed, in line with the ribs           8

  BACK.--Long and level                                      15

  RIBS.--Well sprung                                          5

  SIDES.--Very deep                                           8

  LOIN.--Broad                                                5

  BELLY AND FLANK.--Thick and well developed                  7

  QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping                     8

  HAMS.--Large and well filled to hocks                      10

  TAIL.--Set high, of moderate size                           3

  LEGS.--Short, straight, flat, and strong                    5

  SKIN AND COAT.--Fine and soft, with moderate quantity
      of straight, silky hair                                 8

                                                            ---
                                                            100

OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow forehead or dished nose. Ears--thick, coarse,
or pricked. Coat--curly or coarse, with rose, bristly mane.
Skin--wrinkled.

DISQUALIFICATION.--Colour--any other than black.

       *       *       *       *       *


LARGE WHITE ULSTER

SCALE OF POINTS

  HEAD.--Moderately long, wide between the ears                5

  EARS.--Long, thin, and inclined well over the face           6

  JOWL.--Light                                                 5

  NECK.--Fairly long and muscular                              2

  CHEST.--Wide and deep                                        3

  SHOULDERS.--Not coarse, oblique, narrow plate                8

  LEGS.--Short, straight, and well set, level with the outside
      of the body, with flat bone, not coarse                  5

  PASTERNS.--Straight                                          5

  BACK.--Long and level (rising a little to centre of back
      not objected to)                                        12

  SIDES.--Very deep                                           10

  RIBS.--Well sprung                                           5

  LOIN.--Broad                                                 3

  QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping                      8

  HAMS.--Large and well filled to hocks                       12

  BELLY AND FLANK.--Thick and well filled                      5

  TAIL.--Well set and not coarse                               1

  SKIN.--Fine and soft                                        10

  COAT.--Small quantity of fine silky hair                    10

                                                             ---
                                                       Total 100

OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow forehead. Ears--thick, coarse, or pricked.
Coat--coarse or curly; bristly mane.

DISQUALIFICATION.--Colour--any other than white.

       *       *       *       *       *


LINCOLNSHIRE CURLY-COATED PIG

SCALE OF POINTS

  COLOUR.--White

  FACE AND NECK.--Medium length and wide between the
      eyes and ears                                            5

  EARS.--Medium length, and not too much over face            10

  JOWL.--Heavy                                                 3

  CHEST.--Wide and deep                                        3

  SHOULDERS.--Wide                                            15

  BACK.--Long and level                                       10

  SIDES.--Very deep, and ribs well sprung                     10

  LOIN.--Broad                                                 5

  QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping                      5

  HAMS.--Large and well filled to hocks                       15

  TAIL.--Set high and thick                                    3

  LEGS.--Short and straight                                    5

  BELLY AND FLANK.--Thick and well filled                      3

  COAT.--Fair quantity of curly or wavy hair                   8

                                                             ---
                                                             100

OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow forehead. Ears--Thin.

DISQUALIFICATIONS.--Ears--pricked. Nose--dished or long. Coat--coarse,
straight, or bristly. Colour of hair--any other than white.

       *       *       *       *       *


THE GLOUCESTERSHIRE OLD SPOTS

HEAD.--Medium length and wide between the ears, nose wide and medium
length, slightly dished.

EARS.--Rather long and drooping.

JOWL.--Medium size.

NECK.--Fairly long and muscular.

CHEST.--Wide and deep.

SHOULDERS.--Well developed but not projecting and in line with ribs,
must not show any coarseness.

BACK.--Long and level.

RIBS.--Deep, well sprung.

LOIN.--Very broad.

SIDES.--Very deep and presenting straight bottom line.

BELLY AND FLANK.--Full and thick.

QUARTERS.--Long, wide, and not drooping.

TAIL.--Set high, of moderate size, yet fairly strong and long and
carrying brush.

HAMS.--Large, not too flat, and well filled to the hocks.

LEGS.--Short, straight and strong.

SKIN AND COAT.--Skin light or dark, must not show coloured splotches
otherwise than beneath the spots of the coat. The latter should be full
and fairly thick, hair long and silky but not curly, with an absence of
mane bristles. Colour: white spots on black ground, or black spots on
white ground. Such spots to be of medium size.

TEATS.--Minimum number of teats to be considered.

OBJECTIONS.--Head--narrow, face and nose both dished. Ears--thick,
floppy, coarse, or elevated. Coat--Coarse or curly with rose; bristly
mane, or decidedly sandy colour; skewbald or saddleback markings.

       *       *       *       *       *


THE CUMBERLAND PIG

HEAD.--Fairly short, wide snout, dished face, wide between ears.

EARS.--Falling forward over face, long and thin.

JOWL.--Heavy.

NECK.--Fairly long and muscular.

CHEST.--Deep and wide.

SHOULDERS.--Deep and sloping into the back, blades not prominent, but in
line with ribs, not too wide on top.

BACK.--Long and level or with a slight arch from head to tail.

RIBS.--Deep and well sprung.

LOINS.--Broad and strong.

SIDES.--Deep.

BELLY AND FLANK.--Full and thick.

QUARTERS.--Long and level or with only very slight droop.

TAIL.--Set high, not coarse.

HAMS.--Very large and well filled to hocks.

LEGS.--Short, straight, and strong.

COLOUR.--White.

SKIN AND COAT.--Smooth; hair straight, fine, and silky and not too much
of it.

SIZE.--Large without coarseness.

DISQUALIFICATIONS.--Black spots, black hair, prick ears.

OBJECTIONS.--Blue spots.

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: _From a Painting by Wippell._

A BERKSHIRE SOW.

To face page 32.]

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._

LARGE BLACK SOW, "SUDBOURNE SADIE."

Owner, K. M. Clark. 1st Prize and Champion, R. A. Show, Norwich.

To face page 33.]




CHAPTER III

CROSS-BRED PIGS


This term has a varying meaning to different persons. There are those
who term a pig a cross-bred unless it be bred from parents of recorded
pedigree, or those which possess pedigrees capable of registration.
Others claim that a cross-bred is any pig which is bred indiscriminately
from boar and sow of no particular type or breeding--in fact common pigs
of the country; whilst still others declare that the title of cross-bred
can be legitimately applied only to a pig whose parents were of two
different pure breeds in contradistinction to a pig sired by a pure bred
boar, and from a common sow, or the diverse way.

It is not for us to determine the knotty point, but we may venture the
opinion that the two first definitions of a cross-bred are not
convincing to us, since in order to produce a cross-bred it is necessary
to have a sire, or a dam, or both of defined breeds. Probably the most
correct definition of a cross-bred animal is one bred from the mating of
sire and dam of two distinct breeds, but the term is now loosely applied
to an animal begotten by a sire or from a dam of pedigree breeding, the
other parent being of no particular breed.

This system of breeding has become somewhat common owing to the
comparatively small outlay required in the purchase of a boar as
compared with the purchase of both boar and sows, and also to the belief
which is general that a greater improvement in the produce is noticeable
when the boar is pure bred and the sows of ordinary or no particular
breed, than if the sows are pure bred and the boar a common bred one. In
addition to this there is the important point that the pure bred boar
should be able to beget at least fifty litters in a year whereas the
pure bred sow will not produce more than two litters annually, so that
the advantage obtainable from the outlay on one pure bred boar is
twenty-five times as great as is possible from the purchase of a pure
bred sow.

There is also another advantage to the owner of a boar who has only a
limited number of sows, he can allow his neighbours to make use of his
boar on payment of a liberal service fee, which combined will partially
pay for the prime cost of the boar.

A considerable number of pig breeders are influenced in the purchase of
a pure bred boar rather than of a sow by the belief that pure bred sows
are neither so prolific nor such good mothers as are common bred sows.
This belief was even more common in years gone by than it is at the
present time, and it must be candidly confessed that there existed
substantial grounds for it. Some fifty years since it became
fashionable, particularly amongst those who had suddenly become rich by
trade or in other ways, to exhibit live-stock at the agricultural shows.
They may have been animated by the laudable desire of endeavouring to
assist farmers and stock breeders generally, or a desire to gain a place
in the sun may have had some slight influence. As the majority of these
exhibitors of stock had no special knowledge of stock, they were
compelled to place themselves entirely in the hands of their managers
and stockman, who generally received by arrangement a certain percentage
of the prize money won by the stock. It was then only natural that they
gave far more attention to the show points of the animals in their
charge than to the breeding qualities.

The supply of pedigree animals was also very limited at about the period
mentioned so that it was much more difficult to avoid too close
breeding, nor was there the same care taken in the private record of the
pedigrees of the animals bred. These various causes combined led to a
loss of vitality amongst the so-called pedigree stock, and this
weakening of the constitution showed itself in a reduction in the number
of the offspring and in the power of the dam to furnish its young with a
full supply of well-balanced milk.

There is little doubt that in the third quarter of the past century a
considerable proportion of the pedigree sows were not so prolific as
they ought to have been, nor did they produce and rear thoroughly well
so many pigs at each litter as the common sow of the country was capable
of doing. A more general study of stock breeding has tended to compel
attention to the practical apart from the show points of pedigree pigs,
but probably the strongest influence has been the formation of the
various breed societies, and the registration of the produce including
the number, sex, and sire of the pigs. These entries most clearly showed
those breeders of pigs who had paid most attention to the utility points
of their pigs, especially those particular points in which pedigree pigs
were generally believed to be deficient. The succeeding records of sows
of the same families afforded the best possible confirmation of the
belief which was becoming general that prolificacy like many other
qualities was most certainly hereditary. This recorded proof that pure
bred animals and especially pigs were not necessarily slow breeders,
helped vastly to increase the demand for pedigree animals for crossing
purposes in the breeding of commercial stock.

The enormous benefit which has resulted from the use of pedigree sires
is most clearly proved in the Irish live stock. The so-called premium
bulls and boars are pedigree animals purchased by or with the sanction
of the Live Stock Commissioners and placed at the service of the general
public at a somewhat reduced fee, the Government paying to the owner an
annual premium of some £15 for each bull, and a certain sum for each
boar.

It is alleged that the original improvement in the ordinary pig stock of
those parts of Ireland where pig-keeping on a considerable scale is
followed, was due to the purchase in England of numbers of Large White
boars, as after experiments carried out in Denmark, these boars were
found to effect the greatest improvement in the common country pigs and
to render them far more suitable for conversion into the kind of bacon
which was in most general demand, and of course realised the highest
price. For the beginning of the vast improvement in the Irish pig which
has followed the importation of these Large White boars, the Irish bacon
curers must receive the credit, as they joined together in the purchase
of these boars which were distributed in those districts from which the
various factories drew their supplies of fat pigs.

A similar plan was adopted by Messrs. Harris of Calne who purchased some
hundreds of boars of the Large White breed, and at first lent them on
certain conditions to pig breeders, but later on resold the young boars
by auction for whatever they would fetch, their object being to secure
the use of these boars in order to render the farm pigs more suitable
for the purposes of their trade as bacon curers.

There may or may not be any grounds for the belief that the sire has a
greater influence in the external form of the joint produce than does
the dam, but this belief has also had its influence in determining
breeders of cross breds to use the pure bred sire on the ordinary stock
of the country, rather than the reverse way. There is no doubt that
apart from the improvement in the general quality of the produce of the
pure bred sire there results a general uniformity of the young stock,
which is a great recommendation when they are placed on the market
either as stores, or when fattened for the butcher or bacon curer. This
uniformity of type and character in the young stock would be more
noticeable still if the buyers of the pure bred sires were to continue
their purchases from the same herds, providing that the owners of them
were sufficiently careful in avoiding incestuous breeding.

So many people appear to be content with the knowledge that the sire
which they are purchasing has a recorded pedigree and is a pure bred
sire eligible for entry in the herd book of its breed, but they forget
that it is possible in the crossing of two pedigree animals of a similar
breed to obtain as great a mixture of blood and points as in the mating
of two cross-breds or two come-by-chances. Uniformity in a herd, stud,
or flock can only be rendered comparatively certain by the continued use
of sires of similar breeding. In making a compound, its character is
determined by the proportion of the various ingredients used in its
manufacture. So it is in the breeding of stock, those points which are
most predominant in proportion in the blood of the sire and dam will, on
the average, be represented in an equal degree in the joint produce.
This it is which renders so impressive a sire which is descended from
closely bred parents. Each of its forbears has handed down a proportion
of its own particular characteristics so that the larger the number of
animals amongst its forbears which possessed these particular points the
greater the certainty of their being possessed by the produce. The
meaning of this may be made more clear by pointing out that the result
of the mixing together of various mixtures will depend entirely on the
proportion of the substances used in the manufacture or compounding of
those mixtures. In each animal is embodied the characteristics of its
forbears.

There exists generally an opinion that the produce of two parents of
distinct breeds, or as it is termed a first cross is commonly superior
to a pure bred of either of the two breeds represented by the parents.
It is difficult to discover the cause of this, if it be a fact. If one
of the parents were deficient in stamina the produce might conceivably
be more robust, and it might also occasionally happen that the mixture
of the qualities or properties possessed by the parents would result in
improvement, as happens when a distinct new breed is originated; but as
a rule the good and the bad qualities of the produce from the mating of
two animals of diverse breeds are in direct proportion to the qualities
possessed by the parents.

The mere mixing of the blood of two animals differently bred cannot
increase the good or bad properties, but the combination might possibly
result in a blend more suitable for the purpose in hand.

Another claim commonly made for the crossing of animals is that the risk
of that delicacy of constitution which they assert is far too common
amongst pure bred animals, and is due to close breeding, is hereby
avoided. It must be admitted that in times past there was a certain
amount of cause for this complaint of want of constitution amongst
pedigree animals, but the cause has been considerably if not entirely
removed by the more careful recording of the breeding, and by the more
drastic screening out of any animals suspected of delicacy of
constitution.

The buyers of pure bred animals for crossing purposes have also become
more careful in their selection. They have ceased to imagine that
because the owner of certain animals most of which he has purchased is
successful in winning prizes at the chief agricultural shows, the whole
of the animals in his stud, herd, or flock must be of equal excellence
or at all events sufficiently good for the production of profitable
commercial stock. Action on this mistaken belief has led to much
disappointment in the past, since the home bred animals may have been of
totally different blood from those which have won prizes, and further
they may not be inbred for a sufficiently long time on distinct lines to
render them prepotent enough to impress their good qualities on their
produce.

Amongst the objections made to cross-breeding is the heavy cost of
replacing the breeding stock, as to obtain a first cross, a succession
of sires and dams must be purchased. Many persons meet this difficulty
by merely buying sires of a breed similar to the first used, but then
the produce ceases to be cross-breds and become grades until such time
as by the use of a certain number of sires of a similar breed the
produce become eligible for entry in the herd book of the sires which
have been continuously used. This system of breeding insures a greater
uniformity in the produce providing that the sires selected are of
similar breeding, type, and character, than even by the system of
crossing sire and dam of two pure breeds.

The risk attending too close breeding as in the breeding of pure breds
is also avoided provided that the herd from which the sires are bought
is sufficiently large to furnish a change of blood, yet of similar
breeding.

No one possessing a knowledge of the ordinary farm stock of the country
will for one moment deny that there is still vast room for improvement
in our live stock, and particularly in our pigs, and it is equally the
fact that our Government has not shown a readiness equal to that of some
foreign Governments, and even of the authorities in some of our colonies
to assist farmers in obtaining the use of improved sires. Take Canada as
an instance. For years the Dominion Live Stock Branch has been
purchasing and delivering free into districts needing them, male animals
for the use of farmers and stock owners free, save stallions, for which
a covering fee has to be paid sufficient to cover the insurance of the
stallion. The other important condition which relates to all the sires
provided by the authorities is that the cost of maintenance shall be
paid by the Local Association which has the management of the sire and
the arrangement of its services.

Another noticeable point is that all the sires allocated to the various
districts are Canadian bred, and so far as is possible are purchased in
the province in which they are to be located. The object is undoubtedly
to encourage in Canada the breeding of pure bred animals and may thus
far be considered satisfactory, but it is acting on an assumption which
may not be justified that there exists in the Dominion a sufficiency of
stock equal in quality and breeding to those which it may be possible to
import.

Within the past three or four years our Board of Agriculture have taken
some steps to assist our farmers to improve their stock. The assistance
has taken the form of offering premiums of fixed amounts to private
persons or associations who hired or purchased approved stallions,
bulls, and boars which were placed at fixed fees at the service of the
stock of the public. Already great benefit has been derived from the use
of the stallions and bulls, and this to a far greater extent than in the
pigs, as owing to an unfortunate condition which was attempted to be
enforced as to the formation of pig clubs and impracticable conditions
the number of boars located in the country has been much smaller than
would have been had the conditions at present in force been adopted at
the initiation of the scheme.

The boar conditions are now of a similar character to those in force
from the first with regard to stallions and bulls. In addition to the
supply of male animals at comparatively low fees an attempt has been
made to assist in the recording of the milk yield of cows, a matter of
the highest importance. If only this could be extended to sows there
would soon cease to be cause for the far too common complaint of the
owners of sows of certain breeds of pedigree pigs, as to the limited
quantity of milk which is provided by the sows for their litters of
pigs.

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: _Photo, Francis Davis, Needingworth._

THREE MIDDLE WHITE BREEDING SOWS.

The Property of the Author. Also portion of 17 Sties at Holywell Manor,
near St. Ives.

To face page 48.]

       *       *       *       *       *


[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._

A MIDDLE WHITE BOAR.

From the Author's Pig Farm.

To face page 49.]




CHAPTER IV

DENTITION AND AGE OF PIGS


Although the majority of pig sellers may claim to be, and may be able to
substantiate the claim to be, equally as honest as the majority of
others in trade, yet there may be a small minority who are apt to
attempt to palm off pigs as being older than they really are. It is most
annoying when you are anxious to purchase pigs of say six or seven
months old which are quite ready to be quickly fattened, to have pigs of
four or five months old which continue to make growth instead of flesh,
so that they are not ready for killing until two or three months after
they are required for conversion into bacon.

Although the object of the Council of the Smithfield Club is to prevent
fraud of a different character, i.e. the exhibition in classes limited
to certain ages of pigs of an age greater than that given on the entry
form, yet the following table showing the normal state of the dentition
of pigs at certain fixed ages will enable purchasers to discover whether
or not the seller has attempted to deceive him. It may at once be
admitted that there will be a limited number of cases in which the state
of dentition of pigs is abnormal, but after examining the teeth of some
thousands of pigs during the past sixty years, we have no hesitation in
asserting that more than half, at least, of the variations from the
normal are allayed dentition. It is claimed that a man of experience is
quite able to arrive at the approximate age of a pig by its development
and appearance; some few persons may have that instinctive knowledge
more or less fully developed, but this examination of the state of
dentition is of the greatest possible assistance in arriving at the
actual age of the pig, particularly desirable as it is in case of a
difference of opinion between buyer and seller.

The following are the conditions of the state of dentition to which all
pigs have to conform ere they are allowed to compete for the prizes
offered by the Smithfield Club at their annual shows:--

"Pigs having their corner permanent incisors cut will be considered as
exceeding six months.

"Pigs having their permanent tusks more than half up will be considered
as exceeding nine months.

"Pigs having their central permanent incisors up, and any of the first
three permanent molars cut, will be considered as exceeding twelve
months.

"Pigs having their lateral temporary incisors shed, and the permanents
appearing will be considered as exceeding fifteen months.

"Pigs having their lateral permanent incisors fully up will be
considered as exceeding eighteen months."

As the majority of the pigs bought of dealers by amateurs are young pigs
it may be advisable to state that a pig of the age of eight weeks old
should have its two central incisors fully grown. A pig three months
old should have all four temporary incisors cut, the two outside ones
being more than half as long as the two central incisors.

As the first set of the teeth of a pig like that of a child are merely
temporary, and as these give place at fairly definite ages of the owner
to permanent ones, it may be well to endeavour to describe as clearly as
possible the position and appearance of the temporaries as compared with
the permanents. The pig is one of the few animals which is possessed of
teeth at its birth; these number eight, two on each side of the upper
and lower jaw. It has been suggested that these early teeth are provided
to assist the pigling to grasp firmly the sow's teat when in the act of
sucking. These eight teeth vary somewhat in length; those pigs which are
carried by the sow beyond the usual period of sixteen weeks frequently
have longer and even sharper teeth than those of pigs which are born at
the usual time. These longer teeth are also sometimes of a dark colour.
This is doubtless the origin of the remark commonly made by
old-fashioned pigmen that "pigs born with black teeth never do well."
This might have been so prior to the discovery that the breaking off the
sharp teeth of the newly born pigs frequently saved trouble, and often
the life of the little pigs. Pigs whose teeth are discoloured at birth
are usually more robust rather than the reverse, since the sow carrying
them beyond the allotted time is invariably in a vigorous state of
health, and her pigs consequently more fully developed.

When the pig is about a month old, the two central incisors are cut in
each jaw, these are two of the four front teeth in each jaw of the pig
at a subsequent age. Two temporary molars are also cut on each side of
the jaw above and below, with the first temporary molar in each place
ready to come through the gum.

At two months the temporary central incisors are fully developed, and
the two lateral temporary incisors can be seen in the gums, if they are
not already through. All three temporary molars are now about level.

When the pig is about three months old its temporary teeth are all in
position, the temporary lateral incisors are through, and nearly as long
as the temporary central incisors. Owing to the lengthening of the jaws
the two temporary corner teeth which were present at birth will have
become further apart. When the pig is about five months, the fourth
molar in either jaw shows itself in the gums, then at six months the
wolf teeth show between the tusks and the premolars, and the fourth
molar is nearly level with the first premolar. The corner incisors and
the tusks usually disappear, and are replaced by permanents when the pig
is nine months old. The second permanent molar also shows itself. At
twelve months the two central temporary incisors give place to the
permanents; these last are more square in form than the temporaries, and
are thus easily distinguished. The three temporary molars will also be
ready for displacement by three permanents. These last will be level
with the other permanent molars when the pig is fifteen months. The two
lateral incisors will also have given place to permanents. At eighteen
months the third permanent molars will be coming through, and at the age
of twenty months the pig's teeth are fully developed.




CHAPTER V

SELECTION OF THE BOAR


The hackneyed saying "The sire is half the herd" appears to have a
different meaning to varying persons. To some it conveys the idea that
the selection of the sire is of far more importance than the selection
of the dam because the influence of the sire is so much more powerful
than that of the dam on at least the external form and character of the
produce. The late Mr. James Howard, who took a particularly keen
interest in the breeding of pigs, used to declare that the appearance
and form of the young pigs far more generally followed those of the sire
than of the dam; whilst the influence of the latter was more shown in
the character and constitution of their joint produce; or in other
words, that the boar stamped his character to a greater extent on the
external points of the young, whilst the sow more strongly influenced
the internal parts of the youngsters. It is quite possible that this
idea has gained ground to a large extent from the fact that the use of a
pure bred sire on ordinary or grade females has been very much more
common than the crossing of pure bred females by the ordinary or
non-pedigree sire; as also from the far greater numbers of young which
each pure bred sire would improve, than would be improved by each pure
bred female which might be crossed.

If only for this reason alone, we would always recommend buyers who are
desirous of grading up and improving their farm stock to attempt to do
this by the purchase or use of the pure bred or improved sire. The
original outlay is infinitely less, whilst the immediate results are
comparatively longer.

It is scarcely desirable to go further into the question as to the
comparative influence on the young of the sire and the dam since our
actual knowledge of the subject is by no means large. Indeed, it is at
the least doubtful, if by the closest observation any definite opinion
on the subject is possible, so great is the difference which varying
parents have on the chief characteristics of their joint progeny, and
even in the separate specimens which they have procreated. Of course, it
is quite possible to breed animals especially well developed or endowed
with certain qualities, providing that the parents have been for
generations selected because of their possession in a marked degree of
those particular qualities sought. It is in this power of prepotency
that one of the chief benefits from the use of a pure bred sire or dam
arises. By the term pure bred is not meant merely that the names of a
certain number of the forbears of the animal shall have been recorded in
the register of the breed, but that the animal shall for a certain
number of generations have been bred on similar lines so that it shall
possess a considerable amount of concentrated blood. This is a point to
which sufficient care is not generally given by purchasers of so-called
pedigree sires to be used on the ordinary bred or graded stock. The far
too common practice is to purchase each boar required from a totally
different herd, or from one of quite dissimilar breeding, with the
result that there is not the slightest uniformity in the appearance or
character of the herd, or of the mature animals when ready for market.

It is far too frequently forgotten that the chief value of a record of
the pedigree is that by it one can trace the breeding of the animal's
progenitors, and thus one is enabled to form some opinion of the
probable produce--providing it is possible to learn the chief
characteristics of the progenitors. Failing this, the only course open
is to note the names of the breeders of the more recent parents, as from
this a certain amount of information as to the probable qualities of the
parents may be obtained or surmised.

Another point on which at least a diversity of opinion exists, is the
wisdom of giving so much consideration to the fact that the herd from
which the sire is purchased shall have been recently successful in the
show yard, or in extreme cases, that the sire itself shall have been a
prize winner. It is urged that the mere fact that a sire has succeeded
in winning one or more prizes is a proof that it possesses in a marked
degree those qualities which are most highly prized. This may be
conceded, yet there is no certainty that the mating of this winning sire
even with dams that have also been prize winners shall result in the
production of young the equal of the parents, since the winners at the
various shows may be of dissimilar types and breeding.

But the case would be quite different if the winning sire and dam came
from the same old established herd in which the animals had been bred
for generations on similar lines. It is this concentration of certain
qualities in generation after generation which renders the pedigree
animal so intensely prepotent, particularly when mated with animals of
an ordinary character or not possessing concentrated breeding. Indeed,
it may be safely assumed that the power of a parent to impress its own
individuality and qualities on its produce, depends to a very large
extent, if not entirely, on the comparative hereditary extent of those
qualities in comparison with the other qualities possessed by itself, or
by the animal with which it may have been mated.

In other words, it is contended that the sire or the dam has not the
power to impress certain of its characteristics on its young, merely
because of its sex, but that this power depends on the proportion in the
sire or dam of the blood of progenitors who possessed in a marked degree
certain qualities.

It is with the breeding of animals as with the manufacture of a compound
article. The character and quality of that compound will vary according
to the proportion of the various ingredients used in its manufacture. It
is to this law or fact that the marked impressiveness of certain strains
of blood is attributable.

Again, the marked and long continued success of the blood of the
animals bred by a few of our most successful breeders of live stock is
in the main due to the fact that the owners set up a standard and
persistently selected and bred together only animals possessing to a
greater or lesser extent the particular qualities which together
comprised that standard. There is not the slightest doubt that in
carrying out their system they were often compelled to mate animals
related in blood the one to the other, but in this there is little risk
providing that all those animals which show the slightest symptom of
delicacy of constitution are persistently draughted out.

It will be inferred from the above remarks that we hold to the belief
that the breeding of the boar should receive attention as well as the
following points in its form and character.

One of the most important of these points is good temper. This is a
quality not usually attributed to the pig in its wild state, and
consequently not natural to the domesticated pig, yet on the possession
of it depends to a very great extent the thrift and well doing of the
produce of the boar. The produce of an irritable boar are almost certain
to inherit this quality which is fatal to profitable fatting. In sows
this weakness is still more unfortunate, as a bad tempered sow is almost
invariably an indifferent mother. The rigid avoidance of this failing of
bad temper in a boar is advisable not only because this quality is
almost invariably hereditary, but a savage boar is a continual source of
danger to man and beast. It may be said that little trouble is likely if
the boar is kept in confinement, but there are times, such as when sows
are placed with him, when a certain amount of liberty must be given to
him, and it is generally on such occasions of excitement when the bad
temper is the most in evidence. The mere fact that irritability and
nervousness are natural to the pig should make us the more careful to
avoid any increase in the failing by using a boar which is the least
inclined to be bad tempered.

Many persons hold that in the selection of a boar one of the principal
points is size. They contend that size, in pigs especially, is
imperative if a profitable return is to be made. This view may have
arisen to a greater or lesser extent from the want of method and
observation which is characteristic of so many stock owners. The one
point which to them is of the greatest importance is the selling price
of the fat or store animal sold being fully up to the average. Little or
no thought is given to the value of the food eaten by each animal. If it
had been, very frequently it would have been found that the smaller
animal of a lot had actually given the best return for the food it had
consumed. It is not the size alone of the animal which determines its
value as the producer of meat, but more than anything it is the feeding
qualities of the animal fattened. In addition to this there never was a
time when the consumer more strongly demanded small joints of meat, and
these of the best quality and with as little bone as possible.

Apart from this a very large boar is a mistake as it is invariably
awkward when serving--it can be used only for large and strong sows, and
its average period of usefulness is decidedly shorter than that of a
medium sized and compact boar. A large boar generally possesses an undue
proportion of bone, its shoulders are heavy, and its ankles round, and
feet large and spreading. Now these are all objections. The bone of a
boar should be solid, not porous; the ankles compact and the feet small,
and the pasterns short. The head should be wide so that the brain can be
well developed, the head inclined to be short rather than long, since an
animal with an extremely long head is certain to be deficient in natural
flesh.

On the question of the size and hang of the ears a variety of opinion
exists; pigs with long ears, and pigs with short ears are found
possessing good carcases. It is the quality of the ear rather than its
size and hang which seems to indicate the character most. A pig with a
thin and firm ear is usually of fine quality, whereas a pig which has a
thick, coarse ear is generally coarse in bone, skin, flesh, and hair.

The neck of the boar should be muscular as indicating constitution and
natural vigour; the shoulders fine and obliquely laid, the ribs well
sprung, the loin wide, the quarters long and square, not drooping, the
hams full and extending quite down to the hocks, and without any of that
loose skin which is far too common amongst the largest of our breeds of
pigs, and which is a sure sign of coarseness. The flank should be thick
and well let down, as this indicates constitution and lean meat, the
legs should be fairly short and set well apart so that the heart, lungs,
and other organs have plenty of room to perform their share of the work
of the pig. The skin should be fine and the hair straight and silky, as
well as plenty of it. Sparsity of hair is generally an indication of
shortage of lean meat, whilst curliness and coarseness of hair are far
too frequently associated with excessive fat and coarseness of meat.

With regard to the reproductive parts of the boar there are one or two
points which should receive special attention. A boar with excessively
small testicles should be avoided, as such a one is often barren. Again,
a boar with one testicle of normal size and the other smaller,
ordinarily suffers from the same disqualification to a lesser extent. A
ruptured boar should not on any account be used, as this weakness is
strongly hereditary. The weakness may not possibly show itself in the
first generation, but it is certain to appear sooner or later. Not only
is it a sure index of weakness of constitution, but pigs so affected
occasionally die suddenly, whilst there is always a certain amount of
risk from the operation of castration.

Occasionally one or more of the boar pigs of a litter will be found to
be malformed, in that only one of the testicles is apparent. Generally
speaking, the other is found when the pig is killed to be attached to
the inside of the pig, and thus is unable to descend into the scrotum or
purse, so that the act of castration is only partially performed. A boar
pig with only one testicle down is commonly termed a rig. The removal of
one of the testicles does not deprive the rig of reproducing its
species, and it is thus a source of continual trouble when herded with a
lot of sow pigs now that the general custom is to allow the female pigs
of a litter to remain unspayed. It is, therefore, necessary to fatten a
rig either alone, or with male pigs which have been operated upon. In
addition to this extra trouble, the flesh of a rig pig if it be kept
fattening after it is some five or six months old is almost certain to
be strong in flavour, like unto that of a boar. It is, therefore,
advisable to fatten a rig quite early in life and convert it into a
porket or porker carcase of pork.

It may appear strange to some readers to specially mention the teats of
the boar, but it is equally as necessary to avoid boars having small
teats, teats unevenly placed, and commencing any distance from the fore
legs, and blind teats, as it is in the case of the sow, since any
weaknesses of the kind are equally as hereditary from the boar as from
the sow.




CHAPTER VI

SELECTION OF THE SOW


It is impossible to agree with the view held by so many persons that the
necessity for the same care is non-existent in the selection of a sow as
in the choice of a boar. We hold that the desirability for studying the
forbears, especially the dam, of a young sow intended for breeding
purposes is fully as great as when selecting the young boar, since many,
if not most, of the qualities which we desire the brood sow to possess
are strongly hereditary. Take, for instance, the question of gentleness
or a quiet disposition, it follows from dam to produce with a regularity
equal to that of bad temper, and the latter is wellnigh a certainty.
Again, whoever found that the female produce of a sow deficient in the
maternal instincts proved, if saved for breeding purposes, to be a
really good mother? As a rule the daughters of a sow which gives but a
small quantity of milk, and that of an inferior quality, are also cursed
with the same grievous failings, but this does not appear to be
universally the case, since the milking qualities of the dam descend
through her sons, so that if the female progenitors of the boar have
been good milkers it is probable that the boar's daughters may be able
to rear their pigs successfully, even if their dam had not been in the
habit of suckling her pigs well.

Still, it is quite safe to assert that with this one exception we may
fairly anticipate that the good qualities which we seek in a sow are far
more likely to be found in the sow pigs of a sow herself the possessor,
than from one which does not possess them. We are inclined to the belief
that the alleged failure of some pedigree yelts to make good brood sows
is in the main due to the continued selection for breeding purposes of
those pure-bred yelts which show early maturing and flesh-forming
qualities, rather than that motherly look which is almost invariably to
be found in a sow which is prolific, a free milker, and a really good
mother. There is a marked difference in the formation of a milk-giving
and a fat-producing sow--the latter is generally somewhat heavy in the
shoulders, has a muscular or fat neck, is rather short in the head and
heavy in the jowl, and is altogether more compactly built, whereas a
good brood sow has rather a long face, is wide between the eyes, has a
light muscular neck, is fine in the shoulders, possesses long and square
quarters and appears to be heavier in the hind than in the forequarters.
She is somewhat more loosely built and often shows less of quality.
Thickness of flank and length of side are desirable, the first as
indicating substance and flesh, whilst the second gives plenty of room
for her pigs to suck. The bone should be of good quality; the same
remarks apply to the skin and hair.

About half a century since there existed a fancy, which almost amounted
to a craze for sows of small size; they could not be too neat, and
showing too much so-called feminine character. The almost certain result
of selecting the neatest of the female pigs followed, the fat pigs sent
to market were light in weight, deficient in lean meat and rightly named
"animated bladders of lard." Within about the same distance of time it
was the common practice of exhibitors of pigs at the Smithfield Club's
Shows to provide pillows in the form of round pieces of wood on which
the fat pigs rested their heads so that these were raised in order to
prevent the pigs becoming suffocated. In addition, the pigs were fed on
forcing foods until they were at least one and a half year old and
allowed to take, or were given little exercise, with the result that the
pork consisted mainly of soft fat or lard. To such an extent had this
craze for neatness been followed that the bacon curers and consumers of
pork wellnigh ceased to purchase or consume pork.

At the present time we are afraid that the tendency is in the opposite
direction, and mere size is receiving far too much attention. At some of
our agricultural shows the judges select for honour great unwieldly sows
which could not possibly perform with any amount of success those
maternal duties which a brood sow is supposed to be kept solely to
perform. An extremely large sow is very frequently a poor milker, the
quantity of milk she gives is not large, nor does she continue to give
even this reduced supply for a period long enough to allow her young to
grow strong enough to make a good start in life on their own account.

Another great objection to a sow of extreme size is that her produce
almost invariably take after her to such an extent that it is difficult,
if not wellnigh impossible, to make them fat until they are from nine to
twelve months old, and by that time they are too large and heavy for the
general demand which is at the present time, and likely to become still
more so in the future, for small joints of meat which carry a large
proportion of lean and a limited quantity of bone. The most successful
manufacturer is he who most nearly supplies the consumer with that which
he requires or fancies. We are not moved by the contention of breeders
of pedigree pigs that the most valuable pig is the one which possesses
in the greatest degree those special points which are characteristic of
the breed, as, for instance, size in the pigs of the Large White, the
Large Black, and the Lincolnshire Curly Coated pigs, therefore the
biggest pigs should be held in the highest esteem. In our opinion the
best, as it is in the long run the most profitable, is the pig which
furnishes to the greatest extent exactly the kind of meat in the most
general demand.

In addition to these objections to an extremely large and ungainly sow
is the fact that such an one is invariably clumsy in the breeding pen,
she is almost certain to lay on some of her pigs. It is even alleged
that her period of usefulness as a breeder is shorter than that of a sow
of ordinary size.

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._

TAMWORTH BOAR: BISHOP OF WEBTON. Owner, C. L. Coxon. 1st and Champion,
Royal Show.

To face page 64]

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: _Photo, G. H. Parsons, Rostrevor._

GLOUCESTER OLD SPOT SOW. From the herd of Lord Sherbourne.

To face page 65.]




CHAPTER VII

THE SOW'S UDDER


One of the most important points in connection with the reproduction of
the species of our various domestic animals is the provision of a full
supply of milk for the young in the early portion of their existence.
Nature herself has set us a good example in a duplicated source of milk
supply even amongst animals which usually produce only one animal at a
birth. If this duplication be necessary under such conditions, it must
be imperative on us to select those sow pigs which are intended for
breeding pigs which possess a well-formed udder, having a full supply of
teats, and these of good shape and properly placed on the belly of the
sow. Not only is this necessary to ensure the rearing of a fairly
numerous litter of pigs in a satisfactory manner, but it is held that
the number of teats possessed by a sow indicates to a remarkable extent
the probable degree of prolificacy of the sow. One can readily
understand that nature would not be likely to endow a sow with the power
to produce a larger number of young at each birth than she would be able
to rear. Of course it may be said that the sow of the present day is not
as nature first made her, in that, by selection and by feeding, the
number of pigs produced at each birth is now so much larger than the
litters of the wild sows, which have some seven or eight teats and
farrow at each litter a similar number of pigs. On the other hand,
neither the number of teats nor of the young is fixed either in the
domesticated sow, or the sow in a wild state, so that by continued
selection we are able to permanently increase, within limits, the
production of larger litters and the increased supply of milk for their
sustenance when young.

The provision of a suitable udder is even of more importance with the
domesticated than with the sow running wild, since the latter produces
each year one litter only, and that in the season of the year when the
young are less dependent on their dams; whereas the domesticated sow is
expected to rear at least two litters per year, and frequently owing to
want of care on the part of the owner the young pigs are farrowed at the
most unfavourable time of the year.

Apart from the provision of a certain number of teats there is another
point to be considered, the power of the sow to produce milk enough to
satisfy the given number of pigs. This of course varies with each family
or tribe of pigs, and even with the various members in it, so that to
obtain the best results selection must be made of the produce of those
sows which give the largest quantity of the most nutritious milk. There
exists amongst pig keepers a difference of opinion as to the number of
pigs each sow should be allowed to rear, probably the average of this
number would be ten for a mature sow, and seven or eight for a first
litter. If so, the selected sow pig should possess twelve teats, as
frequently one of these may not give a full supply of milk from either
natural or accidental causes. The teats should be regular in size and
form. It is not uncommon to find one or more of the teats of a sow much
smaller in size than the others. These smaller teats will produce a
reduced quantity of milk, so that the pigling which is unfortunate
enough to decide on making this small teat its very own--and each
pigling is confined by the others to its own special teat--is certain to
be less well developed than its brothers and sisters, even if it should
succeed in surviving.

The necessity for the teats being placed equidistant the one from the
other arises from the desirability of each pig having room to suck
comfortably. Should two of the teats be closely placed the two pigs will
probably fight, when not only will sores be caused on the cheeks of the
pigs, but the milk in the teats not properly drawn will gradually cease
to flow.

Another point of great importance is that the teats should commence as
near as possible to the fore legs--this for two reasons: it gives more
room for the pigs to suck as they grow larger; the other and more
important one is that the teats most forward on the udder of the sow
produce the larger quantity of milk, or milk of a better quality. It
will be almost invariably found that the pigs sucking the foremost teats
thrive the best.

It is advisable to avoid the selection of a female pig for breeding
purposes from a sow which has large and coarse teats, as these
invariably accompany coarseness of skin, bone, hair, and flesh, this in
turn affects the sale value of the carcase. It will also be found that
those sows with a neat and compact udder, with fine teats, will give
more milk and a better quality than sows possessing a coarse and flabby
udder.

Another weakness to be avoided when selecting a sow pig for breeding
purposes is that which is commonly termed a blind teat, since it is
undoubtedly hereditary in addition to being useless for the purpose of
rearing pigs. The normal teat projects boldly from the udder, whereas
the blind teat is almost flat or on a level with the udder. In
appearance it resembles a ring of skin with a depressed nipple in its
centre. At the time of parturition the blind teat contains milk to the
same extent as do the other teats, but it promptly dries up since it is
impossible for the little pigs to extract the milk from it since the
nipple recedes as soon as the pigling attempts to clasp it with its lips
and tongue, instead of becoming more extended so that the little pig can
suck the milk from it.

An ideal udder can be briefly described as one possessing at least
twelve fully developed teats, the more the better--these should commence
from a point as near the fore legs of the sow as possible, and be placed
as nearly as possible an equal distance the one from the other.

Some persons hold that large teats and much loose skin are sure
indications that the sow has proved to be a good milker. This is a
mistaken view; it is with sows as with cows, the most prolific milkers
are those with well formed and soft udders which almost disappear when
the lactation period has passed.




CHAPTER VIII

MATING THE YOUNG SOW


As in most other details in the management of our domesticated animals
there exists a variety of opinion as to the age at which the young sow,
or, as it is commonly locally termed, a gilt, yelt, yilt, hilt, elt,
etc., should be mated with the boar. Perhaps the most important point to
consider is the time of the year when the anticipated pigs should
arrive. If possible the period between the middle of the month of
September and the middle of December should be avoided. The long nights
and the short and dull days generally experienced during this period are
most unsuitable for young pigs. Many litters of pigs farrowed in October
are not any larger nor nearly as thrifty in the month of March as those
farrowed during the early portion of January in the following year, and
very frequently the loss amongst the October and November farrowed pigs
from lameness, or, as it is commonly termed, cramp, is very large. An
attempt should be made so that the two litters which should be bred each
year from the sow arrive so that they are weaned during the longer and
brighter days of the year; thus a sow which farrows in the beginning of
February may be expected to farrow again in July. The weather is
sometimes rather cold for little pigs early in the year, but it is
surprising how little they are affected by it providing the sow
furnishes a good supply of milk and the bedding is dry and plentiful.
The pigs farrowed in the months of January and February are generally
the most profitable, as they will be ready for the consumption of the
separated milk, butter milk, whey, etc., which is generally abundant in
the month of May in districts where dairying and cheese making are
followed. These pigs are also ready for turning out to grass in April or
May, or as soon as the weather is suitable, and the grass has grown
sufficiently. These young pigs will grow and thrive splendidly providing
that some additional food is fed to them and shelter provided.

This natural system of pig raising is of great benefit to those pigs
which are intended for breeding purposes and was consistently followed
by the writer from the year 1863. It was by no means a new plan even at
that period, although strange claims have recently been made that the
system is a novel one and originated in the fertile brain of one or two
enthusiasts who have gone the whole hog in pig breeding. In the middle
of the last century it was quite a common practice in parts of the
counties of Cambridge, Essex, and Suffolk to graze the seeds which
comprised clovers, trefoils, etc., with pigs which received in addition
extra food, such as peas or beans in accordance with the amount of
vegetable food obtainable or the purpose for which the pigs were
required; those intended for pork receiving the larger supply.

Although it may not be possible to allow the young boar pigs to have
their liberty after they become five months old, yet the sow pigs will
grow and develop far better in the field if properly fed than they will
in an inclosed sty; further, the young pigs which they produce will be
much more lusty than if the sows had been kept in close confinement.

Although the sow pig will generally come in heat when she is about six
months old, it is advisable that she should not be mated until she is
some eight months old, so that her first litter of pigs is not farrowed
until she is about a year old, when she should be quite strong enough to
rear a fair litter of pigs and also to grow and develop into a fully
natured specimen of its breed.

In some districts where the breeding pigs are generally kept in
confinement and high keeping is followed the sow pigs are mated with the
boar at an earlier age, but the system has its disadvantages which more
than outweigh the saving of the extra few weeks of the keep of the yelt
ere she is put to the boar. This early mating is especially harmful if
the number of the pigs in the first litter should be large. So few pig
keepers have the hardihood to knock a certain portion of the too
numerous litter on the head, and so reduce the number to say seven or
eight, which most young sows should be able to rear fairly well and
without any undue drain on the sow's system--but the whole of the large
litter are left on the sow, which becomes very much reduced in
condition, and checked in growth, whilst the too large litter of pigs
are badly reared and frequently become a source of trouble and
annoyance to the owner.

On the other hand, there are many practical pig keepers who make it a
rule to delay the mating of their young sows beyond the eight months'
age. They contend that a sow pig at eight months is not sufficiently
matured to bear the strain of producing a litter of pigs when she is
about one year old, and then to furnish the pigs with a sufficiency of
milk to give them a good start in life. The plan which they adopt is to
mate the sow when she is about a year old so that she is some sixteen
months old before her family troubles commence.

Another very curious reason has been recently made public by an
enthusiastic novice for delaying the mating of the yelt until she is at
least a year old. It is the following, that it is quite possible to
ensure that the produce of young sows which have reached the age of
sixteen or seventeen months ere they farrow their first litter shall
possess the desired characteristics of the breed, whereas this is by no
means certain if the young pigs arrive before the sow has reached that
age or is about a year old. Unfortunately, we have see no attempt made
to account for this alleged curious variation in the qualities inherited
from a parent of about one year old and the parent which had arrived at
the more matured age of about sixteen months, so that it is impossible
to discover a solution of the strange problem.

Therefore, we should be unable to admit the correctness of the assertion
even though it was not directly in opposition to our belief which is
founded on experience of a most extensive character extending over some
sixty years. To aver that the power of a young sow to impress its
hereditary characteristics on its young are only fully developed by
deferring the arrival of the young pigs for four or five months, or
until the sow is sixteen instead of twelve months old when she farrows
must surely cause surprise, if not, disbelief. Perhaps the object of the
propounder of the theory was to create a discussion--it could not have
been to bring his name prominently before the public.

Another advantage in mating the young sow so that her first litter
appears when she is about a year old, her daughters will in turn farrow
during the most suitable months of the year, providing of course that
she herself had been farrowed in early spring or about the month of
July.

When the sow pig which is intended to be kept for breeding has been
farrowed in some other part of the year, it is advisable to defer beyond
the eight months the mating of her so that she farrows at the best
times, or perhaps even better than that, if the pigs are not intended
for breeding purposes, would it be to have the sow mated when she is
about eight months old, and then allow the pigs to remain on the sow a
few weeks beyond the usual period of eight weeks so that the pigs are
taken off the sow three or four days before it is desired to have her
again mated with the boar. The risk of the sow returning to the boar
will be minimised, as a sow which has been baulked is sometimes
difficult to settle. In addition, the sow will be stronger and more
vigorous and likely to produce a strong litter of pigs, whilst the
piglings will scarcely miss their mother's milk when they are weaned
from her.

Those pig breeders who are in favour of withholding the boar from the
young sow until she is about a year old aver that early mating results
in the sow becoming worn out and useless for breeding at a much younger
age than if she be not mated until she is well matured. This is not in
accordance with the writer's experience, as many of his sows which
farrowed their first litter when they were about a year old continued to
breed regularly until they were six or seven years old--indeed, one
Middle White, Holywell Victoria Countess farrowed her last litter when
she was in her eleventh year. This sow also disproved the confident
assertion that the showing of sows renders them comparatively useless
for breeding purposes, since she not only continued to rear her pigs
well, but she produced a number of most successful prize winning boars
and sows, and also won many prizes herself from the age of five months
to five years.

The principal cause of premature old age amongst sows is not due to
their being first mated when they are eight months old, but to the want
of care in the management and feeding of the sow during her pregnancy
and whilst she is suckling her litter of pigs. To a sow with a good
constitution the act of breeding and rearing a family of pigs is only
the most important act of nature which cannot be harmful to her,
providing that she received that amount of proper food and attention
which nature required.

There may be very occasional instances of harm being done to the
breeding sow by over feeding, or rather by injudicious feeding, but in
comparison there are hundreds of instances where under feeding and
neglect are the cause of trouble and loss.




CHAPTER IX

THE FARROWING SOW


The pregnant sow usually carries her pigs about sixteen weeks. The
variations are neither great nor numerous, when they do occur it is
usually with sows with their first litters or aged sows which sometimes
farrow ere the full time has expired, or with robust sows in good
condition which occasionally carry their young beyond the one hundred
and twelve days which may be taken as the average period.

We assume that each owner of a breeding sow keeps a record of the date
of service of the sow in order that the necessary preparation of the
sty, etc., can be made in readiness for the arrival of the expected
litter. Even when this wise precaution is neglected nature gives a
sufficient warning to the observant owner. Apart from the increasing
size of the body, the udder gradually becomes more prominent, and each
pap becomes more defined, the vulva becomes enlarged and the muscles on
either side of the tail fall away and lose their tenseness, whilst in
the vast majority of cases milk appears in the udder some twelve hours
before the arrival of the pigs. The teats shine and become more
prominent, the presence of milk is easily ascertained by gently
pressing the teat between the finger and thumb.

Another certain indication of the early arrival of a family is the act
of the sow carrying straw about in her mouth wherewith to make her
farrowing bed.

One of the chief causes of trouble with the farrowing sow arises from
the sow not having been allowed to take sufficient exercise. Of course,
the best of all systems is to allow the sow its complete freedom at all
seasons of the year save when she is within about a fortnight of her
time, and when she is rearing a litter of pigs. Even if there be no
grass field or paddock in which she is able to pick up a good portion of
her living, or a roadside where she can get a few blades of grass, an
open yard is infinitely better than the confinement of a sty, as apart
from the reduction in the cost of keep, the sow will produce stronger
pigs, and have a decidedly easier time of farrowing.

In the case of a sow showing a disinclination to take a sufficiency of
exercise either owing to laziness, to high condition, or heaviness of
body, it is advisable to exercise her by walking her about quietly for a
short time each morning and evening before and after the heat of the day
has become excessive, or has passed off.

There is a difference of opinion amongst pig breeders as to the
desirability or the reverse of having someone in attendance on the sow
during the time she is farrowing. Those who object to this procedure do
so on the ground that the presence of a man simply tends to irritate the
sow, and to frequently cause her to become restless, with the result
that the little pigs are trodden upon or become laid upon and killed.
This view is generally held by those who are not particularly fond of
animals, as evidenced by that occasional intercourse between pig and
owner which consists of rubbing the head of the pig, or scratching its
side, when in response to the pleasant sensation it rolls over on to its
side like Oliver and asks for more. The trouble if any, which arises
from the owner or pig man being in the sty with the farrowing sow almost
invariably arises from the absence of a sympathetic feeling between the
two. Sows, and indeed wellnigh all animals, pine for sympathy and
company, and no animal more so than a pig. Still there are very
occasional instances where the young sow becomes very excitable as she
commences to farrow even when she and her owner or attendant have
previously been on the best of terms. But there the cause is not the
presence of a human being, but the arrival of one of her own little
pigs. So long as the pigling remains quiet there is peace, but as soon
as the youngster endeavours to get to the teat and especially if in the
endeavour it utters a cry or a squeak, the young sow will jump up from
her nest and endeavour to seize the youngster in her mouth, when unless
prevented the sow quickly squeezes all life out of the pig; and in some
cases when the pressure has been so severe as to break the skin of the
piglet, and the sow tastes blood, she will proceed to eat the dead pig.
When affairs have arrived at this sad state, the chances of the
remaining pigs having a pleasant reception into the world are
comparatively slight.

When there exists a good understanding between the sow and attendant, as
there invariably is when the latter is not rough and unkind, as only bad
tempered men can be, the trouble in a case such as just referred to is
greatly reduced, as the attendant runs no risk in entering the sty and
in removing the little pigs as they arrive, and placing them in a hamper
or box partially filled with straw until such time as the sow has
completed her farrowing, when the pigs can be placed against the sow's
udder, and providing they do not bite her, all will settle down in peace
and comfort.

In order to avoid the slightest risk of trouble it is advisable when the
pigs are apart from the sow to break off with a pair of pliers the four
little teeth with which the pigs are endowed prior to their birth. Care
being taken to remove the pigs beyond the hearing of the sow each little
pig in turn is tucked under the left arm, the mouth is opened by the
left hand, and the teeth pressed hard with the pliers, or even a slight
turn of the wrist given, when necessary, and the brittle teeth are
crushed.

As soon as the placenta or afterbirth is ejected this should be removed.
A little slop food should be fed to the sow, and whilst she is eating
it, the wettest part of the bedding should be replaced by a little short
and dry straw just enough to render the nest comfortable for the little
pigs. The nest should be disturbed as little as possible, as should the
whole of it be removed and fresh straw given, the sow will probably
spend a considerable time in remaking the nest, and in the meantime the
little pigs will be in danger from a chill, or in being mixed up in the
straw and being laid upon. The risk from delay in the sow laying down
and suckling her pigs is much greater in cold weather, as not only will
they become chilled, but they will persist in crowding round the sow and
so run the greater risk of being trodden upon, or rolled up in the
bedding in the effort of the sow to remake her comfortable nest.

Some persons strongly recommend the giving of a strong dose of medicine
to the sow after she has farrowed. In ordinary cases this is not
necessary, the farrowing of a litter of pigs is a simple and natural
operation. In those occasional instances where manual assistance has to
be given to the sow owing to the unusual size of the pig, or wrong
presentation, or even of a pig which has been dead for a day or two and
has begun to decompose and consequently to increase in bulk, it is
advisable to give medicine to the sow, since there is every probability
of some amount of inflammation due to the insertion of the hand. As the
sow's bowels are likely to be somewhat constipated it is always
advisable to exercise her for a few minutes during the morning after she
has farrowed. In most cases the exercise will at once cause her to
relieve her bowels and her bladder, when she can be returned to her sty.

We found sharps, or the finest portion of miller's offals (which usually
go by varying names in different parts of the country), the most
suitable food for newly farrowed sows, and until the pigs were at least
four weeks old. Some persons recommend that a portion of the food should
consist of bran, this on two grounds--the first that its use tends to
prevent constipation, and secondly on account of the food analysis which
it gives. Our experience has been that when sharps are fed to the sow no
trouble should arise from constipation, whilst as to the nutriment which
bran contains the claim may be good, but the pig is unable to extract
it; so large a proportion of the bran passes through the pig in an
undigested condition. As a rule the pig, unlike the horse, cow, or
sheep, does not masticate its food, nor does it, like the two last
named, chew its cud, but it usually bolts its food, and thus casts a
greater labour on its digestive organs which have neither the time nor
power to extract the whole of the nutriment from the bran. In addition
to this, bran tends to too great looseness of the bowels, which in the
case of young pigs tends to become diarrhœa.

There is a tendency on the part of some pigmen who are over anxious to
succeed to feed the sow too large a quantity of food during the first
ten days or so after she has farrowed. During this period the demand on
the sow is really not much greater than it was during the last two or
three weeks of carrying the pigs. As the pigs grow older an increased
supply of food is necessary, but for a week or two after the arrival of
the pigs twice feeding of the sow should suffice unless she is very low
in condition, or a very large litter of pigs is left on her. In such
cases it may be advisable to feed her three times per day just as much
as she will promptly clear up. It is a great mistake to give so much
food at one time that a portion is left over in the trough,
particularly is this so when the pigs are over three weeks old, as
nothing so quickly upsets the stomachs of the youngsters as sour food.
If in ordinary cases feeding the sow three times daily is persisted in,
the same quantity of food given should simply be distributed over the
three feedings, as an excess of food is only less a mistake than
underfeeding.

Three of the most common troubles with young pigs are diarrhœa, fits,
and loss of the tail. There is a belief amongst many old pigmen that
every litter of pigs is bound to have at least one attack of diarrhœa
ere it is weaned. They look upon it as a fatality which is certain to
eventuate, no matter what steps may be taken. Of course, this is folly.
The liability of little pigs to an attack of what is commonly called
scouring is great as the causes are several, amongst them the greatest
is perhaps a chill which may arise from draughts owing to faulty
construction of the sty doors or ventilators neglected; insufficient,
unsuitable, or damp bedding; neglect of proper sanitation, or the
frequent cleaning out of the sty; and most frequently of all from
injudicious feeding of the sow. In fact, anything which affects the
health of the young pig to any great extent appears to result in
indigestion, which causes constipation, and this in turn nature
endeavours to remove by a special effort which softens the fæces
somewhat. On removal of the cause of the constipation, the bowels
perform their duty normally, but if this be not removed the result is
diarrhœa, which again if continued for any length of time often
becomes dysentery, when the fever is acute; the pigling neglects its
mother's teat, and instead sucks up any moisture however foul which it
can find in the sty. This is almost invariably a precursor of death.

From the above it will be gathered that prevention is better than cure.
In case of an attack, the first thing is to discover the cause, and the
second is to remove it, when, generally speaking, the trouble ceases. As
a help to this end, depriving the sow of one meal is recommended. Coal,
cinders, or even earth will be readily eaten by the young pigs and prove
of benefit. Medicine is not often required if the steps recommended are
promptly taken.

In our earlier days hog's madder was the common medicine used with pigs
for most ailments, but of late years sulphur appears to have taken its
place. It is less violent than castor oil, which is apt to cause
constipation of the bowels after its first effect has passed off.

The soreness of the tails, which if not attended to generally results in
the pig becoming bob-tailed, appears most generally in damp and cold
weather, and is the result of impaired circulation of the blood. The
cure is simple. The application of fat or oil as soon as the tail
becomes red and cold, twice per day, and continued for two or three days
will almost always result in a cure. For some years we used
boro-glyceride, a compound, we believe, of boracic acid and glycerine,
but we are not certain that it is now procurable.

The third of the common troubles of the young pig is fits of an
apoplectic and epileptic character. As a rule the shortest, thickest,
and fattest pigs of the litter are those which are affected. This
points to the chief cause, too much food in the form of mother's milk. A
reduction in the quantity of the food fed to the sow will generally be
effectual, except when the pigs are old enough to eat. Then both the
quantity and the quality of the food given to them should be reduced.
Prompt removal of the cause is usually sufficient, but it may be
necessary to mix a little medicine in the food in persistent cases, or
when remedial measures are not promptly taken. The ordinary symptoms are
unmistakable, the pig falls on its side, struggles and gasps for breath,
then in a minute or two it rises and appears to be little the worse.
Unless continued over a period, fits are not usually fatal.

Very occasionally young pigs suffer from the protrusion of the rectum,
or as it is commonly termed "shooting of the gut." This is due to
various causes which result in straining. Of these constipation and
diarrhœa are the two most common. As soon as the protrusion of the
gut is noticeable, the enlargement should be carefully washed, then
oiled and gently pressed back into its natural position. Some pigmen
advise the dusting of flour on to the protruded portion before it is
returned, but there is a risk of increasing the amount of inflammation
which is generally present. If known the original cause of the trouble
should be removed, but in any case it is advisable not to give any solid
food to the pig for two or three days after the operation.

Still another of the troubles to which pig flesh is heir is hernia, or
rupture. This is of two kinds, umbilical and scrotum. The former is
the escape of a portion of the bowels through an imperfectly closed
navel opening, whilst the latter shows itself in an enlargement of the
scrotum or purse due to an escape into it of a portion of the abdominal
contents. Both of these ailments are considered to be hereditary, but
the most common and the most troublesome is the latter, since there is
always a chance of strangulation of the escaped portions, which nearly
always results in death.

At one time it was considered to be inadvisable to castrate the boar
pigs affected, but of late years the plan has been adopted of making
only one incision in the scrotum in place of two, and making that one as
high as possible. Then after the operation is performed, the aperture is
sown up. The pig should be fed lightly for a day or two in order to give
time for the healing of the wound.

Umbilical hernia is not generally of much importance, the navel opening
gradually closes as the pig grows stronger and the enlargement
disappears. It is advisable not to breed from a sow pig which has been
affected, nor to continue to use a boar which has begotten ruptured
pigs, as both failings are hereditary.

For a time at least, there is certain to be a difficulty in obtaining a
full supply of sharps, even of the greatly reduced feeding value of the
present quantity available. It may, therefore, be advisable to refer to
another system of feeding the suckling sow and the young pigs. It is now
perforce being generally adopted, but the result is not generally
considered to be equal to the old system recommended. It is that of
feeding pigs of the kind mentioned on vegetable food, and a mixture of
palm nut, cocoa nut, ground nut, or linseed cake. The proportions fed at
the Cambridge University Farm are mangolds 20 lbs.; a mixture of two
parts palm nut cake, and one part cocoa nut cake, 2 lbs.; linseed cake,
2 lbs.; and ground nut cake, 1 lb. The two former were fed in the
morning and evening, and the other two at midday. The various cakes seem
to have been fed in a dry condition, but other pig feeders have found it
beneficial to soak the cake in water for some twelve hours. This view
seems to have received support from the practice at Cambridge, which was
to mix the cake with the cut mangolds twenty-four hours before being fed
to the pigs so that at least a portion of the cake would become softened
by the mangold juice. Almost any kind of vegetable matter containing a
fair amount of nutrition would be equally as suitable as mangold, indeed
more so during the period from October to April. In the winter months
cooked potatoes; kohl rabi, swedes, parsnips, cabbages, artichokes,
etc., fed raw; and in the summer grass, lucerne, clover, vetches, rape,
or almost any kind of vegetable food will be readily eaten by the pigs.
Even where the wasteful practice of peeling the potatoes before being
cooked for the household is still followed (and just how wasteful this
old-fashioned plan is has been lately proved to be a loss of nearly one
quarter of the nutriment)--it is advisable to boil the parings and then
mix the whole with the pig's food.

It cannot be too strongly impressed on pig keepers that a certain
proportion of vegetable food is most beneficial for pigs of all ages, as
not only is a saving in cost effected, but the pigs will continue in a
more healthy condition than when fed solely on meal or other
concentrated food.

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: LARGE WHITE BOAR. The property of the Author. The Winner
of many Prizes.

To face page 80.]

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._

TAMWORTH SOW, "QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES."]




CHAPTER X

WEANING PIGS


There are few points in connection with the breeding and feeding of pigs
on which there is a greater diversity of opinion and practice than on
the question of the weaning of the young pigs.

For instance, take the age at which it is most satisfactory to take the
pigs off the sow. This practice varies greatly in different districts,
and even in the same district where one would naturally suppose that the
determining influences would be similar weaning at five or six weeks
old.

One pig breeder will declare that a little pig of five or six weeks old
should be and is able to support itself alone, and will act accordingly.
Should perchance a litter weaned thus early cease to grow the excuses
made will be various.

The weather is at fault, it is either too hot or too cold, or the
sharps, etc., on which they have been fed were not good or sweet, that
the sow's milk was not sufficiently plentiful, or it was wanting in
nutriment. In fact, any excuse will be made rather than the actual cause
admitted.

In far too many instances the real reason for the want of thrift on the
part of the young pigs taken from their mother when they are not more
than five or six weeks old is that their digestive organs are not
sufficiently developed as to enable them to digest enough food to
nourish them properly.

Another excuse often made for what we consider to be undue haste in
weaning young pigs is the alleged desire of the owner not to waste the
time of the sow. He is anxious to have her served again and hasten the
arrival of the next litter.

Occasionally it is found to be unnecessary to wean the pigs for this
purpose as the sow will come in heat and can be served by the boar, but
if she should become in pig the result will be much the same so far as
the pigs are concerned, since as soon as the sow has conceived the milk
will promptly cease or become very reduced in quantity and quality.

On the other hand, if the sow does not stand to the boar time may be
wasted. It is most unlikely that the sow will again become in heat for
some three weeks, whereas this almost always occurs within a few days of
the weaning of the litter of pigs.

Then another extreme, and one which is practised by some pig breeders,
is to allow the young pigs to remain on the sow until the former are
from ten to twelve weeks old. It is claimed for this practice that the
young pigs grow much faster when left on the sow than when weaned, and
that less food is consumed for a live weight increase from a given
quantity of food. Also, it is said that food of more inferior kind can
be fed to the sow than could be fed to the pigs if they were weaned, and
thus the sow and litter are kept at less expense, and that if the pigs
are not weaned until nearly three months, the milk of the sow will have
gradually ceased to flow, and the pigs will not miss the help from
their dam. Their digestive organs will then have become sufficiently
developed to enable them to make the best use of the food given to them,
and they will sustain no check in thrift or growth when they are weaned.

In this question of weaning pigs the good old fashioned plan of
following the middle course will probably be found to be the best.
Anyway, it was the one which we followed for a great number of years and
found the results generally satisfactory for the following among other
reasons.

As a breeder of pure bred pigs for sale as boars or yelts for breeding
purposes, we were naturally anxious to give the pigs a good start in
life so that we should be able to sell them as quickly as possible, and
that they should thrive when they came into the possession of their new
owners, and thus prove the best possible advertisement of our herds. As
a rule we found that if the pigs were allowed to remain on the sows
until they were some eight weeks old they were quite strong enough to
fend for themselves, that by gradually increasing the length of time
which the sow was allowed to remain from the pigs, the latter became
accustomed to exist without the mother's milk, and as the milk of the
sow naturally dried up when the pigs partially ceased to withdraw it, no
trouble was experienced with inflamed udders as is usually or commonly
the case when the pigs are suddenly weaned from a sow which is in full
milk.

There is also another advantage apart from that to the sow and pigs, it
is that the sow will almost invariably come in heat within three or
four days of the weaning, and with the best possible chance of becoming
in pig.

Some pig keepers are more inclined to wean their litter of pigs at an
early age, and then if the sow be low in condition to baulk her at the
first time of œstrum. There are objections to this--one of them is
that there is frequently a difficulty in getting the sow to conceive
after she has been baulked. Why this should be so we have not been able
to ascertain. We only record what we know to be a fact.

In our opinion this difficulty is one of the strongest points in favour
of the practice of allowing the young pigs of a sow with her first
litter, or of an old sow which has become low in condition (either from
having had too many pigs left on her, or from other natural cause), to
remain on the sow for a longer period than about eight weeks. Some
persons will keep the pigs on the sow until they are nearly three months
old in the belief that both sow and pigs are benefited, and that the
pigs can be kept quite as cheaply if not more so when unweaned than
weaned. They also claim that the sow is so much stronger and better
fitted to prepare for another litter. Experiments have been carried out
in the United States which go far to prove that the first of these two
claims is founded on fact; and it has further been demonstrated that
certain foods can be fed to the sow without affecting the thrift and
health of the pigs which could not with safety be fed to the latter
direct, yet when fed through the sow the pigs will thrive on the milk
produced therefrom. It is entirely a question of the cost of a rest for
the sow during the extra two or three weeks, and the benefit to the
sow and her pigs.

One occasionally sees in the press a claim for what is considered to be
a great achievement in that some one has bred three litters of pigs from
one sow within the year. There really is something wonderful in this
since of the fifty-two weeks constituting a year, the sow would be
carrying her pigs some forty-eight weeks. This would allow only four
weeks for the two litters of pigs to be suckled, and this would also
include the few days between the pigs being weaned and the sow coming in
heat. Apart from the natural difficulty of successfully breeding three
litters of pigs from one sow within twelve months, there exists a far
greater possibility of loss rather than of gain from unduly hurrying on
the arrival of each litter of pigs from a sow, especially of the
profitable kind of sow.

Some forty years since when Small Whites, Small Blacks, and short thick
Berkshires were fashionable, the number of pigs in each litter was few,
and the number reared still fewer, owing to the limited quantity of milk
furnished by the sow. Now, the Large Black, the Large White, the Middle
White, the Lincolnshire Curly Coat, the old Gloucester Spots, the
Tamworth, the Cumberland, and even the sows of most of the local breeds
of pigs are expected to rear nine or ten pigs each litter. Even if it
were possible for a sow to bring forth three litters within the year,
she could not possibly do justice to them either before or after the
piglings arrived in this world; and further, the life of such a sow
would of necessity be a short one. It must not be forgotten that in
the production of each litter of pigs the sow is compelled to
manufacture from 20 to 30 lbs. of flesh, skin, hair, etc., which
together constitute the newly farrowed pig, and very frequently this has
to be accomplished on a far too limited supply of suitable food.

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: _From a Painting by Wippell._

MIDDLE WHITE SOW.

To face page 96.]

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: _Block kindly supplied by Cumberland Pig Breeders'
Association, Carlisle._

CUMBERLAND SOW.

Owned by Mr. Carr, Kirkbride, Carlisle.]




CHAPTER XI

THE REARING OF YOUNG PIGS


One of the most important points in the profitable raising of stock is
to give the animals a good start in their earliest days. There is an old
and true saying amongst shepherds that the best and most profitable
sheep are those which have never lost their lamb fat. It may with equal
truth be declared that the most profitable pig is the one which has a
good start when on its mother, and never afterwards lacks suitable food,
judiciously given.

At frequent intervals, the question as to the number of pigs which a sow
should have left on her to rear is the subject of discussion in the
press. At each of these periods very similar arguments for and against
large litters are used with much the same inconclusive results. This
probably arises to a great extent from the varying conditions under
which the particular litter of pigs is to be reared. The time of year
has a vast influence, a sow farrowing in May will more successfully rear
a dozen pigs than she would bring up ten if they were farrowed in the
month of October.

The age and condition of the sow should also be considered. A young sow
of about twelve months should not have more than seven or eight pigs
left on her to rear, whereas with her succeeding litters until she is at
least four years old she would rear at least ten pigs each litter. After
the sow has reached the age of about four years, if that time has been
fully employed in her maternal duties, she becomes gradually less able
to rear so large a number of pigs with an equal amount of success. It is
then advisable to vary the number according to the season, and to the
physical condition of the sow; generally speaking an aged sow will bring
up more pigs in the summer months than in the colder months.

Reference is made elsewhere to the manner in which the young pigs should
be cared for until they are weaned from their dam, but no harm can arise
from a repetition of the advice that the young pigs should be so managed
and fed that only the very slightest difference will be noticed by the
youngsters when parted from their mother. Many pigs are permanently
checked in growth by being suddenly deprived of a full supply of
mother's milk if weaned when their digestive organs are insufficiently
developed as to treat a sufficiency of food to make growth and progress
without the assistance received from their mother's milk.

Opinions differ as to the age at which little pigs are sufficiently
developed as to exist and thrive without their dam's help. Here again
the time of the year, not only as far as the weather is concerned, but
the desirability of prompt or deferred remating of the sow in order that
her succeeding litters should arrive during the most favourable portions
of the year, must be considered. The thrift and growth of each litter
of pigs varies greatly. The health of the sow, her condition before
farrowing, and other causes, some of which are not always on the
surface, have their influence, but it may be taken as a rule that young
pigs are fully able to fend for themselves by the time they are eight
weeks old. Should it be possible to allow the pigs to remain on the sow
for so long a time as twelve weeks without prejudicing the next litters
as to the time of year of their arrival, the pigs may benefit, and no
loss of food will be sustained, since it has been clearly proved that
pigs beyond the age of eight weeks can be fed quite as economically, if
not more so, on the sow than if weaned. It may also be possible to feed
the sow on somewhat coarser and less expensive food than could be
satisfactorily fed to the young pigs, as her digestive organs would be
better able to treat the coarser food. Another advantage generally
follows keeping the pigs for a longer time on the sow if the latter be
well fed is that she will be in a stronger and better condition to start
the building up of her next litter.

As a rule young pigs will commence to eat when they are from three to
four weeks old. If the sow is fed in the sty in which the little pigs
are, these will endeavour to share in the food; at first they may
content themselves with licking any food which may be outside the
trough, but they quickly show a desire for more, and attempt to get into
the trough. When this is evident, it is advisable to feed the little
pigs apart from the sow; a low flat trough is best, as one with high
sides is said to cause "high backed" pigs, or pigs suffering from a
curvature of the spine. If a little milk can be obtained, the pigs will
promptly drink it, if the milk be whole they will thrive best, but even
if only skim or separated milk be obtainable, or butter milk, providing
that it be drawn off ere the salt is put into the churn, a small
quantity will be beneficial, but the pigs will not be able to digest so
large a quantity of the separated as of the whole milk. The former is
apt to have a constipating effect on the bowels of the youngsters.
Should an ample supply of separated milk be available it can be fed
through the sow, who will be better able to digest it, and whose yield
of milk will be increased, provided that sufficient separated milk to
affect her bowels be not given to her. A few kernels of wheat or white
peas will be readily eaten by the little pigs, which will benefit
therefrom.

If no other food is available, sharps, or whatever the local term for
the finer miller's offals may be, mixed with a little warm water and fed
to the piglings, will prove beneficial, care being taken to give only so
much as the pigs will eat up readily, or that any surplus is taken away,
so that it does not become sour, as in this last condition it will cause
diarrhœa in the young pigs.

When the pigs are about six weeks old the sow can be allowed to remain
from them for a longer time, and the youngsters fed two or three times
each day. The sow's milk will then gradually dry up, and the pigs will
become accustomed to the food, so that when the latter are about eight
weeks old they will have become weaned naturally, and receive no check
from the loss of the sow's milk. This system, will also prevent any
trouble arising from the collection of milk in the sow's udder, and the
occasional attacks of inflammation or garget which follow a chill to the
sow when her udder is in an inflamed condition from being closely
impacted with milk.

Assuming that the economical and beneficial practice of supplying the
suckling sow with vegetable food of some kind after the pigs are some
three or four weeks old has been adopted, the pigs will have become
accustomed to its consumption. It will be found to be advisable to
continue this whether it has taken the form of cooked potatoes, of
mangolds, swedes, kohl rabi, cabbages, artichokes, etc., as not only
will the food bill be reduced, as the pigs will make equal growth and
thrift on food containing say ten per cent of vegetable matter as they
will if fed wholly on sharps, but the vegetable food will have a
beneficial effect on the health of the pigs, and tend to prevent those
attacks of constipation and diarrhœa which are so frequently the
result of food of too rich a character.

Of the vegetable foods, cooked potatoes and raw artichokes are the most
nourishing and the most readily eaten, lucerne and clover in a green
state come next in food value and favouritism with the pigs; cabbages
are credited with causing constipation when fed to young pigs, whilst
mangolds are said to have the opposite effect, and in addition when
grown on light land by the aid of artificial manure mangolds are apt to
affect the kidneys and cause excessive urination. Kohl rabi are not so
much used in the feeding of pigs as would be advisable. They are easily
grown and will take the place of swedes on land on which swedes are
subject to mildew; they are very nutritious, and are readily eaten by
both old and young pigs.

Coleseed is not used in the feeding of pigs in this country to anything
approaching the same extent as in Canada and the United States; its
value and results are of a very similar character to those of cabbages.
Tares or vetches contain too large a proportion of water for young pigs,
and they also have a tendency to cause looseness of the bowels. The
growth of maize for feeding to pigs in a green state has been
recommended by some writers, but in practice we found it most unsuitable
for young pigs, and of little value for aged pigs, owing to the small
proportion of nourishment contained in it in comparison with its bulk.
Further, pigs both old and young will refuse to eat it unless driven by
hunger. It is needless to remark that no pigs, especially young ones,
will thrive under such conditions.

One of the most common mistakes made by pig feeders is allowing too long
a time to pass between feeding times. Twice or three times per day is
considered to be quite frequent enough, whereas prior to their being
weaned the pigs would have had a meal wellnigh each two hours both day
and night. Infrequent meals result in the pigs becoming so hungry that
they bolt their food, and a greater quantity than is desirable, and then
suffer from indigestion.

It must also be remembered that the pig's capacity for storing food is
very small, especially as compared with some others of our domesticated
animals. Four or five meals per day at least should be given to newly
weaned pigs. That most troublesome of ailments commonly termed cramp
more generally results from injudicious feeding than from all other
causes combined. Even when the young pigs are properly fed on suitable
food there is a tendency in some little pigs to attacks of cramp. One of
the best preventatives and even remedies is to compel the pigs to leave
their nests late in the evening or prior to the pigman retiring for the
night, as they will then relieve the bowels and bladder. Otherwise,
particularly in cold weather, the pigs would remain quiescent in their
nests from feeding time in the afternoon until they were fed the
following morning, or in winter a period of some fifteen or sixteen
hours--far too long a time for the good health of the young pigs.

Another point which requires attention is the provision of a dry bed.
Pigs are naturally clean animals, and will not as a rule foul their bed
when they are in a healthy state. Still the straw will in winter time
become damp solely from the moisture thrown off by the pigs when huddled
together in their nest. All damp litter should be carefully removed at
least once each day.

The best of all materials for the bedding of pigs is wheat straw. This
will absorb a larger amount of moisture than any other kind of straw,
whilst the skin and hair of the pigs will remain of a brighter colour
than if bedded on oat or barley straw. Of these two, the former is more
suitable than the latter, which so readily becomes damp and foul. In
those parts of the country where comparatively little corn is grown,
sawdust and wood shavings are commonly used for litter for pigs. So far
as the comfort of the pigs is concerned there is little difference as
compared with straw with regard to pigs of all ages in the warmer
weather, but in the winter little pigs suffer, as they are unable to
make the warm nest which straw enables them to make and enjoy.

When peat moss was first introduced it was strongly recommended for the
bedding of pigs. It was claimed for it that it was a far better
absorbent of moisture than sawdust, and that its manurial value was much
greater. It is probable that both claims are founded on fact, as sawdust
is of comparatively no value as a manure. But there exists one serious
objection to the use of peat moss as litter for young pigs. It is that
the pigs are given to eat it, that it causes severe attacks of
indigestion, and often the death of the pig eating it.

Of late years the spaying of the sow pigs has ceased to be general. The
causes of this neglect may be several, amongst them the dislike of
trouble, but perhaps the main reason is that the so-called store period
of the pig's life is now so much shorter than in the olden days, and
consequently the loss of food, and the risk of the arrival of unexpected
litters of pigs are less, from the repeated periods of heat, indeed
under the present or recent conditions of pig keeping a large
proportion of the pigs are killed ere they have become sufficiently
developed to be troublesome in this respect.

Still, there is little doubt that the castrating and spaying of young
pigs at about the age of six weeks, or before they have been weaned from
the sow is advisable and the cost of the operation is well repaid. An
unspayed sow pig becomes a nuisance in company with other pigs, and when
it is put up to fatten will make no progress on some three or four days
during each three weeks when she ordinarily becomes in heat.

In addition to her own waste of time she will, if penned with others, be
continually worrying her mates and preventing them from resting and
thriving.

Until recently another objection was taken to the unspayed sow pig, it
was that if she were killed during the period of œstrum that great
difficulty would be experienced in curing the meat properly, and that
signs of her heated condition would be noticed in the mammary glands in
the form of dark globules of what was considered to be blood, but
investigation carried out at the University Farm at Cambridge by Messrs.
Russell and Kenneth Mackensie have proved that the discoloration and the
consequent loss in value of a certain portion of the belly of a side of
bacon is not due to the pig having been in a state of heat at the time
of its slaughter, but to an excess of pigment, noticeable only amongst
coloured pigs. Thus, the globules would be of a dark colour when the
bacon was from a pig of a black colour, and red from the pigs of the
Tamworth breed. This shows another cause of the marked preference of the
bacon curers for pigs of a white colour in the manufacture of the
highest priced bacon.




CHAPTER XII

HOUSING OF PIGS


In the general management of pigs there are many points on which
improvements might be effected without any very considerable amount of
trouble or expense. Far too frequently this neglect or want of care and
thought is observable in the housing of pigs. Many of the sties in the
country districts are neither wind nor water tight, and they are far too
often in a most unsanitary condition, indeed in such a disgraceful state
that some excuse was afforded for the drastic, if injudicious order of
the sanitary authorities which prohibited the erection of a pigsty
within from sixty to one hundred feet of a dwelling house. Undoubtedly
it would have been wiser to have permitted the keeping of pigs within a
much shorter distance of the house only so long as the necessary steps
were taken to prevent a nuisance or a risk of the residents in the house
suffering in health. The proximity of a pigsty to a house can be
rendered perfectly innocuous with ordinary care, and the cottager not be
deprived of very considerable advantages not only in making a profit,
but in the provision of manure for his allotment or garden which will
benefit greatly from its application.

The mistakes or want of care in the erection of pigsties is by no means
confined to the owners of cottages or small holdings, as a considerable
proportion of the piggeries on which great outlay is expended are
equally as unsuitable if not so insanitary. Even in so-called model
buildings the piggery has often been the last thing thought of; the
stables, the cow house, etc., have been conveniently placed for feeding
the occupants, for air, light, and sun, and then the piggery has been
placed in whatever spot may have been left unoccupied, and as this
generally happens to be on the northern side of the buildings, the
unhappy pigs are deprived of the rays of the sun, which are to them
quite as necessary, if not more so, than to any others of our
domesticated animals.

This same want of sun, and the exposure to cold is noticeable in only a
lesser degree in those buildings which comprise a double row of sties
with a passage down the centre, a store and a cooking and mixing house
at one end, and an exercise or feeding yard adjoining. It matters not
whether the building be placed north or south, or east or west, one half
of the sties have a wrong aspect; even if the sties facing the west can
be said to possess one. The trouble is still greater with the system of
having a yard attached to each sty. The north or east wind renders the
sties with such an aspect a most uncomfortable and unhealthy place for
young pigs during more than half the year, whilst older pigs cannot
thrive on the same amount of food as they would if their quarters were
comfortable. Apart from the waste of food which results from these
draughty and cold sties, the latter are the chief cause, with
injudicious feeding, of that most troublesome ailment amongst pigs,
rheumatic gout, or, as it is commonly termed, cramp. How very draughty
and uncomfortable these sties are which have an open yard attached, and
an inlet at all times usable, can be readily discovered in cold and
windy weather by noticing the position in which the occupant has made
its bed. This will be found not on the highest part of the sty, which
will be opposite to the opening into the yard, but in the corner next to
the opening, since in this position it is less exposed to the cold wind
which rushes into the sty through the opening.

Apart from the unhealthiness to the pigs resulting from the exposure to
draughts it is not apparent to the writer that any advantage is gained
from the provision of these yards. In many instances they serve only for
an excuse to limit the height of the sties, as unless these are of a
fair height there is a considerable difficulty in cleaning them out. The
money expended on building the yard would easily cover the extra cost of
raising the side walls of the pigsty by two feet, and thus not only
render it free from draughts, but also make it far more healthy and less
subject to the extremes of heat and cold.

The ordinary sty with a yard attached is unhealthy for a growing or
matured pig, but in the colder weather it is simply cruel for newly born
pigs, of which numbers are annually lost from exposure or are greatly
checked in their growth.

One of the very best places in which to house pigs in the experience of
the writer was a large barn with a thatched roof. This was divided off
into sties by partitions some 4 ft. 6 in. high; owing to the height of
the building the temperature was not unduly high in the hottest weather
nor did the pigs suffer to any extent during severe weather. These
advantages arose mainly from the slight changes in temperature, and an
abundant supply of uncontaminated air.

One of the greatest drawbacks to the majority of the pigsties is the
absence of ventilation without draught. This trouble is especially
noticeable where the side walls are not more than about 4 ft. high,
whilst the proximity of the roof to the pigs increases the sufferings of
the pigs from the heat when the weather is excessively hot.

Some of our most successful pig feeders on a large scale have found it
profitable to erect cheap buildings very similar to small barns, the
side walls being at least 10 feet high. This will permit of thorough
ventilation, quite free from draughts, whilst the variations in the
temperature will be comparatively slight. The building being complete
within itself, and entirely used for the pigs, there is no disturbance
of the pigs between the feeding times, so that the pigs will rest and
grow fat. These houses are most suitable for a number of fattening pigs,
whereas for sows and for young sows smaller sties or houses are more
convenient. These should be at least 10 ft. square, the front 6 ft. 6
in. high, the doors divided so that the upper half can be opened when
the weather is favourable; ventilation can be obtained by hanging or
sliding doors just under the eaves so that the pigs are not affected by
the draught; the floor should be laid with brick and gradually incline
to the front of the building so that the liquid can run through an
aperture in the lower part of the front wall into a cesspool placed
close to the building. A row of these houses, which should face to the
south, can be more cheaply erected than a single house, as the wooden
partitions between the houses need not be more than 4 ft. high, and one
of these would take the place of two gables or ends. Several of the
houses which the writer erected had brick foundations and feather-edged
boarded sides and ends; the roofs were of tiles unpointed, as in this
way the houses were much cooler in the summer, whilst in the winter the
upper portions of the houses were packed with straw which still
permitted of the escape of the foul air, yet greatly added to the warmth
and comfort of the building.

The one thing of all others most needful in the sty or house for the
well doing of pigs is a sufficiency of pure air without draughts; pigs
of even a few days old will suffer less from cold than from moist and
foul hot air. It is not the most costly building in which pigs will
thrive best, but the one in which they are the most comfortable and free
from the extremes of heat and cold with a dry bed on which to rest and
be thankful.

When making a tour of the Agricultural Experiment Stations and
Agricultural Schools in Denmark some few years since, the writer saw
near Aarhuss what was then a novelty in the form of a two decker pigsty,
i.e. a sty with a sleeping place above--one could scarcely term it an
upstairs room as access was gained not by stairs but by an inclined
board with struts of wood fastened across it to give a firm holding to
the pigs as they ascended to the upper story. The incline was very
steep, but the pigs seemed to have no difficulty in getting up and down.
The advantages claimed for it by the principal were that the sleeping
compartment was so much cleaner and sweeter; that less straw was
required for bedding, and that the pigs were far more comfortable and
rested better than when boxed up, especially in the summer season when
the heat in the lower portion was very oppressive. The feeding took
place in the lower portion. It was stated that nearly the whole of the
urine and dung was deposited below. This was a great advantage as the
moisture ran off at once into the drains, and the solids were easily
cleared out as there was no litter mixed with them, or the dung could be
readily washed into the drains by water from a hose, which was used in
the summer for the purpose of bathing or of washing the pigs.

The chief objection to the plan would be its expense, as unless the
pigsties were in a barn or a shed already erected for some other purpose
the pigsty would have to be so much higher on the side walls and
consequently more strongly built.

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: _Photo, Sport and General._

LARGE WHITE SOW, "WORSLEY SUNBEAM."

To face page 112.]

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: _Photo kindly lent by Kenneth MacRae, R.U.A.S., Balmoral,
Belfast._

LARGE WHITE ULSTER BOAR.]




CHAPTER XIII

THE EXHIBITION OF PIGS


When the exhibition of live stock at our numerous shows became common, a
belief sprang up amongst non-exhibitors that the preparation for show
was most deleterious to the animals shown. It was also contended that
exhibitors were prone to pay attention, to a far greater extent, to the
fancy or show points of the animals which they bred than to those
utility points which are of infinitely more importance to the ordinary
stock breeder and the consumer. It was also believed that the feeding or
training which the show stock underwent seriously affected their
procreative powers, and especially so with the animals of the feminine
gender.

It may at once be frankly admitted that there existed some ground for
the belief that a majority of the exhibitors did appear to give too
great attention to the claims of the judges who were, in too many cases,
chosen for reasons other than their knowledge of practical agriculture
or the requirements of the consumers of meat. For so acting, the
exhibitors were not beyond blame, as in the earlier days of showing,
their main object was to win prizes in order to advertise their stock
and so secure customers for their spare breeding animals. The actual
improvement of the various breeds of stock did not in those far-off days
appear to be of such vital importance as the world upheaval, of which
the present generation has been the witness, has proved it to be.

It may also be fairly claimed that there has been some slight
improvement in the system of feeding and training followed by the pig
exhibitors of to-day. This is in part due to the fact that the cramming
on rich food and giving little exercise may result in rendering the show
pig in such a state of obesity as to secure the approval of the
non-practical judge, who is unable to appraise the points of a pig when
in its natural breeding condition, but that to be able to follow the
present system of exhibiting at several successive shows and even when
the bloated pig is intended to be returned to the breeding pen, this
excessive feeding proved to be a grievous mistake. It may not be
possible to claim that the over feeding of show animals is a thing of
the past, but there is little doubt that exhibitors of pigs have become
alive to the fact that it is not profitable. Not only is the expense
excessive, but the damage done to the breeding animals is so great as to
render it inadvisable for any ordinary farmer to follow. Again, there
has of late years been a very considerable improvement in the pig
classification at both the breeding and the fat stock shows. When the
writer began pig showing, on his own account, fifty years since, the
common classification at most of the shows was, boar any age, sows any
age, and pens of three breeding pigs, not exceeding nine or in some
cases even twelve months. There were no restrictions as to the age of
the boar or of the sow, no condition as to utility, of the sow having at
any time reared a litter of pigs or of being in pig, so that it was by
no means uncommon at even some of the chief shows to find both boars and
sows appear year after year, having been guiltless of any attempt to
procreate their species, but having been kept solely for the purpose of
winning prizes and adding to the renown of their owners, if not directly
adding much to their balances at the bank. The only way in which the
continued exhibition of these old stagers was made profitable was the
securing of customers for breeding stock from the exhibitors, who in far
too many cases were not the breeders of the winning animals. To so great
an extent had this purchase, frequently from middlemen or dealers of
exhibition pigs, become in the seventies of the last century, that some
of the live stock papers in the United States took up the cudgels on
behalf of the American breeders of pigs, who had been in the habit of
importing show winners from this country and plainly asked for the
English definition of a pure bred pig. It was pointed out at a recent
show of the Royal Agricultural Society several winners shown by one
exhibitor were entered as of certain defined breeds, yet neither age,
pedigree, nor name of breeder was given, the only particulars given in
the show catalogue being the name and address of the exhibitor, the name
of the pig, and the further statement age and breeder unknown. As our
American cousins asked, how could it be possible to ensure that a pig
was of a certain pure breed when it was admitted that no knowledge
existed of the breeding of the animal nor actually of the person who
bred it. This scandal, as it was termed, was one of the contributing
causes of the establishment of societies for the registration of the
pedigrees of the various types or breeds of pigs.

Other changes which have been great improvements have been the
limitation of the ages of boars and sows shown, the requirement that the
sow has within a certain fixed time farrowed a litter of pigs and that
when entered as being in farrow a certificate of subsequent farrowing
shall be furnished ere the prize money is paid over. The age of the
young boars and sows has also been reduced at most shows to six months,
or the pigs must have been farrowed in the year of the show. In the good
old times the age of the pigs shown in the classes for pens of two or
three or five, varied from six to twelve months, and the asserted age
given by the exhibitor was accepted as correct. At many of the important
shows not only are some means of identification asked for, but the state
of the dentition are variously dealt with; at some shows they are
disqualified at once by the stewards on the certificate of the
veterinary surgeon. It may at once be admitted that this mode of
procedure is very hard on an honest exhibitor whose pig has for some
reason developed its temporary or permanent teeth abnormally--and such
cases are not unknown--- although as a rule the various stages in the
cutting of the permanent teeth are very regular, the majority of the
irregularities are also in favour of the exhibitor, since delayed rather
than precocious development of dentition is the most common. Just how
imperative it was that some steps should be taken to prevent mistakes
being made in the ages of young pigs exhibited, many cases could be
cited, but one may suffice where one of the sow pigs in a pen of five
entered in a class for pigs not exceeding six months actually farrowed a
litter of fully developed pigs in the show yard.

During the last forty years, great improvements have been made in the
classification for pigs at our principal Fat Stock shows. The division
of breeds or types has been attended to and the ages of the pigs in the
various classes have been greatly reduced. For instance, when the writer
was judging pigs with two colleagues at the 1880 show of the Smithfield
Club, there were classes for Small White pigs, not exceeding nine
months; above nine months, and not exceeding twelve months, and above
twelve months and not exceeding eighteen months. A more ridiculous
classification could not possibly have been devised since no small white
pig would have paid for fattening after it had become nine months old. A
similar classification existed for pigs of the Large White breed, for
Black breeds, and for Berkshires. In addition there was a class for a
single pig of any age or breed. The condition of some of the exhibits in
the oldest classes was most pitiable, they had been stuffed to such an
extent that their life must have been a misery to them, they were unable
to walk any distance, and to prevent suffocation rollers were used on
which to raise their heads. The only way in which to describe these
unfortunate subjects of man's inhumanity was as animated bladders of
lard.

At the recent shows of the Smithfield Club, not only has the age limit
been greatly reduced but classes for pigs not exceeding 100 lbs. live
weight have been instituted, in addition to classes for all the
recognised pure breeds of pigs and those of any cross. Even this great
reduction in age has not been enough to satisfy some of our reformers,
as an endeavour is being made to reduce the limit of twelve months to
nine months, so that in future the classes will be for pens of two pigs
not exceeding 100 lbs. live weight, for pigs not exceeding six months
old and for pigs between six and nine months old, with certain classes
for single pigs under nine months. It is contended that fat pigs cannot
be profitably kept after they reach the age of nine months. Another
innovation of recent years at the Smithfield Show has been the
establishment of the so-called slaughter classes. This is probably by
far the greatest improvement of recent years in the pig section. Classes
are provided for pigs not exceeding 100 lbs. live weight, pigs weighing
over 100 lbs. and not exceeding 220 lbs., and for pigs above 220 lbs.
and not exceeding 300 lbs. live weight. The pigs are first exhibited and
judged alive, then slaughtered and the carcases judged on their pork
merits. There is also one class for pigs above 160 lbs. and not
exceeding 240 lbs. live weight best suited for the manufacture of bacon.
These various classes have created great interest and have proved of the
greatest educational value.

Another beneficial effect of the changed conditions is the elimination
from the summer show-yards of fat sows guiltless of milk and
accompanied in the pen by half a score of young boars and yelts of an
age varying from three months upwards, and which together were exhibited
in the class for breeding sows, or breeding sows and pigs. A fine fat
sow which would take kindly to an unlimited number of adopted youngsters
was in those days almost as valuable as a small gold mine. An old and
well-known pigman, Dick by name, assured the writer that no fewer than
sixty-three young boars and yelts were sold in one year off or when in
company of one well-known sow. At the present time the pigs shown with a
sow must be certified to be her produce and not to exceed the age of
eight weeks.

It is at all times difficult to discover the motive power for certain
actions on the part of a human being. It has been declared that there is
an equal amount of doubt as to the cause of a breeder of stock wishing
to exhibit his animals. Surely this last assertion is at least of a
doubtful character. What greater proof could a stock breeder give of his
pride in his animals than a burning desire to expose their good
qualities to the public gaze. In addition to this, few men are entirely
free from the spirit of gambling and this enters into all competitions,
particularly in the show yards. The winning of prizes with stock may not
be quite so uncertain as the winning of horse races, still, there is
enough of uncertainty to render the judging ring a centre of great
excitement. Some persons will even contend that the showing of farm
stock is not desirable on the part of young farmers as it is likely to
assume so great a similarity with gambling, that attending the shows
means a neglect of business and leads to expensive habits. On the other
hand, it cannot be denied that the exhibition of our improved specimens
of stock has been of untold benefit to both home and foreign stock
breeders. Further, the exportation of our pedigree stock has actually
saved us from semi-starvation during this most fearful of all wars, as
without our improved stock the native stock of foreign countries could
not possibly have furnished the enormous quantities of meat which we
have had to import.

It may be that a great many exhibitors of stock had little or no
intention of becoming one when they first purchased their stock, but on
these proving quite the equal of that possessed by their neighbour, the
desire grew to suggest how good they were, or in many instances the
original entries have been made in response to a request to support the
local show.

This may be still another cause for a beginner in stock breeding
exercising extreme care in the selection of his original stock. Even if
the prime cost be higher than that of ordinary market stock the extra
outlay expended on animals from well-known breeders, and out of old
established herds, is certain to prove a good investment. There is just
as great difference in the different families or strains of our domestic
stock, as there is in the various human families and of animals, and it
may be probably more true that the vast majority of the best of them are
the descendants of a comparatively few ancestors. This is evident in
almost everyone of the breeds of our improved stock, it is so in
thoroughbred and shire horses, and so one might go through the whole
list of domesticated or farm animals.

It is therefore desirable that anyone who thinks of exhibiting his pigs
should endeavour first to discover the particular tribes or families
which, in the past, have furnished a large proportion of the winners,
and then to obtain some of the specimens of those families which have
been successful in the show yards and in the breeding pen. This
combination is most important, as it does not necessarily follow that a
line of blood which produces prize winners shall also produce animals
which are not only good in type, character, and form, but possessed of
prolificacy, free milking properties, and ability to raise large
litters. The difficulty of finding in some of the mere exhibition herds
this most desirable combination is due, in the main, to the far too
frequent neglect of the utility points, the two aims of the herdsman are
in too many instances the winning of prizes for their employers and the
securing of a percentage of the prize money for themselves.

Although there have been attempts made to impress on outsiders the claim
that there exists in the training of pigs for successful exhibition in
our show yards a large amount of mystery, yet, the practice is most
simple, it consists in the employment of the greatest possible
observation, care, and attention; without the continual use of these
qualities it is not possible to become a really successful pigman. In
very many instances just that little extra attention has turned the
scales. The one chief qualification on the part of a successful stock
man is the art of taking pains. Unlike most of the other exhibitors of
pigs who exhibited largely over many years the writer never employed a
professional pigman. The comparatively small number of pigmen who
assisted him to win thousands of prizes were merely ordinary farm
labourers, save in one case, and he was an old sailor, yet one of the
best feeders and trainers we ever employed. He was naturally fond of
animals and was never tired of waiting on them and of supplying their
needs. It was once jokingly said of him that, having no children, he
bestowed on the pigs in his care the love which some other people
bestowed on their children. There is much of truth in the assertion made
by a coloured preacher in the United States when discussing the want of
success of ordinary pig-keeping in the States, the chief cause he
declared was the absence of love. We would call it want of natural
fondness of animals and an insufficient determination to render the
conditions of life of the animals in our charge as pleasant and
satisfactory as circumstances will allow. With regard to the system of
rearing and feeding animals intended for exhibition, nothing more is
needed than the concentrated care and attention which is required in the
successful rearing and feeding of all commercial animals. A liberal
supply of suitable food, prepared in the most tempting form and
judiciously fed to the pigs in just the quantity required, as frequently
as the pig is able to thoroughly enjoy it. Little and often is a good
motto for the pig feeder. The more closely we adhere to nature, the
more successful shall we be. It is to this, perhaps, that exercise is so
specially necessary for pigs which are being prepared for the show yard.
It is impossible to render a pig perfectly fit for exhibition at a show,
and more particularly at several successive shows, without plenty of
exercise. Each morning and evening a walk of a distance varying with the
ages, etc., of the pigs is desirable. Another point to which some
professional pigmen give great prominence is the regular dosing of their
charges with secret medicines. This is not only unnecessary, but may
with breeding animals prove harmful. A sound healthy pig seldom requires
medicine if it is properly fed and exercised. It is the over feeding or
intense desire of the pigman which in the majority of cases renders
medicine necessary.

A word of warning against this haste to get the pig into show condition.
This last can only be a work of time, and the commencement of the
process must be in the early stages of the life of the pig and be
steadily continued until within a few days of the show. This slight
reduction of the food may be necessary in the summer when the heat is
great and the pigs become restless when travelling boxed up in a crate
in an enclosed truck. Many of the pigs lost in travelling to or from the
shows or soon after arriving at the shows, have been fed just prior to
being loaded up, because of the difficulty in feeding them when on the
journey. This is an entire mistake; not only should the pigs not be fed,
but prior to being put into the crates they should be given just so much
exercise as will cause them to evacuate the bowels, or the bladder. Care
in this respect and non-exposure to the rays of the sun may not in
every case prevent trouble, but it will most certainly reduce to a
minimum the chance of it. Should a pig suffer from the heat, cold water
should be applied to the head by means of a sponge or a cloth, and
should some of the water percolate into the mouth of the pig so much the
better.




CHAPTER XIV

PRESENT AND FUTURE PIG-KEEPING


As it is impossible to foretell the effect which the present disastrous
war will have upon the pig-breeding industry, we have deemed it
expedient to refer as briefly as possible to the present conditions of
feeding, etc., which may or may not prove to be of a temporary character
or which may become permanent in a more or less modified manner.

One of the results of the scarcity and high market value of the
different articles which have been commonly used in the feeding of pigs
is drawing greatly increased attention to the original conditions under
which pigs were kept, i.e. when they were in a wild state or when they
were allowed their partial freedom for the purpose of getting their own
living to a greater or lesser extent.

We are aware that a claim has been made by an enthusiastic convert to
pig-keeping that in allowing his pigs their liberty to roam over grass
fields and in woods he is practising quite a novel course of procedure,
but the old hands merely smile and admire the enthusiasm which is more
nearly allied with youth than old age. The practice may not have been
generally followed of late years, but in the middle of the last century
it was to the writer's knowledge common in certain of the Eastern
Counties, particularly in Suffolk and portions of Essex and
Cambridgeshire, where a considerable acreage of grass and especially
clovers was grazed by pigs, having a greater or lesser quantity of other
food as the pigs were intended for breeding or fattening purposes.

Generally speaking, some shelter of a temporary character was provided
failing that furnished by trees, and straw stacks, etc., but our
American cousins have gone one better in that they have introduced small
movable houses which can be transported on wheels and can be utilised
for a sow and her pigs, or for a number of stores. In the former course,
an enclosure sufficiently large for the sow to graze therein is fenced
in so that each sow can be kept separate until the pigs are old enough
to prevent others from robbing them of their birthright. The chief
difficulty attending this system is not experienced in the United States
to the extent it is in this country, since the general custom there is
to allow each sow to farrow a litter of pigs in the spring and then to
fatten off both sow and pigs, save those reserved for breeding purposes
next year. This plan, which appears to be wasteful, also handicaps the
owner who desires to improve his pig stock, since an opportunity is
denied him of discovering the best of his sows and so reserving them and
their produce to form the nucleus of a really good herd. The system is
not an entirely new one, as it is practised to a great extent in some
parts of Lincolnshire and other Northern counties, where there is not
the excuse made for it in the States that it avoids the trouble and
risk from the intense cold attending the farrowing of sows in the
winter.

It may be that the severity of our winters is not usually great, but the
cold, damp and foggy weather commonly experienced in England during the
last two or three months of the year render it necessary to warmly house
young pigs, and this is difficult in wooden houses of limited size, as
these become hot and stuffy when entirely closed, or damp and cold when
unclosed. Again, the labour attending the feeding of a large herd housed
in isolated sties must be very considerable. Another objection raised
against this farrowing of sows in these small houses is that it is
difficult if not impossible at night to have the pigman in attendance on
the sow, further, that it is not advisable to allow the young pigs to
roam about with their dam until they are some weeks old, as when the
weather is cold or wet they become chilled and when the sun is hot they
quickly become blistered, both conditions materially interfering with
their well doing.

It is claimed that both sow and pigs are able to secure a large portion
of their living, but a sow with a good litter of pigs on her requires a
considerable amount of food in addition to grass to enable her to do
justice to her young, whilst the younger pigs are unable to digest any
quantity of grass until they are some weeks old; besides this, the
youngsters thrive much better during their early life when confined in
quarters than when trailing about after the sow. Could we ensure fairly
fine weather, and an absence of cold nights and very changeable
weather, the little pigs' chances of thriving under outdoor conditions
would be considerably enhanced.

Another alleged new discovery is the permitting of pigs to roam at large
in woods and plantations, wooden huts or open sheds being provided as
shelter. By this plan a considerable amount of pig food is obtained
where the trees are not closely planted, so that grass grows freely, or,
in the autumn, in the woods in which oaks, beech, hazel, or sweet
chestnut form a portion of the trees. In such woods strong store pigs
are able to obtain the major portion of their food, but where the trees
are of a kind which does not produce nuts or are closely planted, the
additional food must be more plentiful, whilst the manurial value of the
food is wasted to a considerable extent.

Perhaps the most profitable form of outdoor pig-keeping is that of
running the pigs in orchards. This system has many advantages, the pigs
are able to live without much additional food for some months in the
year, they consume the insect-affected fallen fruit, and so act as
insecticides. The pigs also usually leave their droppings under the
trees, which are thus benefited therefrom, and especially is this the
case where the pigs are being fattened or fed on food which enables them
to make flesh. Many years since, the writer had several customers for
breeding pigs who kept numbers of pigs in their orchards. One fruit
grower in Kent declared that fattening pigs in his orchard resulted in
the growing of heavier crops of cherries of larger size, better colour,
and finer flavour. Another whose apple orchard was disappointing
followed my advice to fatten pigs in it, declared that the quantity of
apples grown was much greater, whilst both the size and quality of these
were infinitely better.

Under the modern system of pig-keeping it is more profitable to give
some additional and concentrated food to the pigs having their liberty,
it is therefore wise to secure the full benefit arising from the richer
living by running the pigs where the manure can be utilised, and no
better place than an orchard can be found, since shelter from sun and
wind is furnished by the fruit trees, and the pigs deposit their urine
and excrement in exactly the place where it is most urgently required.

The practice of growing considerable areas of rape or cole seed,
artichokes, peas of various kinds, beans, etc., to be fed off by pigs is
not followed extensively in this country, although pig-keepers in the
United States, Canada, Germany, Denmark, etc., have a partiality to it,
since it is declared to save labour and to bring the land into a good
manurial condition for the growth of corn crops; still some few of our
more advanced farmers have been in the habit of grazing off lucerne,
clovers, and even permanent and temporary grasses by the aid of pigs,
which have also received in addition a varying amount of roots, corn, or
meal. It is asserted, and evidence is available to prove the truth of
the statement, that land can be economically and quickly and vastly
improved by following the system referred to above. The scarcity and
high market value of miller's offals and of meals such as used in the
past to be utilised to a great extent in the feeding of pigs, has
caused pig-keepers to seek for other foods to take their place. The
residuum from the crushing of palm nuts, cocoa-nuts, and ground nuts has
been most successfully used in connection with various forms of
vegetable food; even sows have reared good litters of pigs on about 2
lbs. of a mixture of the meals remaining from the extraction of the oil
from the nuts mentioned, with the addition of some form of vegetable
food. This last has comprised cooked potatoes, raw artichokes, mangolds,
kohl rabi, swedes, cabbages, etc., during the winter months, and grass,
lucerne, clover, vetches, cole seed, etc., during the summer months.
Fattening pigs will require a somewhat larger quantity of concentrated
food and a reduced amount of vegetable food. The pre-war belief that
sharps or middlings only was the most suitable food for sows with
litters and for newly weaned pigs has been somewhat modified. Whether or
not the quality and price of middlings will be restored after the war
and thus its use become general as of old, must be left, but it is
probable that in the future a certain proportion of the meals referred
to will continue to be used for both breeding and fattening pigs.




CHAPTER XV

PIG-FATTENING


If there be one task which is considered to be within the capacity of
any individual, it is that of feeding a pig. In the good old times, the
one thing needful was a good supply of barley meal, as much of this as
the pig could possibly eat was placed into its trough each day until the
pig was thought to be fat enough for slaughter. This was a very simple
and at the same time a very costly process and was looked upon as the
second of the two chief acts in the life of a pig. The first consisted
of building up a frame on which fat could be stored. Just why these two
processes were not combined has never been fully explained. One excuse
made for this uneconomical process is that our forbears must have
considered that there must be two distinct periods in the life of any
animal intended for the food of man, that in which the structure was
erected, and that in which the building was completely furnished with
the material--flesh--in a state which most nearly satisfied the
requirements or fancies of humanity. The system of first growing the
frame and then packing it with flesh was not alone followed by the
owners of pigs, as it was also adopted with cattle, which in the good
old times passed three or four years in a state of semi-starvation ere
they were placed on our best pastures to produce beef. Sheep, again,
spent two or three years in building up their frames and in the
production of a limited quantity of wool of inferior quality and
strength, before they were considered in a fit state to make mutton
economically. Another excuse which could have been offered by our
forbears, but which is not now available, is that the cattle, sheep, and
pigs of former times required age before it was possible to render them
sufficiently fat for slaughter.

The very great improvement which has taken place during the past half
century, in wellnigh every breed of pig, has deprived our present day
pig-breeders of such an excuse, yet they persist in far too many
instances in following the old-fashioned and uneconomical system of
first growing the pig and then fatting it, whereas it is not only
possible but infinitely more profitable to combine the two operations.
So many persons have been in the habit of looking upon the pig as a mere
scavenger or an animal to put out of sight certain articles containing a
small amount of nutriment which, undisposed of, would become a nuisance
or offensive to one or other of our organs. Even the pig itself has been
considered by many farmers, especially those termed gentlemen farmers,
as a necessary nuisance, whereas the pig is really a machine for the
conversion of farm produce into meat, and like all machines, its output
will depend entirely on the quantity and quality of the raw material,
and the manner in which it is supplied. If the raw material be of
inferior quality and supplied irregularly, or in too limited
quantities, the article manufactured will be more costly and of an
inferior quality. An extension in the time of manufacture means
increased cost for fuel and for labour in attendance on the machinery. A
certain quantity of fuel is being continually used in the furnace
whether the engine is running at full power or at half power. It is
exactly the same with the meat making machine, the pig every day of its
existence consumes a certain quantity of food for which it gives one
return only, its life. It has been conclusively proved that each pig
weighing 100 lbs. requires 2 lbs. of food daily to enable it to sustain
life, i.e. to replace loss of tissue, to provide heat, progression,
etc., so that if a pig lives six months longer than is actually
necessary to enable it to manufacture a certain weight of meat, it will
have eaten to waste over 3 cwt. of good food.

A pig is like unto any other machine, it will produce the manufactured
article most cheaply when it is fully supplied with the most suitable
raw material. There is not the slightest doubt that the least costly
pork is that which is produced by the pig which spends its whole time in
the object of its existence, the manufacture of pork.

There is a further point of great importance. Wellnigh all those
materials which are used in the feeding of pigs contain the constituents
necessary for the building up of the frame and for the accumulation of
fat or, as it is commonly termed, the making of meat. Evidently nature
intended that the two operations should be carried on simultaneously.
Those constituents which are required in the building up of the frame
cannot be entirely used in the formation of fat, consequently if the
frame is first built up and then an attempt is made to lay on flesh, a
considerable portion of the building up constituents are simply wasted,
since the pig has no need for them and cannot make complete use of them.
They simply pass through the pig after taxing it to digest them, and are
wasted.

Opinions and practices with regard to pig fatting have changed very much
during the past half century, and especially so since the full effect of
the fearful war has been felt. Rather before the first-mentioned period,
the late Sir John Lawes, whose researches and experiments have been of
lasting benefit to agriculturists, undertook to carry out experiments in
connection with pig-breeding, and the result which appears to have
impressed itself most upon the writers of the day was that barley meal
was the best single food for the fatting of pigs. At the time named, our
importations of maize and of many other materials now used in stock and
especially pig-breeding were not of anything the magnitude of the period
prior to the war, still, it seems to be strange to the enlightened
pig-breeder of to-day that more serious endeavours should not have been
made to determine the value of a mixed diet for pigs, since this had
been proved to be beneficial and necessary in the case of human beings
whose organs are so very similar to that of the despised pig.

Fortunately for us, and indeed for the stock-keepers in all parts of the
world, experiments in the feeding of stock have been carried out in
various countries, Denmark, Sweden, the United States, Canada,
Germany, and indeed in nearly all countries, save to any great extent in
England. In connection with pigs, the practices of a few of our more
intelligent pig-keepers have been confirmed. Amongst these ideas which
the old-fashioned ones looked upon as fads, was that of feeding pigs of
all ages and especially fatting pigs on a certain proportion of
vegetable food. Experiments have conclusively proved that the
substitution of some 10 per cent of vegetable matter in place of an
equal amount of meal or concentrated food, does not result in the
slightest reduction in the live weight gain of the fatting pig, and
further that the old idea that a limited quantity of vegetable food fed
to a fatting pig tended to render the pork soft and to waste in the
cooking was not founded on fact. Another fact which has evolved from
these experiments is that the pig will make far greater progress on an
equal amount of a mixture of foods than if fed solely on one food. This
was clearly proved in many experiments as at the Wisconsin Agricultural
Station, where one lot of pigs was fed on middlings alone, a second lot
on corn meal alone, and a third lot on a mixture of corn meal and
middlings. To make an increase of 100 lbs. in their live weight, the
pigs in Lot 1 ate 522 lbs. of middlings, those in Lot 2 ate 537 lbs. of
corn meal to make an equal increase in weight, whilst Lot 3, which were
fed on a mixture of corn meal and middlings, required only 439 lbs., or
a saving of one-fifth in the weight of food. In experiments with regard
to the food value of corn meal and middlings carried out at the
Missouri College, middlings also gave the best returns, but
unfortunately the ages of the pigs used in the trials are omitted. This
is important as middlings are considered to be of more value in the
feeding of young than of older pigs, whilst the reverse holds good of
corn or maize meal. Other trials were carried out at Wisconsin with the
use of wheat meal alone as compared with a mixture of half wheat and
half corn meal. In these the average quantity of wheat meal required for
100 lbs. increased live weight was 500 lbs., whilst only 485 lbs. of the
mixture of wheat and corn meals was needed to obtain an equal increase
or a saving of some 5 per cent was obtained by mixing the meals.

In the good old times it was considered to be the height of folly to
make a change in the food on which the pigs were being fattened, yet our
forbears would have been horrified had they been informed that it was
imperative that they themselves should have no variety of food, that day
after day the food at their various meals should be exactly similar;
surely what is good for one animal should be good for another animal
whose organs are of an exactly similar character. There is not the
slightest doubt that advantage is derived from the variation in the food
on which the pigs are being fattened. By this, it is not intended to
suggest that a complete change of food should be made at stated times in
the fatting pigs' food, as this would certainly result in a loss of time
and food, but that a slight variation in the proportions of the
different kinds of food is beneficial, or in the case where several
different kinds of food are being fed as a mixture, another kind of
food may be substituted so that the change made secures a variation
which has the effect of whetting or enticing the appetite. A long
continuance of the same kind of food has the effect of dulling the
appetite. In addition to this, it is considered that a variation in the
food tends to stimulate the digestive organs.

It is a mistake to allow too long a time to pass between feeding times;
the pig is not endowed by nature with a capacious paunch which enables
it to stow away a large quantity of food. Even the old system of feeding
twice a day might be improved upon, and the fatting pig fed three times
per day would make greater thrift, even should the actual daily quantity
of food be not increased.

Again, so many persons are apt to give to the fatting pig a greater
quantity of food than it requires or can eat with comfort to itself at
one meal. Should this be pointed out to them, their usual reply would be
that what the pig did not eat for their breakfast would be there in
readiness for the evening meal unless they ate it during the day, as
they frequently would do. This sounds plausible until the argument be
closely examined. What would the pigman think if he were treated in a
similar manner and an excessive quantity of food placed on his plate,
and then at the next meals the stale food be again placed before him
until it was finished? This certainly would not increase his appetite
nor aid his digestion. Yet the most successful pigman is he who succeeds
in so feeding his charges that they daily eat and thoroughly digest the
greatest amount of food possible. In pig fattening, as in many other
things, time is money. Further it is just as much a mistake for fatting
pigs as for human beings to be continually eating, or at irregular
intervals, small quantities of food. The two most certain indications
that a lot of fatting pigs are thriving is to find that they are asleep
and that their feeding troughs are empty. When pigs are fed a greater
quantity of food than they can eat at once they will be frequently
getting up to eat a little more of the surplus, and each time they rise
from their bed they will evacuate their bowels, and in most cases before
the major portion of the nutriment has been extracted.

Still another of the fallacies of our forbears was that the fatting pig
made the greatest increase from a given quantity of food when it was at
least approaching maturity and ripeness, or complete fatness. It was
useless to argue with them, since anyone could see that it was so. If
you suggested the use of the scales, the idea was scouted, since a
person of any experience in pig fatting must be able to notice the
increase in bulk of the pig. It is true that apparently the pig would be
making a greater increase of weight as it approached the completion of
its fatting process, since the addition to its weight and bulk would be
almost entirely composed of fat which could only be deposited on the
outside of the carcase. All the vacant space in the interior of the pig
would have been occupied, the pig would have stored fat away in its
muscles, around its kidneys, on its stomach, its bowels, and wherever it
was possible to stow it away, but these additions to the weight of the
carcase which had been proceeding in the early stages of the fatting
could not be observed, nevertheless they were proceeding, and in this
was the pig enabled in its early stage of fatting to make a profitable
return for the food consumed.

Fortunately we are not left on this point to mere conjecture; many
experiments have clearly proved that in the early stages of the life of
a pig it is enabled to manufacture pork at a far less cost than in its
later stages of life. The young pig also possesses over its older
companion the great advantage of being able to eat and utilise a greater
quantity of food in proportion to its weight or, in other words, the
young pig can convert a greater quantity of raw material into the
manufactured article than the more matured pig, in proportion to the
amount of food required for the mere upkeep of the machinery.
Experiments which most clearly prove this have been duplicated in
Denmark, in the United States, etc. At Copenhagen nearly seventy
different experiments were carried out with pigs of varying weights,
with the result that pigs weighing about 275 lbs. live weight were found
to require nearly twice as much food to make an increase in their live
weight as did pigs weighing from 35 to 75 lbs. That this was not an
exceptional case is clearly proved by the fact that the increase in the
amount of food required to enable them to make an increase in their live
weight was gradual, and shown in every stage; thus pigs of from 35 to 75
lbs. consumed 376 lbs. of food for each 100 lbs. increase; pigs of 75 to
115 lbs., 435 lbs.; pigs of 115 to 155 lbs., 466 lbs.; pigs of 155 lbs.
to 195 lbs., 513 lbs.; pigs of 195 lbs. to 235 lbs., 540 lbs.; pigs of
235 lbs. to 275 lbs., 614 lbs.; and pigs of 275 lbs. to 315 lbs., 639
lbs.

Even if this series of experiments stood alone they surely would prove
most conclusively that the common belief in old and nearly fat pigs
giving the best return from the food consumed is founded on fiction, but
similar tests were made at many of the American Experiment Stations,
these tests together numbering some hundred. The results are given in
tabulated form in Henry's _Feeds and Feeding_, where the various points
are so clearly brought out that we have taken the liberty of lifting the
whole of the notes relating to "weight, gain, and feed consumed" by
pigs. "At many of our stations, records of weights and gains of pigs and
feed consumed by them have been so reported as to permit of studies
concerning the influence of increased size and weight of the animal on
the consumption of food.

"All of the available data from trials of this character conducted in
this country" (the United States) "up to the time of going to press,
enter into the composition of the table given below. In compiling this
table, six pounds of skim milk or twelve pounds of whey are calculated
as equal to one pound of grain, according to the Danish valuation of
these articles. For convenience of study, the data are presented for
each period covering fifty pounds of growth, the actual average weight
of the pigs, however, being given for each division:

     DATA RELATIVE TO FEED, WEIGHT, AND GAIN OF PIGS--
                  MANY AMERICAN STATIONS

  -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+
               |           |            |          |         |
    Weight of  |  Actual   |   No. of   |   Total  | No. of  |
     pigs in   |  Average  |  stations  |  No. of  | animals |
     pounds.   |  weight.  | reporting. |  trials. |   fed.  |
               |           |            |          |         |
  -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+
               |     lbs.  |            |          |         |
     15 to 50  |      38   |      9     |     41   |   174   |
     50 " 100  |      78   |     13     |    100   |   417   |
    100 " 150  |     128   |     13     |    119   |   495   |
    150 " 200  |     174   |     11     |    107   |   489   |
    200 " 250  |     226   |     12     |     72   |   300   |
    250 " 300  |     271   |      8     |     46   |   223   |
    300 " 350  |     320   |      3     |     19   |   105   |
  -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+
    350 " 400  |     378   |      1     |      5   |    36   |
    400 " 450  |     429   |      1     |      5   |    36   |
    450 " 500  |     471   |      1     |      2   |    18   |
  -------------+-----------+------------+----------+---------+

  -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------
               |  Average  |   Feed    |          |
    Weight of  |   feed    | eaten per | Average  | Feed for
     pigs in   |   eaten   |  100 lbs. | gain per | 100 lbs.
     pounds.   |  per day. |  weight.  |   day.   |   gain.
               |           |           |          |
  -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------
               |    lbs.   |    lbs.   |    lbs.  |    lbs.
     15 to 50  |    2.23   |    5.95   |    .76   |    293
     50 " 100  |    3.35   |    4.32   |    .83   |    400
    100 " 150  |    4.79   |    3.75   |   1.10   |    437
    150 " 200  |    5.91   |    3.43   |   1.24   |    482
    200 " 250  |    6.57   |    2.91   |   1.33   |    498
    250 " 300  |    7.40   |    2.74   |   1.46   |    511
    300 " 350  |    7.50   |    2.35   |   1.40   |    535
  -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------
    350 " 400  |    8.52   |    2.25   |   1.98   |    431
    400 " 450  |    8.18   |    1.91   |   1.71   |    479
    450 " 500  |   10.00   |    2.12   |   1.77   |    562
  -------------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------

"In the above table the large number of trials reported for pigs
weighing up to 350 lbs. each furnishes reliable data. After this point
is reached the number of animals is too small to give reliable averages.
The heavy weight hogs reported in the last three lines of the table were
fed by the writer (Professor Henry). They were mature specimens, with
large frames and in lean flesh when feeding began, having been summered
on pasture without grain. The figures are introduced to show what may be
accomplished with mature hogs when they are in thin flesh at the
beginning of fattening.

"We learn from the main portion of the table that from 105 to 435 pigs
were employed in calculating each line of data. The number of trials
furnishing the data varied from 19 to 119, and were conducted by from 3
to 13 experiment stations.

"Amount of food consumed daily by the pig. The sixth column of the table
shows the average amount of feed consumed daily by pigs of different
weights. From it we learn that pigs weighing less than 50 lbs. each,
averaging 38 lbs., consumed on the average 2.23 lbs. of grain or grain
equivalent, daily. As the animal increased in weight there was a gradual
increase in the amount of food consumed, until we find the 450 lbs. hog
eating 10 lbs. of grain daily, or more than four times as much as the 50
lbs. pig.

"Feed per 100 lbs. live weight: In the seventh column it is shown that
pigs weighing 38 lbs. consumed 5.95 lbs. of feed for each 100 lbs. of
live weight. This is about 6 per cent of their live weight. As the pigs
grew larger they consumed less feed for 100 lbs. of live weight, until
with the heaviest hogs the feed consumed was little more than 2 per cent
of their live weight. Here was a decrease of about two-thirds in the
feed consumption per 100 lbs. between early weight and maturity.

"Average daily gain: In the next column are presented data concerning
the daily gain of the pig. It is shown that the 38 lb. pig gained .76 of
a lb., or 2 per cent of its own weight daily. As it increased in size
the pig made larger daily gains, the maximum being reached with those
weighing 271 lbs., which made a daily gain of 1.46 lb. With large thin
hogs the gain reached 1.98 lb., or practically 2 lbs. per day, but these
animals, because of their mature frames and thin flesh, were fed under
exceptional circumstances.

"Feed for 100 lbs. of gain: The last column is of interest to all,
especially the practical feeder, for it teaches a most interesting and
important lesson concerning the feed requirements of pigs. Those which
average 38 lbs. each made 100 lbs. of gain from 293 lbs. of feed. This
exceedingly small allowance of feed for gain was probably due in part to
the fact that the young pigs used in these trials received much milk,
which was practically all digestible, the other feed being also more
highly digestible than that usually supplied older animals. With pigs
weighing 78 lbs., 400 lbs. of feed were required for 100 lbs. of gain.
There was a gradual increase of feed requirements for 100 lbs. of gain,
until the hog weighing 320 lbs. required 525 lbs. for each 100 lbs. of
gain. This is 135 lbs. or 33 per cent more feed than was required by the
78 lbs. pig."

These tables prove most conclusively that the idea which is almost
universally prevalent that the fatting pig gives the greatest increase
for the food which it consumes when it becomes matured and nearly fat is
an entirely mistaken one, and that the young and growing pig, if well
kept, not only eats more in proportion to its weight, but gives a better
return for the food it consumes, besides requiring a smaller amount of
food to keep life within itself, and to replace the certain loss
sustained by movement, etc. There is still another point on which the
young pig scores: its carcase realises a higher price per lb. on a
majority of the markets. The fatting pig which pays best is one which
has a short life and a merry one, never having to seek or wait for its
food.

Amongst the many other questions which have been compelled attention
owing to the shortage and the high value of pig food, is that of the
advisability or the reverse of cooking the food given to pigs. When the
practice of showing stock became fashionable every possible means of
forcing the exhibits was practised, since early maturity was of so great
importance, especially in the classes for the younger animals. The
cooking of the stronger kinds of food such as old beans for horses had
been found beneficial, as the risk of fever in the feet and other
ailments had been greatly reduced by this practice. The stock man
naturally concluded that the cooking or steaming of beans having proved
to be of advantage, similar good results would follow the steaming of
the other kinds of food. In this fanciful theory they would have been
able to find ample support in many of the books on stock feeding which
were published in the first half of the last century and even later.
Like many other novelties, the steaming or boiling of almost all kinds
of food for animals was followed in the establishments of well-to-do
persons where cost was studied less than success in the show yards.
Then, as now, the Germans took little for granted, they proceeded to
test the much belauded new plan by attempting to discover the fact as to
whether steaming rendered hay more digestible when fed to cattle, with
the result that it was clearly proved that when the hay was fed dry 46
per cent of the protein was digested by the cattle while only 30 per
cent was digested from the steamed hay. But as our present business is
with pig-feeding, we will confine our remarks to the results of
experiments carried out to test the effects of cooking the food of pigs.
Perhaps the best summary of these is to be found in the most valuable
work, _Feeds and Feeding_, by Professor Henry, who wrote _Experiments
with Cooked Feed for Pigs_.

These have been so numerous that all cannot be here presented. Those
given are selected because they are strictly representative, covering a
wide range of country foods and conditions.

"At the Kansas Agricultural College, Shelton fed one lot of five pigs on
cooked shelled corn, while a second lot of four, similar in all
respects, was given uncooked shelled corn, the trial lasting ninety
days. In cooking, the corn was placed in a barrel and water poured over
it; into this mass a pipe carried steam, at a pressure ranging from 30
to 60 lbs. The kernels were cooked until they were sufficiently soft
to be easily mashed between the thumb and finger.

"At the Iowa Agricultural College, Stalker conducted trials for 120 days
in summer with cooked and uncooked shelled corn fed to Berkshire pigs.

"At the Dominion (Canada) Station, Robertson fed grade Chester Whites, a
mixture of ground peas, barley, and rye, the trials beginning in
December and lasting 141 days.

"At the Ohio Station, Devol fed pure bred Poland Chinas and Berkshires
for 112 days in winter. One lot of three pigs received the meal cooked,
while to the second lot it was given dry and uncooked.

"At the Wisconsin Station, the writer (Henry) has conducted many trials
with cooked and uncooked feed for pigs. Only the later ones are here
reported. These trials lasted from 56 to 84 days each, the kinds of feed
experimented being given in the table.

"The five trials reported from the Wisconsin Station, as will be seen by
consulting the table, are slightly in favour of cooked food, the
difference being very small, however. These are the only feeding trials
reported from any experiment station, so far as known to the writer,
where the results are favourable to cooking. Ten other trials by the
writer with cooked and uncooked feed for swine all gave results
unfavourable to cooking these, and a number of trials at other stations
with cooked and uncooked feed for swine are not included for want of
space."

A table showing the stations at which the various experiments were
carried out, the numbers and weights of the pigs, the varieties of
foods, the duration of the different trials, the daily gain, the weights
of cooked and uncooked food consumed, the manner of cooking, the total
increases in weight and the quantities of cooked and uncooked food
required for increases of 100 lbs. in the live weights of the pigs are
given. Professor Henry sums these up and writes: "Including all the
trials then, so far as is known, that have been favourable to cooking
feed and omitting many for lack of space, that are unfavourable to that
operation, the average shows that 476 lbs. of uncooked meal or grain
were required for 100 lbs. of gain with pigs, while after it was cooked
505 lbs. were required. This shows a loss of 6 per cent of the feeding
value of these substances through cooking."

Some thirty-five years since the present writer made some small
experiments in the feeding of cooked and uncooked whole maize; in each
case it was found that the pigs ate a greater quantity of uncooked than
cooked maize, and made a greater proportionate increase in weight from
the food consumed. Only one opinion appears to be possible, and this is
that the cooking of food for pigs, save potatoes, entails a loss of
time, an increase in cost, and a reduced return.




CHAPTER XVI

A PIG CALENDAR


The pig-keeper, like the gardener, seldom has to seek for employment,
indeed his work may be said to be only occasionally completed. There are
always many little odd jobs to do, which if neglected may result in
loss, or a greatly increased amount of work at some later period. The
old proverb "A stitch in time saves nine" is equally as true in
connection with pig keeping as with any other form of work.

In years gone by the month of January was considered to be quite a slack
time for pig-keepers, the sows and the store pigs usually found the
greater part of their living in the yards where the cattle were fed on
the straw which was continually being placed in the cribs as the
old-man-of-the-farm threshed the corn out of it with his flail. Many of
the cribs had slatted bottoms so that any kernels of corn which were
left in the straw would drop through and be picked up by the pigs which
found their way under the cribs. In most of the old-fashioned large
yards a corner would be railed off in which the pigs would be given a
few turnips, swedes, or small potatoes, and occasionally a handful or
two of beans or even a sheaf of beans. Those fatting pigs which had not
already been converted into bacon for consumption in the farm-house were
fed mainly on meal ground at the local wind or water mill from the tail
corn grown by the farmer. At the present time the most up-to-date
pig-keepers so arrange that many of the older sows farrow during this
month of January so that the sows have their second litter of the year
late in the month of June or early in July in order that both litters of
pigs obtain the greatest amount of benefit from the growing and hot
season, since pigs thrive best when the days are lengthening and when
the sun shines.

Of late years we appear to have had somewhat severe weather in January.
This has rendered it the more necessary that care should be taken in
providing water and wind-tight sties, in which the sows farrow. Warmth
with free ventilation is needed. The latter is particularly necessary
after the pigs are a few days old, as these do not suffer so much from
cold as they do from damp and draughts. Of course whilst the sow is
farrowing warmth is imperative, as the moist little pigs when first
ejected very quickly become chilled in severe frost, unless they are
promptly wiped with a dry cloth, allowed a draught or two of new milk
from the sow, and then placed in a box or hamper three parts filled with
dry wheat straw. When once the pigs become thoroughly dry the cold does
not affect them very much, providing that the sow furnishes her family
with a full supply of milk. The cost of heating a little water so that
the sow and also the young pigs as soon as they begin to eat may have
warmed food, will be slight, as there is nearly always a fire required
in cottage and farm-house during the cold weather. Warm food makes a
vast difference in the thrift of pigs, especially of young ones. Very
slight observation will reveal the marked difference in the comfort of a
pig which has had a meal of warm or of cold food. In the former case the
pig will return to its nest and is soon lost in sleep, whilst the poor
beggar which has had its breakfast on cold and occasionally frozen food
will be the picture of misery and shaking with cold, much of its natural
heat produced from its last meal being required to warm up the food ere
its digestive organs can commence work. Coal and wood are at all times
less expensive to warm up food than the animal fat which is burned in
nature's lamp.

Provision should have been made for the supply of some kind of vegetable
food which pigs require, particularly when in confinement. Kohl rabi,
swedes and cabbages, of which the first named is the best, are all
suitable, but the most nourishing are artichokes, which like the three
former should be fed raw, and potatoes which should be cooked ere they
are fed to the pigs. The difference in the feeding value between cooked
and uncooked potatoes is great. It is scarcely necessary to point out
that all vegetable food fed to pigs should have been protected from
frost.

The operations connected with pig-keeping are very similar in February
to those of the preceding month. Towards the end of the month kohl rabis
will have lost much of their feeding value. On sunny days a run out for
a few minutes will be of great benefit to the young pigs over a month
old; as soon as they cease to gallop about they should be shut up again,
as if allowed to lie down they may contract a chill which might result
in "cramp" or rheumatism. Sows with litters two or three weeks old
should be allowed out of the sty each morning and afternoon for a short
time.

The month of March brings with it an extra amount of work for the
pig-keeper, who will now think of selling the pigs born early in January
unless he purposes to keep them on and have them ready for sale as fat
pigs in harvest time, when there is always a good demand for medium
sized fat pigs. Anyway the sow pigs intended for breeding will have been
picked out and earmarked, this last should not be neglected after the
others have been spayed.

This last operation has of late years been much neglected; this is a
great mistake, as experiments have clearly proved that on an average sow
pigs which have been spayed will make an equal gain in live weight on 5
per cent less food than will an unspayed sow pig, when both have become
some five or six months old, and the periods of œstrum have
commenced.

The sows which farrowed in January should now be weaned from their pigs,
and should be ready to be mated within a few days. The sows should be
carefully watched for the signs of heat or restlessness. Some sows give
little indication of this unrest, which is almost certain to appear
within four or five days providing the sow is in a healthy and vigorous
condition. To miss the sow means a loss of three weeks of most valuable
time, besides the risk of trouble in getting the sow to conceive after
she had been baulked. With the passing of the month swedes and
artichokes will have lost much of their nourishment; mangolds can now
take their place. It is a good plan to expose the mangolds to the air
for a few days prior to feeding them to the pigs; this exposure hastens
their ripening and reduces the proportion of water. Of course care must
be taken to prevent them becoming frozen, as in March this might be the
case.

In the Southern counties tares, lucerne, and grass are sufficiently
forward towards the end of April to be cut and fed to the pigs which are
confined in the buildings. The pigs both fat and store will fully repay
the cost of labour in the cutting and carting of these vegetable foods.
Brood sows both in pig and with litters dependent on them, should be
allowed their liberty in the grass fields. This will both greatly reduce
the cost of keep and tend to their thrift and well doing. Young pigs
over a month old should have a run out both morning and afternoon. Newly
weaned pigs which have been well done are always in keen request in the
months of April and May at prices higher than in any other portion of
the year, owing to the demand from the cheese-makers who have a
superabundance of whey, of which 12 lbs. when fed in proper combination
is considered to be equal in value to 1 lb. of meal. Unfortunately, so
many dairymen do not study the requirements of the pig, and imagine that
it will give a good return from an excess of liquid in the form of whey.
Without some concentrated food the pig will not thrive on whey. Numbers
of young pigs are also required in those districts where butter-making
is carried on to consume the butter milk, and in ordinary times much of
the separated or skim milk. In the feeding of this again the results are
not so good as they should be owing to neglect. Both foods have been
rendered unbalanced owing to the extraction of the butter fat, so that
although new milk may be fed alone, the others require additional food
which should contain some oil or fat to be fed with them, or they cause
indigestion and want of thrift, particularly in young and immature pigs.

The roots of all kinds, save potatoes and mangolds, have ceased to be of
much value before April ends, vetches and lucerne will prove to be the
best of substitutes. Spring cabbages are generally of more value for
human consumption than can be obtained from their use as pig food. If
there be any grass land available the in-pig sows and the stores, should
there be such, should now find the major portion of their food out of
doors.

As a rule far too little attention is paid to the growth of lucerne in
this country. It is undoubtedly one of the most nutritive of our
vegetable crops. It also produces a large weight of food extending over
several months, and continues fruitful for many years providing
attention is paid to the keeping it free from grasses. It has the
additional advantage of furnishing a full supply of food when the
weather is so dry that grass and some other foods produce little. It is
true that in the initial stage it requires time and care, but the
results from it amply repay both. One of the best seasons for sowing it
is the month of May. The operation is simple, the land having been
cleared the seed is sown in drills about 1 ft. apart, the quantity of
seed required being at the rate of 20 lbs. per acre, say 2 oz. per pole
or a drill 35 yards long. As soon as the plants are high enough the land
should be hand hoed, and if kept free of weeds a light crop can
generally be cut from it towards the end of August. In the following
years it will produce at least three cuttings annually.

Some persons are of opinion that as lucerne is such a deep-rooted plant
manure is unnecessary. It is true that the roots penetrate several feet
into the soil, still an application of short manure or rotted vegetable
matter applied each autumn will give a good return.

The chief point in the use of lucerne for pigs and in the production of
a maximum crop is to cut it when young. The pigs will thrive on it far
better in this state than when the stalks become hard and sticky. In the
latter stage it is likely to cause constipation. It is best not to graze
it with either horses, cattle, or pigs, but benefit to it results from
folding it in the autumn with ewes or other sheep which find most of
their other food on the stubbles, commons, heaths, etc.

All the sows and the yelts intended for breeding should now spend their
whole time out of doors. It might be noted that lucerne will grow on
almost any kind of land providing it is well drained--stagnant water
destroys it.

The duties of the pig-keeper are very similar in the month of June to
those of the previous month. Prior to the outbreak of war it was
becoming general amongst the most practical pigmen to continue to fatten
pigs all the year round. The old-fashioned idea that pork was not a
suitable food during any of the months in which there was not the letter
"r" had become exploded. Not only did the bacon curers require a supply
of fat pigs weighing from 200 to 220 lbs. alive, but there was a good
demand from the butchers for small fat pigs weighing from 80 to 140 lbs.
alive.

It must not be forgotten that a smaller quantity of food is required to
produce a pound of pork during the summer than during the winter months.
This has been clearly proved in many experiments. The difference varies
according to the temperature. In the very cold weather experienced in
some portions of the United States it was found that some pigs actually
made no increase in weight when well fed, the whole of the nutriment
having to be utilised in keeping up the bodily warmth of the pigs.

The months of July and August see little change in the duties of the
attendant on pigs. The old-fashioned plan of running the pigs on the
corn stubbles has almost gone out of fashion. The improved system of
harvesting the crops leaves less corn on the land, whilst the cost of
labour in keeping the pigs is almost prohibitive. At one time there used
to be a keen demand for young pigs in the month of August for so-called
"shacking" or running on the stubbles. Experience has proved that these
pigs pay less frequently under present conditions than they did under
the old ones.

The scarcity of vegetable food which usually shows itself in August is
now, in September, met to a considerable extent by the plan of the early
digging of potatoes. Large quantities of chats, and sometimes of
slightly diseased ones are now cooked and fed to the pigs with a certain
proportion of meal. As a rule there is a keen demand for pork in the
month of September. Towards the end of the month all pigs should be
under shelter at night.

During the last three months of the year there is little variation in
the management of pigs. One of the common mistakes made by farmers is to
neglect their pigs in the autumn, at the very season when a little extra
food is needed, and for which the pigs will give a better return than at
almost any time of the year. The early portion of October is one of the
best periods for mating the sows, the yelts may be left until the latter
part of the month so that their pigs do not arrive until the month of
February when the days are lengthening and the sun has more power. It is
advisable to have many of the fat pigs ready for market ere the month of
November ends, as the demand for pork is usually slack for two or three
weeks prior to and after Christmas.




CHAPTER XVII

DISEASES OF THE PIG


Fortunately, the pig is subject to comparatively few serious
diseases--save swine fever, swine erysipelas, and very occasionally
anthrax, which are contagious or infectious, and all in the special
charts of the veterinary department of the Board of Agriculture, and
within the contagious Diseases Animals Acts. Prior to the stamping out
of Foot and Mouth Disease or apthous fever and rabies, pigs suffered
from these contagious and infectious diseases, particularly the former
of the two, which caused immense losses, especially of young pigs,
during the latter half of the past century.

Of the other ailments to which pig flesh is heir, the majority and the
chief of them are mainly due to that want of knowledge or care in the
feeding and in the housing of the pigs which renders them more
susceptible to the sudden changes in the temperature or to the
inclemency of the season. In former chapters some, if not all, of these
ailments have been referred to, but it may be more convenient to our
readers to include in one chapter a brief description of the ailments
and the remedies and means of prevention.


SWINE FEVER

Some thirty years since the losses from this disease were of so serious
a nature that the Board of Agriculture determined to attempt to stamp it
out, as they had succeeded in stamping out pleura pneumonia in cattle,
and foot and mouth disease. The success of their efforts was not at all
commensurate with the outlay. The failure was attributed to many causes;
amongst them the want of a complete knowledge of the disease, the
impossibility of diagnosing it during the life of the patient, the
absence of sympathy on the part of the local veterinary surgeons owing
to certain steps taken by the then Veterinary Adviser of the Board, to
which further reference is now inadvisable, and to the general
opposition of pig-keepers who had as little faith in many of the post
mortems and their results as in the power of the authorities to stamp
out the disease which under various names had been more or less common
in the country so long as they could remember. Doubts were also passed
on the infectivity or contagiousness of swine fever, or as it was
variously termed red soldier, spots, etc.

This disbelief was probably due in part to the fact that some of the
external symptoms of swine fever, swine erysipelas, and heart disease,
such as discoloration of the skin were of a similar character. In some
instances this redness of the skin, which was looked upon as a sure sign
that the pig had died from swine fever, did not prove to be infectious,
as no other cases followed amongst the in-contact pigs. This led to the
general belief that swine fever was not necessarily infectious.
Dissatisfaction with the arbitrary manner in which the restrictions in
movement, etc., were carried out did not mend matters, nor help to
render the efforts of the Board more successful.

At the present time it is imperative on the part of the owner of an ill
pig to report the fact to the nearest policeman. The owner then merely
carries out the instructions supplied to him by the police so that it is
almost unnecessary to state that the symptoms of swine fever are
several. At times the attack is of so virulent a nature that a pig may
take its food all right in the afternoon and be dead the next morning,
no discoloration of the skin or other external symptoms being visible
before or immediately after death.

As a rule when the pig is attacked the first symptom is loss of
appetite, generally accompanied by a feverish condition of the skin
which shows more or fewer red spots behind the shoulder, and inside the
thighs, or in those portions of the body where the skin is the thinnest
and most free from hair. The great desire of the affected pig is to
burrow into the litter and to remain undisturbed, save when the feverish
thirst impels it to seek moisture of any sort or kind, even urine which
may have settled into any unevenness of the floor of the sty.

Many of the ailing pigs suffer from a dry, husky cough, a gummy
discharge exudes from the eyes and forms a ring round them, the ankles
become affected, and the muscles of the back become weakened so that
the pig has difficulty in walking. The discoloration of the skin may or
may not increase, but the weakness gradually becomes greater so that
death may follow within a day or two from the first attack. Occasionally
the affected pig will continue to live for several days, and eventually
recover so much that it can be fatted, but there exists a great risk of
the recovered pig being what is termed a "carrier" of the disease, and
possessing the ability to infect other pigs with which it may come in
close contact, although the germs of the disease which it carries do not
affect its own health. Similar instances of human beings being
"carriers" of the disease have been recorded. So difficult is it at
times to discover the source of the infection of swine fever that
certain persons who are not amongst the strongest believers in the
practical knowledge of the members of the veterinary profession assert
that swine fever need not necessarily be the result of infection, but
that injudicious feeding or the neglect of sanitary arrangements will
sometimes cause an outbreak. There does not appear to be the slightest
ground for this belief, as there is a specific virus which when it
obtains ingress into the body of the pig, whether by the mouth, nose, or
in any other way, may result in an attack, more or less severe, of swine
fever, unless the virus has become so attenuated that it is unable to
affect the host sufficiently. This attenuation, which is due to causes
which are probably not completely known, is commonly the cause of the
absence of further cases of swine fever amongst one of a lot of pigs
which has had a very mild attack. This variation in the virulence of
most infectious diseases has been noticed and recorded.

At the present time the Board of Agriculture have suspended the
slaughter order in cases where the owner of the pigs desires to
inoculate the in-contact pigs with serum which is supplied from the
Veterinary College. The experiment has not been in operation
sufficiently long enough to express a confident opinion upon its
results, but it is stated that in Denmark the inoculation of the pigs
which have been in contact with diseased pigs has proved to be a
success. The risks of carrying out the experiment are by no means
slight, but appear to be worth running if there be any great probability
of success.


SWINE ERYSIPELAS

The symptoms of this disease, which fortunately is not so common as
swine fever, owing probably to its being more fatal and in a shorter
time, are very similar to those of swine fever, save that the husky
cough and the weakness of the muscles of the back are generally absent.
The post mortem shows distinctive differences from those of swine fever.
There appears to be far greater difficulty in thoroughly disinfecting
the sty in which pigs suffering from erysipelas have been housed than
after swine fever cases; not only so, but the virus remains active for a
very long period, so that any accident which may expose the virus even
after many months may affect any pigs with which it comes in contact.

In an outbreak of swine erysipelas it is advisable to have the
unaffected pigs inoculated as well as those housed in a sty or building
in which at any time pigs suffering from erysipelas have been housed. A
certain limited number may die, and a few suffer for a time, but the
total loss will be considerably reduced.


ANTHRAX, FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE AND RABIES

It may be unnecessary to describe these very infectious or contagious
diseases to which pigs are subject, as fortunately the steps taken to
stamp them out, and which were much decried when taken by the Board of
Agriculture, have proved so successful that the two latter are stamped
out, and the first named is so promptly and effectually dealt with that
a case of it amongst swine is seldom recorded.


CRAMP, DIARRHŒA AND EPILEPTIC FITS

These diseases, which are more frequent amongst young pigs, have been
fully described in the chapters dealing with the rearing, weaning, and
growing of pigs, where it is pointed out that they are all mainly due to
faults in feeding, and the simple remedies applicable are there given.

Hernia and Scrotal Hernia are also treated upon in the chapter on the
Farrowing Sow.


INVERSION OF THE VAGINA OR THE UTERUS

These two troubles, of which the latter is a complete expulsion and the
former only a partial protrusion of the "breeding bag," are generally
the result of a difficult or a protracted farrowing. The second is
almost impossible of treatment, and indeed may be declared as fatal, so
that the loss may be reduced by prompt slaughter.

The first varies in extent; a partial or limited inversion may at times
be noticeable during the latter stages of pregnancy, and then after
delivery may disappear without treatment until the pressure due to the
increasing size of the fœtus again causes it. Even in serious cases
which attend the delivery and are due to excessive straining of the sow,
the attack is not necessarily fatal if extreme care in treatment is
applied. The first thing is to wash the protruding part with warm water,
to which some disinfectant has been added, in order that all dirt, short
straw, etc., shall be removed. The sow should then be made to rise, or
if she refuses, as is not uncommon, the hind quarters of the sow should
be raised and the protruding portion be gently but firmly forced back.
In order to prevent a re-expulsion stitches with strong cord or leather
lace should be inserted into the edges of the vulva--these need not be
very close together or otherwise the sow would be unable to make water.
For a few days the sow must be kept as quiet as possible and fed on a
little nourishing but laxative food, so that the pressure on the vagina
is slight until the muscles regain their normal strength. Should there
be the slightest symptom of constipation, salts or castor oil should be
given to the sow. No harm, but rather good, will attend the giving of a
gentle dose of salts at the first time of feeding after the operation as
there is certain to be an amount of inflammation present.


INVERSION OF THE RECTUM

This expulsion of the gut as it is commonly termed is not often
experienced amongst mature pigs. Young pigs are not uncommonly affected
save when constipation is neglected, or when the food is of a heating
nature which causes continual difficulty on the part of the pig in
expelling the fæces. The effort of straining causes the gut to exude.
Similar treatment, save as to the stitching of the part, as with
inversion of the vagina, should be followed.


TENDER FEET

This trouble is frequently mistaken for cramp or rheumatism, and is
generally due to the same causes, injudicious feeding, etc. In the
latter disease the ankles are mainly affected, in the case of fever in
the feet, the feet only are affected. A strong dose of Epsom salts
should be given and daily doses of nitre should be given in the food.
The object should be to reduce and remove the fever and then to cure or
remove that tenderness and soreness of the feet which follows the fever.
Poulticing the feet and applying diluted white oils by adding equal
quantities of water and vinegar around the coronets are both remedial
measures of great value.


CONSTIPATION

This trouble is very common amongst pigs which are confined to the
sties, its avoidance is comparatively easy, when the want of exercise is
the sole cause. A run in an enclosure or even in the road will almost
always result in the pig evacuating dung and water. A dose of salts,
varying from 1/2 oz. to 1-1/2 oz. for each pig, according to age, in the
next supply of food is advisable.

Constipation is usually the first indication of many of the troubles to
which the pig is heir. The little pig on its mother becomes constipated
when the food fed to the mother is unsuitable, and the pig suffers from
indigestion; fever caused by a chill is also foretold by constipation
which should be first removed by a gentle dose of salts or of castor
oil; the last only to be used in severe cases. Linseed oil is also
frequently used to relieve the constipation, but with this there is a
fear of billiousness following its use. If exercise and the above
remedies do not effect a cure, an enema of soap and water or even
glycerine may be necessary. Old-fashioned pigmen remove the hard and
knotty fæces by the aid of the finger.


ECZEMA

This is sometimes called a skin disease, but it appears to be rather a
symptom of a severe attack of indigestion or of billiousness than a
disease in itself. It shows itself in the form of a bright red spot,
varying in size from that of a threepenny piece to that of a shilling,
these spots vary greatly in number. Small pimples appear on the spots
from which a sticky fluid exudes. As soon as the bowels are thoroughly
relieved by aperient medicine, the spots become dark in colour and peel
off the skin. The application of oil to the spots hastens the shedding
of them. A dose of sulphur of one to eight drachms in addition to the
salts will be beneficial.

Frequently the pig will refuse to eat, it will then be necessary to dose
it. The pig must be caught, its head raised and the liquid gently poured
down its throat, the greatest care being taken not to pour the liquid
whilst the pig is squealing or the medicine will go into the lungs and
cause suffocation, or inflammation of the lungs which will generally
prove fatal.


MEASLES

This is a trouble of a very similar character to eczema save that the
red spots are more numerous and of a more irritating character. The
patient is continually rubbing itself against the wall or any prominence
in an endeavour to relieve the itching. The pig is also more feverish.
The pig should be placed in a warm sty, with plenty of dry straw, into
which it will quickly burrow. A dose of Epsom salts to which is added a
small quantity of spirit of nitre should be given, as the pig affected
will almost invariably refuse food for a time. Neat's foot or sweet oil
applied to the spots will relieve the irritation.


RICKETS

This is not by any means a common ailment amongst pigs, but it is very
hereditary. The most common cause is too close breeding. The bones and
joints appear to be unequal to the performance of their duties, the pig
staggers and stumbles when it attempts to move, whilst sometimes the
back is affected, when the pig is stated to be suffering from
"swayback." As a rule treatment is inadvisable as recovery is doubtful.
The first loss by knocking the pig on the head is generally the least.


TUBERCULOSIS

Pigs, like unto human beings, are much subject to tuberculosis when they
are kept under conditions similar to those which result in human beings
becoming affected. The disease is highly infectious, pigs coming in
contact with or even being housed in sties where pigs affected have been
recently kept are very likely to become infected. Some persons declare
that tuberculosis, or, as it is more commonly called, consumption, is
hereditary. For this there does not appear to be any foundation. The
chief thing to prevent one's animals being affected is to keep them away
from contagion. Although many parts of the body may be attacked by
tuberculosis, the lungs are more frequently affected than any other of
the organs, owing probably to the ease with which infection by the
minute germ is conveyed to the lungs in the act of breathing.

In the past a considerable number of pigs became infected through being
fed on skim milk which contained germs from the udder of a cow suffering
from a tuberculous udder. In these cases of the lungs and the bowels
becoming tubercular, the pigs become unthrifty and frequently waste away
and die. When the bones and other portions of the body are attacked the
development of the disease is not so rapid, but in any case the wisest
plan is to destroy the animal and thoroughly disinfect the place in
which it has been kept. Save when the disease is local and of very
limited duration the meat of a pig suffering from tuberculosis is unfit
for human consumption.


WORMS

Pigs are subject to various kinds of worms. Of these the most serious by
far is the worm which causes the disease called Trichinosis in man. The
worms are transmitted to man in pork from a diseased pig. Thorough
cooking of meat appears to destroy the vitality of the worm, but in
foreign countries where the pork is eaten in an uncooked or an
undercooked condition the disease is not uncommon. Fortunately,
Trichinosis is almost unknown in this country, owing to our more
stringent sanitary conditions, the disease being due in the pig to the
eating of human excrement in which are thread worms.

The most common kind of pig worm in this country is the round white
worm, pointed at both ends. Its length varies from one to several
inches. Its presence is often unsuspected until one or more of the worms
are noticed in the dung of the pig. It is readily got rid of by keeping
the pigs from food for at least twelve hours, and then giving them a
little tempting food in which a dose of santonine, varying from three to
ten grains for each pig, according to its age, has been added. Some two
hours later a dose of castor oil of from 1/4 oz. to 2 oz., or of one to
two ounces of Epsom salts, should be given in milk or some other
tempting food. Similar treatment will prove successful in the case of
pigs affected with the smaller kind of worms save that of the worm which
causes what is commonly known as "husk." This worm makes its home in the
windpipe and bronchial tubes. It is advisable to obtain from a chemist a
drench for the riddance of this worm, as the remedies will consist of
linseed oil, turpentine, spirits of camphor, and asafœtida.


SORE TEATS

Occasionally the teats of sows, especially sows with their first
litters, become chapped or sore. This trouble is frequently due to the
too vigorous sucking of the little pigs when the supply of milk is
short, to the biting of the teats when the sharp little teeth have not
been broken off, or even to cold winds.

An application of boro-glyceride will usually effect a speedy cure. In
persistent cases it will be advisable to give the sow a dose or two of
opening medicine such as salts or sulphur.


SALT AND SODA POISONING

Although these can scarcely be classed as diseases, the effects are
often more serious than those of some actual diseases to which swine are
more or less subject.

In the majority of cases the cause is the neglect of the cook to keep
separate from the swill the water in which salted meat or other food has
been boiled, or the water to which soda has been added in the washing
of the plates, etc. An attack if at all severe is usually fatal.

The symptoms are a discoloration of the skin, and a refusal of food. As
these are the usual symptoms of several other ailments, it is difficult
to determine the cause of death save by a post-mortem examination. It is
to be feared that this mixing of a solution of salt and soda with the
other swill will be one of the difficulties met with in the more general
utilisation of kitchen refuse in the keeping of pigs.




CHAPTER XVIII

THE CURING OF PORK


In the good old times bacon curing was carried on in the large majority
of farm-houses as well as in many houses in the country districts, not
only where there were conveniences for the keeping of pigs, but many
householders were in the habit of buying carcases of pork from their
neighbours and curing the major portion for the following year's supply
of cured meats. Even the better class labourers would kill and cure it
so that as long as it lasted they had on hand a supply of most
nutritious and suitable food. Unfortunately a great change has taken
place of late years; this convenient and profitable plan has been
superseded. The causes may have been many; amongst them, the importation
of immense quantities of salt pork of very inferior quality at very low
prices from the United States; the change in the public taste which is
now for mild cured and lean bacon from young pigs, instead of the more
heavily salted meats from older and fatter pigs; the great decrease in
the number of pigs kept by cottagers and others in urban districts
through the operation of the so-called sanitary regulations; and
probably from the different style of living, which may or may not be an
improvement, amongst the residents in country districts.

It may be that one of the many changes which have been brought about by,
and which will also follow, the war will be a return to the more simple
and less luxurious manner of living. It is certain that a more
economical system will have to be followed, and one of the means of
effecting this may be a return to the keeping of pigs during their
growing stage on the house and garden refuse, and then when the pigs
have been fattened, by the killing and curing of the carcase for home
consumption.

Much has been written during recent years about the folly of allowing so
many millions of sovereigns to go out of the country in payment for the
vast weight of bacon, hams, and lard which we import from foreign
countries. Residents in the country have been blamed by town residents
and literary men for their alleged want of enterprise in not breeding
and fattening the few extra million pigs which would furnish an amount
of pig produce equal to that imported, and thus, as they declare, save
the country that outlay which is a dead loss to these islands.

It may at once be frankly admitted that a very considerable increase in
the number of our pig population is possible without any very greatly
extended cost of food, but when it is contended that farmers and even
cottagers are grossly neglectful in not producing sufficient pork and
its products for the use of the whole of the population of these
islands, an injustice is done, as the breeding and feeding of pigs is a
business calling, not a philanthropical pursuit. Farmers and cottagers
are like other manufacturers of necessary articles; they produce in
order to live, and they cease to manufacture an article when its
production ceases to repay them for their outlay and trouble. They must
of necessity do so, or they come to grief and are unable to carry on
their farms or businesses.

It matters not what the cause be for the ability of the foreigner to
produce and land on our markets articles cheaper than we can afford to
offer them at, the result is the same--the home production is
automatically reduced. There are many causes which have helped to render
it possible for foreigners to supply us with a certain proportion of the
pork and bacon which we require at a less cost than our home breeder and
feeders of pigs can supply it. These include help to the farmers from
the Governments of certain countries such as Denmark, where assistance
is given in the purchase of pure bred pigs for the improvement of the
native pigs, in the reduced railway and other rates on the transit of
pigs, foods, and bacon, in the provision of certain foods, and in
carrying out experiments in order to show how they may be utilised in
the best manner. Stud farms have also been established from which pure
bred boars are distributed, whilst the whole industry of pig breeding
and bacon curing is carried on under the supervision and with the advice
of many Government officials appointed for the purpose. The intrinsic
value of this assistance is perceptible, as in no other country are
pig-keeping and bacon curing carried on with greater monetary success
than in Denmark.

It is also asserted that the general system of farming in Denmark has
also contributed very largely to the phenomenal prosperity of the pig
industry, in that a very large proportion of the land is owned and
farmed by comparatively small farmers, men who have a direct interest in
the improvement of the land, and who with their families perform the
major portion of the work on the land and in attendance on the stock.
The land is almost certain to be well managed and the stock to receive
the best possible attention with, comparatively speaking, little cost as
to labour. The animals on the farm are likely to be of a higher grade
and the returns from them of an increased character, than when strangers
and disinterested hired labour attend and feeds them.

Another of the great advantages possessed by some of our foreign
competitors is the very much better supply of feeding stuffs and their
very considerably lower cost. Take the United States, for instance, the
enormous supply of maize alone enables American pigmen to manufacture
pork at a cost which enables the packers to land bacon, hams, and lard
on the British shores which our home pig producers cannot approach.
Although it cannot be said that the cost of labour is less in the States
than in England, yet there are some countries from which we import pork
products where the labour is far more plentiful and less costly. In the
future the allowance for labour will have to be on a more liberal scale
than hitherto when estimating the cost of producing pork, unless the
number of persons owning and occupying small holdings is greatly
increased.

It has been stated that our home producers of pork and bacon will obtain
a considerable advantage in the future in that the freight on the
imported meats will be so much higher. It is most probable that this
will increase the expense of landing bacon, etc., on our markets; on the
other hand, as we import so large a proportion of the pig fattening
foods, the cost of food will most likely be increased to quite the same
if not to a greater extent. The only plan to reduce this extra expense
will be to lessen the outlay on imported foods by paying more attention
to the growth of various foods suitable for pigs, attending more
carefully to our pigs and feeding them on common-sense lines. In these
particulars there is room for much improvement in many piggeries.

By reducing the cost of the production of pork and by the more general
adoption of the system of home curing we shall not only obtain our bacon
at less cost, but we shall have a far greater amount of the finest
quality of bacon and hams generally available. We imagine that the
reader of the earlier portion of this book will experience little
difficulty in producing fine quality pork at a minimum cost--it will
then remain to cure and dry it properly.

The fattened pig should not be fed for some twenty-four hours before it
is killed; after slaughter the carcase should remain hanging until it
is thoroughly cooled. The manner of cutting up will depend on the
custom in the particular district. In some parts of the country the pig
is split down, the head, feet, and tail taken off, the leaf and kidneys
and the skirt taken out, the loin and the crop with a certain proportion
of the lean cut off, and in some cases the shoulder blade is drawn;
after the necessary trimming a Wiltshire side remains.

In other districts the ham and the shoulder are cut off and the side is
converted into a middle, a ham and a shoulder or fore-ham. The jowls are
taken off the head and salted with the bacon and hams. The upper part of
the head, or, as it is commonly termed, the scorf, is usually used with
the feet in the manufacture of brawn, or, as it is sometimes called,
pork cheese--presumably from its being cooled in a form, and then turned
out on to the dish on which it is served at table.

The first operation in curing is to distribute a small quantity of salt
all over the meat to be cured. If allowed to remain about forty-eight
hours the blood remaining in the meat will have become dissolved, and
will have exuded from the carcase. This liquid should be thrown away. A
mixture in the proportion of 4 lbs. salt, 1 lb. coarse brown sugar, 1
oz. saltpetre, 1/4 oz. bay salt, and 1/4 oz. salt prunell should be
prepared, and a portion of it be applied to all parts of the meat and
particularly in the pocket hole, if the shoulder blade has been drawn.
This should be continued for from twenty to thirty days, according to
the thickness of the meat and the degree of saltness desired. In one or
two districts of a limited area it is usual to rub the meat somewhat
violently with a large pebble when applying the salt mixture, the
alleged object being to rub in the salt; but for this there is not the
slightest necessity as the result of the rubbing is nil, since the salt
will penetrate the meat equally as well without the manipulation as with
it. The principal point is to secure the distribution of the salt to
every part of the meat so that the salt can penetrate and preserve it.

When sufficiently cured the meat should be hung up and dried. If it be
desired to have it smoked this is best done at the village bakery or
smoke drying house. Smoking of hams and bacon is possible on a small
scale with the aid of a smoke oven such as supplied by Messrs. Douglas
and Sons of Putney, but it is, as a rule, cheaper and less troublesome
to send the meat to the village smoking house. It will be advisable to
brand or otherwise mark each piece of cured meat sent to be smoked, as
the return of the same pieces is thus assured.

Where the home curing of bacon and hams is followed, this is best
carried out from the middle of October to the end of March; if it be
attempted earlier or later a cold chamber is necessary.

The manufacture of salt pork is carried on all the year through as the
meat is usually kept in the brine, where it will keep perfectly good for
a considerable time providing it is perfectly sweet when first placed in
the brine. To secure this it is advisable to have the pig killed in the
evening, covered over with a cloth to prevent the flies approaching it,
and hanging it in a cool place so that all the natural heat has escaped
ere it is cut up and placed in the pickle pot. It may be advisable to
note that the last is only possible with a small pig during the hot
weather. In the mere salting of pork it is usual to use only salt and
saltpetre. The use of sugar should be avoided in the summer, as its use
is likely to result in fermentation in hot weather.

There are two other points in connection with bacon curing on which a
change of opinion has taken place, or is taking place. These are the
cause of what are called in the trade "seedy bellies," and the effect on
the bacon of the female fat pig being in a state of œstrum when it is
slaughtered. Until quite recently the first of these troubles, and it is
a most serious one to the trade, was generally considered to be due to
the second. It was believed by curers that the slight inflammation
noticeable in the mammary glands of the female pig when she is in heat
resulted in these so-called "seedy bellies" if the pig was in that
condition when she was slaughtered. This belief may have been either the
cause or the result, or both, of the common saying that the meat of a
sow pig killed when it was in heat will not take the salt properly, and
that it is therefore advisable to wait until this natural condition has
passed away before the pig is slaughtered. This contention has been one
of the arguments used when the spaying of sow pigs has been advocated.
Of late years comparatively few sow pigs have been spayed, so that the
unspayed fat pigs have been nearly as numerous as those male pigs which
have been castrated, and as the sow pigs come in heat each three weeks,
and continue so for from three to five days, a very considerable
proportion of them must be in heat when they are slaughtered at the
large bacon-curing factories, without any loss resulting. We may,
therefore, assume that it matters little whether the pig be in heat or
not when it is slaughtered unless the seedy bellies result.

On this point also the verdict is against the common belief, as Messrs.
Mackenzie and Marsh have carried out a series of investigations at
Cambridge which clearly proved that seedy bellies were equally as common
when the sow pigs were not in heat and when they were; but that the
discoloration which resembles numbers of small spots of colour varying
from dark blue to light red in the mammary glands is merely an excess of
pigment, the darker shade being common in pigs with dark coloured hair
and skin such as the Large Blacks, Berkshires, etc., and the lighter
shade in pigs of the Tamworth breed. In the bacon manufactured from pigs
with a white skin and white hair there is no discoloration or seedy
bellies.

Although it has been generally considered by bacon curers that pigs of a
white colour were preferable for their trade, and this to such an extent
that some of the bacon curers in Ireland will pay a slightly higher
price for a pig with a white skin, the preference was generally
considered to be due to the more presentable appearance of a side of
bacon from a white than from a black pig; it would appear that in the
future a still greater preference will be observable when it becomes
generally known that the bacon made from white pigs is free from seedy
bellies.

       *       *       *       *       *


_To make money out of Pigs_

One must go on the NON-STOP PRINCIPLE, every little check to growth
means so much less profit. Now we know and there are thousands of other
pig feeders know that WILLSON'S CANADIAN PIG POWDERS are just the very
thing that is wanted, one or two powders a week to each Pig enables them
to digest their food and get the very utmost out of it. Nature does the
rest. You will find this so and the cost of powders is very small.

[Illustration: Willson's Canadian Pig Powders]

  _are a Great Investment_

[Illustration:

  +--------------------------+
  |  7 for 6d., post free 7d.|
  | 16  "  1/-      "     1/2|
  | 48  "  2/9      "     3/-|
  |144  "  8/-      "        |
  |and in bulk in tins       |
  |21/- post free.           |
  |                          |
  |  _We have agents almost  |
  |  everywhere._            |
  +--------------------------+

]

   _Sole
  Manufacturer:_

                STEPHEN WILLSON
          Canadian Pig Powder Factory
                  PETERBOROUGH
  (_Who also keeps a big experimental piggery_).


       *       *       *       *       *

  Continuous Cropping and Tillage
  Dairy Farming for Small Farmers.

  By T. WIBBERLEY, N.D.A., N.D.D.

  Third Edition. Price 3/6 net; postage 4d.


Here Mr. Wibberley describes specially for the benefit of the small man
his system of all-weather farming, capable of doubling or trebling the
profits of even the best regulated small dairy farms. In this book he
discloses for the first time the whole secret of his success and the
success of the many thousands of small dairy farmers who follow him.


  _Of all Booksellers or from the Publishers_,
  C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Ltd., HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C.2.

       *       *       *       *       *




INDEX


  Anthrax, 162

  Apthous fever, 15, 162

  Arrival of little pigs, 82

  Artichokes for pigs, 89

  Attendance on farrowing sow, 80


  Bacon curing, 177

  Bacon smoking, 177

  Bacon from young pigs, 171

  Barley meal  as  sole fatting food, 134

  Barn for pigsty, 109

  Baulked sows, 76

  Baulking sows, 94

  Berkshire breed, 33

  Black pigs, 75

  Blind teats, 70

  Boar's teats, 62

  Board of Agriculture's premiums, 47

  Bob-tailed pigs, 86

  Breeds of pigs at shows, 17

  British Berkshire Society, 27

  Butter milk, 153


  Cabbages for pigs, 101

  Canadian system, 47

  Carriers of swine fever, 158, 188

  Castrating pigs, 105

  Castrating ruptured pigs, 88

  Cause of parti-coloured pigs, 15

  Close breeding, 46

  Clover for pigs, 89

  Coleseed for pigs, 103

  Constipation in pigs, 164

  Consumption in pigs, 167

  Cooked _v._ uncooked maize, 147

  Cooked _v._ uncooked potatoes, 150

  Cooking pig foods, 144

  Cooking potatoes, 147

  Cross-bred pigs, 39

  Cross breds _v._ pure breds, 45

  Cumberland pigs, 38

  Cutting up the pig, 176


  Danish pig-keeping, 174

  Dead pigs, 83

  Delicacy of pure-bred pigs, 45

  Dentition of pigs, 49

  Diarrhœa, 162

  Difficulty in disinfecting sties, 161

  Diseases of pigs, 157
    Anthrax
    Apthous fever
    Constipation
    Cramp
    Diarrhœa
    Eczema
    Epileptic fits
    Foot and mouth disease
    Inversion of the rectum
      "        "  "  vagina
      "        "  "  uterus
    Measles
    Rabies
    Rickets
    Salt poisoning
    Soda poisoning
    Sore teats
    Swine erysipelas
    Swine fever
    Tender feet
    Tuberculosis
    Worms

  Dorset pigs, 25

  Dosing pigs, 166

  Dry beds, 103

  Dysentery, 85


  Eczema, 165

  Effect of food and climate, 148

  Epileptic fits, 162

  Essex half-blacks, 21

  Excited young sows, 81

  Exhibition of pigs, 113

  Exposure of mangolds, 152

  Extra food in the autumn, 155


  Farmer owners, 174

  Farrowing sow, 79

  Fits, 86

  Flabby udders, 70

  Foot and mouth disease, 15

  Foster mothers, 119


  Garget, 101

  Gloucestershire Old Spots breed, 37

  Government help, 47

  Grade breeding pigs, 46

  Grazing pigs, 73


  Ham curing, 171

  Hampshire pigs, 20

  Hernia, 162

  High-backed pigs, 100

  Holywell Victoria Countess, 77

  Husk, 160


  Importation of bacon and lard, 172

  Improved breeds, origin of, 13

  Increased cost of freight, 175

  Infectivity of swine fever, 158

  Influence of sire, 43, 54
    "       "  dam, 54

  Inoculation for erysipelas, 162
    "          " swine fever, 162

  Inversion of the rectum, 164
    "        "  "  vagina, 164
    "        "  "  uterus, 162


  Large boars, 59

  Large Black breed, 30

  Large blue and white pigs, 23

  Large White breed, 30

  Large White Ulster breed, 35

  Lincolnshire Curly Coated breed, 36

  Litter for pigs, 103

  Lucerne for pigs, 89, 153


  Maize supply, 174

  Mangolds for pigs, 101

  Mating the young sow, 72
    "     "  suckling sow, 92

  Measles, 166

  Medicine for farrowing sow, 83

  Mere size studied, 65

  Messrs. Harris's scheme, 43

  Middle White breed, 31

  Milk for sucking pigs, 100

  Mixture of food, 135

  Model piggeries, 108


  Neat sows, 65

  Non-infectious swine fever, 160

  Norfolk pigs, 24

  Northamptonshire pigs, 23

  Number of pigs for a sow, 97

  Number in a litter, 68


  Origin of improved breeds, 13

  Oxfordshire pigs, 23, 27


  Parsnips for pigs, 89

  Parti-coloured pigs, cause of, 115

  Peat moss litter, 104

  Persistence of erysipelas virus, 161

  Pig calendar, 148

  Pig fattening, 132

  Pig keeping in orchards, 128
    "    "    "  woods, 128

  Pigment, excess of, 179

  Pig pillows, 65

  Pig shacking, 153

  Pigs suffering from heat, 124

  Plenty of teats, 67

  Potatoes for pigs, 89

  Poulticing pigs' feet, 164

  Practical _v._ show points, 41

  Prepotency of dam, 55
    "        "  sire, 55

  Prolificacy, 42
    "  indications of, 67
    "  value of, 42

  Pure breeds, 26


  Quality of bone, 60


  Rabies, 162

  Rape for pigs, 89

  Rearing of young pigs, 97

  Recorded pedigree insufficient, 44

  Rectum, inversion of, 164

  Registering produce, 42

  Remaking sow's bed, 83

  Rickets in pigs, 166

  Ring pigs, 61

  Rollers for fat pigs, 117

  Round white worms, 168

  Rudgwick pigs, 21

  Rupture in pigs hereditary, 88

  Ruptured boar, 61


  Salt poisoning, 169

  Santonine as a cure for worms, 168

  Scrotal hernia, 162

  Seedy bellies, 177

  Selection of boar, 53
    "       "  sow, 63

  Separated milk for little pigs, 100

  Sheeted pigs, 22

  Size in boars, 59
    "  of pigs' ears, 60

  Skim milk and tuberculosis, 167

  Slaughter classes, 118

  Small black breed, 18

  Small joints wanted, 66

  Small testicles, 61

  Smoke ovens, 177

  Smoking bacon, 177

  Soft pork, 135

  Sore-tailed pigs, 86

  Sore teats, 169

  Sow's udder, 67

  Spaying sow pigs, 151

  Sty facing east, 108
   "    "    north, 108
   "    "    south, 108
   "    "    west, 108

  Sugar in pork curing, 177

  Sussex pigs, 21

  Swayback pigs, 166

  Swine erysipelas, 161

  Swine fever, 158
    "     "    virus, 160


  Tares for pigs, 152

  Tender feet, 164

  Trichinosis, 168

  Tuberculosis in pigs, 167

  Tuberculosis in pigs not hereditary, 167

  Tuberculosis meat unhealthy, 167


  Udder, the sow's, 67

  Undersized teats, 70

  Uniformity in a herd, 44
    "        "  young pigs, 43

  Unwieldly sows, 65

  Utility points, 42


  Value of feeding qualities, 59

  Value of whey, 152

  Variation in virulence of infectious diseases, 161

  Varying food, 136

  Vegetable food for pigs, 89, 135, 150


  Weaning pigs, 89

  Wheat meal, 136

  White peas for little pigs, 100

  White-skinned pigs for bacon, 106, 179

  Worms, 168

       *       *       *       *       *


DENNIS'S

"LINCOLNSHIRE" PIG POWDERS

ARE THE BEST MEDICINE for all DISEASES of PIGS. Used by most of the
leading BREEDERS and EXHIBITORS.

It will pay you well to use them regularly. The cost is so small, 10d.
per doz., post free 1/-. 144 Powders post free 10/-.

[Sidenote: HEALTHY PIGS PAY WELL]

[Illustration: DENNIS's LINCOLNSHIRE PIG POWDERS PROPRIETOR J. W. DENNIS
LOUTH. ENGLAND]

Trade Mark No. 14,839.

[Sidenote: SOLD EVERYWHERE]

DENNIS'S "SPECIAL" WORM POWDERS =are recognised as the surest means of
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Mr. W. L. PAYNE, of Tor Hole, Chewton Mendip, says:--"I found 63 worms
in my stye, after giving your Worm Powders."

In packets, 6d. Post free 7-1/2d. 6 packets Post free 3/4.

Sold by all Chemists, Boots Ltd., Taylor's Drug Co. Ltd., and
Co-operative Societies, at all Branches.

Proprietor:

=JOHN W. DENNIS, Veterinary Chemist LOUTH, LINCS.=


All practical Farmers who want to keep abreast of the times should get
at once a copy of

FARMING ON FACTORY LINES

OR

Continuous Cropping for Large Farmers

BY

T. WIBBERLEY, N.D.A., N.D.D.

(_Of Queen's University, Belfast_).

       *       *       *       *       *

Second Edition =6/-= net (postage 4d.)

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: pointing finger] It forms the great authoritative test
book on the Wibberley Continuous Cropping System, and is a new and
frankly revolutionary guide to ALL-WEATHER Farming and to cheaper Milk,
Corn and Beef Production.

"In times past the climate has often conquered the British Farmer, but
it has not conquered Wibberley. He has conquered it, turning what
otherwise would be adverse climatic conditions to advantage in tilling
the land.

"It sounds impossible. It reads like a fairy tale--yet the whole of the
scheme of 'Wibberleyism' or 'Continuous Cropping,' 'Farming on Factory
Lines'--as the system is variously termed--is in reality beautifully
simple. It is so effective that one wonders what our highly paid
officials have been thinking about, when they have not hammered out some
such a tillage system as Wibberley's years before Wibberley was
born."--THE SMALLHOLDER.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Read all about it in this new and valuable work.=

       *       *       *       *       *

_Can be obtained by order from any Bookseller, or post free for =6/4=
from_

Messrs. C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Limited, 18 Henrietta Street, London, W.C.
2.


SOME USEFUL HANDBOOKS

FOR SMALLHOLDERS AND OTHERS

=The Hobby Gardener.= By A. C. MARSHALL, F.R.H.S. With 22 full-page
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=Small Gardens and How to make the Most of Them.= By V. P. BIDDLE. Cloth
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A most useful Handbook for the Amateur. Full instructions are given for
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=The Dog: In Health and Disease.= By F. M. ARCHER. With 12 Illustrations
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=Cage and Singing Birds.= By GEORGE GARDNER. With numerous
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Some of the Contents are:--Birds for Song, for Exhibition and for
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Birds and how to treat them--Bird Fever--Parasites and how to destroy
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=An Easy Poultry Guide.= By EDWARD BROWN, F.L.S. With 8 full-page
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=War on Weeds.= By "FARMER GILES." Price 6d. net, post free 7d.

This book gives a full description and illustrations of the thirteen
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=War-Time Farming.= By T. WIBBERLEY. Price 6d. net, post free 7d.

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       *       *       *       *       *

_Any of these books may be ordered through your bookseller, or will be
sent post-paid on receipt of the price mentioned by_

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FARMING

MADE EASY

By

J. C. NEWSHAM, F.L.S.

Principal of the Monmouthshire Agricultural and Horticultural
Institution, Usk.

_Author of "The Potato Book," &c., Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 3/6 net._

This is an easy Guide to the most useful Elements of Agriculture. It has
been specially written by a thoroughly qualified agriculturist, with a
wide and successful practical knowledge of his subject, for the use of
the countless thousands of men and women who are now streaming
back--eager but half instructed--to work on the land. It covers
practically every department of farm labour and enterprise, and provides
the fullest and most reliable instruction for all who propose to take up
Agriculture in a serious and practical spirit, as a means of livelihood.

_Can be obtained by order from any Bookseller, or post free for 3/10
from_

MESSRS. C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LIMITED, 18 Henrietta Street, London, W.C.
2.




BOOKS FOR SMALLHOLDERS, ETC.

A STANDARD BOOK BY AN EXPERT AUTHORITY.


DAIRY FARMING FOR SMALLHOLDERS


By JAMES LONG, formerly Professor of Dairy Farming, Royal Agricultural
College; Author of "The Book of the Pig," etc.

Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 2/6 net, post free 2/9.

THE CHAPTERS DEAL WITH:--Our Dairy Cows; The Cow and Her Management;
Foods and Feeding; Milk; Butter and Butter Making; Cheese Making, etc.

"Professor Long has never been more happily inspired than in writing it.
The explanations are lucid and clear."--_Standard._

"The smallholder who has made dairying part of his system, or has
facilities for doing so, will be all the better for adding this book to
those already in his possession."--_Field._

"This is one of the best handbooks that can possibly find its way on the
dairy farmer's shelf."--_The Dairy._

       *       *       *       *       *

=POULTRY FOR PROFIT=. By E. T. BROWN. Author of "Profitable Poultry
Keeping" (Smallholders' Library), "Ducks, Geese and Turkeys," &c. Crown
8vo, cloth, with 15 full-page illustrations and many diagrams. A
thoroughly comprehensive guide for the poultry keeper.

=ROSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.= By EDWIN BECKETT, V.M.H., F.R.H.S. Crown
8vo, cloth. With portrait frontispiece. Price 2/6 net (postage 3d.
extra).

"A handy little book by Mr. E. Beckett, gardener at Aldenham House, and
famous as a grower of exhibition vegetables, as well as of plants
generally. He writes as a practical grower in a practical way, dealing
with soil and situation, planting, pruning, watering, propagation, the
cultivation of roses under glass and for exhibition in a way that is
satisfying."--_The Field._

=THE SMALLHOLDER'S YEAR BOOK.= Published annually in December. Price 1/6
net, per post 1/9.

The Smallholder's Year Book is now an institution. It is the recognised
court of appeal in all matters connected with the land, in gardening,
farming, poultry-keeping, goat, rabbit and bee-keeping circles. It
contains the cream of all the information that has ever appeared in THE
SMALLHOLDER. It solves at a glance every problem that is ever likely to
puzzle YOU.

       *       *       *       *       *

_These Handbooks may be obtained through your Bookseller, or will be
forwarded post free, on receipt of the price mentioned, from_

=C. ARTHUR PEARSON, Ltd., 17 HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON W.C. 2.=




THE "SMALLHOLDER" CHARTS.

ON CARD 11-1/2 in. BY 8-1/2 in. FOR HANGING UP.


(1) How to Make a Garden Frame

(2) How and When to Sow Vegetable Seeds

(3) The A.B.C. of Pig Keeping

(4) The A.B.C. of Utility Rabbit Keeping

(5) The A.B.C. of Poultry Keeping

(6) Garden and Orchard Pests

(7) How and When to Sow Flower Seeds

(8) How to Cure Poultry Diseases

(9) How to Cure Pig Diseases

(10) Fruit Bottling

(11) Manuring Made Easy

(12) The Whole Art of Goat Keeping

_Single Charts cost 4d. each, or any Six may be had for 1/8 post free._

       *       *       *       *       *

The "Smallholder" is issued in half-yearly volumes, March to August, and
September to February. Bound in Strong Cloth. Price 4/-net each; post
free 4/6. Cases for binding, including Title Page and Index, price 1/9
each; post free 2/-.

Write to the Editor

The "SMALLHOLDER" Office, 16-18 Henrietta Street, LONDON, W.C. 2.




AN ATTRACTIVE NATURE BOOK FOR THE YOUNG.

IN NATURE'S WAYS

BY MARCUS WOODWARD.

       *       *       *       *       *

A book for all young Lovers of Natural History. Being an Introduction to
Gilbert White's immortal "Natural History of Selborne."

Illustrated by J. A. SHEPHERD.

With Preface by WILFRID MARK WEBB, Secretary of the Selborne Society.

This volume contains 8 full-page Illustrations on Art Paper in addition
to the Drawings in the Text.

=Price in paper wrapper 1/-net, postage 3d. extra; or in cloth boards,
price 2/-net, postage 4d. extra.=

       *       *       *       *       *

"This is a 'White's Selborne' for the young; giving passages from the
original under different headings and side by side, some talk about the
bird or beast referred to; with plenty of illustrations by Mr. J. A.
Shepherd, full of his usual vitality."--_Times._

"We think this volume cannot fail to interest and instruct the
young."--_Field._

"White's 'History of Selborne' is here amplified and explained for young
readers. Mr. Woodward has that gift of humour without which all writing
on nature is a weariness unto the flesh for young readers, and for many
readers who are no longer young. Mr. J. A. Shepherd's illustrations
catch the spirit of the letterpress, and are of a piece with the work
that has made his reputation as an artist."--_Literary World._

       *       *       *       *       *

_May be had of all Booksellers or will be sent direct on receipt of
published price and postage from_

C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LTD., Henrietta Street, LONDON, W.C. 2.

       *       *       *       *       *


Transcriber's Notes:

Changes to the text are listed as follows:

page 168, "oze" changed to "oz.," (from 1/4 oz. to 2 oz.,)

page 168, "b.," changed to "be" (should be given in milk)

page 186, suspected typo "test" for "text" (the great authoritative
test book)

page 187, "F.R.H.S" changed to "F.R.H.S." (A. C. Marshall, F.R.H.S.)