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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 3
       "Chitral" to "Cincinnati"

Author: Various

Release Date: February 28, 2010 [EBook #31447]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ASCII

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Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
      printed in subscript.

(2) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
      paragraphs.

(3) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].

(4) Letters topped by Breve are represented as [)x].

(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

    Article CHOPIN, FREDERIC FRANCOIS: "which excited the wondering
      enthusiasn of Robert Schumann." 'enthusiasn' amended to
      'enthusiasm'.

    Article CHRISTIANITY: "only in Alexandria was there a genuine
      effort make to solve the fundamental problems of God." 'make'
      amended to 'made'.

    Article CHURCH HISTORY: "This enlargement of the bishop's parish
      and multiplication of the chuches under his care led to a change
      in the functions of the presbyterate." 'chuches' amended to
      'churches'.

    Article CIBORIUM: "and in the Western Church the canopy was known
      as a 'baldaquin,' Ital. baldacchino, from Baldacco, the Itilian
      name of Bagdad." 'Itilian' amended to 'Italian'.

    Article CICERO: "In the war between Marius and Sulla has
      sympathies were with Sulla, but he did not take up arms" 'has'
      amended to 'his'.




          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
           AND GENERAL INFORMATION

              ELEVENTH EDITION


             VOLUME VI, SLICE III

            Chitral to Cincinnati




ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:


  CHITRAL                             CHRISTY, HENRY
  CHITTAGONG                          CHROMATIC
  CHITTUR                             CHROMITE
  CHITTY, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM          CHROMIUM
  CHIUSI                              CHROMOSPHERE
  CHIVALRY                            CHRONICLE
  CHIVASSO                            CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF
  CHIVE                               CHRONOGRAPH
  CHLOPICKI, GREGORZ JOZEF            CHRONOLOGY
  CHLORAL                             CHRUDIM
  CHLORATES                           CHRYSANTHEMUM
  CHLORINE                            CHRYSANTHIUS
  CHLORITE                            CHRYSELEPHANTINE
  CHLOROFORM                          CHRYSENE
  CHLOROPHYLL                         CHRYSIPPUS
  CHLOROSIS                           CHRYSOBERYL
  CHLORPICRIN                         CHRYSOCOLLA
  CHMIELNICKI, BOGDAN                 CHRYSOLITE
  CHOATE, JOSEPH HODGES               CHRYSOLORAS, MANUEL
  CHOATE, RUFUS                       CHRYSOPRASE
  CHOBE                               CHRYSOSTOM
  CHOCOLATE                           CHUB
  CHOCTAWS                            CHUBB, CHARLES
  CHODKIEWICZ, JAN KAROL              CHUBB, THOMAS
  CHODOWIECKI, DANIEL NICOLAS         CHUBUT
  CHOERILUS                           CHUDE
  CHOEROBOSCUS, GEORGIUS              CHUGUYEV
  CHOIR                               CHUKCHI
  CHOISEUL, CESAR                     CHULALONGKORN, PHRA
  CHOISEUL, ETIENNE FRANCOIS          CHUMBI VALLEY
  CHOISEUL-STAINVILLE, CLAUDE         CHUNAR
  CHOISY, FRANCOIS TIMOLEON           CHUNCHO
  CHOLERA                             CH'UNGK'ING
  CHOLET                              CHUPATTY
  CHOLON                              CHUPRIYA
  CHOLONES                            CHUQUISACA
  CHOLULA                             CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN
  CHOPIN, FREDERIC FRANCOIS           CHURCH, GEORGE EARL
  CHOPSTICKS                          CHURCH, SIR RICHARD
  CHORAGUS                            CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM
  CHORALE                             CHURCH
  CHORIAMBIC VERSE                    CHURCH ARMY
  CHORICIUS                           CHURCH CONGRESS
  CHORIN, AARON                       CHURCH HISTORY
  CHORIZONTES                         CHURCHILL, CHARLES
  CHORLEY, HENRY FOTHERGILL           CHURCHILL, LORD RANDOLPH
  CHORLEY (English town)              CHURCHILL (river in Canada)
  CHORLU                              CHURCHING OF WOMEN
  CHOROGRAPHY                         CHURCH RATE
  CHORUM                              CHURCHWARDEN
  CHORUS                              CHURCHYARD, THOMAS
  CHOSE                               CHURCHYARD
  CHOSROES                            CHURL
  CHOTA                               CHURN
  CHOUANS                             CHUSAN
  CHRESMOGRAPHION                     CHUTE
  CHRESTIEN, FLORENT                  CHUTNEY
  CHRETIEN DE TROYES                  CHUVASHES
  CHRISM                              CIALDINI, ENRICO
  CHRIST                              CIBBER
  CHRIST, WILHELM VON                 CIBBER, COLLEY
  CHRISTADELPHIANS                    CIBORIUM
  CHRISTCHURCH (borough in England)   CIBRARIO, LUIGI
  CHRISTCHURCH (city in New Zealand)  CICADA
  CHRISTIAN II                        CICELY
  CHRISTIAN III                       CICERO
  CHRISTIAN IV                        CICERONE
  CHRISTIAN V                         CICHLID
  CHRISTIAN VII                       CICISBEO
  CHRISTIAN VIII                      CICOGNARA, LEOPOLDO
  CHRISTIAN IX                        CID, THE
  CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM                  CIDER
  CHRISTIAN OF BRUNSWICK              CIENFUEGOS, NICASIO
  CHRISTIAN CATHOLIC CHURCH           CIENFUEGOS
  CHRISTIAN CONNECTION                CIEZA
  CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOUR SOCIETIES       CIGAR
  CHRISTIANIA                         CIGNANI, CARLO
  CHRISTIANITY                        CIGOLI
  CHRISTIANSAND                       CILIA
  CHRISTIAN SCIENCE                   CILIATA
  CHRISTIANSUND                       CILICIA
  CHRISTIE, RICHARD COPLEY            CILLI, ULRICH
  CHRISTINA (queen of Sweden)         CILLI (town in Austria)
  CHRISTINA (queen-regent of Spain)   CIMABUE, GIOVANNI
  CHRISTISON, SIR ROBERT              CIMAROSA, DOMENICO
  CHRISTMAS                           CIMBRI
  CHRISTMAS ISLAND                    CIMICIFUGA
  CHRISTODORUS                        CIMMERII
  CHRISTOPHER, SAINT                  CIMON
  CHRISTOPHORUS                       CIMON OF CLEONAE
  CHRISTOPOULOS, ATHANASIOS           CINCHONA
  CHRIST'S HOSPITAL                   CINCINNATI




CHITRAL, a native state in the North-West Frontier Province of India.
The state of Chitral (see also HINDU KUSH) is somewhat larger than
Wales, and supports a population of about 35,000 rough, hardy hillmen.
Previous estimates put the number far higher, but as the Mehtar assesses
his fighting strength at 8000 only, this number is probably not far
wrong. Both the state and its capital are called Chitral, the latter
being situated about 47 m. from the main watershed of the range of the
Hindu Kush, which divides the waters flowing down to India from those
which take their way into the Oxus. Chitral is an important state
because of its situation at the extremity of the country over which the
government of India exerts its influence, and for some years before 1895
it had been the object of the policy of the government of India to
control the external affairs of Chitral in a direction friendly to
British interests, to secure an effective guardianship over its northern
passes, and to keep watch over what goes on beyond these passes. This
policy resulted in a British agency being established at Gilgit (Kashmir
territory), with a subordinate agency in Chitral, the latter being
usually stationed at Mastuj (65 m. nearer to Gilgit than the Chitral
capital), and occasional visits being paid to the capital. Chitral can
be reached either by the long circuitous route from Gilgit, involving
200 m. of hill roads and the passage of the Shandur pass (12,250 ft.),
or (more directly) from the Peshawar frontier at Malakand by 100 m. of
route through the independent territories of Swat and Bajour, involving
the passage of the Lowarai (10,450 ft). It is held by a small force as a
British outpost.

  The district of Chitral is called Kashgar (or Kashkar) by the people
  of the country; and as it was under Chinese domination in the middle
  of the 18th century, and was regarded as a Buddhist centre of some
  importance by the Chinese pilgrims in the early centuries of our era,
  it is possible that it then existed as an outlying district of the
  Kashgar province of Chinese Turkestan, where Buddhism once flourished
  in cities that have been long since buried beneath the sand-waves of
  the Takla Makan. The aboriginal population of the Chitral valley is
  probably to be recognized in the people called Kho (speaking a
  language called Khowar), who form the majority of its inhabitants.
  Upon the Kho a people called Ronas have been superimposed. The Ronas,
  who form the chief caste and fighting race of the Chitral districts,
  originally came from the north, but they have adopted the language and
  fashions of the conquered Chitrali.

  The town of Chitral (pop. in 1901, 8128), is chiefly famous for a
  siege which it sustained in the spring of 1895. Owing to complications
  arising from the demarcation of the boundary of Afghanistan which was
  being carried out at that time, and the ambitious projects of Umra
  Khan, chief of Jandol, which was a tool in the hands of Sher Afzul, a
  political refugee from Chitral supported by the amir at Kabul, the
  mehtar (or ruler) of Chitral was murdered, and a small British and
  Sikh garrison subsequently besieged in the fort. A large force of
  Afghan troops was at that time in the Chitral river valley to the
  south of Chitral, nominally holding the Kafirs in check during the
  progress of boundary demarcation. It is considered probable that some
  of them assisted the Chitralis in the siege. The position of the
  political agent Dr Robertson (afterwards Sir George Robertson) and his
  military force of 543 men (of whom 137 were non-combatants) was at one
  time critical. Two forces were organized for the relief. One was under
  Sir R. Low, with 15,000 men, who advanced by way of the Malakand pass,
  the Swat river and Dir. The other, which was the first to reach
  Chitral, was under Colonel Kelly, commanding the 32nd Pioneers, who
  was placed in command of all the troops in the Gilgit district,
  numbering about 600 all told, with two guns, and instructed to advance
  by the Shandur pass and Mastuj. This force encountered great
  difficulties owing to the deep snow on the pass (12,230 ft. high), but
  it easily defeated the Chitrali force opposed to it and relieved
  Chitral on the 20th of April, the siege having begun on the 4th of
  March. Sher Afzul, who had joined Umra Khan, surrendered, and
  eventually Chitral was restored to British political control as a
  dependency of Kashmir. During Lord Curzon's vice-royalty the British
  troops were concentrated at the extreme southern end of the Chitral
  country at Kila Drosh and the force was reduced, while the posts
  vacated and all outlying posts were handed over to levies raised for
  the purpose from the Chitralis themselves. The troops in Swat were
  also concentrated at Chakdara and reduced in strength. The mehtar,
  Shuja-ul-Mulk, who was installed in September 1895, visited the Delhi
  durbar in January 1903.

  See Sir George Robertson, _Chitral_ (1898).    (T. H. H.*)




CHITTAGONG, a seaport of British India, giving its name to a district
and two divisions of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It is situated on the
right bank of the Karnaphuli river, about 12 m. from its mouth. It is
the terminus of the Assam-Bengal railway. The municipal area covers
about 9 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 22,140. The sea-borne exports consist
chiefly of jute, other items being tea, raw cotton, rice and hides.
There is also a large trade by country boats, bringing chiefly cotton,
rice, spices, sugar and tobacco. Since October 1905 Chittagong has
become the chief port of the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam.

  The DISTRICT OF CHITTAGONG is situated at the north-east corner of the
  province, occupying a strip of coast and hills between the sea and the
  mountains of Burma. Its area is 2492 sq. m. In 1901 the population was
  1,353,250, showing an increase of 5% in the decade. A few unimportant
  ranges rise within the north-eastern portion, the highest hill being
  the sacred Sitakund, 1155 ft. high. The principal rivers are the
  Karnaphuli, on which Chittagong town is situated, navigable by
  sea-going ships as far as Chittagong port, and by large trading boats
  for a considerable distance higher up, and the Halda and the Sangu,
  which are also navigable by large boats. The wild animals are tigers,
  elephants, rhinoceros, leopards and deer. The climate is comparatively
  cool, owing to the sea breeze which prevails during the day; but for
  the same reason, the atmosphere is very moist, with heavy dews at
  night and fogs. Chittagong was ceded to the East India Company by
  Nawab Mir Kasim in 1760. The northern portion of the district is
  traversed by the Assam-Bengal railway. Tea cultivation is moderately
  successful.

  The CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS formed an independent district from 1860 to
  1891, were then reduced to the status of a sub-division, but were
  again created a district in 1900. They occupy the ranges between
  Chittagong proper and the south Lushai hills. The area covers 5138 sq.
  m. In 1901 the population was 124,762, showing an increase of 16% in
  the decade. The inhabitants, who are either Arakanese or aboriginal
  tribes, are almost all Buddhists. The headquarters are at Rangamati,
  which was wrecked by the cyclone of October 1897.

  The DIVISION OF CHITTAGONG lies at the north-east corner of the Bay of
  Bengal, extending northward along the left bank of the Meghna. It
  consists of the districts of Chittagong, the Hill Tracts, Noakhali and
  Tippera. Its area covers 11,773 sq. m.; the population in 1901 was
  4,737,731.




CHITTUR, a town of British India, in the North Arcot district of Madras,
with a station on the South Indian railway. Pop. (1901) 10,893. Formerly
a military cantonment, it is now only the civil headquarters of the
district. It has an English church, mission chapel, and Roman Catholic
chapel, a high school, and several literary institutes.




CHITTY, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM (1828-1899), English judge, was born in
London. He was the second son of Thomas Chitty (himself son and brother
of well-known lawyers), a celebrated special pleader and writer of legal
text-books, in whose pupil-room many distinguished lawyers began their
legal education. Joseph Chitty was educated at Eton and Balliol, Oxford,
gaining a first-class in _Literae Humaniores_ in 1851, and being
afterwards elected to a fellowship at Exeter College. His principal
distinctions during his school and college career had been earned in
athletics, and he came to London as a man who had stroked the Oxford
boat and captained the Oxford cricket eleven. He became a member of
Lincoln's Inn in 1851, was called to the bar in 1856, and made a queen's
counsel in 1874, electing to practise as such in the court in which Sir
George Jessel, master of the rolls, presided. Chitty was highly
successful in his method of dealing with a very masterful if exceedingly
able judge, and soon his practice became very large. In 1880 he entered
the house of commons as liberal member for Oxford (city). His
parliamentary career was short, for in 1881 the Judicature Act required
that the master of the rolls should cease to sit regularly as a judge of
first instance, and Chitty was selected to fill the vacancy thus created
in the chancery division. Sir Joseph Chitty was for sixteen years a
popular judge, in the best meaning of the phrase, being noted for his
courtesy, geniality, patience and scrupulous fairness, as well as for
his legal attainments, and being much respected and liked by those
practising before him, in spite of a habit of interrupting counsel,
possibly acquired through the example of Sir George Jessel. In 1897, on
the retirement of Sir Edward Kay, L.J., he was promoted to the court of
appeal. There he more than sustained--in fact, he appreciably
increased--his reputation as a lawyer and a judge, proving himself to
possess considerable knowledge of the common law as well as of equity.
He died in London on the 15th of February 1899. He married in 1858 Clara
Jessie, daughter of Chief Baron Pollock, and left children who could
thus claim descent from two of the best-known English legal families of
the 19th century.

  See E. Manson, _Builders of our Law_ (1904).




CHIUSI (anc. _Clusium_), a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of
Siena, 55 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Siena, and 26 m. N.N.W. of
Orvieto. Pop. (1901) 6011. It is situated on a hill 1305 ft. above
sea-level, and is surrounded by medieval walls, in which, in places,
fragments of the Etruscan wall are incorporated. The cathedral of S.
Mustiola is a basilica with a nave and two aisles, with eighteen columns
of different kinds of marble, from ancient buildings. It has been
restored and decorated with frescoes in modern times. The campanile
belongs to the 13th century. The place was devastated by malaria in the
middle ages, and did not recover until the Chiana valley was drained in
the 18th century. For the catacombs see CLUSIUM.




CHIVALRY (O. Fr. _chevalerie_, from Late Lat. _caballerius_), the
knightly class of feudal times, possessing its own code of rules, moral
and social (see KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY). The primary sense in the
middle ages is "knights" or "fully armed and mounted fighting men."
Thence the term came to mean that gallantry in battle and high sense of
honour in general expected of knights. Thus "to do chivalry" was a
medieval phrase for "to act the knight." Lastly, the word came to be
used in its present very general sense of "courtesy." In English law
chivalry meant the tenure of land by knights' service. It was a service
due to the crown, usually forty days' military attendance annually. The
_Court of Chivalry_ was a court instituted by Edward III., of which the
lord high constable and earl marshal of England were joint judges. When
both sat the court had summary criminal jurisdiction as regards all
offences committed by knights, and generally as to military matters.
When the earl marshal alone presided, it was a court of honour deciding
as to precedence, coats of arms, &c. This court sat for the last time in
1737. The heraldic side of its duties are now vested in the earl marshal
as head of the Heralds' College.




CHIVASSO, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province
of Turin, 18 m. N.E. by rail from the town of Turin, 600 ft. above
sea-level. Pop. (1901) 4169 (town), 9804 (commune). It is situated on
the left bank of the Po, near the influx of the Orco. The cathedral is
of the 15th century with a fine facade ornamented with statues in
terra-cotta. It was an important fortress in the middle ages, and until
1804, when the French dismantled it. One tower only of the old castle of
the marquesses of Monferrato, who possessed the town from 1164 to 1435,
remains. Chivasso is on the main line from Turin to Milan, and is the
junction of branches for Aosta and Casale Monferrato.




CHIVE (_Allium Schoenoprasum_), a hardy perennial plant, with small
narrow bulbs tufted on short root-stocks and long cylindrical hollow
leaves. It is found in the north of England and in Cornwall, and growing
in rocky pastures throughout temperate and northern Europe and Asiatic
Russia, and also in the mountain districts of southern Europe. It is
cultivated for the sake of its leaves, which are used in salads and
soups as a substitute for young onions. It will grow in any good soil,
and is propagated by dividing the roots into small clumps in spring or
autumn; these are planted from 8 to 12 in. apart and soon form large
tufts. The leaves should be cut frequently so as to obtain them tender
and succulent.




CHLOPICKI, GREGORZ JOZEF (1772-1854), Polish general, was born in March
1772 in Podolia. He was educated at the school of the Basilians at
Szarogrod, from which in 1787 he ran away in order to enlist as a
volunteer in the Polish army. He was present at all the engagements
fought during 1792-1794, especially distinguishing himself at the battle
of Raclawice, when he was General Rymkiewicz's adjutant. On the
formation of the Italian legion he joined the second battalion as major,
and was publicly complimented by General Oudinot for his extraordinary
valour at the storming of Peschiera. He also distinguished himself at
the battles of Modena, Busano, Casabianca and Ponto. In 1807 he
commanded the first Vistulan regiment, and rendered good service at the
battles of Eylau and Friedland. In Spain he obtained the legion of
honour and the rank of a French baron for his heroism at the battle of
Epila and the storming of Saragossa, and in 1809 was promoted to be
general of brigade. In 1812 he accompanied the _Grande Armee_ to Russia,
was seriously wounded at Smolensk, and on the reconstruction of the
Polish army in 1813 was made a general of division. On his return to
Poland in 1814, he entered the Russian army with the rank of a general
officer, but a personal insult from the grand duke Constantine resulted
in his retiring into private life. He held aloof at first from the
Polish national rising of 1830, but at the general request of his
countrymen accepted the dictatorship on the 5th of December 1830; on the
23rd of January 1831, however, he resigned in order to fight as a common
soldier. At Wavre (Feb. 19) and at Grochow (Feb. 20) he displayed all
his old bravery, but was so seriously wounded at the battle of Olszyna
that he had to be conveyed to Cracow, near which city he lived in
complete retirement till his death in 1854.

  See Jozef Maczynski, _Life and Death of Joseph Chlopicki_ (Pol.)
  (Cracow, 1858); Ignacy Pradzynski, _The Four Last Polish Commanders_
  (Pol.) (Posen, 1865).




CHLORAL, or TRICHLORACETALDEHYDE, CCl3.CHO, a substance discovered by J.
von Liebig in 1832 (_Ann._, 1832, 1, p. 189) and further studied by
J.B.A. Dumas and Staedeler. It is a heavy, oily and colourless liquid,
of specific gravity 1.541 at 0 deg. C., and boiling-point 97.7 deg. C. It
has a greasy, somewhat bitter taste, and gives off a vapour at ordinary
temperature which has a pungent odour and an irritating effect on the
eyes. The word _chloral_ is derived from the first syllables of
_chlorine_ and _alcohol_, the names of the substances employed for its
preparation. Chloral is soluble in alcohol and ether, in less than its
own weight of water, and in four times its weight of chloroform; it
absorbs chlorine, and dissolves bromine, iodine, phosphorus and sulphur.
Chloral deliquesces in the air, and is converted by water into a
hydrate, with evolution of heat; it combines with alcohols and
mercaptans. An ammoniacal solution of silver nitrate is reduced by
chloral; and nascent hydrogen converts it into aldehyde. By means of
phosphorus pentachloride, chlorine can be substituted for the oxygen of
chloral, the body CCl3.CCl2H being produced; an analogous compound,
CCl3.C(C6H5)2H, is obtained by treating chloral with benzene and
sulphuric acid. With an alkali, chloral gives chloroform (q.v.) and a
formate; oxidizing agents give trichloracetic acid, CCl3.CO(OH). When
kept for some days, as also when placed in contact with sulphuric acid
or a very small quantity of water, chloral undergoes spontaneous change
into the polymeride _metachloral_ (C2Cl3OH)3, a white porcellaneous
body, slowly volatile in the air, and reconverted into chloral without
melting at 180 deg. C. Chloral unites directly with hydrocyanic acid to
form [beta]-trichloracetonitrile, CCl3.CH(OH)CN, and with hydroxylamine it
forms chlorglyoxime, C2H3ClN2O2.

Chloral is prepared by passing dry chlorine into absolute alcohol; the
latter must be cooled at first, but towards the end of the operation has
to be heated nearly to boiling. The alcohol is converted finally into a
syrupy fluid, from which chloral is procured by treatment with sulphuric
acid (see P. Fritsch, _Ann._, 1894, pp. 279, 288). The crude chloral is
distilled over lime, and is purified by further treatment with sulphuric
acid, and by redistillation. A mixture of starch or sugar with manganese
peroxide and hydrochloric acid may be employed instead of alcohol and
chlorine for the manufacture of chloral (A. Staedeler, _Ann. Ch.
Pharm._, 1847, 61, p. 101). An isomer of chloral, _parachloralide_, is
made by passing excess of dry chlorine into absolute methyl alcohol.

  _Chloral hydrate_, CCl3.CH(OH)2, forms oblique, often very short,
  rhombic prisms. The crystals are perfectly transparent, only slightly
  odorous, free from powder, and dry to the touch, and do not become
  white by exposure. The melting-point of pure chloral hydrate is 57 deg.,
  the boiling-point 96-98 deg. C. When heated with sulphuric acid it is
  converted into anhydrous chloral and _chloralide_, C6H2Cl6O3. When
  mixed with water, chloral hydrate causes a considerable degree of
  cold; and, as with camphor, small fragments of it placed on the
  surface of water exhibit gyratory movements. Chloral hydrate does not
  restore the colour to a solution of fuchsine which has been
  decolorized by sulphurous acid, and so one must assume that the water
  present is combined in the molecular condition (V. Meyer, _Ber._,
  1880, 13, p. 2343). Chloral may be estimated by distilling the hydrate
  with milk of lime and measuring the volume of chloroform produced
  (C.H. Wood, _Pharm. Journ._, (3) 1, p. 703), or by hydrolysis with a
  known volume of standard alkali and back titration with standard acid
  (V. Meyer, _Ber._, 1873, 6, p. 600). Chloral hydrate has the property
  of checking the decomposition of a great number of albuminous
  substances, such as milk and meat; and a mixture of it with glycerin,
  according to J. Personne, is suitable for the preservation of
  anatomical preparations. When heated with concentrated glycerin to a
  temperature of 110 deg. to 230 deg. C, chloral hydrate yields chloroform,
  CHCl3, and allyl formate, HCO(OC3H5).

  _Pharmacology and Therapeutics._--The breaking up of chloral hydrate,
  in the presence of alkalis, with the production of chloroform and
  formates, led Liebreich to the conjecture that a similar decomposition
  might be produced in the blood; and hence his introduction of the
  drug, in 1869, as an anaesthetic and hypnotic. It is now known,
  however, that the drug circulates in the blood unchanged, and is
  excreted in the form of urochloralic acid. The dose is from five to
  twenty grains or somewhat more, and it is often given in the form of
  the pharmacopoeial _Syrupus Chloral_, which contains ten grains of
  chloral hydrate to the fluid drachm. Chloral hydrate must be well
  diluted when given by the mouth, as otherwise it may cause
  considerable gastro-intestinal irritation. In large doses chloral
  hydrate is a depressant to the circulation and the respiration, and
  also lowers the temperature. In the above doses the drug is a powerful
  and safe hypnotic, acting directly on the brain, and producing no
  preliminary stage of excitement. Very soon--perhaps twenty
  minutes--after taking such a dose, the patient falls into a sleep
  which lasts several hours, and is not distinguishable from natural
  sleep. When he wakes, it is without disagreeable after-symptoms, but
  with a feeling of natural refreshment. The pupils are always
  contracted under its influence, except in large doses. There is also
  rapidly induced a depression of the anterior horns of grey matter in
  the spinal cord, and as the symptoms of strychnine poisoning are due
  to violent stimulation of these areas, chloral hydrate is a valuable
  antidote in such cases. It should not be hypodermically injected. Its
  disadvantages are that it is powerless when there is pain, resembling
  in this feature nearly all hypnotics except opium (morphine) and
  hyoscin. Its action on the gastro-intestinal canal and on the
  respiratory and circulatory systems renders its use inadvisable when
  disease of these organs is present. Its action on the spinal cord has
  been employed with success in cases of tetanus, whooping-cough,
  urinary incontinence, and strychnine poisoning. In the latter case
  twenty grains in "normal saline" solution may be directly injected
  into a subcutaneous vein, but not into the subcutaneous tissues.

  _Toxicology._--In cases of acute poisoning by chloral hydrate, the
  symptoms may be summarized as those of profound coma. The treatment is
  to give a stimulant emetic such as mustard; to keep up the temperature
  by hot bottles, &c.; to prevent or disturb the patient's morbid sleep
  by the injection of hot strong coffee into the rectum; and by
  shouting, flipping with towels, &c.; to use artificial respiration in
  extreme cases; and to inject strychnine. Strychnine is much less
  likely, however, to save life after poisoning by chloral hydrate, than
  chloral hydrate is to save life in poisoning by strychnine.

  Chronic poisoning by chloral is a most pernicious drug-habit. The vice
  is easily and very rapidly acquired. The victim is usually excited and
  loquacious. He is easily fatigued and suffers from attacks of easily
  induced syncope. There are signs of gastro-intestinal irritation, and
  a tendency to cutaneous eruptions of an erythematous type. The patient
  may succumb to a dose only slightly larger than usual. The treatment
  is on general principles, there being no specific remedy. The patient
  must be persuaded to put himself under restraint, and the drug must be
  stopped at once and entirely.




CHLORATES, the metallic salts of chloric acid; they are all solids,
soluble in water, the least soluble being the potassium salt. They may
be prepared by dissolving or suspending a metallic oxide or hydroxide in
water and saturating the solution with chlorine; by double
decomposition; or by neutralizing a solution of chloric acid by a
metallic oxide, hydroxide or carbonate. They are all decomposed on
heating, with evolution of oxygen; and in contact with concentrated
sulphuric acid with liberation of chlorine peroxide. The most important
is potassium chlorate, KClO3, which was obtained in 1786 by C.L.
Berthollet by the action of chlorine on caustic potash, and this method
was at first used for its manufacture. The modern process consists in
the electrolysis of a hot solution of potassium chloride, or,
preferably, the formation of sodium chlorate by the electrolytic method
and its subsequent decomposition by potassium chloride. (See ALKALI
MANUFACTURE.) Potassium chlorate crystallizes in large white tablets, of
a bright lustre. It melts without decomposition, and begins to give off
oxygen at about 370 deg. C. According to F.L. Teed (_Proc. Chem. Soc._,
1886, p. 141), the decomposition of potassium chlorate by heat is not at
all simple, the quantities of chloride and perchlorate produced
depending on the temperature. A very gentle heating gives decomposition
approximating to the equation of 22KClO3 = 14KClO4 + 8KCl + 5O2, whilst
on a more rapid heating the quantities correspond more nearly to 10KClO3
= 6KClO4 + 4KCl + 3O2. The decomposition is rendered more easy and
regular by mixing the salt with powdered manganese dioxide. The salt
finds application in the preparation of oxygen, in the manufacture of
matches, for pyrotechnic purposes, and in medicine. Sodium chlorate,
NaClO3, is prepared by the electrolytic process; by passing chlorine
into milk of lime and decomposing the calcium chlorate formed by sodium
sulphate; or by the action of chlorine on sodium carbonate at low
temperature (not above 35 deg. C). It is much more soluble in water than
the potassium salt.

Potassium chlorate is very valuable in medicine. Given in large doses it
causes rapid and characteristic poisoning, with alterations in the blood
and rapid degeneration of nearly all the internal organs; but in small
doses--5 to 15 grains--it partly undergoes reduction in the blood and
tissues, the chloride being formed and oxygen being supplied to the
body-cells in nascent form. Its special uses are in ulceration of the
mouth or tongue (_ulcerative stomatitis_), tonsillitis and pharyngitis.
For these conditions it is administered in the form of a lozenge, but
may also be swallowed in solution, as it is excreted by the saliva and
so reaches the diseased surface. Its remarkable efficacy in healing
ulcers of the mouth--for which it is the specific--has been ascribed to
a decomposition effected by the carbonic acid which is given off from
these ulcers. This releases chloric acid, which, being an extremely
powerful antiseptic, kills the bacteria to which the ulcers are due.




CHLORINE (symbol Cl), atomic weight 35.46 (O = 16), a gaseous chemical
element of the halogen group, taking its name from the colour,
greenish-yellow (Gr. [Greek: chloros]). It was discovered in 1774 by
Scheele, who called it _dephlogisticated muriatic acid_; about 1785,
C.L. Berthollet, regarding it as being a compound of hydrochloric acid
and oxygen, termed it _oxygenized muriatic acid_. This view was
generally held until about 1810-1811, when Sir H. Davy showed definitely
that it was an element, and gave it the name which it now bears.

Chlorine is never found in nature in the uncombined condition, but in
combination with the alkali metals it occurs widely distributed in the
form of rock-salt (sodium chloride); as sylvine and carnallite, at
Stassfuert; and to a smaller extent in various other minerals such as
matlockite and horn-mercury. In the form of alkaline chlorides it is
found in sea-water and various spring waters, and in the tissues of
animals and plants; while, as hydrochloric acid it is found in volcanic
gases.

The preparation of chlorine, both on the small scale and commercially,
depends on the oxidation of hydrochloric acid; the usual oxidizing agent
is manganese dioxide, which, when heated with concentrated hydrochloric
acid, forms manganese chloride, water and chlorine:--MnO2 + 4HCl = MnCl2
+ 2H2O + Cl2. The manganese dioxide may be replaced by various other
substances, such as red lead, lead dioxide, potassium bichromate, and
potassium permanganate. Instead of heating hydrochloric acid with
manganese dioxide, use is frequently made of a mixture of common salt
and manganese dioxide, to which concentrated sulphuric acid is added and
the mixture is then heated:--MnO2 + 2NaCl + 3H2SO4 = MnSO4 + 2NaHSO4 +
2H2O + Cl2. Chlorine may also be obtained by the action of dilute
sulphuric acid on bleaching powder.

Owing to the enormous quantities of chlorine required for various
industrial purposes, many processes have been devised, either for the
recovery of the manganese from the crude manganese chloride of the
chlorine stills, so that it can be again utilized, or for the purpose of
preparing chlorine without the necessity of using manganese in any form
(see ALKALI MANUFACTURE).

  Owing to the reduction in the supply of available hydrochloric acid
  (on account of the increasing use of the "ammonia-soda" process in
  place of the "Leblanc" process for the manufacture of soda) Weldon
  tried to adapt the former to the production of chlorine or
  hydrochloric acid. His method consisted in using magnesia instead of
  lime for the recovery of the ammonia (which occurs in the form of
  ammonium chloride in the ammonia-soda process), and then by
  evaporating the magnesium chloride solution and heating the residue in
  steam, to condense the acid vapours and so obtain hydrochloric acid.
  One day before him E. Solvay had patented the same process, but
  neither of them was able to make the method a commercial success.
  However, in conjunction with Pechiney, of Salindres (near Alais,
  France), the Weldon-Pechiney process was worked out. The residual
  magnesium chloride of the ammonia-soda process is evaporated until it
  ceases to give off hydrochloric acid, and is then mixed with more
  magnesia: the magnesium oxychloride formed is broken into small pieces
  and heated in a current of air, when it gives up its chlorine, partly
  in the uncombined condition and partly in the form of hydrochloric
  acid, and leaves a residue of magnesia, which can again be utilized
  for the decomposition of more ammonium chloride (W. Weldon, _Journ. of
  Soc. of Chem. Industry_, 1884, p. 387). Greater success attended the
  efforts of Ludwig Mond, of the firm of Brunner, Mond & Co. In this
  process the ammonium chloride is volatilized in large iron retorts
  lined with Doulton tiles, and then led into large upright wrought-iron
  cylinders lined with fire-bricks. These cylinders are filled with
  pills, made of a mixture of magnesia, potassium chloride and fireclay,
  the object of the potassium chloride being to prevent any formation of
  hydrochloric acid, which might occur if the magnesia was not perfectly
  dry. At 300 deg. C. the ammonium chloride is decomposed by the magnesia,
  with the formation of magnesium chloride and ammonia. The mixture is
  now heated to 600 deg. C. in a current of hot dry gas, containing no free
  oxygen (the gas from the carbonating plant being used), and then a
  current of air at the same temperature is passed in. Decomposition
  takes place and the issuing gas contains 18-20% of chlorine. This
  percentage drops gradually, and when it is reduced to about 3% the
  temperature of the apparatus is lowered, by the admission of air, to
  about 350 deg. C., and the air stream containing the small percentage of
  chlorine is led off to a second cylinder of pills, which have just
  been treated with ammonium chloride vapour and are ready for the hot
  air current. With four cylinders the process is continuous (L. Mond,
  _British Assoc. Reports_, 1896, p. 734).

  More recently, owing to the production of caustic soda by electrolytic
  methods, much chlorine has consequently been produced in the same
  manner (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE).

Chlorine is a gas of a greenish-yellow colour, and possesses a
characteristic unpleasant and suffocating smell. It can be liquefied at
-34 deg. C. under atmospheric pressure, and at -102 deg. C. it solidifies
and crystallizes. Its specific heat at constant pressure is 0.1155, and at
constant volume 0.08731 (A. Strecker, _Wied. Ann._, 1877 [2], 13, p.
20); and its refractive index 1.000772, whilst in the liquid condition
the refractive index is 1.367. The density is 2.4885 (air = 1)
(Treadwell and Christie, _Zeit. anorg. Chem._, 1905, 47, p. 446). Its
critical temperature is 146 deg. C. Liquid and solid chlorine are both
yellow in colour. The gas must be collected either by downward
displacement, since it is soluble in water and also attacks mercury; or
over a saturated salt solution, in which it is only slightly soluble. At
ordinary temperatures it unites directly with many other elements; thus
with hydrogen, combination takes place in direct sunlight with explosive
violence; arsenic, antimony, thin copper foil and phosphorus take fire
in an atmosphere of chlorine, forming the corresponding chlorides. Many
compounds containing hydrogen are readily decomposed by the gas; for
example, a piece of paper dipped in turpentine inflames in an atmosphere
of chlorine, producing hydrochloric acid and a copious deposit of soot;
a lighted taper burns in chlorine with a dull smoky flame. The solution
of chlorine in water, when freshly prepared, possesses a yellow colour,
but on keeping becomes colourless, on account of its decomposition into
hydrochloric acid and oxygen. It is on this property that its bleaching
and disinfecting power depends (see BLEACHING). Water saturated with
chlorine at 0 deg. C. deposits crystals of a hydrate Cl2.8H2O, which is
readily decomposed at a higher temperature into its constituents.
Chlorine hydrate has an historical importance, as by sealing it up in a
bent tube, and heating the end containing the hydrate, whilst the other
limb of the tube was enclosed in a freezing mixture, M. Faraday was
first able to obtain liquid chlorine.

  Chlorine is used commercially for the extraction of gold (q.v.) and
  for the manufacture of "bleaching powder" and of chlorates. It also
  finds an extensive use in organic chemistry as a substituting and
  oxidizing agent, as well as for the preparation of addition compounds.
  For purposes of substitution, the free element as a rule only works
  slowly on saturated compounds, but the reaction may be accelerated by
  the action of sunlight or on warming, or by using a "carrier." In
  these latter cases the reaction may proceed in different directions;
  thus, with the aromatic hydrocarbons, chlorine in the cold or in the
  presence of a carrier substitutes in the benzene nucleus, but in the
  presence of sunlight or on warming, substitution takes place in the
  side chain. Iodine, antimony trichloride, molybdenum pentachloride,
  ferric chloride, ferric oxide, antimony, tin, stannic oxide and
  ferrous sulphate have all been used as chlorine carriers.

  The atomic weight of chlorine was determined by J. Berzelius and by
  F. Penny (_Phil, Trans._, 1839, 13). J.S. Stas, from the synthesis of
  silver chloride, obtained the value 35.457 (O = 16), and C. Marignac
  found the value 34.462. More recent determinations are: H.B. Dixon and
  E.C. Edgar (_Phil. Trans._, 1905); T.W. Richards and G. Jones (_Abst.
  J.C.S._, 1907); W.A. Noyes and H.C. Weber (ibid., 1908), and Edgar
  (ibid., 1908).

_Hydrochloric Acid._--Chlorine combines with hydrogen to form
hydrochloric acid, HCl, the only known compound of these two elements.
The acid itself was first obtained by J.R. Glauber in about 1648, but J.
Priestley in 1772 was the first to isolate it in the gaseous condition,
and Sir H. Davy in 1810 showed that it contained hydrogen and chlorine
only, as up to that time it was considered to contain oxygen. It may be
prepared by the direct union of its constituents (see Burgess and
Chapman, _J.C.S._, 1906, 89, p. 1399), but on the large scale and also
for the preparation of small quantities it is made by the decomposition
of salt by means of concentrated sulphuric acid, NaCl+H2SO4=NaHSO4+HCl.
It is chiefly obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of soda-ash by
the Leblanc process (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE). The commercial acid is
usually yellow in colour and contains many impurities, such as traces of
arsenic, sulphuric acid, chlorine, ferric chloride and sulphurous acid;
but these do not interfere with its application to the preparation of
bleaching powder, in which it is chiefly consumed. Without further
purification it is also used for "souring" in bleaching, and in tin and
lead soldering.

  It is a colourless gas, which can be condensed by cold and pressure to
  a liquid boiling at -83.7 deg. C., and can also be solidified, the solid
  melting at -112.5 deg. C. (K. Olszewski). Its critical temperature is
  52.3 deg. C., and its critical pressure is 86 atmos. The gas fumes
  strongly in moist air, and it is rapidly dissolved by water, one
  volume of water at 0 deg. C. absorbing 503 volumes of the gas. The gas
  does not obey Henry's law, that is, its solubility in water is not
  proportional to its pressure. It is one of the "strong" acids, being
  ionized to the extent of about 91.4% in decinormal solution. The
  strongest aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid at 15 deg. C. contains
  42.9% of the acid, and has a specific gravity of 1.212. Perfectly dry
  hydrochloric acid gas has no action on metals, but in aqueous solution
  it dissolves many of them with evolution of hydrogen and formation of
  chlorides.

  The salts of hydrochloric acid, known as _chlorides_, can, in most
  cases, be prepared by dissolving either the metal, its hydroxide,
  oxide, or carbonate in the acid; or by heating the metal in a current
  of chlorine, or by precipitation. The majority of the metallic
  chlorides are solids (stannic chloride, titanic chloride and antimony
  pentachloride are liquids) which readily volatilize on heating. Many
  are readily soluble in water, the chief exceptions being silver
  chloride, mercurous chloride, cuprous chloride and palladious chloride
  which are insoluble in water, and thallous chloride and lead chloride
  which are only slightly soluble in cold water, but are readily soluble
  in hot water. Bismuth and antimony chlorides are decomposed by water
  with production of oxychlorides, whilst titanium tetrachloride yields
  titanic acid under the same conditions. All the metallic chlorides,
  with the exception of those of the alkali and alkaline earth metals,
  are reduced either to the metallic condition or to that of a lower
  chloride on heating in a current of hydrogen; most are decomposed by
  concentrated sulphuric acid. They can be distinguished from the
  corresponding bromides and iodides by the fact that on distillation
  with a mixture of potassium bichromate and concentrated sulphuric acid
  they yield chromium oxychloride, whereas bromides and iodides by the
  same treatment give bromine and iodine respectively. Some metallic
  chlorides readily form double chlorides, the most important of these
  double salts being the platinochlorides of the alkali metals. The
  chlorides of the non-metallic elements are usually volatile fuming
  liquids of low boiling-point, which can be distilled without
  decomposition and are decomposed by water. Hydrochloric acid and its
  metallic salts can be recognized by the formation of insoluble silver
  chloride, on adding silver nitrate to their nitric acid solution, and
  also by the formation of chromium oxychloride (see above). Chlorides
  can be estimated quantitatively by conversion into silver chloride, or
  if in the form of alkaline chlorides (in the absence of other metals,
  and of any free acids) by titration with standard silver nitrate
  solution, using potassium chromate as an indicator.

  Chlorine and oxygen do not combine directly, but compounds can be
  obtained indirectly. Three oxides are known: chlorine monoxide, Cl2O,
  chlorine peroxide, ClO2, and chlorine heptoxide, Cl2O7.

  Chlorine monoxide results on passing chlorine over dry precipitated
  mercuric oxide. It is a pale yellow gas which can be condensed, on
  cooling, to a dark-coloured liquid boiling at 5 deg. C. (under a
  pressure of 737.9 mm.). It is extremely unstable, decomposing with
  extreme violence on the slightest shock or disturbance, or on exposure
  to sunlight. It is readily soluble in water, with which it combines to
  form hypochlorous acid. Sulphur, phosphorus, carbon compounds, and
  the alkali metals react violently with the gas, taking fire with
  explosive decomposition. A.J. Balard determined the volume composition
  of the gas by decomposition over mercury on gentle warming, followed
  by the absorption of the chlorine produced with potassium hydroxide,
  and then measured the residual oxygen.

  Chlorine peroxide was first obtained by Sir H. Davy in 1815 by the
  action of concentrated sulphuric acid on potassium chlorate. As this
  oxide is a dangerous explosive, great care must be taken in its
  preparation; the chlorate is finely powdered and added in the cold, in
  small quantities at a time, to the acid contained in a retort. After
  solution the retort is gently heated by warm water when the gas is
  liberated:--3KClO3 + 2H2SO4 = KClO4 + 2KHSO4 + H2O + ClO2. A mixture
  of chlorine peroxide and chlorine is obtained by the action of
  hydrochloric acid on potassium chlorate, and similarly, on warming a
  mixture of potassium chlorate and oxalic acid to 70 deg. C. on the water
  bath, a mixture of chlorine peroxide and carbon dioxide is obtained.
  Chlorine peroxide must be collected by displacement, as it is soluble
  in water and readily attacks mercury. It is a heavy gas of a deep
  yellow colour and possesses an unpleasant smell. It can be liquefied,
  the liquid boiling at 9.9 deg. C., and on further cooling it solidifies
  at -79 deg. C. It is very explosive, being resolved into its constituents
  by influence of light, on warming, or on application of shock. It is a
  very powerful oxidant; a mixture of potassium chlorate and sugar in
  about equal proportions spontaneously inflames when touched with a rod
  moistened with concentrated sulphuric acid, the chlorine peroxide
  liberated setting fire to the sugar, which goes on burning. Similarly,
  phosphorus can be burned under water by covering it with a little
  potassium chlorate and running in a thin stream of concentrated
  sulphuric acid (see papers by Bray, _Zeit. phys. Chem._, 1906, et
  seq.).

  Chlorine heptoxide was obtained by A. Michael by slowly adding
  perchloric acid to phosphoric oxide below -10 deg. C.; the mixture is
  allowed to stand for a day and then gently warmed, when the oxide
  distils over as a colourless very volatile oil of boiling-point 82 deg.
  C. It turns to a greenish-yellow colour in two or three days and gives
  off a greenish gas; it explodes violently on percussion or in contact
  with a flame, and is gradually converted into perchloric acid by the
  action of water. On the addition of iodine to this oxide, chlorine is
  liberated and a white substance is produced, which decomposes, on
  heating to 380 deg. C, into iodine and oxygen; bromine is without action
  (see A. Michael, _Amer. Chem. Jour._, 1900, vol. 23; 1901, vol. 25).

  Several oxy-acids of chlorine are known, namely, hypochlorous acid,
  HClO, chlorous acid, HClO2 (in the form of its salts), chloric acid,
  HClO3, and perchloric acid, HClO4. Hypochlorous acid is formed when
  chlorine monoxide dissolves in water, and can be prepared (in dilute
  solution) by passing chlorine through water containing precipitated
  mercuric oxide in suspension. Precipitated calcium carbonate may be
  used in place of the mercuric oxide, or a hypochlorite may be
  decomposed by a dilute mineral acid and the resulting solution
  distilled. For this purpose a filtered solution of bleaching-powder
  and a very dilute solution of nitric acid may be employed. The acid is
  only known in aqueous solution, and only dilute solutions can be
  distilled without decomposition. The solution has a pale yellow
  colour, and is a strong oxidizing and bleaching agent; it is readily
  decomposed by hydrochloric acid, with evolution of oxygen. The salts
  of this acid are known as hypochlorites, and like the acid itself are
  very unstable, so that it is almost impossible to obtain them pure. A
  solution of sodium hypochlorite (_Eau de Javel_), which can be
  prepared by passing chlorine into a cold aqueous solution of caustic
  soda, has been extensively used for bleaching purposes. One of the
  most important derivatives of hypochlorous acid is bleaching powder.
  Sodium hypochlorite can be prepared by the electrolysis of brine
  solution in the presence of carbon electrodes, having no diaphragm in
  the electrolytic cell, and mixing the anode and cathode products by
  agitating the liquid. The temperature should be kept at about 15 deg. C.,
  and the concentration of the hypochlorite produced must not be allowed
  to become too great, in order to prevent reduction taking place at the
  cathode.

  Chlorous acid is not known in the pure condition; but its sodium salt
  is prepared by the action of sodium peroxide on a solution of chlorine
  peroxide: 2ClO2 + Na2O2 = 2NaClO2 + O2. The silver and lead salts are
  unstable, being decomposed with explosive violence at 100 deg. C. On
  adding a caustic alkali solution to one of chlorine peroxide, a
  mixture of a chlorite and a chlorate is obtained.

  Chloric acid was discovered in 1786 by C.L. Berthollet, and is best
  prepared by decomposing barium chlorate with the calculated amount of
  dilute sulphuric acid. The aqueous solution can be concentrated _in
  vacuo_ over sulphuric acid until it contains 40% of chloric acid.
  Further concentration leads to decomposition, with evolution of oxygen
  and formation of perchloric acid. The concentrated solution is a
  powerful oxidizing agent; organic matter being oxidized so rapidly
  that it frequently inflames. Hydrochloric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen
  and sulphurous acid are rapidly oxidized by chloric acid. J.S. Stas
  determined its composition by the analysis of pure silver chlorate.
  The salts of this acid are known as chlorates (q.v.).

  Perchloric acid is best prepared by distilling potassium perchlorate
  with concentrated sulphuric acid. According to Sir H. Roscoe, pure
  perchloric acid distils over at first, but if the distillation be
  continued a white crystalline mass of hydrated perchloric acid,
  HClO4.H2O, passes over; this is due to the decomposition of some of
  the acid into water and lower oxides of chlorine, the water produced
  then combining with the pure acid to produce the hydrated form. This
  solid, on redistillation, gives the pure acid, which is a liquid
  boiling at 39 deg. C. (under a pressure of 56 mm.) and of specific
  gravity 1.764 (22/4) deg.. The crystalline hydrate melts at 50 deg. C.
  The pure acid decomposes slowly on standing, but is stable in dilute
  aqueous solution. It is a very powerful oxidizing agent; wood and paper
  in contact with the acid inflame with explosive violence. In contact
  with the skin it produces painful wounds. It may be distinguished from
  chloric acid by the fact that it does not give chlorine peroxide when
  treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, and that it is not reduced
  by sulphurous acid. The salts of the acid are known as the
  _perchlorates_, and are all soluble in water; the potassium and
  rubidium salts, however, are only soluble to a slight extent.
  Potassium perchlorate, KClO4, can be obtained by carefully heating the
  chlorate until it first melts and then nearly all solidifies again.
  The fused mass is then extracted with water to remove potassium
  chloride, and warmed with hydrochloric acid to remove unaltered
  chlorate, and finally extracted with water again, when a residue of
  practically pure perchlorate is obtained. The alkaline perchlorates
  are isomorphous with the permanganates.




CHLORITE, a group of green micaceous minerals which are hydrous
silicates of aluminium, magnesium and ferrous iron. The name was given
by A.G. Werner in 1798, from [Greek: chloritis], "a green stone."
Several species and many rather ill-defined varieties have been
described, but they are difficult to recognize. Like the micas, the
chlorites (or "hydromicas") are monoclinic in crystallization and have a
perfect cleavage parallel to the flat face of the scales and plates. The
cleavage is, however, not quite so prominent as in the micas, and the
cleavage flakes though pliable are not elastic. The chlorites usually
occur as salt (H=2-3) scaly aggregates of a dark-green colour. They vary
in specific gravity between 2.6 and 3.0, according to the amount of iron
present. Well-developed crystals are met with only in the species
clinochlore and penninite; those of the former are six-sided plates and
are optically biaxial, whilst those of the latter have the form of acute
rhombohedra and are usually optically uniaxial. The species prochlorite
and corundophilite also occur as more or less distinct six-sided plates.
These four better crystallized species are grouped together by G.
Tschermak as orthochlorites, the finely scaly and indistinctly fibrous
forms being grouped by the same author as leptochlorites.

Chemically, the chlorites are distinguished from the micas by the
presence of a considerable amount of water (about 13%) and by not
containing alkalis; from the soft, scaly, mineral talc they differ in
containing aluminium (about 20%) as an essential constituent. The
magnesia (up to 36%) is often in part replaced by ferrous oxide (up to
30%), and the alumina to a lesser extent by ferric oxide; alumina may
also be partly replaced by chromic oxide, as in the rose-red varieties
kaemmererite and kotschubeite. The composition of both clinochlore and
penninite is approximately expressed by the formula H8(Mg,Fe)5Al2Si3O18,
and the formulae of prochlorite and corundophilite are
H40(Mg,Fe)23Al14Si13O90 and H20(Mg,Fe)20Al8Si6O45 respectively. The
variation in composition of these orthochlorites is explained by G.
Tschermak by assuming them to be isomorphous mixtures of H4Mg3Si2O9 (the
serpentine molecule) and H4Mg3Al2SiO9 (which is approximately the
composition of the chlorite amesite). The leptochlorites are still more
complex, and the intermixture of other fundamental molecules has to be
assumed; the species recognized by Dana are daphnite, cronstedtite,
thuringite, stilpnomelane, strigovite, diabantite, aphrosiderite,
delessite and rumpfite.

The chlorites usually occur as alteration products of other minerals,
such as pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, garnet, &c., often occurring as
pseudomorphs after these, or as earthy material filling cavities in
igneous rocks composed of these minerals. Many altered igneous rocks owe
their green colour to the presence of secondary chlorite. Chlorite is
also an important constituent of many schistose rocks and phyllites, and
of chlorite-schist it is the only essential constituent.
Well-crystallized specimens of the species clinochlore are found with
crystals of garnet in cavities in chlorite-schist at Achmatovsk near
Zlatoust, in the Urals, and at the Ala valley near Turin, Piedmont;
also as large plates at West Chester in Pennsylvania and at other
American localities. Crystals of penninite are found in serpentine at
Zermatt in Switzerland and in the green schists of the Zillerthal in
Tirol.

Closely allied to the chlorites is another group of micaceous minerals
known as the vermiculites, which have resulted by the alteration of the
micas, particularly biotite and phlogopite. The name is from the Latin
_vermiculor_, "to breed worms," because when heated before the blowpipe
these minerals exfoliate into long worm-like threads. They have the same
chemical constituents as the chlorites, but the composition is variable
and indefinite, varying with that of the original mineral and the extent
of its alteration. Several indistinct varieties have been named, the
most important of which is jeffersonite.    (L. J. S.)




CHLOROFORM (trichlor-methane), CHCl3, a valuable anaesthetic, a
colourless liquid, possessing an agreeable smell and a pleasant taste.
It may be prepared by the action of bleaching powder on many carbon
compounds, such, for example, as ethyl alcohol and acetone (E.
Soubeiran, _Ann. chim. phys._, 1831 [2], 48, p. 131; J.v. Liebig,
_Ann._, 1832, I, p. 199), by heating chloral with alkalis (Liebig),
CCl3CHO + NaHO = CHCl3 + NaHCO2, or by heating trichloracetic acid with
ammonia (J. Dumas, _Ann._, 1839, 32, p. 113). In the preparation of
chloroform by the action of bleaching powder on ethyl alcohol it is
probable that the alcohol is first oxidized to acetaldehyde, which is
subsequently chlorinated and then decomposed. Chloroform solidifies in
the cold and then melts at -62 deg. C.; it boils at 61.2 deg. C., and has a
specific gravity 1.52637 (0 deg./4 deg.) (T.E. Thorpe). It is an
exceedingly good solvent, especially for fats, alkaloids and iodine. It is
not inflammable. The vapour of chloroform when passed through a red-hot
tube yields hexachlorbenzene C6Cl6, perchlorethane C2Cl6, and some
perchlorethylene C2Cl4 (W. Ramsay and S. Young, _Jahresberichte_, 1886,
p. 628). Chromic acid converts it into _phosgene_ (carbonyl chloride,
COCl2). It reacts with sodium ethylate to form ortho-formic ester,
CH(OC2H5)3, and when heated with aqueous ammonia for some hours at
200-220 deg. C. gives carbon monoxide and ammonium formate, 2CHCl3 + 7NH3 +
3H2O = NH4.HCO2 + CO + 6NH4Cl (G. Andre, _Jahresb._, 1886, p. 627). When
digested with phenols and caustic soda it forms oxyaldehydes (K. Reimer,
_Ber._, 1876, 9, p. 423); and when heated with alcoholic potash it is
converted into potassium formate, CHCl3 + 4KHO = KHCO2 + 3KCl + 2H2O. It
combines with acetoacetic ester to form the aromatic compound
meta-oxyuvitic acid, C6H2.CH3.OH.(COOH)2. A hydrate, of composition
CHCl3.18H2O, has been described (G. Chancel, _Fresenius Zeitschrift f.
anal. Chemie_, 1886, 25, p. 118); it forms hexagonal crystals which melt
at 1.6 deg. C.

Chloroform may be readily detected by the production of an isonitrile
when it is heated with alcoholic potash and a primary amine; thus with
aniline, phenyl isocyanide (recognized by its nauseating smell) is
produced,

  CHCl3 + C6H5NH2 + 3KHO = C6H5NC + 3KCl + 3H2O.

For the action and use of chloroform as an anaesthetic, see ANAESTHESIA.
Chloroform may be given internally in doses of from one to five drops.
The _British Pharmacopoeia_ contains a watery solution--the _Aqua
Chloroformi_--which is useful in disguising the taste of nauseous drugs;
a liniment which consists of equal parts of camphor liniment and
chloroform, and is a useful counter-irritant; the _Spiritus Chloroformi_
(erroneously known as "chloric ether"), which is a useful anodyne in
doses of from five to forty drops; and the _Tinctura Chloroformi et
Morphinae Composita_, which is the equivalent of a proprietary drug
called chlorodyne. This tincture contains chloroform, morphine and
prussic acid, and must be used with the greatest care.

Externally chloroform is an antiseptic, a local anaesthetic if allowed
to evaporate, and a rubefacient, causing the vessels of the skin to
dilate, if rubbed in. Its action on the stomach is practically identical
with that of alcohol (q.v.), though in very much smaller doses. The uses
of chloroform which fall to be mentioned here are:--as a
counter-irritant; as a local anaesthetic for toothache due to caries, it
being applied on a cotton-wool plug which is inserted into the carious
cavity; as an antispasmodic in tetanus and hydrophobia; and as the best
and most immediate and effective antidote in cases of strychnine
poisoning.




CHLOROPHYLL (from Gr. [Greek: chloros], green, [Greek: phyllon], a
leaf), the green colouring matter of leaves. It is universally present
in growing vegetable cells. The pigment of leaves is a complex mixture
of substances; of these one is green, and to this the name, originally
given in 1817 by Pelletier and Caventou, is sometimes restricted;
xanthophyll (Gr. [Greek: xanthos], yellow) is dark brown; carotin is
copper-coloured. Chlorophyll is related chemically to the proteids; a
decomposition product, phylloporphyrin, being very closely related to
haematoporphyrin, which is a decomposition product of haemoglobin, the
red colouring matter of the blood. Chlorophyll is neutral in reaction,
insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, &c, the solutions
exhibiting a green colour and a vivid red fluorescence. Magnesium is a
necessary constituent. (See S.B. Schryver, _Science Progress_, 1909, 3,
p. 425.)




CHLOROSIS (Gr. [Greek: chloros], pale green), the botanical term for
loss of colour in a plant-organ, a sign of disease; also in medicine, a
form of anaemia (see BLOOD: _Pathology_).




CHLORPICRIN (Nitrochloroform), C.NO2.Cl3, the product of the
distillation of many nitro compounds (picric acid, nitromethane, &c.)
with bleaching powder; it can also be prepared by the action of
concentrated nitric acid on chloral or chloroform. A. W. von Hofmann
(_Annalen_, 1866, 139, p. 111) mixed 10 parts of bleaching powder into a
paste with cold water and added a solution (saturated at 30 deg. C.) of 1
part of picric acid. A violent reaction is set up and the chlorpicrin
distils over, generally without the necessity for any external heating.
It is a colourless liquid of boiling-point 112 deg. C., and of specific
gravity 1.692. It is almost insoluble in water, but is readily soluble
in alcohol; it has a sharp smell, and its vapour affects the eyes very
powerfully. Iron filings and acetic acid reduce it to trimethylamine,
whilst alcoholic ammonia converts it into guanidine, HN:C(NH2)2, and
sodium ethylate into ortho-carbonic ester, C(OC2H5)4. The corresponding
brompicrin is also known.




CHMIELNICKI, BOGDAN (c. 1593-1657), hetman of the Cossacks, son of
Michael Chmielnicki, was born at Subatow, near Chigirin in the Ukraine,
an estate given to the elder Chmielnicki for his lifelong services to
the Polish crown. Bogdan, after learning to read and write, a rare
accomplishment in those days, entered the Cossack ranks, was dangerously
wounded and taken prisoner in his first battle against the Turks, and
found leisure during his two years' captivity at Constantinople to
acquire the rudiments of Turkish and French. On returning to the Ukraine
he settled down quietly on his paternal estate, and in all probability
history would never have known his name if the intolerable persecution
of a neighbouring Polish squire, who stole his hayricks and flogged his
infant son to death, had not converted the thrifty and acquisitive
Cossack husbandman into one of the most striking and sinister figures of
modern times. Failing to get redress nearer home, he determined to seek
for justice at Warsaw, whither he had been summoned with other Cossack
delegates to assist Wladislaus IV. in his long-projected war against the
Turks. The king, perceiving him to be a man of some education and
intelligence, appointed him _pisarz_ or secretary of the registered
Cossacks, and he subsequently served under Koniecpolski in the Ukraine
campaign of 1646. His hopes of distinction were, however, cut short by a
decree of the Polish diet, which, in order to vex the king, refused to
sanction the continuance of the war. Chmielnicki, now doubly hateful to
the Poles as being both a royalist and a Cossack, was again maltreated
and chicaned, and only escaped from gaol by bribing his gaolers.
Thirsting for vengeance, he fled to the Cossack settlements on the Lower
Dnieper and thence sent messages to the khan of the Crimea, urging a
simultaneous invasion of Poland by the Tatars and the Cossacks (1647).

On the 11th of April 1648, at an assembly of the Zaporozhians (see
POLAND: _History_), he openly declared his intention of proceeding
against the Poles, and was elected ataman by acclamation. At Zheltnaya
Vodui (Yellow Waters) in the Ukraine he annihilated, on the 19th of May,
a detached Polish army corps after three days' desperate fighting, and
on the 26th routed the main Polish army under the grand hetman, Stephen
Potocki, at Kruta Balka (Hard Plank), near the river Korsun. The
immediate consequence of these victories was the outbreak of a "serfs'
fury." Throughout the Ukraine the Polish gentry were hunted down, flayed
and burnt alive, blinded and sawn asunder. Every manor-house was reduced
to ashes. Every Uniat and Catholic priest was hung up before his own
altar, along with a Jew and a hog. The panic-stricken inhabitants fled
to the nearest strongholds, and soon the rebels were swarming all over
the palatinates of Volhynia and Podolia. But the ataman was as crafty as
he was cruel. Disagreeably awakened to the insecurity of his position by
the refusal of the tsar and the sultan to accept him as a vassal, he
feigned to resume negotiations with the Poles in order to gain time,
dismissed the Polish commissioners in the summer of 1648 with impossible
conditions, and on the 23rd of September, after a contest of three days,
utterly routed the Polish chivalry, 40,000 strong, at Pildawa, where the
Cossacks are said to have reaped an immense booty after the fight was
over. All Poland now lay at his feet, and the road to the defenceless
capital was open before him; but he wasted the precious months in vain
before the fortress of Zamosc, and was then persuaded by the new king of
Poland, John Casimir, to consent to a suspension of hostilities. In June
1649, arrayed in cloth-of-gold and mounted on a white charger,
Chmielnicki made his triumphal entry into Kiev, where he was hailed as
the Maccabaeus of the Orthodox faith, and permitted the committal of
unspeakable atrocities on the Jews and Roman Catholics. At the ensuing
peace congress at Pereyaslavl he demanded terms so extravagant that the
Polish commissioners dared not listen to them. In 1649, therefore, the
war was resumed. A bloody battle ensued near Zborow, on the banks of the
Strypa, when only the personal valour of the Polish king, the
superiority of the Polish artillery, and the defection of Chmielnicki's
allies the Tatars enabled the royal forces to hold their own. Peace was
then patched up by the compact of Zborow (August 21, 1649), whereby
Chmielnicki was virtually recognized as a semi-independent prince.

For the next eighteen months he was the absolute master of the Ukraine,
which he divided into sixteen provinces, made his native place Chigirin
the Cossack capital, and entered into direct relations with foreign
powers. Poland and Muscovy competed for his alliance, and in his more
exalted moods he meditated an Orthodox crusade against the Turk at the
head of the northern Slavs. But he was no statesman, and his
difficulties proved overwhelming. Instinct told him that his old ally
the khan of the Crimea was unreliable, and that the tsar of Muscovy was
his natural protector, yet he could not make up his mind to abandon the
one or turn to the other. His attempt to carve a principality for his
son out of Moldavia, which Poland regarded as her vassal, led to the
outbreak in 1651 of a third war between subject and suzerain, which
speedily assumed the dignity and the dimensions of a crusade.
Chmielnicki was now regarded not merely as a Cossack rebel, but as the
arch-enemy of Catholicism in eastern Europe, and the pope granted a
plenary absolution to all who took up arms against him. But Bogdan
himself was not without ecclesiastical sanction. The archbishop of
Corinth girded him with a sword which had lain upon the Holy Sepulchre,
and the metropolitan of Kiev absolved him from all his sins, without the
usual preliminary of confession, before he rode forth to battle. But
fortune, so long his friend, now deserted him, and at Beresteczko (July
1, 1651) the Cossack ataman was defeated for the first time. But even
now his power was far from broken. In 1652 he openly interfered in the
affairs of Transylvania and Walachia, and assumed the high-sounding
title of "guardian of the Ottoman Porte." In 1653 Poland made a supreme
effort, the diet voted 17,000,000 gulden in subsidies, and John Casimir
led an army of 60,000 men into the Ukraine and defeated the arch-rebel
at Zranta, whereupon Chmielnicki took the oath of allegiance to the tsar
(compact of Pereyaslavl, February 19, 1654), and all hope of an
independent Cossack state was at an end. He died on the 7th of August
1657. With all his native ability, Chmielnicki was but an eminent
savage. He was the creature of every passing mood or whim, incapable of
cool and steady judgment or of the slightest self-control--an
incalculable weather-cock, blindly obsequious to every blast of passion.
He could destroy, but he could not create, and other people benefited by
his exploits.

  See P. Kulish, _On the Defection of Malo-Russia from Poland_ (Rus.)
  (Moscow, 1890); S.M. Solovev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.) (Moscow,
  1857, &c.), vol. x.; Robert Nisbet Bain, _The First Romanovs_, chaps.
  3-4 (London, 1905).    (R. N. B.)




CHOATE, JOSEPH HODGES (1832-   ), American lawyer and diplomat, was born
at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 24th of January 1832. He was the son of
Dr George Choate, a physician of considerable note, and was a nephew of
Rufus Choate. After graduating at Harvard College in 1852 and at the law
school of Harvard University in 1854, he was admitted first to the
Massachusetts (1855) and then (1856) to the New York bar, and entered
the law office of Scudder & Carter in New York City. His success in his
profession was immediate, and in 1860 he became junior partner in the
firm of Evarts, Southmayd & Choate, the senior partner in which was
William M. Evarts. This firm and its successor, that of Evarts, Choate &
Beaman, remained for many years among the leading law firms of New York
and of the country, the activities of both being national rather than
local. During these busy years Mr Choate was associated with many of the
most famous litigations in American legal history, including the Tilden,
A.T. Stewart, and Stanford will cases, the Kansas prohibition cases, the
Chinese exclusion cases, the Maynard election returns case, and the
Income Tax Suit. In 1871 he became a member of the "Committee of
Seventy" in New York City, which was instrumental in breaking up the
"Tweed Ring," and later assisted in the prosecution of the indicted
officials. In the retrial of the General Fitz John Porter case he
obtained a reversal of the decision of the original court-martial. His
greatest reputation was won perhaps in cross-examination. In politics he
allied himself with the Republican party on its organization, being a
frequent speaker in presidential campaigns, beginning with that of 1856.
He never held political office, although he was a candidate for the
Republican senatorial nomination against Senator Thomas C. Platt in
1897. In 1894 he was president of the New York state constitutional
convention. He was appointed, by President McKinley, ambassador to Great
Britain to succeed John Hay in 1899, and remained in this position until
the spring of 1905. In England he won great personal popularity, and
accomplished much in fostering the good relations of the two great
English-speaking powers. He was one of the representatives of the United
States at the second Peace Congress at the Hague in 1907.

  Several of his notable public addresses have been published. _The
  Choate Story Book_ (New York, 1903) contains a few of his addresses
  and after-dinner speeches, and is prefaced by a brief biographical
  sketch.




CHOATE, RUFUS (1799-1859), American lawyer and orator, was born at
Ipswich, Massachusetts, on the 1st of October 1799, the descendant of a
family which settled in Massachusetts in 1667. As a child he was
remarkably precocious; at six he is said to have been able to repeat
large parts of the Bible and of _Pilgrim's Progress_ by heart. He
graduated as valedictorian of his class at Dartmouth College in 1819,
was a tutor there in 1819-1820, spent a year in the law school of
Harvard University, and studied for a like period at Washington, in the
office of William Wirt, then attorney-general of the United States. He
was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1823 and practised at what was
later South Danvers (now Peabody) for five years, during which time he
served in the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1825-1826) and in
the state senate (1827). In 1828 he removed to Salem, where his
successful conduct of several important law-suits brought him
prominently into public notice. In 1830 he was elected to Congress as a
Whig from the Salem district, defeating the Jacksonian candidate for
re-election, B.W. Crowninshield (1772-1851), a former secretary of the
navy, and in 1832 he was re-elected. His career in Congress was marked
by a notable speech in defence of a protective tariff. In 1834, before
the completion of his second term, he resigned and established himself
in the practice of law in Boston. Already his fame as a speaker had
spread beyond New England, and he was much sought after as an orator for
public occasions. For several years he devoted himself unremittingly to
his profession, but in 1841 succeeded Daniel Webster in the United
States Senate. Shortly afterwards he delivered one of his most eloquent
addresses at the memorial services for President Harrison in Faneuil
Hall, Boston. In the Senate he made a series of brilliant speeches on
the tariff, the Oregon boundary, in favour of the Fiscal Bank Act, and
in opposition to the annexation of Texas. On Webster's re-election to
the Senate, Choate resumed (1845) his law practice, which no amount of
urging could ever persuade him to abandon for public office, save for a
short term as attorney-general of Massachusetts in 1853-1854. In 1853 he
was a member of the state constitutional convention. He was a faithful
supporter of Webster's policy as declared in the latter's famous
"Seventh of March Speech" (1850) and laboured to secure for him the
presidential nomination at the Whig national convention in 1852. In 1856
he refused to follow most of his former Whig associates into the
Republican party and gave his support to James Buchanan, whom he
considered the representative of a national instead of a sectional
party. In July 1859 failing health led him to seek rest in a trip to
Europe, but he died on the 13th of that month at Halifax, Nova Scotia,
where he had been put ashore when it was seen that he probably could not
outlive the voyage across the Atlantic. Choate, besides being one of the
ablest of American lawyers, was one of the most scholarly of American
public men, and his numerous orations and addresses were remarkable for
their pure style, their grace and elegance of form, and their wealth of
classical allusion.

  His _Works_ (edited, with a memoir, by S.G. Brown) were published in 2
  vols. at Boston in 1862. The _Memoir_ was afterwards published
  separately (Boston, 1870). See also E.G. Parker's _Reminiscences of
  Rufus Choate_ (New York, 1860); E.P. Whipple's _Some Recollections of
  Rufus Choate_ (New York, 1879); and the _Albany Law Review_
  (1877-1878).




CHOBE, a large western affluent of the middle Zambezi (q.v.). The
river was discovered by David Livingstone in 1851, and to him was known
as the Chobe. It is also called the Linyante and the Kwando, the last
name being that commonly used.




CHOCOLATE, a paste of the ground kernels of the cocoa bean, mixed with
sugar, vanilla or other flavouring, made into a cake, which is used for
the manufacture of various forms of sweetmeat, or in making the
beverage, also known as "chocolate," obtained by dissolving cakes of
chocolate in boiling water or milk (see COCOA). The word came into Eng.
through the Fr. _chocolat_ or Span. _chocolate_ from the Mex.
_chocolatl_. According to the _New English Dictionary_ (quoting R.
Simeon, _Dict. de la langue Nahuatl_), this was "an article of food made
of ... the seeds of cacao and of the tree pochotl (_Bombax ceiba_)," and
was etymologically distinct from the Mexican _cacauatl_, cacao, or
cocoa.




CHOCTAWS, CHAHTAS, or CHACATOS (apparently a corruption of Span.
_chato_, flattened), a tribe of North American Indians of Muskhogean
stock. They are now settled in Oklahoma, but when first known to
Europeans they occupied the district now forming the southern part of
Mississippi and the western part of Alabama. On the settlement of
Louisiana they formed an alliance with the French, and assisted them
against the Natchez and Chickasaws; but by degrees they entered into
friendly relations with the English, and at last, in 1786, recognized
the supremacy of the United States by the treaty of Hopewell. Their
emigration westward began about 1800, and the last remains of their
original territory were ceded in 1830. In their new settlements the
Choctaws continued to advance in prosperity till the outbreak of the
Civil War, which considerably diminished the population and ruined a
large part of their property. They sided with the Confederates, and
their territory was occupied by Confederate troops; and accordingly at
the close of the war they were regarded as having lost their rights.
Part of their land they were forced to surrender to the government;
their slaves were emancipated; and provision was claimed for them in the
shape of either land or money. Since then they have considerably
recovered their position. They long constituted a quasi-independent
people under the title of the Choctaw nation, and were governed by a
chief and a national council of forty members, according to a written
constitution, dating in the main from 1838; they possessed a regular
judicial system and employed trial by jury. Tribal government virtually
ceased in 1906. The Choctaws number some 18,000. A few groups still
linger in Mississippi and Louisiana. The Choctaw language has been
reduced to writing, and brought to some degree of literary precision.

  See INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN; _Handbook of American Indians_, ed. F.W.
  Hodge (Washington, 1907).




CHODKIEWICZ, JAN KAROL (1560-1621), Polish general, was the son of
Hieronymus Chodkiewicz, castellan of Wilna. After being educated at the
Wilna academy he went abroad to learn the science of war, fighting in
the Spanish service under Alva, and also under Maurice of Nassau. In
1593 he married the wealthy Sophia Mielecka, by whom he had one son who
predeceased him. His first military service at home was against the
Cossack rising of Nalewajko as lieutenant to Zolkiewski, and he
subsequently assisted Zamoyski in his victorious Moldavian campaign.
Honours and dignities were now showered upon him. In 1599 he was
appointed starosta of Samogitia, and in 1600 acting commander-in-chief
of Lithuania. In the war against Sweden for the possession of Livonia he
brilliantly distinguished himself, capturing fortress after fortress and
repulsing the duke of Sudermania, afterwards Charles IX, from Riga. In
1604 he captured Dorpat, twice defeated the Swedish generals at Bialy
Kamien, and was rewarded with the grand baton of Lithuania. Criminally
neglected by the diet, which from sheer niggardliness turned a deaf ear
to all his requests for reinforcements and for supplies and money to pay
his soldiers, Chodkiewicz nevertheless more than held his own against
the Swedes. His crowning achievement was the great victory of Kirkholm
(Aug. 27th, 1605), when with barely 5000 men he annihilated a threefold
larger Swedish army; for which feat he received letters of
congratulation from the pope, all the Catholic potentates, of Europe,
and even from the sultan of Turkey and the shah of Persia. Yet this
great victory was absolutely fruitless, owing to the domestic
dissensions which prevailed in Poland during the following five years.
Chodkiewicz's own army, unpaid for years, abandoned him at last _en
masse_ in order to plunder the estates of their political opponents,
leaving the grand hetman to carry on the war as best he could with a
handful of mercenaries paid out of the pockets of himself and his
friends. Chodkiewicz was one of the few magnates who remained loyal to
the king, and after helping to defeat the rebels in Poland a fresh
invasion of Livonia by the Swedes recalled him thither, and once more he
relieved Riga besides capturing Pernau. Meanwhile the war with Muscovy
broke out, and Chodkiewicz was sent against Moscow with an army of 2000
men--though if there had been a spark of true patriotism in Poland he
could easily have marshalled 100,000. Moreover, the diet neglected to
pay for the maintenance even of this paltry 2000, with the result that
they mutinied and compelled their leader to retreat through the heart of
Muscovy to Smolensk. Not till the crown prince Wladislaus arrived with
tardy reinforcements did the war assume a different character,
Chodkiewicz opening a new career of victory by taking the fortress of
Drohobu in 1617. The Muscovite war had no sooner been ended by the
treaty of Deulina than Chodkiewicz was hastily despatched southwards to
defend the southern frontier against the Turks, who after the
catastrophe of Cecora (see ZOLKIEWSKI) had high hopes of conquering
Poland altogether. An army of 160,000 Turkish veterans led by Sultan
Osman in person advanced from Adrianople towards the Polish frontier,
but Chodkiewicz crossed the Dnieper in September 1621 and entrenched
himself in the fortress of Khotin right in the path of the Ottoman
advance. Here for a whole month the Polish hero held the sultan at bay,
till the first fall of autumn snow compelled Osman to withdraw his
diminished forces. But the victory was dearly purchased by Poland. A few
days before the siege was raised the aged grand hetman died of
exhaustion in the fortress (Sept. 24th, 1621).

  See Adam Stanislaw Naruszewicz, _Life of J.K. Chodkiewicz_ (Pol.; 4th
  ed., Cracow, 1857-1858); Lukasz Golebiowski, _The Moral Side of J.K.
  Chodkiewicz as indicated by his Letters_ (Pol.; Warsaw, 1854).
     (R. N. B.)




CHODOWIECKI, DANIEL NICOLAS (1726-1801), German painter and engraver of
Polish descent, was born at Danzig. Left an orphan at an early age, he
devoted himself to the practice of miniature painting, the elements of
which his father had taught him, as a means of support for himself and
his mother. In 1743 he went to Berlin, where for some time he worked as
clerk in an uncle's office, practising art, however, in his leisure
moments, and gaining a sort of reputation as a painter of miniatures for
snuff-boxes. The Berlin Academy, attracted by a small engraving of his,
entrusted to him the illustration of its yearly almanac. After designing
and engraving several subjects from the story of the Seven Years' War,
Chodowiecki produced the famous "History of the Life of Jesus Christ," a
set of admirably painted miniatures, which made him at once so popular
that he laid aside all occupations save those of painting and engraving.
Few books were published in Prussia for some years without plate or
vignette by Chodowiecki. It is not surprising, therefore, that the
catalogue of his works (Berlin, 1814) should include over 3000 items, of
which, however, the picture of "Jean Calas and his Family" is the only
one of any reputation. He became director of the Berlin Academy in 1797.
The title of the German Hogarth, which he sometimes obtained, was the
effect of an admiration rather imaginative than critical, and was
disclaimed by Chodowiecki himself. The illustrator of Lavater's _Essays
on Physiognomy_, the painter of the "Hunt the Slipper" in the Berlin
museum, had indeed but one point in common with the great
Englishman--the practice of representing actual life and manners. In
this he showed skilful drawing and grouping, and considerable
expressional power, but no tendency whatever to the use of the
grotesque.

His brother Gottfried (1728-1781) and son Wilhelm (1765-1803) painted
and engraved after the style of Daniel, and sometimes co-operated with
him.




CHOERILUS. (1) An Athenian tragic poet, who exhibited plays as early as
524 B.C. He was said to have competed with Aeschylus, Pratinas and even
Sophocles. According to F.G. Welcker, however, the rival of Sophocles
was a son of Choerilus, who bore the same name. Suidas states that
Choerilus wrote 150 tragedies and gained the prize 13 times. His works
are all lost; only Pausanias (i. 14) mentions a play by him entitled
_Alope_ (a mythological personage who was the subject of dramas by
Euripides and Carcinus). His reputation as a writer of satyric dramas is
attested in the well-known line

  [Greek: enika men basileus en Choirilos en Saturois]

The Choerilean metre, mentioned by the Latin grammarians, is probably so
called because the above line is the oldest extant specimen. Choerilus
was also said to have introduced considerable improvements in theatrical
masks and costumes.

  See A. Nauck, _Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta_ (1889); F.G. Welcker,
  _Die griechischen Tragoedien_, pp. 18, 892.

(2) An epic poet of Samos, who flourished at the end of the 5th century
B.C. After the fall of Athens he settled at the court of Archelaus, king
of Macedonia, where he was the associate of Agathon, Melanippides, and
Plato the comic poet. The only work that can with certainty be
attributed to him is the [Greek: Perseis] or [Greek: Persika], a history
of the struggle of the Greeks against Persia, the central point of which
was the battle of Salamis. His importance consists in his having taken
for his theme national and contemporary events in place of the deeds of
old-time heroes. For this new departure he apologizes in the
introductory verses (preserved in the scholiast on Aristotle,
_Rhetoric_, iii. 14), where he says that, the subjects of epic poetry
being all exhausted, it was necessary to strike out a new path. The
story of his intimacy with Herodotus is probably due to the fact that he
imitated him and had recourse to his history for the incidents of his
poem. The _Perseis_ was at first highly successful and was said to have
been read, together with the Homeric poems, at the Panathenaea, but
later critics reversed this favourable judgment. Aristotle (_Topica_,
viii. 1) calls Choerilus's comparisons far-fetched and obscure, and the
Alexandrians displaced him by Antimachus in the canon of epic poets. The
fragments are artificial in tone.

  G. Kinkel, _Epicorum Graecorum Frag._ i. (1877); for another view of
  his relations with Herodotus see Mueder in _Klio_ (1907), 29-44.

(3) An epic poet of Iasus in Caria, who lived in the 4th century B.C. He
accompanied Alexander the Great on his campaigns as court-poet. He is
well known from the passages in Horace (_Epistles_, ii. 1, 232; _Ars
Poetica_, 357), according to which he received a piece of gold for every
good verse he wrote in celebration of the glorious deeds of his master.
The quality of his verses may be estimated from the remark attributed to
Alexander, that he would rather be the Thersites of Homer than the
Achilles of Choerilus. The epitaph on Sardanapalus, said to have been
translated from the Chaldean (quoted in Athenaeus, viii. p. 336), is
generally supposed to be by Choerilus.

  See G. Kinkel, _Epicorum Graecorum Fragmenta_, i. (1877); A.F. Naeke,
  _De Choerili Samii Aetate Vita et Poesi aliisque Choerilis_ (1817),
  where the above poets are carefully distinguished; and the articles in
  Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencydopaedie_, iii. 2 (1899).




CHOEROBOSCUS, GEORGIUS (c. A.D. 600), deacon and professor at the
oecumenical school at Constantinople. He is also called _chartophylax_
either as the holder of some ecclesiastical office or as superintendent
of the university library. It is not known whether "Choeroboscus" (Gr.
for "swineherd") is an allusion to his earlier occupation or an
inherited family name. During his tenure of office he delivered a course
of lectures on grammar, which has come down to us in the shape of notes
taken by his pupils. He drew from the best authorities--Apollonius
Dyscolus, Herodian, Orion, Theodosius of Alexandria. The lectures are
written in simple style, but suffer from diffuseness. They were much
used by Constantine Lascaris in his Greek grammar and by Urban of
Belluno (end of 15th cent.). The chief work of Choeroboscus, which we
have in its complete form, is the commentary on the canons of Theodosius
on Declension and Conjugation. Mention may also be made of a treatise on
orthography, of which a fragment (on Quantity) has been preserved; a
tract on prosody; commentaries on Hephaestion and Dionysius Thrax; and
grammatical notes on the Psalms.

  See C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897);
  A. Hilgard, _Grammatici Graeci_, iv. (1889-1894), containing the text
  of the commentary on Theodosius, and a full account of the life and
  writings of Choeroboscus; L. Kohn in Pauly-Wissowa's
  _Realencydopaedie_, iii. 2 (1889); Reitzenstein, _Etymologika_, 190, n.
  4.




CHOIR (O. Fr. _cuer_ from Lat. _chorus_; pronounced _quire_, and until
the end of the 17th century so spelt, the spelling being altered to
agree with the Fr. _choeur_), the body of singers who perform the
musical portion of the service in a church, or the place set apart for
them. Any organized body of singers performing full part choral works or
oratorios is also called a choir.

In English cathedrals the choir is composed of men (vicars-choral or lay
clerks) and boys (choristers). They are divided into two sets, sitting
on the north and south sides of the chancel respectively, called
_cantoris_ and _decani_, from being on the same side as the _cantor_
(precentor) or the _decanus_ (dean). This arrangement, together with the
custom of vesting choirmen and choristers in surplices (traditional only
in cathedrals and collegiate churches), has, since the middle of the
19th century, been adopted in a large number of parish and other
churches. Surpliced choirs of women have occasionally been introduced,
notably in America and the British colonies, but the practice has no
warrant of traditional usage. In the Roman Catholic Church the choir
plays a less conspicuous role than in the Church of England, its members
not being regarded as ministers of the church, and non-Catholics are
allowed to sing in it. The singers at Mass or other solemn services are
usually placed in a gallery or some other inconspicuous place. The word
"choir," indeed, formerly applied to all the clergy taking part in
services of the church, and the restriction of the term to the singing
men and boys, who were in their origin no more than the representatives
(vicars) of the clergy, is a comparatively late development. The
distinction between "choir services" (Mattins, Vespers, Compline,
&c.)--consisting of prayers, lections, the singing of the psalms,
&c.--and the service of the altar was sharply drawn in the middle ages,
as in the modern Roman Church. "Choir vestments" (surplice, &c.) are
those worn by the clergy at the former, as distinguished from those used
at the Mass (see VESTMENTS). In England at the Reformation the choir
services (Mattins, Evensong) replaced the Mass as the principal popular
services, and, in general, only the choir vestments were retained in
use. In the English cathedrals the members of the choir often retain
privileges reminiscent of an earlier definite ecclesiastical status. At
Wells, for instance, the vicars-choral form a corporation practically
independent of the dean and chapter; they have their own lodgings inside
the cathedral precincts (Vicars' Close) and they can only be dismissed
by a vote of their own body.    (W. A. P.)

In an architectural sense a "choir" is strictly that part of a church
which is fitted up for the choir services, and is thus limited to the
space between the choir screen and the presbytery. Some confusion has
arisen owing to the term being employed by medieval writers to express
the entire space enclosed for the performance of the principal services
of the church, and therefore to include not only the choir proper, but
the presbytery. In the case of a cruciform church the choir is sometimes
situated under the central tower, or in the nave, and this is the case
in Westminster Abbey, where it occupies four bays to the west of the
transept. The choir is usually raised one step above the nave, and its
sides are fitted up with seats or stalls, of which in large buildings
there are usually two or three rows rising one behind the other.

In Romanesque churches there are eastern and western choirs, and in
former times the term was given to chantries and subsidiary chapels,
which were also called chancels. In the early Christian church the
ambones where the gospels and epistles were read were placed one on
either side of the choir and formed part of its enclosure, and this is
the case in S. Clemente, S. Lorenzo and S. Maria in Cosmedin in Rome. In
England the choir seems almost universally to have assembled at the
eastern part of the church to recite the breviary services, whereas on
the continent it was moved from one place to another according to
convenience. In Spanish churches it occupies the nave of the church, and
in the church of the Escorial in Spain was at the west end above the
entrance vestibule.    (R. P. S.)




CHOISEUL, CESAR, DUC DE (1602-1675), French marshal and diplomatist,
generally known for the best part of his life as the marshal du
Plessis-Praslin, came of the old French family of Choiseul, which arose
in the valley of the Upper Marne in the 10th century and divided into
many branches, three of the names of which, Hostel, Praslin and du
Plessis, were borne, at one time or another, by the subject of this
article. Entering the army at the age of fourteen as proprietary colonel
of an infantry regiment, he shared in almost all the exploits of the
French arms during the reign of Louis XIII. He took part in the siege of
La Rochelle, assisted to defend the island of Re against the attacks of
the English under the duke of Buckingham, and accompanied the French
forces to Italy in 1629. In 1630 he was appointed ambassador at the
court of the duke of Savoy, and was engaged in diplomatic and
administrative work in Italy until 1635, when war was declared between
France and Spain. In the war that followed Plessis-Praslin distinguished
himself in various battles and sieges in Italy, including the action
called the "Route de Quiers" and the celebrated four-cornered operations
round Turin. In 1640 he was made governor of Turin, and in 1642
lieutenant-general, and after further service in Italy he was made a
marshal of France (1645) and appointed second in command in Catalonia.
During the first War of the Fronde, which broke out in 1649, he assisted
Conde in the brief siege of Paris; and in the second war, remaining
loyal to the queen regent and the court party, he won his greatest
triumph in defeating Turenne and the allied Spaniards and rebels at
Rethel (or Blanc-Champ) in 1650. He then held high office at the court
of Louis XIV., became minister of state in 1652, and in November 1665
was created duc de Choiseul. He was concerned in some of the
negotiations between Louis and Charles II. of England which led to the
treaty of Dover, and died in Paris on the 23rd of December 1675.




CHOISEUL, ETIENNE FRANCOIS, Duc de (1719-1785), French statesman, was
the eldest son of Francois Joseph de Choiseul, marquis de Stainville
(1700-1770), and bore in early life the title of comte de Stainville.
Born on the 28th of June 1719, he entered the army, and during the War
of the Austrian Succession served in Bohemia in 1741 and in Italy, where
he distinguished himself at the battle of Coni, in 1744. From 1745 until
1748 he was with the army in the Low Countries, being present at the
sieges of Mons, Charleroi and Maestricht. He attained the rank of
lieutenant-general, and in 1750 married Louise Honorine, daughter of
Louis Francois Crozat, marquis du Chatel (d. 1750), who brought her
husband a large fortune and proved a most devoted wife.

Choiseul gained the favour of Madame de Pompadour by procuring for her
some letters which Louis XV. had written to his cousin Madame de
Choiseul, with whom the king had formerly had an intrigue; and after a
short time as _bailli_ of the Vosges he was given the appointment of
ambassador to Rome in 1753, where he was entrusted with the negotiations
concerning the disturbances called forth by the bull _Unigenitus_. He
acquitted himself skilfully in this task, and in 1757 his patroness
obtained his transfer to Vienna, where he was instructed to cement the
new alliance between France and Austria. His success at Vienna opened
the way to a larger career, when in 1758 he supplanted Antoine Louis
Rouille (1689-1761) as minister for foreign affairs and so had the
direction of French foreign policy during the Seven Years' War. At this
time he was made a peer of France and created duc de Choiseul. Although
from 1761 until 1766 his cousin Cesar, duc de Choiseul-Praslin
(1712-1785), was minister for foreign affairs, yet Choiseul continued to
control the policy of France until 1770, and during this period held
most of the other important offices of state. As the author of the
"Family Compact" he sought to retrieve by an alliance with the Bourbon
house of Spain the disastrous results of the alliance with Austria; but
his action came too late. His vigorous policy in other departments of
state was not, however, fruitless. Coming to power in the midst of the
demoralization consequent upon the defeats of Rossbach and Crefeld, by
boldness and energy he reformed and strengthened both army and navy, and
although too late to prevent the loss of Canada and India, he developed
French colonies in the Antilles and San Domingo, and added Corsica and
Lorraine to the crown of France. His management of home affairs in
general satisfied the _philosophes_. He allowed the _Encyclopedie_ to be
published, and brought about the banishment of the Jesuits and the
temporary abolition of the order by Pope Clement IV.

Choiseul's fall was caused by his action towards the Jesuits, and by his
support of their opponent La Chalotais, and of the provincial
parlements. After the death of Madame de Pompadour in 1764, his enemies,
led by Madame Du Barry and the chancellor Maupeou, were too strong for
him, and in 1770 he was ordered to retire to his estate at Chanteloupe.
The intrigues against him had, however, increased his popularity, which
was already great, and during his retirement, which lasted until 1774,
he lived in the greatest affluence and was visited by many eminent
personages. Greatly to his disappointment Louis XVI. did not restore him
to his former position, although the king recalled him to Paris in 1774,
when he died on the 8th of May 1785, leaving behind him a huge
accumulation of debt which was scrupulously discharged by his widow.

Choiseul possessed both ability and diligence, and though lacking in
tenacity he showed foresight and liberality in his direction of affairs.
In appearance he was a short, ill-featured man, with a ruddy countenance
and a sturdy frame. His _Memoires_ were written during his exile from
Paris, and are merely detached notes upon different questions. Horace
Walpole, in his _Memoirs_, gives a very vivid description of the duke's
character, accuses him of exciting the war between Russia and Turkey in
1768 in order to be revenged upon the tsarina Catherine II., and says of
his foreign policy, "he would project and determine the ruin of a
country, but could not meditate a little mischief or a narrow benefit."
"He dissipated the nation's wealth and his own; but did not repair the
latter by plunder of the former," says the same writer, who in reference
to Choiseul's private life asserts that "gallantry without delicacy was
his constant pursuit." Choiseul's widow, a woman "in whom industrious
malice could not find an imperfection," lived in retirement until her
death on the 3rd of December 1808.

  See _Memoires du duc de Choiseul_, edited by F. Calmettes (Paris,
  1904); P. Boutaric, _L'Ambassade de Choiseul a Vienne en 1757-1758_
  (Paris, 1872); Duc de Cars, _Memoires_ (Paris, 1890); F.J. de P.,
  Cardinal de Bernis, _Memoires et lettres_ (Paris, 1878); Madame de
  Pompadour, _Correspondance_ (Paris, 1878); _Revue historique_, tomes
  82 and 87 (Paris, 1903-1905); Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign of
  George III._, edited by G.F.R. Barker (London, 1894); G. Mangros, _Le
  duc et la duchesse de Choiseul_ (Paris, 1903); and _La Disgrace du duc
  et de la duchesse de Choiseul_ (Paris, 1903); E. Calmettes, _Choiseul
  et Voltaire_ (Paris, 1902); A. Bourguet, _Etudes sur la politique
  etrangere du duc de Choiseul_ (Paris, 1907); and _Le Duc de Choiseul
  et l'alliance espagnole_ (Paris, 1906). See also the _Edinburgh
  Review_ for July 1908.




CHOISEUL-STAINVILLE, CLAUDE ANTOINE GABRIEL, Duc de (1760-1838), French
soldier, was brought up at Chanteloup, under the care of his relative,
Etienne Francois, duc de Choiseul, who was childless. The outbreak of
the Revolution found him a colonel of dragoons, and throughout those
troublous times he was distinguished for his devotion to the royal
house. He took part in the attempt of Louis XVI. to escape from Paris on
the 20th of June 1791; was arrested with the king, and imprisoned.
Liberated in May 1792, he emigrated in October, and fought in the "army
of Conde" against the republic. Captured in 1795, he was confined at
Dunkirk; escaped, set sail for India, was wrecked on the French coast,
and condemned to death by the decree of the Directory. Nevertheless, he
was fortunate enough to escape once more. Napoleon allowed him to return
to France in 1801, but he remained in private life until the fall of the
Empire. At the Restoration he was called to the House of Peers by Louis
XVIII. At the revolution of 1830 he was nominated a member of the
provisional government; and he afterwards received from Louis Philippe
the post of aide-de-camp to the king and governor of the Louvre. He died
in Paris on the 1st of December 1838.




CHOISY, FRANCOIS TIMOLEON, Abbe de (1644-1724), French author, was born
in Paris on the 16th of August 1644, and died in Paris on the 2nd of
October 1724. His father was attached to the household of the duke of
Orleans, and his mother, who was on intimate terms with Anne of Austria,
was regularly called upon to amuse Louis XIV. By a whim of his mother,
the boy was dressed like a girl until he was eighteen, and, after
appearing for a short time in man's costume, he resumed woman's dress on
the advice--doubtless satirical--of Madame de La Fayette. He delighted
in the most extravagant toilettes until he was publicly rebuked by the
duc de Montausier, when he retired for some time to the provinces, using
his disguise to assist his numerous intrigues. He had been made an abbe
in his childhood, and poverty, induced by his extravagance, drove him to
live on his benefice at Sainte-Seine in Burgundy, where he found among
his neighbours a kindred spirit in Bussy-Rabutin. He visited Rome in the
suite of the cardinal de Bouillon in 1676, and shortly afterwards a
serious illness brought about a sudden and rather frivolous conversion
to religion. In 1685 he accompanied the chevalier de Chaumont on a
mission to Siam. He was ordained priest, and received various
ecclesiastical preferments. He was admitted to the Academy in 1687, and
wrote a number of historical and religious works, of which the most
notable are the following:--_Quatre dialogues sur l'immortalite de
l'ame_ ... (1684), written with the Abbe Dangeau and explaining his
conversion; _Traduction de l'Imitation de Jesus-Christ_ (1692);
_Histoire de France sous les regnes de Saint Louis ... de Charles V et
Charles VI_ (5 vols., 1688-1695); and _Histoire de l'Eglise_ (11 vols.,
1703-1723) He is remembered, however, by his gossiping _Memoires_
(1737), which contain striking and accurate pictures of his time and
remarkably exact portraits of his contemporaries, although he has
otherwise small pretensions to historical accuracy.

  The _Memoires_ passed through many editions, and were edited in 1888
  by M. de Lescure. Some admirable letters of Choisy are included in the
  correspondence of Bussy-Rabutin. Choisy is said to have burnt some of
  his indiscreet revelations, but left a considerable quantity of
  unpublished MS. Part of this material, giving an account of his
  adventures as a woman, was surreptitiously used in an anonymous
  _Histoire de madame la comtesse de Barres_ (Antwerp, 1735), and again
  with much editing in the _Vie de M. l'abbe de Choisy_ (Lausanne and
  Geneva, 1742), ascribed by Paul Lacroix to Lenglet Dufresnoy; the text
  was finally edited (1870) by Lacroix as _Aventures de l'abbe de
  Choisy_. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. iii.




CHOLERA (from the Gr. [Greek: chole], bile, and [Greek: rheein], to
flow), the name given to two distinct forms of disease, simple cholera
and malignant cholera. Although essentially different both as to their
causation and their pathological relationships, these two diseases may
in individual cases present many symptoms of mutual resemblance.

SIMPLE CHOLERA (synonyms, _Cholera Europaea_, _British Cholera_,
_Summer_ or _Autumnal Cholera_) is the cholera of ancient medical
writers, as is apparent from the accurate description of the disease
given by Hippocrates, Celsus and Aretaeus. Its occurrence in an epidemic
form was noticed by various physicians in the 16th century, and an
admirable account of the disease was subsequently given by Thomas
Sydenham in 1669-1672. This disease is sometimes called _Cholera
Nostras_, the word _nostras_, which is good Latin and used by Cicero,
meaning "belonging to our country." The relations between it and Asiatic
cholera (see below) are obscure. Clinically they may exactly resemble
each other, and bacteriology has not been able to draw an absolute line
between them. The real difference is epidemiological, cholera nostras
having no epidemic significance.

The chief symptoms in well-marked cases are vomiting and purging
occurring either together or alternately. The seizure is usually sudden
and violent. The contents of the stomach are first ejected, and this is
followed by severe retching and vomiting of thin fluid of bilious
appearance and bitter taste. The diarrhoea which accompanies or succeeds
the vomiting, and is likewise of bilious character, is attended with
severe griping abdominal pain, while cramps affecting the legs or arms
greatly intensify the suffering. The effect upon the system is rapid and
alarming, a few hours of such an attack sufficing to reduce the
strongest person to a state of extreme prostration. The surface of the
body becomes cold, the pulse weak, the voice husky, and the whole
symptoms may resemble in a striking manner those of malignant cholera,
to be subsequently described. In unfavourable cases, particularly where
the disorder is epidemic, death may result within forty-eight hours.
Generally, however, the attack is arrested and recovery soon follows,
although there may remain for a considerable time a degree of
irritability of the alimentary canal, rendering necessary the utmost
care in regard to diet.

Attacks of this kind are of frequent occurrence in summer and autumn in
almost all countries. They appear specially liable to occur when cold
and damp alternate with heat. Occasionally the disorder prevails so
extensively as to constitute an epidemic. The exciting causes of an
attack are in many cases errors in diet, particularly the use of unripe
fruit and new vegetables, and the excessive drinking of cold liquids
during perspiration. Outbreaks of this disorder in a household or
community can sometimes be traced to the use of impure water, or to
noxious emanations from the sewers.

In the treatment, vomiting should be encouraged so long as it shows the
presence of undigested food, after which opiates ought to be
administered. Small opium pills, or Dover's powder, or the aromatic
powder of chalk with opium, are likely to be retained in the stomach,
and will generally succeed in allaying the pain and diarrhoea, while ice
and effervescing drinks serve to quench the thirst and subdue the
sickness. In aggravated cases where medicines are rejected, enemata of
starch and laudanum, or the hypodermic injection of morphia, ought to be
resorted to. Counter-irritation by mustard or turpentine over the
abdomen is always of use, as is also friction with the hands where
cramps are present. When sinking threatens, brandy and ammonia will be
called for. During convalescence the food should be in the form of milk
and farinaceous diet, or light soups, and all indigestible articles must
be carefully avoided.

In the treatment of this disease as it affects young children (_Cholera
Infantum_), most reliance is to be placed on the administration of chalk
and the use of starch enemata. In their case opium in any form cannot be
safely employed.

MALIGNANT CHOLERA (synonyms, _Asiatic Cholera, Indian Cholera, Epidemic
Cholera, Algide Cholera_) is one of the most severe and fatal diseases.
In describing the symptoms it is customary to divide them into three
stages, but it must be noted that these do not always present themselves
in so distinct a form as to be capable of separate recognition. The
first or premonitory stage consists in the occurrence of diarrhoea.
Frequently of mild and painless character, and coming on after some
error in diet, this symptom is apt to be disregarded. The discharges
from the bowels are similar to those of ordinary summer cholera, which
the attack closely resembles. There is, however, at first the absence of
vomiting. This diarrhoea generally lasts for two or three days, and then
if it does not gradually subside either may pass into the more severe
phenomena characteristic of the second stage of cholera, or on the other
hand may itself prove fatal.

The second stage is termed the stage of collapse or the algide or
asphyxial stage. As above mentioned, this is often preceded by the
premonitory diarrhoea, but not infrequently the phenomena attendant upon
this stage are the first to manifest themselves. They come on often
suddenly in the night with diarrhoea of the most violent character, the
matters discharged being of whey-like appearance, and commonly termed
the "rice-water" evacuations. They contain large quantities of
disintegrated epithelium from the mucous membrane of the intestines. The
discharge, which is at first unattended with pain, is soon succeeded by
copious vomiting of matters similar to those passed from the bowels,
accompanied with severe pain at the pit of the stomach, and with intense
thirst. The symptoms now advance with rapidity. Cramps of the legs,
feet, and muscles of the abdomen come on and occasion great agony, while
the signs of collapse make their appearance. The surface of the body
becomes cold and assumes a blue or purple hue, the skin is dry, sodden
and wrinkled, indicating the intense draining away of the fluids of the
body, the features are pinched and the eyes deeply sunken, the pulse at
the wrist is imperceptible, and the voice is reduced to a hoarse whisper
(the _vox cholerica_). There is complete suppression of the urine.

In this condition death often takes place in less than one day, but in
epidemics cases are frequently observed where the collapse is so sudden
and complete as to prove fatal in one or two hours even without any
great amount of previous purging or vomiting. In most instances the
mental faculties are comparatively unaffected, although in the later
stages there is in general more or less apathy.

Reaction, however, may take place, and this constitutes the third stage.
It consists in the arrest of the alarming symptoms characterizing the
second stage, and the gradual but evident improvement in the patient's
condition. The pulse returns, the surface assumes a natural hue, and the
bodily heat is restored. Before long the vomiting ceases, and although
diarrhoea may continue for a time, it is not of a very severe character
and soon subsides, as do also the cramps. The urine may remain
suppressed for some time, and on returning is often found to be
albuminous. Even in this stage, however, the danger is not past, for
relapses sometimes occur which speedily prove fatal, while again the
reaction may be of imperfect character, and there may succeed an
exhausting fever (the so-called typhoid stage of cholera) which may
greatly retard recovery, and under which the patient may sink at a
period even as late as two or three weeks from the commencement of the
illness.

Many other complications are apt to arise during the progress of
convalescence from cholera, such as diphtheritic and local inflammatory
affections, all of which are attended with grave danger.

When the attack of cholera is of milder character in all its stages than
that above described, it has been named _Cholerine_, but the term is an
arbitrary one and the disease is essentially cholera.

The bodies of persons dying of cholera are found to remain long warm,
and the temperature may even rise after death. Peculiar muscular
contractions have been observed to take place after death, so that the
position of the limbs may become altered. The soft textures of the body
are found to be dry and hard, and the muscles of a dark brown
appearance. The blood is of dark colour and tarry consistence. The upper
portion of the small intestines is generally found distended with the
rice-water discharges, the mucous membrane is swollen, and there is a
remarkable loss of its natural epithelium. The kidneys are usually in a
state of acute congestion. This form of cholera belongs originally to
Asia, more particularly to India, where, as well as in the Indian
archipelago, epidemics are known to have occurred at various times for
several centuries.

Much light has been thrown upon Asiatic cholera by Western experience;
and the study of the disease by modern methods has resulted in important
additions to our previous knowledge of its nature, causation, mode of
dissemination and prevention.


  Causation

The cause is a micro-organism identified by Koch in 1883 (see PARASITIC
DISEASES). For some years it was called the "comma bacillus," from its
supposed resemblance in shape to a comma, but it was subsequently found
to be a vibrio or spirillum, not a bacillus. The discovery was received
with much scepticism in some quarters, and the claim of Koch's vibrio to
be the true cause of cholera was long disputed, but is now universally
acknowledged. Few micro-organisms have been more elaborately
investigated, but very little is known of its natural history, and its
epidemiological behaviour is still surrounded by obscurity. At an
important discussion on the subject, held at the International Hygienic
Congress in 1894, Professor Gruber of Vienna declared that the deeper
investigators went the more difficult the problem became, while M. Elie
Metschnikoff of the Pasteur Institute made a similar admission. The
difficulty lies chiefly in the variable characters assumed by the
organism and the variable effects produced by it. The type reached by
cultivation through a few generations may differ so widely from the
original in appearance and behaviour as to be hardly recognizable,
while, on the other hand, of two organisms apparently indistinguishable
one may be innocuous and the other give rise to the most violent
cholera. This variability offers a possible explanation of the frequent
failure to trace the origin of epidemic outbreaks in isolated places. It
is commonly assumed that the micro-organism is of a specific character,
and always introduced from without, when cholera appears in countries or
places where it is not endemic. In some cases such introduction can be
proved, and in others it can be inferred with a high degree of
probability, but sometimes it is impossible to trace the origin to any
possible channel of communication. A remarkable case of this kind
occurred at the Nietleben lunatic asylum near Halle, in 1893, in the
shape of a sudden, explosive and isolated outbreak of true Asiatic
cholera. It was entirely confined to the institution, and the peculiar
circumstances enabled a very exact investigation to be made. The facts
led Professor Arndt, of Greifswald, to propound a novel and interesting
theory. No cholera existed in the surrounding district and no
introduction could be traced, but for several months in the previous
autumn diarrhoea had prevailed in the asylum. The sewage from the
establishment was disposed of on a farm, and the effluent passed into
the river Saale above the intake of the water-supply for the asylum.
Thus a circulation of morbid material through the persons of the inmates
was established. Dr Arndt's theory was that by virtue of this
circulation cholera was gradually developed from previously existing
intestinal disease of an allied but milder type. The outbreak occurred
in winter, and coincided with the freezing of the filter-beds at the
waterworks. The theory is worth notice, because a similar relation
between the drainage and the water-supply frequently exists in places
severely attacked by cholera, and it has repeatedly been observed that
the latter is preceded by the prevalence of a milder form of intestinal
disease. The inference is not that cholera can be developed _de novo_,
but that the type is unstable, and that a virulent form may be evolved
under favourable conditions from another so mild as to be unrecognized,
and consequently undetected in its origin or introduction. This is quite
in keeping with the observed variability of the micro-organism, and with
the trend of modern research with regard to the relations between other
pathogenic germs and the multifarious gradations of type assumed by
other zymotic diseases. The same thing has been suggested of diphtheria.


  Epidemicity.

Cholera is endemic in the East over a wide area, ranging from Bombay to
southern China, but its chief home is British India. It principally
affects the alluvial soil near the mouths of the great rivers, and more
particularly the delta of the Ganges. Lower Bengal is pre-eminently the
standing focus and centre of diffusion. In some years it is quiescent,
though never absent; in others it becomes diffused, for reasons of which
nothing is known, and its diffusive activity varies greatly from equally
inscrutable causes. At irregular intervals this property becomes so
heightened that the disease passes its natural boundaries and is carried
east, north and west, it may be to Europe or beyond to the American
continent. We must assume that the micro-organism, like those of other
epidemic diseases, acquires greater vitality and toxic energy, or
greater power of reproduction at some times than at others, but the
conditions that govern this behaviour are quite unknown, though no
problem has a more important bearing on public health. Bacteriology, as
already intimated, has thrown no light upon it, nor has meteorology.
Some results of modern research, indeed, tend to assign increasing
importance to the relations between surface soil and certain
micro-organisms, and suggest that changes in the level of the subsoil
water, to which Professor Max von Pettenkoffer long ago drew attention,
may be a dominant factor in determining the latency or activity of
pathogenic germs. But this is largely a matter of conjecture, and, so
far as cholera is concerned, the conditions which turn an endemic into
an epidemic disease must be admitted to be still unknown.

On the other hand, the mode of dissemination is now well understood.
Diffusion takes place along the lines of human intercourse. The poison
is carried chiefly by infected persons moving from place to place; but
soiled clothes, rags and other articles that have come into contact with
persons suffering from the disease may be the means of conveyance to a
distance. There is no reason to suppose that it is air-borne, or that
atmospheric influences have anything to do with its spread, except in so
far as meteorological conditions may be favourable to the growth and
activity of the micro-organisms. Beyond all doubt, the great manufactory
of the poison is the human body, and the discharges from it are the
great source of contagion. They may infect the ground, the water, or the
immediate surroundings of the patient, and so pass from hand to hand,
the poison finding entrance into the bodies of the healthy by means of
food and drink which have become contaminated in various ways. Flies
which feed upon excreta and other foul matters may be carriers of
contagion. Of all the means of local dissemination, contaminated water
is by far the most important, because it affects the greatest number of
people, and this is particularly the case in places which have a public
water-supply. A single contaminated source may expose the entire
population to danger. All severe outbreaks of an explosive character are
due to this cause. It is also possible that the cholera poison
multiplies rapidly in water under favourable conditions, and that a
reservoir, for instance, may form a sort of forcing-bed. But it would be
a mistake to regard cholera as purely a water-borne disease, even
locally. It may infect the soil in localities which have a perfectly
pure water-supply, but have defective drainage or no drainage at all,
and then it will be found more difficult to get rid of, though less
formidable in its effects, than when the water alone is the source of
mischief. In all these respects it has a great affinity to enteric
fever. With regard to locality, no situation can be said to be free from
attack if the disease is introduced and the sanitary conditions are bad;
but, speaking generally, low-lying places on alluvial soil near rivers
are more liable than those standing high or on a rocky foundation. Of
meteorological conditions it can only be said with certainty that a high
temperature favours the development of cholera, though a low one does
not prevent it. In temperate climates the summer months, and
particularly August and September, are the season of its greatest
activity.


  Western diffusion.

Cholera spreads westwards from India by two routes--(1) by sea to the
shores of the Red Sea, Egypt and the Mediterranean; and (2) by land to
northern India and Afghanistan, thence to Persia and central Asia, and
so to Russia. In the great invasions of Europe during the 19th century
it sometimes followed one route and sometimes the other. It was not till
1817 that the attention of European physicians was specially directed to
the disease by the outbreak of a violent epidemic of cholera at Jessore
in Bengal. This was followed by its rapid spread over a large portion of
British India, where it caused immense destruction of life both among
natives and Europeans. During the next three years cholera continued to
rage all over India, as well as in Ceylon and others of the Indian
islands. The disease now began to spread over a wider extent than
hitherto, invading China on the east and Persia on the west. In 1823 it
had extended into Asia Minor and Russia in Asia, and it continued to
advance steadily though slowly westwards, while at the same time fresh
epidemics were appearing at intervals in India. From this period up till
1830 no great extension of cholera took place, but in the latter year it
reappeared in Persia and along the shores of the Caspian Sea, and thence
entered Russia in Europe. Despite the strictest sanitary precautions,
the disease spread rapidly through that whole empire, causing great
mortality and exciting consternation everywhere. It ravaged the northern
and central parts of Europe, and spread onwards to England, appearing in
Sunderland in October 1831, and in London in January 1832, during which
year it continued to prevail in most cf the cities and large towns of
Great Britain and Ireland. The disease subsequently extended into
France, Spain and Italy, and crossing the Atlantic spread through North
and Central America. It had previously prevailed in Arabia, Turkey,
Egypt and the Nile district, and in 1835 it was general throughout North
Africa. Up till 1837 cholera continued to break out in various parts of
the continent of Europe, after which this epidemic disappeared, having
thus within twenty years visited a large portion of the world.

About the year 1841 another great epidemic of cholera appeared in India
and China, and soon began to extend in the direction traversed by the
former, but involving a still wider area. It entered Europe again in
1847, and spread through Russia and Germany on to England, and thence to
France, whence it passed to America, and subsequently appeared in the
West Indies. This epidemic appears to have been even more deadly than
the former, especially as regards Great Britain and France. A third
great outbreak of cholera took place in the East in 1850, entering
Europe in 1853. During the two succeeding years it prevailed extensively
throughout the continent, and fell with severity on the armies engaged
in the Crimean War. Although widely prevalent in Great Britain and
Ireland it was less destructive than former epidemics. It was specially
severe throughout both North and South America. A fourth epidemic
visited Europe again in 1865-1866, but was on the whole less extensive
and destructive than its predecessors.

By some writers the epidemic of 1853 is regarded as a recrudescence of
that of 1847. The earlier ones followed the land route by way of
Afghanistan and Persia, and took several years to reach Europe. That of
1865 travelled more rapidly, being carried from Bombay by sea to Mecca,
from there to Suez and Alexandria, and then on to various Mediterranean
ports. Within the year it had not only spread extensively in Europe,
but had reached the West Indies. In 1866 it invaded England and the
United States, but during the following year it died down in the West.
The subsequent history of cholera in Europe may be stated
chronologically.

_1860-1874._--This invasion was traced to the great gathering of
pilgrims at Hardwar on the Upper Ganges in the month of April 1867. From
there the returning pilgrims carried it to the Punjab, Kashmir and
Afghanistan, whence it spread to Persia and the Caspian, but it did not
reach Russia until 1869. During the next four years a number of
outbreaks occurred in central Europe, and notably one at Munich in the
winter of 1873. The irregular character of these epidemics suggests that
they were rather survivals from the pandemic wave of 1867 than fresh
importations, but there is no doubt that cholera was carried overland
into Russia in the manner described.

_1883-1887._--This visitation, again, came by the Mediterranean. In 1883
a severe outbreak occurred in Egypt, causing a mortality of above
25,000. Its origin remained unknown. During this epidemic Koch
discovered the comma bacillus. The following year cholera appeared at
Toulon. It was said to have been brought in a troopship from Saigon in
Cochin-China, but it may have been connected with the Egyptian epidemic.
A severe outbreak followed and reached Italy, nearly 8000 persons dying
in Naples alone. In 1885 the south of France, Italy, Sicily and Spain
all suffered, especially the last, where nearly 120,000 deaths occurred.
Portugal escaped, and the authorities there attributed their good
fortune to the institution of a military cordon, in which they have had
implicit confidence ever since. In 1886 the same countries suffered
again, and also Austria-Hungary. From Italy the disease was carried to
South America, and even travelled as far as Chile, where it had
previously been unknown. In 1887 it still lingered in the Mediterranean,
causing great mortality in Messina especially. According to Dr A.J.
Wall, this epidemic cost 250,000 lives in Europe and at least 50,000 in
America. A particular interest attaches to it in the fact that a
localized revival of the disease was caused in Spain in 1890 by the
disturbance of the graves of some of the victims who had died of cholera
four years previously.

_1892-1895._--This great invasion reverted again to the old overland
route, but the march of the disease was of unprecedented rapidity.
Within less than five months it travelled from the North-West Provinces
of India to St Petersburg, and probably to Hamburg, and thence in a few
days to England and the United States. This speed, in such striking
contrast to the slow advance of former occasions, was attributed, and no
doubt rightly, to improved steam transit, and particularly the
Transcaspian railway. The progress of the disease was traced from place
to place, and almost from day to day, with great precision, showing how
it moves along the chief highways and is obviously carried by man. The
main facts are as follows:--Cholera was extensively and severely
prevalent in India in 1891, causing 601,603 deaths, the highest
mortality since 1877. In March 1892 it broke out at the Hardwar fair, a
day or two before the pilgrims dispersed; on the 19th of April it was at
Kabul, on the 1st of May at Herat, and on the 26th of May at Meshed.
From Meshed it moved in three directions--due west to Teheran in Persia,
north-east by the Transcaspian railway to Samarkand in Central Asia, and
north-west by the same line in the opposite direction to Uzun-ada on the
Caspian Sea. It reached Uzun-ada on the 6th of June; crossed to Baku,
June 18th; Astrakhan, June 24th; then up the Volga to Nizhniy-Novgorod,
arriving at Moscow and St Petersburg early in August. The part played by
steam transit is clear from the fact that the disease took no longer to
travel all the way from Meshed to St Petersburg by rail and steamboat
than to traverse the short distance from Meshed to Teheran by road. On
the 16th of August cases began to occur in Hamburg; on the 19th of
August a fireman was taken ill at Grangemouth in Scotland, where he had
arrived the day before from Hamburg; and on the 31st of August a vessel
reached New York from the same port with cholera on board. On the 8th of
September the disease appeared in Galicia, having moved somewhat slowly
westwards across Russia into Poland, and on the 26th of September it was
in Budapest. Holland and Servia were also attacked, while isolated cases
were carried to Norway, Denmark and Italy. Meanwhile two entirely
separate epidemics were in progress elsewhere. The first was confined to
Arabia and the Somali coast of Africa, and was connected with the
remains of an outbreak in Syria and Arabia in 1890-1891. The second
arose mysteriously in France about the time when the overland invasion
started from India. The first known case occurred in the prison at
Nanterre, near Paris, on the 31st of March. Paris was affected in April,
and Havre in July. The origin of this outbreak, which was of a much less
violent character than that which came simultaneously by way of Russia,
was never ascertained. Its activity was confined to France, particularly
in the neighbourhood of Paris, together with Belgium and Holland, which
was placed between two fires, but escaped with but little mortality. The
number of persons killed by cholera in 1892, outside of India, was
reckoned at 378,449, and the vast majority of those died within six
months. The countries which suffered most severely were as
follows:--European Russia, 151,626; Caucasus, 69,423; Central Asian
Russia, 31,804; Siberia, 15,037--total for Russian empire, 267,890;
Persia, 63,982; Somaliland, 10,000; Afghanistan, 7,000; Germany, 9563;
France, 4550; Hungary, 1255; Belgium, 961. Curiously enough, the south
of Europe, which had been the scene of the previous epidemic visitation,
escaped. The disease was of the most virulent character. In European
Russia the mortality was 45.8% of the cases, the highest rate ever known
in that country; in Germany it was 51.3%; and in Austria-Hungary, 57.5%.
Of all the localities attacked, the case of Hamburg was the most
remarkable. The presence of cholera was first suspected on the 16th of
August, when two cases occurred, but it was not officially declared
until the 23rd of August. By that time the daily number of victims had
already risen to some hundreds, while the experts and authorities were
making up their minds whether they had cholera to deal with or not.
Their decision eventually came too late and was superfluous, for by the
27th of August the people were being stricken down at the rate of 1000 a
day. This rate was maintained for four days, after which the vehemence
of the pestilence began to abate. It gradually declined, and ceased on
the 14th of November. During those three months 16,956 persons were
attacked and 8605 died, the majority within the space of a few weeks.
The town, ordinarily one of the gayest places of business and pleasure
on the continent, became a city of the dead. Thousands of persons fled,
carrying the disease into all parts of Germany; the rest shut themselves
indoors; the shops were closed, the trams ceased to run, the hotels and
restaurants were deserted, and few vehicles or pedestrians were seen in
the streets. At the cemetery, which lies about 10 m. from the town, some
hundreds of men were engaged day and night digging long trenches to hold
double rows of coffins, while the funerals formed an almost continuous
procession along the roads; even so the victims could not be buried fast
enough, and their bodies lay for days in sheds hastily run up as
mortuaries. Hamburg had been attacked by cholera on fourteen previous
occasions, beginning with 1831, but the mortality had never approached
that of 1892; in the worst year, which was 1832, there were only 3687
cases and 1765 deaths. The disease was believed to have been introduced
by Jewish emigrants passing through on their way from Russia, but the
importation could not be traced. The Jews were segregated and kept under
careful supervision from the middle of July onwards, and no recognized
case occurred among them. The total number of places in Germany in which
cholera appeared in 1892 was 269, but it took no serious hold anywhere
save in Hamburg. The distribution was chiefly by the waterways, which
seem to affect a larger number of places than the railways as carriers
of cholera. In Paris 907 persons died, and in Havre 498. Between the
18th of August and the 21st of October 38 cases were imported into
England and Scotland through eleven different ports, but the disease
nowhere obtained a footing. Seven vessels brought 72 cases to the United
States, and 16 others occurred on shore, but there was no further
dissemination.

During the winter of 1892-1893 cholera died down, but never wholly
ceased in Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary and France. With the return
of warm weather it showed renewed activity, and prevailed extensively
throughout Europe. The recorded mortality for the principal countries
was as follows:--Russia (chiefly western provinces), 41,047;
Austria-Hungary, 4669; France, 4000; Italy, 3036; Turkey, 1500; Germany,
298; Holland, 376; Belgium, 372; England, 139. Hardly any country
escaped altogether; but Europe suffered less than Arabia, Mesopotamia
and Persia. Cholera broke out at Mecca in June, and owing to the
presence of an exceptionally large number of pilgrims caused an
appalling mortality. The chief shereef estimated the mortality at
50,000. The pilgrims carried the disease to Asia Minor and
Constantinople. In Persia also a recrudescence took place and proved
enormously destructive. Dr. Barry estimated the mortality at 70,000. At
Hamburg, where new waterworks had been installed with sand filtration,
only a few sporadic cases occurred until the autumn, when a sudden but
limited rush took place, which was traced to a defect in the masonry
permitting unfiltered Elbe water to pass into the mains. In England
cholera obtained a footing on the Humber at Grimsby, and to a lesser
extent at Hull, and isolated attacks occurred in some 50 different
localities. Excluding a few ship-borne cases the registered number of
attacks was 287, with 135 deaths, of which 9 took place in London. It is
interesting to compare the mortality from cholera in England and Wales,
and in London, for each year in which it has prevailed since
registration began:--

  +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+
  |       |   England and Wales.   |         London.         |
  |       +--------+---------------+--------+----------------+
  | Year. |        |   Deaths per  |        |   Deaths per   |
  |       | Deaths.| 10,000 living.| Deaths.| 10,000  living.|
  +-------+--------+---------------+--------+----------------+
  |       |        |               |        |                |
  | 1848- |  1,908 |      1.1      |    652 |       2.9      |
  | 1849  | 53,293 |     30.3      | 14,137 |      61.8      |
  |       |        |               |        |                |
  | 1853- |  4,419 |      2.4      |    883 |       3.5      |
  | 1854  | 20,097 |     10.9      | 10,738 |      42.8      |
  |       |        |               |        |                |
  | 1865- |  1,297 |      0.6      |    196 |       0.6      |
  | 1866  | 14,378 |      6.8      |  5,596 |      18.4      |
  |       |        |               |        |                |
  | 1893- |    135 |      0.05     |      9 |       0.002    |
  | 1894  |   nil  |      nil      |   nil  |      nil       |
  +-------+--------+---------------+--------+----------------+

In 1894 no deaths from cholera were recorded in England, but on the
continent it still prevailed over a wide area. In Russia over 30,000
persons died of it, in Germany about 500, but the most violent outbreak
was in Galicia, where upwards of 8000 deaths were registered. In 1895 it
still lingered, chiefly in Russia and Galicia, but with greatly
diminished activity. In that year Egypt, Morocco and Japan were
attacked, the last severely. The disease then remained in abeyance until
the severe epidemic in India in 1900.


  Prevention

The great invasion just described was fruitful in lessons for the
prevention of cholera. It proved that the one real and sufficient
protection lies in a standing condition of good sanitation backed by an
efficient and vigilant sanitary administration. The experience of Great
Britain was a remarkable piece of evidence, but that of Berlin was
perhaps even more striking, for Berlin lay in the centre of four fires,
in direct and frequent communication with Hamburg, Russia, France and
Austria, and without the advantage of a sea frontier. Cholera was
repeatedly brought into Berlin, but never obtained a footing, and its
successful repression was accomplished without any irksome interference
with traffic or the ordinary business of life. The general success of
Great Britain and Germany in keeping cholera in check by ordinary
sanitary means completed the conversion of all enlightened nations to
the policy laid down so far back as 1865 by Sir John Simon, and
advocated by Great Britain at a series of international congresses--the
policy of abandoning quarantine, which Great Britain did in 1873, and
trusting to sanitary measures with medical inspection of persons
arriving from infected places. This principle was formally adopted at
the international conference ference held at Dresden in 1893, at which
a convention was signed by the delegates of Germany, Austria, Belgium,
France, Great Britain, Italy, Russia, Switzerland, Luxemburg, Montenegro
and the Netherlands. Under this instrument the practice is broadly as
follows, though the procedure varies a good deal in different
countries:--Ships arriving from infected ports are inspected, and if
healthy are not detained, but bilge-water and drinking-water are
evacuated, and persons landing may be placed under medical supervision
without detention; infected ships are detained only for purposes of
disinfection; persons suffering from cholera are removed to hospital;
other persons landing from an infected ship are placed under medical
observation, which may mean detention for five days from the last case,
or, as in Great Britain, supervision in their own homes, for which
purpose they give their names and places of destination before landing.
All goods are freed from restrictions, except rags and articles believed
to be contaminated by cholera matters. By land, passengers from infected
places are similarly inspected at the frontiers and their luggage
"disinfected"--in all cases a pious ceremony of no practical value,
involving a short but often a vexatious delay; only those found
suffering from cholera can be detained. Each nation is pledged to notify
the others of the existence within its own borders of a "foyer" of
cholera, by which is meant a focus or centre of infection. The precise
interpretation of the term is left to each government, and is treated in
a rather elastic fashion by some, but it is generally understood to
imply the occurrence of non-imported cases in such a manner as to point
to the local presence of infection. The question of guarding Europe
generally from the danger of diffusion by pilgrims through the Red Sea
was settled at another conference held in Paris in 1894. The provisions
agreed on included the inspection of pilgrims at ports of departure,
detention of infected or suspected persons, and supervision of pilgrim
ships and of pilgrims proceeding overland to Mecca.

The substitution of the procedure above described for the old measures
of quarantine and other still more drastic interferences with traffic
presupposes the existence of a sanitary service and fairly good sanitary
conditions if cholera is to be effectually prevented. No doubt if
sanitation were perfect in any place or country, cholera, along with
many other diseases, might there be ignored, but sanitation is not
perfect anywhere, and therefore it requires to be supplemented by a
system of notification with prompt segregation of the sick and
destruction of infective material. These things imply a regular
organization, and it is to the public health service of Great Britain
that the complete mastery of cholera has mainly been due in recent
years, and particularly in 1893. Of sanitary conditions the most
important is unquestionably the water-supply. So many irrefragable
proofs of this fact were given during 1892-1893 that it is no longer
necessary to refer to the time-honoured case of the Broad Street pump.
At Samarkand three regiments were encamped side by side on a level plain
close to a stream of water. The colonel of one regiment took
extraordinary precautions, placing a guard over the river, and
compelling his men to use boiled water even for washing. Not a single
case of cholera occurred in that regiment, while the others, in which
only ordinary precautions were taken, lost over 100 men. At Askabad the
cholera had almost disappeared, when a banquet was given by the governor
in honour of the tsar's name-day. Of the guests one-half died within
twenty-four hours; a military band, which was present, lost 40 men out
of 50; and one regiment lost half its men and 9 officers. Within
forty-eight hours 1300 persons died out of a total population of about
13,000. The water supply came from a small stream, and just before the
banquet a heavy rain-storm had occurred, which swept into the stream all
surface refuse from an infected village higher up and some distance from
the banks. But the classical example was Hamburg. The water-supply is
obtained from the Elbe, which became infected by some means not
ascertained. The drainage from the town also runs into the river, and
the movement of the tide was sufficient to carry the sewage matter up
above the water-intake. The water itself, which is no cleaner than that
of the Thames at London Bridge, underwent no purification whatever
before distribution. It passed through a couple of ponds, supposed to
act as settling tanks, but owing to the growth of the town and increased
demand for water it was pumped through too rapidly to permit of any
subsidence. Eels and other fish constantly found their way into the
houses, while the mains were lined with vegetation and crustacea. The
water-pipes of Hamburg had a peculiar and abundant fauna and flora of
their own, and the water they delivered was commonly called
_Fleischbruehe_, from its resemblance to thick soup. On the other hand,
at Altona, which is continuous with Hamburg, the water was filtered
through sand. In all other respects the conditions were identical, yet
in Altona only 328 persons died, against 8605 in Hamburg. In some
streets one side lies in Hamburg, the other in Altona, and cholera
stopped at the dividing line, the Hamburg side being full of cases and
the Altona side untouched. In the following year, when Hamburg had the
new filtered supply, it enjoyed equal immunity, save for a short period
when, as we have said, raw Elbe water accidentally entered the mains.

But water, though the most important condition, is not the only one
affecting the incidence of cholera. The case of Grimsby furnished a
striking lesson to the contrary. Here the disease obtained a decided
hold, in spite of a pure water-supply, through the fouling of the soil
by cesspits and defective drainage. At Havre also its prevalence was due
to a similar cause. Further, it was conclusively proved at Grimsby that
cholera can be spread by sewage-fed shell-fish. Several of the local
outbreaks in England were traced to the ingestion of oysters obtained
from the Grimsby beds. In short, it may be said that all insanitary
conditions favour the prevalence of cholera in some degree. Preventive
inoculation with an attenuated virus was introduced by W.M.W. Haffkine,
and has been extensively used in India, with considerable appearance of
success so far as the statistical evidence goes.


  Treatment.

As already remarked, the latest manifestations of cholera show that it
has lost none of its former virulence and fatality. The symptoms are now
regarded as the effects of the toxic action of the poison formed by the
micro-organisms upon the tissues and especially upon the nervous system.
But this theory has not led to any effective treatment. Drugs in great
variety were tried in the continental hospitals in 1892, but without any
distinct success. The old controversy between the aperient and the
astringent treatment reappeared. In Russia the former, which aims at
evacuating the poison, was more generally adopted; in Germany the
latter, which tries to conserve strength by stopping the flux, found
more favour. Two methods of treatment were invariably found to give
great relief, if not to prolong life and promote recovery--the hot bath
and the injection of normal saline solution into the veins or the
subcutaneous tissue. These two should always be tried in the cold and
collapsed stages of cholera.

  See _Local Government Board Reports, 1892-93-94-95_; Clemow, _The
  Cholera Epidemic of 1892 in the Russian Empire_; Wall, _Asiatic
  Cholera_; Notter, _Epidemiological Society's Transactions_, vol.
  xvii.; Emmerich and Gemuend, _Muenchen. med. Wochenschr_. (1904), pp.
  1086-1157; Wherry, _Department of the Interior Bureau of Government
  Laboratories_, No. 19 (October 1904, Manila); Wherry and M'Dill,
  _Ibid._ No. 31 (May 1905, Manila).




CHOLET, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the
department of Maine-et-Loire, 41 m. S.E. of Nantes on the Ouest-Etat
railway between that town and Poitiers. Pop. (1906) 16,554. Cholet
stands on an eminence on the right bank of the Moine, which is crossed
by a bridge of the 15th century. A public garden occupies the site of
the old castle; the public buildings and churches, the finest of which
is Notre-Dame, are modern. The public institutions include the
sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, a chamber of commerce, a
board of trade-arbitrators, and a communal college. There are granite
quarries in the vicinity of the town. The chief industry is the
manufacture of linen and linen handkerchiefs, which is also carried on
in the neighbouring communes on a large scale. Woollen and cotton
fabrics are also produced, and bleaching and the manufacture of
preserved foods are carried on. Cholet is the most important centre in
France for the sale of fat cattle, sheep and pigs, for which Paris is
the chief market. Megalithic monuments are numerous in the
neighbourhood. The town owes the rise of its prosperity to the
settlement of weavers there by Edouard Colbert, count of Maulevrier, a
brother of the great Colbert. It suffered severely in the War of La
Vendee of 1793, insomuch that for years afterwards it was almost without
inhabitants.




CHOLON ("great market"), a town of French Indo-China, the largest
commercial centre of Cochin China, 31/2 m. S.W. of Saigon, with which it
is united by railway, steam-tramway and canal. Cholon was founded by
Chinese immigrants about 1780, and is situated on the Chinese arroyo at
the junction of the Lo-Gom and a canal. Its waterways are frequented by
innumerable boats and lined in some places with native dwellings built
on piles, in others by quays and houses of French construction. Its
population is almost entirely Asiatic, and has more than trebled since
1880. In that year it had only 45,000 inhabitants; in 1907 it numbered
about 138,000. Of these, 42,000 were Chinese, 73,000 Annamese, and 155
French (exclusive of a garrison of 92); the remainder consisted of
Cambodians and Asiatic foreigners. During the rice season the town is
visited by a floating population of 21,000 persons. The Chinese are
divided into congregations according to their place of origin. Cholon is
administered by a municipal council, composed of French, Annamese and
Chinese traders. An administrator of native affairs, nominated by the
governor, fills the office of mayor. There are a fine municipal hospital
and municipal schools for boys and girls. The principal thoroughfares
are lighted by electric light. The rice trade, almost monopolized by the
Chinese, is the leading industry, the rice being treated in large steam
mills. Tanning, dyeing, copper-founding, glass, brick and pottery
manufacture, stone working, timber-sawing and junk building are also
included among the industries.




CHOLONES, a tribe of South American Indians living on the left bank of
the Huallaga river in the Amazon valley. The name is that given them by
the Spanish. They were first met by the Franciscans, who established
mission villages among them in 1676. They are a wild race but
mild-mannered, very superstitious, and pride themselves on their skill
as doctors. Their chief weapon is the blow-pipe, in the use of which
they are adepts.




CHOLULA, an ancient town of Mexico, in the state and on the plateau of
Puebla, 8 m. by rail W. by N. of the city of that name, and 6912 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1900, estimate) 9000. The Interoceanic railway
passes through Cholula, but the city's commercial and industrial
standing is overshadowed by that of its larger and more modern
neighbour. At the time of the Spanish Conquest, Cholula--then known as
Chololan--was a large and important town, consecrated to the worship of
the god Quetzalcoatl, who had here one of the most imposing temples in
Anahuac, built on the summit of a truncated pyramid, the largest of its
kind in the world. This pyramid, constructed of sun-dried bricks and
earth, 177 ft. high, and covering an area of nearly 45 acres, is the
most conspicuous object in the town and is surmounted by a chapel
dedicated to _Nuestra Senora de los Remedios_. A corner of the lower
terrace of this great pyramid was cut through in the construction of the
Puebla road, but nothing was discovered to explain its purpose, which
was probably that of furnishing an imposing site for a temple. Nothing
definite is known of its age and history, as the fanatical zeal of
Cortez and his companions destroyed whatever historical data the temple
may have contained. Cholula was visited by Cortez in 1519 during his
eventful march inland to Montezuma's capital, Tenochtitlan, when he
treacherously massacred its inhabitants and pillaged the city,
pretending to distrust the hospitable inhabitants. Cortez estimated that
the town then had 20,000 habitations, and its suburbs as many more, but
this was undoubtedly a deliberate exaggeration. The Cholulans were of
Nahuatl origin and were semi-independent, yielding only a nominal
allegiance to Montezuma. They were a trading people, holding fairs, and
exchanging their manufactures of textiles and pottery for other produce.
The pyramid is believed to have been built by a people occupying this
region before the Cholulans.




CHOPIN, FREDERIC FRANCOIS (1810-1849), Polish musical composer and
pianist, was born at Zelazowa-Wola, near Warsaw, on the 22nd of February
1810 (_not_ the 1st of March 1809). His father, of French origin, born
at Nancy in 1770, had married a Polish lady, Justine Krzyzanowska.
Frederic was their third child. His first musical education he received
from Adalbert Ziwny, a Czech musician, who is said to have been a
passionate admirer of J.S. Bach. He also received a good general
education at one of the first colleges of Warsaw, where he was supported
by Prince Antoine Radziwill, a generous protector of artistic talent and
himself well known as the composer of music to Goethe's _Faust_ and
other works. His musical genius opened to Chopin the best circles of
Polish society, at that time unrivalled in Europe for its ease of
intercourse, the beauty and grace of its women, and its liberal
appreciation of artistic gifts. These early impressions were of lasting
influence on Chopin's development. While at college he received thorough
instruction in the theory of his art from Joseph Elsner, a learned
musician and director of the conservatoire at Warsaw. When in 1829 he
left his native town for Vienna, where his _debut_ as a pianist took
place, he was in all respects a perfectly formed and developed artist.
There is in his compositions little of that gradual progress which, for
instance, in Beethoven necessitates a classification of his works
according to different periods. Chopin's individuality and his style
were distinctly pronounced in that set of variations on "La ci darem"
which excited the wondering enthusiasm of Robert Schumann. In 1831 he
left Vienna with the intention of visiting London; but on his way to
England he reached Paris and settled there for the rest of his life.
Here again he soon became the favourite and musical hero of society. His
connexion with Madame Dudevant, better known by her literary pseudonym
of George Sand (q.v.), is an important feature of Chopin's life. When in
1839 his health began to fail, George Sand went with him to Majorca, and
it was mainly owing to her tender care that the composer recovered his
health for a time. Chopin declared that the destruction of his relations
with Madame Dudevant in 1847 broke up his life. The association of these
two artists has provoked a whole literature on the nature of their
relations, of which the novelist's _Un Hiver a Majorque_ was the
beginning. The last ten years of Chopin's life were a continual struggle
with the pulmonary disease to which he succumbed in Paris on the 17th of
October 1849. The year before his death he visited England, where he was
received with enthusiasm by his numerous admirers. Chopin died in the
arms of his sister, who hastened from Poland to his death-bed. He was
buried in the cemetery of Pere Lachaise. A small monument was erected to
the memory of the composer at Wasswan in 1880. Portraits and medallions
of Chopin were executed by Ary Scheffer and Eugene Delacroix, and by the
sculptors Bary and Clesinger.

A distinguished English amateur thus records his impressions of Chopin's
style of pianoforte-playing compared with those of other masters. "His
technical characteristics may be broadly indicated as negation of
_bravura_, absolute perfection of finger-play, and of the _legatissimo_
touch, on which no other pianist has ever so entirely leant, to the
exclusion of that high relief and point which the modern German school,
after the examples of Liszt and Thalberg, has so effectively developed.
It is in these feature that we must recognize that _Grundverschiedenheit_
(fundamental difference) which according to Mendelssohn distinguished
Chopin's playing from that of these masters, and in no less degree from
the example and teaching of Moscheles.... Imagine a delicate man of
extreme refinement of mien and manner, sitting at the piano and playing
with no sway of the body and scarcely any movement of the arms, depending
entirely upon his narrow feminine hands and slender fingers. The wide
arpeggios in the left hand, maintained in a continuous stream of tone by
the strict legato and fine and constant use of the damper-pedal, formed
an harmonious substructure for a wonderfully poetic cantabile. His
delicate pianissimo, the ever-changing modifications of tone and time
(tempo rubato) were of indescribable effect. Even in energetic passages
he scarcely ever exceeded an ordinary mezzoforte. His playing as a whole
was unique in its kind, and no traditions of it can remain, for there is
no school of Chopin the pianist, for the obvious reason that he could
never be regarded as a public player, and his best pupils were nearly all
amateurs."

In looking through the list of his compositions, teeming with mazurkas,
valses, polonaises, and other forms of national dance music, one could
hardly suppose that here one of the most melancholy natures has revealed
itself. This seeming paradox is solved by the type of Chopin's
nationality, of which it has justly been said that its very dances are
sadness intensified. But notwithstanding this strongly pronounced
national type of his compositions, his music is always expressive of his
individual feelings and sufferings to a degree rarely met with in the
annals of the art. He is indeed the lyrical composer _par excellence_ of
the modern school, and the intensity of his expression finds its equal
in literature only in the songs of Heinrich Heine, to whom Chopin has
been justly compared. A sensation of such high-strung passion cannot be
prolonged. Hence we see that the shorter forms of music, the etude, the
nocturne, besides the national dances already alluded to, are chosen by
Chopin in preference. Even when he treats the larger forms of the
concerto or the sonata this concentrated, not to say pointed, character
of Chopin's style becomes obvious. The more extended dimensions seem to
encumber the freedom of his movements. The concerto for pianoforte with
accompaniment of the orchestra in E may be instanced. Here the adagio
takes the form of a romance, and in the final rondo the rhythm of a
Polish dance becomes recognizable while the instrumentation throughout
is meagre and wanting in colour. Chopin is out of his element, and even
the beauty of his melodies and harmonies cannot wholly banish the
impression of incongruity. Fortunately he himself knew the limits of his
power, and with very few exceptions his works belong to that class of
minor compositions of which he was an unrivalled master. Barring a
collection of Polish songs, two concertos, and a very small number of
concerted pieces of chamber music, almost all his works are written for
the pianoforte solo; the symphony, the oratorio, the opera, he never
attempted.

  Chopin's works group themselves firstly into the period from Op. 1 to
  22, which includes nearly all his attempts at large or classical
  forms, e.g. the works with orchestra, Op. 2 (variations on _La ci
  darem_), Opp. 11 and 14 (concertos), Op. 13 (Polish fantasia), Op. 14
  (_Krakowiak_, a concerto-rondo in mazurka-rhythm), and Op. 22 (Andante
  spianato and Polonaise), besides the solo rondos Opp. 1, 5, 16, and
  the variations Op. 12 and the essays in chamber music Opp. 3, 8, 65.
  Meanwhile, however, the mature lyric style of his second period
  already began with Op. 6 (4 mazurkas), and though it is not confined
  to small forms, the larger mature works (beginning with the ballade
  Op. 23 and excepting only the sonata Op. 58 and the Allegro de Concert
  Op. 46) are as independent of tradition as the smallest. It is well to
  sift the posthumous works from those published under Chopin's
  direction, for the last three mazurkas are the only things he did not
  keep back as misrepresenting him. On these principles his mature works
  are summed up in the 42 mazurkas (Opp. 6, 7, 17, 24, 30, 33, 41, 50,
  56, 59, 63, and the beautiful contribution to the collection _Notre
  temps_); 7 polonaises (Opp. 26, 40, 53, 61); 24 preludes (in all the
  major and minor keys) Op. 28, and the single larger prelude Op. 45; 27
  etudes (12 in Op. 10, 12 in Op. 25, and 3 written for the _Methode des
  methodes_); 18 nocturnes (Opp. 9, 15, 27, 32, 37, 48, 55, 62); 4
  ballades, in forms of Chopin's own invention (Opp. 23, 38, 47, 52); 4
  scherzos (Opp. 20, 31, 39, 54); 8 waltzes (Opp. 18, 34, 42, 64); and
  several pieces of various description, notably the great fantasia Op.
  49 and the impromptus Opp. 29, 36, 51.

  The posthumous works number 35 pieces, besides a small volume of songs
  a few of which are of great interest.

  Franz Liszt wrote a charming sketch of Chopin's life and art (_F.
  Chopin_, par F. Liszt, Paris, 1851), and a very appreciative though
  somewhat eccentric analysis of his work appeared anonymously in 1842
  (_An Essay on the Works of Frederic Chopin_, London). The standard
  biography is the English work of Professor F. Niecks (Novello, 1888).
  See also W.H. Hadow, _Studies in Modern Music_, second series (1908).
  The editions of Chopin's works by his pupil Mikuli and by Klindworth
  are full of valuable elucidation as to methods of performance, but
  unfortunately they do not distinguish the commentary from the text.
  The critical edition published by Breitkopf and Haertel, with all its
  mistakes, is absolutely necessary for students who wish to know what
  Chopin wished to put into the hands of players of independent
  judgment.




CHOPSTICKS, the "pidgin-English" name for the pair of small tapering
sticks used by the Chinese and Japanese in eating. "Chop" is
pidgin-English for "quick," the Chinese word for the articles being
_kwai-tsze_, meaning "the quick ones." "Chopsticks" are commonly made of
wood, bone or ivory, somewhat longer and slightly thinner than a
lead-pencil. Held between the thumb and fingers of the right hand, they
are used as tongs to take up portions of the food, which is brought to
table cut up into small and convenient pieces, or as means for sweeping
the rice and small particles of food into the mouth from the bowl. Many
rules of etiquette govern the proper conduct of the chopsticks; laying
them across the bowl is a sign that the guest wishes to leave the table;
they are not used during a time of mourning, when food is eaten with the
fingers; and various methods of handling them form a secret code of
signalling.




CHORAGUS (the Lat. form of Gr. [Greek: choragos] or [Greek: choregos],
leader of the chorus), the citizen chosen to undertake the expense of
furnishing and instructing the chorus at the Dionysiac festivals at
Athens (see LITURGY and FINANCE). The name is given to an assistant to
the professor of music at the university of Oxford, whose office was
founded, with that of the professor, in 1626 by Dr William Heather.




CHORALE (from the Lat. _choralis_, sc. _cantus_; the final _e_ is added
to show the Ger. pronunciation _chor[=a]l_), a term in music used by
English writers to indicate the hymn-tunes composed or adopted for use
in church by the German reformers. German writers, however, apply the
terms "_Choral_" and "_Chorale-gesang_," as Luther himself would apply
them, to any solemn melody used in the church. It is thus the equivalent
of _canto fermo_; and the German rhymed versions of the biblical and
other ancient canticles, such as the Magnificat and the Te Deum, are set
to curious corruptions of the corresponding Gregorian tunes, which
adaptations the composers of classical German music called chorales with
no more scruple than they applied the name to tunes of secular origin,
German or foreign. The peculiarity of German chorale-music, however, is
that its use, and consequently much of its invention, not only arose in
connexion with the Reformation, by which the liturgy of the church
became "understanded of the people," but also that it belongs to a
musical epoch in which symmetry of melody and rhythm was beginning to
assume artistic importance. The growing sense of form shown by some of
Luther's own tunes (e.g. _Vom Himmel hoch, da komm' ich her_) soon
advanced, especially in the tunes of Crueger, beyond any that was shown
by folk-music; and it provided an invaluable bulwark against the chaos
that was threatening to swamp music on all sides at the beginning of the
17th century. By Bach's time all the polyphonic instrumental and vocal
art-forms of the 18th century were mature; and though he loved to derive
the design as well as the details of a large movement from the shape of
the chorale tune on which it was based, he became quite independent of
any aid from symmetry in the tune as raw material. The chorus of his
cantata _Jesus nun sei gepreiset_ is one of the most perfectly designed
and quite the longest of movements ever based upon a chorale-tune
treated phrase by phrase. Yet the tune is one of the most intractable in
the world, though its most unpromising portion is the basis of the most
impressive feature in Bach's design (the slow middle section in triple
time).

The national character of the German chorale, and the recent great
development of interest in folk-music, together with the unique
importance of Bach's work, have combined to tempt writers on music to
over-estimate the distinctness of the art-forms based upon the German
chorale. There is really nothing in these art-forms which is not
continuous with the universal practice of writing counterpoint on a
_canto fermo_. And it should never be forgotten that, however
fascinating may be the study of the relation between artistic forms and
the spirit of the age, no art can successfully express more of the
spirit of the age than its own technical resources will admit. Choral
music in all ages has tended to consist largely of counterpoint on a
_canto fermo_ (see CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS). Where there are not many canto
fermos in constant use in the church, composers will be driven to use
them rather unsystematically as special effects, and to rely for the
most part on other artistic devices, though any use of melodies in long
notes against quicker counterpoint will be aesthetically
indistinguishable from counterpoint on a _canto fermo_. Thus Handel in
his Italian and English works wrote no entire chorale movements, yet
what is the passage in the "Hallelujah" chorus from "the kingdom of this
world" to the end but a treatment of the second part of the chorale
_Wachet auf_? How shall we describe the treatment of the words "And
their cry came up unto the Lord" in the first chorus of _Israel in
Egypt_, except as the treatment of a phrase of chorale or _canto fermo_?
Again, to return to the 16th century, what are the hymns of Palestrina
but figured chorales? In what way, except in the lack of symmetry in the
Gregorian phrasing, do they differ from the contemporary setting by
Orlando di Lasso, also a Roman Catholic, of the German chorale _Vater
unser im Himmelreich_? In modern times the use of German chorales, as in
Mendelssohn's oratorios and organ-sonatas, has had rather the aspect of
a revival than of a development; though the technique and spirit of
Brahms's posthumous organ chorale-preludes is thoroughly modern and
vital.

  One of the most important, and practically the earliest collection of
  "Chorales" is that made by Luther and Johann Walther (1496-1570), the
  _Enchiridion_, published in 1524. Next in importance we may place the
  Genevan Psalter (1st ed., Strassburg, 1542, final edition 1562), which
  is now conclusively proved to be the work of Bourgeois. From this
  Sternhold and Hopkins borrowed extensively (1562). The psalter of C.
  Goudimel (Paris, 1565) is another among many prominent collections
  showing the steps towards congregational singing, i.e. the restriction
  to "note-against-note" counterpoint (sc. plain harmony), and, in
  twelve cases, the assigning of the melody to the treble instead of to
  the tenor. The first hymn-book in which this latter step was acted on
  throughout is Osiander's _Geistliche Lieder ... also gesetzt, dass ein
  christliche Gemein durchaus mitsingen kann_ (1586). But many of the
  finest and most famous tunes are of much later origin than any such
  collections. Several (e.g. _Ich freue mich in dir_) cannot be traced
  before Bach, and were very probably composed by him.    (D. F. T.)




CHORIAMBIC VERSE, or CHORIAMBICS, the name given to Greek or Latin
lyrical poetry in which the sound of the choriambus predominates. The
choriambus is a verse-foot consisting of a trochee united with and
preceding an iambus, [-uu-]. The choriambi are never used alone, but are
usually preceded by a spondee and followed by an iambus. The line so
formed is called an asclepiad, traditionally because it was invented by
the Aeolian poet Asclepiades of Samos. Choriambic verse was first used
by the poets of the Greek islands, and Sappho, in particular, produced
magnificent effects with it. The measure, as used by the early Greeks,
is essentially lyrical and impassioned. Mingled with other metres, it
was constantly serviceable in choral writing, to which it was believed
to give a stormy and mysterious character. The Greater Asclepiad was a
term used for a line in which the wild music was prolonged by the
introduction of a supplementary choriambus. This was much employed by
Sappho and by Alcaeus, as well as in Alexandrian times by Callimachus
and Theocritus. Among the Latins, Horace, in imitation of Alcaeus, made
constant use of choriambic verse. Metrical experts distinguish six
varieties of it in his Odes. This is an example of his greater asclepiad
(_Od._ i. 11):--

            -u  u-      -u   u-       -   uu     -
  Tu ne | quaesieris | scire nefas | quem mihi, quem | tibi
  Finem | Di dederint | Leuconoe; | nee Babylon|ios
  Tentar|is numeros. | Ut melius | quicquid erit, | pati!
  Seu plu|res hiemes, | seu tribuit | Jupiter ul|timam,
  Quae nunc | oppositis | debilitat | pumicibus | mare
  Tyrrhe|num.

In later times of Rome, both Seneca and Prudentius wrote choriambic
verse with a fair amount of success. Swinburne even introduced it into
English poetry:--

  Love, what | ailed them to leave | life that was made | lovely, we
      thought | with love?
  What sweet | vision of sleep | lured thee away | down from the light
      | above?

Such lines as these make a brave attempt to resuscitate the measured
sound of the greater asclepiad.    (E. G.)




CHORICIUS, of Gaza, Greek sophist and rhetorician, flourished in the
time of Anastasius I. (A.D. 491-518). He was the pupil of Procopius of
Gaza, who must be distinguished from Procopius of Caesarea, the
historian. A number of his declamations and descriptive treatises have
been preserved. The declamations, which are in many cases accompanied by
explanatory commentaries, chiefly consist of panegyrics, funeral
orations and the stock themes of the rhetorical schools. The [Greek:
Epithalamioi] or wedding speeches, wishing prosperity to the bride and
bridegroom, strike out a new line. Choricius was also the author of
so-called [Greek: Ekphraseis], descriptions of works of art after the
manner of Philostratus. The moral maxims, which were a constant feature
of his writings, were largely drawn upon by Macarius Chrysocephalas,
metropolitan of Philadelphia (middle of the 14th century), in his
_Rodonia_ (rose-garden), a voluminous collection of ethical sayings. The
style of Choricius is praised by Photius as pure and elegant, but he is
censured for lack of naturalness. A special feature of his style is the
persistent avoidance of hiatus, peculiar to what is called the school of
Gaza.

  Editions by J.F. Boissonade (1846, supplemented by C. Graux in _Revue
  de philologie_, 1877) and R. Foerster (1882-1894); see also C. Kirsten,
  "Quaestiones Choricianae" in _Breslauer philologische Abhandlungen_,
  vii. (1894), and article by W. Schmid in Pauly-Wissowa's
  _Realencyclopaedie_, iii. 2 (1899). On the Gaza school see K. Seitz,
  _Die Schule von Gaza_ (Heidelberg, 1892).




CHORIN, AARON (1766-1844), Hungarian rabbi and pioneer of religious
reform. He favoured the use of the organ and of prayers in the
vernacular, and was instrumental in founding schools on modern lines.
Chorin was thus regarded as a leader of the newer Judaism. He also
interested himself in public affairs; and his son Francis was a
Hungarian deputy.

  See L. Loew, _Gesammelte Schriften_, ii. 251.




CHORIZONTES ("separators"), the name given to the Alexandrian critics
who denied the single authorship of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, and held
that the latter poem was the work of a later poet. The most important of
them were the grammarians Xeno and Hellanicus; Aristarchus was their
chief opponent (see HOMER).




CHORLEY, HENRY FOTHERGILL (1808-1872), English musical critic, one of an
old Lancashire family, began in a merchant's office, but soon took to
musical journalism. He began to write for the _Athenaeum_ in 1830, and
remained its musical critic for more than a generation; and he also
became musical critic for _The Times_. In these positions he had much
influence; he had strong views, and was a persistent opponent of
innovation. In addition to musical criticism, he wrote voluminously on
literature and art, besides novels, dramas and verse, and various
librettos; and he published several books, including _Modern German
Music_ (1854), _Handel Studies_ (1859), and _Thirty Years' Musical
Recollections_ (1862). He died in London on the 16th of February 1872.

  See his _Autobiography, Memoir and Letters_, edited by H.G. Hewlett
  (1873).




CHORLEY, a market town and municipal borough in the Chorley
parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on the river Yarrow, 202
m. N.W. by W. from London and 22 m. N.W. from Manchester, on the
Lancashire & Yorkshire and London & North-Western railways and the Leeds
& Liverpool Canal. Pop. (1891) 23,087; (1901) 26,852. The church of St
Lawrence is of Perpendicular and earlier date, largely restored; it
contains fine woodwork and some interesting monuments. Cotton spinning
and the manufacture of cotton and muslin are extensively carried on, and
there are also iron and brass foundries and boiler factories.
Railway-wagon building is an important industry. The district contains a
number of coal-mines and stone-quarries. Close to the town is the
beautiful Elizabethan mansion of Astley Hall, which is said to have
sheltered Oliver Cromwell after the battle of Preston (1648). The
corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area,
3614 acres.




CHORLU, TCHORLAU or SCHORLAU, a town of European Turkey, in the vilayet
of Adrianople; on the left bank of the Chorlu, a small left-hand
tributary of the Ergene, 20 m. N.E. of Rodosto. Pop. (1905) about
12,000, of whom one-half are Greeks, one-third Turks, and the remainder
Armenians and Jews. Chorlu has a station on the Constantinople-Adrianople
branch of the Oriental railways. It manufactures woollen cloth (_shayak_)
and native carpets, and exports cereals, oil-cloth, carpets, cattle,
poultry, fresh meat, game, fruits, wine, alcohol, hides and bones.




CHOROGRAPHY. (1) (From the Gr. [Greek: chora], a tract of country, and
[Greek: graphein], to write), a description or delineation on a map of a
district or tract of country; it is to be distinguished from "geography"
and "topography," which treat of the earth as a whole and of particular
places respectively. The word is common in old geographical treatises,
but is now superseded by the wider use of "topography." (2) (From the
Gr. [Greek: choros], dance), the art of dancing, or a system of notation
to indicate the steps and movements in dancing.




CHORUM, the chief town of a sanjak of the Angora vilayet in Asia Minor,
altitude 2300 ft., situated on the edge of a wide plain, almost
equidistant from Amasia and Yuzgat. Pop. about 12,500, including a few
Christians. Its importance is largely due to its situation on the great
trade-route from Kaisarieh (Caesarea) by Yuzgat and Marzivan to Samsun
on the Black Sea. It corresponds to the ancient _Euchaita_, which lay 15
m. E. Euchaiti was attacked by the Huns A.D. 508, and became a bishopric
at an early period and a centre of religious enthusiasm, as containing
the tomb of the revered St Theodore, who slew a dragon in the vicinity
and became one of the great warrior saints of the Greek Church.
Something of the old enthusiasm seems to have passed to the inhabitants
of Chorum, whom most travellers have found bigoted and fanatical
Mahommedans (see J.G.C. Anderson, _Studia Pontica_, pp. 6 ff.).




CHORUS (Gr. [Greek: choros]) properly a dance, and especially the sacred
dance, accompanied by song, of ancient Greece at the festivals of the
gods. The word [Greek: choros] seems originally to have referred to a
dance in an enclosure, and is therefore usually connected with the root
appearing in Gr. [Greek: chortos], hedge, enclosure, Lat. _hortus_,
garden, and in the Eng. "yard," "garden" and "garth." Of choral dances
in ancient Greece other than those in honour of Dionysus we know of the
Dance of the Crane at Delos, celebrating the escape of Theseus from the
labyrinth, one telling of the struggle of Apollo and the Python at
Delphi, and one in Crete recounting the saving of the new-born Zeus by
the Curetes. In the chorus sung in honour of Dionysus the ancient Greek
drama had its birth. From that of the winter festival, consisting of the
[Greek komos] or band of revellers, chanting the "phallic songs," with
ribald dialogue between the leader and his band, sprang "comedy," while
from the dithyrambic chorus of the spring festival came "tragedy." For
the history of the chorus in Greek drama, with the gradual subordination
of the lyrical to the dramatic side in tragedy and its total
disappearance in the middle and new comedy, see DRAMA: _Greek Drama_.

The chorus as a factor in drama survived only in the various imitations
or revivals of the ancient Greek theatre in other languages. A chorus is
found in Milton's _Samson Agonistes_. The Elizabethan dramatists applied
the name to a single character employed for the recitation of prologues
or epilogues. Apart from the uses of the term in drama, the word
"chorus" has been employed chiefly in music. It is used of any organized
body of singers, in opera, oratorio, cantata, &c., and, in the form
"choir," of the trained body of singers of the musical portions of a
religious service in a cathedral or church. As applied to musical
compositions, a "chorus" is a composition written in parts, each to be
sung by groups of voices in a large body of singers, and differs from
"glee" (q.v.), where each part is for a single voice. The word is also
used of that part of a song repeated at the close of each verse, in
which the audience or a body of singers may join with the soloist.

In the early middle ages the name _chorus_ was given to a primitive
bagpipe without a drone. The instrument is best known by the Latin
description contained in the apocryphal letter of St Jerome, _ad
Dardanum_: "Chorus quoque simplex, pellis cum duabus cicutis aereis, et
per primam inspiratur per secundam vocem emittit." Several illuminated
MSS.[1] from the 9th to the 11th century give fanciful drawings,
accompanied by descriptions in barbarous Latin, evidently meant to
illustrate those described in the letter to Dardanus. The original MS.,
probably an illustrated transcript of this letter, which served as a
copy for the others, was apparently produced at a time when the Roman
bagpipe (_tibia utricularia_) had fallen into disuse in common with
other musical instruments, and was unknown except to the few. The Latin
description given above is correct and quite unmistakable to any one who
knows the primitive form of bagpipe; the illustrations must therefore
represent the effort of an artist to depict an unknown instrument from a
description. Virdung, Luscinius and Praetorius seem to have had access
to a MS. of the Dardanus letter now lost, and to have reproduced the
drawings without understanding them. In a MS. of the 14th century at the
British Museum,[2] containing a chronicle of the world's history to the
death of King Edward I., the chorus is mentioned and described in
similar words to those quoted above; in the margin is an elementary
sketch of a primitive bagpipe with blowpipe and chaunter with three
holes, but no drone. Bagpipes with drones abound on sculptured monuments
and in miniatures of that century. Gerbert gives illustrations of the
fanciful chorus from the Dardanus letter and of two other instruments of
later date; one of these represents a musician playing the
_Platerspiel_, the other the bagpipe known as _chevrette_, in which the
whole skin of the animal (a kid or pig), with head and feet, has been
used for the bag. Edward Buhle,[3] in his admirable work on the musical
instruments in the illuminated MSS. of the middle ages, points out that
Gerbert,[4] who gives the dates of his two MSS. as "6th and 9th
centuries," has a singular method of reckoning the date of a MS.; he
refers to the age of a MS. at the time of writing (18th century), not to
the date at which it was produced. The MS. containing the two figures of
musicians mentioned above, instead of being ascribed to the 6th century,
was six centuries old when Gerbert wrote in 1774, and dates therefore
from the 12th century. It is interesting to note that Giraldus
Cambrensis[5] mentions the chorus as one of the three instruments of
Wales and Scotland, ascribing superior musical skill to the latter.
Historians record that King James I. of Scotland was renowned for his
skill as a performer on various musical instruments, one of which was
the chorus.[6] This bears out the traditional belief that the bagpipe
had been a Scottish attribute from the earliest times. The word "chorus"
occurs once or twice in French medieval poems with other instruments,
but without indication as to the kind of instrument thus designated. The
word was probably the French equivalent for the _Platerspiel_.

  See also G. Kastner, _Danses des morts_ (pp. 200 to 202, pl. xv., No.
  103); and Dom Pedro Cerone, _El Melopeo y maestro_ (Naples, 1613), p.
  248.    (K. S.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] The MSS. are a psalterium, 9th century, Bibl. publique, Angers,
    fol. 13a; Boulogne _Psalterium glossatum_ c. A.D. 1000, MS. No. 20,
    Bibl. publique. For reproduction of musical instruments see _Annales
    archeologiques_, tome iv. (1846), p. 38; Cotton MS., Tiberius C.
    vi., 10th to 11th century, fol. 16b, British Museum, illustrated in
    Strutt's _Horda Angel-cynnan_, vol. ii. pls. xx. and xxi.; MS.
    psalter of St Emmeran, now in Munich Staatsbibliothek, clm. 14523,
    fol. 51b, 10th century, illustrated by Gerbert, _De Cantu et Mus.
    Sacra_, tome ii. pi. xxiii.; Paris, Bibl. Nat. Fonds Latin, 7211,
    1Oth century, fol. 150 and 151a.

  [2] Cotton MS., Nero D. ii. f. 15a, _Chronicon ab orbe condito ad
    obitum Regis Edwardi I., 1307_.

  [3] _Die musikalischen Instrumente in den Miniaturen des fruehen
    Mittelalters_, part i. "Die Blasinstrumente" (Leipzig, 1903), p. 7,
    note 1.

  [4] Op. cit. (1774), tome ii. pl. xxv. No. 13, pp. 130, 151, 152,
    and pl. xxxi. No. 12.

  [5] _Topographia Hiberniae_, cap. xi.

  [6] _Scotichronicon_ (Fordun and Bower), xvi. 28; and Dalyell,
    _Musical Memoirs of Scotland_, p. 47, pls. x. and xi.




CHOSE (Fr. for "thing"), a term used in English law in different senses.
_Chose local_ is a thing annexed to a place, as a mill. A _chose
transitory_ is that which is movable, and can be carried from place to
place. But the use of the word "chose" in these senses is practically
obsolete, and it is now used only in the phrases _chose in action_ and
_chose in possession_. A "chose in action," sometimes called a chose in
suspense, in its more limited meaning, denotes the right of enforcing by
legal proceedings the payment of a debt, or the obtaining money by way
of damages for breach of contract, or as a recompense for a wrong. Less
accurately, the money itself which could be recovered is frequently
termed a chose in action, as is also sometimes the document evidencing a
title to a chose in action, such as a bond or a policy of insurance,
though strictly it is only the right to recover the money which can be
so termed. Choses in action were, before the Judicature Acts, either
_legal_ or _equitable_. Where the chose could be recovered only by an
action at law, as a debt (whether arising from contract or tort), it was
termed a legal chose in action; where the chose was recoverable only by
a suit in equity, as a legacy or money held upon a trust, it was termed
an equitable chose in action. Before the Judicature Act, a legal chose
in action was not assignable, i.e. the assignee could not sue at law in
his own name. To this rule there were two exceptions:--(1) the crown has
always been able to assign choses in action that are certain, such as an
ascertained debt, but not those that are uncertain; (2) assignments
valid by operation of law, e.g. on marriage, death or bankruptcy. On the
other hand, however, by the law merchant, which is part of the law of
England, and which disregards the rules of common law, bills of exchange
were freely assignable. The consequence was that, with these and certain
statutory exceptions (e.g. actions on policies of insurance), an action
on an assigned chose in action must have been brought at law in the name
of the assignor, though the sum recovered belonged in equity to the
assignee. All choses in action being in equity assignable, except those
which are altogether incapable of being assigned, in equity the assignee
might have sued in his own name, making the assignor a party as
co-plaintiff or as defendant. The Judicature Acts made the distinction
between legal and equitable choses in action of no importance. The
Judicature Act of 1873, s. 25 (6), enacted that the legal right to a
debt or other legal chose in action could be passed by absolute
assignment in writing under the hand of the assignor.

"Chose in possession" is opposed to chose in action, and denotes not
only the right to enjoy or possess a thing, but also the actual or
constructive enjoyment of it. The possession may be absolute or
qualified. It is absolute when the person is fully and completely the
proprietor or owner of the thing; it is qualified when he "has not an
exclusive right, or not a permanent right, but a right which may
sometimes subsist and at other times not subsist," as in the case of
animals _ferae naturae_. A chose in possession is freely transferable by
delivery. Previously to the Married Women's Property Act 1882, a wife's
choses in possession vested in her husband immediately on her marriage,
while her choses in action did not belong to the husband until he had
reduced them into possession, but this difference is now practically
obsolete.




CHOSROES, in Middle and Modern Persian _Khosrau_ ("with a good name"), a
very common Persian name, borne by a famous king of the Iranian legend
(Kai Khosrau); by a Parthian king, commonly called by the Greeks Osroes
(q.v.); and by the following two Sassanid kings.


1. CHOSROES I., "the Blessed" (_Anushirvan_), 531-579, the favourite son
and successor of Kavadh I., and the most famous of the Sassanid kings.
At the beginning of his reign he concluded an "eternal" peace with the
emperor Justinian, who wanted to have his hands free for the conquest of
Africa and Sicily. But his successes against the Vandals and Goths
caused Chosroes to begin the war again in 540. He invaded Syria and
carried the inhabitants of Antioch to his residence, where he built for
them a new city near Ctesiphon under the name of Khosrau-Antioch or
Chosro-Antioch. During the next years he fought successfully in Lazica
or Lazistan (the ancient Colchis, q.v.), on the Black Sea, and in
Mesopotamia. The Romans, though led by Belisarius, could do little
against him. In 545 an armistice was concluded, but in Lazica the war
went on till 556. At last, in 562, a peace was concluded for 50 years,
in which the Persians left Lazistan to the Romans, and promised not to
persecute the Christians, if they did not attempt to make proselytes
among the Zarathustrians; on the other hand, the Romans had again to pay
subsidies to Persia. Meanwhile in the east the Hephthalites had been
attacked by the Turks, who now appear for the first time in history.
Chosroes united with them and conquered Bactria, while he left the
country north of the Oxus to the Turks. Many other rebellious tribes
were subjected. About 570 the dynasts of Yemen, who had been subdued by
the Ethiopians of Axum, applied to Chosroes for help. He sent a fleet
with a small army under Vahriz, who expelled the Ethiopians. From that
time till the conquests of Mahomet, Yemen was dependent on Persia, and a
Persian governor resided here. In 571 a new war with Rome broke out
about Armenia, in which Chosroes conquered the fortress Dara on the
Euphrates, invaded Syria and Cappadocia, and returned with large booty.
During the negotiations with the emperor Tiberius Chosroes died in 579,
and was succeeded by his son Hormizd IV.

Although Chosroes had in the last years of his father extirpated the
heretical and communistic Persian sect of the Mazdakites (see KAVADH)
and was a sincere adherent of Zoroastrian orthodoxy, he was not
fanatical or prone to persecution. He tolerated every Christian
confession. When one of his sons had rebelled about 550 and was taken
prisoner, he did not execute him; nor did he punish the Christians who
had supported him. He introduced a rational system of taxation, based
upon a survey of landed possessions, which his father had begun, and
tried in every way to increase the welfare and the revenues of his
empire. In Babylonia he built or restored the canals. His army was in
discipline decidedly superior to the Romans, and apparently was well
paid. He was also interested in literature and philosophical
discussions. Under his reign chess was introduced from India, and the
famous book of Kalilah and Dimnah was translated. He thus became
renowned as a wise prince. When Justinian in 529 closed the university
of Athens, the last seat of paganism in the Roman empire, the last seven
teachers of Neoplatonism emigrated to Persia. But they soon found out
that neither Chosroes nor his state corresponded to the Platonic ideal,
and Chosroes, in his treaty with Justinian, stipulated that they should
return unmolested.


2. CHOSROES II., "the Victorious" (_Parvez_), son of Hormizd IV.,
grandson of Chosroes I., 590-628. He was raised to the throne by the
magnates who had rebelled against Hormizd IV. in 590, and soon after his
father was blinded and killed. But at the same time the general Bahram
Chobin had proclaimed himself king, and Chosroes II. was not able to
maintain himself. The war with the Romans, which had begun in 571, had
not yet come to an end. Chosroes fled to Syria, and persuaded the
emperor Maurice (q.v.) to send help. Many leading men and part of the
troops acknowledged Chosroes, and in 591 he was brought back to
Ctesiphon. Bahram Chobin was beaten and fled to the Turks, among whom he
was murdered. Peace with Rome was then concluded. Maurice made no use of
his advantage; he merely restored the former frontier and abolished the
subsidies which had formerly been paid to the Persians. Chosroes II. was
much inferior to his grandfather. He was haughty and cruel, rapacious
and given to luxury; he was neither a general nor an administrator. At
the beginning of his reign he favoured the Christians; but when in 602
Maurice had been murdered by Phocas, he began war with Rome to avenge
his death. His armies plundered Syria and Asia Minor, and in 608
advanced to Chalcedon. In 613 and 614 Damascus and Jerusalem were taken
by the general Shahrbaraz, and the Holy Cross was carried away in
triumph. Soon after, even Egypt was conquered. The Romans could offer
but little resistance, as they were torn by internal dissensions, and
pressed by the Avars and Slavs. At last, in 622, the emperor Heraclius
(who had succeeded Phocas in 610) was able to take the field. In 624 he
advanced into northern Media, where he destroyed the great fire-temple
of Gandzak (Gazaca); in 626 he fought in Lazistan (Colchis), while
Shahrbaraz advanced to Chalcedon, and tried in vain, united with the
Avars, to conquer Constantinople. In 627 Heraclius defeated the Persian
army at Nineveh and advanced towards Ctesiphon. Chosroes fled from his
favourite residence, Dastagerd (near Bagdad), without offering
resistance, and as his despotism and indolence had roused opposition
everywhere, his eldest son, Kavadh II., whom he had imprisoned, was set
free by some of the leading men and proclaimed king. Four days
afterwards, Chosroes was murdered in his palace (February 628).
Meanwhile, Heraclius returned in triumph to Constantinople, in 629 the
Cross was given back to him and Egypt evacuated, while the Persian
empire, from the apparent greatness which it had reached ten years ago,
sank into hopeless anarchy.

    See PERSIA: _Ancient History_. For the Roman wars see authorities
    quoted under MAURICE and HERACLIUS.    (ED. M.)




CHOTA (or CHUTIA) NAGPUR, a division of British India in Bengal,
consisting of five British districts and two feudatory states. It is a
hilly, forest-clad plateau, inhabited mostly by aboriginal races,
between the basins of the Sone, the Ganges and the Mahanadi. The five
British districts are Hazaribagh, Ranchi, Palamau, Manbhum and
Singhbhum. The total area of the British districts is 27,101 sq. m. The
population in 1901 was 4,900,429. The tributary states are noticed
separately below. The Chota Nagpur plateau is an offshoot of the great
Vindhyan range, and its mean elevation is upwards of 2000 ft. above the
sea-level. In the W. it rises to 3600 ft., and to the E. and S. its
lower steppe, from 800 to 1000 ft. in elevation, comprises a great
portion of the Manbhum and Singhbhum districts. The whole is about
14,000 sq. m. in extent, and forms the source of the Barakhar, Damodar,
Kasai, Subanrekha, Baitarani, Brahmani, Ib and other rivers. _Sal_
forests abound. The principal jungle products are timber, various kinds
of medicinal fruits and herbs, lac, tussur silk and _mahua_ flowers,
which are used as food by the wild tribes and also distilled into a
strong country liquor. Coal exists in large quantities, and is worked in
the Jherria, Hazaribagh, Giridih and Gobindpur districts. The chief
workings are at Jherria, which were started in 1893, and have developed
into one of the largest coal-fields in India. Formerly gold was washed
from the sands in the bed of the Subanrekha river, but the operations
are now almost wholly abandoned. Iron-ores abound, together with good
building stone. The indigenous inhabitants consist of non-Aryan tribes
who were driven from the plains by the Hindus and took refuge in the
mountain fastnesses of the Chota Nagpur plateau. The principal of them
are Kols, Santals, Oraons, Dhangars, Mundas and Bhumij. These tribes
were formerly turbulent, and a source of trouble to the Mahommedan
governors of Bengal and Behar; but the introduction of British rule has
secured peace and security, and the aboriginal races of Chota Nagpur are
now peaceful and orderly subjects. The principal agricultural products
are rice, Indian corn, pulses, oil-seeds and potatoes. A small quantity
of tea is grown in Hazaribagh and Ranchi districts. Lac and tussur
silk-cloth are largely manufactured. The climate of Chota Nagpur is dry
and healthy. The Jherria extension branch of the East India railway runs
to Katrasgarh, while the Bengal-Nagpur railway also serves the division.

The CHOTA NAGPUR STATES were formerly nine in number. But the five
states of Chang Bhakar, Korca, Sirguja, Udaipur and Jashpur were
transferred from Bengal to the Central Provinces in October 1905, and
the two Uriya-speaking states of Gangpur and Bonai were attached to the
Orissa Tributary States. There now remain, therefore, only the two
states of Kharsawan and Saraikela. At the decline of the Mahratta power
in the early part of the 19th century, the Chota Nagpur states came
under British protection. Before the rise of the British power in India
their chiefs exercised almost absolute sovereignty in their respective
territories.

  See F.B. Bradley-Birt, _Chota Nagpore_ (1903).




CHOUANS (a Bas-Breton word signifying screech-owls), the name applied to
smugglers and dealers in contraband salt, who rose in insurrection in
the west of France at the time of the Revolution and joined the
royalists of La Vendee. It has been suggested that the name arose from
the cry they used when approaching their nocturnal rendezvous; but it is
more probable that it was derived from a nickname applied to their
leader Jean Cottereau (1767-1794). Originally a contraband manufacturer
of salt, Cottereau along with his brothers had several times been
condemned and served sentence; but the Revolution, by destroying the
inland customs, ruined his trade. On the 15th of August 1792, he led a
band of peasants to prevent the departure of the volunteers of St Ouen,
near Laval, and retired to the wood of Misdon, where they lived in huts
and subterranean chambers. The Chouans then waged a guerrilla warfare
against the republicans and, sustained by the royalists and from abroad,
carried on their assassinations and brigandage with success. From Lower
Maine the insurrection soon spread to Brittany, and throughout the west
of France. In 1793 Cottereau came to Laval with some 500 men; the band
grew rapidly and swelled into a considerable army, which assumed the
name of La Petite Vendee. But after the decisive defeats at Le Mans and
Savenay, Cottereau retired again to his old haunts in the wood of
Misdon, and resumed his old course of guerrilla warfare. Misfortunes
here increased upon him, until he fell into an ambuscade and was
mortally wounded. He died among his followers in February 1794.
Cottereau's brothers also perished in the war, with the exception of
Rene, who lived until 1846. Royalist authors have made of Cottereau a
hero and martyr, titles to which his claim is not established. After the
death of Cottereau, the chief leaders of the Chouans were Georges
Cadoudal (q.v.) and a man who went by the name of Jambe d'Argent. For
several months the Chouans continued their petty warfare, which was
disgraced by many acts of ferocity and rapine; in August 1795 they
dispersed; but they were guilty of several conspiracies up to 1815. (See
also VENDEE.)

    See the articles in _La Revolution francaise_, vol. 29, _La
    Chouannerie dans la Manche_; vol. 32, _La Chouannerie dans l'Eure_;
    vol. 40, _La Chouannerie dans le Morbihan (1793-1794)_; Sarot, _Les
    Tribunaux repressifs ordinaires de la Manche en matiere politique
    pendant la premiere Revolution_ (Paris, 1881), 4 vols.; Th. de
    Closmadeux, _Quiberon (1795), Emigres et Chouans, commissions
    militaires, interrogations et jugements_ (Paris, 1898), the only
    authority on the celebrated affair of Quiberon; E. Daudet, _La
    Police et les Chouans dans le Consulat et I'Empire, 1800-1815_
    (Paris, 1895). Also the works of Ch. L. Chessin mentioned under
    VENDEE.




CHRESMOGRAPHION (from Gr. [Greek: chresmos], oracle, and [Greek:
graphein], to write), an architectural term sometimes given to the
chamber between the pronaes and the cella in Greek temples where oracles
were delivered.




CHRESTIEN, FLORENT (1541-1596), French satirist and Latin poet, the son
of Guillaume Chrestien, an eminent French physician and writer on
physiology, was born at Orleans on the 26th of January 1541. A pupil of
Henri Estienne, the Hellenist, at an early age he was appointed tutor to
Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV., who made him his librarian.
Brought up as a Calvinist, he became a convert to Catholicism. He was
the author of many good translations from the Greek into Latin
verse,--amongst others, of versions of the _Hero and Leander_ attributed
to Musaeus, and of many epigrams from the Anthology. In his translations
into French, among which are remarked those of Buchanan's _Jephthe_
(1567), and of Oppian _De Venatione_ (1575)> he is not so happy, being
rather to be praised for fidelity to his original than for excellence of
style. His principal claim to a place among memorable satirists is as
one of the authors of the _Satyre Menippee_, the famous pasquinade in
the interest of his old pupil, Henry IV., in which the harangue put into
the mouth of cardinal de Pelve is usually attributed to him. He died on
the 3rd of October 1596 at Vendome.




CHRETIEN, or CRESTIEN, DE TROYES, a native of Champagne, and the most
famous of French medieval poets. Unfortunately we have few exact details
as to his life, and opinion differs as to the precise dates to be
assigned to his poems. We know that he wrote the _Chevalier de la
Charrette_ at the command of Marie, countess of Champagne (the daughter
of Louis VII. and Eleanor, who married the count of Champagne in 1164),
and _Le Conte del Graal_ or _Perceval_ for Philip, count of Flanders,
who died of the plague before Acre in 1191. This prince was guardian to
the young king, Philip Augustus, and held the regency from 1180 to 1182.
As Chretien refers to the story of the Grail as the best tale told _au
cort roial_, it seems very probable that it was composed during the
period of the count's regency. It was left unfinished, and added to at
divers times by at least three writers, Wauchier de Denain, Gerbert de
Montreuil and Manessier. The second of these states definitely that
Chretien died before he could finish his poem. Probably the period of
his literary activity lies between the dates 1150 and 1182, when his
patron, Count Philip, fell into disgrace at court. The extant poems of
Chrtien de Troyes, in their chronological order are, _Erec et Enide,
Cliges, Le Chevalier de la Charrette_ (or _Lancelot_), _Le Chevalier au
Lion_ (or _Yvain_), and _Le Conte del Graal_ (_Perceval_), all dealing
with Arthurian legend. Besides these he states in the opening lines of
_Cliges_ that he had composed a _Tristan_ (of which so far no trace has
been found), and had made certain translations from Ovid's _Ars
Amatoria_ and _Metamorphoses_. A portion of the last has been found by
Gaston Paris included in the translation of Ovid made by Chretien
Legouais. There exists also a poem, _Guillaume d' Angleterre_,
purporting to be by Chretien, but the authorship is a matter of debate.
Professor Foerster claims it as genuine, and includes it in his edition
of the poems, but Gaston Paris never accepted it.

Chretien's poems enjoyed widespread favour, and of the three most
popular (_Erec_, _Yvain_ and _Perceval_) there exist old Norse
translations, while the two first were admirably rendered into German by
Hartmann von Aue. There is an English translation of the Yvain, _Ywain
and Gawain_, and there are Welsh versions of all three stories, though
their exact relation to the French has not been determined. Chretien's
style is easy and graceful, such as might be expected from a court poet;
he is analytical, but not dramatic; in depth of thought and power of
characterization he is decidedly inferior to Wolfram von Eschenbach, and
as a poet he is probably to be ranked below Thomas, the author of the
_Tristan_, and the translator of Thomas, Gottfried von Strassburg. Much
that has been claimed as characteristic of his work has been shown by M.
Willmotte to be merely reproductions of literary conceits employed by
his predecessors; in the words of a recent writer, M. Bedier, "Chretien
semble moins avoir ete un createur epique qu'un habile arrangeur." The
special interest of his pcems lies in the problems surrounding their
origin. So far as the MSS. are concerned they are the earliest Arthurian
romances we possess. Did Chretien invent the _genre_, or did he simply
turn to account the work of earlier, and less favoured, poets? Round
this point the battle still rages hotly, and though the extensive claims
made by the enthusiastic editor of his works are gradually yielding to
the force of critical investigation, it cannot be said that the question
is in any way settled (see ARTHURIAN LEGEND).

  Chretien's poems, except the _Perceval_, have been critically edited
  by Professor Foerster (4 vols.). There is no easily available edition
  of the _Perceval_, which was printed from the Mons MS. by M. Potvin (6
  vols., 1866-1871), but is difficult to procure. For _Ywain and Gawain_
  see the edition by Schleich (1887). The German versions are in
  _Deutsche Classiker des Mittelalters_, 1888 (_Iwein_), 1893 (_Erec_);
  the Welsh, in Lady Charlotte Guest's translation of the _Mabinogion_
  (Nutt, 1902); Scandinavian translations, ed. E. Koelbing (1872). For
  general criticism see Willmotte, _L'Evolution du roman francais aux
  environs de 1150_ (1903); also _Legend of Sir Lancelot_ and _Legend of
  Sir Percival_ (Grimm Library); and M. Borodine, _La Femme et l'amour
  au XIIe siecle, d'apres les poemes de Chretien de Troyes_ (1909).




CHRISM (through Lat. _chrisma_, from Gr. [Greek: chrisma], an anointing
substance, [Greek: chrieiu], to anoint; through a Romanic form _cresma_
comes the Fr. _creme_, and Eng. "cream"), a mixture of olive oil and
balm, used for anointing in the Roman Catholic church in baptism,
confirmation and ordination, and in the consecrating and blessing of
altars, chalices, baptismal water, &c. The consecration of the "chrism"
is performed by a bishop, and since the 5th century has taken place on
Maundy Thursday. In the Orthodox Church the chrism contains, besides
olive oil, many precious spices and perfumes, and is known as "muron" or
"myron." The word is sometimes used loosely for the unmixed olive oil
used in the sacrament of extreme unction. The "Chrisom" or "chrysom," a
variant of "chrism," lengthened through pronunciation, is a white cloth
with which the head of a newly baptized child was covered to prevent the
holy oil from being rubbed off. If the baby died within a month of its
baptism, it was shrouded in its chrisom; otherwise the cloth or its value
was given to the church as an offering by the mother at her churching.
Children dying within the month were called "chrisom-children" or
"chrisoms," and up to 1726 such entries occur in bills of mortality. The
word was also used generally for a very young and innocent child, thus
Shakespeare, _Henry V._, ii. 3, says of Falstaff: "A' made a finer end
and went away an it had been any Chrisom Child."




CHRIST (Gr. [Greek: Christos], Anointed), the official title given in
the New Testament to Jesus of Nazareth, equivalent to the Hebrew
_Messiah_. See JESUS CHRIST; MESSIAH; CHRISTIANITY.




CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906), German classical scholar, was born in
Geisenheim in Hesse-Nassau on the 2nd of August 1831. From 1854 till
1860 he taught in the Maximiliansgymnasium at Munich, and in 1861 was
appointed professor of classical philology in the university. His most
important works are his _Geschichte der griechischen Literatur_ (5th
ed., 1908 f.), a history of Greek literature down to the time of
Justinian, one of the best works on the subject; _Metrik der Griechen
und Roemer_ (1879); editions of Pindar (1887); of the _Poetica_ (1878)
and _Metaphysica_ (1895) of Aristotle; _Iliad_ (1884). His contributions
to the _Sitzungsberichte_ and _Abhandlungen_ of the Bavarian Academy of
Sciences are particularly valuable.

  See O. Crusius, _Gedaechtnisrede_ (Munich, 1907).




CHRISTADELPHIANS ([Greek: Christou adelphoi], "brothers of Christ"),
sometimes also called Thomasites, a community founded in 1848 by John
Thomas (1805-1871), who, after studying medicine in London, migrated to
Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.A. There he at first joined the "Campbellites," but
afterwards struck out independently, preaching largely upon the
application of Hebrew prophecy and of the Book of Revelation to current
and future events. Both in America and in Great Britain he gathered a
number of adherents, and formed a community which has extended to
several English-speaking countries. It consists of exclusive
"ecclesias," with neither ministry nor organization. The members meet on
Sundays to "break bread" and discuss the Bible. Their theology is
strongly millenarian, centering in the hope of a world-wide theocracy
with its seat at Jerusalem. Holding a doctrine of "conditional
immortality," they believe that they alone have the true exegesis of
Scripture, and that the "faith of Christendom" is "compounded of the
fables predicted by Paul." No statistics of the community are published.
It probably numbers from two to three thousand members. A monthly
magazine, _The Christadelphian_, is published in Birmingham.

  See R. Roberts, _Dr Thomas, his Life and Work_ (1884).




CHRISTCHURCH, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Hampshire,
England, at the confluence of the rivers Avon and Stour, 11/2 m. from the
sea, and 104 m. S.W. by W. from London by the London & South Western
railway. Pop. (1901) 4204. It is famous for its magnificent priory
church of the Holy Trinity. The church is cruciform, lacking a central
tower, but having a Perpendicular tower at the west end. The nave and
transepts are principally Norman, and very fine; the choir is
Perpendicular. Early English additions appear in the nave, clerestory
and elsewhere, and the rood-screen is of ornate Decorated workmanship.
Other noteworthy features are the Norman turret at the north-east angle
of the north transept, covered with arcading and other ornament, the
beautiful reredos, similar to that in Winchester cathedral, and several
interesting monuments, among which is one to the poet Shelley. Only
fragments remain of the old castle, but an interesting ruin adjoins it
known as the Norman House, apparently dating from the later part of the
12th century. Hosiery, and chains for clocks and watches are
manufactured, and the salmon fishery is valuable. There is a small
harbour, but it is dry at low water. The parliamentary borough,
returning one member, includes the town of Bournemouth. The municipal
borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 832
acres.

Christchurch is mentioned in Saxon documents under the name of Tweotneam
or Tweonaeteam, which long survived in the form Christchurch Twineham.
In 901 it was seized by Aethelwald, but was recaptured by Edward the
Elder. In the Domesday Survey, under the name of Thuinam, it appears as
a royal manor, comprising a mill and part of the king's forest; its
value since the time of Edward the Confessor had decreased by almost
one-half. Henry I. granted Christchurch to Richard de Redvers, who
erected the castle. The first charter was granted by Baldwin earl of
Exeter in the 12th century; it exempted the burgesses from certain tolls
and customs, including the tolls on salt within the borough, and the
custody of thieves. The 2nd Earl Baldwin granted to the burgesses the
tolls of the fair at St Faith and common of pasture in certain meads.
The above charters were confirmed by Edward II., Henry VII. and
Elizabeth. The Holy Trinity fair is mentioned in 1226. Christchurch was
governed by a bailiff in the 13th century, and was not incorporated till
1670, when the government was vested in a mayor and 24 capital
burgesses, but this charter was shortly abandoned. The borough was
summoned to send representatives to parliament in 1307 and 1308, but no
returns are registered until 1572, from which date it was represented by
two members until the Reform Act of 1832 reduced the number to one. The
secular canons of the church of Holy Trinity held valuable possessions
in Hampshire at the time of Edward the Confessor, including a portion of
Christchurch, and in 1150 the establishment was constituted a priory of
regular canons of St Augustine. Baldwin de Redvers confirmed the canons
in their right to the first salmon caught every year and the tolls of
Trinity fair. The priory, which attained to such fame that its name of
Christchurch finally replaced the older name of Twineham, was dissolved
in 1539.

  See _Victoria County History--Hampshire_; Benjamin Ferrey,
  _Antiquities of the Priory of Christchurch_, 2nd edition, revised by
  J. Britton (London, 1841).




CHRISTCHURCH, a city near the east coast of South Island, New Zealand,
to the north of Banks Peninsula, in Selwyn county, the capital of the
provincial district of Canterbury and the seat of a bishop. Pop. (1906)
49,928; including suburbs, 67,878. It stands upon the great Canterbury
plain, which here is a dead level, though the monotony of the site has
been much relieved by extensive plantations of English and Australian
trees. A background is supplied by the distant mountains to the west,
and by the nearer hills to the south. The small river Avon winds through
the city, pleasantly bordered by terraces and gardens. The wide streets
cross one another for the most part at right angles. The predominance of
stone and brick as building materials, the dominating cathedral spire,
and the well-planted parks, avenues and private gardens, recall the
aspect of an English residential town. Christchurch is mainly dependent
on the rich agricultural district which surrounds it, the plain being
mainly devoted to cereals and grazing. Wool is extensively worked, and
meat is frozen for export. Railways connect with Culverden to the north
and with Dunedin and the south coast, with many branches through the
agricultural districts; also with Lyttelton, the port of Christchurch, 8
m. S.E. There are tramways in the city, and to New Brighton, a seaside
suburb, and other residential quarters. The principal public buildings
are the government buildings and the museum, with its fine collection of
remains of the extinct bird, moa. The cathedral is the best in New
Zealand, built from designs of Sir G. Gilbert Scott in Early English
style, with a tower and spire 240 ft. high. Among educational
foundations are Canterbury College (for classics, science, engineering,
&c), Christ's College (mainly theological) and grammar school, and a
school of art. There is a Roman Catholic pro-cathedral attached to a
convent of the Sacred Heart. A large extent of open ground, to the west
of the town, finely planted, and traversed by the river, comprises
Hagley Park, recreation grounds, the Government Domain and the grounds
of the Acclimatization Society, with fish-ponds and a small zoological
garden. The foundation of Christchurch is connected with the so-called
"Canterbury Pilgrims," who settled in this district in 1850. Lyttelton
was the original settlement, but Christchurch came into existence in
1851, and is thus the latest of the settlements of the colony. It became
a municipality in 1862. In 1903 several populous suburban boroughs were
amalgamated with the city.




CHRISTIAN II. (1481-1559), king of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, son of
John (Hans) and Christina of Saxony, was born at Nyborg castle in 1481,
and succeeded his father as king of Denmark and Norway in 1513. As
viceroy of Norway (1506-1512) he had already displayed a singular
capacity for ruling under exceptionally difficult circumstances.
Patriotism, insight, courage, statesmanship, energy,--these great
qualities were indisputably his; but unfortunately they were vitiated by
obstinacy, suspicion and a sulky craftiness, beneath which simmered a
very volcano of revengeful cruelty. Another peculiarity, more fatal to
him in that aristocratic age than any other, was his fondness for the
common people, which was increased by his passion for a pretty Dutch
girl, named Dyveke, who became his mistress in 1507 or 1509.

Christian's succession to the throne was confirmed at the _Herredag_, or
assembly of notables from the three northern kingdoms, which met at
Copenhagen in 1513. The nobles and clergy of all three kingdoms regarded
with grave misgivings a ruler who had already shown in Norway that he
was not afraid of enforcing his authority to the uttermost. The
_Rigsraads_ of Denmark and Norway insisted, in the _haandfaestning_ or
charter extorted from the king, that the crowns of both kingdoms were
elective and not hereditary, providing explicitly against any
transgression of the charter by the king, and expressly reserving to
themselves a free choice of Christian's successor after his death. But
the Swedish delegates could not be prevailed upon to accept Christian as
king at all. "We have," they said, "the choice between peace at home and
strife here, or peace here and civil war at home, and we prefer the
former." A decision as to the Swedish succession was therefore
postponed. On the 12th of August 1515 Christian married Isabella of
Burgundy, the grand-daughter of the emperor Maximilian. But he would not
give up his liaison with Dyveke, and it was only the death of the
unfortunate girl in 1517, under suspicious circumstances, that prevented
serious complications with the emperor Charles V. Christian revenged
himself by executing the magnate Torben Oxe, who, on very creditable
evidence, was supposed to have been Dyveke's murderer, despite the
strenuous opposition of Oxe's fellow-peers; and henceforth the king lost
no opportunity of depressing the nobility and raising plebeians to
power. His chief counsellor was Dyveke's mother Sigbrit, a born
administrator and a commercial genius of the first order. Christian
first appointed her controller of the Sound tolls, and ultimately
committed to her the whole charge of the finances. A _bourgeoise_
herself, it was Sigbrit's constant policy to elevate and extend the
influence of the middle classes. She soon became the soul of a
middle-class inner council, which competed with _Rigsraad_ itself. The
patricians naturally resented their supersession and nearly every
unpopular measure was attributed to the influence of "the foul-mouthed
Dutch sorceress who hath bewitched the king."

Meanwhile Christian was preparing for the inevitable war with Sweden,
where the patriotic party, headed by the freely elected governor Sten
Sture the younger, stood face to face with the philo-Danish party under
Archbishop Gustavus Trolle. Christian, who had already taken measures to
isolate Sweden politically, hastened to the relief of the archbishop,
who was beleagured in his fortress of Staeke, but was defeated by Sture
and his peasant levies at Vedla and forced to return to Denmark. A
second attempt to subdue Sweden in 1518 was also frustrated by Sture's
victory at Braenkyrka. A third attempt made in 1520 with a large army of
French, German and Scottish mercenaries proved successful. Sture was
mortally wounded at the battle of Boergerund, on the 19th of January, and
the Danish army, unopposed, was approaching Upsala, where the members of
the Swedish _Riksrad_ had already assembled. The senators consented to
render homage to Christian on condition that he gave a full indemnity
for the past and a guarantee that Sweden should be ruled according to
Swedish laws and custom; and a convention to this effect was confirmed
by the king and the Danish _Rigsraad_ on the 31st of March. But Sture's
widow, Dame Christina Gyllenstjerna, still held out stoutly at
Stockholm, and the peasantry of central Sweden, stimulated by her
patriotism, flew to arms, defeated the Danish invaders at Balundsaes
(March 19th), and were only with the utmost difficulty finally defeated
at the bloody battle of Upsala (Good Friday, April 6th). In May the
Danish fleet arrived, and Stockholm was invested by land and sea; but
Dame Christina resisted valiantly for four months longer, and took care,
when she surrendered on the 7th of September, to exact beforehand an
amnesty of the most explicit and absolute character. On the 1st of
November the representatives of the nation swore fealty to Christian as
hereditary king of Sweden, though the law of the land distinctly
provided that the Swedish crown should be elective. On the 4th of
November he was anointed by Gustavus Trolle in Stockholm cathedral, and
took the usual oath to rule the realm through native-born Swedes alone,
according to prescription. The next three days were given up to
banqueting, but on the 7th of November "an entertainment of another sort
began." On the evening of that day Christian summoned his captains to a
private conference at the palace, the result of which was quickly
apparent, for at dusk a band of Danish soldiers, with lanterns and
torches, broke into the great hall and carried off several carefully
selected persons. By 10 o'clock the same evening the remainder of the
king's guests were safely under lock and key. All these persons had
previously been marked down on Archbishop Trolle's proscription list. On
the following day a council, presided over by Trolle, solemnly
pronounced judgment of death on the proscribed, as manifest heretics. At
12 o'clock that night the patriotic bishops of Skara and Straengnaes were
led out into the great square and beheaded. Fourteen noblemen, three
burgomasters, fourteen town-councillors and about twenty common citizens
of Stockholm were then drowned or decapitated. The executions continued
throughout the following day; in all, about eighty-two people are said
to have been thus murdered. Moreover, Christian revenged himself upon
the dead as well as upon the living, for Sten Sture's body was dug up
and burnt, as well as the body of his little child. Dame Christina and
many other noble Swedish ladies were sent prisoners to Denmark. It has
well been said that the manner of this atrocious deed (the "Stockholm
Massacre" as it is generally called) was even more detestable than the
deed itself. Christian suppressed his political opponents under the
pretence of defending an ecclesiastical system which in his heart he
despised. Even when it became necessary to make excuses for his crime,
we see the same double-mindedness. Thus, while in a proclamation to the
Swedish people he represented the massacre as a measure necessary to
avoid a papal interdict, in his apology to the pope for the decapitation
of the innocent bishops he described it as an unauthorized act of
vengeance on the part of his own people.

It was with his brain teeming with great designs that Christian II.
returned to his native kingdom. That the welfare of his dominions was
dear to him there can be no doubt. Inhuman as he could be in his wrath,
in principle he was as much a humanist as any of his most enlightened
contemporaries. But he would do things his own way; and deeply
distrusting the Danish nobles with whom he shared his powers, he sought
helpers from among the wealthy and practical middle classes of Flanders.
In June 1521 he paid a sudden visit to the Low Countries, and remained
there for some months. He visited most of the large cities, took into
his service many Flemish artisans, and made the personal acquaintance of
Quentin Matsys and Albrecht Duerer, the latter of whom painted his
portrait. Christian also entertained Erasmus, with whom he discussed the
Reformation, and let fall the characteristic expression: "Mild measures
are of no use; the remedies that give the whole body a good shaking are
the best and surest."

Never had King Christian seemed so powerful as on his return to Denmark
on the 5th of September 1521, and with the confidence of strength he at
once proceeded recklessly to inaugurate the most sweeping reforms. Soon
after his return he issued his great _Landelove_, or Code of Laws. For
the most part this is founded on Dutch models, and testifies in a high
degree to the king's progressive aims. Provision was made for the better
education of the lower, and the restriction of the political influence
of the higher clergy; there were stern prohibitions against wreckers
and "the evil and unchristian practice of selling peasants as if they
were brute beasts"; the old trade gilds were retained, but the rules of
admittance thereto made easier, and trade combinations of the richer
burghers, to the detriment of the smaller tradesmen, were sternly
forbidden. Unfortunately these reforms, excellent in themselves,
suggested the standpoint not of an elected ruler, but of a monarch by
right divine. Some of them were even in direct contravention of the
charter; and the old Scandinavian spirit of independence was deeply
wounded by the preference given to the Dutch. Sweden too was now in open
revolt; and both Norway and Denmark were taxed to the uttermost to raise
an army for the subjection of the sister kingdom. Foreign complications
were now superadded to these domestic troubles. With the laudable object
of releasing Danish trade from the grinding yoke of the Hansa, and
making Copenhagen the great emporium of the north, Christian had
arbitrarily raised the Sound tolls and seized a number of Dutch ships
which presumed to evade the tax. Thus his relations with the Netherlands
were strained, while with Luebeck and her allies he was openly at war.
Finally Jutland rose against him, renounced its allegiance and offered
the Danish crown to Duke Frederick of Holstein (January 20th, 1523). So
overwhelming did Christian's difficulties appear that he took ship to
seek help abroad, and on May 1st landed at Veere in Zealand. Eight years
later (October 24th, 1531) he attempted to recover his kingdoms, but a
tempest scattered his fleet off the Norwegian coast, and on the 1st of
July 1532, by the convention of Oslo, he surrendered to his rival, King
Frederick, and for the next 27 years was kept in solitary confinement,
first in the Blue Tower at Copenhagen and afterwards at the castle of
Kabendborg. He died in January 1559.

  See K.P. Arnoldson, _Nordens enhet och Kristian II._ (Stockholm,
  1899); Paul Frederik Barfod, _Danmarks Historie fra 1319 til 1536_
  (Copenhagen, 1885); _Danmarks Riges Historie_, vol. 3 (Copenhagen,
  1897-1905); Robert Nisbet Bain, _Scandinavia_, chap 2 (Cambridge,
  1905).    (R. N. B.)




CHRISTIAN III. (1503-1559), king of Denmark and Norway, was the son of
Frederick I. of Denmark and his first consort, Anne of Brandenburg. His
earliest teacher, Wolfgang von Utenhof, who came straight from
Wittenberg, and the Lutheran Holsteiner Johann Rantzau, who became his
tutor, were both able and zealous reformers. In 1521 Christian travelled
in Germany, and was present at the diet of Worms, where Luther's
behaviour profoundly impressed him. On his return he found that his
father had been elected king of Denmark in the place of Christian II.,
and the young prince's first public service was the reduction of
Copenhagen, which stood firm for the fugitive Christian II. He made no
secret of his Lutheran views, and his outspokenness brought him into
collision, not only with the Catholic _Rigsraad_, but also with his
cautious and temporizing father. At his own court at Schleswig he did
his best to introduce the Reformation, despite the opposition of the
bishops. Both as stadtholder of the Duchies in 1526, and as viceroy of
Norway in 1529, he displayed considerable administrative ability, though
here too his religious intolerance greatly provoked the Catholic party.
There was even some talk of passing him over in the succession to the
throne, in favour of his half-brother Hans, who had been brought up in
the old religion. On his father's death Christian was proclaimed king at
the local diet of Viborg, and took an active part in the "Grevens Fejde"
or "Count's War."

The triumph of so fanatical a reformer as Christian brought about the
fall of Catholicism, but the Catholics were still so strong in the
council of state that Christian was forced to have recourse to a _coup
d'etat_, which he successfully accomplished by means of his German
mercenaries (12th of August 1536), an absolutely inexcusable act of
violence loudly blamed by Luther himself, and accompanied by the
wholesale spoliation of the church. Christian's finances were certainly
readjusted thereby, but the ultimate gainers by the confiscation were
the nobles, and both education and morality suffered grievously in
consequence. The circumstances under which Christian III. ascended the
throne naturally exposed Denmark to the danger of foreign domination. It
was with the help of the gentry of the duchies that Christian had
conquered Denmark. German and Holstein noblemen had led his armies and
directed his diplomacy. Naturally, a mutual confidence between a king
who had conquered his kingdom and a people who had stood in arms against
him was not attainable immediately, and the first six years of Christian
III.'s reign were marked by a contest between the Danish _Rigsraad_ and
the German counsellors, both of whom sought to rule "the pious king"
exclusively. Though the Danish party won a signal victory at the outset,
by obtaining the insertion in the charter of provisions stipulating that
only native-born Danes should fill the highest dignities of the state,
the king's German counsellors continued paramount during the earlier
years of his reign. The ultimate triumph of the Danish party dates from
1539, the dangers threatening Christian III. from the emperor Charles V.
and other kinsmen of the imprisoned Christian II. convincing him of the
absolute necessity of removing the last trace of discontent in the land
by leaning exclusively on Danish magnates and soldiers. The complete
identification of the Danish king with the Danish people was
accomplished at the _Herredag_ of Copenhagen, 1542, when the nobility of
Denmark voted Christian a twentieth part of all their property to pay
off his heavy debt to the Holsteiners and Germans.

The pivot of the foreign policy of Christian III. was his alliance with
the German Evangelical princes, as a counterpoise to the persistent
hostility of Charles V., who was determined to support the hereditary
claims of his nieces, the daughters of Christian II., to the
Scandinavian kingdoms. War was actually declared against Charles V. in
1542, and, though the German Protestant princes proved faithless allies,
the closing of the Sound against Dutch shipping proved such an effective
weapon in King Christian's hand that the Netherlands compelled Charles
V. to make peace with Denmark at the diet of Spires, the 23rd of May
1544. The foreign policy of Christian's later days was regulated by the
peace of Spires. He carefully avoided all foreign complications; refused
to participate in the Schmalkaldic war of 1546; mediated between the
emperor and Saxony after the fall of Maurice of Saxony at the battle of
Sievershausen in 1553, and contributed essentially to the conclusion of
peace. King Christian III. died on New Year's Day 1559. Though not
perhaps a great, he was, in the fullest sense of the word, a good ruler.
A strong sense of duty, genuine piety, and a cautious but by no means
pusillanimous common-sense coloured every action of his patient,
laborious and eventful life. But the work he left behind him is the best
proof of his statesmanship. He found Denmark in ruins; he left her
stronger and wealthier than she had ever been before.

  See _Danmarks Riges Historie_, vol. 3 (Copenhagen, 1897-1901);
  Huitfeld, _King Christian III.'s Historie_ (Copenhagen, 1595); Bain,
  _Scandinavia_, cap. iv. v. (Cambridge, 1905).    (R. N. B.)




CHRISTIAN IV. (1577-1648), king of Denmark and Norway, the son of
Frederick II., king of Denmark, and Sophia of Mecklenburg, was born at
Fredriksborg castle in 1577, and succeeded to the throne on the death of
his father (4th of April 1588), attaining his majority on the 17th of
August 1596. On the 27th of November 1597 he married Anne Catherine, a
daughter of Joachim Frederick, margrave of Brandenburg. The queen died
fourteen years later, after bearing Christian six children. Four years
after her death the king privately wedded a handsome young gentlewoman,
Christina Munk, by whom he had twelve children,--a connexion which was
to be disastrous to Denmark.

The young king's court was one of the most joyous and magnificent in
Europe; yet he found time for work of the most various description,
including a series of domestic reforms (see DENMARK: _History_). He also
did very much for the national armaments. New fortresses were
constructed under the direction of Dutch engineers. The Danish navy,
which in 1596 consisted of but twenty-two vessels, in 1610 rose to
sixty, some of them being built after Christian's own designs. The
formation of a national army was more difficult. Christian had to depend
mainly upon hired troops, supported by native levies recruited for the
most part from the peasantry on the crown domains. His first experiment
with his newly organized army was successful. In the war with Sweden,
generally known as the "Kalmar War," because its chief operation was the
capture by the Danes of Kalmar, the eastern fortress of Sweden,
Christian compelled Gustavus Adolphus to give way on all essential
points (treaty of Knaered, 20th of January 1613). He now turned his
attention to Germany. His object was twofold: first, to obtain the
control of the great German rivers the Elbe and the Weser, as a means of
securing his dominion of the northern seas; and secondly, to acquire the
secularized German bishoprics of Bremen and Werden as appanages for his
younger sons. He skilfully took advantage of the alarm of the German
Protestants after the battle of White Hill in 1620, to secure the
coadjutorship to the see of Bremen for his son Frederick (September
1621), a step followed in November by a similar arrangement as to
Werden; while Hamburg by the compact of Steinburg (July 1621) was
induced to acknowledge the Danish overlordship of Holstein. The growing
ascendancy of the Catholics in North Germany in and after 1623 almost
induced Christian, for purely political reasons, to intervene directly
in the Thirty Years' War. For a time, however, he stayed his hand, but
the urgent solicitations of the western powers, and, above all, his fear
lest Gustavus Adolphus should supplant him as the champion of the
Protestant cause, finally led him to plunge into war against the
combined forces of the emperor and the League, without any adequate
guarantees of co-operation from abroad. On the 9th of May 1625 Christian
quitted Denmark for the front. He had at his disposal from 19,000 to
25,000 men, and at first gained some successes; but on the 27th of
August 1626 he was utterly routed by Tilly at Lutter-am-Barenberge, and
in the summer of 1627 both Tilly and Wallenstein, ravaging and burning,
occupied the duchies and the whole peninsula of Jutland. In his
extremity Christian now formed an alliance with Sweden (1st of January
1628), whereby Gustavus Adolphus pledged himself to assist Denmark with
a fleet in case of need, and shortly afterwards a Swedo-Danish army and
fleet compelled Wallenstein to raise the siege of Stralsund. Thus the
possession of a superior sea-power enabled Denmark to tide over her
worst difficulties, and in May 1629 Christian was able to conclude peace
with the emperor at Luebeck, without any diminution of territory.

Christian IV. was now a broken man. His energy was temporarily paralysed
by accumulated misfortunes. Not only his political hopes, but his
domestic happiness had suffered shipwreck. In the course of 1628 he
discovered a scandalous intrigue of his wife, Christina Munk, with one
of his German officers; and when he put her away she endeavoured to
cover up her own disgrace by conniving at an intrigue between Vibeke
Kruse, one of her discharged maids, and the king. In January 1630 the
rupture became final, and Christina retired to her estates in Jutland.
Meanwhile Christian openly acknowledged Vibeke as his mistress, and she
bore him a numerous family. Vibeke's children were of course the natural
enemies of the children of Christina Munk, and the hatred of the two
families was not without influence on the future history of Denmark.
Between 1629 and 1643, however, Christian gained both in popularity and
influence. During that period he obtained once more the control of the
foreign policy of Denmark as well as of the Sound tolls, and towards the
end of it he hoped to increase his power still further with the
assistance of his sons-in-law, Korfits Ulfeld and Hannibal Sehested, who
now came prominently forward.

Even at the lowest ebb of his fortunes Christian had never lost hope of
retrieving them, and between 1629 and 1643 the European situation
presented infinite possibilities to politicians with a taste for
adventure. Unfortunately, with all his gifts, Christian was no
statesman, and was incapable of a consistent policy. He would neither
conciliate Sweden, henceforth his most dangerous enemy, nor guard
himself against her by a definite system of counter-alliances. By
mediating in favour of the emperor, after the death of Gustavus Adolphus
in 1632, he tried to minimize the influence of Sweden in Germany, and
did glean some minor advantages. But his whole Scandinavian policy was
so irritating and vexatious that Swedish statesmen made up their minds
that a war with Denmark was only a question of time; and in the spring
of 1643 it seemed to them that the time had come. They were now able,
thanks to their conquests in the Thirty Years' War, to attack Denmark
from the south as well as the east; the Dutch alliance promised to
secure them at sea, and an attack upon Denmark would prevent her from
utilizing the impending peace negotiations to the prejudice of Sweden.
In May the Swedish _Riksrad_ decided upon war; on the 12th of December
the Swedish marshal Lennart Torstensson, advancing from Bohemia, crossed
the northern frontier of Denmark; by the end of January 1644 the whole
peninsula of Jutland was in his possession. This totally unexpected
attack, conducted from first to last with consummate ability and
lightning-like rapidity, had a paralysing effect upon Denmark.
Fortunately, in the midst of almost universal helplessness and
confusion, Christian IV. knew his duty and had the courage to do it. In
his sixty-sixth year he once more displayed something of the magnificent
energy of his triumphant youth. Night and day he laboured to levy armies
and equip fleets. Fortunately too for him, the Swedish government
delayed hostilities in Scania till February 1644, so that the Danes were
able to make adequate defensive preparations and save the important
fortress of Malmoe. Torstensson, too, was unable to cross from Jutland to
Fuenen for want of a fleet, and the Dutch auxiliary fleet which came to
his assistance was defeated between the islands of Sylt and Roennoe on the
west coast of Schleswig by the Danish admirals. Another attempt to
transport Torstensson and his army to the Danish islands by a large
Swedish fleet was frustrated by Christian IV. in person on the 1st of
July 1644. On that day the two fleets encountered off Kolberge Heath,
S.E. of Kiel Bay, and Christian displayed a heroism which endeared him
ever after to the Danish nation and made his name famous in song and
story. As he stood on the quarter-deck of the "Trinity" a cannon close
by was exploded by a Swedish bullet, and splinters of wood and metal
wounded the king in thirteen places, blinding one eye and flinging him
to the deck. But he was instantly on his feet again, cried with a loud
voice that it was well with him, and set every one an example of duty by
remaining on deck till the fight was over. Darkness at last separated
the contending fleets; and though the battle was a drawn one, the Danish
fleet showed its superiority by blockading the Swedish ships in Kiel
Bay. But the Swedish fleet escaped, and the annihilation of the Danish
fleet by the combined navies of Sweden and Holland, after an obstinate
fight between Fehmarn and Laaland at the end of September, exhausted the
military resources of Denmark and compelled Christian to accept the
mediation of France and the United Provinces; and peace was finally
signed at Broemsebro on the 8th of February 1645.

The last years of the king were still further embittered by sordid
differences with his sons-in-law, especially with the most ambitious of
them, Korfits Ulfeld. On the 21st of February 1648, at his earnest
request, he was carried in a litter from Fredriksborg to his beloved
Copenhagen, where he died a week later. Christian IV. was a good
linguist, speaking, besides his native tongue, German, Latin, French and
Italian. Naturally cheerful and hospitable, he delighted in lively
society; but he was also passionate, irritable and sensual. He had
courage, a vivid sense of duty, an indefatigable love of work, and all
the inquisitive zeal and inventive energy of a born reformer. Yet,
though of the stuff of which great princes are made, he never attained
to greatness. His own pleasure, whether it took the form of love or
ambition, was always his first consideration. In the heyday of his youth
his high spirits and passion for adventure enabled him to surmount every
obstacle with _elan_. But in the decline of life he reaped the bitter
fruits of his lack of self-control, and sank into the grave a weary and
broken-hearted old man.

  See _Life_ (Dan.), by H.C. Bering Luesberg and A.L. Larsen (Copenhagen,
  1890-1891); _Letters_ (Dan.), ed. Carl Frederik Bricka and Julius
  Albert Fridericia (Copenhagen, 1878); _Danmarks Riges Historie_, vol.
  4 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); Robert Nisbet Bain, _Scandinavia_, cap.
  vii. (Cambridge, 1905).    (R. N. B.)




CHRISTIAN V. (1646-1699), king of Denmark and Norway, the son of
Frederick III. of Denmark and Sophia Amelia of Brunswick-Lueneburg, was
born on the 15th of April 1646 at Flensberg, and ascended the throne on
the 9th of February 1670. He was a weak despot with an exaggerated
opinion of his dignity and his prerogatives. Almost his first act on
ascending the throne was publicly to insult his consort, the amiable
Charlotte Amelia of Hesse-Cassel, by introducing into court, as his
officially recognized mistress, Amelia Moth, a girl of sixteen, the
daughter of his former tutor, whom he made countess of Samsoe. His
personal courage and extreme affability made him highly popular among
the lower orders, but he showed himself quite incapable of taking
advantage permanently of the revival of the national energy, and the
extraordinary overflow of native middle-class talent, which were the
immediate consequences of the revolution of 1660. Under the guidance of
his great chancellor Griffenfeldt, Denmark seemed for a brief period to
have a chance of regaining her former position as a great power. But in
sacrificing Griffenfeldt to the clamour of his adversaries, Christian
did serious injury to the monarchy. He frittered away the resources of
the kingdom in the unremunerative Swedish war of 1675-79, and did
nothing for internal progress in the twenty years of peace which
followed. He died in a hunting accident on the 25th of August 1699.

  See Peter Edvard Holm, _Danmarks indre Historie under Enevaelden_
  (Copenhagen, 1881-1886); Adolf Ditleva Joergensen, _Peter Griffenfeldt_
  (Copenhagen, 1893); Robert Nisbet Bain, _Scandinavia_ cap. x., xi.
  (Cambridge, 1905).




CHRISTIAN VII. (1749-1808), king of Denmark and Norway, was the son of
Frederick V., king of Denmark, and his first consort Louisa, daughter of
George II. of Great Britain. He became king on his father's death on the
14th of January 1766. All the earlier accounts agree that he had a
winning personality and considerable talent, but he was badly educated,
systematically terrorized by a brutal governor and hopelessly debauched
by corrupt pages, and grew up a semi-idiot. After his marriage in 1766
with Caroline Matilda (1751-1775), daughter of Frederick, prince of
Wales, he abandoned himself to the worst excesses. He ultimately sank
into a condition of mental stupor, and became the obedient slave of the
upstart Struensee (q.v.). After the fall of Struensee (the warrant for
whose arrest he signed with indifference), for the last six-and-twenty
years of his reign, he was only nominally king. He died on the 13th of
March 1808. In 1772 the king's marriage with Caroline Matilda, who had
been seized and had confessed to criminal familiarity with Struensee,
was dissolved, and the queen, retaining her title, passed her remaining
days at Celle, where she died on the 11th of May 1775.

  See E.S.F. Reverdil, _Struensee et la cour de Copenhague, 1760-1772_
  (Paris, 1858); _Danmarks Riges Historie_, vol. v. (Copenhagen,
  1897-1905); and for Caroline Matilda, Sir F.C.L. Wraxall, _Life and
  Times of Queen Caroline Matilda_ (1864), and W.H. Wilkins, _A Queen of
  Tears_ (1904).




CHRISTIAN VIII. (1786-1848), king of Denmark and Norway, the eldest son of
the crown prince Frederick and Sophia Frederica of Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
was born on the 18th of September 1786 at Christiansborg castle. He
inherited the talents of his highly gifted mother, and his amiability and
handsome features made him very popular in Copenhagen. His unfortunate
first marriage with his cousin Charlotte Frederica of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
was dissolved in 1810. In May 1813 he was sent as stadtholder to Norway to
promote the loyalty of the Northmen to the dynasty, which had been very
rudely shaken by the disastrous results of Frederick VI.'s adhesion to the
falling fortunes of Napoleon. He did all he could personally to strengthen
the bonds between the Norwegians and the royal house of Denmark, and
though his endeavours were opposed by the so-called Swedish party, which
desired a dynastic union with Sweden, he placed himself at the head of the
Norwegian party of independence, and was elected regent of Norway by an
assembly of notables on the 16th of February 1814. This election was
confirmed by a _Storthing_ held at Eidsvold on the 10th of April, and on
the 17th of May Christian was elected king of Norway, despite the protests
of the Swedish party. Christian next attempted to interest the great
powers in his cause, but without success. On being summoned by the
commissioners of the allied powers at Copenhagen to bring about a union
between Norway and Sweden in accordance with the terms of the treaty of
Kiel, and then return to Denmark, he replied that, as a constitutional
king, he could do nothing without the consent of the _Storthing_, to the
convocation of which a suspension of hostilities on the part of Sweden was
the condition precedent. Sweden refusing Christian's conditions, a short
campaign ensued, in which Christian was easily worsted by the superior
skill and forces of the Swedish crown prince (Bernadotte). The brief war
was finally concluded by the convention of Moss on the 14th of August 1814
(see NORWAY: _History_). Henceforth Christian's suspected democratic
principles made him _persona ingratissima_ at all the reactionary European
courts, his own court included, and he and his second wife, Caroline
Amelia of Augustenburg, whom he married in 1815, lived in comparative
retirement as the leaders of the literary and scientific society of
Copenhagen. It was not till 1831 that old King Frederick gave him a seat
in the council of state. On the 13th of December 1839 he ascended the
Danish throne as Christian VIII. The Liberal party had high hopes of "the
giver of constitutions," but he disappointed his admirers by steadily
rejecting every Liberal project. Administrative reform was the only reform
he would promise. He died of blood-poisoning on the 20th of January 1848.

  See Just Matthias Thiele, _Christian den Ottende_ (Copenhagen, 1848);
  Yngvar Nielsen, _Bidrag til Norges Historie_ (Christiania, 1882-1886).




CHRISTIAN IX. (1818-1906), king of Denmark, was a younger son of
William, duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Gluecksburg (d. 1831), a
direct descendant of the Danish king Christian III. by his wife Louise,
a daughter of Charles, prince of Hesse-Cassel (d. 1836), and
grand-daughter of King Frederick V. Born at Gottorp on the 8th of April
1818, Christian entered the army, and alone among the members of his
family served with the Danish troops in Schleswig during the
insurrection of 1848; but he was a personage of little importance until
about 1852, ten years after his marriage with Louise (1817-1898),
daughter of William, prince of Hesse-Cassel (d. 1867), and cousin of
King Frederick VII. At this time it became imperative that satisfactory
provision should be made for the succession to the Danish throne. The
reigning king, Frederick VII., was childless, and the representatives of
the great powers met in London and settled the crown on Prince Christian
and his wife (May 1852), an arrangement which became part of the law of
Denmark in 1853. The "protocol king," as Christian was sometimes called,
ascended the throne on Frederick's death in November 1863, and was at
once faced by formidable difficulties. Reluctantly he assented to the
policy which led to war with the combined power of Austria and Prussia,
and to the separation of the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein and
Lauenburg from Denmark (see SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION). Within the
narrowed limits of his kingdom Christian's difficulties were more
protracted and hardly less serious. During almost the whole of his reign
the Danes were engaged in a political struggle between the "Right" and
the "Left," the party of order and the party of progress, the former
being supported in general by the _Landsting_, and the latter by the
_Folketing_. The king's sympathies lay with the more conservative
section of his subjects, and for many years he was successful in
preventing the Radicals from coming into office. The march of events,
however, was too strong for him, and in 1901 he assented in a dignified
manner to the formation of a "cabinet of the Left" (see DENMARK:
_History_). In spite of these political disturbances Christian's
popularity with his people grew steadily, and was enhanced by the
patriarchal and unique position which in his later years he occupied in
Europe. With his wife, often called "the aunt of all Europe," he was
related to nearly all the European sovereigns. His eldest son Frederick
had married a daughter of Charles XV. of Sweden; his second son George
had been king of the Hellenes since 1863; and his youngest son Waldemar
(b. 1858) was married to Marie d'Orleans, daughter of Robert, duc de
Chartres. Of his three daughters, Alexandra married Edward VII. of Great
Britain; Dagmar (Marie), the tsar Alexander III.; and Thyra, Ernest
Augustus, duke of Cumberland. One of his grandsons, Charles, became king
of Norway as Haakon VII. in 1905, and another, Constantine, crown prince
of Greece, married a sister of the German emperor William II. Christian
was also the ruler of Iceland, where he was received with great
enthusiasm when he visited the island in 1874. He died at Copenhagen on
the 29th of January 1906, and was buried at Roskilde.

  See Barfod, _Kong Kristian IX.'s Regerings-Dagbog_ (Copenhagen, 1876);
  and _Hans Majestet Kong Kristian IX._ (Copenhagen, 1888).




CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663), Manx politician, a son of Ewan
Christian, one of the Manx deemsters, was born on the 14th of April
1608, and was known as _Illiam Dhone_, or Brown William. In 1648 the
lord of the Isle of Man, James Stanley, 7th earl of Derby, appointed
Christian his receiver-general; and when in 1651 the earl crossed to
England to fight for Charles II. he left him in command of the island
militia. Derby was taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester, and his
famous countess, Charlotte de la Tremouille, who was residing in Man,
sought to obtain her husband's release by negotiating with the
victorious parliamentarians for the surrender of the island. At once a
revolt headed by Christian broke out, partly as a consequence of this
step, partly owing to the discontent caused by some agrarian
arrangements recently introduced by the earl. The rebels seized many of
the forts; then Christian in his turn entered into negotiations with the
parliamentarians; and probably owing to his connivance the island was
soon in the power of Colonel Robert Duckenfield, who had brought the
parliamentary fleet to Man in October 1651. The countess of Derby was
compelled to surrender her two fortresses, Castle Rushen and Peel
castle, while Christian remained receiver-general, becoming governor of
the island in 1656. Two years later, however, he was accused of
misappropriating some money; he fled to England, and in 1660 was
arrested in London. Having undergone a year's imprisonment he returned
to Man, hoping that his offence against the earl of Derby would be
condoned under the Act of Indemnity of 1661; but, anxious to punish his
conduct, Charles, the new earl of Derby, ordered his seizure; he refused
to plead, and a packed House of Keys declared that in this case his life
and property were at the mercy of the lord of the island. The deemsters
then passed sentence, and in accordance therewith Christian was executed
by shooting on the 2nd of January 1663. This arbitrary act angered
Charles II. and his advisers; the deemsters and others were punished,
and some reparation was made to Christian's family. Christian is chiefly
celebrated through the Manx ballad _Baase Illiam Dhone_, which has been
translated into English by George Borrow, and through the references to
him in Sir Walter Scott's _Peveril of the Peak_.

  See A.W. Moore, _History of the Isle of Man_ (1900).




CHRISTIAN OF BRUNSWICK (1590-1626), bishop of Halberstadt and a general
during the earlier part of the Thirty Years' War, a younger son of Henry
Julius, duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuettel, was born at Groeningen on the
20th of September 1599. Having succeeded his father as "bishop" of
Halberstadt in 1616, he obtained some experience of warfare under
Maurice, prince of Orange, in the Netherlands. Raising an army he
entered the service of Frederick V., elector palatine of the Rhine, just
after that prince had been driven from Bohemia; glorying in his
chivalrous devotion to Frederick's wife Elizabeth, he attacked the lands
of the elector of Mainz and the bishoprics of Westphalia. After some
successes he was defeated by Tilly at Hoechst in June 1622; then,
dismissed from Frederick's service, he entered that of the United
Provinces, losing an arm at the battle of Fleurus, a victory he did much
to win. In 1623 he gathered an army and broke into lower Saxony, but was
beaten by Tilly at Stadtlohn and driven back to the Netherlands. When in
1625 Christian IV., king of Denmark, entered the arena of the war, he
took the field again in the Protestant interest, but after some
successes he died at Wolfenbuettel on the 16th of June 1626. Christian,
who loved to figure as "the friend of God, the enemy of the priests," is
sometimes called "the mad bishop," and was a merciless, coarse, and
blasphemous man.




CHRISTIAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, the name assumed by a religious organization
founded at Zion City near Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A., in 1896, by John
Alexander Dowie (q.v.). Its members added to the usual tenets of
Christianity a special belief in faith-healing, and laid much stress on
united consecration services and the threefold immersion of believers.
To assist Dowie, assistant overseers were appointed, and the operations
of the community included religious, educational and commercial
departments. Small branches sprang up in other parts of the United
States, Mexico, Canada, Europe and Australasia. At the end of 1901 there
were nearly 12,000 baptized believers. After 1903 considerable
dissension arose among Dowie's followers: he was deposed in 1906; and
after his death (1907) the city gradually became a community of normal
type.




CHRISTIAN CONNECTION, a denomination of Christians in North America
formed by secession, under James O'Kelly (1735-1826), of members of the
Methodist Episcopal Church in North Carolina in 1793. The movement
resembled those under the Campbells and Stone in Kentucky in 1801-1804,
and in Lyndon, Vermont, among the Baptists in 1800. The predisposing
cause in each case was the desire to be free from the "bondage of
creed." Some of O'Kelly's followers joined the Disciples of Christ
(q.v.). Their form of church government is Congregational; they take the
Bible as the sole rule of faith and practice, and while adopting
immersion as the proper mode of baptism, freely welcome Christians of
every sect to their communion. They number about 100,000 members, mainly
in the states of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. The original seceders in
Virginia and North Carolina bore for a time the name "Republican
Methodists," and then called themselves simply "Christians," a
designation which with the pronunciation "Christ-yans" is still often
applied to them. Their position is curiously akin to that outlined by
William Chillingworth (q.v.) in his famous work _The Religion of
Protestants_ (1637-1638).




CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOUR SOCIETIES, organizations formed for the purpose of
promoting spiritual life among young people. They date from 1881, in
which year Dr Francis E. Clark (q.v.) formed a Young People's Society of
Christian Endeavour in his (Congregational) church at Portland, Maine,
U.S.A. The idea was taken up elsewhere in America and spread to other
countries, till, under the presidency of Dr Clark, a huge number of
affiliated societies came into operation throughout the world. They take
as their motto "For Christ and the Church," and have done much,
especially in the non-episcopal churches, to prepare young men and women
for active services in the Church. The organization is international and
interdenominational, a World's Christian Endeavour Union being formed in
1895. The members do not form a separate denomination, but remain
attached to their respective churches, being grouped in voluntary
district federations.




CHRISTIANIA (officially KRISTIANIA), the capital of Norway, forming a
separate county (_amt_), and the seat of a bishopric (_stift_). Pop.
(1901) 229,101. It lies on the south-eastern coast, at the head of
Christiania Fjord, about 80 m. from the open waters of the Skagerrack,
is 59 deg. 54' N. (about the latitude of the southern extremity of the
Shetland Islands) and 10 deg. 45' E., mainly on the west bank of the small
Aker river. The situation is very beautiful, pine-wooded hills rising
sharply behind the city, while several islands stud the fjord. The town
is mainly modern, having increased rapidly in and since the second half
of the 19th century, when brick and stone largely superseded wood as the
building material. It is the seat of government, of the supreme courts,
of the parliament (_Storthing_), and of a university. The harbour is of
two parts, the Bjoervik, where the larger steamers lie, and the Pipervik,
west of this. On the promontory intervening between these two inlets
stands the old fortress of Akershus, occupied as an arsenal and prison,
and having a pleasant promenade upon its ramparts. Until 1719 it was a
royal palace. At the head of the Bjoervik the principal railway station
(_Hovedbanegaard_) stands in the Jernbanetorv (railway square), and
north-west from this runs the principal street, Karl-Johans-gade. In
this street, passing the Vor Frelsers Kirke (Church of our Saviour), the
Storthings-Bygning (parliament-house, 1866) is seen, facing a handsome
square planted with trees. Beyond this is the National theatre (1899),
with colossal statues of the dramatists Ibsen and Bjoernsen. It faces the
Fridericiana University, housed in three buildings dating from 1853, but
founded by Frederick VI. of Denmark in 1811, embracing the five
faculties of theology, law, medicine, history and philology, mathematics
and natural sciences. The equipment of the university is very complete:
it has attached to it a large and valuable library, natural history,
ethnological and numismatic collections, with one of Scandinavian
antiquities; also botanical gardens and an observatory. The
Karl-Johans-gade gives upon the beautiful Slotspark, a wooded elevation
crowned with the royal palace (_slot_), a plain building completed in
1848. North of the university is the museum of art, containing a
noteworthy collection of sculpture and paintings of ancient and modern
foreign masters, and of native works. The historical museum adjoining
this contains northern antiquities, including two viking's ships,
excavated, in 1867 and 1880 respectively, from the burial-places of the
viking chiefs who owned and, according to custom, were buried in them.
Another noteworthy collection is that of industrial art. The Bank of
Norway, the exchange, and the courts of law lie between the harbours.
Other institutions are the Freemasons' Lodge, housed in one of the
handsomest buildings in the city (1844), a conservatory of music, naval,
military and art schools, Athenaeum, and the great Dampkjoekken or
kitchen (1858), where dinners are provided for the poor.

The suburbs of Christiania are attractive and rapidly growing. On the
east side of the river Aker is that of Oslo, with the existing episcopal
palace, and an old bishop's palace, in which James VI. of Scotland (I.
of England) was betrothed to Princess Anne of Denmark (1589). In the
environs of the city are the royal pleasure castle of Oscarshal
(1847-1852), on the peninsula Bygdoe (Ladugaard) to the west of the city,
and the Norwegian national museum (1881), containing industrial and
domestic exhibits from the various provinces. Close at hand is an
interesting collection of old Norwegian buildings, brought here from all
parts, and re-erected, including an example of the timber church of the
12th century (_Stavekirke_). A collection of ancient agricultural
implements is also shown. On Hovedoe (Head Island) in the fjord,
immediately opposite to the Akershus, are the ruins of a Cistercian
monastery, founded in 1147 by monks from Kirkstead in Lincolnshire,
England, and burnt down in 1532. There are sanatoria and inns among the
surrounding hills, on which beautiful gardens are laid out, such as Hans
Haugen, Frognersaeter, Holmenkollen, where the famous _ski_ (snow-shoe)
races are held in February, and Voksenkollen. Electric tramways connect
the city and suburbs, and local steamers run from the Pipervik to the
neighbouring islands and fjord-side towns and villages.

Christiania has two railway stations, the Hovedbanegaard by the Bjoervik,
and the Vestbanegaard by the Pipervik. From the first trains run south
to Fredrikshald and Gothenburg, east to Charlottenberg and Stockholm,
north to Hamar and Trondhjem, and Otta in Gudbrandsdal, and to Gjoevik
and the Valdres district. From the west station start the lines to
Drammen, Laurvik, Skien and Kongsberg (for the Telemark district). The
eastward extension of the railway between Bergen and Vossevangen,
undertaken in 1896, had as its ultimate object the connexion of
Christiania and Bergen by rail. With these extensive land communications
Christiania is at once the principal emporium of southern Norway, and a
favourite centre of the extensive tourist traffic. Regular passenger
steamers serve the port from Hull, Newcastle, Grangemouth and London,
from Trondhjem, Bergen and the Norwegian coast towns, from Hamburg,
Amsterdam, Antwerp, &c. Except for two large shipbuilding yards, one
with a floating dock, the other with a dry dock, most of the
manufactories are concentrated in the suburb of Sagene, on the north
side of the city, deriving their motive power from the numerous falls of
the river Aker. They embrace factories for cotton and woollen spinning
and weaving, paper, flour, soap and oil, bricks and tiles, matches,
nails (especially horse-shoe nails), margarine, foundries and
engineering shops, wood-pulp, tobacco, matches, linen, glass,
sail-cloth, hardware, gunpowder, chemicals, with sawmills, breweries and
distilleries. There is also a busy trade in the preparation of granite
paving-stones, and in the storing and packing of ice. Imports greatly
exceed exports, the annual values being about 71/2 and 11/2 millions
sterling respectively. The former consist principally of grain and
flour, cottons and woollens, coffee, iron (raw and manufactured), coal,
bacon and salt meat, oils, sugar, machinery, flax, jute and hemp,
paper-hangings, paints, colours, &c., wines and spirits, raw tobacco,
copper, zinc, lead and tin, silk, molasses and other commodities. The
principal exports are wood-pulp, timber, nails, paper, butter and
margarine, matches, condensed milk, fish, leather and hides, ice,
sealskins, &c. Of the imports, Great Britain supplies the greater part
of the cotton and woollen yarn, the machinery (including ships), and the
raw metals; the United States about one-half of the oils and fats, and a
large proportion of the food-stuffs, and skins, feathers, &c. Of the
exports, almost the whole of the timber goes to Great Britain, together
with the larger portion of the paper and food-stuffs (butter, &c.). The
harbour is ice-bound for three or four months in the winter, when ships
lie at Droebak, lower down the fjord; but ice-breakers are also used.
Early in 1899 the municipality voted L47,000 for the construction of a
pier, a harbour for fishing-boats, protected by a mole, and a quay, 345
ft. long, on the shore underneath the Akershus. These works signalized a
great scheme of improvement, involving a general rearrangement of the
entire harbour.

The present suburb of Oslo represents the original city, which was
founded on this site under that name (or Opslo) by Harald Sigurdsson in
1048. By the close of the 14th century it was established as the chief
city of Norway. Trade was long dominated by the powerful Hanseatic
League, at least until the beginning of the 16th century. The town,
built mainly of wood, was no less subject to fires than all Norwegian
towns have always been, and after one of these King Christian IV.
refounded the capital on the new site it now occupies, and gave his name
to it in 1624. By the close of the century it was fortified, but this
did not prevent Charles XII. from gaining possession of it in 1716.

  See L. Daae, _Det gamle Christiania, 1624-1824_ (Christiania, 1890);
  Y. Nielsen, _Christiania und Umgegend_ (Christiania, 1894); G. Amneus,
  _La Ville de Christiania ... Resume historique, &c._ (Christiania,
  1900).




CHRISTIANITY, the religion which accepts Jesus Christ as Lord and
Saviour, embracing all who profess and call themselves Christians, the
term derived from his formal title ([Greek: Christos], i.e. the
anointed). Within this broad characterization are found many varieties
of cult, organization and creed (see CHURCH HISTORY). Christianity is
classed by the students of the science of religion as a universal
religion; it proclaims itself as intended for all men without
distinction of race or caste, and as in possession of absolute truth. In
fact, Christianity has been widely accepted by varied races in very
different stages of culture, and it has maintained itself through a long
succession of centuries in lands where the transformations in political
structure, the revolutions in social conditions, and the changes in
science and philosophy, have been numerous and extreme.

Beginning in Asia, Christianity extended itself rapidly throughout the
Roman empire and beyond its borders among the barbarians. When the
Empire in the 4th century adopted it, its cult, organization and
teaching were carried throughout the western world. The influences and
motives and processes which led to the result were many and varied, but
ultimately in one way or another it became the religion of Europe and of
the nations founded by the European races beyond the seas and in the
northern part of Asia called Siberia. Beyond these bounds it has not
greatly prospered. The explanation of the apparent bounding of
Christianity by Europe and its offspring is not, however, to be found in
any psychological peculiarity separating the European races from those
of other continents, nor in any special characteristic of Christianity
which fits it for European soil. For not only were its founder and his
disciples Asiatics, and the original authoritative writings Semitic, but
Asiatic tribes and nations coming into Europe have been readily
converted. Missions in Asia too have achieved sufficient success to
prove that there exists no inherent obstacle either in the gospel or in
the Asiatic mind. Moreover, Christianity was once represented in Asia by
a powerful organization extending throughout Persia and central Asia
into India (see PERSIA). _Mutatis mutandis_, the same applies to Africa
also, and Christianity still survives in both continents in the Coptic,
Abyssinian and Armenian Churches. The explanation is rather to be sought
in the political condition of the early centuries of the Christian era,
especially in the rise of Mahommedanism. This may be regarded indeed as
a form of Christianity, for it is not more foreign perhaps to the
prevailing type than are some sects which claim the name. It exerted a
strong influence upon Europe, but its followers have been peculiarly
unsusceptible to missionary labours, and even in Europe have retained
the faith of the Prophet. In the limitations of the Roman empire and in
the separation of East and West consequent upon its decline,
Christianity, as a dominant religion, was confined for a thousand years
to Europe, and even portions of this continent for centuries were in the
hands of its great foe. The East appeared as the Mahommedan dominions,
and beyond these the continents of Asia and Africa were so dimly
discerned that little reciprocal influence was felt. Thus the
development of the two great civilized portions of the race in Europe
and Asia followed independent lines in religion as in all else; and
Africa, excepting its northern border, was left untouched by the
progress of enlightenment.

Not only is Christianity thus the religion of a wide variety of races
but across the divisions there cut other lines. In its organization
Christianity exists in three great divisions, Roman, Greek and
Protestant, and in various ancient sects in the Orient. The Roman
Catholic and Greek divisions of the Christian Church are homogeneous in
organization, but in Protestantism certain denominations are national,
established by differing governments, and others are independent of
governmental aid, making a large number of differing denominations. Some
of these divisions are mutually antagonistic, denying to each other the
name of Christian and even the hope of salvation.

According to a second classification, Christianity may be placed among
the "individual" religions, since it traces its origin, like Islam and
Buddhism, to an individual as its founder. This beginning is not in the
dimness of antiquity nor in a multitude of customs, beliefs, traditions,
rites and personalities, as is the case with the so-called "natural"
religions. It is not implied that in the formation of the "natural"
religions individuals were not of great importance, nor, on the other
hand, that in individual religions the founder formed his faith
independently of the community of which he was a part; but only that as
undoubted historic facts certain religions, in tracing their lines to
individuals, thereby acquired a distinctive character, and retain the
impress of their founder. Such religions begin as a reform or a protest
or revolt. They proclaim either a new revelation, or the return to an
ancient truth which has been forgotten or distorted. They demand
repentance and change of heart, i.e. the renouncing of the ordinary
faith of the community and the acceptance of a new gospel. Thus
demanding an act of will on the part of individuals, they are classed
once more as "ethical" religions. To be sure, the new is built upon the
old--in part unconsciously--and the rejection of the faith of the past,
however violent, is never thoroughgoing. In consequence the old affects
the new in various ways. Thus in Buddhism the presuppositions which
Buddha uncritically took over work out their logical results in the
Mah[=a]y[=a]na, so that great sects calling themselves "Buddhist" affirm
what the Master denied and deny what he taught. Christianity takes
Judaism (see HEBREW RELIGION) for granted--rejects it in part as a
merely preparatory stage, in part reinterprets it, and does not submit
what it accepts to rigorous scrutiny. As a result the Old Testament (see
BIBLE) remains not only as the larger part of the Christian canon, but,
sometimes, in some churches, as obscuring its distinctive truth.
Moreover, in the transference of Christianity from the Jewish to the
Greek-Roman world again various elements were taken into it. More
properly perhaps we might consider the Greek and Roman civilization as
the permanent element--so that the relationship to it was not different
from the relationship to Judaism--in part it was denied, in part it was
of purpose accepted, in still larger part unconsciously the Greek-Roman
converts took over with them the presuppositions of their older world
view--and thus formed the moulds into which the Christian truth was run.
Here again, in some instances the pre-Christian elements so asserted
themselves as to obscure the new and distinctive teaching.


  Relation with Judaism.

Christianity, regarded objectively as one of the great religions of the
world, owes its rise to Jesus of Nazareth, in ancient Galilee. (See
JESUS CHRIST.) By reverent disciples his ancestry was traced to the
royal family of David, and his birth is ascribed by the church to the
miraculous act of God. His life was spent, until the beginning of his
public ministry, in humble circumstances as the son of a carpenter and
his wife, Joseph and Mary. Of Joseph we hear nothing after the boyhood
of Jesus, who followed the same trade, supporting himself and perhaps
his mother and younger brothers and sisters. Of this period we have only
a few fragmentary anecdotes and a stray reference or two. At thirty
years of age he appeared in public, and after a short period (we cannot
determine how long, but possibly eighteen months) he was crucified, upon
the accusation of his countrymen, by the Roman authorities. He was
without technical education, but he had been carefully trained in the
sacred books, as was usual with his people. Belonging neither to the
aristocracy nor to the learned class, he was one of the common people
yet separate from them--a separation not of race or caste or education,
but of unique personality.

His career is understood only in the light of his relations to Judaism
(see HEBREW RELIGION). This faith, in a peculiarly vivid fashion,
illustrates the growth and development of religion, for its great
teachers in the highest degree possessed what the Germans call
God-consciousness. The Hebrew national literature centres in the thought
of God. It is Yahweh who is all and in all, the father, the leader, the
hope, the hero of his people. No other national literature is so
continuously and so highly religious. Another factor gives it still
greater interest for the student of religion,--in it the progress of
religious thought can be traced, and the varying elements of the
religious life seen in harmony and in conflict.

In the early period the Hebrew religion was of the ordinary Semitic
type. In its ancient stories were remnants of primitive religion, of
tabu, of anthropomorphic gods, of native forms of worship, of magic and
divination, of local and tribal cults. Out of these developed, by the
labours of the prophets, a religion of high spirituality and exalted
ethical ideals. According to it God demands not ritual nor sacrifice nor
offerings. He does not delight in prayers and praise, but he demands
truth in the soul and bids man to walk humbly and deal righteously and
mercifully with his brother (Micah vi. 6-8; Isa. i. 2-20). He requires
kindness, forgiveness and loving sacrifice from all to all (Isa. lviii.
3-12). This conception of God revealed itself as so essential to the
prophets that their intense national feeling was modified. God would not
deliver Israel because it was his people, descended from Abraham, his
chosen, but he would punish it even more severely than the other nations
because it denied him by its sins (Amos iii. 1-2). Yet Israel would not
be destroyed, for a spiritual remnant, loving and obeying God, would be
saved and purified (Ezek. xxxvi.-xxxvii.). Thus Israel survived its
misfortunes. When the national independence was destroyed, the prophetic
teaching held the people together in the hope of a re-establishment of
the Kingdom when all nations should be subject to it and blessed in its
everlasting reign of righteousness and peace (Isa. xlix., lx.).

Some of the prophets associated the restoration of the Kingdom with the
coming of the Messiah, the anointed one, who should re-establish the
line of David (Isa. ix. 6 f., xi. 1 f.; Micah v. 2; Ezek. xxxiv. 23,
xxxvii. 24; Zech. ix. 9; Ps. ii. 72). Others said nothing of such a one,
but seemed to expect the regeneration of Israel through the labours,
sufferings and triumphs of the righteous remnant (Isa. liii., Ezek.
xxxvi.-xxxvii.). By the strong emphasis upon righteousness, the tribal
Lord of Israel was revealed as the universal God, of one relationship to
all men. This monotheism was not primarily cosmological nor
metaphysical, but ethical. The Jews showed little capacity for abstract
reasoning and never pursued their inquiries to the discovery of ultimate
principles. Thus they did not develop a systematic cosmology, nor
formulate a system of metaphysics. Their religion was pre-eminently
"theocratic"; God was thought of as King, enthroned in heaven and
supreme. In the beginning as a tribal deity his powers were limited and
he was involved in the fortunes of his people. But as the conception of
Yahweh was deepened and broadened, and, especially after the development
of ethical monotheism, not only was he believed to possess power
sufficient to ensure the triumph of his chosen people, but to be the
creator and ruler of all things in heaven and on earth, the God whom all
peoples should worship and obey.

But the prophetic teaching was obscured in part by the nationalism of
the prophets themselves, who exalted Israel as at once God's instrument
and the peculiar object of his love; and in part by the triumph of a
legal-ritualistic sacrificial system. In the downfall of Jerusalem, the
experiences of the exile in Babylon, and the return to Judaea, the
nation was transformed into a church. Apart from the brief Maccabaean
period, the intense patriotism of the people centred in the
ecclesiastical organization. As a result, cult and organization and code
hardened, forming a shell which proved strong enough to resist all
disintegrating tendencies. Inevitably the freedom, spirituality and
universality of the prophetic teaching were obscured. In the 1st century
A.D. the national and priestly elements controlled; doubtless many
individuals still were faithful to the purer prophetic message, though
also zealous for the system of ritual and sacrifice, but for the ruling
majority ritualistic service was the chief thing, justice, purity and
mercy being subordinate. Hence in their view all who did not participate
in the national worship and conform to the national usages were
outcasts. The triumph of Israel was to be accomplished by the miraculous
power of a Messiah who should descend out of heaven. His coming was
delayed, in part by the opposition of demons, in part by the failure of
the people to obey the law. This law embraced both moral and ceremonial
elements derived from varied sources, but in the apprehension of the
people it was all alike regarded as of divine origin. It was to be
obeyed without question and without inquiry as to its meaning, because
established by God. It was contained in the Sacred Scriptures (see
BIBLE: _Old Testament_), which had been revealed by God supernaturally,
and its meaning was set forth by schools of learned men whose
interpretations were authoritative. The conception of salvation was
mingled with ideas derived from the East during and after the period of
captivity. The priesthood held still the ancient ideas. Salvation was
for the nation, and the individual was not necessarily participant in
it. Life after death was disbelieved or held as the existence of shades.
There could be no resurrection of the body and no immortality (in the
Greek sense). With these beliefs were associated a certain worldliness
and want of fervour. The more actively and aggressively religious party,
on the other hand, adopted the belief in the resurrection of the body,
and in the individual's participation in the Messiah's kingdom; all the
pious would have their share in it, while the wicked would be outcast.
But these doctrines were variously conceived. By some the Messianic
kingdom was thought of as permanent, by others as intermediary, the
external kingdom being transcendent. So too some thought of a literal
resurrection of the body of flesh and blood, while others thought that
it would be transformed. The rudiments of some of these ideas can be
found in the prophets, but their development took place after the exile,
and indeed for the most part after the conclusion of the writings
accounted canonical. Thus too the belief in a kingdom of demons held a
large place in the mind of the people, though the references to such
evil beings are almost absent from the sacred writings of the Old
Testament. Again it is to the East that we must look for the origin of
these ideas.


  The teaching of Jesus.

Jesus completed the prophetic teachings. He employed the old phraseology
and imagery, but he was conscious that he used them in a new sense, and
that he preached a new gospel of great joy. Jesus was not a historian, a
critic or a theologian. He used the words of common men in the sense in
which common men understood them. He did not employ the Old Testament as
now reconstructed by scholarship or judged by criticism, but in its
simple and obvious and traditional sense. And his background is the
intellectual and religious thinking of his time. The ideas of demons and
of the future, of the Bible and many other traditional conceptions, are
taken over without criticism. So the idea of God which he sets forth is
not that of a theologian or a metaphysician, but that of the unlearned
man which even the child could understand. Yet though thus speaking in
untechnical language, he revolutionized his terms and filled them with
new meaning. His emphasis is his own, and the traditional material
affords merely the setting for his thought. He was not concerned with
speculative questions about God, nor with abstract theories of his
relationship to the soul and to the world. God's continual presence, his
fatherly love, his transcendent righteousness, his mercy, his goodness,
were the facts of immediate experience. Not in proofs by formal logic
but in the reality of consciousness was the certainty of God. Thus
religion was freed from all particular and national elements in the
simplest way. For Jesus did not denounce these elements, nor argue
against them, nor did he seek converts outside of Israel, but he set
forth communion with God as the most certain fact of man's experience
and as simple reality made it accessible to every one. Thus his teaching
contains the note of universality--not in terms and proclamations but as
plain matter of fact. His way for others to this reality is likewise
plain and level to the comprehension of the unlearned and of children.

For him repentance is put first, for how vastly changed is the
conception of the religious life! The intricacies of ritual and theology
are ignored, and ancient laws which contradict the fundamental beliefs
are unhesitatingly abrogated or denied. He seizes upon the most
spiritual passages of the prophets, and revives and deepens them. He
sums up his teaching in supreme love to God and a love for fellow-man
like that we hold for ourselves (Mark xii. 29-31). This supreme love to
God is a complete oneness with him in will, a will which is expressed in
service to our fellow-men in the simplest and most natural relationship
(Luke x. 25-37). Thus religion is ethical through and through, as God's
inner nature, expressed in forgiveness, mercy, righteousness and truth,
is not something transcendental, but belongs to the realm of daily life.
We become children of God and he our Father in virtue of a moral
likeness (Matt. v. 43-48), while of any metaphysical, or (so to speak)
physical relationship to God Jesus says nothing. With this clearly
understood, man is to live in implicit trust in the divine love, power,
knowledge and forgiveness. Hence he attains salvation, being delivered
from sin and fear and death, for the divine attributes are not
ontological entities to be discussed and defined in the schools, but
they are realities, entering into the practical daily life. Indeed they
are to be repeated in us also, so that we are to forgive our brethren as
we ask to be forgiven (Matt. vi. 12; Luke xi. 4).

As religion thus becomes thoroughly ethical, so is the notion of the
Messianic kingdom transformed. Its essential characteristic is the doing
of the Father's will on earth as in heaven. Jesus uses parable after
parable to establish its meaning. It is a seed cast into the ground
which grows and prospers (Matt. xiii. 31-32). It is a seed sown in good
ground and bringing forth fruit, or in bad ground and fruitless (Luke
viii. 5-8; Mark iv. 1-32). It is a pearl of great price for which a man
should sell all that he possesses (Matt. xiii. 44-46). It is not come
"with observation," so that men shall say "lo here and lo there" (Luke
xvii. 20-21). It is not of this world, and does not possess the
characteristics or the glory of the kingdom of the earth (Luke xxii.
24-26; Mark x. 13-16). It is already present among men (Luke xvii. 21).
Together with these statements in our sources are still mingled
fragments of the more ordinary cataclysmic, apocalyptic conceptions,
which in spite of much ingenious exegesis, cannot be brought into
harmony with Christ's predominant teaching, but remain as foreign
elements in the words of the Master, possibly brought back through his
disciples, or, more probably, used by Jesus uncritically--a part of the
current religious imagery in which he shared.


  His originality.

It is often declared that in these teachings there is nothing new, and
indeed analogies can be found for many sayings; yet nowhere else do we
gain so strong an impression of originality. The net result is not only
new but revolutionary; so was it understood by the Pharisees. They and
Jesus spoke indeed the same words and appealed to the same authorities,
but they rightly saw in him a revolutionist who threatened the existence
of their most cherished hopes. The Messianic kingdom which they sought
was opposed point by point to the kingdom of which he spoke, and their
God and his Father--though called by the same sacred name--were
different. Hence almost from the beginning of his public ministry they
constantly opposed him, the conflict deepening into complete antagonism.

Jesus has already been termed unique, one of the common people yet
separated from them, and this description applies to the breadth, depth
and reality of his sympathy. In the meagre records of his life there is
evidence that he deemed no form of suffering humanity foreign to
himself. This was not a mere sentiment, nor was his sympathy
superficial, for it constituted the essential characteristic of his
personality--"He went about doing good." In him the will of the Father
for the redemption of the race was incarnate. This led him into the
society of those outcasts who were condemned and rejected by the
respectable and righteous classes. In contemptuous condemnation he was
called the friend of the outcasts (Matt. xi. 19; Mark ii. 16-17), and on
his part he proclaimed that these sinners would enter into the Kingdom
of Heaven before the self-righteous saints (Matt. xxi. 31). Even the
most repulsive forms of disease and sin drew from him only loving aid,
while he recognized in all other men who laboured for the welfare of
their fellows the most intimate relationship to himself. These
constituted his family, and these were they whom his Father will bless.

Jesus recognized his unique position; he could not be ignorant of his
powers. Even the prophets had spoken in the name of God; they accepted
neither book nor priesthood as authoritative, but uttered their truth as
they were inspired to speak, and commanded men to listen and obey. As in
Jesus the whole prophetic line culminates, so does its consciousness.
Reverent toward the Holy Scriptures, he spoke not as their expositor but
with a divine power which invests his words with immediate and full
authority. The prophets use the formula, "Thus saith the Lord," but he
goes beyond them and speaks in his own name, "Amen, I say unto you." He
knew himself as greater than the prophets, indeed as him of whom the
prophets spoke--the Messiah. Only through this self-consciousness can we
explain his mission and the career of his disciples. The prophets up to
John foretold the coming of the kingdom (Matt. xi. 11-13; Luke xvi. 16),
but Jesus opened its doors and made possible entrance into it. Where he
is there it is, and hence those who follow him are God's children, and
those who refuse his message are left outside in darkness. He is to sit
as enthroned, judge and king, and by him is men's future to be
determined (Matt. xxv. 31 f.; Mark xiii. 26). Indeed it was his presence
more than his teaching which created his church. Great as were his
words, greater was his personality. His disciples misunderstood what he
said, but they trusted and followed him. By him they felt themselves
freed from sin and fear--and under the influence of a divine power.


  His Messianic claims.

Though his claims to authoritative pre-eminence thus took him out of the
class of prophets and put him even above Elijah and Moses (Mark ix. 2-7;
Luke vii. 28; Luke x. 23-24), and though naturally this self-assertion
seemed blasphemous to those who did not accept him, yet as he had
transformed the traditional notion of the kingdom, so did he the current
thought of the Messiah. The pre-eminence was not to be of rank and glory
but of service and self-sacrifice. In his kingdom there can be no
strife for precedence, since its King comes not to be ministered unto
but to minister and to give his life in the service of others (Mark ix.
33 f., x. 42-45). The formal acknowledgment of the Messiah's worth and
position matters little, for to call him Lord does not ensure entrance
into his kingdom (Matt. vii. 21-23). It is those who fail to recognize
the spirit of sympathy and self-sacrificing service as divine and
blaspheme redeeming love, who are in danger of eternal sin (Mark iii.
28-29). All who do the will of the Father, i.e. who serve their fellows,
are the brethren of Christ, even though they do not call him Lord (Mark
iii. 31-35; Matt. vii. 21): and those are blessed who minister to the
needy even though ignorant of any relation to himself (Matt. xxv.
37-40). Finally, membership in his own selected company, or a place in
the chosen people, is not of prime importance (Mark ix. 38-40; Luke
xiii. 24-30).

Jesus also refuses to conform to the current ideas as to the
establishment of the kingdom. He wrought miracles, it is true, because
of his divine sympathy and compassion, but he refused to show miraculous
signs as a proof of his Messianic character (Mark viii. 12). The
tradition of the people implied a sudden appearance of the Messiah, but
Jesus made no claims to a supernatural origin and was content to be
known as the son of Joseph and Mary (Mark vi. 3-4). His kingdom is not
to be set up by wonders and miraculous powers, nor is it to be
established by force (Matt. xxvi. 52). Such means would contradict its
fundamental character, for as the kingdom of loving service it can be
established only by loving service. And as God is love, he can be
revealed not by prodigies of power but only by a love which is faithful
unto death.

Even the disciples of Jesus could not grasp the simplicity and
profundity of his message; still less could his opponents. When the
crisis came, he alone remained unshaken in his faith. He was accused of
blasphemy to the ecclesiastical authorities and of insurrection to the
civil rulers. He was condemned and crucified. His followers were
scattered every man to his own place as sheep without a shepherd. Of his
work nothing remained, not a written word, nor more than the rudiments
of an organization. The decisive event, which turned defeat into victory
and re-established courage and faith, was the resurrection of Jesus from
the dead and his reappearance to his disciples. Our sources will not
permit the precise determination of the order or the nature of these
appearances, but in any case from them arose the faith which was the
basis of the Christian Church and the starting-point of its theology.

The death of Jesus as a criminal, and his resurrection, profoundly
aroused the belief and hopes of the little group of Jews who were his
followers. His person and mission assumed the first place in their
affections and their thinking. He had been to them a prophet, mighty in
word and deed, but he now becomes to them the Messiah, Christ. It is not
his word but his person which assumes first place, and faith is
acceptance of him--crucified and risen--as Messiah. Hence his followers
early acquire the name Christians from the Greek form of the word. With
this emphasis upon the Messiah the Jewish element would seem to be
predominant, but as a matter of fact it was not so. The earlier group of
disciples, it is true, did not appreciate the universality of the
teaching of Jesus, and they continued zealous for the older forms, but
St Paul through his prophetic consciousness grasped the fundamental fact
and became Jesus' true interpreter. As a result Christianity was
rejected by the Jews and became the conquering religion of the Roman
empire. In this it underwent another modification of far-reaching
consequence.


  Christianity and Greek thought.

In our earliest sources--the epistles of St Paul--Christ is the
pre-existent man from heaven, who had there existed in the form of God,
and had come to earth by a voluntary act of self-humiliation. He is
before and above all things. By him all things exist. In the Johannine
writings he is the Son of God--the Logos who in the beginning was with
God--of whom are all things--who lightens every man--and who was
incarnate in Jesus. Here the cosmological element is again made
prominent though not yet supreme, and the metaphysical problems are so
close at hand that their discussion is imperative. Even in Paul the term
Messiah thus had lost its definite meaning and became almost a proper
name. Among the Greek Christians this process was complete. Jesus is the
"Son of God"; and the great problem of theology becomes explicit.
Religion is in our emotions of reverence and dependence, and theology is
the intellectual attempt to describe the object of worship. Doubtless
the two do not exactly coincide, not only because accuracy is difficult
or even impossible, but also because elements are admitted into the
definition of God which are derived from various sources quite distinct
from the religious experience. Like all concepts the meaning of
religious terms is changed with a changing experience and a changing
world-view. Transplanted into the Greek world-view, inevitably the
Christian teaching was modified--indeed transformed. Questions which had
never been asked came into the foreground, and the Jewish
presuppositions tended to disappear. Especially were the Messianic hopes
forgotten or transferred to a transcendent sphere beyond death. When the
empire became Christian in the 4th century, the notion of a kingdom of
Christ on earth to be introduced by a great struggle all but
disappeared, remaining only as the faith of obscure groups.
Immortality--the philosophical conception--took the place of the
resurrection of the body. Nevertheless the latter continues because of
its presence in the primary sources, but it is no longer a determining
factor, since its presupposition--the Messianic kingdom on earth--has
been obscured. As thus the background is changed from Jewish to Greek,
so are the fundamental religious conceptions.

The Semitic peoples were essentially theocratic in their religion; they
used the forms of the sensuous imagination in setting forth the
realities of the unseen world. They were not given to metaphysical
speculation, nor long insistent in their inquiries as to the meaning and
origin of things. With the Greeks it was far otherwise. For them ideas
and not images set forth fundamental reality, and their restless
intellectual activity would be content with nothing else than the
ultimate truth. Their speculation as to the nature of God had led them
gradually to separate him by an infinite distance from all creation, and
to feel keenly the opposition of the finite and the infinite, the
perfect and the imperfect, the eternal and the temporal. To them,
therefore, Christianity presented itself not primarily as the religion
of a redemption through the indwelling power of a risen saviour, as with
Paul, nor even as the solution of the problem how the sins of men could
be forgiven, but as the reconciliation of the antinomy of the intellect,
indicated above. The incarnation became the great truth: God is no
longer separated by a measureless distance from the human race, but by
his entering into humanity he redeems it and makes possible its ultimate
unity with himself. Such lines of thought provoke discussion as to the
relationship of Jesus to God the Father, and, at a later period, of the
nature of the Holy Spirit who enters into and transforms believers.

Greek philosophy in the second century A.D. had sunk for the most part
into scepticism and impotence; its original impulse had been lost, and
no new intellectual power took its place; only in Alexandria was there a
genuine effort made to solve the fundamental problems of God and the
world. Plato had made God accessible to the highest knowledge as the
transcendent idea, remote from the world. For Aristotle, too, God in his
essence is far above the world and at most its first mover. The stoics,
on the other hand, taught his immanence, while the eclectics sought
truth by the mingling of the two ideas. They accomplished their purpose
in various ways, by distinguishing between God and his power--or by the
notion of a hierarchy of super-sensible beings, or in a doctrine which
taught that the operations of nature are the movement of pure spirit; or
by the use of the "Word" of "Wisdom," half personified as intermediate
between God and the world. While these monotheistic, pantheistic
doctrines were taught in the schools, the people were left to a debased
polytheism and to new superstitions imported from the Orient; the
philosophers themselves were by no means unaffected by the popular
beliefs. Mingled with all these were the ancient legends of gods and
heroes, accepted as inspired scripture by the people, and by
philosophers in part explained away by an allegorical exegesis and in
part felt increasingly as a burden to the intelligence. In this period
of degeneracy there were none the less an awakening to religious needs
and a profound longing for a new revelation of truth, which should
satisfy at once the intellect and the religious emotions.

Christianity came as supplying a new power; it freed philosophy from
scepticism by giving a definite object to its efforts and a renewed
confidence in its mission. Monotheism henceforth was to be the belief
not of philosophers only but even of the ignorant, and in Jesus Christ
the union of the divine and the human was effected. The Old Testament,
allegorically explained, became the substitute for the outgrown
mythology; intellectual activity revived; the new facts gained
predominant influence in philosophy, and in turn were shaped according
to its canons. In theology the fundamental problems of ontological
philosophy were faced; the relationship of unity to multiplicity, of
noumenon to phenomena, of God to man. The new element is the historical
Jesus, at once the representative of humanity and of God. As in
philosophy, so now in theology, the easiest solution of the problem was
the denial of one of its factors: and successively these efforts were
made, until a solution was found in the doctrine of the Trinity, which
satisfied both terms of the equation and became the fundamental creed of
the church. Its moulds of thought are those of Greek philosophy, and
into these were run the Jewish teachings. We have thus a peculiar
combination--the religious doctrines of the Bible, as culminating in the
person of Jesus, run through the forms of an alien philosophy.


  The doctrine of the Trinity.

The Jewish sources furnished the terms Father, Messiah, Son and Spirit.
Jesus seldom employed the last term and St Paul's use of it is not
altogether clear. Already in Jewish literature it had been all but
personified (cf. the Wisdom of Solomon). Thus the material is Jewish,
though already modified doubtless by Greek influence. But the problem is
Greek. It is not primarily ethical nor even religious, but it is
metaphysical. What is the ontological relationship between these three
factors? The answer is given in the Nicene formula, which is
characteristically Greek. By it we perceive how God, the infinite, the
absolute, the eternal, is yet not separated from the finite, the
temporal, the relative, but, through the incarnation, enters into
humanity. We further see how this entering into humanity is not an
isolated act but continues in all the children of God by the indwelling
spirit. Thus, according to the canons of the ancient philosophy, justice
is done to all the factors of our problem--God remains as Father, the
infinitely remote and absolute source of all; as Son, the Word who is
revealed to man and incarnate in him; as Spirit, who dwells even in our
own souls and by his substance unites us to God.

While thus the Greek philosophy furnished the dialectic and the mould
for the characteristic Christian teaching, the doctrine of the Trinity
preserved religious values. By Jesus the disciples had been led to God,
and he was the central fact of faith. After the resurrection he was the
object of praise, and soon prayers were offered in his name and to him.
Already to the apostle Paul he dominates the world and is above all
created things, visible and invisible, so that he has the religious
value of God. It is not God as abstract, infinite and eternal, as the
far-away creator of the universe, or even as the ruler of the world,
which Paul worships, but it is God revealed in Jesus Christ, the Father
of Jesus Christ, the grace and mercy in Jesus Christ which deliver from
evil. Metaphysics and speculative theories were valueless for Paul; he
was conscious of a mighty power transforming his own life and filling
him with joy, and that this power was identical with Jesus of Nazareth
he knew. In all this Paul is the representative of that which is highest
and best in early Christianity. Speculation and hyperspiritualization
were ever tending to obscure this fundamental religious fact: in the
interest of a higher doctrine of God his true presence in Jesus was
denied, and by exaggeration of Paul's doctrine of "Christ in us" the
significance of the historic Jesus was given up. The Johannine writings,
which presupposed the Pauline movement, are a protest against the
hyperspiritualizing tendency. They insist that the Son of God has been
incarnate in Jesus of Nazareth, and that our hands have handled and our
eyes have seen the word of life. This same purpose, namely, to hold fast
to the historic Jesus, triumphed in the doctrine of the Trinity; Jesus
was not to be resolved into an aeon or into some mysterious _tertium
quid_, neither God nor man, but to be recognized as very God who
redeemed the soul. Through him men were to understand the Father and to
understand themselves as God's children. Thus the doctrine of the
Trinity satisfied at once the philosophic intelligence of scholars and
the religious needs of Christians. Only thus can its adoption and
ultimate acceptance be explained. Its doctrinal form is the philosophic
statement of beliefs held by the common people, who had little interest
in theology, but whose faith centred in Jesus. It marks the
naturalization of Christianity in the Greek world for the common people
who believed in Christ, and for the philosophers who justified the faith
to reason.

The historic and religious values of the doctrine of the Trinity may be
illustrated by way of contrast. The Mah[=a]y[=a]na systems are the union
of Buddha's teaching with the forms of the Brahman philosophy. The
historic Buddha--the man Gautama--is taught as only one of a limitless
series of incarnations or (better) appearances. For his life on earth
with his material body was only an appearance, a seeming, a phenomenon,
and simultaneously with its activities the true Buddha existed unmoved
and eternal. Thus the way was opened for other apparitional Buddhas, and
different sects take different ones as the objects of faith and worship.
Moreover, our true nature is also Buddha. The conscious life of all men
is apparitional and illusive. Salvation is the comprehension of this
fact, and in the apprehension of our essential oneness with the
absolute. Hence the way of salvation is by knowledge. In the
Mah[=a]y[=a]na gnosticism was triumphant, and the historic values of
Gautama's teaching and personality are lost. The Mahayana illustrates in
part what would have followed the triumph of gnosticism in Christianity,
for not only would the historic value of the life and teaching of Jesus
have been lost, but with it the significance of humanity.

It is apparent that such a doctrine as the Trinity is itself susceptible
of many explanations, and minds differently constituted lay emphasis
upon its different elements. Especially is this true as its Greek
terminology was translated into Latin, and from Latin came into modern
languages--the original meaning being obscured or disguised, and the
original issues forgotten. For some the first thought of God, the
infinite and ultimate reality lying beyond and behind all phenomena,
predominates. With these the historic manifestation of Jesus becomes
only a guide to lead us to that immediate apprehension of God which is
the end of theology, and to that immediate union with God which is the
end of religion. Such an end is accomplished either by means of pure
thought or by a oneness of pure feeling, giving as results the
theological or philosophical construction of the concept God, or a
mystical ecstasy which is itself at once immediate, inexplicable and
indescribable. On the other hand, minds of a different and more concrete
character so emphasize the distinctions God, Son and Holy Spirit, that a
tritheistic construction appears--three individuals in the one Godhead:
these individuals appearing, as for example in the Father and the Son,
even in opposition to each other. In general we may say then that the
Trinity takes on four differing aspects in the Christian church: in its
more common and easily apprehended form as three Gods, in its
ecclesiastical form as a mystery which is above reason to be accepted by
faith, in its philosophic form as the highest reason which solves the
ultimate problems of the universe, and finally, as a mode by which the
spirit through an emotional content enters into communion with God
himself.

To some Christians the doctrine of the Trinity appeared inconsistent
with the unity of God which is emphasized in the Scriptures. They
therefore denied it, and accepted Jesus Christ, not as incarnate God,
but as God's highest creature by whom all else was created, or as the
perfect man who taught the true doctrine of God. The first view in the
early Church long contended with the orthodox doctrine, but finally
disappeared, and the second doctrine in the modern Church was set forth
as easily intelligible, but has remained only as the faith of sects
relatively small in number.


  The doctrine of the cross.

Allied with the doctrine of God which seeks the solution of the ultimate
problem of all philosophy, the doctrine of salvation has taken the most
prominent place in the Christian faith: so prominent, indeed, that to a
large portion of believers it has been the supreme doctrine, and the
doctrine of the deity of Jesus has been valued only because of its
necessity on the effect of the atonement. Jesus alone of the great
founders of religion suffered an early and violent death, even the death
of a criminal. It became therefore the immediate task of his followers
to explain this fact. This explanation was the more urgent because under
the influence of Jewish monotheism the rule of God was accepted as an
undoubted presupposition, so that the death of Jesus must be in
accordance with his will. The early Church naturally used the terms and
phrases of the prophets. He died the death of a criminal, not for his
sins, but for ours. Isaiah liii. was suggested at once and became the
central explanation: Christ is the suffering servant who is numbered
with the transgressors and who bears the sins of many.

Jesus faced this problem perhaps before the opening of his ministry,
certainly from his break with the ecclesiastical authorities. As his
violent death drew near, his words indicated how he preserved his deep
faith unshaken while yet recognizing the seeming failure of his mission.
He devotes himself more exclusively to the little body of his faithful
friends and commits his mission to them. As his work is sealed by his
death his body is broken and his blood is shed for them. Through this is
to come the victory which is denied to his life, as the seed cast into
the ground and dead brings forth fruit. Our hints are few of Jesus'
teaching, but this much, at least, we cannot doubt unless we suppose
that death took him unawares, or that his explanation of the impending
fact took on some un-Jewish form; and further, that the earliest
tradition misrepresents him. But these hypotheses do not commend
themselves, and we accept the tradition that Jesus taught that his death
was an atonement for others.

Beyond this the gospel does not go. Why vicarious suffering is needed,
or why the God who is the loving Father does not simply forgive, as in
the parable of the prodigal son, is not asked. For after all it is not
theory which is central, but the fact of the death, and the reason
assigned is simply "for others."

In St Paul we find the beginnings of explanation, indeed of two
explanations, and in the Epistle to the Hebrews the whole sacrificial
system is found to culminate in Christ, of whom all priests and
sacrifices are symbols, so that they are abolished with the coming of
the great reality.

In the Greek world further questions are raised and the thought of the
death as a ransom is prominent. To whom was the ransom paid? For a
thousand years the answer was "to the devil." He had gained control of
man by man's sin, and Christ set man free. God then, who is love,
delivers us from evil through Christ, who pays the penalty of our
transgression to the enemy of God and man. There were other theories
also, indeed the germs of all later theories existed even in the second
century, but this one prevailed. The heretic Marcion taught a variant,
namely, the existence of two Gods, one of the Old Testament of law, the
other of the New Testament of grace. Christ, unjustly condemned by the
God of law, is given as reparation for all men who put their trust in
him. From Anselm's time (12th century A.D.) this theory of Marcion's is
held as orthodox in substance but is made monotheistic in form. St
Anselm denied that any penalty was due to the devil, and in terms of
feudal honour restated the problem. The conflict here is in God himself,
so to speak, between his immutable righteousness and his limitless
grace. In the sacrifice of Jesus these are reconciled. This doctrine of
St Anselm's attaches itself readily to texts of St Paul, for his
teachings contain undeniably the vicarious propitiatory element.

These theories have to do with the being to whom the ransom is paid or
the sacrifice offered. Another group of theories deals with the effect
of the death of Christ upon the sinner. One of these is the so-called
governmental theory, wherein the death of Christ is set forth as for the
sake of good government, so that the forgiveness of sins shall not be
thought a sign of laxity. Again, by other theologians the death of Jesus
is extolled because of the moral influence it exerts, since Christ's
devotion unto death incites a like devotion in us.

Excepting in relatively narrow circles these theories have been
seriously studied only by professed theologians. That Christ died for
us, and that we are saved by him, is indeed the living truth of the
Church in all ages, and a false impression of the fact is given by
dwelling upon theories as if they were central. At best they bear only
the relationship of philosophy to life.

Another explanation, or (better) system of beliefs, has been far more
influential in the Church. Belief in mysterious powers attached to food,
feasts, ceremonial rites and sacred things is all but universal.
Primitive man seldom connects sacrifice with notions of propitiation,
indeed only in highly ethicized religions is the consciousness of sin or
of guilt pre-eminent. Sacrifice was believed to exert an influence on
the deity which is quasi-physical, and in sacrificial feasts God and
worshipper are in mysterious union. Sometimes, indeed, such contact with
deity is thought to be dangerous, and the rites indicate avoidance
(tabu), and sometimes it is thought desirable.

So universal are such ideas that the problem in particular religions is
not their origin but their form. In the Old Testament repeatedly they
are found in conflict with the prophetic ideals. Sometimes the prophets
denounce them, sometimes ignore them, sometimes attempt to reform and
control them. Jesus ignores them, his emphasis being so strong upon the
ethical and spiritual that the rest is passed by. In the early Church,
still Jewish, the belief was in the coming of a mysterious power from
God which produced ecstasy and worked wonders. St Paul also believes in
this, but insists that it is subordinate to the peaceable fruits of
righteousness. With the naturalization of the Church in the Gentile
world ethical ideas became less prominent, and the sacramental system
prevailed. By baptism and the Lord's Supper grace is given (_ex opere
operato_), so that man is renewed and made capable of salvation. Already
in the 2nd century baptism was described as a bath in which the health
of the soul is restored, and the Lord's Supper as the potion of
immortality. Similar notions present in the ethnic faiths take the
Christian facts into their service, the belief of the multitude without
essential change remaining vague and undefined. While the theologians
discussed doctrine the people longed for mystery, as it satisfied their
religious natures. By sacraments they felt themselves brought into the
presence of God, and to sacraments they looked for aid. Many sacraments
were adopted by portions of the Church, until at last the sacred number
seven was agreed upon.


  The concepts of salvation.

As the way of salvation was modified, so too was the idea of salvation:
the dream of a Messianic kingdom on earth, with its corollary the
resurrection of the physical body, faded away, especially after the
Roman empire adopted Christianity; It was no longer the Jewish nation
against the heathen empire, for the Jewish nation had ceased to be, and
the empire and the Church were one. Salvation henceforth is not the
descent of the New Jerusalem out of heaven, but the ascent of the saints
to heaven; for the individual it is not the resurrection of the body but
the immortality of the soul. So Jesus is no longer Christ or Messiah,
but the Son of God. These terms again are variously interpreted: heaven
is still thought of by many under the imagery of the book of Revelation,
and by others it is conceived as a mystical union of the soul with God
through the intelligence or of feelings. Yet the older conceptions still
continue, Christianity not becoming purely and simply Greek. Again and
again individuals and groups turn back to the Semitic cycle of hopes and
ideas, while the reconciliation of the two systems, Jewish and
Graeco-Roman, becomes the task of exegetes and theologians.

These hopes and theories of salvation, however, do not explain the power
of Christianity. Jesus wearied himself with the healing of man's
physical ailments, and he was remembered as the great physician. Early
Christian literature is filled with medical terms, applied (it is true)
for the greater part to the cure of souls. The records of the Church are
also filled with the efforts of Jesus' followers to heal the diseases
and satisfy the wants of men. A vast activity animated the early Church:
to heal the sick, to feed the hungry, to succour the diseased, to rescue
the fallen, to visit the prisoners, to forgive the erring, to teach the
ignorant, were ministries of salvation. A mighty power impelled men to
deny themselves in the service of others, and to find in this service
their own true life. None the less the first place is given to the
salvation of the soul, since, created for an unending existence, it is
of transcendent importance. While man is fallen and by nature vile,
nevertheless his possibilities are so vast that in comparison the
affairs of earth are insignificant. The word, "What shall it profit a
man if he gain the whole world and lose his own soul?" comes to mean
that the individual soul outvalues the whole world. With emphasis upon
God as creator and ruler, and upon man as made in God's image, endowed
with an unending existence, and subject to eternal torture if not
redeemed, the concept of personality has been exalted at the expense of
that of nature, and the future has been magnified at the expense of the
present. Thus a future heaven is man's true home, and theology instead
of philosophy or natural science is his proper study.

Indeed, intellectual interest centred in religion. Natural science was
forsaken, except in so far as it ministered to theology. Because the Old
Testament contained references to the origin and the objects of the
universe, a certain amount of natural science was necessary, but it was
only in this connexion that it had any value. By Augustine's time this
process is complete. His writings contain most of the knowledge of his
age, but it is strictly subordinate to his theological purpose. Hence,
when the barbarians submerged southern Europe, theology alone survived.
The Church entered upon a new task. In the beginning Christianity had
been the teacher of religion to highly civilized peoples--now it became
the civilizing agent to the barbarians, the teacher of better customs,
the upholder of law and the source of knowledge. The learned men were
monks and priests, the universities were Church institutions, and
theology was the queen of the sciences.


  Theology and worship.

The relation of cult to creed is still undetermined. Theoretically the
first depends on the second, for its purpose is twofold: the excitation
of worthy religious emotions and the attaining of our desires; and how
shall these objects be attained unless we know him whom we worship and
to whom we pray? But it is plausibly maintained that the reverse is
true, namely, that theology rests on cult. In the beginnings of
consciousness instinctive reactions precede definite thoughts, and even
in mature life thoughts often follow acts instead of preceding them. Our
religious consciousness is simply our ordinary consciousness obeying its
laws. So unpurposed does cult grow up that it combines many elements of
diverse origin, and is seldom precisely and wholly in accordance with
the creed. No doubt the two interact, cult influencing creed and creed
modifying cult--cult, perhaps, being most powerful in forming the actual
religious faith of the multitude. Cult divides into two unequal parts,
the stimulation of the religious emotions and the control of piety. In
the Church service it came early to centre in the sacrament of the
Eucharist (q.v.). In the earliest period the services were characterized
by extreme freedom, and by manifestations of ecstasy which were believed
to indicate the presence of the spirit of God; but as the years went by
the original enthusiasm faded away, the cult became more and more
controlled, until ultimately it was completely subject to the
priesthood, and through the priesthood to the Church. In the Roman
communion the structure of the sacred edifice, the positions and
attitudes of the priest and the congregation, the order of service,
emphasize the mystery and the divine efficacy of the sacrament. The
worshipper feels himself in the immediate presence of God, and enters
into physical relations with him. Participation in the mass also
releases from guilt, as the Lamb of God offered up atones for sin and
intercedes with the Father in our behalf. Thus in this single act of
devotion both objects of all cults are attained.


  Pollty.

As the teaching and person of Jesus were fitted into the framework of
the Greek philosophy, and the sacraments into the deeper and broader
forms of popular belief, so was the organization shaped by the polity of
the Roman empire. Jesus gathered his group of followers and committed to
it his mission, and after his resurrection the necessities of the
situation brought about the choice of quasi-officials. Later the
familiar polity of the synagogue was loosely followed. A completer
organization was retarded by two factors, the presence of the apostles
and the inspiration of the prophets. But when the apostles died and the
early enthusiasm disappeared, a stricter order arose. Practical
difficulties called for the enforcement of discipline, and differences
of opinion for authority in doctrine; and, finally, the sacramentarian
system required a priesthood. In the 2nd century the conception of a
Catholic Church was widely held and a loose embodiment was given it;
after the conversion of the empire the organization took on the official
forms of the empire. Later it was modified by the rise of the feudal
system and the re-establishment of the modern European nationalities
(see CHURCH HISTORY).


  Penance.

The polity of the Church was more than a formal organization; it touched
the life of each believer. Very early, Christianity was conceived to be
a new system of law, and faith was interpreted as obedience. Legalism
was joined with sacramentarianism, doubling the power of the priest.
Through him Church discipline was administered, a complete system of
ecclesiastical penalties, i.e. penance, growing up. It culminated in the
doctrine of purgatory, a place of discipline, of purifying suffering
after death. The Roman genius for law strengthened and systematized this
tendency.

The hierarchy which centres in the pope constitutes the Church of which
the sacramental system is the inner life and penance is the sanction. It
is thus a divine-human organization. It teaches that the divine-human
Son of God established it, and returning to heaven committed to the
apostles, especially to St Peter, his authority, which has descended in
an unbroken line through the popes. This is the charter of the Church,
and its acceptance is the first requisite for salvation; for the Church
determines doctrine, exercises discipline and administers sacraments.
Its authority is accompanied by the spirit of God, who guides it into
truth and gives it miraculous power. Outside the Church there are only
the "broken lights" of man's philosophy and the vain efforts of weak
human nature after virtue.


  The completed doctrine of the Roman Church.

Christianity in its complete Roman development is thus the coming of the
supernatural into the natural. The universe falls into these orders, the
second for the sake of the first, as nature is of and for God. Without
him nature at its highest is like a beautiful statue, devoid of life; it
is of secondary moment compared even to men, for while it passes away he
continues for ever. He is dependent, therefore, not upon nature, but
upon God's grace for salvation, and this comes through the Church. In
the book of Revelation the New Jerusalem descending from heaven to the
earth may be taken as a symbol of a continuing process: the human
receives the divine, as the Virgin Mary received the Holy Spirit and
brought forth Jesus, perfect man and perfect God. Thus the Church ever
receives God and has a twofold nature; its sacraments through material
and earthly elements impart a divine power; its teachings agree with the
highest truths of philosophy and science, yet add to these the knowledge
of mysteries which eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither hath it
entered into the heart of man to conceive; it sanctifies human
relationships, but the happiness of earth at purest and best is only a
shadow of the divine bliss which belongs to the redeemed soul. Hence man
should deny the world for the sake of the other world, and the title
"religious" belongs distinctly to the monastic and priestly life.
Theology is the queen of the sciences, and nothing should be taught in
school or university which contradicts its conclusions. Moreover,
nothing should be done by the state which interferes with the
transcendent interest committed to the Church. Thus the Church touches
and controls all realms of life, and the cycle is complete. It began as
separate from the world and proscribed by it; next it adapted itself to
the learning, the customs and the polity of the world. Finally it
asserted its mastery and assumed sovereign power over all. The Church in
its completed form was the outcome of a long development; if the seed
was Jewish the environment was Gentile. Into the full tree were gathered
the effects, not only of the initial energy, but of the forces of earth,
air, water and sun. The Roman Church expressed the beliefs and answered
the needs of the people, and this explains in part both its forms and
its power, its long continuance and wide supremacy.


  The Eastern Church.

The Church was never completely successful in unifying its organization.
In part it shared the destiny of the Roman empire, and with it fell into
two parts, East separating from West. Indeed the East never really
acknowledged the Roman primacy nor shared in its development, and it
still remains apart. With characteristic oriental conservatism it claims
the title of "Orthodox," and retains the creed and organization of the
early Church. In general its conception of the relation of the world to
the super-world is identical with that of the Roman Church, though
somewhat less defined, as its organization is less complete. It has
remained in the second stage mentioned above; established, as in Russia,
by the empire, it is dependent upon it and in alliance with it. In the
Mahommedan dominions it has been recognized as a state within the state,
and in these communities faith and patriotism are one.


  The Reformation.

The idea of the Roman Church was imperfectly embodied at the best; the
divine gift was in earthen vessels. The world was never completely cast
out; indeed the Church became the scene for ambition and the home of
luxury and pleasure. It was entangled also in the political strife of
the feudal ages and of the beginning of modern empires. Its control of
the sciences embroiled it with its own philosophers and scholars, while
saints and pure-minded ecclesiastics attempted, without success, its
reform from within. Finally, through Luther, the explosion came, and
western Christendom broke into two parts--Catholic and Protestant.

Protestantism in its primary principle is the return to primitive
Christianity. The whole development which we have traced, culminating in
the ecclesiastical-doctrinal system of the Roman Church, is regarded as
a corruption, since foreign and even heathen elements have been brought
in, so that the religion established by Christ is obscured or lost. For
Protestants the Bible only now becomes the infallible, inspired
authority in faith and morals. Interpretations by the Fathers or by the
councils are to be taken only as aids to its understanding. With this
principle is associated a second, the liberty of the individual; he
reads the sacred Scriptures and interprets them for himself without the
intervention of priests or church; and he enters by faith in Christ into
communion with God, so that all believers are priests. Here may be noted
a fundamental difference in the psychology of religion, since in the
Roman Church the chief appeal is to the emotions, while in the Reformed
it is to the intelligence. Yet this appeal to the intelligence is not
rationalism: the latter makes reason the supreme authority, rejecting
all which does not conform to it; the Bible is treated like any other
book, to be accepted or rejected in part or in whole as it agrees with
our canons of logic and our general science, while religion submits to
the same process as do other departments of knowledge. But in
Protestantism reason and the light of nature are in themselves as
impotent as in the Roman Church. The Bible interpreted by man's unaided
intelligence is as valueless as other writings, but it has a sacramental
value when the Holy Spirit accompanies its teaching, and the power of
God uses it and makes the soul capable of holiness. In all this the
supernatural is as vividly realized as in the Roman Church; it is only
its mediation which is different.


  Protestantism.

These principles are variously worked out in the different churches and
variously expressed. In part because of historical circumstances, the
divergence from the older systems is more marked in some Protestant
churches than in others, yet on the whole these two principles
determine cult and in part organization. As in the Roman Church cult
centres in the mass, so in the Reformed Church it centres in the sermon.
The Holy Spirit, the determining factor in the religious life, uses the
Bible as his means, and calls the intelligence into action. The
clergyman is primarily the preacher, renewed by God's power and
enlightened by the Spirit, so that he speaks with divine authority. The
ancient Jewish prophetic office is revived, yet with a difference: the
ancient prophets acknowledged no external authority, but the Protestant
preacher is strictly subordinate to the Scriptures of which he is the
interpreter. Beside the sermon the sacraments are observed as
established by Christ--two in number, baptism and the Lord's Supper. But
these do not exert a quasi-physical or magical influence, _ex opere
operato_. Unless there be faith in the recipient, an understanding of
the meaning of the sacrament and an acceptance of it, it is valueless or
harmful. Prayer and praise also are effective only as the congregation
intelligently join in them; hence they are not to be solely by a priest
nor in a strange tongue, as the clergyman is simply the leader of the
devotions of the people. In large portions of the Church also
opportunity for the free expression of the religious experience of the
laity is found.

The emphasis upon the believer and his freedom from all external
authority do not result in a thoroughgoing individualism. Luther clearly
held to the unity of all Christians, and Protestants are agreed in this.
For them, as for the Roman Church, there is a belief in a catholic or
all-embracing Church, but the unity is not that of an organization;
Christians are one through an indwelling spirit; they hold the same
faith, undergo the same experience and follow the same purpose. This
inner life constitutes the oneness of believers and forms the true
Church which is invisible. It expresses itself in outward forms, yet
there are not two Churches visible and invisible, but only one. The
spiritual experience of the individual utters itself in words, and
desires association with others who know the same grace. There is formed
a body of teaching in which all agree, and an organization in which the
common experience finds expression and aid. While then membership in
this organization is not primary, it assumes a higher and even a vital
importance, since a true experience recognizes the common faith and the
common fellowship. Were it to refuse assent to these, doubt would be
thrown upon its own trustworthiness.

Historically these principles were only in part embodied, for the
Reformation was involved in political strife. The Reformers turned to
the government for aid and protection, and throughout Europe turmoil and
war ensued. In consequence, in the Protestant nations the state assumed
the ultimate authority over the Church. Moreover, in the early days of
the Reformation the Catholic Church charged it with a lawless
individualism, a charge which was seemingly made good by an extreme
divergence in theological opinion and by riots in various parts of the
Protestant world. The age was indeed one of ferment, so that the
foundations of society and of religion seemed threatened. The Reformers
turned to the state for protection against the Roman Church, and
ultimately as a refuge from anarchy, and they also returned to the
theology of the Fathers as their safeguard against heresy. Instead of
the simplicity of Luther's earlier writings, a dogmatic theology was
formed, and a Protestant ecclesiasticism established, indistinguishable
from the Roman Church in principle. The main difference was in the
attitude to the Roman allegiance and to the sacramentarian system. There
was thus by no means a complete return to the Bible as the sole
authority, but the Bible was taken as interpreted by the earlier creeds
and as worked into a doctrinal system by the scholastic philosophy. Thus
Protestantism also came to identify theology with the whole range of
human knowledge, and in its official forms it was as hostile to the
progress of science as was the Roman Church itself.

Many Protestants rebelled against this radical departure from the
principles of the Reformation and of Biblical Christianity. To them it
seemed the substitution of the authority of the Church for the authority
of a living experience and of intellectual adherence to theological
propositions for faith. The freedom of the individual was denied when
the state enforced religious conformity. Thus a struggle within
Protestantism arose, with persecutions of Protestants by Protestants.
Moreover, many failed to find the expression of their faith in the
official creed or in the established organization, and Protestantism
divided into many sects and denominations, founded upon special types of
religious experience or upon particular points in doctrine or in cult.
Thus Protestantism presents a wide diversity in comparison with the
regularity of the Roman Church. This we should expect indeed from its
insistence upon individual freedom; yet, notwithstanding certain notable
exceptions, amid the diversity there is a substantial unity, a unity
which in our day finds expression in common organizations for great
practical ends, for example in the "Bible Societies," "Tract Societies,"
the "Young Men's Christian Associations," "Societies of Christian
Endeavour," &c., which disregard denominational lines.


  Christianity and the modern world.

The coming of the northern peoples into the Roman world profoundly
modified Christianity. It shared indeed in the dreariness and corruption
of the times commonly called the "dark ages," but when at last a
productive period began the Church was the first to profit by it. Since
all educated men were priests, it assimilated the new learning--the
revived Aristotelianism--and continued its control of the universities.
In the 13th century it was supreme, and Christianity was identified with
world systems of knowledge and politics. Both were deemed alike divine
in origin, and to question their validity was an offence against God.
Christianity thus had passed through three stages in politics as in
science. At first it was persecuted by the state, then established by
it, and finally dominated over it; so its teaching was at first alien to
philosophy and despised by it, next was accepted by it and given form
and rights through it, and finally became queen of the sciences as
theology and ruled over the whole world of human knowledge. But the
triumph by its completeness ensured new conflicts; from the disorder of
the middle ages arose states which ultimately asserted complete
autonomy, and in like fashion new intellectual powers came forth which
ultimately established the independence of the sciences.

In the broadest sense the underlying principle of the struggle is the
reassertion of interest in the world. It is no longer merely the scene
for the drama of the soul and God, nor is man independent of it, but man
and nature constitute an organism, humanity being a part of the vaster
whole. Man's place is not even central, as he appears a temporary
inhabitant of a minor planet in one of the lesser stellar systems. Every
science is involved, and theology has come into conflict with
metaphysics, logic, astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, zoology,
biology, history and even economics and medicine. From the modern point
of view this is unavoidable and even desirable, since "theology" here
represents the science of the 13th century. As in the political world
the states gained first the undisputed control of matters secular,
rejecting even the proffered counsel of the Church, and then proceeded
to establish their sovereignty over the Church itself, so was it in the
empire of the mind. The rights gained for independent research were
extended over the realm of religion also; the two indeed cannot remain
separate, and man must subordinate knowledge to the authority of
religion--or make science supreme, submitting religion to its scrutiny
and judging it like other phenomena. Under this investigation
Christianity does not appear altogether exceptional. Its early logic,
ontology and cosmology, with many of its distinctive doctrines, are
shown to be the natural offspring of the races and ages which gave them
birth. Put into their historical environment they are freed from adverse
criticism, and indeed valued as steps in the intellectual development of
man's mind. Advanced seriously, however, as truths to-day, they are put
aside as anachronisms not worthy of dispute. The Bible is studied like
other works, its origins discovered and its place in comparative
religion assigned. It does not appear as altogether unique, but it is
put among the other sacred books. For the great religions of the world
show similar cycles of development, similar appropriations of prevalent
science and philosophy, similar conservative insistence upon ancient
truth, and similar claims to an exclusive authority.

With this interest is involved an attitude of mind toward the
supernatural. As already pointed out, nature and super-nature were taken
as physically and spatially distinct. The latter could descend upon the
former and be imparted to it, neither subject to nature nor intelligible
by reason. In science the process has been reversed; nature ascends, so
to speak, into the region of the supernatural and subdues it to itself;
the marvellous or miraculous is brought under the domain of natural law,
the canons of physics extend over metaphysics, and religion takes its
place as one element in the natural relationship of man to his
environment. Hence the new world-view threatens the foundations of the
ecclesiastical edifice. This revolution in the world-view is no longer
the possession of philosophers and scholars, but the multitude accepts
it in part. Education in general has rendered many familiar with the
teachings of science, and, moreover, its practical benefits have given
authority to its maxims and theories. The world's problem is not only
therefore acute, but the demand for its solution is wider than ever
before.


  The attitude of the Roman Church.

The Roman Catholic Church uncompromisingly reasserts its ancient
propositions, political and theological. The cause is lost indeed in the
political realm, where the Church is obliged to submit, but it protests
and does not waive or modify its claims (see the Syllabus of 1864,
paragraphs 19 ff., 27, 54 and 55). In the Greek and Protestant churches
this situation cannot arise, as they make no claims to governmental
sovereignty. In the intellectual domain the situation is more complex.
Again the Roman Church unhesitatingly reaffirms the ancient principles
in their extreme form (Syllabus, paragraphs 8-9-13; Decrees of the
Vatican Council, chapter 4, note especially canon 4-2). The works of St
Thomas Aquinas are recommended as the standard authority in theology
(Encyc. of Leo XIII., _Aeterni Patris_, Aug. 4, 1879). In details also
the conclusions of modern science are rejected, as for example the
origin of man from lower species, and, in a different sphere, the
conclusions of experts as to the origins of the Bible. Faith is defined
as "assent upon authority," and the authority is the Church, which
maintains its right to supremacy over the whole domain of science and
philosophy.


  The Greek and Protestant Churches.

The Greek Church remains untouched by the modern spirit, and the
Protestant Churches also are bound officially to the scholastic
philosophy of the 17th century; their confessions of faith still assert
the formation of the world in six days, and require assent to
propositions which can be true only if the old cosmology be correct.
Officially then the Church identifies Christianity with the position
outlined above, and hostile critics agree to this identification,
rejecting the faith in the name of philosophic and scientific truth.


  Compromises.

On the other hand there are not wanting individuals and even large
bodies of Christians who are intent upon a reinterpretation. Even in the
official circles of the Church, not excepting the Roman Church, there
are many scholars who find no difficulty in remaining Christian while
accepting the modern scientific view of the world. This is possible to
some because the situation in its sharp antithesis is not present to
their minds: by making certain compromises on the one side and on the
other, and by framing private interpretations of important dogmas, they
can retain their faith in both and yet preserve their mental integrity.
A large literature is produced, reconciling science and theology by
softening and compromising and adapting; a procedure in accordance with
general historical development, for men do not love sharp antagonisms,
nor are they prepared to carry principles to their logical conclusions.
By a fortunate power of mind they are able to believe as truths mutually
inconsistent propositions.

Thus the crisis is in fact not so acute as it might seem. No great
institution lives or dies by logic. Christianity rests on great
religious needs which it meets and gratifies, so that its life (like all
other lives) is in unrationalized emotions. Reason seeks ever to
rationalize these, an attempt which seems to destroy yet really
fulfils. As thus the restless reason tests the emotions of the soul,
criticizes the traditions to which they cling, rejects the ancient
dogmas in which they have been defined, the Church slowly participates
in the process: silently this position and that are forsaken, legends
and beliefs once of prime importance are forgotten, or when forced into
controversy many ways are found by which the old and the new are
reconciled: the sharpness of distinctions can be rubbed off, expressions
may be softened, definitions can be modified and half-way resting-places
afforded, until the momentous transition has been made and the
continuity of tradition is maintained. Finally, as the last step, even
the official documents may be revised. Such a process in Christianity is
everywhere in evidence, for even the Roman Church admits the modern
astronomy. So too it accepts the changes in the world of politics with
qualified approval. In the Syllabus of 1864 the separation of state and
church was anathematized, yet in 1906 this separation in the United
States was held up as an example to be followed by the French
government. In the Protestant Churches the process is precisely similar.
No great church has yet modified its articles of religion so as to
admit, for example, that the Garden of Eden was not a definite place
where Eve was tempted, yet the doctrine is contradicted with approval by
individuals, and the results of modern science are accepted and taught
without rebuke. In all this the Church shows its essential oneness with
other organizations of society, the government, the family, which are at
once deeply rooted in the past, and yet subject to the influences of the
present. For Christianity is by no means wholly intellectual, nor
chiefly so. It would be fully as true to facts to describe this religion
as a vast scheme for the amelioration of the condition of humanity. In
education, in care for the sick, the poor, the outcast, it has retained
the spirit of its Lord. Though it has at times denied this spirit, been
guilty of crimes, persecutions, wars and greed--still the Church has
never quite forgotten him who went about doing good, nor freed itself
from the contagion of his example. No age has been so responsive to the
needs of man as our own; whatever doubts men have as to the doctrines or
the cults there is an agreement wider than in the past in the good works
whose inspiration is a divine love.


  Theories of development.

Yet the intellectual crisis cannot be ignored in the interest of the
practical life. Men must rationalize the universe. On the one hand there
are churchmen who attempt to repeat the historical process which has
naturalized the Church in alien soils by appropriating the forces of the
new environment, and who hold that the entire process is inspired and
guided by the spirit of God. Hence Christianity is the absolute
religion, because it does not preclude development but necessitates it,
so that the Christianity that is to come shall not only retain all that
is important in the Christianity of the past and present but shall
assimilate new truth. On the other hand some seek the essential
Christianity in a life beneath and separable from the historic forms. In
part under the influence of the Hegelian philosophy, and in part because
of the prevalent evolutionary scientific world-view, God is represented
under the form of pure thought, and the world process as the unfolding
of himself. Such truth can be apprehended by the multitude only in
symbols which guide the will through the imagination, and through
historic facts which are embodiment of ideas. The Trinity is the
essential Christian doctrine, the historic facts of the Christian
religion being the embodiment of religious ideas. The chief critical
difficulty felt by this school is in identifying any concrete historic
fact with the unchanging idea, that is, in making Jesus of Nazareth the
incarnation of God. God is reinterpreted, and in place of an
extra-mundane creator is an omnipresent life and power. The Christian
attainment is nothing else than the thorough intellectual grasp of the
absolute idea and the identification of our essential selves with God.
With a less thorough-going intellectualism other scholars reinterpret
Christianity in terms of current scientific phraseology. Christianity is
dependent upon the understanding of the universe; hence it is the duty
of believers to put it into the new setting, so that it adopts and
adapts astronomy, geology, biology and psychology. With this
accomplished, Christianity will resume its ancient place. Consciously
and of purpose the attempt is made to do once more what has been done
repeatedly before, to restate Christianity in the terms of current
science.

From all these efforts to reconstruct systematic theology with its
appropriations of philosophy and science, groups of Christians turn to
the inner life and seek in its realities to find the confirmation of
their faith. They also claim oneness with a long line of Christians, for
in every age there have been men who have ignored the dogma and the
ritual of the Church, and in contemplation and retirement have sought to
know God immediately in their own experience. To them at best theology
with its cosmology and its logic is only a shadow of shadows, for God
reveals himself to the pure in heart, and it matters not what science
may say of the material and fleeting world. This spirit manifests itself
in wide circles in our day. The Gordian knot is cut, for philosophy and
religion no longer touch each other but abide in separate realms.

In quite a different way a still more influential school seeks essential
Christianity in the sphere of the ethical life. It also would
disentangle religion from cosmology and formal philosophy. It studies
the historic development of the Church, noting how element after element
has been introduced into the simplicity of the gospel, and from all
these it would turn back to the Bible itself. In a thorough-going
fashion it would accomplish what Luther and the Reformation attempted.
It regards even the earliest creeds as only more or less satisfactory
attempts to translate the Christian facts into the current language of
the heathen world. But the process does not stop with this rejection of
the ancient and the scholastic theology. It recognizes the scientific
results attained in the study of the Bible itself, and therefore it does
not seek the entire Bible as its rule of truth. To it Jesus Christ, and
he alone, is supreme, but this supremacy does not carry with it
infallibility in the realm of cosmology or of history. In these too
Jesus participated in the views of his own time; even his teaching of
God and of the future life is not lacking in Jewish elements, yet none
the less he is the essential element in Christianity, and to his
life-purpose must all that claims to be Christianity be brought to be
judged. To this school Christianity is the culmination of the ethical
monotheism of the Old Testament, which finds its highest ideal in
self-sacrificing love. Jesus Christ is the complete embodiment of this
ideal, in life and in death. This ideal he sets before men under the
traditional forms of the kingdom of God as the object to be attained, a
kingdom which takes upon itself the forms of the family, and realizes
itself in a new relationship of universal brotherhood. Such a religion
appeals for its self-verification not to its agreement with cosmological
conceptions, either ancient or modern, or with theories of philosophy,
however true these may be, but to the moral sense of man. On the one
hand, in its ethical development, it is nothing less than the outworking
of that principle of Jesus Christ which led him not only to
self-sacrificing labour but to the death upon the cross. On the other
hand, it finds its religious solution in the trust in a power not
ourselves which makes for the same righteousness which was incarnate in
Jesus Christ.

Thus Christianity, as religion, is on the one hand the adoration of God,
that is, of the highest and noblest, and this highest and noblest as
conceived not under forms of power or knowledge but in the form of
ethical self-devotion as embodied in Jesus Christ, and on the other hand
it meets the requirements of all religion in its dependence, not indeed
upon some absolute idea or omnipotent power, but in the belief that that
which appeals to the soul as worthy of supreme worship is also that in
which the soul may trust, and which shall deliver it from sin and fear
and death. Such a conception of Christianity can recognize many
embodiments in ritual, organization and dogma, but its test in all ages
and in all lands is conformity to the purpose of the life of Christ. The
Lord's Prayer in its oldest and simplest form is the expression of its
faith, and Christ's separation of mankind on the right hand and on the
left in accordance with their service or refusal of service to their
fellow-men is its own judgment of the right of any age or church to the
name Christian. This school also represents historic Christianity, and
maintains the continuity of its life through all the ages past with
Christ himself. But this continuity is not then in theological systems
or creeds, nor in sacraments and cult, nor in organization, but in the
noble company of all who have lived in simple trust in God and love to
humanity. It is this true Church of the spirit and purpose of Jesus
which has been the supreme force for the uplifting of humanity.

Christianity has passed through too many changes, and it has found too
many interpretations possible, to fear the time to come. Thoroughgoing
reconstruction in every item of theology and in every detail of polity
there may be, yet shall the Christian life go on--the life which finds
its deepest utterance in the words of Christ, "Thou shalt love the Lord
thy God with all thy heart and thy neighbour as thyself"; the life which
expresses its profoundest faith in the words Christ taught it to pray,
"Our Father"; the life which finds its highest rule of conduct in the
words of its first and greatest interpreter, "Let this mind be in you
which was also in Christ Jesus our Lord."

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Detailed bibliographies accompany the separate articles
  on subjects connected with the Christian religion and Church. In the
  following list a selection is given of books on the wider and general
  subject:--

  _Extent and Growth._--D. Dorchester, _The Problem of Religious
  Progress_ (revised ed., 1894); S. Gulick, _The Growth of the Kingdom
  of God_ (1895); James S. Dennis, _Christian Missions and Social
  Progress_ (1906).

  _Prophets of Israel._--Rudolf Smend, _Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen
  Religionsgeschichte_ (2nd ed., 1899); A.B. Davidson, _Old Testament
  Prophecy_ (1903); Karl Budde, _Religion of Israel to the Exile_
  (1899); W. Robertson Smith, _The Prophets of Israel and their Place in
  History_ (1899); A.F. Kirkpatrick, _Doctrine of the Prophets_ (3rd
  ed., 1901); Beruk Duhm, _Die Theologie der Propheten_ (1875).

  _Judaism._--Emil Schuerer, _History of the Jewish People in the Time of
  Jesus Christ_ (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1890); C.G. Montefiore,
  _Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by the
  Religion of the Ancient Hebrews_ (2nd ed., 1893); W. Bousset, _Die
  Religion des Judentums im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter_ (2nd ed.,
  1906).

  _The Life and Teaching of Jesus._--Hans Heinrich Wendt, _The Teaching
  of Jesus_ (1892), 2 vols.; Oskar Holtzmann, _The Life of Jesus_ (Eng.
  trans., 1904); Paul Wernle, _Beginnings of Christianity_, 2 vols.
  (1903-1904); T. Crawford Burkitt, _The Gospel History and its
  Transmission_ (1906).

  _The Beginnings of Christianity._--Ernst von Dobschuetz, _Christian
  Life in the Primitive Church_ (Eng. trans., 1904); A.C. McGiffert,
  _The Apostolic Age_ (1900); Carl Weizsaecker, _The Apostolic Age_ (Eng.
  trans., 1897); Otto Pfleiderer, _Das Urchristentum_ (1902).

  _The Expansion of Christianity._--Edwin Hatch, "The Influence of Greek
  Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church," the _Hibbert Lectures,
  1888_ (1890); Adolf Harnack, _The Expansion of Christianity in the
  First Three Centuries_ (Eng. trans., 1904); Sir W.M. Ramsay, _The
  Church in the Roman Empire_ (1893).

  _The History of Church and of Dogma._--Adolf Harnack, _History of
  Dogma_ (Eng. trans., 1895); Reinhold Seeberg, _Lehrbuch der
  Dogmengeschichte_ (1895, 2 vols.); Philip Schaff, _The Creeds of
  Christendom_ (3 vols., 1881, 3rd ed.).

  _The Roman Church._--Joseph Wilhelm and Thomas B. Scannell, _Manual of
  Catholic Theology_ (1906); J.A. Moehler, _Symbolism_ (trans. 1844);
  Thomas Aquinas, _The Summa_ (Eng. trans., 1907); William Ward, _The
  Ideal of a Christian Church_ (1844).

  _The Greek Church._--"The Creeds of the Greek and Russian Churches,"
  in Schaff, _Creeds_, vol. ii. pp. 275-542; and J. Michalcesu, _Die
  Bekenntnisse und die wichtigsten Glaubenszeugnisse der
  griechisch-orientalischen Kirche_ (Leipzig, 1904).

  _Protestantism._--John Calvin, _Institutio Religionis Christianae_,
  (1536; Eng. trans., 1816); Charles Hodge, _Systematic Theology_ (3
  vols., 1872); Ernst Troeltsch, _Die Absolutheit des Christentums und
  die Religionsgeschichte_ (1902); _First Principles of the Reformation,
  or the Ninety-five Theses and the Three Primary Works_, trans. by
  Henry Wace and C.A. Buchheinz (1883).

  _Christianity in the Modern World._--Andrew D. White, _Conflict of
  Science with Theology_ (2 vols., 1896); D.F. Strauss, _Der alte und
  der neue Glaube_ (1872; Eng. trans., 1873); A.J. Balfour, _The
  Foundations of Belief_ (1897); J. Ward, _Naturalism and Agnosticism_
  (1899).

  _Modern Adaptations of Christianity._--William Adams Brown, _Christian
  Theology in Outline_ (1906); Augustus Sabatier, _Religions of
  Authority and the Religion of the Spirit_ (1904); J.A. Zahm,
  _Evolution and Dogma_ (1896); John Henry Newman, _An Essay on the
  Development of Christian Doctrine_ (1845); Edward Caird, _The
  Evolution of Religion_ (1893); Otto Pfleiderer, _Philosophy of
  Religion_ (Eng. trans., 1888, especially volumes 3 and 4); Newman
  Smyth, _Old Faiths in New Lights_ (1879), _Through Science to Faith_
  (1902); Henry Drummond, _The Ascent of Man_ (1894); William Ralph
  Inge, _Christian Mysticism_ (Bampton Lectures, 1894); Wilhelm
  Herrmann, _The Communion of the Christian with God_ (1895); George
  William Knox, _Direct and Fundamental Proofs of the Christian
  Religion_ (1903); Albrecht Ritschl, _Die christliche Lehre von der
  Rechtfertigung und Versoehnung_ (1900).

  _Modern Definitions of Christianity._--Alfred Loisy, _The Gospel and
  the Church_ (1904); Adolf Harnack, _What is Christianity?_ (1901);
  William Adams Brown, _The Essence of Christianity_ (1902); Ernest
  Troeltsch, _Das Wesen des Christentums_; J. Kaftan, _Das Wesen der
  christlichen Religion_ (2nd ed., 1888); J. Caird, _The Fundamental
  Ideas of Christianity_ (1899).    (G. W. KN.)




CHRISTIANSAND (KRISTIANSAND), a fortified seaport of Norway, the chief
town of a diocese (_stift_), on a fjord of the Skagerrack, 175 m. S.W.
of Christiania by sea. Pop. (1900) 14,701. It stands on a square
peninsula flanked by the western and eastern harbours and by the Otter
river. The situation, with its wooded hills and neighbouring islands, is
no less beautiful than that of other south-coast towns, but the
substitution of brick for wood as building material after a fire in 1892
made against the picturesqueness of the town. There is a fine cathedral,
rebuilt in Gothic style after a fire in 1880. Christiansand is an
important fishing centre (salmon, mackerel, lobsters), and sawmills,
wood-pulp factories, shipbuilding yards and mechanical workshops are the
principal industrial works. The port is the largest on the south coast,
and all the coast steamers, and those serving Christiania from London,
Hull, Grangemouth, Hamburg, &c., touch here. The Saetersdal railway
follows that valley north to Byglandsfiord (48 m.), whence a good road
continues to Viken i Valle at the head of the valley. Flekkeroe, a
neighbouring island, is a favourite pleasure resort. The town was
founded in 1641 by Christian IV., after whom it was named.




CHRISTIAN SCIENCE, a system of theosophic and therapeutic doctrine,
which was originated in America about 1866 by Mrs Mary Baker Glover
Eddy, and has in recent years obtained a number of adherents both in the
United States and in European countries. Mrs. Eddy (1821-1910; _nee_
Baker) was born near Concord, New Hampshire; in 1843 she married Colonel
G.W. Glover (d. 1844), in 1853 she married Daniel Patterson (divorced
1873), and in 1877 Dr Asa Gilbert Eddy (d. 1883). About the year 1867
she came forward as a healer by mind-cure. She based her teaching on the
Bible, and on the principles that man's essential nature is spiritual,
and that, the Spirit of God being Love and Good, moral and physical evil
are contrary to that Spirit, and represent an absence of the True Spirit
which was in Jesus Christ. There is but one Mind, one God, one Christ,
and nothing real but Mind. Matter and sickness are subjective states of
error, delusions which can be dispelled by the mental process of a true
knowledge of God and Christ, or Christian science. Ordinary _medical_
science--using drugs, &c.--is therefore irrelevant; spiritual treatment
is the only cure of what is really mental error. Jesus himself healed by
those means, which were therefore natural and not miraculous, and
promised that those who believed should do curative works like his. In
1876 a Christian Scientist Association was organized. Mrs Eddy had
published in the preceding year a book entitled _Science and Health,
with Key to the Scriptures_, which has gone through countless editions
and is the gospel of Christian Science. In 1879 she became the pastor of
a "Church of Christ, Scientist," in Boston, and also founded there the
"Massachusetts Metaphysical College" (1881; closed 1889) for the
furtherance of her tenets. The first denominational chapel outside
Boston was built at Oconto, Wisconsin, in 1886; and in 1894 (enlarged
and reconstructed in 1906) a great memorial church was erected in
Boston. Mrs Eddy's publications also include _Retrospection and
Introspection_ (1891), _Unity of Good and Unreality of Evil_ (1887),
_Rudimental Divine Science_ (1891), _Christian Healing_ (1886), &c. The
progress of the cult of Christian Science has been remarkable, and by
the beginning of the 20th century many hundreds of Christian Science
churches had been established; and the new religion found many adherents
also in England. A purely local and congregational form of government
was adopted, but Christian Scientists naturally looked to the mother
church in Boston, with Mrs Eddy as its guiding influence, as their
centre. A monthly magazine, _The Christian Science Journal_ (founded in
1883), and the weekly _Christian Science Sentinel_ are published
officially in Boston.

The profession of the paid Christian Science "healer" has been very
prominent in recent years both in America and in England; and very
remarkable successes have been claimed for the treatment. In some
serious cases of death after illness, where a coroner's inquest has
shown that the only medical attendance was that of a Christian Science
"healer," the question of criminal responsibility has been prominently
canvassed; but an indictment in England against a healer for
manslaughter in 1906 resulted in an acquittal. The theosophic and the
medical aspects of Christian Science may perhaps be distinguished; the
latter at all events is open to grave abuse. But the modern reaction in
medical practice against drugs, and the increased study of the subject
of "suggestion," have done much to encourage a belief in faith-healing
and in "psychotherapy" generally. In 1908, indeed, a separate movement
(Emmanuel), inspired by the success of Christian Science, and also
emanating from America, was started within the Anglican Communion, its
object being to bring prayer to work on the curing of disease; and this
movement obtained the approval of many leaders of the church in England.

  An "authorized" _Life_ of Mrs Eddy, by Sibyl Wilbur (1908), deals with
  the subject acceptably to her disciples. "Georgine Milmine's" _Life of
  M.B.G. Eddy, and History of Christian Science_ (1909), though not so
  acceptable, is a judicious critical account. A detailed indictment
  against the whole system, by a competent English doctor (Stephen
  Paget), will be found in _The Faith and Works of Christian Science_
  (1909).




CHRISTIANSUND (KRISTIANSUND), a seaport on the west coast of Norway, in
Romsdal _amt_ (county), 259 m. N.E. by N. of Bergen, in the latitude of
the Faeroe Islands. Pop. (1901) 11,982. It is built on four small
islands, by which its harbour is enclosed. The chief exports are wood,
cod, herrings and fish products, and butter to Great Britain. The town
is served by the principal steamers between the south Norwegian ports,
Hull, Hamburg, &c, and Trondhjem, and it is the chief port of the
district of Nordmoere. Local steamers serve the neighbouring fjords,
including the Sundalsfjord, from which at Sundalsoeren a driving road
past the fine Dovrefjeld connects with the Gudbrandsdal route. Till
1742, when it received town privileges from Christian VI., Christiansund
was called Lille-Fosen.




CHRISTIE, RICHARD COPLEY (1830-1901), English scholar and bibliophile,
was born on the 22nd of July 1830 at Lenton in Nottinghamshire, the son
of a millowner. He was educated at Lincoln College, Oxford, and was
called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1857, and in 1872 became
chancellor of the diocese of Manchester. This he resigned in 1893. He
held numerous appointments, notably the professorships of history (from
1854 to 1856) and of political economy (from 1855 to 1866) at Owens
College, Manchester. He always took an active interest in this college,
of which he was one of the governors; in 1893 he gave the Christie
library building designed by Alfred Waterhouse, and in 1897 he devoted
L50,000 of the funds at his disposal as a trustee of Sir Joseph
Whitworth's estate for the building of Whitworth Hall, which completed
the front quadrangle of the college. He was an enthusiastic book
collector, and bequeathed to Owens College his library of about 75,000
volumes, rich in a very complete set of the books printed by Dolet, a
wonderful series of Aldines, and of volumes printed by Sebastian
Gryphius. His _Etienne Dolet, the Martyr of the Renaissance_ (1880), is
the most exhaustive work on the subject. He died at Ribsden on the 9th
of January 1901.




CHRISTINA (1626-1689), queen of Sweden, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus
and Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg, was born at Stockholm on the 8th of
December 1626. Her father died when she was only six years old. She was
educated, principally, by the learned Johannes Matthiae, in as masculine
a way as possible, while the great Oxenstjerna himself instructed her in
politics. Christina assumed the sceptre in her eighteenth year (Dec. 8,
1644). From the moment when she took her seat at the head of the council
board she impressed her veteran counsellors with the conviction of her
superior genius. Axel Oxenstjerna himself said of her, when she was only
fifteen: "Her majesty is not like women-folk, but is stout-hearted and
of a good understanding, so that, if she be not corrupted, we have good
hopes of her." Unfortunately her brilliant and commanding qualities were
vitiated by an inordinate pride and egoism, which exhibited themselves
in an utter contempt for public opinion, and a prodigality utterly
regardless of the necessities of the state. She seemed to consider
Swedish affairs as far too petty to occupy her full attention; while her
unworthy treatment of the great chancellor was mainly due to her
jealousy of his extraordinary reputation and to the uneasy conviction
that, so long as he was alive, his influence must at least be equal to
her own. Recognizing that he would be indispensable so long as the
Thirty Years' War lasted, she used every effort to bring it to an end;
and her impulsive interference seriously hampered the diplomacy of the
chancellor, and materially reduced the ultimate gains of Sweden. The
general peace congress was not opened till April 1645. The Swedish
plenipotentiaries were Johan Oxenstjerna, the chancellor's son, and
Adler Salvius. From the first the relations between them were strained.
Young Oxenstjerna, haughty and violent, claimed, by right of birth and
rank, to be _caput legationis_. The chancellor, at home, took his son's
part, while Salvius was warmly supported by Christina, who privately
assured him of her exclusive favour and encouraged him to hold his own.
So acute did the quarrel become that there was a violent scene in full
senate between the queen and the chancellor; and she urged Salvius to
accelerate the negotiations, against the better judgment of the
chancellor, who hoped to get more by holding out longer.

The longer Christina ruled, the more anxious for the future fate of her
empire grew the men who had helped to build it up. Yet she gave fresh
privileges to the towns; she encouraged trade and manufactures,
especially the mining industries of the Dales; in 1649 she issued the
first school ordinance for the whole kingdom; she encouraged foreign
scholars to settle in Sweden; and native science and literature, under
her liberal encouragement, flourished as they had never flourished
before. In one respect, too, she showed herself wiser than her wisest
counsellors. The senate and the estates, naturally anxious about the
succession to the throne, had repeatedly urged her majesty to marry, and
had indicated her cousin, Charles Gustavus, as her most befitting
consort. Wearied of their importunities, yet revolting at the idea of
submission to any member of the opposite sex, Christina settled the
difficulty by appointing Charles her successor, and at the _Riksdag_ of
1650 the Swedish crown was declared hereditary in Charles and his heirs
male. In the summer of 1651 Christina was, with difficulty, persuaded to
reconsider her resolution to abdicate, but three years later the nation
had become convinced that her abdication was highly desirable, and the
solemn act took place on the 6th of July 1654 at the castle of Upsala,
in the presence of the estates and the great dignitaries of the realm.
Many were the causes which predisposed her to what was, after all,
anything but an act of self-renunciation. First of all she could not
fail to remark the increasing discontent with her arbitrary and wasteful
ways. Within ten years she had created 17 counts, 46 barons and 428
lesser nobles; and, to provide these new peers with adequate appanages,
she had sold or mortgaged crown property representing an annual income
of 1,200,000 rix-dollars. Signs are also not wanting that Christina was
growing weary of the cares of government; while the importunity of the
senate and _Riksdag_ on the question of her marriage was a constant
source of irritation. In retirement she could devote herself wholly to
art and science, and the opportunity of astonishing the world by the
unique spectacle of a great queen, in the prime of life, voluntarily
resigning her crown, strongly appealed to her vivid imagination. Anyhow,
it is certain that, towards the end of her reign, she behaved as if she
were determined to do everything in her power to make herself as little
missed as possible. From 1651 there was a notable change in her
behaviour. She cast away every regard for the feelings and prejudices of
her people. She ostentatiously exhibited her contempt for the Protestant
religion. Her foreign policy was flighty to the verge of foolishness.
She contemplated an alliance with Spain, a state quite outside the orbit
of Sweden's influence, the firstfruits of which were to have been an
invasion of Portugal. She utterly neglected affairs in order to plunge
into a whirl of dissipation with her foreign favourites. The situation
became impossible, and it was with an intense feeling of relief that the
Swedes saw her depart, in masculine attire, under the name of Count
Dohna. At Innsbruck she openly joined the Catholic Church, and was
rechristened Alexandra. In 1656, and again in 1657, she visited France,
on the second occasion ordering the assassination of her major-domo
Monaldischi, a crime still unexplained. Twice she returned to Sweden
(1660 and 1667) in the vain hope of recovering the succession, finally
settling in Rome, where she died on the 19th of April 1689, poor,
neglected and forgotten.

  See Francis William Bain, _Queen Christina of Sweden_ (London, 1890);
  Robert Nisbet Bain, _Scandinavia_ (Cambridge, 1905); _Christina de
  Suede et le Cardinal Azzolino_ (Paris, 1899); Claretta Gaudenzio, _La
  Regina Christina de Suezia in Italia_ (Turin, 1892); Hans Emil Friis,
  _Dronning Christina_ (Copenhagen, 1896); C.N.D. Bildt, _Christina de
  Suede et le conclave de Clement X_ (Paris, 1906); _Drottning Kristinas
  sista dagar_ (Stockholm, 1897); and J.A. Taylor, _Christina of Sweden_
  (1909).    (R. N. B.)




CHRISTINA [MARIA CHRISTINA HENRIETTA DESIREE FELICITE RENIERE], for some
years queen-regent of Spain (1858-   ), widow of Alphonso XII. and mother
of Alphonso XIII., was born at Gross Seelowitz, in Austria, on the 21st
of July 1858, being the daughter of the archduke Charles Ferdinand and
the archduchess Elizabeth of Austria. She was brought up by her mother
as a rigid Catholic, and great care was taken with her education. At
eighteen she was appointed by the emperor Francis Joseph, abbess of the
House of Noble Ladies of Saint Theresa in Prague, where she made herself
very popular and distinguished herself by her intellectual parts. It is
said that at the court of Vienna the archduchess saw the young prince
Alphonso of Spain when he was only a pretender in exile, before the
restoration of the Bourbons. A few years later, when Alphonso XII. had
lost his first wife and cousin, Queen Mercedes, daughter of the duc de
Montpensier, his ministers, especially Senor Canovas, urged him to marry
again. He told them that if he did so it would only be with the young
Austrian archduchess Maria Christina. After some negotiations between
the two courts and governments it was agreed that the archduchess
Elizabeth and her daughter should meet Alphonso XII. at Arcachon, in the
south of France, where a few days' personal acquaintance was sufficient
to make both come to a decision. The duke of Bailen went officially to
Vienna to get the emperor of Austria's authorization, and on the 14th of
November 1879, in the throne-room of the Imperial palace, the
archduchess solemnly abdicated all her rights of succession in Austria,
in accordance with the law obliging all princesses of the imperial house
to do so when they wed a foreign prince. On the 17th of November the
archduchess and her mother, with a numerous suite, started for Spain,
arriving at the royal castle of El Pardo, near Madrid, on the 24th of
November. The wedding took place in the Atocha cathedral, on the 29th of
November, in great state, and was followed by splendid festivities.
Queen Christina bore her husband two daughters before he died in
1885--Dona Mercedes, born on the 11th of September 1880, and Dona Maria
Theresa, born on the 12th of November 1882. During her husband's
lifetime the young queen kept studiously apart from politics, so much so
that her inexperience caused much anxiety in November 1885, when she was
called upon to take the arduous duties of regent. During the long
minority of the posthumous son of Alphonso XII., afterwards King
Alphonso XIII., the Austrian queen-regent acted in a way that obliged
even the adversaries of the throne and the dynasty to respect the mother
and the woman. The people of Spain, and the ever-restless civil and
military politicians, found that the gloved hand of their constitutional
ruler was that of a strong-minded and tenacious regent, who often
asserted herself in a way that surprised them much, but always, somehow,
enforced obedience and respect. More could not be expected by a foreign
ruler from a nation little prone to waste attachment or demonstrative
loyalty upon anybody not Castilian born and bred.




CHRISTISON, SIR ROBERT, Bart. (1797-1882), Scottish toxicologist and
physician, was born in Edinburgh on the 18th of July 1797. After
graduating at the university of that city in 1819, he spent a short time
in London, studying under John Abernethy and Sir William Lawrence, and
in Paris, where he learnt analytical chemistry from P.J. Robiquet and
toxicology from M.J.B. Orfila. In 1822 he returned to Edinburgh as
professor of medical jurisprudence, and set to work to organize the
study of his subject on a sound basis. On poisons in particular he
speedily became a high authority; his well-known treatise on them was
published in 1829, and in the course of his inquiries he did not
hesitate to try such daring experiments on himself as taking large doses
of Calabar bean. His attainments in medical jurisprudence and toxicology
procured him the appointment, in 1829, of medical officer to the crown
in Scotland, and from that time till 1866 he was called as a witness in
many celebrated criminal cases. In 1832 he gave up the chair of medical
jurisprudence and accepted that of medicine and therapeutics, which he
held till 1877; at the same time he became professor of clinical
medicine, and continued in that capacity till 1855. His fame as a
toxicologist and medical jurist, together with his work on the pathology
of the kidneys and on fevers, secured him a large private practice, and
he succeeded to a fair share of the honours that commonly attend the
successful physician, being appointed physician to Queen Victoria in
1848 and receiving a baronetcy in 1871. Among the books which he
published were a treatise on _Granular Degeneration of the Kidneys_
(1839), and a _Commentary on the Pharmacopoeias of Great Britain_
(1842). Sir Robert Christison, who retained remarkable physical vigour
and activity down to extreme old age, died at Edinburgh on the 23rd of
January 1882.

  See the _Life_ by his sons (1885-1886).




CHRISTMAS (i.e. the Mass of Christ), in the Christian Church, the
festival of the nativity of Jesus Christ. The history of this feast
coheres so closely with that of Epiphany (q.v.), that what follows must
be read in connexion with the article under that heading.

The earliest body of gospel tradition, represented by Mark no less than
by the primitive non-Marcan document embodied in the first and third
gospels, begins, not with the birth and childhood of Jesus, but with his
baptism; and this order of accretion of gospel matter is faithfully
reflected in the time order of the invention of feasts. The great church
adopted Christmas much later than Epiphany; and before the 5th century
there was no general consensus of opinion as to when it should come in
the calendar, whether on the 6th of January, or the 25th of March, or
the 25th of December.

The earliest identification of the 25th of December with the birthday of
Christ is in a passage, otherwise unknown and probably spurious, of
Theophilus of Antioch (A.D. 171-183), preserved in Latin by the
Magdeburg centuriators (i. 3, 118), to the effect that the Gauls
contended that as they celebrated the birth of the Lord on the 25th of
December, whatever day of the week it might be, so they ought to
celebrate the Pascha on the 25th of March when the resurrection befell.

The next mention of the 25th of December is in Hippolytus' (c. 202)
commentary on Daniel iv. 23. Jesus, he says, was born at Bethlehem on
the 25th of December, a Wednesday, in the forty-second year of Augustus.
This passage also is almost certainly interpolated. In any case he
mentions no feast, nor was such a feast congruous with the orthodox
ideas of that age. As late as 245 Origen, in his eighth homily on
Leviticus, repudiates as sinful the very idea of keeping the birthday of
Christ "as if he were a king Pharaoh." The first certain mention of Dec.
25 is in a Latin chronographer of A.D. 354, first published entire by
Mommsen.[1] It runs thus in English: "Year 1 after Christ, in the
consulate of Caesar and Paulus, the Lord Jesus Christ was born on the
25th of December, a Friday and 15th day of the new moon." Here again no
festal celebration of the day is attested.

There were, however, many speculations in the 2nd century about the date
of Christ's birth. Clement of Alexandria, towards its close, mentions
several such, and condemns them as superstitions. Some chronologists, he
says, alleged the birth to have occurred in the twenty-eighth year of
Augustus, on the 25th of Pachon, the Egyptian month, i.e. the 20th of
May. These were probably the Basilidian gnostics. Others set it on the
24th or 25th of Pharmuthi, i.e. the 19th or 20th of April. Clement
himself sets it on the 17th of November, 3 B.C. The author of a Latin
tract, called the _De Pascha computus_, written in Africa in 243, sets
it by private revelation, _ab ipso deo inspirati_, on the 28th of March.
He argues that the world was created perfect, flowers in bloom, and
trees in leaf, therefore in spring; also at the equinox, and when the
moon just created was full. Now the moon and sun were created on a
Wednesday. The 28th of March suits all these considerations. Christ,
therefore, being the Sun of Righteousness, was born on the 28th of
March. The same symbolical reasoning led Polycarp[2] (before 160) to set
his birth on Sunday, when the world's creation began, but his baptism on
Wednesday, for it was the analogue of the sun's creation. On such
grounds certain Latins as early as 354 may have transferred the human
birthday from the 6th of January to the 25th of December, which was then
a Mithraic feast and is by the chronographer above referred to, but in
another part of his compilation, termed _Natalis invicti solis_, or
birthday of the unconquered Sun. Cyprian (_de orat. dom. 35_) calls
Christ _Sol verus_, Ambrose _Sol novus noster_ (Sermo vii. 13), and such
rhetoric was widespread. The Syrians and Armenians, who clung to the 6th
of January, accused the Romans of sun-worship and idolatry, contending
with great probability that the feast of the 25th of December had been
invented by disciples of Cerinthus and its lections by Artemon to
commemorate the _natural_ birth of Jesus. Chrysostom also testifies the
25th of December to have been from the beginning known in the West, from
Thrace even as far as Gades. Ambrose, _On Virgins_, in. ch. 1, writing
to his sister, implies that as late as the papacy of Liberius 352-356,
the Birth from the Virgin was feasted together with the Marriage of Cana
and the Banquet of the 4000 (Luke ix. 13), which were never feasted on
any other day but Jan. 6.

Chrysostom, in a sermon preached at Antioch on Dec. 20, 386 or 388, says
that some held the feast of Dec. 25 to have been held in the West, from
Thrace as far as Cadiz, from the beginning. It certainly originated in
the West, but spread quickly eastwards. In 353-361 it was observed at
the court of Constantius. Basil of Caesarea (died 379) adopted it.
Honorius, emperor (395-423) in the West, informed his mother and brother
Arcadius (395-408) in Byzantium of how the new feast was kept in Rome,
separate from the 6th of January, with its own _troparia_ and
_sticharia_. They adopted it, and recommended it to Chrysostom, who had
long been in favour of it. Epiphanius of Crete was won over to it, as
were also the other three patriarchs, Theophilus of Alexandria, John of
Jerusalem, Flavian of Antioch. This was under Pope Anastasius, 398-400.
John or Wahan of Nice, in a letter printed by Combefis in his _Historia
monothelitarum_, affords the above details. The new feast was
communicated by Proclus, patriarch of Constantinople (434-446), to
Sahak, Catholicos of Armenia, about 440. The letter was betrayed to the
Persian king, who accused Sahak of Greek intrigues, and deposed him.
However, the Armenians, at least those within the Byzantine pale,
adopted it for about thirty years, but finally abandoned it together
with the decrees of Chalcedon early in the 8th century. Many writers of
the period 375-450, e.g. Epiphanius, Cassian, Asterius, Basil,
Chrysostom and Jerome, contrast the new feast with that of the Baptism
as that of the birth _after the flesh_, from which we infer that the
latter was generally regarded as a birth according to the Spirit.
Instructive as showing that the new feast travelled from West eastwards
is the fact (noticed by Usener) that in 387 the new feast was reckoned
according to the Julian calendar by writers of the province of Asia, who
in referring to other feasts use the reckoning of their local calendars.
As early as 400 in Rome an imperial rescript includes Christmas among
the three feasts (the others are Easter and Epiphany) on which theatres
must be closed. Epiphany and Christmas were not made judicial _non dies_
until 534.

For some years in the West (as late as 353 in Rome) the birth feast was
appended to the baptismal feast on the 6th of January, and in Jerusalem
it altogether supplanted it from about 360 to 440, when Bishop Juvenal
introduced the feast of the 25th of December. The new feast was about
the same time (440) finally established in Alexandria. The
_quadragesima_ of Epiphany (i.e. the feast of the presentation in the
Temple, or _hupapant[=e]_) continued to be celebrated in Jerusalem on
the 14th of February, forty days after the 6th of January, until the
reign of Justinian. In most other places it had long before been put
back to the 2nd of February to suit the new Christmas. Armenian
historians describe the riots, and display of armed force, without which
Justinian was not able in Jerusalem to transfer this feast from the 14th
to the 2nd of February.

The grounds on which the Church introduced so late as 350-440 a
Christmas feast till then unknown, or, if known, precariously linked
with the baptism, seem in the main to have been the following. (1) The
transition from adult to infant baptism was proceeding rapidly in the
East, and in the West was well-nigh completed. Its natural complement
was a festal recognition of the fact that the divine element was present
in Christ from the first, and was no new stage of spiritual promotion
coeval only with the descent of the Spirit upon him at baptism. The
general adoption of child baptism helped to extinguish the old view that
the divine life in Jesus dated from his baptism, a view which led the
Epiphany feast to be regarded as that of Jesus' spiritual rebirth. This
aspect of the feast was therefore forgotten, and its importance in every
way diminished by the new and rival feast of Christmas. (2) The 4th
century witnessed a rapid diffusion of Marcionite, or, as it was now
called, Manichaean propaganda, the chief tenet of which was that Jesus
either was not born at all, was a mere phantasm, or anyhow did not take
flesh of the Virgin Mary. Against this view the new Christmas was a
protest, since it was peculiarly the feast of his birth in the flesh, or
as a man, and is constantly spoken of as such by the fathers who
witnessed its institution.

In Britain the 25th of December was a festival long before the
conversion to Christianity, for Bede (_De temp. rat._ ch. 13) relates
that "the ancient peoples of the Angli began the year on the 25th of
December when we now celebrate the birthday of the Lord; and the very
night which is now so holy to us, they called in their tongue
_modranecht_ (_modra niht_), that is, the mothers' night, by reason we
suspect of the ceremonies which in that night-long vigil they
performed." With his usual reticence about matters pagan or not
orthodox, Bede abstains from recording who the mothers were and what the
ceremonies. In 1644 the English puritans forbad any merriment or
religious services by act of Parliament, on the ground that it was a
heathen festival, and ordered it to be kept as a fast. Charles II.
revived the feast, but the Scots adhered to the Puritan view.

Outside Teutonic countries Christmas presents are unknown. Their place
is taken in Latin countries by the _strenae_, French _etrennes_, given
on the 1st of January; this was in antiquity a great holiday, wherefore
until late in the 4th century the Christians kept it as a day of fasting
and gloom. The setting up in Latin churches of a Christmas _creche_ is
said to have been originated by St Francis.

  AUTHORITIES.--K.A.H. Kellner, _Heortologie_ (Freiburg im Br., 1906),
  with Bibliography; Hospinianus, _De festis Christianorum_ (Genevae,
  1574); Edw. Martene, _De Antiquis Ecclesiae Ritibus_, iii. 31
  (Bassani, 1788); J.C.W. Augusti, _Christl. Archaeologie_, vols. i. and
  v. (Leipzig, 1817-1831); A.J. Binterim, _Denkwuerdigkeiten_, v. pt. i.
  p. 528 (Mainz, 1825, &c.); Ernst Friedrich Wernsdorf, _De originibus
  Solemnium Natalis Christi_ (Wittenberg, 1757, and in J.E. Volbeding,
  _Thesaurus Commentationum_, Lipsiae, 1847); Anton. Bynaeus, _De Natali
  Jesu Christi_ (Amsterdam, 1689); Hermann Usener,
  _Religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen_ (Bonn, 1889); Nik. Nilles,
  S.J., _Kalendarium Manuale_ (Innsbruck, 1896); L. Duchesne, _Origines
  du culte chretien_ (3e ed., Paris, 1889).    (F. C. C.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] In the _Abhandlungen der saechsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften_
    (1850). Note that in A.D. 1, Dec. 25 was a Sunday and not a Friday.

  [2] In a fragment preserved by an Armenian writer, Ananias of Shirak.




CHRISTMAS ISLAND, a British possession under the government of the
Straits Settlements, situated in the eastern part of the Indian Ocean
(in 10 deg. 25' S., 105 deg. 42' E.), about 190 m. S. of Java. The island
is a quadrilateral with hollowed sides, about 12 m. in greatest length and
9 in extreme breadth. It is probably the only tropical island that had
never been inhabited by man before the European settlement. When the
first settlers arrived, in 1897, it was covered with a dense forest of
great trees and luxuriant under-shrubbery. The settlement in Flying Fish
Cove now numbers some 250 inhabitants, consisting of Europeans, Sikhs,
Malays and Chinese, by whom roads have been cut and patches of cleared
ground cultivated.

The island is the flat summit of a submarine mountain more than 15,000
ft. high, the depth of the platform from which it rises being about
14,000 ft., and its height above the sea being upwards of 1000 ft. The
submarine slopes are steep, and within 20 m. of the shore the depth of
the sea reaches 2400 fathoms. It consists of a central plateau
descending to the water in three terraces, each with its "tread" and
"rise." The shore terrace descends by a steep cliff to the sea, forming
the "rise" of a submarine "tread" in the form of fringing reef which
surrounds the island and is never uncovered, even at low water, except
in Flying Fish Cove, where the only landing-place exists. The central
plateau is a plain whose surface presents "rounded, flat-topped hills
and low ridges and reefs of limestone," with narrow intervening valleys.
On its northern aspect this plateau has a raised rim having all the
appearances of being once the margin of an atoll. On these rounded hills
occurs the deposit of phosphate of lime which gives the island its
commercial value. The phosphatic deposit has doubtless been produced by
the long-continued action of a thick bed of sea-fowl dung, which
converted the carbonate of the underlying limestone into phosphate. The
flat summit is formed by a succession of limestones--all deposited in
shallow water--from the Eocene (or Oligocene) up to recent deposits in
the above-mentioned atoll with islands on its reef. The geological
sequence of events appears to have been the following:--After the
deposition of the Eocene (or Oligocene) limestone--which reposes upon a
floor of basalts and trachytes--basalts and basic tuffs were ejected,
over which, during a period of very slow depression, orbitoidal
limestones of Miocene age--which seem to make up the great mass of the
island--were deposited; then elapsed a long period of rest, during which
the atoll condition existed and the guano deposit was formed; from then
down to the present time there has succeeded a series of sea-level
subsidences, resulting in the formation of the terraces and the
accummulation of the detritus now seen on the first inland cliff, the
old submarine slope of the island. The occurrence of such a series of
Tertiary deposits appears to be unknown elsewhere. The whole series was
evidently deposited in shallow water on the summit of a submarine
volcano standing in its present isolation, and round which the ocean
floor has probably altered but a few hundred feet since the Eocene age.
Thus although the rocks of the southern coast of Java in their general
character and succession resemble those of Christmas Island, there lies
between them an abysmal trough 18,000 ft. in depth, which renders it
scarcely possible that they were deposited in a continuous area, for
such an enormous depression of the sea-floor could hardly have occurred
since Miocene times without involving also Christmas Island. One of the
main purposes of the exploration was to obtain light on the question of
the foundation of atolls.

The flora consists of 129 species of angiosperms, 1 _Cycas_, 22 ferns,
and a few mosses, lichens and fungi, 17 of which are endemic, while a
considerable number--not specifically distinct--form local varieties
nearly all presenting Indo-Malayan affinities, as do the single _Cycas_,
the ferns and the cryptogams. As to its fauna, the island contains 319
species of animals--54 only being vertebrates--145 of which are endemic.
A very remarkable distributional fact in regard to them, and one not yet
fully explained, is that a large number show affinity with species in
the Austro-Malayan rather than in the Indo-Malayan, their nearer,
region. The ocean currents, the trade-winds blowing from the Australian
mainland, and north-westerly storms from the Malayan islands, are no
doubt responsible for the introduction of many, but not all, of these
Malayan and Australasian species. The climate is healthy, the
temperature varying from 75 deg. to 84 deg. F. The prevailing wind is the
S.E. trade, which blows the greater part of the year. The rainfall in the
wet season is heavy, but not excessive, and during the dry season the
ground is refreshed with occasional showers and heavy dews. Malarial
fever is not prevalent, and it is interesting to note that there are no
swamps or standing waters on the island.

It is not known when and by whom the island was discovered, but under
the name of _Moni_ it appears on a Dutch chart of 1666. It was first
visited in 1688 by Dampier, who found it uninhabited. In 1886 Captain
Maclear of H.M.S. "Flying Fish," having discovered an anchorage in a bay
which he named Flying Fish Cove, landed a party and made a small but
interesting collection of the flora and fauna. In the following year
Captain Aldrich on H.M.S. "Egeria" visited it, accompanied by Mr J.J.
Lister, F.R.S., who formed a larger biological and mineralogical
collection. Among the rocks then obtained and submitted to Sir John
Murray for examination there were detected specimens of nearly pure
phosphate of lime, a discovery which eventually led, in June 1888, to
the annexation of the island to the British crown. Soon afterwards a
small settlement was established in Flying Fish Cove by Mr G. Clunies
Ross, the owner of the Keeling Islands, which lie about 750 m. to the
westward. In 1891 Mr Ross and Sir John Murray were granted a lease, but
on the further discovery of phosphatic deposits they disposed of their
rights in 1897 to a company. In the same year a thorough scientific
exploration was made, at the cost of Sir John Murray, by Mr C.W.
Andrews, of the British Museum.

  See C.W. Andrews, _A Monograph of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean)_,
  (London, 1900).




CHRISTODORUS, of Coptos in Egypt, epic poet, flourished during the reign
of Anastasius I. (A.D. 491-518). According to Suidas, he was the author
of [Greek: Patria], accounts of the foundation of various cities;
[Greek: Audiaka], the mythical history of Lydia; [Greek: Isaurika], the
conquest of Isauria by Anastasius; three books of epigrams; and many
other works. In addition to two epigrams (_Anthol. Pal._ vii. 697, 698)
we possess a description of eighty statues of gods, heroes and famous
men and women in the gymnasium of Zeuxippus at Constantinople. This
[Greek: ekphrasis], consisting of 416 hexameters, forms the second book
of the Palatine Anthology. The writer's chief models are Homer and
Nonnus, whom he follows closely in the structure of his hexameters.
Opinions are divided as to the merits of the work. Some critics regard
it as of great importance for the history of art and a model of
description; others consider it valueless, alike from the historical,
mythological and archaeological points of view.

  See F. Baumgarten, _De Christodoro poeta Thebano_ (1881), and his
  article in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopaedie_, iii. 2 (1899); W.
  Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur_ (1898).




CHRISTOPHER, SAINT (_Christophorus, Christoferus_), a saint honoured in
the Roman Catholic (25th of July) and Orthodox Eastern (9th of May)
Churches, the patron of ferrymen. Nothing that is authentic is known
about him. He appears to have been originally a pagan and to have been
born in Syria. He was baptized by Babylas, bishop of Antioch; preached
with much success in Lycia; and was martyred about A.D. 250 during the
persecution under the emperor Decius.[1] Round this small nucleus of
possibility, however, a vast mass of legendary matter gradually
collected. All accounts agree that he was of great stature and
singularly handsome, and that this helped him not a little in his
evangelistic work. But according to a story reproduced in the _New Uniat
Anthology_ of Arcudius, and mentioned in Basil's _Monologue_,
Christopher was originally a hideous man-eating ogre, with a dog's face,
and only received his human semblance, with his Christian name, at
baptism. Most of his astounding miracles are of the ordinary type. He
thrusts his staff into the ground; whereupon it sprouts into a date
palm, and thousands are converted. Courtesans sent to seduce him are
turned by his mere aspect into Christians and martyrs. The Roman
governor is confounded by his insensibility to the most refined and
ingenious tortures. He is roasted over a slow fire and basted with
boiling oil, but tells his tormentors that by the grace of Jesus Christ
he feels nothing. When at last, in despair, they cut off his head, he
had converted 48,000 people.

The more conspicuous of these legends are included in the Mozarabic
_Breviary_ and _Missal_, and are given in the thirty-third sermon of
Peter Damien, but the best-known story is that which is given in the
_Golden Legend_ of Jacopus de Voragine. According to this,
Christopher--or rather Reprobus, as he was then called--was a giant of
vast stature who was in search of a man stronger than himself, whom he
might serve. He left the service of the king of Canaan because the king
feared the devil, and that of the devil because the devil feared the
Cross. He was converted by a hermit; but as he had neither the gift of
fasting nor that of prayer, he decided to devote himself to a work of
charity, and set himself to carry wayfarers over a bridgeless river. One
day a little child asked to be taken across, and Christopher took him on
his shoulder. When half way over the stream he staggered under what
seemed to him a crushing weight, but he reached the other side and then
upbraided the child for placing him in peril. "Had I borne the whole
world on my back," he said, "it could not have weighed heavier than
thou!" "Marvel not!" the child replied, "for thou hast borne upon thy
back the world and him who created it!" It was this story that gave
Christopher his immense popularity throughout Western Christendom.

  See Bolland, _Acta Sanct._ vi. 146; Guenebault, _Dict. iconographique
  des attributs des figures et des legendes des saints_ (Par., 1850);
  Smith and Wace, _Dict. of Christ. Biog._ (London, 1877, &c., 4 vols.);
  A. Sinemus, _Die Legende vom h. Christophorus_ (Hanover, 1868); and
  other literature cited in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk._ iv. 60.


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Or Dagnus--perhaps to be identified with Maximinus Daza, joint
    emperor (with Galerius) in the East 305-311, and sole emperor
    311-313.




CHRISTOPHORUS, pope or anti-pope, elected in 903 against Leo V., whom he
threw into prison. In January 904 he was treated in the same fashion by
his competitor, Sergius III., who had him strangled.




CHRISTOPOULOS, ATHANASIOS (1772-1847), Greek poet, was born at Castoria
in Macedonia. He studied at Buda and Padua, and became teacher of the
children of the Vlach prince Mourousi. After the fall of that prince in
1811, Christopoulos was employed by Prince Caradja, who had been
appointed hospodar of Moldavia and Walachia, in drawing up a code of
laws for that country. On the removal of Caradja, he retired into
private life and devoted himself to literature. He wrote drinking songs
and love ditties which are very popular among the Greeks. He is also the
author of a tragedy, of _Politika Parallela_ (a comparison of various
systems of government), of translations of Homer and Herodotus, and of
some philological works on the connexion between ancient and modern
Greek.

  His _Hellenika Archaiologemata_ (Athens, 1853) contains an account of
  his life.




CHRIST'S HOSPITAL (the "Blue-coat School"), a famous English educational
and charitable foundation. It was originally one of three royal
hospitals in the city of London, founded by Edward VI., who is said to
have been inspired by a sermon of Bishop Ridley on charity. Christ's
hospital was specially devoted to fatherless and motherless children.
The buildings of the monastery of Grey Friars, Newgate Street, were
appropriated to it; liberal public subscription added to the king's
grant endowed it richly; and the mayor, commonalty and citizens of
London were nominated its governors in its charter of 1553. At first
Christ's hospital shared a common fund with the two other hospitals of
the foundation (Bridewell and St Thomas's), but the three soon became
independent. Not long after its opening Christ's was providing home and
education (or, in the case of the very young, nursing) for 400 children.
The popular name of the Blue-coat school is derived from the dress of
the boys--originally (almost from the time of the foundation) a blue
gown, with knee-breeches, yellow petticoat and stockings, neck-bands and
a blue cap. The petticoat and cap were given up in the middle of the
19th century, and thereafter no head-covering was worn. The buildings on
the Newgate Street site underwent reconstruction from time to time, and
in 1902 were vacated by the school, which was moved to extensive new
buildings at Horsham. The London buildings were subsequently taken down.
The school at Horsham is conducted on the ordinary lines of a public
school, and can accommodate over 800 boys. It includes a preparatory
school for boys, established in 1683 at Hertford, where the buildings
have been greatly enlarged for the use of the girls' school on the same
foundation. This was originally in Newgate Street, but was moved to
Hertford in 1778. In the boys' school the two highest classes retain
their ancient names of Grecians and Deputy Grecians. Children were
formerly admitted to the schools only on presentation. Admission is now
(1) by presentation of donation governors (i.e. the royal family, and
contributors of L500 or more to the funds), of the council of almoners
(which administers the endowments), or of certain of the city companies;
(2) by competition, on the nomination of a donation governor (for boys
only), or from public elementary schools in London, certain city
parishes and certain endowed schools elsewhere. The main school is
divided into two parts--the Latin school, corresponding to the classical
side in other schools, and the mathematical school or modern side. Large
pension charities are administered by the governing body, and part of
the income of the hospital (about L60,000 annually) is devoted to
apprenticing boys and girls, to leaving exhibitions from the school, &c.




CHRISTY, HENRY (1810-1865), English ethnologist, was born at
Kingston-on-Thames on the 26th of July 1810. He entered his father's
firm of hatters, in London, and later became a director of the London
Joint-Stock Bank. In 1850 he started on a series of journeys, which
interested him in ethnological studies. Encouraged by what he saw at the
Great Exhibition of 1851, Christy devoted the rest of his life to
perpetual travel and research, making extensive collections illustrating
the early history of man, now in the British Museum. He travelled in
Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Mexico, British Columbia and other countries;
but in 1858 came the opportunity which brought him fame. It was in that
year that the discoveries by Boucher de Perthes of flint-implements in
France and England were first held to have clearly proved the great
antiquity of man. Christy joined the Geological Society, and in company
with his friend Edouard Lartet explored the caves in the valley of the
Vezere, a tributary of the Dordogne in the south of France. To his task
Christy devoted money and time ungrudgingly, and an account of the
explorations appeared in _Comptes rendus_ (Feb. 29th, 1864) and
_Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London_ (June 21st, 1864).
He died, however, on the 4th of May 1865, of inflammation of the lungs
supervening on a severe cold contracted during excavation work at La
Palisse, leaving a half-finished book, entitled _Reliquiae Aquitanicae,
being contributions to the Archaeology and Palaeontology of Perigord and
the adjacent provinces of Southern France_; this was issued in parts and
completed at the expense of Christy's executors, first by Lartet and,
after his death in 1870, by Professor Rupert Jones. By his will Christy
bequeathed his magnificent archaeological collection to the nation. In
1884 it found a home in the British Museum. Christy took an earnest part
in many philanthropic movements of his time, especially identifying
himself with the efforts to relieve the sufferers from the Irish famine
of 1847.




CHROMATIC (Gr. [Greek: chromatikos], coloured, from [Greek: chroma],
colour), a term meaning "coloured," chiefly used in science,
particularly in the expression "chromatic aberration" or "dispersion"
(see ABERRATION). In Greek music [Greek: chromatike mousike] was one of
three divisions--diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic--of the tetrachord.
Like the Latin _color_, [Greek: chroma] was often used of ornaments and
embellishments, and particularly of the modification of the three
_genera_ of the tetrachord. The chromatic, being subject to three such
modifications, was regarded as particularly "coloured." To the Greeks
chromatic music was sweet and plaintive. From a supposed resemblance to
the notes of the chromatic tetrachord, the term is applied to a
succession of notes outside the diatonic scale, and marked by
accidentals. A "chromatic scale" is thus a series of semi-tones, and is
commonly written with sharps in ascending and flats descending. The most
correct method is to write such accidentals as do not involve a change
of key.




CHROMITE, a member of the spinel group of minerals; an oxide of chromium
and ferrous iron, FeCr2O4. It is also known as chromic iron or as
chrome-iron-ore, and is the chief commercial source of chromium and its
compounds. It crystallizes in regular octahedra, but is usually found as
grains or as granular to compact masses. In its iron-black colour with
submetallic lustre and absence of cleavage it resembles magnetite
(magnetic iron-ore) in appearance, but differs from this in being only
slightly if at all magnetic and in the brown colour of its powder. The
hardness is 51/2; specific gravity 4.5. The theoretical formula FeCr2O4
corresponds with chromic oxide (Cr2O3) 68%, and ferrous oxide 32%; the
ferrous oxide is, however, usually partly replaced by magnesia, and the
chromic oxide by alumina and ferric oxide, so that there may be a
gradual passage to picotite or chromespinel. Much of the material mined
as ore does not contain more than 40 to 50% of chromic oxide. In the
form of isolated grains the mineral is a characteristic constituent of
ultrabasic igneous rocks, namely the peridotites and the serpentines
which have resulted from their alteration. It is also found under
similar conditions in meteoric stones and irons. Often these rocks
enclose large segregated masses of granular chromite. The earliest
worked deposits were those in the serpentine of the Bare Hills near
Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A.; it was also formerly extensively mined in
Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, and is now mined in California, as well
as in Turkey, the Urals, Dun Mountain near Nelson in New Zealand, and
Unst in the Shetlands.

Chrome-iron-ore is largely used in the preparation of chromium compounds
for use as pigments (chrome-yellow, &c.) and in calico-printing; it is
also used in the manufacture of chrome-steel.    (L. J. S.)




CHROMIUM (symbol Cr. atomic weight 52.1), one of the metallic chemical
elements, the name being derived from the fine colour (Gr. [Greek:
chroma]) of its compounds. It is a member of the sixth group in the
periodic classification of the elements, being included in the natural
family of elements containing molybdenum, tungsten and uranium. The
element is not found in the free state in nature, nor to any large
extent in combination, occurring chiefly as chrome-ironstone, Cr2O3.FeO,
and occasionally being found as crocoisite, PbCrO4, chrome-ochre, Cr2O3,
and chrome-garnet, CaO.Cr2O3.3SiO2, while it is also the cause of the
colour in serpentine, chrome-mica and the emerald. It was first
investigated in 1789 by L.N. Vauquelin and Macquart, and in 1797 by
Vauquelin, who found that the lead in crocoisite was in combination with
an acid, which he recognized as the oxide of a new metal.

The metal can be obtained by various processes. Thus Sainte Claire
Deville prepared it as a very hard substance of steel-grey colour,
capable of taking a high polish, by strong ignition of chromic oxide and
sugar charcoal in a lime crucible. F. Woehler reduced the sesquioxide by
zinc, and obtained a shining green powder of specific gravity 6.81,
which tarnished in air and dissolved in hydrochloric acid and warm
dilute sulphuric acid, but was unacted upon by concentrated nitric acid.
H. Moissan (_Comptes rendus_, 1893, 116, p. 349; 1894, 119, p. 185)
reduces the sesquioxide with carbon, in an electric furnace; the product
so obtained (which contains carbon) is then strongly heated with lime,
whereby most of the carbon is removed as calcium carbide, and the
remainder by heating the purified product in a crucible lined with the
double oxide of calcium and chromium. An easier process is that of H.
Goldschmidt (_Annalen_, 1898, 301, p. 19) in which the oxide is reduced
by metallic aluminium; and if care is taken to have excess of the
sesquioxide of chromium present, the metal is obtained quite free from
aluminium. The metal as obtained in this process is lustrous and takes a
polish, does not melt in the oxyhydrogen flame, but liquefies in the
electric arc, and is not affected by air at ordinary temperatures.
Chromium as prepared by the Goldschmidt process is in a passive
condition as regards dilute sulphuric acid and dilute hydrochloric acid
at ordinary temperatures; but by heating the metal with the acid it
passes into the active condition, the same effect being produced by
heating the inactive form with a solution of an alkaline halide. W.
Hittorf thinks that two allotropic forms of chromium exist (_Zeit. fuer
phys. Chem._, 1898, 25, p. 729; 1899, 30, p. 481; 1900, 34, p. 385),
namely active and inactive chromium; while W. Ostwald (ibid., 1900, 35,
pp. 33, 204) has observed that on dissolving chromium in dilute acids,
the rate of solution as measured by the evolution of gas is not
continuous but periodic. It is largely made as ferro-chrome, an alloy
containing about 60-70% of chromium, by reducing chromite in the
electric furnace or by aluminium.

Chromium and its salts may be detected by the fact that they give a deep
green bead when heated with borax, or that on fusion with sodium
carbonate and nitre, a yellow mass of an alkaline chromate is obtained,
which, on solution in water and acidification with acetic acid, gives a
bright yellow precipitate on the addition of soluble lead salts. Sodium
and potassium hydroxide solutions precipitate green chromium hydroxide
from solutions of chromic salts; the precipitate is soluble in excess of
the cold alkali, but is completely thrown down on boiling the solution.
Chromic acid and its salts, the chromates and bichromates, can be
detected by the violet coloration which they give on addition of
hydrogen peroxide to their dilute acid solution, or by the fact that on
distillation with concentrated sulphuric acid and an alkaline chloride,
the red vapours of chromium oxychloride are produced. The yellow colour
of normal chromates changes to red on the addition of an acid, but goes
back again to yellow on making the solution alkaline. Normal chromates
on the addition of silver nitrate give a red precipitate of silver
chromate, easily soluble in ammonia, and with barium chloride a yellow
precipitate of barium chromate, insoluble in acetic acid. Reducing
agents, such as sulphurous acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, convert the
chromates into chromic salts. Chromium in the form of its salts may be
estimated quantitatively by precipitation from boiling solutions with a
slight excess of ammonia, and boiling until the free ammonia is nearly
all expelled. The precipitate obtained is filtered, well washed with hot
water, dried and then ignited until the weight is constant. In the form
of a chromate, it may be determined by precipitation, in acetic acid
solution, with lead acetate; the lead chromate precipitate collected on
a tared filter paper, well washed, dried at 100 deg. C. and weighed; or
the chromate may be reduced by means of sulphur dioxide to the condition
of a chromic salt, the excess of sulphur dioxide expelled by boiling, and
the estimation carried out as above.

The atomic weight of chromium has been determined by S.G. Rawson, by the
conversion of pure ammonium bichromate into the trioxide (_Journal of
Chem. Soc._, 1899, 55, p. 213), the mean value obtained being 52.06; and
also by C. Meinecke, who estimated the amount of silver, chromium and
oxygen in silver chromate, the amount of oxygen in potassium bichromate,
and the amount of oxygen and chromium in ammonium bichromate (_Ann._,
1891, 261, p. 339), the mean value obtained being 51.99.

  Chromium forms three series of compounds, namely the chromous salts
  corresponding to CrO, chromous oxide, chromic salts, corresponding to
  Cr2O3, chromium sesquioxide, and the chromates corresponding to CrO3,
  chromium trioxide or chromic anhydride. Chromium sesquioxide is a
  basic oxide, although like alumina it acts as an acid-forming oxide
  towards strong bases, forming salts called chromites. Various other
  oxides of chromium, intermediate in composition between the
  sesquioxide and trioxide, have been described, namely chromium
  dioxide, Cr2O3.CrO3, and the oxide CrO3.2Cr2O3.

  Chromous oxide, CrO, is unknown in the free state, but in the hydrated
  condition as CrO.H2O or Cr(OH)2 it may be prepared by precipitating
  chromous chloride by a solution of potassium hydroxide in air-free
  water. The precipitate so obtained is a brown amorphous solid which
  readily oxidizes on exposure, and is decomposed by heat with
  liberation of hydrogen and formation of the sesquioxide. The
  sesquioxide, Cr2O3, occurs native, and can be artificially obtained in
  several different ways, e.g., by igniting the corresponding hydroxide,
  or chromium trioxide, or ammonium bichromate, or by passing the
  vapours of chromium oxychloride through a red-hot tube, or by ignition
  of mercurous chromate. In the amorphous state it is a dull green,
  almost infusible powder, but as obtained from chromium oxychloride it
  is deposited in the form of dark green hexagonal crystals of specific
  gravity 5.2. After ignition it becomes almost insoluble in acids, and
  on fusion with silicates it colours them green; consequently it is
  used as a pigment for colouring glass and china. By the fusion of
  potassium bichromate with boric acid, and extraction of the melt with
  water, a residue is left which possesses a fine green colour, and is
  used as a pigment under the name of Guignet's green. In composition it
  approximates to Cr2O3.H2O, but it always contains more or less boron
  trioxide. Several forms of hydrated chromium sesquioxide are known;
  thus on precipitation of a chromic salt, free from alkali, by ammonia,
  a light blue precipitate is formed, which after drying over sulphuric
  acid, has the composition Cr2O3.7H2O, and this after being heated to
  200 deg. C. in a current of hydrogen leaves a residue of composition
  CrO.OH or Cr2O3.H2O which occurs naturally as chrome ochre. Other
  hydrated oxides such as Cr2O3.2H2O have also been described. Chromium
  trioxide, CrO3, is obtained by adding concentrated sulphuric acid to a
  cold saturated solution of potassium bichromate, when it separates in
  long red needles; the mother liquor is drained off and the crystals
  are washed with concentrated nitric acid, the excess of which is
  removed by means of a current of dry air. It is readily soluble in
  water, melts at 193 deg. C., and is decomposed at a higher temperature
  into chromium sesquioxide and oxygen; it is a very powerful oxidizing
  agent, acting violently on alcohol, converting it into acetaldehyde,
  and in glacial acetic acid solution converting naphthalene and
  anthracene into the corresponding quinones. Heated with concentrated
  hydrochloric acid it liberates chlorine, and with sulphuric acid it
  liberates oxygen. Gaseous ammonia passed over the oxide reduces it to
  the sesquioxide with formation of nitrogen and water. Dissolved in
  hydrochloric acid at -20 deg., it yields with solutions of the alkaline
  chlorides compounds of the type MCl.CrOCl3, pointing to pentavalent
  chromium. For salts of this acid-forming oxide and for perchromic acid
  see BICHROMATES.

  The chromites may be looked upon as salts of chromium sesquioxide with
  other basic oxides, the most important being chromite (q.v.).

  Chromous chloride, CrCl2, is prepared by reducing chromic chloride in
  hydrogen; it forms white silky needles, which dissolve in water giving
  a deep blue solution, which rapidly absorbs oxygen, forming basic
  chromic salts, and acts as a very strong reducing agent. The bromide
  and iodide are formed in a similar manner by heating the metal in
  gaseous hydrobromic or hydriodic acids.

  Chromous sulphate, CrSO4.7H2O, isomorphous with ferrous sulphate,
  results on dissolving the metal in dilute sulphuric acid or, better,
  by dissolving chromous acetate in dilute sulphuric acid, when it
  separates in blue crystals on cooling the solution. On pouring a
  solution of chromous chloride into a saturated solution of sodium
  acetate, a red crystalline precipitate of chromous acetate is
  produced; this is much more permanent in air than the other chromous
  salts and consequently can be used for their preparation. Chromic
  salts are of a blue or violet colour, and apparently the chloride and
  bromide exist in a green and violet form.

  Chromic chloride, CrCl3, is obtained in the anhydrous form by igniting
  a mixture of the sesquioxide and carbon in a current of dry chlorine;
  it forms violet laminae almost insoluble in water, but dissolves
  rapidly in presence of a trace of chromous chloride; this action has
  been regarded as a catalytic action, it being assumed that the
  insoluble chromic chloride is first reduced by the chromous chloride
  to the chromous condition and the original chromous chloride converted
  into soluble chromic chloride, the newly formed chromous chloride then
  reacting with the insoluble chromic chloride. Solutions of chromic
  chloride in presence of excess of acid are green in colour. According
  to A. Werner, four hydrated chromium chlorides exist, namely the green
  and violet salts, CrCl3.6H2O, a hydrate, CrCl3.10H2O and one
  CrCl3.4H2O. The violet form gives a purple solution, and all its
  chlorine is precipitated by silver nitrate, the aqueous solution
  containing four ions, probably Cr(OH2)6 and three chlorine ions. The
  green salt appears to dissociate in aqueous solution into two ions,
  namely CrCl2(OH2)4 and one chlorine ion, since practically only
  one-third of the chlorine is precipitated by silver nitrate solution
  at 0 deg. C. Two of the six water molecules are easily removed in a
  desiccator, and the salt formed, CrCl3.4H2O, resembles the original
  salt in properties, only one-third of the chlorine being precipitated
  by silver nitrate. In accordance with his theory of the constitution
  of salts Werner formulates the hexahydrate as CrCl2.(OH2)4.Cl.2H2O.

  Chromic bromide, CrBr3, is prepared in the anhydrous form by the same
  method as the chloride, and resembles it in its properties. The iodide
  is unknown.

  The fluoride, CrF3, results on passing hydrofluoric acid over the
  heated chloride, and sublimes in needles. The hydrated fluoride,
  CrF3.9H2O, obtained by adding ammonium fluoride to cold chromic
  sulphate solution, is sparingly soluble in water, and is decomposed by
  heat.

  Oxyhalogen derivatives of chromium are known, the oxychloride,
  CrO2Cl2, resulting on heating potassium bichromate and common salt
  with concentrated sulphuric acid. It distils over as a dark red liquid
  of boiling point 117 deg. C., and is to be regarded as the acid chloride
  corresponding to chromic acid, CrO2(OH)2. It dissolves iodine and
  absorbs chlorine, and is decomposed by water with formation of chromic
  and hydrochloric acids; it takes fire in contact with sulphur,
  ammonia, alcohol, &c., and explodes in contact with phosphorus; it
  also acts as a powerful oxidizing agent. Heated in a closed tube at
  180 deg. C. it loses chlorine and leaves a black residue of trichromyl
  chloride, Cr3O6Cl2, which deliquesces on exposure to air. Analogous
  bromine and iodine compounds are unknown, since bromides and iodides
  on heating with potassium bichromate and concentrated sulphuric acid
  give free bromine or free iodine.

  The oxyfluoride, CrO2F2, is obtained in a similar manner to the
  oxychloride by using fluorspar in place of common salt. It may be
  condensed to a dark red liquid which is decomposed by moist air into
  chromic acid and chromic fluoride.

  The semi-acid chloride, CrO2.Cl.OH, chlorochromic acid, is only known
  in the form of its salts, the chlorochromates.

  Potassium chlorochromate, CrO2.Cl.OK, is produced when potassium
  bichromate is heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid and a little
  water, or from chromium oxychloride and saturated potassium chloride
  solution, when it separates as a red crystalline salt. By suspending
  it in ether and passing ammonia, potassium amidochromate, CrO2.NH2.OK,
  is obtained; on evaporating the ether solution, after it has stood for
  24 hours, red prisms of the amidochromate separate; it is slowly
  decomposed by boiling water, and also by nitrous acid, with liberation
  of nitrogen.

  Chromic sulphide, Cr2S3, results on heating chromium and sulphur or on
  strongly heating the trioxide in a current of sulphuretted hydrogen;
  it forms a dark green crystalline powder, and on ignition gives the
  sesquioxide.

  Chromic sulphate, Cr2(SO4)3, is prepared by mixing the hydroxide with
  concentrated sulphuric acid and allowing the mixture to stand, a green
  solution is first formed which gradually changes to blue, and deposits
  violet-blue crystals, which are purified by dissolving in water and
  then precipitating with alcohol. It is soluble in cold water, giving a
  violet solution, which turns green on boiling. If the violet solution
  is allowed to evaporate slowly at ordinary temperatures the sulphate
  crystallizes out as Cr2(SO4)3.15H2O, but the green solution on
  evaporation leaves only an amorphous mass. Investigation has shown
  that the change is due to the splitting off of sulphuric acid during
  the process, and that green-coloured chrom-sulphuric acids are formed
  thus--

    2Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O = H2SO4 + [Cr4O.(SO4)4]SO4
     (violet)                      (green)

  since, on adding barium chloride to the green solution, only one-third
  of the total sulphuric acid is precipitated as barium sulphate, whence
  it follows that only one-third of the original SO4 ions are present in
  the green solution. The green salt in aqueous solution, on standing,
  gradually passes back to the violet form. Several other complex
  chrom-sulphuric acids are known, e.g.

    [Cr2(SO4)4]H2; [Cr2(SO4)5]H4; [Cr2(SO4)6]H6

  (see A. Recoura, _Annales de Chimie et de Physique_, 1895 (7), 4, p.
  505.)

  Chromic sulphate combines with the sulphates of the alkali metals to
  form double sulphates, which correspond to the alums. Chrome alum,
  K2SO4.Cr2(SO4)3.24H2O, is best prepared by passing sulphur dioxide
  through a solution of potassium bichromate containing the calculated
  quantity of sulphuric acid,

    K2Cr2O7 + 3SO2 + H2SO4 = H2O + K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3.

  On evaporating the solution dark purple octahedra of the alum are
  obtained. It is easily soluble in warm water, the solution being of a
  dull blue tint, and is used in calico-printing, dyeing and tanning.
  Chromium ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4.Cr2(SO4)3.24H2O, results on
  mixing equivalent quantities of chromic sulphate and ammonium sulphate
  in aqueous solution and allowing the mixture to crystallize. It forms
  red octahedra and is less soluble in water than the corresponding
  potassium compound. The salt CrClSO4.8H2O has been described. By
  passing ammonia over heated chromic chloride, the nitride, CrN, is
  formed as a brownish powder. By the action of concentrated sulphuric
  acid it is transformed into chromium ammonium sulphate.

  The nitrate, Cr(NO3)3.9H2O, crystallizes in purple prisms and results
  on dissolving the hydroxide in nitric acid, its solution turns green
  on boiling. A phosphide, PCr, is known; it burns in oxygen forming the
  phosphate. By adding sodium phosphate to an excess of chrome alum the
  violet phosphate, CrPO4.6H2O, is precipitated; on heating to 100 deg. C.
  it loses water and turns green. A green precipitate, perhaps
  CrPO4.3H2O, is obtained on adding an excess of sodium phosphate to
  chromic chloride solution.

  Carbides of chromium are known; when the metal is heated in an
  electric furnace with excess of carbon, crystalline, C2Cr3, is formed;
  this scratches quartz and topaz, and the crystals are very resistant
  to the action of acids; CCr4 has also been described (H. Moissan,
  _Comptes rendus_, 1894, 119, p. 185).

  Cyanogen compounds of chromium, analogous to those of iron, have been
  prepared; thus potassium chromocyanide, K4Cr(CN)6.2H2O, is formed from
  potassium cyanide and chromous acetate; on exposure to air it is
  converted into the chromicyanide, K3Cr(CN)6, which can also be
  prepared by adding chromic acetate solution to boiling potassium
  cyanide solution. Chromic thiocyanate, Cr(SCN)3, an amorphous
  deliquescent mass, is formed by dissolving the hydroxide in thiocyanic
  acid and drying over sulphuric acid. The double thiocyanate,
  Cr(SCN)3.3KCNS.4H2O, is also known.

  Chromium salts readily combine with ammonia to form complex salts in
  which the ammonia molecule is in direct combination with the chromium
  atom. In many of these salts one finds that the elements of water are
  frequently found in combination with the metal, and further, that the
  ammonia molecule may be replaced by such other molecular groups as
  -NO2, &c. Of the types studied the following may be mentioned: the
  diammine chromium thiocyanates, M[Cr(NH3)2.(SCN)4], the
  chloraquotetrammine chromic salts, R(sup1)2[Cr(NH3)4.H2O.Cl], the
  aquopentammine or roseo-chromium salts, R(sup1)3[Cr(NH3)5.H2O], the
  chlorpentammine or purpureo-chromium salts, R(sup1)2[Cr(NH3)5.Cl], the
  nitrito pentammine or xanthochromium salts, R(sup1)2[NO2.(NH3)5.Cr], the
  luteo or hexammine chromium salts, R(sup1)3[(NH3)6.Cr], and the
  rhodochromium salts: where R(sup1) = a monovalent acid radical and M = a
  monovalent basic radical. For the preparation and properties of these
  salts and a discussion on their constitution the papers of S.F.
  Joergensen and of A. Werner in the _Zeitschrift fuer anorganische
  Chemie_ from 1892 onwards should be consulted.

  P. Pfeiffer (_Berichte_, 1904, 37, p. 4255) has shown that chromium
  salts of the type [Cr{C2H4(NH2)2}2X2]X exist in two stereo-isomeric
  forms, namely, the cis- and trans- forms, the
  dithiocyan-diethylene-diamine-chromium salts being the trans- salts.
  Their configuration was determined by their relationship to their
  oxalo-derivatives; the cis-dichloro chloride, [CrC2H4(NH2)2Cl2]Cl.H2O,
  compound with potassium oxalate gave a carmine red crystalline complex
  salt, [Cr{C2H4(NH2)2}C2O4][CrC2H4(NH2)2.(C2O4)2]11/2H2O, while from the
  trans-chloride a red complex salt is obtained containing the unaltered
  trans-dichloro group [CrC2H4(NH2)2.Cl2].




CHROMOSPHERE (from Gr. [Greek: chroma], colour, and [Greek: sphaira], a
sphere), in astronomy, the red-coloured envelope of the sun, outside of
the photosphere. It can be seen with the eye at the beginning or ending
of a total eclipse of the sun, and with a suitable spectroscope at any
time under favourable conditions. (See SUN and ECLIPSE.)




CHRONICLE (from Gr. [Greek: chronos], time). The historical works
written in the middle ages are variously designated by the terms
"histories," "annals," or "chronicles"; it is difficult, however, to
give an exact definition of each of these terms, since they do not
correspond to determinate classes of writings. The definitions proposed
by A. Giry (in _La Grande Encyclopedie_), by Ch. V. Langlois (in the
_Manuel de bibliographie historique_), and by E. Bernheim (in the
_Lehrbuch der historischen Methode_), are manifestly insufficient.
Perhaps the most reasonable is that propounded by H.F. Delaborde at the
Ecole des Chartes, that chronicles are accounts of a universal
character, while annals relate either to a locality, or to a religious
community, or even to a whole people, but without attempting to treat of
all periods or all peoples. The primitive type, he says, was furnished
by Eusebius of Caesarea, who wrote (c. 303) a chronicle in Greek, which
was soon translated into Latin and frequently recopied throughout the
middle ages; in the form of synoptic and synchronistic tables it
embraced the history of the world, both Jewish and Christian, since the
Creation. This ingenious opinion, however, is only partially exact, for
it is certain that the medieval authors or scribes were not conscious of
any well-marked distinction between annals and chronicles; indeed, they
often apparently employed the terms indiscriminately.

Whether or not a distinction can be made, chronicles and annals (q.v.)
have points of great similarity. Chronicles are accounts generally of an
impersonal character, and often anonymous, composed in varying
proportions of passages reproduced textually from sources which the
chronicler is seldom at pains to indicate, and of personal recollections
the veracity of which remains to be determined. Some of them are written
with so little intelligence and spirit that one is led to regard the
work of composition as a piece of drudgery imposed on the clergy and
monks by their superiors. To distinguish what is original from what is
borrowed, to separate fact from falsehood, and to establish the value of
each piece of evidence, are in such circumstances a difficult
undertaking, and one which has exercised the sagacity of scholars,
especially since the 17th century. The work, moreover, is immense, by
reason of the enormous number of medieval chronicles, both Christian and
Mahommedan.

The Christian chronicles were first written in the two learned
languages, Greek and Latin. At an early stage we have proof of the
employment of national languages, the most famous instances being found
at the two extremities of Europe, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (q.v.), the
most ancient form of which goes back to the 10th century, and the
so-called Chronicle of Nestor, in Palaeo-Slavonic, written in the 11th
and 12th centuries. In the 13th and 14th centuries the number of
chronicles written in the vulgar tongue continued to increase, at least
in continental Europe, which far outpaced England in this respect. From
the 15th century, with the revived study of Greek and Roman literature,
the traditional form of chronicles, as well as of annals, tended to
disappear and to be replaced by another and more scientific form, based
on the models of antiquity--that of the historical composition combining
skilful arrangement with elegance of literary style. The transition,
however, was very gradual, and it was not until the 17th century that
the traditional form became practically extinct.

  See E. Bernheim, _Lehrbuch der historischcn Methode_ (4th ed., 1903);
  H. Bloch, "Geschichte der deutschen Geschichtsschreibung im
  Mittelalter" in the _Handbuch_ of G. von Below and F. Meinecke
  (Munich, 1903 seq.); Max Jansen, "Historiographie und Quellen der
  deutschen Geschichte bis 1500," in Alois Meister's _Grundris_
  (Leipzig, 1906); and the Introduction (1904) to A. Molinier's _Les
  Sources de l'histoire de France_. (C.B.*)




CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF, two Old Testament books of the Bible.

  Position and date.

The name is derived from _Chronicon_, first suggested by Jerome as a
rendering of the title which they bear in the Hebrew Canon, viz. _Events
of the Times_. The full Hebrew title would be _Book of Events of the
Times_, and this again appears to have been a designation commonly
applied to special histories in the more definite shape--_Events of the
Times of King David_, or the like (1 Chron. xxvii. 24; Esth. x. 2, &c.).
The Greek translators divided the long book into two, and adopted the
title [Greek: Paraleipomena], _Things omitted_ [scil. in the other
historical books].

The book of Chronicles begins with Adam and ends abruptly in the middle
of Cyrus's decree of restoration, which reappears complete at the
beginning of Ezra. A closer examination of those parts of _Ezra_ and
_Nehemiah_ which are not extracted from earlier documents or original
memoirs leads to the conclusion that _Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah_ was
originally one work, displaying throughout the peculiarities of language
and thought of a single editor, who, however, cannot be Ezra himself as
tradition would have it. Thus the fragmentary close of 2 Chronicles
marks the disruption of a previously-existing continuity,--due,
presumably, to the fact that in the gradual compilation of the Canon the
necessity for incorporating in the Holy Writings an account of the
establishment of the post-Exile theocracy was felt, before it was
thought desirable to supplement _Samuel_ and _Kings_ by adding a second
history of the period before the Exile. Hence _Chronicles_ is the last
book of the Hebrew Bible, following the book of _Ezra-Nehemiah_, which
properly is nothing else than the sequel of _Chronicles_.

Of the authorship of _Chronicles_ we know only what can be determined by
internal evidence. The style of the language, and also the position of
the book in the Jewish Canon, stamp the book as one of the latest in the
Old Testament, but lead to no exact determination of the date.[1] In 1
Chron. xxix. 7, which refers to the time of David, a sum of money is
reckoned by _darics_, which certainly implies that the author wrote
after this Persian coin had been long current in Judaea. In 1 Chron.
iii. 19 sqq. the descendants of Zerubbabel seem to be reckoned to six
generations (the Septuagint reads it so as to give as many as eleven
generations), and this agrees with the suggestion that Hattush (verse
22), who belongs to the fourth generation from Zerubbabel, was a
contemporary of Ezra (Ezra viii. 2). Thus the compiler lived at least
two generations after Ezra. With this it accords that in Nehemiah five
generations of high priests are enumerated from Joshua (xii. 10 seq.),
and that the last name is that of Jaddua, who, according to Josephus,
was a contemporary of Alexander the Great (333 B.C.). That the compiler
wrote after the fall of the Persian monarchy has been argued by Ewald
and others from the use of the title king of Persia (2 Chron. xxxvi.
23), and from the reference made in Neh. xii. 22 to Darius III. (336-332
B.C.). A date some time after 332 B.C. is now accepted by most modern
critics. See further EZRA AND NEHEMIAH.


  Character of the work.

What seems to be certain and important for a right estimate of the book
is that the writer lived a considerable time after Ezra, and stood
entirely under the influence of the religious institutions of the new
theocracy. This standpoint determined the nature of his interest in the
early history of his people. The true importance of Hebrew history had
always centred in the fact that this petty nation was the people of
Yahweh, the spiritual God. The tragic interest which distinguishes the
annals of Israel from the forgotten history of Moab or Damascus lies
wholly in that long contest which finally vindicated the reality of
spiritual things and the supremacy of Yahweh's purpose, in the political
ruin of the nation which was the faithless depository of these sacred
truths. After the return from the Exile it was impossible to write the
history of Israel's fortunes otherwise than in a spirit of religious
pragmatism. But within the limits of the religious conception of the
plan and purpose of the Hebrew history more than one point of view might
be taken up. The book of Kings looks upon the history in the spirit of
the prophets--in that spirit which is still echoed by Zech. i. 5 seq.,
but which had become extinct before the Chronicler wrote. The New
Jerusalem of Ezra was organized as a municipality and a church, not as a
nation. The centre of religious life was no longer the living prophetic
word but the ordinances of the Pentateuch and the liturgical service of
the sanctuary. The religious vocation of Israel was no longer national
but ecclesiastical or municipal, and the historical continuity of the
nation was vividly realized only within the walls of Jerusalem and the
courts of the Temple, in the solemn assembly and stately ceremonial of a
feast day. These influences naturally operated most strongly on those
who were officially attached to the sanctuary. To a Levite, even more
than to other Jews, the history of Israel meant above all things the
history of Jerusalem, of the Temple, and of the Temple ordinances. Now
the writer of Chronicles betrays on every page his essentially Levitical
habit of mind. It even seems possible from a close attention to his
descriptions of sacred ordinances to conclude that his special interests
are those of a common Levite rather than of a priest, and that of all
Levitical functions he is most partial to those of the singers, a member
of whose guild he may have been. From the standpoint of the post-exilic
age, the older delineation of the history of Israel, especially in the
books of Samuel and Kings, could not but appear to be deficient in some
directions, while in other respects its narrative seemed superfluous or
open to misunderstanding, as for example by recording, and that without
condemnation, things inconsistent with the later, post-exilic law. The
history of the ordinances of worship holds a very small place in the
older record. Jerusalem and the Temple have not that central place in
the book of Kings which they occupied in the minds of the Jewish
community after the Exile. Large sections of the old history are devoted
to the religion and politics of the ten tribes, which are altogether
unintelligible and uninteresting when measured by a strictly Levitical
standard; and in general the whole problems and struggles of the
prophetic period turn on points which had ceased to be cardinal in the
life of the New Jerusalem, which was no longer called to decide between
the claims of the Word of Yahweh and the exigencies of political affairs
and social customs, and which could not comprehend that men absorbed in
deeper spiritual contests had no leisure for the niceties of Levitical
legislation. Thus there seemed to be room for a new history, which
should confine itself to matters still interesting to the theocracy of
Zion, keeping Jerusalem and the Temple in the foreground, and developing
the divine pragmatism of the history, not so much with reference to the
prophetic word as to the fixed legislation of the Pentateuch, so that
the whole narrative might be made to teach that the glory of Israel lies
in the observance of the divine law and ritual.


  Contents.

For the sake of systematic completeness the book begins with Adam, as is
the custom with later Oriental writers. But there was nothing to add to
the Pentateuch, and the period from Moses to David contained little that
served the purpose. The early history is therefore contracted into a
series of tribal and priestly genealogies, which were doubtless by no
means the least interesting part of the work at a time when every
Israelite was concerned to prove the purity of his Hebrew descent (cp.
Ezra ii. 59, 62). Commencing abruptly (after some Benjamite genealogies)
with the death of Saul, the history becomes fuller and runs parallel
with the books of Samuel and Kings. The limitations of the compiler's
interest in past times appear in the omission, among other particulars,
of David's reign in Hebron, of the disorders in his family and the
revolt of Absalom, of the circumstances of Solomon's accession, and of
many details as to the wisdom and splendour of that sovereign, as well
as of his fall into idolatry. In the later history the ten tribes are
quite neglected ("Yahweh is not with Israel," 2 Chron. xxv. 7), and
political affairs in Judah receive attention, not in proportion to their
intrinsic importance, but according as they serve to exemplify God's
help to the obedient and His chastisement of the rebellious. That the
compiler is always unwilling to speak of the misfortunes of good rulers
is not necessarily to be ascribed to a deliberate suppression of truth,
but shows that the book was throughout composed not in purely historical
interests, but with a view to inculcating a single practical lesson. The
more important additions to the older narrative consist partly of
statistical lists (1 Chron. xii.), partly of full details on points
connected with the history of the sanctuary and the great feasts or the
archaeology of the Levitical ministry (1 Chron. xiii., xv., xvi.,
xxii.-xxix.; 2 Chron. xxix.-xxxi., &c.), and partly of narratives of
victories and defeats, of sins and punishments, of obedience and its
reward, which could be made to point a plain religious lesson in favour
of faithful observance of the law (2 Chron. xiii., xiv. 9 sqq.; xx.,
xxi. 11 sqq., &c.). The minor variations of _Chronicles_ from the books
of Samuel and Kings are analogous in principle to the larger additions
and omissions, so that the whole work has a consistent and well-marked
character, presenting the history in quite a different perspective from
that of the old narrative.


  Sources.

The chronicler makes frequent reference to earlier histories which he
cites by a great variety of names. That the names "Book of the Kings of
Israel and Judah," "Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel," "Book of the
Kings of Israel," and "Affairs of the Kings of Israel" (2 Chron. xxxiii.
18), refer to a single work is not disputed. Under one or other title
this book is cited some ten times. Whether it is identical with the
Midrash[2] of the book of Kings (2 Chron. xxiv. 27) is not certain. That
the work so often cited is not the Biblical book of the same name is
manifest from what is said of its contents. It must have been quite an
extensive work, for among other things it contained genealogical
statistics (1 Chron. ix. 1), and it incorporated certain older prophetic
writings--in particular, the _deb[=a]r[=i]m_ ("words" or "history") of
Jehu the son of Hanani (2 Chron. xx. 34) and possibly the vision of
Isaiah (2 Chron. xxxii. 32). Where the chronicler does not cite this
comprehensive work at the close of a king's reign he generally refers to
some special authority which bears the name of a prophet or seer (2
Chron. ix. 29; xii. 15, &c.). But the book of the Kings and a special
prophetic writing are not cited for the same reign. It is therefore
probable that in other cases than those of Isaiah and Jehu the writings
of, or rather, about the prophets which are cited in _Chronicles_ were
known only as parts of the great "book of the Kings." Even the
genealogical lists may have been derived from that work (1 Chron. ix.
1), though for these other materials may have been accessible.

The two chief sources of the canonical book of Kings were entitled
_Annals_ ("events of the times") _of the Kings of Israel_ and _Judah_
respectively (see KINGS). That the lost source of the _Chronicles_ was
not independent of these works appears probable both from the nature of
the case and from the close and often verbal parallelism between many
sections of the two Biblical narratives. But while the canonical book of
Kings refers to separate sources for the northern and southern kingdoms,
the source of _Chronicles_ was a history of the two kingdoms combined,
and so, no doubt, was a more recent work which in great measure was
doubtless based upon older annals. Yet it contained also matter not
derived from these works, for it is pretty clear from 2 Kings xxi. 17
that the _Annals of the Kings of Judah_ gave no account of Manasseh's
repentance, which, according to 2 Chron. xxxiii. 18, 19, was narrated in
the great book of the Kings of Israel. It was the opinion of Bertheau,
Keil and others, that the parallelisms of _Chronicles_ with _Samuel_ and
_Kings_ are sufficiently explained by the ultimate common source from
which both narratives drew. But most critics hold that the chronicler
also drew directly from the canonical books of Samuel and Kings as he
apparently did from the Pentateuch. This opinion is not improbable, as
the earlier books of the Old Testament cannot have been unknown in his
age; and the critical analysis of the canonical book of Kings is
advanced enough to enable us to say that in some of the parallel
passages the chronicler uses words which were not written in the annals
but by one of the compilers of _Kings_ himself. In particular,
_Chronicles_ agrees with _Kings_ in those short notes of the moral
character of individual monarchs which can hardly be ascribed to an
earlier hand than that of the redactor of the latter book.[3]


  Treatment of history.

For the criticism of the book it is important to institute a careful
comparison of Chronicles with the parallel narratives in
_Samuel_-_Kings_.[4] It is found that in the cases where _Chronicles_
directly contradicts the earlier books there are few in which an
impartial historical judgment will decide in favour of the later
account, and in any point that touches difference of usage between its
time and that of the old monarchy it is of no authority. The
characteristic feature of the post-exilic age was the re-shaping of
older tradition in the interest of parenetic and practical purposes, and
for this object a certain freedom of literary form was always allowed to
ancient historians. The typical speeches in Chronicles are of little
value for the periods to which they relate, and where they are
inconsistent with the evidence from earlier writings or contain inherent
improbabilities are scarcely of historical worth. According to the
ordinary laws of research, the book, being written at a time long
posterior to the events it records, can have only a secondary value,
although that is no reason why here and there valuable material should
not have been preserved. But the general picture which it gives of life
under the old monarchy cannot have the same value for us as the records
of the book of Kings. On the other hand, it is of distinct value for the
history of its time, and presents a clear picture of the spirit of the
age. The "ecclesiastical chronicle of Jerusalem," as Reuss has aptly
called it, represents the culminating point (as far as the O.T. Canon is
concerned) of that theory of which examples recur in Judges, Samuel and
Kings, and this treatment of history in accordance with religious or
ethical doctrines finds its continuation in the didactic aims which
characterize the later non-canonical writings (cf. JUBILEES; MIDRASH).

  The most prominent examples of disagreement with earlier sources may
  be briefly noticed. Thus, it would appear that the book has confused
  Jehoiakim and Jehoiachin (2 Chron. xxxvi. 5-8) and has statements
  which directly conflict with 2 Sam. xxi. 19 (1 Chron. xx. 5; see
  GOLIATH), and 1 Kings ix. 10 seq. (2 Chron. viii. 2); it has changed
  Hezekiah's submission (2 Kings xviii.) into a brave resistance (2
  Chron. xxxii. 1-8) and ignored the humiliating payment of tribute by
  this king and by Joash (2 Kings xii. 18; 2 Chron. xxiv. 23 sqq.).[5]
  That Satan, and not Yahweh incited David to number Israel (1 Chron.
  xxi.; 2 Sam. xxiv. 1) accords with later theological development.

  A particular tendency to arrange history according to a mechanical
  rule appears in the constant endeavour to show that recompense and
  retribution followed immediately on good or bad conduct, and
  especially on obedience or disobedience to prophetic advice. Thus, the
  invasion of Shishak (see REHOBOAM) becomes a typical romance (2 Chron.
  xii.); the illness of Asa is preceded by a denunciation for relying
  upon Syria, and the chronology is changed to bring the fault near the
  punishment (2 Chron. xv. seq.). The ships which Jehoshaphat made were
  wrecked at Ezion-geber because he had allied himself with Ahaziah of
  Israel despite prophetic warning (2 Chron. xx. 35 sqq.; 1 Kings xxii.
  48; cf. similarly the addition in 2 Chron. xix. 1-3), and the later
  writer supposes that the "Tarshish ships" (large vessels such as were
  used in trading with Spain--cf. "Indiamen") built in the Red Sea were
  intended for the Mediterranean trade (cf. 2 Chron. ix. 21 with 1 Kings
  x. 22). The Edomite revolt under Jehoram of Judah becomes the penalty
  for the king's apostasy (2 Chron. xxi. 10-20; 2 Kings viii. 22),
  Ahaziah was slain because of his friendship with Jehoram (2 Chron.
  xxii. 7). The Aramaean invasion in the time of Joash of Judah was a
  punishment for the murder of Jehoiada's son (2 Chron. xxiv.; 2 Kings
  xii.). Amaziah, after defeating Edom (2 Chron. xxv., esp. verses
  19-21; see 2 Kings xiv. 10 seq.), worshipped strange gods, for which
  he was defeated by Joash of Israel, and subsequently met with his
  death (2 Chron. xxv. 27; 2 Kings xiv. 19). Uzziah's leprosy is
  attributed to a ritual fault (2 Chron. xxvi. 4 seq., 16 sqq.; cf. 2
  Kings xv. 3-5; see UZZIAH). The defeat and death of the good king
  Josiah came through disobedience to the Divine will (2 Chron. xxxv. 21
  seq.; see 2 Kings xxiii. 26 sqq.).

  In addition to such supplementary information, another tendency of the
  chronicler is the alteration of narratives that do not agree with the
  later doctrines of the uniformity of religious institutions before and
  after the exile. Thus, the reformation of Josiah has been thrust back
  from his eighteenth to his twelfth year (when he was nineteen years
  old) apparently because it was felt that so good a king would not have
  tolerated the abuses of the land for so long a period,[6] but the
  result of this is to leave an interval of ten years between his
  conversion and the subsequent act of repentance (2 Chron. xxxiv. 3-6;
  2 Kings xxii. seq.). References to Judaean idolatry are omitted (1
  Kings xiv. 22-24; see 2 Chron. xii. 14; 2 Kings xviii. 4; 2 Chron.
  xxxi. 1) or abbreviated (2 Kings xxiii. 1-20; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 29-33);
  and if the earlier detailed accounts of Judaean heathenism were
  repulsive, so the tragic account of the fate of Jerusalem was a
  painful subject upon which the chronicler's age did not care to dwell
  (contrast 2 Kings xxiv. 8-xxv. with the brief 2 Chron. xxxvi. 9-21).
  At an age when the high places were regarded as idolatrous it was
  considered only natural that the good kings should not have tolerated
  them. So 2 Chron. xiv. 5, xvii. 6 (from unknown sources) contradict 1
  Kings xv. 14, xxii. 43 (that Asa and Jehoshaphat did _not_ demolish
  the high places), whereas xv. 16-18, xx. 31-34, are quoted from the
  book of Kings and give the older view. The example is an illustration
  of the simple methods of early compilers. Further, it is assumed that
  the high place at Gibeon was a legitimate sanctuary (2 Chron. i. 3-6;
  1 Kings iii. 2-4; 1 Chron. xxi. 28-30; 2 Sam. xxiv.); that the ark was
  borne not by priests (1 Kings viii. 3) but by Levites (2 Chron. v. 4),
  in accordance with post-exilic usage; and that the Levites, and not
  the foreign bodyguard of the temple, helped to place Joash on the
  throne (2 Chron. xxiii.).[7] Conversely 1 Chron. xv. 12 seq. explains
  xiii. 10 (2 Sam. vi. 7) on the view that Uzza was not a Levite, hence
  the catastrophe.

  Throughout it is assumed that the Levitical organization had been in
  existence from the days of David, to whom its foundation is ascribed.
  In connexion with the installation of the ark considerable space is
  devoted to the arrangements for the maintenance of the temple-service,
  upon which the earlier books are silent, and elaborate notices of the
  part played by the Levites and singers give expression to a view of
  the history of the monarchy which the book of Kings does not share.[8]
  Along with the exceptional interest taken in Levitical and priestly
  lists should be noticed the characteristic preference for genealogies.
  Particular prominence is given to the tribe and kings of Judah (1
  Chron. ii.-iv.), and to the priests and Levites (1 Chron. vi., xv.
  sq., xxiii.-xxv.; with ix. 1-34 cf. Neh. xi.). The historical value of
  these lists is very unequal; a careful study of the names often proves
  the lateness of the source, although an appreciation of the principles
  of genealogies sometimes reveals important historical information; see
  CALEB, GENEALOGY, JUDAH. But the Levitical system as it appears in its
  most complete form in Chronicles is the result of the development of
  earlier schemes, of which some traces are still preserved in
  _Chronicles_ itself and in _Ezra-Nehemiah_. (See further LEVITES.)

  The tendency of numbers to grow is one which must always be kept in
  view--cf. 1 Chron. xviii. 4, xix. 18 (2 Sam. viii. 4 [but see LXX.],
  x. 18), 1 Chron. xxi. 5, 25 (2 Sam. xxiv. 9, 24); consequently little
  importance can be attached to details which appear to be exaggerated
  (1 Chron. v. 21, xii., xxii. 14; 2 Chron. xiii. 3, 17), and are found
  to be quite in accordance with similar peculiarities elsewhere (Num.
  xxxi. 32 seq.; Judg. xx. 2, 21, 25).


  Historical value.

But when allowance is made for all the above tendencies of the late
post-exilic age, there remains a certain amount of additional matter in
_Chronicles_ which may have been derived from relatively old sources.
These items are of purely political or personal nature and contain
several details which taken by themselves have every appearance of
genuineness. Where there can be no suspicion of such "tendency" as has
been noticed above there is less ground for scepticism, and it must be
remembered that the earlier books contain only a portion of the material
to which the compilers had access. Hence it may well happen that the
details which unfortunately cannot be checked were ultimately derived
from sources as reputable as those in the books of Samuel, Kings, &c. As
examples may be cited Rehoboam's buildings, &c. (2 Chron. xi. 5-12, 18
sqq.); Jeroboam's attack upon Abijah (2 Chron. xiii., cf. 1 Kings xv.
7); the invasion of Zerah in Asa's reign (2 Chron. xiv.; see ASA);
Jehoshaphat's wars and judicial measures (2 Chron. xvii. xx.; see 1
Kings xxii. 45); Jehoram's family (2 Chron. xxi. 2-4); relations between
Jehoiada and Joash (2 Chron. xxiv. 3, 15 sqq.); conflicts between
Ephraim and Judah (2 Chron. xxv. 6-13); wars of Uzziah and Jotham (2
Chron. xxvi. seq.); events in the reign of Ahaz (2 Chron. xxviii. 8-15,
18 seq.); reforms of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix. sqq., cf. Jer. xxvi. 19);
Manasseh's captivity, repentance and buildings (2 Chron. xxxiii. 10-20;
see 2 Kings xxi. and MANASSEH); the death of Josiah (2 Chron. xxxv.
20-25). In addition to this reference may be made to such tantalizing
statements as those in 1 Chron. ii. 23 (R.V.), iv. 39-41, v. 10, 18-22,
vii. 21 seq., viii. 13, xii. 15, examples of the kind of tradition,
national and private, upon which writers could draw. Although in their
present form the additional _narratives_ are in the chronicler's style,
it is not necessary to deny an older traditional element which may have
been preserved in sources now lost to us.[9]

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Robertson Smith's article in the 9th ed. of the _Ency.
  Brit._ was modified by his later views in _Old Test. in the Jewish
  Church_[2], pp. 140-148. Recent literature is summarized by S.R.
  Driver in his revision of Smith's article in _Ency. Bib._ and in his
  _Lit. of Old Test._, and by F. Brown in Hastings' _Dict. Bib._ (a very
  comprehensive article). Many parts of the book offer a very hard task
  to the expositor, especially the genealogies, where to other troubles
  are added the extreme corruption and many variations of the proper
  names in the versions; on these see the articles in the _Ency. Bib._
  Valuable contributions to the exegesis of the book will be found in
  Wellhausen's _Prolegomena_ (Eng. trans.), pp. 171-227; Benzinger in
  Marti's _Hand-Kommentar_ (1901); Kittel in _Sacred Books of the Old
  Test._ (1895), _History of the Hebrews_, ii. 224 sqq. (1896), and in
  Nowack's _Hand-Kommentar_ (1902). W.H. Bennett in _Expositor's Bible_
  (1894), W.E. Barnes in _Cambridge Bible_ (1899), and Harvey-Jellie in
  the _Century Bible_ (1906), are helpful. Among more recent
  investigations are those of Howorth, _Proc. Soc. of Bibl. Archael._
  xxvii. 267-278 (Chronicles a late translation from the Aramaic).
  (W.R.S.; S.A.C.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] See the lists in Driver, _Lit. of Old Test._ pp. 502 sqq.; and the
    exhaustive summary by Fr. Brown in Hastings' _Dict. Bible_, i. 289
    sqq.

  [2] R.V. "commentary," properly, an edifying religious work, a
    didactic or homiletic exposition. A distinct tendency to Midrash is
    found even here and there in the earlier books.

  [3] The problem of the sources is one of considerable intricacy and
    cannot be discussed here; the introduction to the commentaries of
    Benzinger and Kittel (see _Bibliography_ below) should be consulted.
    The questions depend partly upon the view taken of the origin and
    structure of the book of Kings (q.v.) and partly upon the results of
    historical criticism.

  [4] "A careful comparison of Chronicles with Samuel and Kings is a
    striking object lesson in ancient historical composition. It is an
    almost indispensable introduction to the criticism of the Pentateuch
    and the older historical works" (W.H. Bennett, _Chronicles_, p. 20
    seq.).

  [5] But xxxii. 1-8 may preserve a tradition of the account of the
    city's wonderful deliverance mentioned in _Kings_ (see HEZEKIAH), and
    the details of the invasion of Judah in the time of Joash differ
    essentially from those in the earlier source. Even 2 Chron. viii. 2
    cannot be regarded as a _deliberate_ alteration since the writer does
    not appear to be quoting from 1 Kings ix. 10 sqq. (the two passages
    should be carefully compared), and his view of Solomon's greatness is
    already supported by allusions in the earlier but extremely composite
    sources in _Kings_ (see SOLOMON).

  [6] But that this was not the invention of the chronicler appears
    possible from Jer. xxv. 3. Similarly, Hezekiah's reforms are dated in
    his first year (2 Chron. xxix. 3), against all probability; see
    HEZEKIAH (end).

  [7] 2 Chron. xxiii. is an excellent specimen of the redaction to which
    older narratives were submitted; cf. also 2 Chron. xxiv. 5 seq. (2
    Kings xi. 4 seq.), xxxiv. 9-14 (2 Kings xxii.), xxxv. 1-19 (2 Kings
    xxiii. 21-23).

  [8] Passages in the books of Samuel and Kings which might appear to
    point to the contrary require careful examination; they prove to be
    glosses or interpolations, or are relatively late as a whole.

  [9] The view that the chronicler _invented_ such narratives is
    inconceivable, and in the present stage of historical criticism is
    as unsound as an implicit reliance upon those sources in the earlier
    books, which in their turn are often long posterior to the events
    they record. Although Graf, in a critical and exhaustive study
    (_Geschichtlichen Buecher des A.T._, Leipzig, 1866), concluded that
    the Chronicles have almost no value as a documentary source of the
    ancient history, he subsequently admitted in private correspondence
    with Bertheau that this statement was too strong (preface to
    Bertheau's _Commentary_, 2nd ed., 1873).




CHRONOGRAPH (from Gr. [Greek: chronos], time, and [Greek: graphein], to
write). Instruments whereby periods of time are measured and recorded
are commonly called chronographs, but it would be more correct to give
the name to the records produced. Instruments such as "stop watches"
(see WATCH), by means of which the time between events is shown on a
dial, are also called chronographs; they were originally rightly called
chronoscopes ([Greek: skopein], to see).

In the first experiments in ballistics by B. Robins, Count Rumford and
Charles Hutton, the velocity of a projectile was found by means of the
ballistic pendulum, in which the principle of momentum is applied in
finding the velocity of a projectile (_Principles of Gunnery_, by
Benjamin Robins, edited by Hutton, 1805, p. 84). It consisted of a
pendulum of considerable weight, which was displaced from its position
of rest by the impact of the bullet, the velocity of which was required.
A modification of the ballistic pendulum was also employed by W.E.
Metford (1824-1899) in his researches on different forms of rifling; the
bob was made in the form of a long cylinder, weighing about 140 lb,
suspended with its axis horizontal from four wires at each end, all
moving points being provided with knife edges. The true length of
suspension was deduced from observations of the time of a complete small
oscillation. The head of the pendulum was furnished with a wooden block,
which caught the fragments of bullets fired at it, and its displacement
was recorded by a rod moved by the bob (_The Book of the Rifle_, by the
Hon. T.F. Fremantle, p. 336). An improved ballistic pendulum in which
the geometric method of suspension is introduced has been used by A.
Mallock, to determine the resistance of the air to bullets having a
velocity up to 4500 F/S. (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, Nov. 1904). A ballistic
pendulum, carried by a geometric suspension from five points, has also
been employed by C.V. Boys in a research on the elasticity of golf
balls, the displacement of the bob being recorded on a sheet of smoked
glass.[1] For further information on the dynamics of the subject see
_Text Book of Gunnery_, 1897, p. 101.

In nearly all forms of chronographs in which the ballistic pendulum
method is not used, the beginning and end of a period of time is
recorded by means of some kind of electrically controlled mechanism; and
in order that small fractions of a second may be measured, tuning-forks
are employed, giving any convenient number of vibrations per second, a
light style or scribing point, usually of aluminium, being attached to
one of the legs of the tuning-fork. A trace of the vibration is made on
a surface blackened with the deposit from the smoke of a lamp. Glazed
paper is often employed when the velocity of the surface is slow, but
when a high velocity of smoked surface is necessary, smoked glass offers
far the least resistance to the movement of the scribing points. If the
surface be cylindrical, thin sheet mica attached to it, and smoked,
gives excellent results, and offers but little resistance to all the
scribing points employed. The period of vibration of tuning-forks is
determined by direct or indirect comparison with the mean solar second,
taken from a standard clock, the rate of which is known from transit
observations ("Recherches sur les vibrations d'un diapason etalon," R.
Koenig, _Wied. Ann._, 1880). In the celebrated ballistic experiments of
the Rev. F. Bashforth, the time markings were made electrically from a
standard clock, and fractions of a second were estimated by
interpolation. Regnault (_Memoires de l'acad. des sciences_, t. xxxvii.)
employed both a standard clock and a tuning-fork in his determination of
the velocity of sound. The effect of temperature on tuning-forks has
been determined by Lord Rayleigh and Professor H. McLeod (_Proc. Roy.
Soc._, 1880, 26, p. 162), who found the coefficient to be 0.00011 per
degree C. between 9 deg. C. and 27 deg. C. The beginning and end of a time
period is marked on a moving surface in many ways. Usually an
electromagnetic stylus is employed, in which a scribing point suddenly
moves when the electric circuit is broken by a projectile. Another
method is to arrange the terminals of the secondary circuit of an
induction coil, so that when the primary circuit is opened a small spark
punctures or marks a moving surface (Helmholtz, _Phil. Mag._, 1853, p.
6). A photographic plate or film, moving in a dark chamber, is also used
to receive markings produced by a beam of light interrupted by a small
screen attached to an electromagnetic stylus, or by the legs of a
tuning-fork, or by the mercury column of a capillary electrometer. In
certain researches on the explosive wave of gases the light given by the
burning gases made the time trace on a rapidly moving photographic film
(H.B. Dixon, _Phil. Trans._, 1903, 200, p. 323). In physiological
chronography the stylus is in many cases actuated directly by the piece
of muscle to which it is attached; when the muscle is stimulated its
contraction moves the stylus on the moving surface of the myograph (M.
Foster, _Text Book of Physiology_, 1879, p. 39).


    Grobert and Dabooz.

  _Gun Chronographs._--Probably the earliest forms of chronographs, not
  based on the ballistic pendulum method, are due to Colonel Grobert,
  1804, and Colonel Dabooz, 1818, both officers of the French army. In
  the instrument by Grobert two large disks, attached to the same axle
  13 ft. apart, were rapidly rotated; the shot pierced each disk, the
  angle between two holes giving the time of flight of the ball, when
  the angular velocity of the disks was known. In the instrument by
  Colonel Dabooz a cord passing over two light pulleys, one close to the
  gun, the other at a given distance from it, was stretched by a weight
  at the gun end and by a heavy screen at the other end. Behind this
  screen there was a fixed screen. The shot cut the cord and liberated
  the screen, which was perforated during its fall. The height of fall
  was measured by superposing the hole in the moving screen upon that in
  the fixed one. This gave the approximate time of flight of the shot
  over a given distance, and hence its velocity.


    Wheatstone.

  In the early form of chronoscope invented by Sir C. Wheatstone in 1840
  the period of time was measured by means of a species of clock, driven
  by a weight; the dial pointer was started and stopped by the action of
  an electromagnet which moved a pawl engaging with a toothed wheel
  fixed on the axle to which the dial pointer was attached. The
  instrument applied to the determination of the velocity of shot is
  described thus by Wheatstone:--"A wooden ring embraced the mouth of
  the gun, and a wire connected the opposite sides of the ring. At a
  proper distance the target was erected, and so arranged that the least
  motion given to it would establish a permanent contact between two
  metal points. One of the extremities of the wire of the electromagnet
  (before mentioned) was attached to one pole of a small battery; to the
  other extremity of the electromagnet were attached two wires, one of
  which communicated with the contact piece of the target, and the other
  with one of the ends of the wire stretched across the mouth of the
  gun; from the other extremity of the voltaic battery two wires were
  taken, one of which came to the contact piece of the target, and the
  other to the opposite extremity of the wire across the mouth of the
  gun. Before the firing of the gun a continuous circuit existed,
  including the gun wire; when the target was struck the second circuit
  was completed; but during the passage of the projectile both circuits
  were interrupted, and the duration of this interruption was indicated
  by the chronoscope."


    Henry.

  Professor Joseph Henry (_Journal Franklin Inst._, 1886) employed a
  cylinder driven by clockwork, making ten revolutions per second. The
  surface was divided into 100 equal parts, each equal to 1/1000 second.
  The time marks were made by two galvanometer needles, when successive
  screens were broken by a shot. Henry also used an induction-coil spark
  to make the cylinder, the primary of the coil being in circuit with a
  battery and screen. This form of chronograph is in many respects
  similar to the instrument of Konstantinoff, which was constructed by
  L.F.C. Breguet and has been sometimes attributed to him (_Comptes
  rendus_, 1845). This chronograph consisted of a cylinder 1 metre in
  circumference and 0.36 metre long, driven by clockwork, the rotation
  being regulated by a governor provided with wings. A small carriage
  geared to the wheelwork traversed its length, carrying electromagnetic
  signals. The electric chronograph signal usually consists of a small
  armature (furnished with a style which marks a moving surface) moving
  in front of an electromagnet, the armature being suddenly pulled off
  the poles of the electromagnet by a spring when the circuit is broken
  (_Journal of Physiology_, ix. 408). The signals in Breguet's
  instrument were in a circuit, including the screens and batteries of a
  gun range. The measurement of time depended on the regularity of
  rotation of the cylinder, on which each mm. represented 1/1000 second.


    Navez.

  In the chronograph of A.J.A. Navez (1848) the time period is found by
  means of a pendulum held at a large angle from the vertical by an
  electromagnet, which is in circuit with a screen on the gun range.
  When the shot cuts this screen the circuit is broken and the pendulum
  liberated and set swinging. When the next screen on the range is
  broken by the shot, the position of the pendulum is recorded and the
  distance it has passed through measured on a divided arc. From this
  the time of traversing the space between the screens is deduced. By
  means of an instrument known as a disjunctor the instrumental
  time-loss or latency of the chronograph is determined. [Sidenote:
  Benton.] In Benton's chronograph (1859) two pendulums are liberated,
  in the same manner as in the instrument of Navez, one on the cutting
  of the first screen, the other on the cutting of the second. The
  difference between the swings of the two pendulums gives the time
  period sought for. The disjunctor is also used in connexion with this
  instrument. In Vignotti's chronograph (1857) again a pendulum is
  employed, furnished with a metal point, which moves close to paper
  impregnated with ferro-cyanide of potassium. The gun-range screens are
  included in the primary circuits of induction coils; when these
  circuits are broken a spark from the pointer marks the paper. From
  these marks the time of traverse of the shot between the screens is
  determined.


    Bashforth.

  In the Bashforth chronograph a platform, arranged to descend slowly
  alongside of a vertical rotating cylinder, carries two markers,
  controlled by electromagnets, which describe a double spiral on the
  prepared surface of the cylinder. One electromagnet is in circuit with
  a clock, and the marker actuated by it marks seconds on the cylinder;
  the circuit of the other is completed through a series of contact
  pieces attached to the screens through which the shot passes in
  succession. On the gun range, when the shot reaches the first screen,
  it breaks a weighted cotton thread, which keeps a flexible wire in
  contact with a conductor. When the thread is broken by a shot, the
  wire leaves the conductor and almost immediately establishes the
  circuit through the next screen, by engaging with a second contact,
  the time of the rupture being recorded on the cylinder by the second
  marker. The velocity with which the cylinder rotates is such that the
  distance between successive clock marks indicating seconds is about 18
  in.; hence the marks corresponding with the severance of a thread can
  be allotted their value in fractions of seconds with great accuracy.
  The times when the shot passes successive screens being thus recorded
  on the spiral described by the second marker, and the distance between
  each screen being known, the velocity of the shot can be calculated.


    Noble.

  The chronoscope invented by Sir Andrew Noble is so well adapted to the
  measurement of very small intervals of time that it is usually
  employed to ascertain the velocity acquired by a shot at different
  parts of the bore in moving from a state of rest inside the gun. A
  series of "cutting plugs" is screwed into the sides of the gun at
  measured intervals, and in each is inserted a loop of wire which forms
  part of the primary circuit of an induction coil. On the passage of a
  shot this wire is severed by means of a small knife which projects
  into the bore and is actuated by the shot as it passes; the circuit
  being thus broken, a spark passes between the terminals of the
  secondary of the coil. There is a separate coil and circuit for each
  plug. The recording arrangement consists of a series of disks, one for
  each plug, mounted on one axle and rotating at a high angular
  velocity. The edges of these disks are covered with a coating of
  lamp-black, and the secondaries of the coils are caused to discharge
  against them, so that a minute spot burnt in the lamp-black of each
  disk indicates the moment of the cutting of the wire in the
  corresponding plug. Hence measurement of the distance between two
  successive spots gives the time occupied by the shot in moving over
  the portion of the bore between two successive plugs. By the aid of a
  vernier, readings are made to thousandths of an inch, and the
  peripheral velocity of the disks being 1100 in. a second, the machine
  indicates portions of time rather less than one-millionth of a second;
  it is, in fact, practically correct to hundred-thousandths of a second
  (_Phil. Trans._, 1875, pt. i.).


    Le Boulenge.

  In the Le Boulenge chronograph ("Chronograph le Boulenge," par M.
  Breger, Commission de Gavre, Sept. 1880) two screens are used. The
  wire of the first forms part of the circuit of an electromagnet which,
  so long as it is energized, supports a vertical rod called the
  "chronometer." Hence when the circuit is broken by the passage of a
  shot through the screen this rod drops. The wire of the second screen
  conveys a current through another electromagnet which supports a much
  shorter rod. This "registrar," as it is called, when released by the
  shot severing the wire of the second screen, falls on a disk which
  sets free a spring, and causes a horizontal knife to fly forward and
  nick a zinc tube with which the chronometer rod is sheathed. Hence the
  long rod will be falling for a certain time, while the shot is
  travelling between the two screens, before the short rod is released;
  and the longer the shot takes to travel this distance, the farther the
  long rod falls, and the higher up on it will be the nick made by the
  knife. A simple calculation connects the distance through which the
  rod falls with the time occupied by the shot in travelling over the
  distance between the screens, and thus its velocity ascertained. The
  nick made by the knife, if released while the chronometer rod is still
  suspended, is the zero point. If both rods are released
  simultaneously, as is done by breaking both circuits at once by means
  of a "disjunctor," a certain time is consumed by the short rod in
  reaching the disk, setting free the spring and cutting a nick in the
  zinc; and during this time the long rod is falling into a recess in
  the stand deep enough to receive its full length. The instrument is so
  adjusted that the nick thus made is 4.435 in. above the zero point,
  corresponding to 0.15 sec. This is the disjunctor reading, and
  requires to be frequently corrected during experiments. The instrument
  was modified and improved by Colonel H.C. Holden, F.R.S. For further
  information respecting formulae relating to it see _Text Book of
  Gunnery_ (1857).


    Watkin.

  The electric chronograph of the late H.S.S. Watkin consists of two
  long cylinders rotating on vertical axes, and between them a
  cylindrical weight, having a pointed head, is free to fall. The weight
  is furnished with an insulated wire which passes through it at right
  angles to its longest axis. When the weight falls the ends of the
  insulated wire move very close to the surfaces of the cylinders which
  form part of a secondary circuit of an induction coil, the primary
  circuit of which is opened when a screen is ruptured by a shot. A
  minute mark is made by the induced spark on the smoked paper with
  which the cylinders are covered. The time period between events is
  deduced from the space fallen through by the weight, and by means of a
  scale, graduated for a given distance between the screens, the
  velocity of a shot is at once found. It may be noted that the method
  of release is such that the falling weight is not subjected, after it
  has begun to fall, to a diminishing magnetic field, which would be the
  case if it were directly supported by an electromagnet. An iron rod
  when falling from an electromagnet, during a minute portion of its
  fall, is subject to a diminishing force acting in the opposite sense
  to that of gravity, whereby its time of fall is slightly changed.

  Colonel Sebert (_Extraits du memorial de l'artillerie de la marine_)
  devised a chronograph to indicate graphically the motion of recoil of
  a cannon when fired. A pillar fixed to the ground at the side of the
  gun-carriage supported a tuning-fork, the vibration of which was
  maintained electrically. The fork was provided with a tracing point
  attached to one of the prongs, and so adjusted that it drew its path
  on a polished sheet of smoke-blackened metal attached to the
  gun-carriage, which traversed past the tracing point when the gun ran
  back. The fork used made 500 complete vibrations per second. A central
  line was drawn through the curved path of the tracing point, and every
  entire vibration cut the straight line twice, the interval between
  each intersection equalling 1/1000 second. The diagram so produced
  gave ihe total time of the accelerated motion of recoil of the gun,
  the maximum velocity of recoil, and the rate of acceleration of recoil
  from the beginning to the end of the motion. By means of an instrument
  furnished with a microscope and micrometers, the length and amplitude,
  and the angle at which the curved line cut the central line, were
  measured. At each intersection (according to the inventor) the
  velocity could be deduced. The motion at any intersection being
  compounded of the greatest velocity of the fork, while passing through
  the midpoint of the vibration and the velocity of recoil, the tangent
  made by the curve with the straight line represents the ratio of the
  velocity of the fork to the velocity of recoil. If a be the amplitude
  of vibration, considered constant, v the velocity of the fork at the
  midpoint of its path, r the velocity of recoil, [alpha] the angle made
  by the tangent to the curve with the straight line at the point of
  intersection, and t the line of a complete vibration; then, v =
  2[pi]a/t; r = v/tan [alpha].


    Jervis-Smith.

  F. Jervis-Smith's tram chronograph (_Patents_, 1894, 1897, 1903) was
  devised for measuring periods of time varying from about one-fourth to
  one twenty-thousandth part of a second (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1889, 45,
  p. 452; _The Tram Chronograph_, by F. Jervis-Smith, F.R.S.). It
  consists of a metal girder having a T-shaped end. This carries two
  parallel steel rails, the edges of which lie in the same vertical
  plane. The girder, which is slightly inclined to the horizontal plane,
  is geometrically supported, being carried at its end, and at the
  extremities of the T-piece, on a V-groove, trihedral hole and plane. A
  carriage or tram furnished with three grooved wheels runs on the
  rails, and a slightly smoked glass plate is attached to its vertical
  side. The tram in the original instrument was propelled by a falling
  weight, but in an improved form one or more spiral springs are
  employed. All time traces are made immediately after the propelling
  force has ceased to act. The tram is brought to rest by a gradually
  applied brake, consisting of two crossed leather bands stretched by
  two springs; a projection from the tram runs between the bands, and
  brings it to rest with but little lateral pressure. When, for certain
  physiological experiments, a low velocity of traverse is required, a
  heavy fly-wheel is mounted on the tram and geared to its wheels. A
  pillar also mounted geometrically, placed vertically in front of the
  carriage, carries the electromagnet style or signals and tuning-fork
  which can be brought into contact with the glass by means of a lever.
  Also styli are used which depend for their action on the displacement
  of one or more wires under tension or torsion carrying a current in a
  magnetic field, the condition being such that no magnetic lag due to
  iron armatures and cores exists. Two motions of a slide on the pillar,
  viz. of rotation and translation, allow a number of observations to be
  made. The traces are counted out on a sloping glass desk, and the time
  of flight of a projectile between two or more screens is found. When
  very close readings are required, they are made by means of a
  traversing geometric micrometer microscope. When the distance between
  the screens is known, and also the time of flight, the midpoint
  velocity is found by applying Bashforth's formula. When the velocity
  of shot from a shot-gun has to be found, a thin wire stretched across
  the muzzle takes the place of the first screen, and a thin sheet of
  metal or cardboard carrying an electric contact, or a Branly coherer,
  the conductivity of which is restored by means of an induced current,
  takes the place of the second screen. The electric firing circuit is
  provided with a safety key attached by a cord to the man who loads the
  gun and prepares the electric fuse. The firing circuit is closed by
  inserting the key in a switch at the rear of the gun, thus preventing
  him from getting into the line of fire when the gun is fired by the
  chronograph. The tram, when the instrument is adjusted, has a
  practically constant velocity of traverse.


    Crehore-Squier.

  The polarizing photo-chronograph, designed and used by A.C. Crehore
  and G.O. Squier at the United States Artillery School (_Trans. Amer.
  Inst. Elect. Eng._ vol. 14, and _Journal United States Artillery_,
  1895, 6, p. 271), depends for its indications upon the rotation of a
  beam of light by a magnetic field, produced by a solenoidal current
  which is opened and closed by the passage of the projectile. The
  general arrangement is as follows:--A beam of light from an electric
  lamp traverses a lens, then a Nicol prism, next a glass cylinder
  furnished with plane glass ends and coiled with insulated wire, then
  an analyser and two lenses, finally impinging on a photographic plate
  to which rotation is given by an electric motor, the plane of rotation
  being perpendicular to the direction of the beam of light. The same
  plate also records the shadow of a pierced projection attached to a
  tuning-fork, light from the electric lamp being diverted by a mirror
  for this purpose. The solenoid used to produce a magnetic field across
  the glass cylinder, which is filled with carbon bisulphide, is in
  circuit with a dynamo, resistances, and the screens on the gun range.
  It is a well-known phenomenon in physics that when, with the
  above-mentioned combination of polarizing Nicol prism and analyser,
  the light is shut off by rotating the analyser, it is instantly
  restored when the carbon bisulphide is placed in a magnetic field.
  This phenomenon is utilized in this instrument. The projectile, by
  cutting the wire screens, causes the magnetic field to cease and light
  to pass. By means of an automatic switch the projectile, after cutting
  a screen, restores the electric circuit, so that successive records
  are registered. After a record has been made it is read by means of a
  micrometer microscope, the angle moved through by the photographic
  disk is found, and hence the time period between two events. In the
  photo-chronograph described in _Untersuchungen ueber die Vibration des
  Gewehrlaufs_, by C. Cranz and K.R. Koch (Munich, 1899), also note on
  the same, _Nature_, 61, p. 58, a sensitive plate moving in a straight
  line receives the record of the movement of the barrels of firearms
  when discharged. It was mainly used to determine the "angle or error
  of departure" in ballistics.


    Watkin.

  In a second chronograph by Watkin ("Chronographs and their Application
  to Gun Ballistics," _Proc. Roy. Inst._, 1896), a metal drum, divided
  on its edge so that when a vernier is used a minute of angle may be
  read, is rotated rapidly by a motor at a practically uniform speed.
  The points of a row of steel-pointed pins, screwed into a frame of
  ebonite, can be brought within 1/200 in. of the surface of the drum.
  Each pin is a part of the secondary circuit of an induction coil, the
  space between the pins and the drum forming spark-gaps. The drum is
  rubbed over with a weak solution of paraffin wax in benzol, which
  causes the markings produced by the sparks to be well defined. The
  records are read by means of a fine hair stretched along the drum and
  just clear of it, the dots being located under the hair by means of a
  lens. The velocity of rotation is found by obtaining spark marks, due
  to the primary circuits of two induction coils being successively
  broken by a weight falling and breaking the two electric circuits of
  the coils in succession at a known distance apart. This chronograph
  has been used for finding the velocity of projectiles after leaving
  the gun, and also for finding the rate at which a shot traverses the
  bore. For the latter purpose the shot successively cuts insulated
  wires fixed in plugs screwed into the gun at known intervals; each
  wire forms a part of the primary of an induction coil, and as each is
  cut a dot is made on the rotating drum by the induced spark.


    Deprez.

  In the chronograph of Marcel Deprez, a cylinder for receiving records
  is driven at a high velocity, 4 to 5 metres per second surface
  velocity. The velocity is determined by means of an
  electrically-driven tuning-fork, the traces being read by means of a
  vernier gauge. A mercury speed indicator of the Ramsbottom type
  enables the rotation to be continuously controlled (A. Favarger,
  _L'Electricite et ses applications a la chronometrie_).


    Dent.

  _Astronomical Chronographs._--The astronomical chronograph is an
  instrument whereby an observer is enabled to register the time of
  transit of a star on a sheet of paper attached to a revolving
  cylinder. A metal cylinder covered with a sheet of paper is rotated by
  clockwork controlled by a conical pendulum, or by a centrifugal clock
  governor such as is used for driving a telescope. By means of a screw
  longer than the cylinder, mounted parallel with the axis of the
  cylinder and rotated by the clockwork, a carriage is made to traverse
  close to the paper. In some instruments this carriage is furnished
  with a metal point, and in others with a stylographic ink pen. The
  point or pen is made to touch the paper by an electromagnet, the
  electric current of which is closed by the observer at the transit
  instrument, and a mark is recorded on the revolving cylinder. The
  movement of the same point or pen is also controlled by a standard
  clock, so that at the end of each second a mark is made. The cylinder
  makes one revolution per minute, and the minute is indicated by the
  omission of the mark. In E.J. Dent's form (_Nature_, 23, p. 59)
  continuous observations can be recorded for 6-2/3 hours. The conical
  pendulum used to govern the rotation of the cylinder was the invention
  of Sir G.B. Airy. The lower end is geared to a metal plate which
  sweeps through an annular trough filled with glycerin and water. When
  the path of the pendulum exceeds a certain diameter it causes the
  plate to enter the liquid more deeply, its motion being thereby
  checked; also, when the pendulum moves in a smaller circle the plate
  is lifted out of the liquid and the resistance is diminished in the
  same proportion as the force. The compensatory action is considerable;
  doubling the driving power produces no perceptible difference in the
  time. To prevent the injury of the conical pendulum and the wheel work
  by any sudden check of the cylinder, a ratch-wheel connexion is placed
  between the cylinder and the train of wheel work; this enables the
  pendulum to run on until it gradually comes to rest. The pendulum,
  which weighs about 18 lb, is compensated, and makes one revolution in
  two seconds; it is suspended from a bracket by means of two flexible
  steel springs placed at right angles to one another.

  The observatory of Washburn, University of Wisconsin, is furnished
  with a chronograph of the same type as that of Dent (_Annals Harvard
  Coll. Obs._ vol. i. pt. ii. p. 34), but in this instrument the
  rotation of the cylinder is controlled by a double conical pendulum
  governor of peculiar construction. When the balls fly out beyond a
  certain point, one of them engages with a hook attached to a brass
  cylinder which embraces the vertical axle loosely. When this mass is
  pulled aside the work done on it diminishes the speed of the governor.
  The pendulum ball usually strikes the hook from 60 to 70 times per
  minute. Governors on this principle were adopted by Alvan Clark for
  driving heliostats in the United States Transit of Venus Expedition,
  1874.


    Grubb.

  In the astronomical chronograph designed by Sir Howard Grubb (_Proc.
  Inst. Mech. Eng._, July 1888), the recording cylinders--two in
  number--are driven by a weight acting on a train of wheel work
  controlled by an astronomical telescope governor. The peculiar feature
  of this instrument is that the axle is geared to a shaft which
  communicates motion to the cylinders through a mechanism whereby the
  speed of rotation is constantly corrected by a standard clock. Should
  the rotation fall below the correct speed it is automatically
  accelerated, and if its speed of rotation rises above the correct one
  it is retarded. The accelerator and retarder are thrown into action by
  electromagnets, controlled by a "detector" mounted on the same shaft.
  The rather complicated mechanism employed to effect the correction is
  described and fully illustrated in the reference given. The cylinders
  are covered with paper, but all the markings are made with a
  stylographic pen. The marks indicating seconds are dots, but those
  made by the observer are short lines. When an observation is about to
  be made the observer first notes the hour and minute, and, by pressing
  a contact key attached to a flexible cord at the transit instrument,
  marks the paper with a letter in Morse telegraph characters,
  indicating the hour and minute; he then waits till a micrometer wire
  cuts a star and at the instant closes the circuit, so that the second
  and fraction of a second are registered on the chronograph paper. When
  a set of observations have been taken, the paper is removed from the
  cylinder, and the same results are obtained by applying a suitably
  divided rule to the marked paper, fractions of a second being
  estimated by applying a piece of glass ruled with eleven straight
  lines converging to a point. The ends of these lines on the base of
  the triangle so formed are equidistant on one edge of the glass, so
  that when the first and last lines are so placed as to coincide with
  the beginning and end of the markings of a second, that second is
  divided into ten equal parts. The base of the triangle is always kept
  parallel with the line of dots. The papers, after they have been
  examined and the results registered, are kept for reference.


    Hipp.

  In the astronomical chronograph of Hipp, used in determining
  longitudes, the movement of a recording cylinder is regulated by means
  of a toothed wheel, the last of a clockwork train, controlled by a
  vibrating metal tongue; this important feature is described in detail
  in Favarger's work cited above.


    Regnault.

  _Acoustic Chronographs._--In the chronograph devised by H.V. Regnault
  (_Acad. des Sc._, 1868) to determine the velocity of sound propagated
  through a great length of pipe, a band of paper 27 mm. wide was
  continuously unrolled from a bobbin by means of an electromagnetic
  engine. In its passage over a pulley it passed over a smoky lamp
  flame, which covered it with a thin deposit of carbon. It next passed
  over a cylinder in contact with the style of a tuning-fork kept in
  vibration by electromagnets placed on either side of its prongs, the
  current being interrupted by the fork; it was also in contact with an
  electric signal controlled by a standard clock. Also an
  electromagnetic signal marked the beginning and end of a time period.
  Thus three markings were registered on the band, viz. the time of the
  pendulum, the vibrations of the fork, and the marking of the signal
  due to the opening and closing of the current by electrical contacts
  attached to diaphragms on which the sound wave acted. The contacts
  consisted of minute hammers resting on metal points fixed to the
  centre of diaphragms which closed the end of the experimental pipes.
  The signal marked the instant at which a sound wave impinged on a
  diaphragm. The markings on the paper band gave the period of time
  between two events, and the number of vibrations of the tuning-fork
  per second was estimated by means of markings due to the clock. The
  sound wave was usually originated by firing a pistol into the pipe
  furnished with diaphragms and contact pieces.


    Ayrton and Perry.

  In the chronographic use of the Morse telegraph instrument (Stewart
  and Gee, _Elementary Practical Phys._ p. 234) a circuit is arranged
  which includes a seconds' pendulum furnished with a fine platinum wire
  below the bob, which sweeps through a small mass of mercury forming a
  part of the circuit. There is a Morse key for closing the circuit. A
  fast-running Morse instrument and a battery are placed across this
  circuit as a shunt. A succession of dots is made on the paper ribbon
  by the circuit being closed by the pendulum, and the space between
  each adjacent dot indicates a period of one second's duration. Also,
  when the key is depressed, a mark is made on the paper. To measure a
  period of time, the key is depressed at the beginning and end of the
  period, causing two dots to be made on the ribbon; the interval
  between these, when measured by the intervals due to the pendulum,
  gives the length of the period in seconds, and also in fractions of a
  second, when the seconds' interval is subdivided into convenient equal
  parts. This apparatus has been used in determination of the velocity
  of sound. In the break circuit arrangement of pendulum key and Morse
  instrument the markings appear as breaks in a line which would
  otherwise be continuous. This combination was employed by Professors
  W.E. Ayrton and J. Perry in their determination of the acceleration of
  gravity at Tokio, 1877-1878 (_Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond._ 3, p. 268).


    Hipp.

    Mayer.

  In the tuning-fork electro-chronograph attributed to Hipp a metal
  cylinder covered with smoked glazed paper is rotated uniformly by
  clockwork, a tuning-fork armed with a metallic style being so adjusted
  that it makes a clear fine line on the smoked paper. The tuning-fork
  is placed in the secondary circuit of an induction coil, so that when
  the primary circuit is broken an induced spark removes a speck of
  black from the paper and leaves a mark. The time period is deduced by
  counting the number of vibrations and fractions of vibration of the
  tuning-fork as recorded by a sinuous line on the cylinder. In later
  forms of this instrument the cylinder advances as it rotates, and a
  spiral line is traced. To obtain good results the spark must be very
  small, for when large it often leaps laterally from the end of the
  style, and does not give the true position of the style when the
  circuit is broken. The same arrangement of tuning-fork and revolving
  cylinder, with the addition of a standard clock, has been used by A.M.
  Mayer (_Trans. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A._ vol. iii.) and others for
  calibrating tuning-forks, and comparing their vibrations directly with
  the beats of the pendulum of a standard clock the rate of which is
  known. The pendulum marks and breaks the primary circuit by carrying a
  small platinum wire through a small mercury meniscus. Better and
  apparently certain contacts can be obtained from platinum
  contact-pieces, brought together above the pendulum by means of a
  toothed wheel on the scape-wheel arbor. Sparking at the contact points
  is greatly reduced by placing a couple of lead plates in dilute
  sulphuric acid as a shunt across the battery circuit.


    Fick.

  _For Physiological Purposes._--A. Fick's pendulum myograph or
  muscle-trace recorder is described in _Vierteljahrsschr. der
  naturforsch. Ges. in Zuerich_, 1862, S. 307, and in _Text-book of
  Physiology_, M. Foster, pp. 42, 45. It was used to obtain a record of
  the contraction of a muscle when stimulated. In many respects the
  instrument is similar to the electro-ballistic chronograph of Navez. A
  long pendulum, consisting of a braced metal frame, carries at its
  lower end a sheet of smoked glass. The pendulum swings about an axis
  supported by a wall bracket. Previous to an experiment, the pendulum
  is held on one side of its lowest position by a spring catch; when
  this is depressed it is free to swing. At the end of its swing it
  engages with another spring catch. In front of the moving glass plate
  a tuning-fork is fixed, also a lever actuated by the muscle to be
  electrically stimulated. When the pendulum swings through its arc, it
  knocks over the contact key in the primary circuit of an induction
  coil, the secondary of which is in connexion with the muscle. The
  smoked plate receives the traces of the style of the tuning-fork and
  of the lever attached to the muscle, and also the trace of an
  electromagnetic signal which marks the instant at which the primary
  circuit is broken. After the traces are made, they are ruled through
  with radial lines, cutting the three traces, and the time intervals
  between different parts of the muscle curve are measured in terms of
  the period of vibration of the tuning-fork, as in other chronographs
  in which the tuning-fork is employed.


    Du Bois Reymond.

  In the spring myograph of E. Du Bois Reymond (Munk's _Physiologie des
  Menschen_, p. 398) a smoked glass plate attached to a metal rod is
  shot by a spiral spring along two guides with a velocity which is not
  uniform. The traces of a style moved by the muscle under examination,
  and of a tuning-fork, are recorded on the glass plate, the shooter
  during its traverse knocking over one or more electric keys, which
  break the primary circuit of an induction coil, the induced current
  stimulating the muscle.


    Burch.

  In the photo-electric chronograph devised by G.J. Burch, F.R.S.
  (_Journ. of Physiology_, 18, p. 125; _Electrician_, 37, p.436), the
  rapid movements of the column of mercury in a capillary electrometer
  used in physiological research are recorded on a sensitive plate
  moving at a uniform angular velocity. The trace of the vibrating
  prongs of a tuning-fork of known period is also recorded on the plate,
  the light used being that of the electric arc. The images of the
  meniscus of the mercury column and of the moving fork are focused on
  the plate by a lens. Excellent results have been obtained with this
  instrument.


    Marey.

  An important development of a branch of chronography is due to E.J.
  Marey (_Comptes rendus_, 7. aout 1882, and _Le Mouvement_, par E.J.
  Marey, Paris, 1894), who employed a photographic plate for receiving
  successive pictures of moving objects, at definite times, when
  investigating the movements of animals, birds, fishes, insects, and
  also microscopic objects such as vorticellae. The instrument in one of
  its forms consisted of a camera and lens. In front of the sensitive
  plate and close to it a disk, pierced with radial slits, revolved at a
  given angular velocity, and each time a slit passed by the plate was
  exposed. But since, in the time of passage of the space between the
  slits, the object had moved by a certain amount across the field of
  view, a fresh impression was produced at each exposure. The object,
  well illuminated by sunlight, moved in front of a black background.
  Since the angular velocity of the disk was known, and the number of
  slits, the time between the successive positions of the object was
  also known.

  Marey (_La Methode graphique_, pp. 133, 142, 456), by means of
  pneumatic signals and a rotating cylinder covered with smoked glazed
  paper, measured the time of the movements of the limbs of animals. The
  instrument consists of a recording cylinder rotated at a uniform
  angular velocity by clockwork controlled by a fan governor, and
  pneumatic signal, constructed thus. One end of a closed shallow
  cylinder, about 4 cm. dia., is furnished with a stretched rubber
  membrane. A light lever, moving about an axis near the edge of the
  cylinder, is attached to the centre of the membrane by a short rod,
  its free end moving as the membrane is distended. The cylinder is
  connected by a flexible tube with a similar cylinder and membrane, but
  without a lever, which is attached to that part of the body of the
  animal the movement of which is under investigation. The system is
  full of air, so that when the membrane attached to the animal is
  compressed, the membrane which moves the lever is distended and the
  lever moved. Its end, which carries a scribing point, marks the smoked
  paper on the rotating cylinder. The pneumatic signal is called by
  Marey "tambour a levier."

  _References to Chronographic Methods:_--(1) Chronographs used in
  Physiology: Helmholtz, "On Methods of measuring very small Portions of
  Time," _Phil. Mag._ (1853), 6; Id., _Verhandlungen der
  physikalisch-medicinischen Gesellschaft in Wuerzburg_ (1872); Harless,
  "Das Attwood'sche Myographion," _Abhandlungen der k. bayerischen
  Akademie der Wissenschaften_ (1862); Id., _Fall-Myographion
  aufgestellt in der Wiener Weltausstellung in der Abteilung fuer das
  Unterrichtswesen von Ungarn_ (Budapest, 1873); Hensen, "Myographion
  mit vibratorischer Bewegung," _Arbeiten aus dem Kieler physiol.
  Instit._ (1868); Bruecke, _Sitzungsber. d Wien. Acad._ (1877); Pflueger,
  "Myographion ohne Bewegung," _Untersuchungen ueber die Physiologie des
  Electrotonus_ (1859); Pouillet, _Compt. rend._ (1844); I. Munk,
  _Physiologie des Menschen_ (for Pflueger's cylinder governed by conical
  pendulum); J.G. M'Kendrick, _Life in Motion_ (1892) (for early form of
  cylinder chronograph by Thomas Young); Stirling, _Outlines of
  Practical Physiology_ (for reaction-time chronographs of F. Galton and
  Exner). (2) Chronographs used in gun work and for other purposes:
  Sabine, _Phil. Mag._ (1876); Moisson, _Notice sur la chronographie
  systeme Schultz_ (Paris, 1875); Paul la Cour, _La Roue phonique_
  (Copenhagen, 1878); Mach, "Collected Papers on Chronographs,"
  _Nature_, 42, p. 250; C.V. Boys, "Bullets photographed in Flight,"
  _Nature_, 47, p. 415; Pneumatic Tube Co., Paris, "Chronograph,"
  _Nature_, 9, p. 105; G.C. Foster, "Laboratory Chronograph," _Nature_,
  13, p. 139; E.S. Holden, "Astronomical Chronograph," _Nature_, 26, p.
  368; D'Arsonval, _La Lumiere electrique_ (1887); Dunn, "The
  Photo-retardograph," _Journal United States Artillery_, 8, p. 29; E.J.
  Marey, _La Methode graphique_ (for Deprez accelerographe); Werner
  Siemens, "Electric Spark Chronograph," _Wied. Ann._ (1845), 66.
     (F. J. J. -S.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] The velocity of the projectile is found thus. Let V be the
    velocity of the bob, due to the impact of the projectile, _v_ the
    velocity of the projectile, _h_ the height through which the bob is
    raised vertically, then

          V squared            ___
      h = --, and V = \/2gh.
          2g

    If W be the weight of the bob, and _w_ the weight of the projectile,
    then

                              / W     \    ___
      wv = (W + w)V, and v = ( --- + 1 ) \/2gh.
                              \ w     /

    If _l_ be the true length of suspension, and C the length of the
    chord of the arc of displacement of the bob after being struck, then

                                        ___
                         / W     \     / g
      C squared = 2hl, and v = ( --- + 1 )   / --- . C.
                         \  w    /  \/   l

    Also if T be the time of a complete small oscillation of the
    pendulum,

                  ___
      2[pi]      / g
      ----- =   / ---,
        T     \/   l

                 / W     \  2[pi]C
    so that v = ( --- + 1 ) ------.
                 \ w     /     T




CHRONOLOGY (Gr. [Greek: chronologia], computation of time, [Greek:
chronos]), the science which treats of time, its object being to arrange
and exhibit the various events which have occurred in the history of the
world in the order of their succession, and to ascertain the intervals
of time between them. The term "chronology" is also used of the order in
time itself, as adopted, and of the system by which the order is fixed.

The preservation of any record, however rude, of the lapse of time
implies some knowledge of the celestial motions, by which alone time can
be accurately measured, and some advancement in the arts of civilized
life, which could be attained only by the accumulated experience of many
generations (see TIME). Before the invention of letters the memory of
past transactions could not be preserved beyond a few years with any
tolerable degree of accuracy. Events which greatly affected the physical
condition of the human race, or were of a nature to make a deep
impression on the minds of the rude inhabitants of the earth, might be
vaguely transmitted through several ages by traditional narrative; but
intervals of time, expressed by abstract numbers, and these constantly
varying besides, would soon escape the memory. The invention of the art
of writing afforded the means of substituting precise and permanent
records for vague and evanescent tradition; but in the infancy of the
world, mankind had learned neither to estimate accurately the duration
of time, nor to refer passing events to any fixed epoch.

For these reasons the attempt at an accurate chronology of the early
ages of the world is only of recent origin. After political relations
began to be established, the necessity of preserving a register of
passing seasons and years would soon be felt, and the practice of
recording important transactions must have grown up as a necessary
consequence of social life. But of these deliberate early records a very
small portion only has escaped the ravages of time and barbarism.

The earliest written annals of the Greeks, Etruscans and Romans are
irretrievably lost. The traditions of the Druids perished with them. A
Chinese emperor has the credit of burning "the books" extant in his day
(about 220 B.C.), and of burying alive the scholars who were acquainted
with them. And a Spanish adventurer destroyed the picture records which
were found in the _pueblo_ of Montezuma.

Of the more formal historical writings in which the first ineffectual
attempts were made in the direction of systematic chronology we have no
knowledge at first-hand. Of Hellanicus, the Greek logographer, who
appears to have lived through the greater part of the 5th century B.C.,
and who drew up a chronological list of the priestesses of Here at
Argos; of Ephorus, who lived in the 4th century B.C., and is
distinguished as the first Greek who attempted the composition of a
universal history; and of Timaeus, who in the following century wrote an
elaborate history of Sicily, in which he set the example of using the
Olympiads as the basis of chronology, the works have perished and our
meagre knowledge of their contents is derived only from fragmentary
citations in later writers. The same fate has befallen the works of
Berossus and Manetho, Eratosthenes and Apollodorus. Berossus, a priest
of Belus living at Babylon in the 3rd century B.C., added to his
historical account of Babylonia a chronological list of its kings, which
he claimed to have compiled from genuine archives preserved in the
temple. Manetho, likewise a priest, living at Sebennytus in Lower Egypt
in the 3rd century B.C., wrote in Greek a history of Egypt, with an
account of its thirty dynasties of sovereigns, which he professed to
have drawn from genuine archives in the keeping of the priests. Of these
works fragments only, more or less copious and accurate, have been
preserved. Eratosthenes, who in the latter half of the 2nd century B.C.
was keeper of the famous Alexandrian library, not only made himself a
great name by his important work on geography, but by his treatise
entitled _Chronographia_, one of the first attempts to establish an
exact scheme of general chronology, earned for himself the title of
"father of chronology." His method of procedure, however, was usually
conjectural; and guess-work, however careful, acute and plausible, is
still guess-work and not testimony. Apollodorus, an Athenian who
flourished in the middle of the 2nd century B.C., wrote a metrical
chronicle of events, ranging from the supposed period of the fall of
Troy to his own day. These writers were followed by other investigators
and systematizers in the same field, but their works are lost. Of the
principal later writers whose works are extant, and to whom we owe what
little knowledge we possess of the labours of their predecessors,
mention will be made hereafter.

The absence or incompleteness of authentic records, however, is not the
only source of obscurity and confusion in the chronology of remote ages.
There can be no exact computation of time or placing of events without
a fixed point or epoch from which the reckoning takes its start. It was
long before this was apprehended. When it began to be seen, various
epochs were selected by various writers; and at first each small
separate community had its own epoch and method of time-reckoning. Thus
in one city the reckoning was by succession of kings, in another by
archons or annual magistrates, in a third by succession of priests. It
seems now surprising that vague counting by generations should so long
have prevailed and satisfied the wants of inquiring men, and that so
simple, precise and seemingly obvious a plan as counting by years, the
largest natural division of time, did not occur to any investigator
before Eratosthenes.

Precision, which was at first unattainable for want of an epoch, was
afterwards no less unattainable from the multiplicity, and sometimes the
variation, of epochs. But by a natural process the mischief was
gradually and partially remedied. The extension of intercourse between
the various small groups or societies of men, and still more their union
in larger groups, made a common epoch necessary, and led to the adoption
of such a starting point by each larger group. These leading epochs
continued in use for many centuries. The task of the chronologer was
thus simplified and reduced to a study and comparison of dates in a few
leading systems.

The most important of these systems in what we call ancient times were
the Babylonian, the Greek and the Roman. The Jews had no general era,
properly so called. In the history of Babylonia, the fixed point from
which time was reckoned was the era of Nabonassar, 747 B.C. Among the
Greeks the reckoning was by Olympiads, the point of departure being the
year in which Coroebus was victor in the Olympic Games, 776 B.C. The
Roman chronology started from the foundation of the city, the year of
which, however, was variously given by different authors. The most
generally adopted was that assigned by Varro, 753 B.C. It is noteworthy
how nearly these three great epochs approach each other,--all lying near
the middle of the 8th century B.C. But it is to be remembered that the
beginning of an era and its adoption and use as such are not the same
thing, nor are they necessarily synchronous. Of the three ancient eras
above spoken of, the earliest is that of the Olympiads, next that of the
foundation of Rome, and the latest the era of Nabonassar. But in order
of adoption and actual usage the last is first. It is believed to have
been in use from the year of its origin. It is not known when the Romans
began to use their era. The Olympiads were not in current use till about
the middle of the 3rd century B.C., when Timaeus, as already mentioned,
set the example of reckoning by them.

Even after the adoption in Europe of the Christian era, a great variety
of methods of dating--national, provincial and ecclesiastical--grew up
and prevailed for a long time in different countries, thus renewing in
modern times the difficulties experienced in ancient times from
diversities of reckoning. An acquaintance with these various methods is
indispensable to the student of the charters, chronicles and legal
instruments of the middle ages.

In reckoning years from any fixed epoch in constant succession, the
number denoting the years is necessarily always on the increase. But
rude nations and illiterate people seldom attach any definite idea to
large numbers. Hence it has been a practice, very extensively followed,
to employ cycles or periods, consisting of a moderate number of years,
and to distinguish and reckon the years by their number in the cycle.
The Chinese and other nations of Asia reckon, not only the years, but
also the months and days, by cycles of sixty. The Saros of the
Chaldaeans, the Olympiad of the Greeks, and the Roman Indiction are
instances of this mode of reckoning time. Several cycles were formerly
known in Europe; but most of them were invented for the purpose of
adjusting the solar and lunar divisions of time, and were rather
employed in the regulation of the calendar than as chronological eras.
They are frequently, however, of very great use in fixing dates that
have been otherwise imperfectly expressed, and consequently form
important elements of chronology.    (W. L. R. C.)


_Modern Results of Archaeological Research_.

When Queen Victoria came to the English throne, 4004 B.C. was still
accepted, in all sobriety, as the date of the creation of the world.
Perhaps no single statement could more vividly emphasize the change in
the point of view from which scholars regard the chronology of ancient
history than the citation of this indisputable fact. To-day, though
Bibles are still printed with the year 4004 B.C. in the margin of the
first chapter of Genesis, no scholar would pretend to regard this
reference seriously. On the contrary, the scholarship of to-day regards
the fifth millennium B.C. as well within the historical period for such
nations as the Egyptians and the Babylonians. It has come to be fully
accepted that when we use such a phrase as "the age of the world" we are
dealing with a period that must be measured not in thousands but in
millions of years; and that to the age of man must be allotted a period
some hundreds of times as great as the five thousand and odd years
allowed by the old chronologists. This changed point of view, needless
to say, has not been reached without ardent and even bitter controversy.
Yet the transformation is unequivocal; and the revised conception no
longer seems to connote the theological implications that were at first
ascribed to it. It has now become obvious that the data afforded by the
Hebrew writings should never have been regarded as sufficiently accurate
for the purpose of exact historical computations: that, in short, no
historian working along modern scientific lines could well have made the
mistake of supposing that the genealogical lists of the Pentateuch
afforded an adequate chronology of world-history. But it should not be
forgotten that to many generations of close scholarship these
genealogical lists seemed to convey such knowledge in the most precise
terms, and that at so recent a date as, for example, the year in which
Queen Victoria came to the throne, it was nothing less than a rank
heresy to question the historical accuracy and finality of chronologies
which had no other source or foundation.

This changed point of view regarding the chronology of history may
without hesitation be ascribed to the influence of evidence obtained in
a single field of inquiry, the field, namely, of archaeology. No doubt
the evidence as to the age of the earth and as to the antiquity of man
was gathered by a class of workers not formally included in the ranks of
the archaeologist: workers commonly spoken of as palaeontologists,
anthropologists, ethnologists and the like. But the distinction scarcely
covers a real difference. The scope of the archaeologist's studies must
include every department of the ancient history of man as preserved in
antiquities of whatever character, be they tumuli along the Baltic,
fossil skulls and graven bones from the caves of France, the flint
implements, pottery, and mummies of Egypt, tablets and bas-reliefs from
Mesopotamia, coins and sculptures of Greece and Rome, or inscriptions,
waxen tablets, parchment rolls, and papyri of a relatively late period
of classical antiquity. If at one time the monuments of Greece and Rome
claimed the almost undisputed attention of the archaeologist, that time
has long since passed. For the most important historical records that
have come to us in recent decades we have to thank the Orientalist,
though the classical explorer has been by no means idle. It will be
sufficient here to point out in general terms the import of the message
of archaeological discovery in the Victorian Era in its bearings upon
the great problems of world-history.


  Chronology of ancient history.

A start was made through the efforts of the palaeontologists and
geologists, with only indirect or incidental aid from the
archaeologists. The new movement began actively with James Hutton in the
later years of the 18th century, and was forwarded by the studies of
William Smith in England and of Cuvier in France; but the really
efficient champion of the conception that the earth is very old was Sir
Charles Lyell, who published the first edition of his epoch-making
_Principles of Geology_ only a few years before Queen Victoria came to
the throne. Lyell demonstrated to the satisfaction, or--perhaps it
should rather be said--to the dissatisfaction, of his contemporaries
that the story of the geological ages as recorded in the strata of the
earth becomes intelligible only when vast stretches of time are
presupposed. Of course the demonstration was not accepted at once. On
the contrary, the champions of the tradition that the earth was less
than six thousand years old held their ground most tenaciously, and the
earlier years of the Victorian era were years of bitter controversy. The
result of the contest was never in doubt, however, for the geological
evidence, once it had been gathered, was unequivocal; and by about the
middle of the century it was pretty generally admitted that the age of
the earth must be measured by an utterly different standard from that
hitherto in vogue. This concession, however, by no means implied a like
change of view regarding the age of man. A fresh volume of evidence
required to be gathered, and a new controversy to be waged, before the
old data for the creation of man could be abandoned. Lyell again was in
the forefront of the progressive movement, and his work on _The
Antiquity of Man_, published in 1863, gave currency for the first time
to the new opinions. The evidence upon which these opinions were based
had been gathered by such anthropologists as Schmerling, Boucher de
Perthes and others, and it had to do chiefly with the finding of
implements of human construction associated with the remains of extinct
animals in the beds of caves, and with the recovery of similar
antiquities from alluvial deposits the great age of which was
demonstrated by their depth. Every item of the evidence was naturally
subjected to the closest scrutiny, but at last the conservatives were
forced reluctantly to confess themselves beaten. Their traditional
arguments were powerless before the array of data marshalled by the new
science of prehistoric archaeology. Looking back even at the short
remove of a single generation, it is difficult to appreciate how
revolutionary was the conception of the antiquity of man thus
inculcated. It rudely shocked the traditional attitude of scholarship
towards the history of our race. It disturbed the most cherished
traditions and the most sacred themes. It seemed to threaten the very
foundations of religion itself. Yet the present generation accepts the
antiquity of man as a mere matter of fact. Here, as so often elsewhere,
the heresy of an elder day has come to seem almost an axiomatic truth.

If we go back in imagination to the beginning of the Victorian era and
ask what was then known of the history of Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia and
Asia Minor, we find ourselves confronted with a startling paucity of
knowledge. The key to the mysteries of Egyptian history had indeed been
found, thanks to the recent efforts of Thomas Young and Champollion, but
the deciphering of inscriptions had not yet progressed far enough to
give more than a vague inkling of what was to follow. It remained, then,
virtually true, as it had been for two thousand years, that for all that
we could learn of the history of the Old Orient in pre-classical days,
we must go solely to the pages of the Bible and to a few classical
authors, notably Herodotus and Diodorus. A comparatively few pages
summed up, in language often vague and mystical, all that the modern
world had been permitted to remember of the history of the greatest
nations of antiquity. To these nations the classical writers had
ascribed a traditional importance, the glamour of which still lighted
their names, albeit revealing them in the vague twilight of tradition
rather than in the clear light of history. It would have been a bold,
not to say a reckless, dreamer who dared predict that any future
researches could restore to us the lost knowledge that had been
forgotten for more than two millenniums. Yet the Victorian era was
scarcely ushered in before the work of rehabilitation began, which was
to lead to the most astounding discoveries and to an altogether
unprecedented extension of historical knowledge. Early in the 'forties
the Frenchman Botta, quickly followed by Sir Henry Layard, began making
excavations on the site of ancient Nineveh, the name and fame of which
were a tradition having scarcely more than mythical status. The spade of
the discoverer soon showed that all the fabled glories of the ancient
Assyrian capital were founded on realities, and evidence was afforded of
a state of civilization and culture such as few men supposed to have
existed on the earth before the Golden Age of Greece. Not merely were
artistic sculptures and bas-reliefs found that demonstrated a high
development of artistic genius, but great libraries were soon
revealed,--books consisting of bricks of various sizes, or of cylinders
of the same material, inscribed while in the state of clay with curious
characters which became indelible when baking transformed the clay into
brick. No one was able to guess, even in the vaguest way, the exact
interpretation of these odd characters; but, on the other hand, no one
could doubt that they constituted a system of writing, and that the
piles of inscribed tablets were veritable books. There were numerous
sceptics, however, who did not hesitate to assert that the import of the
message so obviously locked in these curious inscriptions must for ever
remain an absolute mystery. Here, it was said, were inscriptions written
in an unknown character and in a language that for at least two thousand
years had been absolutely forgotten. In such circumstances nothing less
than a miracle could enable human ingenuity to fathom the secret. Yet
the feat pronounced impossible by mid-century scepticism was
accomplished by contemporary scholarship, amidst the clamour of
opposition and incredulity. Its success contains at once a warning to
those doubters who are always crying out that we have reached the
limitations of knowledge, and an encouragement and stimulus to would-be
explorers of new intellectual realms.

In a few words the manner of the discovery was this. It appears at a
glance that the Assyrian written character consists of groups of
horizontal, vertical or oblique strokes. The characters thus composed,
though so simple as to their basal unit, are appallingly complex in
their elaboration. The Assyrians with all their culture, never attained
the stage of analysis which demonstrates that only a few fundamental
sounds are involved in human speech, and hence that it is possible to
express all the niceties of utterance with an alphabet of little more
than a score of letters. Halting just short of this analysis, the
Assyrian ascribed syllabic values to the characters of his script, and
hence, instead of finding twenty odd characters sufficient, he required
about five hundred. There was a further complication in that each one of
these characters had at least two different phonetic values; and there
were other intricacies of usage which, had they been foreknown by
inquirers in the middle of the 19th century, might well have made the
problem of decipherment seem an utterly hopeless one. Fortunately it
chanced that another people, the Persians, had adopted the Assyrian
wedge-shaped stroke as the foundation of a written character, but making
that analysis of which the Assyrians had fallen short, had borrowed only
so many characters as were necessary to represent the alphabetical
sounds. This made the problem of deciphering Persian inscriptions a
relatively easy one. In point of fact this problem had been partially
solved in the early days of the 19th century, thanks to the sagacious
guesses of the German philologist Grotefend. Working with some
inscriptions from Persepolis which were found to contain references to
Darius and Xerxes, Grotefend had established the phonetic values of
certain of the Persian characters, and his successors were perfecting
the discovery just about the time when the new Assyrian finds were made.
It chanced that there existed on the polished surface of a cliff at
Behistun in western Persia a tri-lingual inscription which, according to
Diodorus, had been made by Queen Semiramis of Nineveh, but which, as is
now known, was really the work of King Darius. One of the languages of
this inscription was Persian; another, as it now appeared, was Assyrian,
the language of the newly discovered books from the libraries of
Nineveh. There was reason to suppose that the inscriptions were
identical in meaning; and fortunately it proved, when the inscriptions
were made accessible to investigation through the efforts of Sir Henry
Rawlinson, that the Persian inscription contained a large number of
proper names. It was well known that proper names are usually
transcribed from one language into another with a tolerably close
retention of their original sounds. For example, the Greek names
_Ptolemaios_ and _Kleopatra_ became a part of the Egyptian language and
appeared regularly in Egyptian inscriptions after Alexander's general
became king of Egypt. Similarly, the Greek names _Kyros_, _Dareios_ and
_Xerxes_ were as close an imitation as practicable of the native names
of these Persian monarchs. Assuming, then, that the proper names found
in the Persian portion of the Behistun inscription occurred also in the
Assyrian portion, retaining virtually the same sound in each, a clue to
the phonetic values of a large number of the Assyrian characters was
obviously at hand. Phonetic values known, Assyrian was found to be a
Semitic language cognate to Hebrew.

These clues were followed up by a considerable number of investigators,
with Sir Henry Rawlinson in the van. Thanks to their efforts, the new
science of Assyriology came into being, and before long the message of
the Assyrian books had ceased to be an enigma. Of course this work was
not accomplished in a day or in a year, but, considering the
difficulties to be overcome, it was carried forward with marvellous
expedition. In 1857 the new scholarship was put to a famous test, in
which the challenge thrown down by Sir George Cornewall Lewis and Ernest
Renan was met by Rawlinson, Hincks, Oppert and Fox Talbot in a
conclusive manner. The sceptics had declared that the new science of
Assyriology was itself a myth: that the investigators, self-deceived,
had in reality only invented a language and read into the Assyrian
inscriptions something utterly alien to the minds of the Assyrians
themselves. But when a committee of the Royal Asiatic Society, with
George Grote at its head, decided that the translations of an Assyrian
text made independently by the scholars just named were at once
perfectly intelligible and closely in accord with one another,
scepticism was silenced, and the new science was admitted to have made
good its claims.

Naturally the early investigators did not fathom all the niceties of the
language, and the work of grammatical investigation has gone on
continuously under the auspices of a constantly growing band of workers.
Doubtless much still remains to be done; but the essential thing, from
the present standpoint, is that a sufficient knowledge of the Assyrian
language has been acquired to ensure trustworthy translations of the
cuneiform texts. Meanwhile, the material found by Botta and Layard, and
other successors, in the ruins of Nineveh, has been constantly augmented
through the efforts of companies of other investigators, and not merely
Assyrian, but much earlier Babylonian and Chaldaean texts in the
greatest profusion have been brought to the various museums of Europe
and America. The study of these different inscriptions has utterly
revolutionized our knowledge of Oriental history. Many of the documents
are strictly historical in their character, giving full and accurate
contemporary accounts of events that occurred some thousands of years
ago. Exact dates are fixed for long series of events that previously
were quite unknown. Monarchs whose very names had been forgotten are
restored to history, and the records of their deeds inscribed under
their very eyes are before us,--contemporary documents such as neither
Greece nor Rome could boast, nor any other nation, with the single
exception of Egypt, until strictly modern times. There are, no doubt,
gaps in the record; there are long periods for which the chronology is
still uncertain. Naturally there is an increasing vagueness as one
recedes farther into the past, and for the earlier history of Chaldaea
there is great uncertainty. Nevertheless, the Assyriologist speaks with
a good deal of confidence of dates as remote as 3800 B.C., the time
ascribed to King Sargon, who was once regarded as a mythical person, but
is now known to have been an actual monarch. Indeed, there are tablets
in the British Museum labelled 4500 B.C.; and later researches,
particularly those of the expedition of the University of Pennsylvania
at Nippur, have brought us evidence which, interpreted with the aid of
estimates as to the average rate of accumulation of dust deposits, leads
to the inference that a high state of civilization had been attained in
Mesopotamia at least 9000 years ago.

While the Assyriologists have been making these astonishing revelations,
the Egyptologists have not been behindhand. Such scholars as Lepsius,
Brugsch, de Rouge, Lenormant, Birch, Mariette, Maspero and Erman have
perfected the studies of Young and Champollion; while at the same time
these and a considerable company of other explorers, most notable of
whom are Gardner Wilkinson and Professor Flinders Petrie, have brought
to light a vast accumulation of new material, much of which has the
highest importance from the standpoint of the historian. Lists of kings
found on the temple wall at Abydos, in the fragments of the Turin
papyrus and elsewhere, have cleared up many doubtful points in the lists
of Manetho, and at the same time, as Professor Petrie has pointed out,
have proved to us how true a historian that much-discussed writer was.
Manetho, it will be recalled, was the Egyptian who wrote the history of
Egypt in Greek in the time of the Ptolemies. His work in the original
unfortunately perished, and all that we know of it we learn through
excerpts made by a few later classical writers. These fragments have
until recently, however, given us our only clue to the earlier periods
of Egyptian history. Until corroboration was found in the Egyptian
inscriptions themselves, not only were Manetho's lists in doubt, but
scepticism had been carried to the point of denying that Manetho himself
had ever existed. This is only one of many cases where the
investigations of the archaeologist have proved not iconoclastic but
reconstructive, tending to restore confidence in classical traditions
which the scientific historians of the age of Niebuhr and George
Cornewall Lewis regarded with scepticism.

As to the exact dates of early Egyptian history there is rather more of
vagueness than for the corresponding periods of Mesopotamia. Indeed,
approximate accuracy is not attained until we are within sixteen hundred
years of our own era; but the sequence of events of a period preceding
this by two thousand years is well established, and the recent
discoveries of Professor Petrie carry back the record to a period which
cannot well be less than five thousand, perhaps not less than six
thousand years B.C. Both from Egypt and Mesopotamia, then, the records
of the archaeologist have brought us evidence of the existence of a
highly developed civilization for a period exceeding by hundreds,
perhaps by thousands, of years the term which had hitherto been
considered the full period of man's existence.

We may note at once how these new figures disturb the historical
balance. If our forerunners of eight or nine thousand years ago were in
a noonday glare of civilization, where shall we look for the
much-talked-of "dawnings of history"? By this new standard the Romans
seem our contemporaries in latter-day civilization; the "Golden Age" of
Greece is but of yesterday; the pyramid-builders are only relatively
remote. The men who built the temple of Bel at Nippur, in the year (say)
5000 B.C., must have felt themselves at a pinnacle of civilization and
culture. As Professor Mahaffy has suggested, the era of the Pyramids may
have been the veritable autumn of civilization. Where, then, must we
look for its springtime? The answer to that question must come, if it
come at all, from what we now speak of as prehistoric archaeology; the
monuments from Memphis and Nippur and Nineveh, covering a mere ten
thousand years or so, are the records of recent history.


 Archaeology and Bible history.

The efforts of the students of Oriental archaeology have been constantly
stimulated by the fact that their studies brought them more or less
within the field of Bible history. A fair proportion of the workers who
have delved so enthusiastically in the fields of Egyptian and Assyrian
exploration would never have taken up the work at all but for the hope
that their investigations might substantiate the Hebrew records. For a
long time this hope proved illusory, and in the case of Egyptian
archaeology the results have proved disappointing even up to the very
present. Considering the important part played by the Egyptian sojourn
of the Hebrews, as narrated in the Scriptures, it was certainly not an
over-enthusiastic prediction that the Egyptian monuments when fully
investigated would divulge important references to Joseph, to Moses, and
to the all-important incidents of the Exodus; but half a century of
expectant attention in this direction has led only to disappointment. It
would be rash, considering the buried treasures that may yet await the
future explorer, to assert that such records as those in question can
never come to light. But, considering the fulness of the contemporary
Egyptian records of the XIXth dynasty that are already known, it becomes
increasingly doubtful whether the Hebrews in Egypt played so important
a part in history, when viewed from the Egyptian standpoint, as their
own records had seemed to imply. As the forgotten history of Oriental
antiquity has been restored to us, it has come to be understood that,
politically speaking, the Hebrews were a relatively insignificant
people, whose chief importance from the standpoint of material history
was derived from the geographical accident that made them a sort of
buffer between the greater nations about them. Only once, and for a
brief period, in the reigns of David and Solomon did the Hebrews rise to
anything like an equal plane of political importance with their
immediate neighbours. What gave them a seeming importance in the eyes of
posterity was the fact that the true history of the Egyptians,
Mesopotamians, Arabians and Hittites had been well-nigh forgotten. The
various literatures of these nations were locked from view for more than
two thousand years, while the literature of Israel had not merely been
preserved, but had come to be regarded as inspired and sacred among all
the cultured nations of the Western world. Now that the lost literatures
have been restored to us, the status of the Hebrew writings could not
fail to be disturbed. Their very isolation had in some measure accounted
for their seeming importance.

All true historical perspective is based upon comparison, and where only
a single account has been preserved of any event or of any period of
history, it is extremely difficult to judge that account with historical
accuracy. An illustration of this truth is furnished in profane history
by the account which Thucydides has given us of the Peloponnesian War.
For most of the period in question Thucydides is the only source; and
despite the inherent merits of a great writer, it can hardly be doubted
that the tribute of almost unqualified praise that successive
generations of scholars have paid to Thucydides must have been in some
measure qualified if, for example, a Spartan account of the
Peloponnesian War had been preserved to us. Professor Mahaffy has
pointed out that many other events in Greek history are viewed by us in
somewhat perverted perspective because the great writers of Greece were
Athenians rather than Spartans or Thebans. Even in so important a matter
as the great conflict between Persia and Greece it has been suggested
more than once that we should be able to gain a much truer view were
Persian as well as Greek accounts accessible.

Not many years ago it would have been accounted a heresy to suggest that
the historical books of the Old Testament had conveyed to our minds
estimates of Oriental history that suffered from this same defect; but
to-day no one who is competent to speak with authority pretends to doubt
that such is really the fact. Even conservative students of the Bible
urge that its historical passages must be viewed precisely in the light
of any other historical writings of antiquity; and the fact that the
oldest Hebrew manuscript dates only from the 8th century A.D., and
therefore of necessity brings to us the message of antiquity through the
fallible medium of many generations of copyists, is far more clearly
kept in mind than it formerly was. Every belief of mankind is in the
last analysis amenable to reason, and finds its origin in evidence that
can appeal to the arbitrament of common sense. This evidence may in
certain cases consist chiefly of the fact that generations of our
predecessors have taken a certain view regarding a certain question;
indeed most of our cherished beliefs have this foundation. But when such
is the case, mankind has never failed in the long run to vindicate its
claim to rationality by showing a readiness to give up the old belief
whenever tangible evidence of its fallaciousness was forthcoming. The
case of the historical books of the Old Testament furnishes no
exception. These had been sacred to almost a hundred generations of men,
and it was difficult for the eye of faith to see them as other than
absolutely infallible documents. Yet the very eagerness with which the
champions of the Hebrew records searched for archaeological proofs of
their validity was a tacit confession that even the most unwavering
faith was not beyond the reach of external evidence. True, the believer
sought corroboration with full faith that he would find it; but the very
fact that he could think such external corroboration valuable implied,
however little he may have realized it, the subconscious concession that
he must accept external evidence at its full value, even should it prove
contradictory. If, then, an Egyptian inscription of the XIXth dynasty
had come to hand in which the names of Joseph and Moses, and the deeds
of the Israelites as a subject people who finally escaped from bondage
by crossing the Red Sea, were recorded in hieroglyphic characters, such
a monument would have been hailed with enthusiastic delight by every
champion of the Pentateuch, and a wave of supreme satisfaction would
have passed over all Christendom. It is not too much, then, to say that
failure to find such a monument has caused deep disappointment to Bible
scholars everywhere. It does not follow that faith in the Bible record
is shaken, although in some quarters there has been a pronounced
tendency to regard the history of the Egyptian sojourn as mythical; yet
it cannot be denied that Egyptian records, corroborating at least some
phases of the Bible story, would have been a most welcome addition to
our knowledge. Some recent finds have, indeed, seemed to make
inferential reference to the Hebrews, and the marvellous collection of
letters of the XVIIIth dynasty found at Tel el-Amarna--letters to which
we shall refer later--have the utmost importance as proving a possible
early date for the Mosaic accounts. But such inferences as these are but
a vague return for the labour expended, and an almost cruelly inadequate
response to seemingly well-founded expectations.

When we turn to the field of Babylonian and Assyrian archaeology,
however, the case is very different. Here we have documents in abundance
that deal specifically with events more or less referred to in the
Bible. The records of kings whose names hitherto were known to us only
through Bible references have been found in the ruins of Nineveh and
Babylon, and personages hitherto but shadowy now step forth as clearly
into the light of history as an Alexander or a Caesar. Moreover, the
newly discovered treasures deal with the beliefs of the people as well
as with their history proper. The story of the books now spoken of as
the "Creation" and "Deluge" tablets of the Assyrians, in the British
Museum, which were discovered in the ruins of Nineveh by Layard and by
George Smith, has been familiar to every one for a good many years. The
acute interest which they excited when George Smith deciphered their
contents in 1872 has to some extent abated, but this is only because
scholars are now pretty generally agreed as to their bearing on the
corresponding parts of Genesis. The particular tablets in question date
only from about the 7th century B.C., but it is agreed among
Assyriologists that they are copies of older texts current in Babylonia
for many centuries before, and it is obvious that the compilers of
Genesis had access to the Babylonian stories. In a word, the Hebrew
Genesis shows unequivocal evidence of Babylonian origin, but, in the
words of Professor Sayce, it is but "a paraphrase and not a
translation." However disconcerting such a revelation as this would have
been to the theologians of an elder day, the Bible scholars of our own
generation are able to regard it with entire composure.

From the standpoint of the historian even greater interest attaches to
the records of the Assyrian and Babylonian kings when compared with the
historical books of the Old Testament. For some centuries the
inhabitants of Palestine were subject to periodical attacks from the
warlike inhabitants of Mesopotamia, as even the most casual reader of
the Bible is aware. When it became known that the accounts of these
invasions formed a part of the records preserved in the Assyrian
libraries, historian and theologian alike waited with breathless
interest for the exact revelations in store; and this time expectation
was not disappointed. As, one after another, the various tablets and
cylinders and annalistic tablets have been translated, it has become
increasingly clear that here are almost inexhaustible fountains of
knowledge, and that sooner or later it may be possible to check the
Hebrew accounts of the most important periods of their history with
contemporaneous accounts written from another point of view. It is true
that the cases are not very numerous where precisely the same event is
described from opposite points of view, but, speaking in general terms
rather than of specific incidents, we are already able to subject
considerable portions of history to this test. The records of
Shalmaneser II., Tiglath-Pileser III. and Sennacherib, kings of Assyria,
of Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon, and of Cyrus, king of Persia, all
contain direct references to Hebrew history. An obelisk of Shalmaneser
II. contains explicit reference to the tribute of Jehu of Samaria, and
graphically depicts the Hebrew captives. Tiglath-Pileser III., a usurper
who came to the throne of Assyria in 745 B.C., and whose earlier name of
Pul proved a source of confusion to the later Hebrew writers, left
records that have served to clear up the puzzling chronology of a
considerable period of the history of Samaria. Most interesting of all,
perhaps, are the annals of Sennacherib, the destruction of whose hosts
by the angel of God is so strikingly depicted in the Book of Kings. The
court historian of Sennacherib naturally does not dwell upon this event,
but he does tell of an invasion and conquest of Palestine. The Hebrew
account of the death of Sennacherib is corroborated by a Babylonian
inscription. Here, however, there is an interesting qualification. The
account in the Book of Kings is so phrased that one might naturally
infer from it that Sennacherib was assassinated by his sons immediately
after his return from the disastrous campaign in Palestine; but in point
of fact, as it now appears, the Assyrian king survived that campaign by
twenty years. One cannot avoid the suspicion that in this instance the
Hebrew chronicler purposely phrased his account to convey the impression
that Sennacherib's tragic end was but the slightly delayed culmination
of the punishment inflicted for his attack upon the "chosen people." On
the other hand, the ambiguity may be quite unintentional, for the Hebrew
writers were notoriously lacking in the true historical sense, which
shows itself in a full appreciation of the value of chronology.

One of the most striking instances of the way in which mistakes of
chronology may lead to the perversion of historical records is shown in
the Book of Daniel in connexion with the familiar account of the capture
of Babylon by Cyrus. Within the past generation records of Cyrus have
been brought to light, as well as records of the conquered Babylonian
king himself, which show that the Hebrew writers of the later day had a
peculiarly befogged impression of a great historical event--their
misconception being shared, it may be added, by the Greek historian
Herodotus. When the annalistic tablet of Cyrus was translated, it was
made to appear, to the consternation of Bible scholars, that the city of
Babylon had capitulated to the Persian--or more properly to the
Elamite--conqueror without a struggle. It appeared, further, that the
king ruling in Babylon at the time of the capitulation was named not
Belshazzar, but Nabonidos. This king, as appears from his own records,
had a son named Belshazzar, who commanded Babylonian armies in outlying
provinces, but who never came to the throne. Nothing could well be more
disconcerting than such a revelation as this. It is held, however, that
the startling discrepancies are not so difficult to explain as may
appear at first sight. The explanation is found, so the Assyriologist
assures us, in the fact that both Hebrew and Greek historians, writing
at a considerable interval after the events, and apparently lacking
authentic sources, confused the peaceful occupation of Babylon by Cyrus
with its siege and capture by a successor to that monarch, Darius
Hystaspes. As to the confusion of Babylonian names--in which, by the
way, the Hebrew and Greek authors do not agree--it is explained that the
general, Belshazzar, was perhaps more directly known in Palestine than
his father the king. But the vagueness of the Hebrew knowledge is
further shown by the fact that Belshazzar, alleged king, is announced as
the son of Nebuchadrezzar (misspelled Nebuchadnezzar in the Hebrew
writings), while the three kings that reigned after Nebuchadrezzar, and
before Nabonidos usurped the throne, are quite overlooked.

Our present concern with the archaeological evidence thus briefly
outlined, and with much more of the kind, may be summed up in the
question: What in general terms is the inference to be drawn by the
world-historian from the Assyrian records in their bearings upon the
Hebrew writings? At first sight this might seem an extremely difficult
question to answer. Indeed, to answer it to the satisfaction of all
concerned might well be pronounced impossible. Yet it would seem as if a
candid and impartial historian could not well be greatly in doubt in the
matter. On the one hand, the general agreement everywhere between the
Hebrew accounts and contemporaneous records from Mesopotamia proves
beyond cavil that, broadly speaking, the Bible accounts are historically
true, and were written by persons who in the main had access to
contemporaneous documents. On the other hand, the discrepancies as to
details, the confusion as to exact chronology, the manifest prejudice
and partizanship, and the obvious limitations of knowledge make it clear
that the writers partook in full measure of the shortcomings of other
historians, and that their work must be adjudged by ordinary historical
standards. As much as this is perhaps conceded by most, if not all,
schools of Bible criticism of to-day. Professor Sayce, one of the most
distinguished of modern Assyriologists, writing as an opponent of the
purely destructive "Higher Criticism," demands no more than that the
Book of Genesis "shall take rank by the side of the other monuments of
the past as the record of events which have actually happened and been
handed on by credible men"; that it shall, in short, be admitted to be
"a collection of ancient documents which have all the value of
contemporaneous testimony," but which being in themselves "wrecks of
vast literatures which extended over the Oriental world from a remote
epoch," cannot be understood aright "except in the light of the
contemporaneous literature of which they form a portion." From the point
of view implied by such words as these, it is only necessary to recall
the mental attitude of our grandfathers to appreciate in some measure
the revolution in thought that has been wrought in this field within the
last half-century, largely through the instrumentality of Oriental
archaeology.


  Archaeology and classical history.

We have seen that the general trend of Oriental archaeology has been
reconstructive rather than iconoclastic. Equally true is this of recent
classical archaeology. Here no such revolution has been effected as that
which virtually created anew the history of Oriental antiquity; yet the
bearings of the new knowledge are similar in kind if different in
degree. The world had never quite forgotten the history of the primitive
Greeks as it had forgotten the Mesopotamians, the Himyaritic nations and
the Hittites; but it remembered their deeds only in the form of poetical
myths and traditions. These traditions, finding their clearest
delineation in the lines of Homer, had been subjected to the analysis of
the critical historians of the early decades of the 19th century, and
their authenticity had come to be more than doubted. The philological
analysis of Wolf and his successors had raised doubts as to the very
existence of Homer, and at one time the main current of scholarly
opinion had set strongly in the direction of the belief that the _Iliad_
and the _Odyssey_ were in reality but latter-day collections of divers
recitals that had been handed down by word of mouth from one generation
to another of bards through ages of illiteracy. It was strenuously
contended that the case could not well be otherwise, inasmuch as the art
of writing must have been quite unknown in Greece until after the
alleged age of the traditional Homer, whose date had been variously
estimated at from 1000 to 800 B.C. by less sceptical generations. It had
come to be a current belief that the _Iliad_ was first committed to
writing in the age of Peisistratus. A prominent controversialist, F.A.
Paley, even went so far as to doubt whether a single written copy of the
_Iliad_ existed in Greece at the time of the Peloponnesian War. The
doubts thus cast upon the age when the Homeric poems first assumed the
fixed form of writing were closely associated with the universal
scepticism as to the historical accuracy of any traditions whatever
regarding the early history of Greece. Cautious historians had come to
regard the so-called "Heroic Age" as a prehistoric period regarding
which nothing definite was known, or in all probability could be known.
It was ably argued by Sir George Cornewall Lewis, in connexion with his
inquiries into early Roman history, that a verbal tradition is not
transmitted from one generation to another in anything like an
authentic form for a longer period than about a century. If, then, the
art of writing was unknown in Greece before, let us say, the 6th century
B.C., it would be useless to expect that any events of Grecian history
prior to about the 7th century B.C. could have been transmitted to
posterity with any degree of historical accuracy.

Notwithstanding the allurements of the subject, such conservative
historians as Grote were disposed to regard the problems of early
Grecian history as inscrutable, and to content themselves with the
recital of traditions without attempting to establish their relationship
with actual facts. It remained for the more robust faith of a Schliemann
to show that such scepticism was all too faint-hearted, by proving that
at such sites as Tiryns, Mycenae and Hissarlik evidences of a very early
period of Greek civilization awaited the spade of the excavator. Thanks
to the enthusiasm of Schliemann and his successors, we can now
substitute for the mythical "Age of Heroes" a historical "Mycenaean Age"
of Greece, and give tangible proof of its relatively high state of
civilization. Schliemann may or may not have been correct in identifying
one of the seven cities that he unearthed at Hissarlik as the fabled
Troy itself, but at least his efforts sufficed to give verisimilitude to
the Homeric story. With the lessons of recent Oriental archaeology in
mind, few will be sceptical enough to doubt that some such contest as
that described in the _Iliad_ actually occurred. And now, thanks to the
efforts of a large company of workers, notably Dr Arthur Evans and his
associates in Cretan exploration, we are coming to speak with some
confidence not merely of a Mycenaean but of a pre-Mycenaean Age.

As yet we see these periods somewhat darkly. The illuminative witness of
written records is in the main denied us here. Some most archaic
inscriptions have been indeed found by the explorers in Crete, but these
for the present serve scarcely any other purpose than to prove the
antiquity of the art of writing among a people who were closely in touch
with the inhabitants of Hellas proper. Most unfortunately for posterity,
the Greeks wrote mainly on perishable materials, and hence the chief
records even of their later civilization have vanished. The only
fragments of Greek manuscripts antedating the Christian era that have
been preserved to us have been found in Egypt, where a hospitable
climate granted them a term of existence not to be hoped for elsewhere.
No fragment of these papyri, indeed, carries us further back than the
age of the Ptolemies; but the Greek inscriptions on the statues of
Rameses II at Abu-Simbel, in Nubia, give conclusive proof that the art
of writing was widely disseminated among the Greeks at least three
centuries before the age of Alexander. This carries us back towards the
traditional age of Homer.

The Cretan inscriptions belong to a far older epoch, and are written in
two non-Grecian scripts of undetermined affinities. Here, then, is
direct evidence that the Aegean peoples of the Mycenaean Age knew how to
write, and it is no longer necessary to assume that the verses of the
_Iliad_ were dependent on mere verbal transmission for any such period
as has been supposed.

But even were direct evidence of the knowledge of the art of writing in
Greece of the early day altogether lacking, none but the hardiest
sceptic could doubt, in the light of recent archaeological discoveries
elsewhere, that the inhabitants of ancient Hellas of the "Homeric Age"
must have shared with their contemporaries the capacity to record their
thought in written words. We have seen that Oriental archaeology has in
recent generations revolutionized our conceptions of the antiquity of
civilization. We have seen that written documents have been preserved in
Mesopotamia to which such a date as 4500 B.C. may be ascribed with a
good deal of confidence; and that from the third millennium B.C. a flood
of contemporary literary records comes to us both from Egypt and
Mesopotamia. But until recently it had been supposed that Hellas was
shut out entirely from this Oriental culture. Historians have found it
hard to dispel the idea that civilization in Greece was a very late
development, and that the culture of the age of Solon sprang, in fact,
suddenly into existence, as it seems to do in the records of the
historian. But the excavations that have given us a knowledge of the
Mycenaean Age have proved conclusively, not alone that civilization
existed in Greece in an early day, but that this civilization was
closely linked with the civilization of Egypt. Not only have antiquities
been found in Crete that point to Egyptian inspiration, but quite
recently Professor Petrie has found at Tel el-Amarna Mycenaean pottery.
The latter find has a peculiar significance, since the date of the Tel
el-Amarna collection is definitely fixed between the years 1400 and 1370
B.C.

It is demonstrated, then, that as early as the beginning of the 14th
century B.C. the Mycenaean civilization was in touch with the ancient
civilization of Egypt. One must not infer from this, however, that the
two civilizations met on anything like an equality. Indeed, in the
wonderful Tel-el-Amarna collection there is a suggestive absence of
literary documents from the Aegean that demands a word of notice. The
Tel el-Amarna collection, it will be recalled, consists of the royal
archives of King Amenophis IV. of the XVIIIth Egyptian dynasty, who in
the latter years of his reign chose to be known as Akhenaton, "the glory
of the solar disk." This monarch had retired from Thebes and established
his court on the site now known as Tel el-Amarna, where he founded the
city which existed only during the brief period of thirty years ending
with the death of the monarch about 1370 B.C. The date of the documents
found in the royal library is, therefore, fixed within very narrow
limits. The documents in question consist chiefly of letters, and
constitute one of the most important of archaeological finds. These
letters came to the king from almost every part of western Asia,
including Palestine and Phoenicia, Babylonia and Asia Minor. Strangely
enough, all the letters are written in the Babylonian character, and
most of them are in the Babylonian language. They afford, therefore,
most striking evidence of a widespread diffusion of Babylonian culture.
Incidentally they prove, to the utter confusion of a certain school of
Bible critics, that the art of writing was familiarly known in Canaan,
and that Egypt and western Asia were in full literary connexion with one
another, long before the time of the Exodus. Hence all the elaborate
arguments based on the supposition that Moses probably could not write
fall to the ground. On the other hand, the absence of letters from
Mycenae among the tablets of Tel el-Amarna must be regarded as at least
suggestive. Seemingly the widespread Babylonian culture had not reached
the Aegean peoples; yet these peoples cannot have been wholly ignorant
of things with which commercial intercourse brought them in contact. The
point is of no very great significance, however, since no one has
pretended that the Western civilization compared with the Eastern in
point of antiquity; and in any event, no amount of negative evidence
weighs a grain in the balance against the positive evidence of the
Cretan inscriptions.

The researches of the archaeologist are, in short, tending to
reconstruct the primitive classical history; and here, as in the Orient,
it is evident that historians of the earlier day were constantly blinded
by a misconception as to the antiquity of civilization. Such a fruitage
as that of Greek culture of the age of Pericles does not come to
maturity without a long period of preparation. Here, as elsewhere, the
laws of evolution hold, permitting no sudden stupendous leaps. But it
required the arduous labours of the archaeologist to prove a proposition
that, once proven, seems self-evident.    (H. S. WI.)


_Eras and Periods_.

In the article Calendar (q.v.), that part of chronology is treated which
relates to the measurement of time, and the principal methods are
explained that have been employed, or are still in use, for adjusting
the lunar months of the solar year, as well as the intercalations
necessary for regulating the civil year according to the celestial
motions. But it is necessary to notice here the different _Eras_ and
_Periods_ that have been employed by historians, and by the different
nations of the world, in recording the succession of time and events, to
fix the epochs at which the eras respectively commenced, to ascertain
the form and the initial day of the year made use of, and to establish
their correspondence with the years of the Christian era. These
elements will enable us to convert, by a simple arithmetical operation,
any historical date, of which the chronological characters are given
according to any era whatever, into the corresponding date in the
Christian era.

_Julian Period._--Although the Julian period (the invention of Joseph
Scaliger, in 1582) is not, properly speaking, a chronological era, yet,
on account of its affording considerable facilities in the comparison of
different eras with one another, and in marking without ambiguity the
years before Christ, it is very generally employed by chronologers. It
consists of 7980 Julian years; and the first year of the Christian era
corresponded with the year 4714 of the Julian period.

_Olympiads._--The Olympic games, so famous in Greek history, were
celebrated once every four years, between the new and full moon first
following the summer solstice, on the small plain named Olympia in Elis,
which was bounded on one side by the river Alpheus, on another by the
small tributary stream the Cladeus, and on the other two sides by
mountains. The games lasted five days. Their origin, lost in the dimness
of remote antiquity, was invested by priestly legends with a sacred
character. They were said to have been instituted by the Idaean
Heracles, to commemorate his victory over his four brothers in a
foot-race. According to a tradition, possibly more authentic, they were
re-established by Iphitus, king of Elis, in concert with the Spartan
Lycurgus and Cleosthenes of Pisa. The practice was long afterwards
adopted of designating the Olympiad, or period of four years, by the
name of the victor in the contests of the stadium, and of inscribing his
name in the gymnasium of Olympia. The first who received this honour was
Coroebus. The games in which Coroebus was victor, and which form the
principal epoch of Greek history, were celebrated about the time of the
summer solstice 776 years before the common era of the Incarnation, in
the 3938th year of the Julian period, and twenty-three years, according
to the account of Varro, before the foundation of Rome.

Before the introduction of the Metonic cycle, the Olympic year began
sometimes with the full moon which followed, at other times with that
which preceded the summer solstice, because the year sometimes contained
384 days instead of 354. But subsequently to its adoption, the year
always commenced with the eleventh day of the moon which followed the
solstice. In order to avoid troublesome computations, which it would be
necessary to recommence for every year, and of which the results differ
only by a few days, chronologers generally regard the 1st of July as the
commencement of the Olympic year. Some authors, however, among whom are
Eusebius, Jerome and the historian Socrates, place its commencement at
the 1st of September; these, however, appear to have confounded the
Olympic year with the civil year of the Greeks, or the era of the
Seleucidae.

  It is material to observe, that as the Olympic years and periods begin
  with the 1st of July, the first six months of a year of our era
  correspond to one Olympic year, and the last six months to another.
  Thus, when it is said that the first year of the Incarnation
  corresponds to the first of the 195th Olympiad, we are to understand
  that it is only with respect to the last six months of that year that
  the correspondence takes place. The first six months belonged to the
  fourth year of the 194th Olympiad. In referring dates expressed by
  Olympiads to our era, or the contrary, we must therefore distinguish
  two cases.

  _1st._ When the event in question happened between the 1st of January
  and the 1st of the following July, the sum of the Olympic year and of
  the year before Christ is always equal to 776. The year of the era,
  therefore, will be found by subtracting the number of the Olympic year
  from 776. For example, Varro refers the foundation of Rome to the 21st
  of April of the third year of the sixth Olympiad, and it is required
  to find the year before our era. Since five Olympic periods have
  elapsed, the third year of the sixth Olympiad is 5 X 4 + 3 = 23;
  therefore, subtracting 23 from 776, we have 753, which is the year
  before Christ to which the foundation of Rome is referred by Varro.

  _2nd._ When the event took place between the summer solstice and the
  1st of January following, the sum of the Olympic year and of the year
  before Christ is equal to 777. The difference, therefore, between 777
  and the year in one of the dates will give the year in the other date.
  Thus, the moon was eclipsed on the 27th of August, a little before
  midnight, in the year 413 before our era; and it is required to find
  the corresponding year in the Olympic era. Subtract 413 from 777, the
  remainder is 364; and 364 divided by four gives 91 without a
  remainder; consequently the eclipse happened in the fourth year of the
  ninety-first Olympiad, which is the date to which it is referred by
  Thucydides.

  If the year is after Christ, and the event took place in one of the
  first six months of the Olympic year, that is to say, between July and
  January, we must subtract 776 from the number of the Olympic year to
  find the corresponding year of our era; but if it took place in one of
  the last six months of the Olympic year, or between January and July,
  we must deduct 777. The computation by Olympiads seldom occurs in
  historical records after the middle of the 5th century of our era.

  The names of the months were different in the different Grecian
  states. The Attic months, of which we possess the most certain
  knowledge, were named as follows:--

    Hecatombaeon.          Gamelion.
    Metageitnion.          Anthesterion.
    Boedromion.            Elaphebolion.
    Pyanepsion.            Munychion.
    Maemacterion.          Thargelion.
    Poseideon.             Scirophorion.

_Era of the Foundation of Rome._--After the Olympiads, the era most
frequently met with in ancient history is that of the foundation of
Rome, which is the chronological epoch adopted by all the Roman
historians. There are various opinions respecting the year of the
foundation of Rome. (1) Fabius Pictor places it in the latter half of
the first year of the eighth Olympiad, which corresponds with the 3967th
of the Julian period, and with the year 747 B.C. (2) Polybius places it
in the second year of the seventh Olympiad, corresponding with 3964 of
the Julian period, and 750 B.C. (3) M. Porcius Cato places it in the
first year of the seventh Olympiad, that is, in 3963 of the Julian
period, and 751 B.C. (4) Verrius Flaccus places it in the fourth year of
the sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3962 of the Julian period, and
752 B.C. (5) Terentius Varro places it in the third year of the sixth
Olympiad, that is, in the year 3961 of the Julian period, and 753 B.C. A
knowledge of these different computations is necessary, in order to
reconcile the Roman historians with one another, and even any one writer
with himself. Livy in general adheres to the epoch of Cato, though he
sometimes follows that of Fabius Pictor. Cicero follows the account of
Varro, which is also in general adopted by Pliny. Dionysius of
Halicarnassus follows Cato. Modern chronologers for the most part adopt
the account of Varro, which is supported by a passage in Censorinus,
where it is stated that the 991st year of Rome commenced with the
festival of the Palilia, in the consulship of Ulpius and Pontianus. Now
this consulship corresponded with the 238th year of our era; therefore,
deducting 238 from 991, we have 753 to denote the year before Christ.
The Palilia commenced on the 21st of April; and all the accounts agree
in regarding that day as the epoch of the foundation of Rome.

  The Romans employed two sorts of years, the civil year, which was used
  in the transaction of public and private affairs, and the consular
  year, according to which the annals of their history have been
  composed. The civil year commenced with the calends of January, but
  this did not hold a fixed place in the solar year till the time of
  Julius Caesar (see CALENDAR). The installation of the consuls
  regulated the commencement of the consular year. The initial day of
  the consulate was never fixed, at least before the 7th century of
  Rome, but varied with the different accidents which in times of
  political commotion so frequently occurred to accelerate or retard the
  elections. Hence it happens that a consular year, generally speaking,
  comprehends a part not only of two Julian years, but also of two civil
  years. The consulate is the date employed by the Latin historians
  generally, and by many of the Greeks, down to the 6th century of our
  era.

  In the era of Rome the commencement of the year is placed at the 21st
  of April; an event therefore which happened in the months of January,
  February, March, or during the first twenty days of April, in the year
  (for example) 500 of Rome, belongs to the civil year 501. Before the
  time of the Decemvirs, however, February was the last month of the
  year. Many authors confound the year of Rome with the civil year,
  supposing them both to begin on the 1st of January. Others again
  confound both the year of Rome and the civil year with the Julian
  year, which in fact became the civil year after the regulation of the
  calendar by Julius Caesar. Through a like want of attention, many
  writers also, particularly among the moderns, have confounded the
  Julian and Olympic years, by making an entire Julian year correspond
  to an entire Olympic year, as if both had commenced at the same epoch.
  Much attention to these particulars is required in the comparison of
  ancient dates.

_The Christian Era._--The Christian or vulgar era, called also the era
of the Incarnation, is now almost universally employed in Christian
countries, and is even used by some Eastern nations. Its epoch or
beginning is the 1st of January in the fourth year of the 194th
Olympiad, the 753rd from the foundation of Rome, and the 4714th of the
Julian period. This epoch was introduced in Italy in the 6th century, by
Dionysius the Little, a Roman abbot, and began to be used in Gaul in the
8th, though it was not generally followed in that country till a century
later. From extant charters it is known to have been in use in England
before the close of the 8th century. Before its adoption the usual
practice in Latin countries was to distinguish the years by their number
in the cycle of Indiction.

In the Christian era the years are simply distinguished by the cardinal
numbers; those before Christ being marked B.C. (Before Christ), or A.C.
(Ante Christum), and those after Christ A.D. (Anno Domini). This method
of reckoning time is more convenient than those which employ cycles or
periods of any length whatever; but it still fails to satisfy in the
simplest manner possible all the conditions that are necessary for
registering the succession of events. For, since the commencement of the
era is placed at an intermediate period of history, we are compelled to
resort to a double manner of reckoning, backward as well as forward.
Some ambiguity is also occasioned by the want of uniformity in the
method of numbering the preceding years. Astronomers denote the year
which preceded the first of our era by 0, and the year previous to that
by 1 B.C.; but chronologers, in conformity with common notions, call the
year preceding the era 1 B.C., the previous year 2 B.C., and so on. By
reckoning in this manner, there is an interruption in the regular
succession of the numbers; and in the years preceding the era, the leap
years, instead of falling on the fourth, eighth, twelfth, &c., fall, or
ought to fall, on the first, fifth, ninth, &c.

In the chronicles of the middle ages much uncertainty frequently arises
respecting dates on account of the different epochs assumed for the
beginning of the Christian year. Dionysius, the author of the era,
adopted the day of the Annunciation, or the 25th of March, which
preceded the birth of Christ by nine months, as the commencement of the
first year of the era. This epoch therefore precedes that of the vulgar
era by nine months and seven days. This manner of dating was followed in
some of the Italian states, and continued to be used at Pisa even down
to the year 1745. It was also adopted in some of the Papal bulls; and
there are proofs of its having been employed in France about the middle
of the 11th century. Some chroniclers, who adhere to the day of the
Annunciation as the commencement of the year, reckon from the 25th of
March following our epoch, as the Florentines in the 10th century.
Gregory of Tours, and some writers of the 6th and 7th centuries, make
the year begin sometimes with the 1st of March, and sometimes with the
1st of January. In France, under the third race of kings, it was usual
to begin the year with Easter; and this practice continued at least till
the middle of the 16th century, for an edict was issued by Charles IX.
in the month of January 1663, ordaining that the beginning of the year
should thenceforth be considered as taking place on the 1st of January.
An instance is given, in _L'Art de verifier les dates_, of a date in
which the year is reckoned from the 18th of March; but it is probable
that this refers to the astronomical year, and that the 18th of March
was taken for the day of the vernal equinox. In Germany, about the 11th
century, it was usual to begin the year at Christmas; and this practice
also prevailed at Milan, Rome and other Italian cities, in the 13th,
14th and 15th centuries.

In England, the practice of placing the beginning of the year at
Christmas was introduced in the 7th century, and traces of it are found
even in the 13th. Gervase of Canterbury, who lived in the 13th century,
mentions that almost all writers of his country agreed in regarding
Christmas day as the first of the year, because it forms, as it were,
the term at which the sun finishes and recommences his annual course. In
the 12th century, however, the custom of beginning the civil year with
the day of the Annunciation, or the 25th of March, began to prevail, and
continued to be generally followed from that time till the reformation
of the calendar in 1752. The historical year has always been reckoned by
English authors to begin with the 1st of January. The liturgic year of
the Church of England commences with the first Sunday of Advent.

A knowledge of the different epochs which have been chosen for the
commencement of the year in different countries is indispensably
necessary to the right interpretation of ancient chronicles, charters
and other documents in which the dates often appear contradictory. We
may cite an example or two. It is well known that Charles the Great was
crowned emperor at Rome on Christmas day in the year 800, and that he
died in the year 814, according to our present manner of reckoning. But
in the annals of Metz and Moissac, the coronation is stated to have
taken place in the year 801, and his death in 813. In the first case the
annalist supposes the year to begin with Christmas, and accordingly
reckons the 25th of December and all the following days of that month to
belong to 801, whereas in the common reckoning they would be referred to
the year 800. In the second case the year has been supposed to begin
with the 25th of March, or perhaps with Easter; consequently the first
three months of the year 814, reckoning from the 1st of January, would
be referred to the end of the year 813. The English Revolution is
popularly called the Revolution of 1688. Had the year then begun, as it
now does, with the 1st of January, it would have been the revolution of
1689, William and Mary being received as king and queen in February in
the year 1689; but at that time the year was considered in England as
beginning on the 25th of March. Another circumstance to which it is
often necessary to pay attention in the comparison of dates, is the
alteration of style which took place on the adoption of the Gregorian
Calendar (see CALENDAR).

_Era of the Creation of the World_.--As the Greek and Roman methods of
computing time were connected with certain pagan rites and observances
which the Christians held in abhorrence, the latter began at an early
period to imitate the Jews in reckoning their years from the supposed
period of the creation of the world. Various computations were made at
different times, from Biblical sources, as to the age of the world; and
Des Vignoles, in the preface to his _Chronology of Sacred History_,
asserts that he collected upwards of two hundred different calculations,
the shortest of which reckons only 3483 years between the creation of
the world and the commencement of the vulgar era and the longest 6984.
The so-called era of the creation of the world is therefore a purely
conventional and arbitrary epoch; practically, it means the year 4004
B.C.,--this being the date which, under the sanction of Archbishop
Usher's opinion, won its way, among its hundreds of competitors, into
general acceptance.

_Jewish Year and Eras_.--Before the departure of the Israelites from
Egypt their year commenced at the autumnal equinox; but in order to
solemnize the memory of their deliverance, the month of _Nisan_ or
_Abib_, in which that event took place, and which falls about the time
of the vernal equinox, was afterwards regarded as the beginning of the
ecclesiastical or legal year. In civil affairs, and in the regulation of
the jubilees and sabbatical years, the Jews still adhere to the ancient
year, which begins with the month Tisri, about the time of the autumnal
equinox.

After their dispersion the Jews were constrained to have recourse to the
astronomical rules and cycles of the more enlightened heathen, in order
that their religious festivals might be observed on the same days in all
the countries through which they were scattered. For this purpose they
adopted a cycle of eighty-four years, which is mentioned by several of
the ancient fathers of the church, and which the early Christians
borrowed from them for the regulation of Easter. This cycle seems to be
neither more nor less than the Calippic period of seventy-six years,
with the addition of a Greek octaeteris, or period of eight years, in
order to disguise its true source, and give it an appearance of
originality. In fact, the period of Calippus containing 27,759 days, and
the octaeteris 2922 days, the sum, which is 30,681, is exactly the
number of days in eighty-four Julian years. But the addition was very
far from being an improvement on the work of Calippus; for instead of a
difference of only five hours and fifty-three minutes between the places
of the sun and moon, which was the whole error of the Calippic period,
this difference, in the period of eighty-four years, amounted to one
day, six hours and forty-one minutes. Buccherius places the beginning of
this cycle in the year 162 B.C.; Prideaux in the year 291 B.C. According
to the account of Prideaux, the fifth cycle must have begun in the year
46 of our era; and it was in this year, according to St Prosperus, that
the Christians began to employ the Jewish cycle of eighty-four years,
which they followed, though not uniformly, for the regulation of Easter,
till the time of the Council of Nice.

Soon after the Nicene council, the Jews, in imitation of the Christians,
abandoned the cycle of eighty-four years, and adopted that of Meton, by
which their lunisolar year is regulated at the present day. This
improvement was first proposed by Rabbi Samuel, rector of the Jewish
school of Sora in Mesopotamia, and was finally accomplished in the year
360 of our era by Rabbi Hillel, who introduced that form of the year
which the Jews at present follow, and which, they say, is to endure till
the coming of the Messiah.

Till the 15th century the Jews usually followed the era of the
Seleucidae or of Contracts. Since that time they have generally employed
a mundane era, and dated from the creation of the world, which,
according to their computation, took place 3760 years and about three
months before the beginning of our era. No rule can be given for
determining with certainty the day on which any given Jewish year begins
without entering into the minutiae of their irregular and complicated
calendar.

_Era of Constantinople._--This era, which is still used in the Greek
Church, and was followed by the Russians till the time of Peter the
Great, dates from the creation of the world. The Incarnation falls in
the year 5509, and corresponds, as in our era, with the fourth year of
the 194th Olympiad. The civil year commences with the 1st of September;
the ecclesiastical year sometimes with the 21st of March, sometimes with
the 1st of April. It is not certain whether the year was considered at
Constantinople as beginning with September before the separation of the
Eastern and Western empires.

At the commencement of our era there had elapsed 5508 years and four
months of the era of Constantinople. Hence the first eight months of the
Christian year 1 coincide with the Constantinopolitan year 5509, while
the last four months belong to the year 5510. In order, therefore, to
find the year of Christ corresponding to any given year in the era of
Constantinople, we have the following rule: If the event took place
between the 1st of January and the end of August subtract 5508 from the
given year; but if it happened between the 1st of September and the end
of the year, subtract 5509.

_Era of Alexandria._--The chronological computation of Julius Africanus
was adopted by the Christians of Alexandria, who accordingly reckoned
5500 years from the creation of Adam to the birth of Christ. But in
reducing Alexandrian dates to the common era it must be observed that
Julius Africanus placed the epoch of the Incarnation three years earlier
than it is placed in the usual reckoning, so that the initial day of the
Christian era fell in the year 5503 of the Alexandrian era. This
correspondence, however, continued only from the introduction of the era
till the accession of Diocletian, when an alteration was made by
dropping ten years in the Alexandrian account. Diocletian ascended the
imperial throne in the year of Christ 284. According to the Alexandrian
computation, this was the year 5787 of the world, and 287 of the
Incarnation; but on this occasion ten years were omitted, and that year
was thenceforth called the year 5777 of the world, and 277 of the
Incarnation. There are, consequently, two distinct eras of Alexandria,
the one being used before and the other after the accession of
Diocletian. It is not known for what reason the alteration was made; but
it is conjectured that it was for the purpose of causing a new
revolution of the cycle of nineteen years (which was introduced into the
ecclesiastical computation about this time by Anatolius, bishop of
Hierapolis) to begin with the first year of the reign of Diocletian. In
fact, 5777 being divided by 19 leaves 1 for the year of the cycle. The
Alexandrian era continued to be followed by the Copts in the 15th
century, and is said to be still used in Abyssinia.

Dates expressed according to this era are reduced to the common era by
subtracting 5502, up to the Alexandrian year 5786 inclusive, and after
that year by subtracting 5492; but if the date belongs to one of the
four last months of the Christian year, we must subtract 5503 till the
year 5786, and 5493 after that year.

_Mundane Era of Antioch._--The chronological reckoning of Julius
Africanus formed also the basis of the era of Antioch, which was adopted
by the Christians of Syria, at the instance of Panodorus, an Egyptian
monk, who flourished about the beginning of the 4th century. Panodorus
struck off ten years from the account of Julius Africanus with regard to
the years of the world, and he placed the Incarnation three years later,
referring it to the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, as in the common
era. Hence the era of Antioch differed from the original era of
Alexandria by ten years; but after the alteration of the latter at the
accession of Diocletian, the two eras coincided. In reckoning from the
Incarnation, however, there is a difference of seven years, that epoch
being placed, in the reformed era of Alexandria, seven years later than
in the mundane era of Antioch or in the Christian era.

As the Syrian year began in autumn, the year of Christ corresponding to
any year in the mundane era of Antioch is found by subtracting 5492 or
5493 according as the event falls between January and September or from
September to January.

_Era of Nabonassar._--This era is famous in astronomy, having been
generally followed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy. It is believed to have
been in use from the very time of its origin; for the observations of
eclipses which were collected in Chaldaea by Callisthenes, the general
of Alexander, and transmitted by him to Aristotle, were for the greater
part referred to the beginning of the reign of Nabonassar, founder of
the kingdom of the Babylonians. It is the basis of the famous Canon of
kings, also called Mathematical Canon, preserved to us in the works of
Ptolemy, which, before the astonishing discoveries at Nineveh, was the
sole authentic monument of Assyrian and Babylonian history known to us.
The epoch from which it is reckoned is precisely determined by numerous
celestial phenomena recorded by Ptolemy, and corresponds to Wednesday at
mid-day, the 26th of February of the year 747 before Christ. The year
was in all respects the same as the ancient Egyptian year. On account of
the difference in the length of the Julian and Babylonian years, the
conversion of dates according to the era of Nabonassar into years before
Christ is attended with considerable trouble. The surest way is to
follow a comparative table. Frequently the year cannot be fixed with
certainty, unless we know also the month and the day.

The Greeks of Alexandria formerly employed the era of Nabonassar, with a
year of 365 days; but soon after the reformation of the calendar of
Julius Caesar, they adopted, like other Roman provincials, the Julian
intercalation. At this time the first of Thoth had receded to the 29th
of August. In the year 136 of our era, the first of Thoth in the ancient
Egyptian year corresponded with the 20th of July, between which and the
29th of August there are forty days. The adoption of the Julian year
must therefore have taken place about 160 years before the year 136 of
our era (the difference between the Egyptian and Julian years being one
day in four years), that is to say, about the year 25 B.C. In fact, the
first of Thoth corresponded with the 29th of August in the Julian
calendar, in the years 25, 24, 23 and 22 B.C.

_Era of the Seleucidae, or Macedonian Era._--The era of the Seleucidae
dates from the time of the occupation of Babylon by Seleucus Nicator,
311 years before Christ, in the year of Rome 442, and twelve years after
the death of Alexander the Great. It was adopted not only in the
monarchy of the Seleucidae but in general in all the Greek countries
bordering on the Levant, was followed by the Jews till the 15th century,
and is said to be used by some Arabians even at the present day. By the
Jews it was called the _Era of Contracts_, because the Syrian governors
compelled them to make use of it in civil contracts; the writers of the
books of Maccabees call it the _Era of Kings_. But notwithstanding its
general prevalence in the East for many centuries, authors using it
differ much with regard to their manner of expressing dates, in
consequence of the different epochs adopted for the beginning of the
year. Among the Syrian Greeks the year began with the month Elul, which
corresponds to our September. The Nestorians and Jacobites at the
present day suppose it to begin with the following month, or October.
The author of the first book of Maccabees makes the era commence with
the month Nisan, or April; and the author of the second book with the
first Tishrin, or October. Albategni, a celebrated Arabian astronomer,
dates from the 1st of October. Some of the Arabian writers, as
Alfergani, date from the 1st of September. At Tyre the year was counted
from the 19th of our October, at Gaza from the 28th of the same month,
and at Damascus from the vernal equinox. These discrepancies render it
extremely difficult to determine the exact correspondence of Macedonian
dates with those of other eras; and the difficulty is rendered still
greater by the want of uniformity in respect of the length of the year.
Some authors who follow the Macedonian era, use the Egyptian or vague
year of 365 days; Albategni adopts the Julian year of 3651/4 days.

According to the computation most generally followed, the year 312 of
the era of the Seleucidae began on the 1st of September in the Julian
year preceding the first of our era. Hence, to reduce a Macedonian date
to the common era, subtract 311 years and four months.

  The names of the Syrian and Macedonian months, and their
  correspondence with the Roman months, are as follows:--

     Syrian.            Macedonian.            English.
    Elul.              Gorpiaeus.             September.
    Tishrin I.         Hyperberetaeus.        October.
    Tishrin II.        Dius.                  November.
    Canun I.           Apellaeus.             December.
    Canun II.          Audynaeus.             January.
    Sabat.             Peritius.              February.
    Adar.              Dystrus.               March.
    Nisan.             Xanthicus.             April.
    Ayar.              Artemisius.            May.
    Haziran.           Daesius.               June.
    Tamus.             Panemus.               July.
    Ab.                Loues.                  August.

_Era of Alexander._--Some of the Greek historians have assumed as a
chronological epoch the death of Alexander the Great, in the year 325
B.C. The form of the year is the same as in the preceding era. This era
has not been much followed; but it requires to be noticed in order that
it may not be confounded with the era of the Seleucidae.

_Era of Tyre._--The era of Tyre is reckoned from the 19th of October, or
the beginning of the Macedonian month Hyperberetaeus, in the year 126
B.C. In order, therefore, to reduce it to the common era, subtract 125;
and when the date is B.C., subtract it from 126. Dates expressed
according to this era occur only on a few medals, and in the acts of
certain councils.

_Caesarean Era of Antioch._--This era was established to commemorate the
victory obtained by Julius Caesar on the plains of Pharsalia, on the 9th
of August in the year 48 B.C., and the 706th of Rome. The Syrians
computed it from their month Tishrin I.; but the Greeks threw it back to
the month Gorpiaeus of the preceding year. Hence there is a difference
of eleven months between the epochs assumed by the Syrians and the
Greeks. According to the computation of the Greeks, the 49th year of the
Caesarean era began in the autumn of the year preceding the commencement
of the Christian era; and, according to the Syrians, the 49th year began
in the autumn of the first year of the Incarnation. It is followed by
Evagrius in his _Ecclesiastical History_.

_Julian Era._--The Julian era begins with the 1st of January, forty-five
years B.C. It was designed to commemorate the reformation of the Roman
calendar by Julius Caesar.

_Era of Spain, or of the Caesars._--The conquest of Spain by Augustus,
which was completed in the thirty-ninth year B.C., gave rise to this
era, which began with the first day of the following year, and was long
used in Spain and Portugal, and generally in all the Roman provinces
subdued by the Visigoths, both in Africa and the South of France.
Several of the councils of Carthage, and also that of Arles, are dated
according to this era. After the 9th century it became usual to join
with it in public acts the year of the Incarnation. It was followed in
Catalonia till the year 1180, in the kingdom of Aragon till 1350, in
Valencia till 1358, and in Castile till 1382. In Portugal it is said to
have been in use so late as the year 1415, or 1422, though it would seem
that after the establishment of the Portuguese monarchy, no other era
was used in the public acts of that country than that of the
Incarnation. As the era of Spain began with the 1st of January, and the
months and days of the year are those of the Julian calendar, any date
is reduced to the common era by subtracting thirty-eight from the number
of the year.

_Era of Actium, and Era of Augustus._--This era was established to
commemorate the battle of Actium, which was fought on the 3rd of
September, in the year 31 B.C., and in the 15th of the Julian era. By
the Romans the era of Actium was considered as beginning on the 1st of
January of the 16th of the Julian era, which is the 30th B.C. The
Egyptians, who used this era till the time of Diocletian, dated its
commencement from the beginning of their month Thoth, or the 29th of
August; and the Eastern Greeks from the 2nd of September. By the latter
it was also called the era of Antioch, and it continued to be used till
the 9th century. It must not be confounded with the Caesarean era of
Antioch, which began seventeen years earlier. Many of the medals struck
by the city of Antioch in honour of Augustus are dated according to this
era.

Besides the era of Actium, there was also an Augustan era, which began
four years later, or 27 B.C., the year in which Augustus prevailed on
the senate and people of Rome to decree him the title of Augustus, and
to confirm him in the supreme power of the empire.

_Era of Diocletian, or Era of Martyrs._--It has been already stated that
the Alexandrians, at the accession of the emperor Diocletian, made an
alteration in their mundane era, by striking off ten years from their
reckoning. At the same time they established a new era, which is still
followed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It begins with the 29th of August
(the first day of the Egyptian year) of the year 284 of our era, which
was the first of the reign of Diocletian. The denomination of _Era of
Martyrs_, subsequently given to it in commemoration of the persecution
of the Christians, would seem to imply that its commencement ought to be
referred to the year 303 of our era, for it was in that year that
Diocletian issued his famous edict; but the practice of dating from the
accession of Diocletian has prevailed. The ancient Egyptian year
consisted of 365 days; but after the introduction of the Julian
calendar, the astronomers of Alexandria adopted an intercalary year, and
added six additional days instead of five to the end of the last month
of every fourth year. The year thus became exactly similar to the Julian
year. The Egyptian intercalary year, however, does not correspond to the
Julian leap year, but is the year immediately preceding; and the
intercalation takes place at the end of the year, or on the 29th of
August. Hence the first three years of the Egyptian intercalary period
begin on the 29th of our August, and the fourth begins on the 30th of
that month. Before the end of that year the Julian intercalation takes
place, and the beginning of the following Egyptian year is restored to
the 29th of August. Hence to reduce a date according to this era to our
own reckoning, it is necessary, for common years, to add 283 years and
240 days; but if the date belongs to the first three months of the year
following the intercalation, or, which is the same thing, if in the
third year of the Julian cycle it falls between the 30th of August and
the end of the year, we must add 283 years and 241 days. The Ethiopians
do not reckon the years from the beginning of the era in a consecutive
series, but employ a period of 532 years, after the expiration of which
they again begin with 1. This is the Dionysian or Great Paschal Period,
and is formed by the multiplication of the numbers 28 and 19, that is,
of the solar and lunar cycles, into each other.

  The following are the names of the Ethiopian or Abyssinian months,
  with the days on which they begin in the Julian calendar, or old
  style:--

    Mascaram   29th August.         Magabit   25th February.
    Tikmith    28th September.      Miazia    27th March.
    Hadar      28th October.        Gimbot    26th April.
    Tacsam     27th November.       Sene      26th May.
    Tir        27th December.       Hamle     25th June.
    Yacatit    26th January.        Nahasse   25th July.

  The additional or epagomenal days begin on the 24th of August.
  In intercalary years the first seven months commence one day later.
  The Egyptian months, followed by the modern Copts, agree with
  the above in every respect excepting the names.

_Indiction._--The cycle of Indiction was very generally followed in the
Roman empire for some centuries before the adoption of the Christian
era. Three Indictions may be distinguished; but they differ only in
regard to the commencement of the year.

1. The _Constantinopolitan Indiction_, like the Greek year, commenced
with the month of September. This was followed in the Eastern empire,
and in some instances also in France.

2. The _Imperial_ or _Constantinian Indiction_ is so called because its
establishment is attributed to Constantine. This was also called the
_Caesarean Indiction_. It begins on the 24th of September. It is not
infrequently met with in the ancient chronicles of France and England.

3. The _Roman_ or _Pontifical Indiction_ began on the 25th of December
or 1st of January, according as the Christian year was held to begin on
the one or other of these days. It is often employed in papal bulls,
especially after the time of Gregory VII., and traces of its use are
found in early French authors.

_Era of the Armenians._--The epoch of the Armenian era is that of the
council of Tiben, in which the Armenians consummated their schism from
the Greek Church by condemning the acts of the council of Chalcedon; and
it corresponds to Tuesday, the 9th of July of the year 552 of the
Incarnation. In their civil affairs the Armenians follow the ancient
vague year of the Egyptians; but their ecclesiastical year, which begins
on the 11th of August, is regulated in the same manner as the Julian
year, every fourth year consisting of 366 days, so that Easter and the
other festivals are retained at the same place in the seasons as well as
in the civil year. The Armenians also make use of the mundane era of
Constantinople, and sometimes conjoin both methods of computation in the
same documents. In their correspondence and transactions with Europeans,
they generally follow the era of the Incarnation, and adopt the Julian
year.

To reduce the civil dates of the Armenians to the Christian era, proceed
as follows. Since the epoch is the 9th of July, there were 176 days from
the beginning of the Armenian era to the end of the year 552 of our era;
and since 552 was a leap year, the year 553 began a Julian intercalary
period. Multiply, therefore, the number of Armenian years elapsed by
365; add the number of days from the commencement of the current year to
the given date; subtract 176 from the sum, and the remainder will be the
number of days from the 1st of January 553 to the given date. This
number of days being reduced to Julian years, add the result to 552, and
the sum gives the day in the Julian year, or old style.

In the ecclesiastical reckoning the year begins on the 11th of August.
To reduce a date expressed in this reckoning to the Julian date, add 551
years, and the days elapsed from the 1st of January to the 10th of
August, both inclusive, of the year 552--that is to say (since 552 is a
leap year), 223 days. In leap years one day must be subtracted if the
date falls between the 1st of March and 10th of August.

  The following are the Armenian ecclesiastical months with their
  correspondence with those of the Julian calendar:--

     1.  Navazardi begins   11th August.
     2.  Hori               10th September.
     3.  Sahmi              10th October.
     4.  Dre Thari           9th November.
     5.  Kagoths             9th December.
     6.  Aracz               8th January.
     7.  Maleg               7th February.
     8.  Arcki               9th March.
     9.  Angi                8th April.
    10.  Mariri              8th May.
    11.  Marcacz             7th June.
    12.  Herodiez            7th July.

  To complete the year five complementary days are added in common
  years, and six in leap years.

_The Mahommedan Era, or Era of the Hegira._--The era in use among the
Turks, Arabs and other Mahommedan nations is that of the _Hegira_ or
_Hejra_, the flight of the prophet from Mecca to Medina, 622 A.D. Its
commencement, however, does not, as is sometimes stated, coincide with
the very day of the flight, but precedes it by sixty-eight days. The
prophet, after leaving Mecca, to escape the pursuit of his enemies, the
Koreishites, hid himself with his friend Abubekr in a cave near Mecca,
and there lay for three days. The departure from the cave and setting
out on the way to Medina is assigned to the ninth day of the third
month, Rabia I.--corresponding to the 22nd of September of the year 622
A.D. The era begins from the first day of the month of Muharram
preceding the flight, or first day of that Arabian year which coincides
with Friday, July 16, 622 A.D. It is necessary to remember that by
astronomers and by some historians the era is assigned to the preceding
day, July 15. It is stated by D'Herbelot that the era of the Hegira was
instituted by Omar, the second caliph, in imitation of the Christian era
of the martyrs.

_Era of Yazdegerd, or Persian or Jelalaean Era._--This era begins with
the elevation of Yazdegerd III. to the throne of Persia, on the 16th of
June in the year of our era 632. Till the year 1079 the Persian year
resembled that of the ancient Egyptians, consisting of 365 days without
intercalation; but at that time the Persian calendar was reformed by
Jel[=a]l ud-D[=i]n Malik Shah, sultan of Khorasan, and a method of
intercalation adopted which, though less convenient, is considerably
more accurate than the Julian. The intercalary period is 33 years,--one
day being added to the common year seven times successively at the end
of four years, and the eighth intercalation being deferred till the end
of the fifth year. This era was at one period universally adopted in
Persia, and it still continues to be followed by the Parsees of India.
The months consist of thirty days each, and each day is distinguished by
a different name. According to Alfergani, the names of the Persian
months are as follows:--

  Afrudin-meh.       Merded-meh.        Adar-meh.
  Ardisascht-meh.    Schaharir-meh.     Di-meh.
  Cardi-meh.         Mahar-meh.         Behen-meh.
  Tir-meh.           Aben-meh.          Affirer-meh.

The five additional days (in intercalary years six) are named
_Musteraca_.

As it does not appear that the above-mentioned rule of intercalation was
ever regularly followed, it is impossible to assign exactly the days on
which the different years begin. In some provinces of India the Parsees
begin the year with September, in others they begin it with October. We
have stated that the era began with the 16th June 632. But the vague
year, which was followed till 1079, anticipated the Julian year by one
day every four years. In 447 years the anticipation would amount to
about 112 days, and the beginning of the year would in consequence be
thrown back to near the beginning of the Julian year 632. To the year of
the Persian era, therefore, add 631, and the sum will be the year of our
era in which the Persian year begins.

_Chinese Chronology._--From the time of the emperor Yao, upwards of 2000
years B.C., the Chinese had two different years,--a civil year, which
was regulated by the moon, and an astronomical year, which was solar.
The civil year consisted in general of twelve months or lunations, but
occasionally a thirteenth was added in order to preserve its
correspondence with the solar year. Even at that early period the solar
or astronomical year consisted of 3651/4 days, like our Julian year; and
it was arranged in the same manner, a day being intercalated every
fourth year.

According to the missionary Gaubil, the Chinese divided the day into 100
_ke_, each _ke_ into 100 minutes, and each minute into 100 seconds. This
practice continued to prevail till the 17th century, when, at the
instance of the Jesuit Schall, president of the tribunal of mathematics,
they adopted the European method of dividing the day into twenty-four
hours, each hour into sixty minutes, and each minute into sixty seconds.
The civil day begins at midnight and ends at the midnight following.

Since the accession of the emperors of the Han dynasty, 206 B.C., the
civil year of the Chinese has begun with the first day of that moon in
the course of which the sun enters into the sign of the zodiac which
corresponds with our sign Pisces. From the same period also they have
employed, in the adjustment of their solar and lunar years, a period of
nineteen years, twelve of which are common, containing twelve lunations
each, and the remaining seven intercalary, containing thirteen
lunations. It is not, however, precisely known how they distributed
their months of thirty and twenty-nine days, or, as they termed them,
great and small moons. This, with other matters appertaining to the
calendar, was probably left to be regulated from time to time by the
mathematical tribunal.

The Chinese divide the time of a complete revolution of the sun with
regard to the solstitial points into twelve equal portions, each
corresponding to thirty days, ten hours, thirty minutes. Each of these
periods, which is denominated a _tse[)e]_, is subdivided into two equal
portions called _chung-ki_ and _tsie-ki_, the _chung-ki_ denoting the
first half of the _tse[)e]_, and the _tsie-ki_ the latter half. Though
the _tse[)e]_, are thus strictly portions of solar time, yet what is
remarkable, though not peculiar to China, they give their name to the
lunar months, each month or lunation having the name of the _chung-ki_
or sign at which the sun arrives during that month. As the _tse[)e]_ is
longer than a synodic revolution of the moon, the sun cannot arrive
twice at a _chung-ki_ during the same lunation; and as there are only
twelve _tse[)e]_, the year can contain only twelve months having
different names. It must happen sometimes that in the course of a
lunation the sun enters into no new sign; in this case the month is
intercalary, and is called by the same name as the preceding month.

  For chronological purposes, the Chinese, in common with some other
  nations of the east of Asia, employ cycles of sixty, by means of which
  they reckon their days, moons and years. The days are distributed in
  the calendar into cycles of sixty, in the same manner as ours are
  distributed into weeks, or cycles of seven. Each day of the cycle has
  a particular name, and as it is a usual practice, in mentioning dates,
  to give the name of the day along with that of the moon and the year,
  this arrangement affords great facilities in verifying the epochs of
  Chinese chronology. The order of the days in the cycle is never
  interrupted by any intercalation that may be necessary for adjusting
  the months or years. The moons of the civil year are also
  distinguished by their place in the cycle of sixty; and as the
  intercalary moons are not reckoned, for the reason before stated,
  namely, that during one of these lunations the sun enters into no new
  sign, there are only twelve regular moons in a year, so that the cycle
  is renewed every five years. Thus the first moon of the year 1873
  being the first of a new cycle, the first moon of every sixth year,
  reckoned backwards or forwards from that date, as 1868, 1863, &c., or
  1877, 1882, &c., also begins a new lunar cycle of sixty moons. In
  regard to the years, the arrangement is exactly the same. Each has a
  distinct number or name which marks its place in the cycle, and as
  this is generally given in referring to dates, along with the other
  chronological characters of the year, the ambiguity which arises from
  following a fluctuating or uncertain epoch is entirely obviated.

  The cycle of sixty is formed of two subordinate cycles or series of
  characters, one of ten and the other of twelve, which are joined
  together so as to afford sixty different combinations. The names of
  the characters in the cycle of ten, which are called _celestial_
  signs, are--

    1. Ke[)a]; 2. Y[)i]h; 3. Ping; 4. Ting; 5. Woo;
    6. Ke; 7. K[)a]ng; 8. Sin; 9. Jin; 10. Kwei;

  and in the series of 12, denominated _terrestrial_ signs,

    1. Tsze; 2. Chow; 3. Yin; 4. Maou; 5. Shin; 6. Sze;
    7. Woo; 8. We; 9. Shin; 10. Yew; 11. Se[)u]h; 12. Hae.

  The name of the first year, or of the first day, in the sexagenary
  cycle is formed by combining the first words in each of the above
  series; the second is formed by combining the second of each series,
  and so on to the tenth. For the next year the first word of the first
  series is combined with the eleventh of the second, then the second of
  the first series with the twelfth of the second, after this the third
  of the first series with the first of the second, and so on till the
  sixtieth combination, when the last of the first series concurs with
  the last of the second. Thus Ke[)a]-tsze is the name of the first
  year, Y[)i]h-Chow that of the second, Ke[)a]-se[)u]h that of the
  eleventh, Y[)i]h-hae that of the twelfth, Ping-tsze that of the
  thirteenth, and so on. The order of proceeding is obvious.

  In the Chinese history translated into the Tatar dialect by order of
  the emperor K'ang-hi, who died in 1721, the characters of the cycle
  begin to appear at the year 2357 B.C. From this it has been inferred
  that the Chinese empire was established previous to that epoch; but
  it is obviously so easy to extend the cycles backwards indefinitely,
  that the inference can have very little weight. The characters given
  to that year 2357 B.C. are Ke[)a]-shin, which denote the 41st of the
  cycle. We must, therefore, suppose the cycle to have begun 2397 B.C.,
  or forty years before the reign of Yao. This is the epoch assumed by
  the authors of _L'Art de verifier les dates_. The mathematical
  tribunal has, however, from time immemorial counted the first year of
  the first cycle from the eighty-first of Yao, that is to say, from the
  year 2277 B.C.

  Since the year 163 B.C. the Chinese writers have adopted the practice
  of dating the year from the accession of the reigning emperor. An
  emperor, on succeeding to the throne, gives a name to the years of his
  reign. He ordains, for example, that they shall be called Ta-te. In
  consequence of this edict, the following year is called the first of
  Ta-te, and the succeeding years the second, third, fourth, &c, of
  Ta-te, and so on, till it pleases the same emperor or his successor to
  ordain that the years shall be called by some other appellation. The
  periods thus formed are called by the Chinese Nien-hao. According to
  this method of dating the years a new era commences with every reign;
  and the year corresponding to a Chinese date can only be found when we
  have before us a catalogue of the Nien-hao, with their relation to the
  years of our era.

  For _Hindu Chronology_, see the article under that heading.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In addition to the early Greek writings already named,
  there are the forty books (some fifteen only extant in their entirety)
  of universal history compiled (about 8 B.C.) by Diodorus Siculus, and
  arranged in the form of annals; the _Pentabiblos_ of Julius Africanus
  (about 220-230 A.D.); the treatise of Censorinus entitled _De die
  natali_, written 238 A.D.; the _Chronicon_, in two books, of Eusebius
  Pamphili, bishop of Caesarea (about 325 A.D.), distinguished as the
  first book of a purely chronological character which has come down to
  us; and three important works forming parts of the _Corpus Scriptorum
  Historiae Byzantinae_, namely, the _Chronographia_ of Georgius
  Syncellus (800 A.D.), the _Chronographia_ of Johannes Malalas (9th
  century), and the _Chronicon Paschale_.

  Among works on Chronology, the following, which are arranged in the
  order of their publication, have an historical interest, as leading up
  to the epoch of modern research:--

  1583. _De Emendatione Temporum_, by Joseph Scaliger, in which were
  laid the foundations of chronological science.

  1603. _Opus Chronologicum_, by Sethus Calvisius.

  1627. _De Doctrina Temporum_, by Petavius (Denis Petau), with its
  continuation published in 1630, and an abridgment entitled
  _Rationarium Temporum_, in 1633-1634.

  1650. _Annales Veteris et Novi Testamenti_, by Archbishop Ussher,
  whose dates have by some means gained a place in the authorized
  version of the Bible.

  1651. _Regia Epitome Historiae Sacrae et Profanae_, by Philippe Labbe,
  of which a French version was also published.

  1669. _Institutionum Chronologicarum libri duo_, by Bishop Beveridge.

  1672. _Chronicus Canon Aegyptiacus, Ebraicus, et Graecus_, by Sir John
  Marsham.

  1687. _L'Antiquite des temps retablie et defendue_, by Paul Pezron,
  with its _Defense_, 1691.

  1701. _De Veteribus Graecorum Romanorumque Cyclis_, by Henry Dodwell.

  1728. _The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms amended_, by Sir Isaac
  Newton, remarkable as an attempt to construct a system on new bases,
  independent of the Greek chronologers.

  1738. _Chronologie de l'histoire sainte_, by Alphonse des Vignolles.

  1744. _Tablettes chronologiques de l'histoire universelle_, by N.
  Lenglet-Dufresnoy.

  1750. The first edition in one vol. 4to of _L'Art de verifier les
  dates_, which in its third edition (1818-1831) appeared in 38 vols.
  8vo, a colossal monument of the learning and labours of various
  members of the Benedictine Congregation of Saint-Maur.

  1752. _Chronological Antiquities_, by John Jackson.

  1754. _Chronology and History of the World_, by John Blair; new
  edition, much enlarged (1857).

  1784. _A System of Chronology_, by Playfair.

  1799. _Handbuch der Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums_, by A.H.L.
  Heeren.

  1803. _Handbuch der alten Geschichte, Geographie, und Chronologie_, by
  G.G. Bredow, with his _Historische Tabellen_.

  1809-1814. _New Analysis of Chronology_, by William Hales.

  1819. _Annales Veterum Regnorum_, by C.G. Zumpt.

  1821. _Tableaux historiques, chronologiques, et geographiques_, by
  Buret de Longchamps.

  1824-1834. _Fasti Hellenici_, and 1845-1850, _Fasti Romani_, by H.
  Fynes Clinton. Epitomes of these elaborate works were published,
  1851-1853.

  1825-1826. _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_,
  by Christian Ludwig Ideler; and his _Lehrbuch der Chronologie_,
  (1831).

  1833. _The Chronology of History_, by Sir Harris Nicolas.

  1852. _Fasti Temporis Catholici_, by Edward Greswell; and by the same
  author (1854), _Origines Kalendariae Italicae_; and 1862, _Origines
  Kalendariae Hellenicae_.

  More modern works are the _Encyclopaedia of Chronology_, by B.B.
  Woodward and W.L.R. Cates (1872); and J.C. Macdonald's _Chronologies
  and Calendars_ (1897). But see the separate historical articles in
  this work.    (W. L. R. C.)




CHRUDIM, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 74 m. E.S.E. of Prague by rail.
Pop. (1900) 13,017, mostly Czech. It has an important horse market,
besides manufactures of sugar, spirits, beer, soda-water and
agricultural machinery. There are also steam corn-mills and saw-mills.
Chrudim is mentioned as the castle of a _gaugraf_ as early as 993. The
new town was founded by Ottokar II., who settled many Germans in it and
gave it many privileges. After 1421 Chrudim was held by the Hussites,
and though Ferdinand I. confiscated most of the town property, it
prospered greatly till the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War. In 1625
the greater part of its Hussite inhabitants left the town, which
suffered much later on from the Swedes. Chrudim was the birthplace of
Joseph Ressel (1793-1857), honoured in Austria as the inventor of the
screw propeller.




CHRYSANTHEMUM[1] (_Chrysanthemum sinense_; nat. ord. Compositae), one of
the most popular of autumn flowers. It is a native of China, whence it
was introduced to Europe. The first chrysanthemum in England was grown
at Kew in 1790, whither it had been sent by Mr Cels, a French gardener.
It was not, however, till 1825 that the first chrysanthemum exhibition
took place in England. The small-flowered pompons, and the
grotesque-flowered Japanese sorts, are of comparatively recent date, the
former having originated from the Chusan daisy, a variety introduced by
Mr Fortune in 1846, and the latter having also been introduced by the
same traveller about 1862. The Japanese kinds are unquestionably the
most popular for decorative purposes as well as for exhibition. They
afford a wide choice in colour, form, habit and times of flowering. The
incurved Chinese kinds are severely neat-looking flowers in many shades
of colour. The anemone-flowered kinds have long outer or ray petals, the
interior or disk petals being short and tubular. These are to be had in
many pleasing colours. The pompon kinds are small flowered, the petals
being short. The plants are mostly dwarf in habit. In the single
varieties the outer or ray florets alone are large and attractively
coloured.

  _Plants for the Border._--As a border plant out of doors the
  chrysanthemum is of the easiest culture. It is an exceptionally good
  town plant. By a judicious selection of varieties, flowers may be
  produced in abundance and in considerable variety from August to the
  end of November, and in favourable seasons well on towards Christmas.
  Since 1890 when the English market was flooded with French raised
  varieties of exceptional merit, the border chrysanthemum has taken
  first place among hardy autumn flowering plants. Most of the varieties
  then introduced have been superseded by many excellent kinds raised in
  Britain.

  _Propagation._--The old English method of dividing the plants in March
  or early April may be followed where better means of propagation are
  not practicable. Many of the best border varieties are shy in
  producing new growths (suckers) from the rootstock, and are in
  consequence not amenable to this method. It is better to raise the
  plants from cuttings. This may be begun in January for the early
  flowering sorts, the late kinds being propagated during February and
  March. They will root quite well in a cold frame, if protected during
  frosty weather by litter or other similar material. If the frame can
  be heated at will so as to maintain a fairly even temperature of from
  4O deg. to 50 deg. Fah., roots will be made more quickly and with more
  certainty. A still better method is to improvise a frame near the
  glass in a greenhouse, where the temperature is not raised above 50 deg.
  by artificial heat. This has the advantage of being accessible in all
  weathers. The bottom of the frame is covered with sifted coal ashes or
  coco-nut fibre, on which the shallow boxes or pots used in propagating
  are placed. These are well drained with broken crocks, the bottoms of
  the boxes being drilled to allow water to pass out quickly. The soil
  should consist of about equal parts of fibrous loam and leaf-mould,
  half a part of coarse silver-sand, and about a quart of vegetable ash
  from the garden refuse heap to each bushel of the compost. The whole
  should be passed through a quarter inch sieve and thoroughly mixed.
  The coarse leaf-mould, &c., from the sieve should be spread thinly
  over the drainage, and the boxes or pots filled almost to the rims
  with the compost, and covered, if possible, with a thin layer of
  silver-sand. It should be pressed firmly, watered with a fine rose,
  and allowed to drain for an hour. The cuttings should then be dibbled
  into the boxes in rows, just clear, the soil being gently pressed
  around each. Short stout shoots which arise directly from the
  rootstock make the best cuttings. In their absence cuttings from the
  stems are used. The ideal length for a cutting is about 21/2 in. Cut the
  stem squarely with a sharp knife just below a joint, and remove the
  lower leaves. Insert as soon as possible and water with a fine rose to
  settle the soil around them. The soil is not allowed to become dry.
  The cuttings should be looked over daily, decayed leaves removed, and
  surplus moisture, condensed on the glass, wiped away. Ventilate
  gradually as rooting takes place, and, when well rooted, transfer
  singly into pots about 3 in. in diameter, using as compost a mixture
  of two parts loam, one part leaf-mould, half a part coarse
  silver-sand, and a gallon of vegetable ash to every bushel of the
  compost. Return to the frames and keep close for a few days to allow
  the little plants to recover from the check occasioned by the potting.
  Ventilation should be gradually increased until the plants are able to
  bear full exposure during favourable weather, without showing signs of
  distress by flagging. They should be carefully protected at all times
  from cold cutting winds. In April, should the weather be favourable,
  the plants may be transferred to the borders, especially should the
  positions happen to be sheltered. If this is not practicable, another
  shift will be necessary, this time into pots about 5 in. in diameter.
  The soil should be similar to that advised for the previous potting,
  enriched with half a part of horse manure that has been thoroughly
  sweetened by exposure. Plant out during May. All borders intended for
  chrysanthemums should be well dug and manured. The strong growing
  kinds should be planted about 3 ft. apart, the smaller kinds being
  allowed a little less room.

  In the summer, water in dry weather, syringe in the evenings whenever
  practicable, and keep the borders free from weeds by surface hoeings;
  stake and tie the plants as required, and pinch out the tips of the
  shoots until they have become sufficiently bushy by frequent
  branching. Pinching should not be practised later than the end of
  June.

  _Pot Plants for Decoration._--A list of a few of the thousands of
  varieties suitable for this purpose would be out of place here; new
  varieties are being constantly introduced, for these the reader is
  referred to trade catalogues.

  The most important considerations for the beginner are (a) the choice
  of colours; (b) the types of flowers; (c) the height and habits of the
  varieties. Generally speaking, very tall varieties and those of weak
  growth and delicate constitutions should be avoided. The majority of
  the varieties listed for exhibition purposes are also suitable for
  decoration, especially the Japanese kinds. Propagation and early
  culture are substantially as for border plants.

  As soon as the 5-in. pots are filled with roots, no time should be
  lost in giving them the final shift. Eight-in. pots are large enough
  for the general stock, but very strong growers may be given a larger
  size. The soil, prepared a fortnight in advance, should consist of
  four parts fibrous loam, one part leaf-mould, one part horse manure
  prepared as advised above, half a part coarse silver-sand, half a part
  of vegetable ash, and a quart of bone-meal or a sprinkling of basic
  slag to every bushel of the mixture. Mix thoroughly and turn over at
  intervals of three or four days. Pot firmly, working the soil well
  around the roots with a lath. The main stake for the support of the
  plant should now be given; other and smaller stakes may later be
  necessary when the plants are grown in a bushy form, but their number
  should not be overdone. The stakes should be as few as possible
  consistent with the safety of the shoots, which should be looped up
  loosely and neatly. The plants should be placed in their summer
  quarters directly after potting. Stand them in rows in a sunny
  situation, the pots clear of one another, sufficient room being
  allowed between the rows for the cultivator to move freely among them.
  The main stakes are tied to rough trellis made by straining wire in
  two rows about 2 ft. apart between upright poles driven into the
  ground. Coarse coal ashes or coke breeze are the best materials to
  stand the pots on, there being little risk of worms working through
  into the pots. The plants, which are required to produce as many
  flowers as possible, should have their tips pinched out at frequent
  intervals, from the end of March or beginning of April to the last
  week in June, for the main season kinds; and about the middle of July
  for the later kinds.

  Towards the end of July the plants will need feeding at the roots with
  weak liquid manure, varied occasionally by a very slight dusting of
  soluble chemical manure such as guano. The soil should be moderately
  moist when manure is given. In order that the flowers may be of good
  form, all lateral flower buds should be removed as soon as they are
  large enough to handle, leaving only the bud terminating each shoot.
  Towards the end of September--earlier should the weather prove wet and
  cold--remove the plants to well-ventilated greenhouses where they are
  intended to flower. Feeding should be continued until the flowers are
  nearly half open, when it may be gradually reduced. The large
  mop-headed blooms seen at exhibitions in November are grown in the way
  described, but only one or two shoots are allowed to develop on a
  plant, each shoot eventually having only one bloom.

  The chrysanthemum is subject to the attack of black aphis and
  green-fly. These pests may be destroyed, out of doors, by syringing
  with quassia and soft soap solutions, by dusting the affected parts
  with tobacco-powder, and indoors also by fumigating. Mildew generally
  appears after the plants are housed. It may be destroyed by dusting
  the leaves attacked with sublimed sulphur. Rust is a fungoid disease
  of recent years. It is best checked by syringing the plants with liver
  of sulphur (1 oz. to 3 gallons of water) occasionally, a few weeks
  before taking the plants into the greenhouse. Earwigs and slugs must
  be trapped and destroyed.

  _Flowers for Exhibition._--Flowers of exhibition standard must be as
  broad and as deep as the various varieties are capable of producing;
  they must be irreproachable in colour. They must also exhibit the form
  peculiar to the variety when at its best, very few kinds being
  precisely alike in this respect. New varieties are introduced in large
  numbers annually, some of which supplant the older kinds. The
  cultivator must therefore study the peculiarities of several new kinds
  each year if he would be a successful exhibitor.

  For lists of varieties, &c. see the catalogues of chrysanthemum
  growers, the gardening Press, and the excellent cultural pamphlets
  which are published from time to time.


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] The Gr. [Greek: chrusanthemon] ([Greek: chrusos], gold, and
    [Greek: anthemon], flower) was the herbalists' name for _C.
    segetum_, the "corn marigold," with its yellow bloom, and was
    transferred by Linnaeus to the genus, being commonly restricted now
    to the species _C. sinense_.




CHRYSANTHIUS, a Greek philosopher of the 4th century A.D., of the school
of Iamblichus. He was one of the favourite pupils of Aedesius, and
devoted himself mainly to the mystical side of Neoplatonism (q.v.). The
emperor Julian (q.v.) went to him by the advice of Aedesius, and
subsequently invited him to come to court, and assist in the projected
resuscitation of Hellenism. But Chrysanthius declined on the strength of
unfavourable omens, as he said, but probably because he realized that
the scheme was unlikely to bear fruit. For the same reason he abstained
from drastic religious reforms in his capacity as high-priest of Lydia.
As a result of his moderation, he remained high-priest till his death,
venerated alike by Christians and pagans. His wife Melite, who was
associated with him in the priestly office, was a kinswoman of Eunapius
the biographer.




CHRYSELEPHANTINE (Gr. [Greek: chrysos], gold, and [Greek: elephas],
ivory), the architectural term given to statues which were built up on a
wooden core, with ivory representing the flesh and gold the drapery. The
two most celebrated examples are those by Pheidias of the statue of
Athena in the Parthenon and of Zeus in the temple at Olympia.




CHRYSENE C18H12, a hydrocarbon occurring in the high boiling fraction of
the coal tar distillate. It is produced in small quantity in the
distillation of amber, on passing the vapour of phenyl-naphthyl-methane
through a red-hot tube, on heating indene, or by passing the mixed
vapours of coumarone and naphthalene through a red-hot tube. It
crystallizes in plates or octahedra (from benzene), which exhibit a
violet fluorescence, and melt at 250 deg.C. Chromic acid in glacial acetic
acid solution oxidizes it to chrysoquinone C18H10O2, which when
distilled with lead oxide gives chrysoketone C17H10O. When chrysene is
fused with alkalis, chrysenic acid, C17H12O3, is produced, which on
heating gives [beta]-phenyl-naphthalene. On heating chrysene with
hydriodic acid and red phosphorus to 260 deg.C, the hydro-derivatives
C18H28 and C18H30 are produced. It gives characteristic addition products
with picric acid and dinitroanthraquinone. Impure chrysene is of a yellow
colour; hence its name ([Greek: chryseos], golden yellow).




CHRYSIPPUS (c. 280-206 B.C.), Greek philosopher, the third great leader
of the Stoics. A native of Soli in Cilicia (Diog. Laert. vii. 179), he
was robbed of his property and came to Athens, where he studied possibly
under Zeno, certainly under Cleanthes. It is said also that he became a
pupil of Arcesilaus and Lacydes, heads of the Middle Academy. This
impartiality in his early studies is the key of his philosophic work,
the dominant characteristic of which is comprehensiveness rather than
originality. He took the doctrines of Zeno and Cleanthes and
crystallized them into a definite system; he further defended them
against the attacks of the Academy. His polemic skill earned for him the
title of the "Column of the Portico." Diogenes Laertius says, "If the
gods use dialectic, they can use none other than that of Chrysippus";
[Greek: ei me gar en Chrysippos, ouk an en Stoa] ("Without Chrysippus,
there had been no Porch"). He excelled in logic, the theory of
knowledge, ethics and physics. His relations with Cleanthes,
contemporaneously criticized by Antipater, are considered under STOICS.
He is said to have composed seven hundred and fifty treatises,
fragments alone of which survive. Their style, we are told, was
unpolished and arid in the extreme, while the argument was lucid and
impartial.

  See G.H. Hagedorn, _Moralia Chrysippea_ (1685), _Ethica Chrysippi_
  (1715); J.F. Richter, _De Chrysippo Stoico fastuoso_ (1738); F.
  Baguet, _De Chrysippi vita doctrina et reliquiis_ (1822); C. Petersen,
  _Philosophiae Chrysippeae fundamenta_ (1827); A. Gercke, "Chrysippea"
  in _Jahrbuecher fuer Philologie_, suppl. vol. xiv. (1885); R. Nicolai,
  _De logicis Chrysippi libris_ (1859); Christos Aronis, [Greek:
  Chrysippos grammatikos] (1885); R. Hirzel, _Untersuchungen zu Ciceros
  philosophischen Schriften_, ii. (1882); L. Stein, _Die Psychologie der
  Stoa_ (1886); A.B. Krische, _Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der alten
  Philosophie_ (1840); J.E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ i. 149.




CHRYSOBERYL, a yellow or green gem-stone, remarkable for its hardness,
being exceeded in this respect only by the diamond and corundum. The
name suggests that it was formerly regarded as a golden variety of
beryl; and it is notable that though differing widely from beryl it yet
bears some relationship to it inasmuch as it contains the element
beryllium. In chrysoberyl, however, the beryllium exists as an
aluminate, having the formula BeAl2O4, or BeO.Al2O3. The analysis of a
specimen of Brazilian chrysoberyl gave alumina 78.10, beryllia 17.94,
and ferric oxide 4.88%. The typical yellow colour of the stone inclines
in many cases to pale green, occasionally passing into shades of dark
green and brown. The iron usually present in the mineral seems
responsible for the green colour. Chrysoberyl is often mistaken by its
colour for chrysolite (q.v.), and has indeed been termed Oriental
chrysolite. In its crystalline forms it bears some relationship to
chrysolite, both crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, but it is a
much harder and a denser mineral. As the two stones are apt to be
confounded, it may be convenient to contrast their chief characters:--

                          Chrysoberyl.      Chrysolite.
  Hardness                8.5               6.5 to 7
  Specific Gravity        3.65 to 3.75      3.34 to 3.37
  Chemical Composition    BeAl2O4.          Mg2SiO4.

Chrysoberyl is not infrequently cloudy, opalescent and chatoyant, and is
then known as "cymophane" (Gr. [Greek: kyma], a "cloud"). The cloudiness
is referable to the presence of multitudes of microscopic cavities. Some
of the cymophane, when cut with a convex surface, forms the most
valuable kind of cat's-eye (see CAT'S-EYE). A remarkable dichroic
variety of chrysoberyl is known as alexandrite (q.v.).

Most chrysoberyl comes from Brazil, chiefly from the district of Minas
Novas in the state of Minas Geraes, where it occurs as small water-worn
pebbles. The cymophane is mostly from the gem-gravels of Ceylon.
Chrysoberyl is known as a constituent of certain kinds of granite,
pegmatite and gneiss. In the United States it occurs at Haddam, Conn.;
Greenfield Centre, near Saratoga Springs, N.Y.; and in Manhattan island.
It is known also in the province of Quebec, Canada, and has been found
near Gwelo in Rhodesia.    (F. W. R.*)




CHRYSOCOLLA, a hydrous copper silicate occurring as a decomposition
product of copper ores. It is never found as crystals, but always as
encrusting and botryoidal masses with a microcrystalline structure. It
is green or bluish-green in colour, and often has the appearance of opal
or enamel, being translucent and having a conchoidal fracture with
vitreous lustre; sometimes it is earthy in texture. Not being a definite
crystallized substance, it varies widely in chemical composition, the
copper oxide (CuO), for example, varying in different analyses from 17
to 67%; the formula is usually given as CuSiO3 + 2H2O. The hardness
(2-4) and specific gravity (2.0-2.8) are also variable. It has recently
been suggested that the material may really be a mixture of more than
one hydrous copper silicate, since differences in the microcrystalline
structure of the different concentric layers of which the masses are
built up may be detected. Various impurities (silica, &c.) are also
commonly present, and several varieties have been distinguished by
special names: thus dillenburgite, from Dillenburg in Nassau, contains
copper carbonate; demidoffite and cyanochalcite contain copper
phosphate; and pilarite contains alumina (perhaps as allophane). The
mineral occurs in the upper parts of veins of copper ores, and has
resulted from their alteration by the action of waters containing silica
in solution. Pseudomorphs of chrysocolla after various copper minerals
(e.g. cuprite) are not uncommon. It is found in most copper mines.

The name chrysocolla (from [Greek: chrysos], gold, and [Greek: kolla],
glue) was applied by Theophrastus and other ancient writers to materials
used in soldering gold, one of which, from the island of Cyprus, may
have been identical with the mineral now known by this name. Borax,
which is used for this purpose, has also been called chrysocolla.

A mineral known as pitchy copper-ore (Ger. _Kupferpecherz_), and of some
importance as an ore of copper, is usually classed as a variety of
chrysocolla containing much admixed limonite. It is dark brown to black
in colour, with a dull to glassy or resinous lustre, and resembles pitch
in appearance. In thin sections it is translucent and optically
isotropic, and recent examinations seem to prove that it is a
homogeneous mineral and not a mechanical mixture of chrysocolla and
limonite.    (L. J. S.)




CHRYSOLITE, a transparent variety of olivine, used as a gem-stone and
often called peridot. The name chrysolite, meaning "golden stone"
([Greek: chrysos] and [Greek: lithos]), has been applied to various
yellowish gems, notably to topaz, to some kinds of beryl and to
chrysoberyl. The true chrysolite of the modern mineralogist is a
magnesium silicate, referable to the species olivine. It is appropriate
to call the lighter coloured stones inclining to yellow chrysolite, and
the darker green stones peridot. Certain kinds of topaz, from the
Schneckenstein in Saxony, are known as Saxon chrysolite; while
moldavite, a substance much like a green obsidian, is sometimes called
water chrysolite or pseudo-chrysolite.

  See CHRYSOBERYL; OLIVINE; PERIDOT.




CHRYSOLORAS, MANUEL [or EMMANUEL] (c. 1355-1415), one of the pioneers in
spreading Greek literature in the West, was born at Constantinople of a
distinguished family, which had removed with Constantine the Great to
Byzantium. He was a pupil of Gemistus (q.v.). In 1393 he was sent to
Italy by the emperor Manuel Palaeologus to implore the aid of the
Christian princes against the Turks. He returned to Constantinople, but
at the invitation of the magistrates of Florence he became about 1395
professor of the Greek language in that city, where he taught three
years. He became famous as a translator of Homer and Plato. Having
visited Milan and Pavia, and resided for several years at Venice, he
went to Rome upon the invitation of Bruni Leonardo, who had been his
pupil, and was then secretary to Gregory XII. In 1408 he was sent to
Paris on an important mission from the emperor Manuel Palaeologus. In
1413 he went to Germany on an embassy to the emperor Sigismund, the
object of which was to fix a place for the assembling of a general
council. It was decided that the meeting should take place at Constance;
and Chrysoloras was on his way thither, having been chosen to represent
the Greek Church, when he died suddenly on the 15th of April 1415. Only
two of his works have been printed, his _Erotemata_ (published at Venice
in 1484), which was the first Greek grammar in use in the West, and
_Epistolae III. de comparatione veteris et novae Romae_.

JOHN CHRYSOLORAS, a relative of the above (variously described as his
nephew, brother or son), who, like him, had studied and taught at
Constantinople, and had then gone to Italy, shared Manuel's reputation
as one of those who spread the influence of Greek letters in the West.
His daughter married Filelfo (q.v.).




CHRYSOPRASE (Gr. [Greek: chrysos], gold, and [Greek: prason], leek), a
name applied by modern mineralogists to an apple-green variety of
chalcedony or hornstone, used as an ornamental stone. The colour is due
to the presence of nickel, probably in the form of a hydrous silicate.
By exposure to a moderate heat, or to strong light, the chrysoprase
becomes paler, or even colourless, but it may regain its colour by
absorption of moisture. Chrysoprase is a mineral of rather limited
distribution. Most of it comes from the neighbourhood of Frankenstein in
Silesia, where it occurs in association with altered serpentine. It is
found to a limited extent at Revdinsk, near Ekaterinburg, in the Urals;
and it occurs also in India. It is known, too, at several localities in
North America, notably at Nickel Mount, Douglas county, Oregon, where it
occurs in nickeliferous serpentine.

The chrysoprase of the moderns is certainly not the _chrysoprasius_ of
Pliny, or the [Greek: chrysoprasos] of Greek writers. The ancient stone
was not improbably our chrysoberyl, and it is doubtful whether the
modern chrysoprase was known until a comparatively late period. The
chrysoprase of Kosemuetz, near Frankenstein in Silesia, was discovered in
1740, and used by Frederick the Great in the decoration of the palace of
Sans Souci at Potsdam. But at a much earlier date the Silesian
chrysoprase was used for mural decoration at the Wenzel chapel at
Prague. Chrysoprase was a favourite stone in England at the beginning of
the 19th century, being set round with small brilliants and used for
brooches and rings. At the present time it is said to be regarded by
some as a "lucky stone." Much commercial chrysoprase is chalcedony
artificially stained by impregnation with a green salt of nickel.
   (F. W. R.*)




CHRYSOSTOM. St John Chrysostom ([Greek: Chrysostomos], golden-mouthed),
the most famous of the Greek Fathers, was born of a noble family at
Antioch, the capital of Syria, about A.D. 345 or 347. At the school of
Libanius the sophist he gave early indications of his mental powers, and
would have been the successor of his heathen master, had he not been
stolen away, to use the expression of his teacher, to a life of piety
(like Augustine, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Theodoret) by the influence
of his pious mother Anthusa. After his baptism (about 370) by Meletius,
the bishop of Antioch, he gave up all his forensic prospects, and buried
himself in an adjacent desert, where for nearly ten years he spent a
life of ascetic self-denial and theological study, to which he was
introduced by Diodorus, bishop of Tarsus, a famous scholar of the
Antiochene type. Illness, however, compelled him to return to the world;
and the authority of Meletius gained his services to the church. He was
ordained deacon in his thirty-fifth year (381), and afterwards presbyter
(386) at Antioch. On the death of Nectarius he was appointed archbishop
of Constantinople by Eutropius, the favourite minister of the emperor
Arcadius. He had, ten years before this, only escaped promotion to the
episcopate by a very questionable stratagem--which, however, he defends
in his instructive and eloquent treatise _De Sacerdotio_. As a
presbyter, he won high reputation by his preaching at Antioch, more
especially by his homilies on _The Statues_, a course of sermons
delivered when the citizens were justly alarmed at the prospect of
severe measures being taken against them by the emperor Theodosius,
whose statues had been demolished in a riot.

On the archiepiscopal throne Chrysostom still persevered in the practice
of monastic simplicity. The ample revenues which his predecessors had
consumed in pomp and luxury he diligently applied to the establishment
of hospitals; and the multitudes who were supported by his charity
preferred the eloquent discourses of their benefactor to the amusements
of the theatre or of the circus. His homilies, which are still
preserved, furnish ample apology for the partiality of the people,
exhibiting the free command of a pure and copious vocabulary, an
inexhaustible fund of metaphors and similitudes, giving variety and
grace to the most familiar topics, with an almost dramatic exposure of
the folly and turpitude of vice, and a deep moral earnestness. His zeal
as a bishop and eloquence as a preacher, however, gained him enemies
both in the church and at the court. The ecclesiastics who were parted
at his command from the lay-sisters (whom they kept ostensibly as
servants), the thirteen bishops whom he deposed for simony and
licentiousness at a single visitation, the idle monks who thronged the
avenues to the court and found themselves the public object of his
scorn--all conspired against the powerful author of their wrongs. Their
resentment was inflamed by a powerful party, embracing the magistrates,
the ministers, the favourite eunuchs, the ladies of the court, and
Eudoxia the empress herself, against whom the preacher thundered daily
from the pulpit of St Sophia. A favourable pretext for gratifying their
revenge was discovered in the shelter which Chrysostom had given to four
Nitrian monks, known as the tall brothers, who had come to
Constantinople on being excommunicated by their bishop, Theophilus of
Alexandria, a man who had long circulated in the East the charge of
Origenism against Chrysostom. By Theophilus's instrumentality a synod
was called to try or rather to condemn the archbishop; but fearing the
violence of the mob in the metropolis, who idolized him for the
fearlessness with which he exposed the vices of their superiors, it held
its sessions at the imperial estate named "The Oak" (_Synodus ad
quercum_), near Chalcedon, where Rufinus had erected a stately church
and monastery. A bishop and a deacon were sent to accuse the archbishop,
and presented to him a list of charges, in which pride, inhospitality
and Origenism were brought forward to procure the votes of those who
hated him for his austerity, or were prejudiced against him as a
suspected heretic. Four successive summonses were signified to
Chrysostom, but he indignantly refused to appear until four of his
notorious enemies were removed from the council. Without entering into
any examination of the charges brought before them, the synod condemned
him on the ground of contumacy, and, hinting that his audacity merited
the punishment of treason, called on the emperor to ratify and enforce
their decision. He was immediately arrested and hurried to Nicaea in
Bithynia.

As soon as the news of his banishment spread through the city, the
astonishment of the people was quickly exchanged for a spirit of
irresistible fury, which was increased by the occurrence of an
earthquake. In crowds they besieged the palace, and had already begun to
take vengeance on the foreign monks and sailors who had come from
Chalcedon to the metropolis, when, at the entreaty of Eudoxia, the
emperor consented to his recall. His return was graced with all the pomp
of a triumphal entry, but in two months after he was again in exile. His
fiery zeal could not blind him to the vices of the court, and heedless
of personal danger he thundered against the profane honours that were
addressed almost within the precincts of St Sophia to the statue of the
empress. The haughty spirit of Eudoxia was inflamed by the report of a
discourse commencing with the words--"Herodias is again furious;
Herodias again dances; she once more demands the head of John"; and
though the report was false, it sealed the doom of the archbishop. A new
council was summoned, more numerous and more subservient to the wishes
of Theophilus; and troops of barbarians were quartered in the city to
overawe the people. Without examining it, the council confirmed the
former sentence, and, in accordance with canon 12 of the Synod of
Antioch (341), pronounced his deposition for having resumed his
functions without their permission.

He was hurried away to the desolate town of Cucusus (Cocysus), among the
ridges of Mount Taurus, with a secret hope, perhaps, that he might be a
victim to the Isaurians on the march, or to the more implacable fury of
the monks. He arrived at his destination in safety; and the sympathies
of the people, which had roused them to fire the cathedral and
senate-house on the day of his exile, followed him to his obscure
retreat. His influence also became more powerfully felt in the
metropolis than before. In his solitude he had ample leisure for forming
schemes of missionary enterprise among Persians and Goths, and by his
correspondence with the different churches he at once baffled his
enemies and gave greater energy to his friends. This roused the emperor
to visit him with a severer punishment, though Innocent I. of Rome and
the emperor Honorius recognized his orthodoxy and besought his return.
An order was despatched for his removal to the extreme desert of Pityus;
and his guards so faithfully obeyed their instructions that, before he
reached the sea-coast of the Euxine, he expired at Comana in Pontus, in
the year 407. His exile gave rise to a schism in the church, and the
Johannists (as they were called) did not return to communion with the
archbishop of Constantinople till the relics of the saint were, 30 years
after, brought back to the Eastern metropolis with great pomp and the
emperor publicly implored forgiveness from Heaven for the guilt of his
ancestors. The festival of St Chrysostom is kept in the Greek Church on
the 13th of November, and in the Latin Church on the 27th of January.

In his general teaching Chrysostom elevates the ascetic element in
religion, and in his homilies he inculcates the need of personal
acquaintance with the Scriptures, and denounces ignorance of them as the
source of all heresy. If on one or two points, as, for instance, the
invocation of saints, some germs of subsequent Roman teaching may be
discovered, there is a want of anything like the doctrine of indulgences
or of compulsory private confession. Moreover, in writing to Innocent,
bishop of Rome, he addresses him as a brother metropolitan, and sends
the same letter to Venerius, bishop of Milan, and Chromatius, bishop of
Aquileia. His correspondence breathes a most Christian spirit,
especially in its tone of charity towards his persecutors. In exegesis
he is a pure Antiochene, basing his expositions upon thorough
grammatical study, and proceeding from a knowledge of the original
circumstances of composition to a forceful and practical application to
the needs of his day and of all time. With his exegetical skill (he was
inferior in pure dogma to Theodore of Mopsuestia) he united a wide
sympathy and a marvellous power of oratory.

The voluminous works of Chrysostom fall into three groups. To the days
of his early desert life is probably to be assigned the treatise _On
Priesthood_, a book full of wise counsel. To the years of his
presbyterate and episcopate belong the great mass of homilies and
commentaries, among which those _On the Statues_, and on _Matthew_,
_Romans_ and _Corinthians_, stand out pre-eminently. His letters belong
to the last years, the time of exile, and with his other works are
valuable sources for the history of his time.

  The manuscripts are very numerous, and many of them are of great
  antiquity, as are the Syriac and other translations. The best edition
  is that of Bernard de Montfaucon in 13 vols. fol. (1718-1738),
  reproduced with some improvements by Migne (_Patrol. Graec._
  xlvii.-lxiv.); but this edition is greatly indebted to the one issued
  more than a century earlier (1612) by Sir Henry Savile, provost of
  Eton College, from a press established at Eton by himself, which
  Hallam (_Lit. of Europe_, iii. 10, 11) calls "the first work of
  learning, on a great scale, published in England." F. Field admirably
  edited _S. Matthew_ (Cambridge, 1839) and _Epistles of S. Paul_
  (Oxford, 1849-1855). J.A. Bengel's edition of _De Sacerdotio_ (1725)
  has been often reprinted (e.g. Leipzig, 1887).

  As authorities for the life, the most valuable are the ecclesiastical
  histories of Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret; and amongst the moderns,
  Erasmus, Cave, Lardner and Tillemont, with the church history of
  Neander, and his monograph on the _Life and Times of Chrysostom_,
  translated by J.C. Stapleton. More recent are the lives by W.R.W.
  Stephens (London, 1871), R.W. Bush (London, 1885) and A. Peuch (Paris,
  1891). F.W. Farrar's romance _Gathering Clouds_ gives a good picture
  of the man and his times. For monographs on special points such as
  Chrysostom's theological position and his preaching, see the very full
  bibliography in E. Preuschen's article in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyk._
  iv.; also A. Harnack, _Hist. of Dogma_, iii. and iv. Some of the
  commentaries and homilies are translated in the Oxford Library of the
  Fathers.




CHUB (_Leuciscus cephalus_), a fish of the Cyprinid family, belonging to
the same genus as the roach and dace. It is one of the largest of its
family, attaining a length of 2 ft. and a weight of 5 to 7 lb. It does
not avoid running waters, and is fond of insects, taking the fly
readily, but its flesh, like that of the other _Leucisci_, is tasteless
and full of bones. It is common in Great Britain and the continent of
Europe. In America the name of "chub" is given to some other members of
the family, and commonly to the horned dace (_Semnotilus
atromaculatus_); well-known varieties are the river chub (_Hybopsis
kentuckiensis_) and Columbia river chub (_Mylochilus caurinus_).




CHUBB, CHARLES (d. 1845), English locksmith, started a hardware business
at Winchester, subsequently removing to Portsea. Here he improved on the
"detector" lock (q.v.), originally patented in 1818 by his brother,
Jeremiah Chubb. He soon moved to London and then to Wolverhampton, where
he employed two hundred hands. In 1835 he patented a process intended to
render safes (q.v.) burglar-proof and fireproof, and subsequently
established a large safe-factory in London. He died on the 16th of May
1845, and was succeeded in the business by his son, John Chubb
(1816-1872), who patented various improvements in the products of the
firm and largely increased its output. The factories were combined under
one roof in a model plant, and the business grew to enormous
proportions. After John Chubb's death the business was converted into a
limited company under the management of his three sons.




CHUBB, THOMAS (1670-1746), English deist, the son of a maltster, was
born at East Harnham, near Salisbury, on the 29th of September 1679. The
death of his father (1688) cut short his education, and in 1694 he was
apprenticed to a glove-maker in Salisbury, but subsequently entered the
employment of a tallow-chandler. He picked up a fair knowledge of
mathematics and geography, but theology was his favourite study. His
habit of committing his thoughts to writing gave him a clear and fluent
style. He made his first appearance as an author in the Arian
controversy. A dispute having arisen about Whiston's argument in favour
of the supremacy of the one God and Father, he wrote an essay, _The
Supremacy of the Father Asserted_, which Whiston pronounced worthy of
publication, and it was printed in 1715. A number of tracts followed,
which were collected in 1730. For several years Chubb lived in the house
of Sir Joseph Jekyll, master of the rolls, in what capacity it is not
known; there are stories of his having waited at table as a servant out
of livery. His love of independence drew him back to Salisbury, where by
the kindness of friends he was enabled to devote the rest of his days to
his studies. He died on the 8th of February 1746. Chubb is interesting
mainly as showing that the rationalism of the intellectual classes had
taken considerable hold upon the popular mind. Though he acquired little
renown in England he was regarded by Voltaire and others as among the
most logical of the deist school (see DEISM). His principal works are _A
Discourse Concerning Reason_ (1731), _The True Gospel of Jesus Christ_
(1739), and _Posthumous Works_, 2 vols. (1748), the last containing "The
Author's Farewell to his Readers."




CHUBUT, a territory of the southern Argentine Republic, part of what was
formerly called Patagonia, bounded N. by Rio Negro, S. by Santa Cruz, E.
by the Atlantic and W. by Chile. Pop. (1895) 3748; (1904, estimate)
9060; area, 93,427 sq. m. Except for the valleys in the Andean
foothills, which are fertile and well forested, and the land along the
banks of the Chubut river, which flows entirely across the territory
from the Andes to the Atlantic, the country is a barren waste, covered
with pebbles and scanty clumps of dwarfed vegetation, with occasional
shallow saline lakes. The larger rivers are the Chubut and the Senguerr,
the latter flowing into Lake Colhuapi. There are a number of large lakes
among the Andean foothills, the best known of which are Fontana, La
Plata and General Paz, and, in the interior, Colhuapi or Colhue and
Musters, the latter named after the English naval officer who traversed
Patagonia in 1870. Petroleum was found at Comodoro Rivadavia, in the S.
part of the territory, toward the close of 1907, at a depth of 1768 ft.
Chubut is known chiefly by the Welsh colony near the mouth of the Chubut
river. The chief town of the Welsh, Rawson, is the capital of the
territory, and Port Madryn on Bahia Nueva is its best port. Other
colonies have been founded in the fertile valleys of the Andean
foothills, but their growth is greatly impeded by lack of transportation
facilities. (See further PATAGONIA.)




CHUDE, a tribal name used in both a special and a general sense. (1) It
was the name given by the Russians to certain Esthonian tribes with whom
they came in contact as they spread gradually over their present empire.
It would seem that the northern Chudes are the Vepsas, of whom about
21,000 are said to live near Lake Onega and in the northern parts of the
government of Novgorod, and that the southern Chudes are the Votes who
occupy about thirty parishes in north-west Ingria. (2) As the Russians
advanced eastwards they extended the name to various tribes whom they
considered to be like the Esthonians, and in popular use it has come to
be applied to any ancient non-Russian people in Siberia, at least as far
east as the Altai. In particular, ancient mines, tumuli and the metal
work often found in them are commonly known as Chudish. Some
investigators have used the word in a more restricted sense of Permian
antiquities and their builders, but it seems to be a popular expression
not corresponding to any historical or scientific division of mankind.




CHUGUYEV, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov, 25 m. E.S.E.
of the town of Kharkov, on the right bank of the northern Donets. It is
a place of some strategic importance, and had in 1897 a population of
11,877.




CHUKCHI, CHANKTUS ("Men") or TUSKI ("Brothers" or "Confederates"), a
Mongoloid people inhabiting the northeasternmost portion of Siberia on
the shores of the Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea. They are settled in small
groups along the Arctic coast between the Bering Straits and the Kolyma
river, or wander as far inland as the Anadyr basin. Though their
territory embraces some 300,000 odd sq. m., the most trustworthy
estimates put their numbers at but a few thousands. They were first
carefully studied by the members of the Nordenskjoeld expedition
(1878-79), who describe them as tall, lean, with somewhat irregular
features--hence de Quatrefages classes them as "Allophylian Whites." The
accounts of their physical characteristics are somewhat confused owing
to the presence of the true Eskimo in the Chukchi domain. The typical
Chukchi is round-headed, and thus distinct from the long-headed Eskimo,
with broad, flat features and high cheek-bones. The nose is often so
buried between the puffed cheeks that a ruler might be laid across the
face without touching it. The lips are thick, and the brow low. The hair
is coarse, lank and black. The general muscular development is good,
though usually the body is stunted. It has been suggested that they
emigrated from the south, possibly from the Amur basin. In their arctic
homes they long carried on war with the Ongkilon (Ang-kali) aborigines,
gradually merging with the survivors and also mixing both with the
Kusmen Koryaks (q.v.) and the Chuklukmuit Eskimo settled on the Asiatic
side of Bering Strait. Their racial characteristics make them an
ethnological link between the Mongols of central Asia and the Indians of
America. Some authorities affiliate them to the Eskimo because they are
believed to speak an Eskimo dialect. But this is merely a trade jargon,
a hotchpotch of Eskimo, Chukchi, Koryak, English and even Hawaiian. The
true Chukchi language, of which Nordenskjoeld collected a thousand words,
is distinct from Eskimo and akin to Koryak, and Nordenskjoeld sums the
problem up with the remark--"this race settled on the primeval route
between the Old and New World bears an unmistakable stamp of the Mongols
of Asia and the Eskimo and Indians of America."

The Chukchi are divided into the "Fishing Chukchi," who have settled
homes on the coast, and the "Reindeer Chukchi," who are nomads. The
latter breed reindeer (herds of more than 10,000 are not uncommon), live
on the flesh and milk, and are generally fairly prosperous; while the
fishing folk are very poor, begging from their richer kinsfolk hides to
make tents and clothes. The Chukchi were formerly warlike and vigorously
resisted the Russians, but to-day they are the most peaceable of folks,
amiable in their manners, affectionate in family life and good-humoured.
But this gentleness does not prevent them from killing off the old and
infirm. They believe in a future life, but only for those who die a
violent death. Thus it is regarded as an act of filial piety for a son
to kill his parent or a nephew his uncle. This tribal custom is known as
_kamitok_; and of it Mr Harry de Windt writes (_Through the Gold Fields
of Alaska to Bering Strait_, 1898), "The doomed one takes a lively
interest in the proceedings, and often assists in the preparation for
his own death. The execution is always preceded by a feast, where seal
and walrus meat are greedily devoured, and whisky consumed till all are
intoxicated. A spontaneous burst of singing and the muffled roll of
walrus-hide drums then herald the fatal moment. At a given signal a ring
is formed by the relations and friends, the entire settlement looking on
from the background. The executioner (usually the victim's son or
brother) then steps forward, and placing his right foot behind the back
of the condemned, slowly strangles him to death with a walrus thong. A
_kamitok_ took place during the latter part of our stay." The Chukchi
are nominally Christians, but sacrifice animals to the spirits of the
rivers and mountains, and also practise Shamanism. In personal habits
the people are indescribably filthy. They are polygamous, but the women
are treated kindly. The children are specially petted, and are so
wrapped up to protect them from the cold that they have been described
as resembling huge balls crossed by a bar, their arms having to remain
outstretched owing to the bulk of their wrappings. Chukchi women are
often tattooed with two black-blue convex lines running from the eye to
the chin. Since their adoption of Christianity the men sometimes have a
Latin cross tattooed on their chins. The Chukchi burn their dead or
expose them on platforms to be devoured by ravens.

  See Harry de Windt, _Through the Gold Fields of Alaska to Bering
  Strait_ (1898); Dittmar, "Ueber die Koriaken u. ihnen nahe verwandten
  Tchouktchen," in _Bul. Acad. Sc._ (St Petersburg), xii. p. 99; Hooper,
  _Ten Months among the Tents of the Tuski_; W.H. Dall, _Contributions
  to North American Ethnology_, vol. i. (1877).




CHULALONGKORN, PHRA PARAMINDR MAHA (1853-1910), king of Siam, eldest son
of King Maha Mongkut, was born on the 21st of September 1853. His full
signature, used in all important state documents, consists of
twenty-seven names, but it is by the first four that he is usually
known. Educated in his childhood by English teachers, he acquired a good
knowledge of the English language and of Western culture. But his
surroundings were purely oriental, and his boyhood was spent, according
to custom, in a Buddhist monastery. He succeeded to the throne on the
death of his father, 1st October 1868, and was crowned on the 11th of
November following, a ceremony marked by the innovation of permitting
the presence of Europeans. Until his majority in 1873 the government was
carried on by a regent, the young king retiring to a Buddhist monastery,
and later making a tour through India and the Dutch East Indies, an
undertaking until then without precedent among the potentates of eastern
Asia. He had no sooner taken the reins of power than he gave evidence of
his recognition of the importance of modern culture by abolishing
slavery in Siam. He simplified court etiquette, no longer demanding, for
example, that his subjects should approach him on hands and knees. Still
more important, in view of the numerous races and creeds included among
his subjects, was the proclamation of liberty of conscience. This was
followed by the erection of schools and hospitals, the construction of
roads and railways, and the further development of the army and fleet
which his father had initiated. To him Siam is indebted for its standard
coinage, its postal and telegraph service, and for the policing,
sanitation and electric-lighting of Bangkok. Several of his sons,
including the crown prince, were educated in England, and in the summer
of 1897 he himself visited England, arriving at Portsmouth in his yacht
on the 29th of July. On the 4th of August he was received by Queen
Victoria at Osborne. After a tour in Great Britain he proceeded to
Berlin, Brussels, and the Hague and Paris. (See also SIAM.)




CHUMBI VALLEY, a valley connecting Tibet (q.v.) with the frontier of
British India. Lying on the southern slopes of the Himalayas at an
altitude of about 9500 ft. above the sea, the valley is wedged in
between Bhutan and Sikkim, and does not belong geographically but only
politically to Tibet. This was the route by which the British mission of
1904 advanced. Before the date of that expedition the valley had
acquired a reputation for beauty and fertility, which was subsequently
found to be only comparative in relation to the barrenness of the rest
of the Tibetan frontier. The summer months, though not hot, are relaxing
and enervating.




CHUNAR, or CHUNARGHUR, a town and ancient fortress of India, in the
district of Mirzapur, in the United Provinces, situated on the south
bank of the Ganges. Pop. (1901) 9926. The fort occupies a conspicuous
site on the summit of an abrupt rock which commands the river. It was at
one time a place of great strength, and still contains a magazine, and
is fortified with batteries. In the old citadel on the height, the
remains of a Hindu palace with some interesting carvings indicate the
former importance of the place. The town, which consists of one or two
straggling streets, contains a handsome English church. Chunar is first
mentioned in the 16th century, when in possession of Sing Joanpore. In
1530 it became the residence of Shere Shah the Afghan, and forty-five
years later was recovered by the emperor Akbar after sustaining a siege
of six months. It fell into the hands of the English under General
Carnac in 1763 after a prolonged resistance which caused considerable
loss to the assailants. A treaty with the nawab of Oudh was signed here
by Warren Hastings on behalf of the East India Company in September
1781.




CHUNCHO, a tribe of South American Indians, living in the forests east
of Cuzco, central Peru. They are a fierce and savage people who have
preserved their independence. They are said to be akin to their
neighbours the Antis. They dwell in communal houses, and live chiefly by
hunting. Chuncho has also been used to describe one of three aboriginal
stocks of Peru, the others being Quichua and Aymara.




CH'UNGK'ING, a city in the province of Szech'uen, China, on the left
bank of the Yangtsze, at its point of junction with the Kialing, in 29 deg.
33' N., and 107 deg. 2' E. It is surrounded by a crenelated stone wall,
which is 5 m. in circumference and is pierced by nine gates. It is the
commercial centre for the trade, not only of Szech'uen, but of all
south-western China. The one highway between Szech'uen and the eastern
provinces is the Yangtsze river route, as owing to the mountainous
nature of the intervening country land transit is almost impracticable.
The import trade brought up by large junks from Ich'ang, and consisting
of cotton cloth, yarn, metals and foreign manufactures, centres here,
and is distributed by a class of smaller vessels up the various rivers
of the provinces. Native produce, such as yellow silk, white wax, hides,
rhubarb, musk and opium, is here collected and repacked for conveyance
to Hankow, Shanghai or other parts of the empire. The city was opened to
foreign trade by convention with the British government in 1891, with
the proviso, however, that foreign steamers should not be at liberty to
trade there until Chinese-owned steamers had succeeded in ascending the
river. This restriction was abolished by the Japanese treaty of 1895,
which declared Ch'ungk'ing open on the same terms as other ports. After
that date the problem of steam navigation on the section of the river
between Ich'ang and Ch'ungk'ing occupied attention. By 1907 a small
steamer had been navigated up the rapids, but it remained a question how
far steam navigation could be made a practical success. The trade was
carried on by native craft, hauled up against the strength of the
current in the worst places by a line of trackers on the bank. The great
rise in the river during the summer months, at Ch'ungk'ing ordinarily 70
ft. and occasionally as much as 96 ft., added to the difficulties. The
population of Ch'ungk'ing, including the city of Kiangpei on the
opposite bank of the Kialing river, is about 300,000. The foreign
residents are very few. In 1898 the value of the trade passing through
the maritime customs was L2,614,000, and in 1904 L4,214,568, of which
imports counted for L2,644,777 and exports for L1,569,791.




CHUPATTY, an Anglo-Indian term for an unleavened cake of bread. The word
represents the Hindustani _chapati_, and is applied to the usual form of
native bread, the staple food of upper India. The chupatty is generally
made of coarse wheaten flour, patted flat with the hand, and baked upon
a griddle. In the troubled times that preceded the mutiny of 1857
chupatties were circulated from village to village throughout India,
apparently as a token of discontent.




CHUPRIYA (sometimes written _Tiupriia_; Croatian _Cuprya_), the capital
of the Morava department of Servia, on the railway from Belgrade to
Nish, and on the right bank of the Morava, which is navigable up to this
point by small sailing-vessels. Pop. (1900) about 6000. Some of the
finest Servian cattle are bred in the neighbouring lowlands, and the
town has a considerable trade in plums and other farm-produce. A light
railway, leading to several important collieries, runs for 13 m. through
the beech-forests and mountains on the east. Cloth is woven at Parachin,
5 m. S.; and Yagodina, 8 m. W. by N., is an important market town. Among
the foothills of the Golubinye Range, 7 m. E.N.E., is the 14th-century
Ravanitsa monastery, with a ruined fort and an old church--their walls
and frescoes pitted by Turkish bullets. There is a legend that here the
Servian tsar Lazar (1374-1389) was visited by an angel, who bade him
choose between an earthly and a heavenly crown. In accordance with his
choice, Lazar fell fighting at Kossovo, and was buried at Ravanitsa; his
body being afterwards transferred, through fear of the Turks, to another
Ravanitsa, in eastern Slavonia. His crucifix is treasured among the
monastic archives, which also contain a charter signed by Peter the
Great of Russia (1672-1725). Manasia (_Manasiya_), the still more
celebrated foundation of Stephen, the son and successor of Lazar, lies
12 m. N. of Ravanitsa. Built in a cleft among the hills which line the
river Resava, an affluent of the Morava, this monastery is enclosed in a
fortress, whose square towers, and curtain without loopholes or
battlements, remain largely intact. Within the curtain stand the
monastic buildings, a large garden and a cruciform chapel, with many
curious old stone carvings, half hidden beneath whitewash. Numerous
gifts from the Russian court, such as gospels lettered in gold and
silver relief, or jewelled crucifixes, are preserved on the spot; but
the valuable library was removed, in the 15th century, to Mount Athos.




CHUQUISACA, a department of S.E. Bolivia, bounded N. by Cochabamba and
Santa Cruz, E. by Santa Cruz and Brazil, S. by Tarija, and W. by Potosi.
It lies partly upon the eastern plateau of Bolivia and partly upon the
great plains of the upper La Plata basin; area, 26,418 sq. m. The
Pilcomayo, a large tributary of the Paraguay, crosses N.W. to S.E. the
western part of the department. The climate of the lowlands is hot,
humid and unhealthy, but that of the plateau is salubrious, though
subject to greater extremes in temperature and rainfall. The seasons are
sharply divided into wet and dry, the eastern plains becoming great
lagoons during the wet season, and parched deserts during the dry. The
mineral resources are important, but are less developed than those of
Potosi and Oruro. Grazing is the principal industry of the plains, and
cattle, sheep, goats and llamas are raised and cereals grown in the
fertile valleys of the plateau. Three rough highways connect the
department with its neighbours on the N. and W., and pack animals are
the common means of transporting merchandise. The population was
estimated at 204,434 m 1900, and is largely composed of Indians and
_mestizos_. The plateau Indians are generally Aymaras, but on the
eastern plains there are considerable settlements of partly civilized
Chiriguanos, of Guarani origin. The department is divided into four
provinces, the greater part of the lowlands being unsettled and without
effective political organization. Its principal towns are Sucre,
Camargo, Padilla and Yotala.




CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900), American landscape painter, was
born at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 4th of May 1826. He was a pupil of
Thomas Cole at Catskill, New York, where his first pictures were
painted. Developing unusual technical dexterity, Church from the
beginning sought for his themes such marvels of nature as Niagara Falls,
the Andes, and tropical forests--he visited South America in 1853 and
1857,--volcanoes in eruption, and icebergs, the beauties of which he
portrayed with great skill in the management of light, colour, and the
phenomena of rainbow, mist and sunset, rendering these plausible and
effective. In their time these paintings awoke the wildest admiration
and sold for extravagant prices, collectors in the United States and in
Europe eagerly seeking them, though their vogue has now passed away. In
1849 Church was made a member of the National Academy of Design. His
"Great Fall at Niagara" (1857) is in the Corcoran Art Gallery,
Washington, D.C., and a large "Twilight" is in the Walters Gallery,
Baltimore, Maryland. Among his other canvases are "Andes of Ecuador"
(1855), "Heart of the Andes" (1859), "Cotopaxi" (1862), "Jerusalem"
(1870), and "Morning in the Tropics" (1877). He died on the 7th of April
1900, at his house on the Hudson river above New York City, where he had
lived and worked for many years. He was the most prominent member of the
so-called "Hudson River School" of American artists.




CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835-1910), American geographer, was born in New
Bedford, Massachusetts, on the 7th of December 1835. He was educated as
a civil engineer, and was early engaged on the Hoosac Tunnel. In 1858 he
joined an exploring expedition to South America. During the American
Civil War he served (1862-1865) in the Army of the Potomac, rising to
the command of a brigade and the rank of colonel; and in 1866-1867 he
was war correspondent of the _New York Herald_ in Mexico. He explored
the Amazon (1868-1879), and gradually became the leading authority on
that region of South America, being appointed United States commissioner
to report on Ecuador in 1880, and visiting Costa Rica in 1895 to report
on its debt and railways. He wrote extensively on South and Central
American geography, and became a vice-president of the Royal
Geographical Society (London), and in 1898 president of the geographical
section of the British Association.




CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784-1873), British military officer and general in
the Greek army, was the son of a Quaker, Matthew Church of Cork. He was
born in 1784, and at the age of sixteen ran away from home and enlisted
in the army. For this violation of its principles he was disowned by the
Society of Friends, but his father bought him a commission, dated the
3rd of July 1800, in the 13th (Somersetshire) Light Infantry. He served
in the demonstration against Ferrol, and in the expedition to Egypt
under Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1801. After the expulsion of the French
from Egypt he returned home, but came back to the Mediterranean in 1805
among the troops sent to defend the island of Sicily. He accompanied the
expedition which landed in Calabria, and fought a successful battle
against the French at Maida on the 6th of July 1806. Church was present
on this occasion as captain of a recently raised company of Corsican
Rangers. His zeal attracted the notice of his superiors, and he had
begun to show his capacity for managing and drilling foreign levies. His
Corsicans formed part of the garrison of Capri from October 1806 till
the island was taken by an expedition directed against it by Murat, in
September 1808, at the very beginning of his reign as king of Naples.
Church, who had distinguished himself in the defence, returned to Malta
after the capitulation.

In the summer of 1809 he sailed with the expedition sent to occupy the
Ionian Islands. Here he increased the reputation he had already gained
by forming a Greek regiment in English pay. It included many of the men
who were afterwards among the leaders of the Greeks in the War of
Independence. Church commanded this regiment at the taking of Santa
Maura, on which occasion his left arm was shattered by a bullet. During
his slow recovery he travelled in northern Greece, and Macedonia, and to
Constantinople. In the years of the fall of Napoleon (1813 and 1814) he
was present as English military representative with the Austrian troops
until the campaign which terminated in the expulsion of Murat from
Naples. He drew up a report on the Ionian Islands for the congress of
Vienna, in which he argued in support, not only of the retention of the
islands under the British flag, but of the permanent occupation by Great
Britain of Parga and of other formerly Venetian coast towns on the
mainland, then in the possession of Ali Pasha of Iannina. The peace and
the disbanding of his Greek regiment left him without employment, though
his reputation was high at the war office, and his services were
recognized by the grant of a companionship of the Bath. In 1817 he
entered the service of King Ferdinand of Naples as lieutenant-general,
with a commission to suppress the brigandage then rampant in Apulia.
Ample powers were given him, and he attained a full measure of success.
In 1820 he was appointed governor of Palermo and commander-in-chief of
the troops in Sicily. The revolution which broke out in that year led to
the termination of his services in Naples. He escaped from violence in
Sicily with some difficulty. At Naples he was imprisoned and put on his
trial by the government, but was acquitted and released in January 1821;
and King George IV. conferred on him a knight commandership of the
Hanoverian order.

The rising of the Greeks against the Turks, which began at this time,
had his full sympathy from the first. But for some years he had to act
only as the friend of the insurgents in England. In 1827 he took the
honourable but unfortunate step of accepting the commandership-in-chief
of the Greek army. At the point of anarchy and indiscipline to which
they had now fallen, the Greeks could no longer form an efficient army,
and could look for salvation only to foreign intervention. Sir Richard
Church, who landed in March, was sworn "archistrategos" on the 15th of
April 1827. But he could not secure loyal co-operation or obedience. The
rout of his army in an attempt to relieve the acropolis of Athens, then
besieged by the Turks, proved that it was incapable of conducting
regular operations. The acropolis capitulated, and Sir Richard turned to
partisan warfare in western Greece. Here his activity had beneficial
results, for it led to a rectification in 1832, in a sense favourable to
Greece, of the frontier drawn by the powers in 1830 (see his
_Observations on an Eligible Line of Frontier for Greece_, London,
1830). Church had, however, surrendered his commission, as a protest
against the unfriendly government of Capo d'Istria, on the 25th of
August 1829. He lived for the rest of his life in Greece, was created
general of the army in 1854, and died at Athens on the 30th of March
1873. Sir Richard Church married in 1826 Elizabeth Augusta
Wilmot-Horton, who survived him till 1878.

  See _Sir Richard Church_, by Stanley Lane Poole (London, 1890); _Sir
  Richard Church in Italy and Greece_, by E.M. Church (Edinburgh, 1895),
  based on family papers (an Italian version, _Brigantaggio e societa
  segrete nelle Puglie, 1817-1828_, executed under the direction of
  Carlo Lacaita, appeared at Florence in 1899). The MS. Correspondence
  and Papers of Sir Richard Church, in 29 vols., now in the British
  Museum (Add. MSS. 36543-36571), contain invaluable material for the
  history of the War of Greek Independence, including a narrative of the
  war during Church's tenure of the command, which corrects many errors
  in the published accounts and successfully vindicates Church's
  reputation against the strictures of Finlay, Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,
  and other historians of the war (see _Cam. Mod. Hist._ x. p. 804).
     (D. H.)




CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815-1890), English divine, son of John Dearman
Church, brother of Sir Richard Church (q.v.), a merchant, was born at
Lisbon on the 25th of April 1815, his early years being mostly spent at
Florence. After his father's death in 1828 he was sent to a school of a
pronounced evangelical type at Redlands, Bristol, and went in 1833 to
Wadham College, Oxford, then an evangelical college. He took first-class
honours in 1836, and in 1838 was elected fellow of Oriel. One of his
contemporaries, Richard Mitchell, commenting on this election, said:
"There is such a moral beauty about Church that they could not help
taking him." He was appointed tutor of Oriel in 1839, and was ordained
the same year. He was an intimate friend of J.H. Newman at this period,
and closely allied to the Tractarian party. In 1841 No. 90 of _Tracts
for the Times_ appeared, and Church resigned his tutorship. In 1844-1845
he was junior proctor, and in that capacity, in concert with his senior
colleague, vetoed a proposal to censure Tract 90 publicly. In 1846
Church, with others, started _The Guardian_ newspaper, and he was an
early contributor to _The Saturday Review_. In 1850 he became engaged to
Miss H.F. Bennett, of a Somersetshire family, a niece of George Moberly,
bishop of Salisbury. After again holding the tutorship of Oriel, he
accepted in 1852 the small living of Whatley in Somersetshire, near
Frome, and was married in the following year. He was a diligent parish
priest and a serious student, and contributed largely to current
literature. In 1869 he refused a canonry at Worcester, but in 1871 he
accepted, most reluctantly (calling it "a sacrifice _en pure perte_"),
the deanery of St Paul's, to which he was nominated by W.E. Gladstone.

His task as dean was a complicated one. It was (1) the restoration of
the cathedral; (2) the adjustment of the question of the cathedral
revenues with the Ecclesiastical Commissioners; (3) the reorganization
of a conservative cathedral staff with anomalous vested rights. He
described the intention of his appointment to be "that St Paul's should
waken up from its long slumber." The first year that he spent at St
Paul's was, writes one of his friends, one of "misery" for a man who
loved study and quiet and the country, and hated official pomp and
financial business and ceremonious appearances. But he performed his
difficult and uncongenial task with almost incredible success, and is
said never to have made an enemy or a mistake. The dean was
distinguished for uniting in a singular degree the virtues of austerity
and sympathy. He was pre-eminently endowed with the faculty of judgment,
characterized by Canon Scott Holland as the gift of "high and fine and
sane and robust decision." Though of unimpressive stature, he had a
strong magnetic influence over all brought into contact with him, and
though of a naturally gentle temperament, he never hesitated to express
censure if he was convinced it was deserved. In the pulpit the voice of
the dean was deliberately monotonous, and he employed no adventitious
gesture. He may be described as a High Churchman, but of an essentially
rational type, and with an enthusiasm for religious liberty that made it
impossible for him to sympathize with any unbalanced or inconsiderate
demands for deference to authority. He said of the Church of England
that there was "no more glorious church in Christendom than this
inconsistent English Church." The dean often meditated resigning his
office, though his reputation as an ecclesiastical statesman stood so
high that he was regarded in 1882 as a possible successor to Archbishop
Tait. But his health and mode of life made it out of the question. In
1888 his only son died; his own health declined, and he appeared for the
last time in public at the funeral of Canon Liddon in 1890, dying on 9th
December 1890, at Dover. He was buried at Whatley.

The dean's chief published works are a _Life of St Anselm_ (1870), the
lives of _Spenser_ (1879) and _Bacon_ (1884) in Macmillan's "Men of
Letters" series, an _Essay on Dante_ (1878), _The Oxford Movement_
(1891), together with many other volumes of essays and sermons. A
collection of his journalistic articles was published in 1897 as
_Occasional Papers_. In these writings he exhibits a great grasp of
principles, an accurate mastery of detail, and the same fusion of
intelligent sympathy and dispassionate judgment that appeared in his
handling of business. His style is lucid, and has the charm of
austerity. He stated that he had never studied style _per se_, but that
he had acquired it by the exercise of translation from classical
languages; that he watched against the temptation of using unreal and
fine words; that he employed care in his choice of verbs rather than in
his use of adjectives; and that he fought against self-indulgence in
writing just as he did in daily life. His sermons have the same quality
of self-restraint. His private letters are fresh and simple, and contain
many unaffected epigrams; in writing of religious subjects he resolutely
avoided dogmatism without ever sacrificing precision. The dean was a man
of genius, whose moral stainlessness and instinctive fire were indicated
rather than revealed by his writings.

  See _Life and Letters of Dean Church_, by his daughter, M.C. Church
  (1895); memoir by H.C. Beeching in _Dict. Nat. Biog._; and D.C.
  Lathbury, _Dean Church_ (1907).    (A. C. BE.)




CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. [Greek:
kyriakon [doma]], "the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic,
Slavonic and other languages under various forms--Scottish _kirk_, Ger.
_Kirche_, Swed. _kirka_, Dan. _kirke_, Russ. _tserkov_, Bulg. _cerkova_,
Czech _cirkev_, Finn, _kirkko_, &c), a word originally applied to the
building used for Christian worship, and subsequently extended to the
Christian community (_ecclesia_) itself. Similarly the Greek word
_ecclesia_ ([Greek: ekklesia]), "assembly," was very early transferred
from the community to the building, and is used in both senses,
especially in the modern Romance and Celtic languages (e.g. Fr.
_eglise_, Welsh _eglwys_, &c).

(1) _Church Architecture._--From the strictly architectural point of
view the subject of church building, including the development of the
various styles and the essential features of the construction and
arrangement of churches, is dealt with elsewhere (see ARCHITECTURE;
ABBEY; BASILICA). It is, however, impossible to understand the
development of church architecture without realizing its intimate
connexion with that of the doctrine, organization and ritual of the
Christian Church as a religious community, and a brief sketch of this
connexion may be given here by way of introduction to the more technical
treatment of the subject. In general it may be said of church
architecture, more truly than of any other, that artistically it is
"frozen music." It is true that at all times churches have been put to
secular uses; in periods of unrest, as among the Nestorian Christians
now, they were sometimes built to serve at need as fortresses; their
towers were used for beacons, their naves for meetings on secular
affairs. But as a rule, and especially in the great periods of church
architecture, their builders were untrammelled by any utilitarian
considerations; they built for the glory of God, for their own glory
perhaps, in honour of the saints; and their work, where it survives, is
(as it were) a petrification of their beliefs and ideals. This is, of
course, more true of the middle ages than of the times that preceded and
followed them; the Church under the Roman empire hardly as yet realized
the possibilities of "sermons in stones," and took over, with little
change, the model of the secular and religious buildings of pagan Rome;
the Renaissance, essentially a neo-pagan movement, introduced disturbing
factors from outside, and, though developing a style very characteristic
of the age that produced it, started that archaeological movement which
has tended in modern times to substitute mere imitations of old models
for any attempt to express in church architecture the religious spirit
of the age.

The earliest type of Christian Church, out of which the others
developed, was the basilica. The Church, emerging in the 4th century
into imperial favour, and established as part of the organization of the
Roman empire, simply adopted that type of secular official building
which she found convenient for her purposes. The clergy, now Roman
officials, vested in the robes of the civil dignitaries (see VESTMENTS),
took their seats in the apse of the basilica where the magistrates were
wont to sit, in front of them the holy table, facing the congregation.
The _cancelli_, the lattice or bar, which in the civil tribunal had
divided the court from the litigants and the public, now served to
separate clergy and laity. This arrangement still survives in some of
the ancient churches of Rome; it has been revived in many Protestant
places of worship. It symbolized principally an official distinction;
but with the theocratizing of the empire in the East and its decay in
the West the accentuation of the mystic powers of the clergy led to a
more complete separation from the laity, a tendency which left its mark
on the arrangements of the churches. In the East the _cancelli_, under
the influence possibly of the ritual of the Jewish temple, developed
into the _iconostasis_, the screen of holy pictures, behind the closed
doors of which the supreme act of the eucharistic mystery is hidden from
the lay people. In the West the high altar was moved to the east end
(the _presbyterium_) with a space before it for the assisting deacons
andsubdeacons (the chancel proper) railed off as a spot peculiarly holy
(now usually called the sanctuary); between this and the nave, where the
laity were, was the choir, with seats for the clergy on either side. The
whole of this space (sanctuary and choir) came to be known as the
"chancel." This was divided from the nave, sometimes by an arch forming
part of the structure of the building, sometimes by a screen, or by
steps, sometimes by all three (see CHANCEL). The division of churches
into chancel and nave, the outcome of the sacramental and sacerdotal
spirit of the Catholic Church, may be taken as generally typical of
church construction in the medieval West, though there were exceptions,
e.g. the round churches of the Templars. There were, however, further
changes, the result partly of doctrinal developments, partly of that
passion for symbolism which by the 13th century had completed the
evolution of the Catholic ritual. Transepts were added, to give to the
ground-plan of the building the figure of the cross. The insistence on
the unique efficacy of the sacrifice of the altar led to the
multiplication of masses, and so of altars, which were placed in the
transepts or aisles or in chapels, dedicated to the saints whose relics
they enshrined. The chief of these subsidiary chapels, that of the
Blessed Virgin (or Lady chapel), behind the high altar, was often of
large size. Finally, for the convenience of processions, the nave and
chancel aisles were carried round behind the high altar as ambulatories.

The Romanesque churches, still reminiscent of antique models, had
preserved all the simplicity of the ancient basilicas with much more
than their grandeur; but the taste for religious symbolism which
culminated in the 13th century, and the imaginative genius of the
northern peoples, transformed them into the marvellous dreams in stone
of the "Gothic" period. Churches now became, in form and decoration,
epitomes of the Christian scheme of salvation as the middle ages
understood it. In the plan of the buildings and their decoration
everything still remained subordinate to the high altar; but though on
this and its surroundings ornament was most lavishly expended, the
churches--wherever wealth permitted--were covered within and without
with sculpture or painting: scenes from the Old and New Testaments, from
the lives of saints, even from every-day life; figures of the Almighty,
of Christ, of the Virgin Mother, of apostles, saints, confessors;
pictures of the joys of heaven and the torments of hell; and outside,
grimacing from every angle, demons and goblins, amusing enough to us but
terrible to the age that set them there, visible embodiments of the evil
spirits driven from within the sacred building by the efficacy of the
holy rites. In considering the origins of medieval churches, moreover,
it must be borne in mind that as a general rule their builders were not
actuated by the motives usual in modern times, at least among
Protestants. The size of churches was not determined by the needs of
population but by the piety and wealth of the founders; and the same
applies to their number. Often they were founded as acts of propitiation
of the Almighty or of the saints, and the greater their size and
splendour the more effective they were held to be for their purpose.
Local rivalry, too, played a large part, one wealthy abbey building
"against" another, much in the same way as modern business houses
endeavour to outshine each other in the magnificence of their buildings.
Of all the mixed motives that went to the evolution of church
architecture in the middle ages, this rivalry in ostentation was
probably the most fertile in the creation of new forms. A volume might
be written on the economic effects of this locking up of vast capital in
unproductive buildings. In Catholic countries (notably in Ireland) great
churches are still built out of the savings of a poverty-stricken
peasantry; and from this point of view the destruction of churches in
the 16th century was probably a benefit to the world. This, however, is
a consideration altogether alien to the Christian spirit, the aspiration
of which is to lay up treasures not on earth but in heaven.

The Reformation was a fateful epoch in the history of church
architecture. The substitution of the Bible for the Mass destroyed the
_raison d'etre_ of churches as the middle ages had made them. Pictures
and stories, carved or painted, seemed no longer necessary now that the
open Bible was in the hands of the common people; they had been too
often prostituted, moreover, to idolatrous uses,--and "idolatry" was the
worst of blasphemies to the re-discoverers of the Old Testament. Save in
some parts of Germany, where the influence of Luther saved the churches
from wreck, an iconoclastic wave spread over the greater part of Western
Europe, wherever the "new religion" prevailed; everywhere churches were
cleared of images and reduced to the state of those described by William
Harrison in his _Description of England_ (1570), only the "pictures in
glass" being suffered in some cases to survive for a while "by reason of
the extreme cost of replacing them." The structures of the churches,
however, remained; and these, even in countries which departed furthest
from the Catholic system, served in some measure to keep its tradition
alive. Protestantism has, indeed, produced a distinctive church
architecture, i.e. the conventicle type, favoured more especially by the
so-called "Free Churches." Its distinctive features are pulpit and
auditorium, and it is symbolical of the complete equality of ministers
and congregation. In general, however, Protestant builders have been
content to preserve or to adapt the traditional models. It would be
interesting in this connexion to trace the reverse effect of church
architecture upon church doctrine. In England, for instance, the
chancels were for the most part disused after the Reformation (see
Harrison, op. cit.), but presently they came into use again, and on the
Catholic revival in the Church of England in the 19th century it is
certain that the medieval churches exercised an influence by giving a
sense of fitness, which might otherwise have been lacking, to the
restoration of medieval ritual. A similar tendency has of late years
been displayed in the Established Church of Scotland.

Churches, as the outcome of the organization of the Catholic Church, are
divided into classes as "cathedral," "conventual" and "collegiate,"
"parochial" and "district" churches. It must be noted, however, that the
term cathedral (q.v.), ecclesiastically applicable to any church which
happens to be a bishop's see, architecturally connotes a certain size
and dignity, and is sometimes applied to churches which have never been,
or have long ceased to be, bishop's seats. (W.A.P.)

(2) _The Religious Community._--In the sense of Christian community
(_ecclesia_) the word "Church" is applied in a narrow sense to any one
of the numerous separate organizations into which Christendom is divided
(e.g. Roman Catholic Church, Orthodox Eastern Church, Church of England,
Evangelical [Lutheran] Church)--these are dealt with under their several
headings--and in a comprehensive sense (with which we are now concerned)
to the general body of all those "who profess and call themselves
Christians." Religion, according to the old definition, is the bond
which binds the soul of man to God.[1] It begins as the relation of a
tribe to its God. Personal religious conviction grows out of the tribal
(corporate) religious bond. But the social instinct is strong. Men
owning the same religious convictions will naturally draw together into
some sort of association. Using the word religion to cover all the
imperfect ways in which men have felt after God, we note that in every
case men have found the need alike of a teacher and of fellowship. Thus
the idea of a church as "the pillar and ground of the truth" (1 Tim.
iii. 15) corresponds to some of the primary needs of man. Even at
Stonehenge, the oldest relic of prehistoric religion in England, where
we picture in imagination the worship of the rising sun, nature worship
degraded to a horrible depth by human sacrifice, we find struggling for
expression the idea of a corporate religious life. From all the lower
levels where superstition and cruelty reign, from the depths of fear
inspired by fetichism, we look on to the higher level of Judaism as the
progressive religion of the old world. This does not mean that we shut
our eyes to the ideals of Greek philosophers, with whom morality was
constantly outgrowing religion. "The vision of an ideal state which the
master-mind of Plato contemplated, but thought too good ever to become
true in actual realization, is full of aspirations which the Christian
Church claims to satisfy. The problems of the relations of the life of
the State and the life of the individual, which Aristotle ever suggests
and never solves, are problems with which the Christian Church has at
least attempted to deal."[2]

From the beginning of the history of the Jewish race the idea that the
world is a kingdom under the rule of God began to find expression. The
conception of Israel as "a kingdom of priests and an holy nation" (Exod.
xix. 6) bore witness to it. The idea of kingship from the first was that
of a ruler representing God. As time went on and even the dynasty of
David failed in the persons of unworthy representatives to maintain this
ideal, both psalmists and prophets taught the people to look beyond the
earthly kingdom to the spiritual kingdom of which it was a type. But
even Isaiah tended to think of the spiritual life and worship of the
nation as a department of political organization only, controlled by the
king and his princes. It was reserved for Jeremiah, in the darkest days
of his life, to build up the ideal of a spiritual society which should
weld Israel together, to proclaim a new covenant (xxxi. 31-34) which
Jehovah would make with Israel when representatives of the previously
exiled ten tribes should return with the exiles of Judah. This prophecy
is instinct with the growing sense of the personal responsibility of
individual men brought into communion with God. The religion of Israel
from this time of the captivity ceased to be a merely national religion
connected with particular forms of sacrifice in a particular land. The
synagogues which traced their origin to the time of Ezekiel, when the
sacrificial cultus was impossible, extended this ideal yet further.
During the centuries preceding the birth of Christ there grew up an
apocalyptic literature which regarded as a primary truth the conception
of a kingdom of righteousness ruled over by a present God. The
preaching of John the Baptist was thus in sympathy with the ideals of
his generation, though the sternness of the repentance which he set
forth as the necessary preparation for entrance into the new kingdom of
heaven, which was to be made visible on earth, was not less repugnant to
the men of his day than of later times. Christ's own teaching and that
of his disciples began with the proclamation of the kingdom of God (or
of heaven) (Luke iv. 43, viii. 1, ix. 2; Matt. x. 7). That he intended
it to find outward expression in a visible society appears from the
careful way in which he trained the apostles to become leaders
hereafter, crowning that work by the institution of the sacraments of
baptism and the Eucharist. "It was not from accident or for convenience
that Christ formed a society."[3] His parables even more than his
sermons reveal the principles of his endeavour. But he seldom used the
word _ecclesia_, church, which became the universal designation of his
society.

All the more emphatic is Christ's use of the term _ecclesia_ upon the
distinct advance in faith made by the apostles when St Peter as their
spokesman confessed him to be "the Christ, the Son of the living God"
(Matt. xvi. 16). Instantly came the reply, "I say unto thee, that thou
art _Petros_ (rockman), and on this _Petra_ (rock) I will build my
_ecclesia_ (church); and the gates of Hades shall not prevail against
it." On the rock of a human character, ennobled by faith in his divine
Sonship, he could raise the church of the future, which should be at the
same time continuous with the old, new in spiritual power, one in
worship and in work.

To the Jew the word _ecclesia_ as used in the Septuagint suggested the
assembly of the congregation of Israel. To a Greek it suggested the
assembly of freeborn citizens in a city state. Without ceasing to be the
congregation of Jehovah, it would claim for itself all the hopes of an
ideal state over which Greek philosophers had sighed in vain.

Opinions differ upon the question whether the apostles were chosen as
representatives of the _ecclesia_ to be founded (Hort) or as men fitted
to become its duly authorized teachers and leaders from the beginning
(Stone). But as Mr Stone well puts it, "It would not be a necessary
inference [from Dr Hort's opinion] that there ought to be no ministry in
the Christian Church."[4]

At first the church was limited to the Christian believers in the city
of Jerusalem, then by persecution their company was broken up, and,
since those who were scattered went everywhere preaching the word, the
conception was enlarged to include all "of the way" (Acts ix. 2) in the
Holy Land. A new epoch began from the return of St Paul and St Barnabas
to Antioch after their first missionary journey, when they called
together the church and narrated their experiences, and told how "God
had opened to the Gentiles the door of faith" (Acts xiv. 27). Hitherto
the term Church had been "ideally conterminous" with the Jewish Church.
Now it was to contain members who had never in any sense belonged to the
Jewish Church. Thus the way was opened for new developments and for
illimitable extension. St Paul, in his address to the elders at Ephesus
(Acts xx. 28), adapted the words of Ps. lxxiv. 2, "Remember thy
congregation, which thou hast purchased of old," claiming for the
Christian _ecclesia_ the title of God's ancient _ecclesia_. But he
never, however fiercely opposed by Judaizers, set a new _ecclesia_ of
Christ in opposition to the old. We wait, however, for the Epistles of
his captivity at Rome to find the full meaning of the idea of the church
dawning upon his imagination. "Here at least, for the first time in the
Acts and Epistles, we have the _ecclesia_ spoken of in the sense of the
one universal _ecclesia_, and it comes more from the theological than
from the historical side; i.e. less from the actual circumstances of the
actual Christian communities than from a development of thoughts
respecting the place and office of the Son of God: his headship was felt
to involve the unity of all those who were united to him."[5] Similar
development of the idea of the one _ecclesia_ as including all members
of all local _ecclesiae_ does not lead St Paul to regard membership of
the universal church as invisible.

But the mere history of the word _ecclesia_ does not exhaust the
subject. We must take into account not only the idea of the visible
_actual_ church, but also the ideal pictured by St Paul in the metaphors
of the Body (Rom. xii. 5), the Temple (1 Cor. iii. 10-15) and the Bride
of Christ (2 Cor. xi. 2). The actual church is always falling short of
its profession; but its successive reformations witness to the strength
of its longing after the beauty of holiness.

Membership in the actual church is acquired through baptism "in the name
of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost" (Matt, xxviii. 19).
The references in the New Testament to baptism "in the name of Jesus"
(or the Lord Jesus) (Acts ii. 38, viii. 16. x. 48, xix. 5; Rom. vi. 3;
Gal. iii. 27), which are by some critics taken to refer to a primitive
Christological baptismal formula, seem to refer to the confession made
by the baptized, or to the new relationship into which they are brought
as "members of Christ."[6] Candidates for baptism were exhorted to
prepare for it by repentance and faith (Acts ii. 38). The laying on of
hands (Heb. vi. 2), in the rite called in later times confirmation,
followed baptism (Acts viii. 17). In the modern Greek Church it is
administered by priests with oil which has been consecrated by the
bishop, in the Roman Church by the bishop himself. Such use of the
chrism can be traced from the 2nd century. The Anglican Church retains
only the Biblical symbolism of "the blessing of the hand." Presbyterians
and other Protestant churches have abandoned the use, except the
Lutherans. We need not here trace the history of Christian worship, in
daily services (Acts ii. 46), or on the Lord's Day (Acts xx. 7), meeting
for the Lord's Supper (1 Cor. xi. 17-34), or for mutual edification in
prayer, praise and prophecy (1 Cor. xiv.). These things represent the
ideal of Christendom. In the words of an eminent Roman Catholic scholar,
Monsignor Duchesne, "Faith unites, theology often separates." It must be
our task to summarize the leading ideas of the church in which all
Christians are agreed.

(a) The first is certainly fellowship with Christ and with the brethren.
The early Christians earnestly believed that their life was "hidden with
Christ in God" (Col. iii. 3), and found in their union with Christ the
lasting and strongest motive of love to the brethren. Such fellowship is
attributed by St Paul pre-eminently to the work of the Holy Spirit (2
Cor. xiii. 14). Its strength is shown in England in the growing
readiness of the different religious bodies to co-operate in movements
for the purifying of public morality and for the better observance of
Sunday.

(b) The second is unity. We have seen how St. Paul was led on to grasp
the conception of one church universal manifested in all the local
churches. Its unity is not purely accidental in that individuals have
been forced to act together under pressure of chance circumstances. Nor
is the ideal of unity adopted simply because experience teaches that
"union is strength." Nor is it even based on the philosophical
conception of the incompleteness of the individual life. As Dr Sanday
finely says, "If the church is in something more than mere metaphor the
Body of Christ, if there is circulating through it a continual flow and
return of spiritual forces, derived directly from him, if the Spirit
which animates the Body is one, then the Body itself also must be in
essence one. It has its centre not on earth but in heavenly places,
where Christ sitteth at the right hand of God."[7]

(c) Thirdly, there is no question that the Lord intended the one
fellowship of his saints to be _a visible fellowship_. The idea of an
invisible church has only commended itself in dark hours when men
despaired of unity even as an ideal. The view of Zwingli and Calvin in
the 16th century was not by any means acceptable to other reformers.
Luther distinguished between the Spiritual Church, which he identified
with the Communion of Saints, and the Corporeal Church, the outward
marks of which are Baptism, Sacrament and Gospel. But he regarded them
as different aspects of the same church, and Melanchthon was even more
explicit.[8] As the saint purified in heaven is he who struggled with
his sins on earth, so is the church triumphant one with the church
militant. In Dr Lindsay's words, "it is one of the privileges of faith,
when strengthened by hope and by love, to see the glorious ideal in the
somewhat poor material reality. It was thus that St Paul saw the
universal Church of Christ made visible in the Christian community of
Corinth."[9]

But it is at this point that we come to the dividing line which has been
drawn by different conceptions of catholicity. Dr Lindsay goes on to
argue that all insistence on the principle of historical continuity,
whether urged by members of the Anglican or the Roman Catholic Church,
as upholders of episcopacy, is a deliberate return to the principle of
Judaism, which declared that no one who was outside the circle of the
"circumcised," no matter how strong his faith nor how the fruits of the
Spirit were manifest in his life and deeds, could plead "the security of
the Divine Covenant." Without entering into controversy it must suffice
to point out that, from the point of view of all episcopal churches, the
ministry of the bishops succeeding the ministry of the apostles, however
it came to pass, was for fifteen centuries accepted as the pledge of
unity. This principle, however, of continuity in ministry, belongs to a
different department of Christian thought from the sacrament of baptism,
which really corresponds to the Jewish rites of admission to the
covenant. And it has been an established principle of the undivided
church since the 3rd century, the bishop of Rome in this case upholding
against St Cyprian the view which subsequent generations have ratified
as Catholic truth, that baptism by whomsoever administered is valid if
water is used with the right words. From this point, alas, divergence
begins.

(d) The fourth element is authority. Probably all Christians can agree
in the statement that the Christian democracy is also a theocracy, that
Christ is the source of all authority. There are three passages in the
Gospel which claim notice: (i.) the promise to St Peter (Matt. xvi.
18f), as spokesman for the apostles, of the key of the household of God,
of power to admit and exclude; (ii.) the promise (Matt. xviii. 15-20)
probably given to the Twelve, regarding offences against the peace of
the society, advocating exclusion only when brotherly appeals had
failed; (iii.) the commission of the whole _ecclesia_ or of the
Christian ministry (John xx. 22, 23). Again the root difference between
the Presbyterian and Episcopalian conceptions of the church comes to
light. Is the authority of the church manifested in the decisions which
a local church arrives at by a majority of votes, or in the decisions of
apostles and prophets after taking counsel, of the episcopate in later
times, ratified by common consent of Christendom? As has been well said,
"the church is primarily a witness--the strength of its authority lies
in the many sides from which the witness comes." It witnesses to the
Divine Life of Christ as a power of the present and of the future as of
the past, ministered in the Word and sacraments.

(e) The church is a sacerdotal society. St Paul delighted to represent
it as the "ideal Israel," and St John echoes the thought in the words of
praise (Rev. i. 5, 6), "Unto him that hath loved us ... and made us to
be a kingdom, and priests unto his God and Father." This idea of the
priesthood of the whole church has three elements--the divine element,
the human element and self-sacrifice. The promise that Christians should
be temples of the living God has been fulfilled. As Dr Milligan has said
very well, "It is not only in things to which we commonly confine the
word miracle that the Divine appears. It may appear not less in the
whole tone and spirit of the Church's life, in the varied Christian
virtues of her members, in the general character of their Christian
work, and in the grace received by them in the Christian sacraments.
When that life is exhibited, as it ought to be, in its distinctively
heavenly character, it bears witness to the presence of a power in
Christian men which no mere recollection of a past example, however
heroic or beautiful, can supply. The difficulties of exhibiting and
maintaining it are probably far greater now than they were in the
apostolic age; and as nothing but a present divine support can enable us
to overcome these, so, when they are overcome, a testimony is given to
the fact that God is with us."[10]

But this life is to be a human life still, to be in touch with all that
is noble and of good report in art and literature, keenly interested in
all the discoveries of science, active in all movements of social
progress. It cannot, however, be denied that to live such a life, divine
in its powers and human in its sympathies, demands daily and hourly
self-sacrifice. As the author of the _Imitation of Christ_ put it long
ago, "There is no living in love without pain." The thought of
self-sacrifice has been emphasized from the earliest times in the
liturgies. By a true instinct the early Christian writers called widows
and orphans the altar of God on which the sacrifices of almsgiving are
offered up.[11] Such works of charity, however, represent only one of
the channels by which self-sacrifice is ministered, to which all prayers
and thanksgiving and instruction of psalms, prophecy and preaching
contribute. Thus in the Eucharist the offering of the church is made one
with the offering of the Great High Priest.[12]

All this represents an ideal. It suggests in a modern form the perpetual
paradox of the Christian life: we are what we are to be. The church is
the divine society in which all other religious associations are
eventually to find their home. The prayer, "Thy kingdom come," embraces
all spiritual forces which make for righteousness. They were
acknowledged in Christ's words, "He that is not against you is for you"
(Luke ix. 50). But the divisions of Christendom testify to the harm done
by undue insistence on the claims of the individual to gain scope to
extend the kingdom in his own way. As in a choir all the resources of an
individual voice are used to strengthen the general effect, so must the
individual lose his life that he may find it, witnessing by his share in
the common service of the church to the ultimate unity of knowledge and
harmony of truth.

  For the various conceptions of the church as an organized body see
  CHURCH HISTORY, sec. 3, and the articles on the various churches.
     (A. E. B.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] Lactantius, _Inst. Div._ iv. 28 "Vinculo pietatis obstricti, Deo
    religati sumus unde ipsa religio nomen accepit." The etymology may
    be wrong, but this is the popular sense of the word.

  [2] Darwell Stone, _The Christian Church_, p. 18.

  [3] _Ecce Homo_, ed. 5, p. 87. Cf. the interesting comparison between
    Socrates and Christ.

  [4] Op. cit. p. 262.

  [5] Hort, _The Christian Ecclesia_, p. 148.

  [6] For a full defence of the authenticity of Matt. xxviii. 19 see
    Riggenbach, _Der trinitarische Taufbefehl_ (Guetersloh, 1903).

  [7] _The Conception of Priesthood_, p. 13.

  [8] _The Conception of Priesthood_, p. 29.

  [9] Lindsay, _The Church and the Ministry in the Early Centuries_, p.
    17.

  [10] _The Ascension_, p. 254.

  [11] Polycarp, _Phil._ 4; cf. Tertullian, _Ad Uxor_, i. 7.

  [12] This teaching is not confined to Episcopalian writers. It has
    been finely expressed from the Presbyterian standpoint by Dr
    Milligan, op. cit. p. 265 ff.; cf. Lindsay, p. 37.




CHURCH ARMY, an English religious organization, founded in 1882 by the
Rev. Wilson Carlile (afterwards prebendary of St Paul's), who banded
together in an orderly army of "soldiers" and "officers" a few working
men and women, whom he and others trained to act as "Church of England
evangelists" among the outcasts and criminals of the Westminster slums.
Previous experience had convinced him that the moral condition of the
lowest classes of the people called for new and aggressive action on the
part of the Church, and that this work was most effectively done by
laymen and women of the same class as those whom it was desired to
touch. "Evangelistic zeal with Church order" is the principle of the
Church Army, and it is essentially a working men's and women's mission
to working people. As the work grew, a training institution for
evangelists was started in Oxford, but soon moved (1886) to London,
where, in Bryanston Street near the Marble Arch, the headquarters of the
army are now established. Working men are trained as evangelists, and
working women as mission sisters, and are supplied to the clergy. The
men evangelists have to pass an examination by the arch-deacon of
Middlesex, and are then (since 1896) admitted by the bishop of London as
"lay evangelists in the Church"; the mission sisters must likewise pass
an examination by the diocesan inspector of schools. All Church Army
workers (of whom there are over 1800 of one kind and another) are
entirely under the control of the incumbent of the parish to which they
are sent. They never go to a parish unless invited, nor stay when asked
to go by the parish priest. Officers and sisters are paid a limited sum
for their services either by the vicar or by voluntary local
contributions. Church Army mission and colportage vans circulate
throughout the country parishes, if desired, with itinerant
evangelists, who hold simple missions, without charge, and distribute
literature. Each van missioner has a clerical "adviser." Missions are
also held in prisons and workhouses, at the invitation of the
authorities. In 1888 (before the similar work of the Salvation Army was
inaugurated) the Church Army established labour homes in London and
elsewhere, with the object of giving a "fresh start in life" to the
outcast and destitute. These homes deal with the outcast and destitute
in a plain, straightforward way. They demand that the persons should
show a desire for amendment; they subject them to firm discipline, and
give them hard work; they give them decent clothes, and strive to win
them to a Christian life. The inmates earn their board and lodging by
piece-work, for which they are paid at the current trade rates, while by
a gradually lessening scale of work and pay they are stimulated to
obtain situations for themselves and given time to seek for them. There
are about 120 homes in London and the provinces, and 56% of the inmates
are found to make these the successful beginning of an honest
self-supporting life. The Church Army has lodging homes, employment
bureaus, cheap food depots, old clothes department, dispensary and a
number of other social works. Every winter employment is found for a
great number of the unemployed in special depots, among them being the
King's Labour Tents and the Queen's Labour Relief Depots. There is also
an extensive emigration system, under which many hundreds (3000 in 1906)
of carefully tested men and families, of good character, chiefly of the
unemployed class, are placed in permanent employment in Canada through
the agency of the local clergy. The whole of the work is done in loyal
subordination to the diocesan and parochial organization of the Church
of England.

  See Edgar Rowans, _Wilson Carlile and the Church Army_.




CHURCH CONGRESS, an annual meeting of members of the Church of England,
lay and clerical, to discuss matters religious, moral or social, in
which the church is interested. It has no legislative authority, and
there is no voting on the questions discussed. The first congress was
held in 1861 in the hall of King's College, Cambridge, and was the
outcome of the revival of convocation in 1852. The congress is under the
presidency of the bishop in whose diocese it happens to be held. Recent
places of meeting are Brighton (1901), Northampton (1902), Bristol
(1903), Liverpool (1904), Weymouth (1905), Barrow-in-Furness (1906),
Great Yarmouth (1907), Manchester (1908), Swansea (1909). The meetings
of the congress have been mainly remarkable as illustrating the wide
divergences of opinion and practice in the Church of England, no less
than the broad spirit of tolerance which has made this possible and
honourably differentiates these meetings from so many ecclesiastical
assemblies of the past. The congress of 1908 was especially
distinguished, not only for the expression of diametrically opposed
views on such questions as the sacrifice of the mass or the "higher
criticism," but for the very large proportion of time given to the
discussion of the attitude of the Church towards Socialism and kindred
subjects.




CHURCH HISTORY.

  Church historians.

The sketch given below of the evolution of the Christian Church (see
CHURCH) may well be prefaced by a summary of the history of the great
Church historians, concerning whom fuller details are given in separate
articles. Hegesippus wrote in the 2nd century a collection of memoirs
containing accounts of the early days of the church, only fragments of
which are extant. The first real church history was written by Eusebius
of Caesarea in the early part of the 4th century. His work was continued
in the 5th century by Philostorgius, Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret,
and in later centuries by Theodorus Lector, Evagrius, Theophanes and
others. In the 14th century Nicephorus Callisti undertook a complete
church history which covers in its extant form the first six centuries.
In the West Eusebius' _History_ was translated into Latin by Rufinus,
and continued down to the end of the 4th century. Augustine's _City of
God_, published in 426, was an apologetic, not an historical work, but
it had great influence in our field, for in it he undertook to answer
the common heathen accusation that the growing misfortunes of the empire
were due to the prevalence of Christianity and the forsaking of the gods
of Rome. It was to sustain Augustine's thesis that Orosius produced in
417 his _Historiarum libri septem_, which remained the standard
text-book on world history during the middle ages. About the same time
Sulpicius Severus wrote his _Historia Sacra_, covering both biblical and
Christian history. In the 6th century Cassiodorus had a translation made
of the histories of Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, which were woven
into one continuous narrative and brought down to 518. The work was
known as the _Historia Ecclesiastica Tripartita_, and constituted during
the middle ages the principal text-book of church history in the West.
Before writing his history Eusebius produced a world chronicle which was
based upon a similar work by Julius Africanus and is now extant only in
part. It was continued by Jerome, and became the basis of the model for
many similar works of the 5th and following centuries by Prosper,
Idatius, Marcellinus Comes, Victor Tununensis and others. Local
histories containing more or less ecclesiastical material were written
in the 6th and following centuries by Jordanes (_History of the Goths_),
Gregory of Tours (_History of the Franks_), Isidore of Seville (_History
of the Goths, Vandals and Suevi_), Bede (_Ecclesiastical History of
England_), Paulus Diaconus (_History of the Lombards_), and others. Of
the many historians of the middle ages, besides the authors of
biographies, chronicles, cloister annals, &c, may be mentioned Haymo,
Anastasius, Adam of Bremen, Ordericus Vitalis, Honorius of Autun, Otto
of Freising, Vincent of Beauvais and Antoninus of Florence.

The Protestant reformation resulted in a new development of historical
writing. Polemic interest led a number of Lutheran scholars of the 16th
century to publish the _Magdeburg Centuries_ (1559 ff.), in which they
undertook to show the primitive character of the Protestant faith in
contrast with the alleged corruptions of Roman Catholicism. In this
design they were followed by many other writers. The opposite thesis was
maintained by Baronius (_Annales Ecclesiastici_, 1588 ff.), whose work
was continued by a number of Roman Catholic scholars. Other notable
Roman Catholic historians of the 17th and 18th centuries were Natalis
Alexander, Bossuet, Tillemont, Fleury, Dupin and Ceillier.

Church history began to be written in a genuinely scientific spirit only
in the 18th century under the leadership of Mosheim, who is commonly
called the father of modern church history. With wide learning and keen
critical insight he wrote a number of historical works of which the most
important is his _Institutiones Hist. Eccles._ (1755; best English
trans. by Murdock). He was followed by many disciples, among them
Schroeckh (_Christliche Kirchengeschichte_, 1772 ff. in 45 vols.). Other
notable names of the 18th century are Semler, Spittler, Henke and
Planck.

The new historical spirit of the 19th century did much for church
history. Among the greatest works produced were those of J.C.L. Gieseler
(_Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte_, 1824 ff., best Eng. tr. revised and
edited by H.B. Smith), exceedingly objective in character and still
valuable, particularly on account of its copious citations from the
sources; Neander (_Allgemeine Geschichte der christlichen Religion und
Kirche_, 1825 ff., Eng. tr. by Torrey), who wrote in a sympathetic
spirit and with special stress upon the religious side of the subject,
and has been followed by many disciples, for instance, Hagenbach, Schaff
and Herzog; and Baur (_Das Christenthum und die christliche Kirche_,
1853 ff.), the most brilliant of all, whose many historical works were
dominated by the principles of the Hegelian philosophy and evinced both
the merits and defects of that school. Baur has had tremendous
influence, even though many of his positions have been generally
discredited. The problems particularly of the primitive history were
first brought into clear light by him, and all subsequent work upon the
subject must acknowledge its indebtedness to him.

A new era was opened by the publication in 1857 of the second edition of
Ritschl's _Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche_, in which he broke
away from the Tubingen school and introduced new points of view that
have revolutionized the interpretation of the early church. Of recent
works the most important are the _Kirchengeschichte_ of Carl Mueller
(1892 ff.) and that of W. Moeller (1889 ff., second edition by von
Schuberth, 1898 ff., greatly enlarged and improved), the translation of
the latter (1892 ff.) being the most useful text-book in English. Of
modern Roman Catholic works may be mentioned those by J.A. Moehler, T.B.
Alzog, F.X. Kraus, Cardinal Joseph von Hergenroether and C.J. von Hefele
(edited by Knoepfler.)

In addition to these general works on church history should be named the
histories of doctrine by Harnack, Loofs, Seeberg and Fisher; and on the
early Church the works on the apostolic age by Weizsaecker (1886, English
translation 1894), McGiffert (1897), and Bartlet (1899); Renan's
_Histoire des origines du christianisme_ (1867 ff., in 7 vols.,
translated in part); Pfleiderer's _Urchristenthum_ (1887); S. Cheetham's
_History of the Christian Church during the first Six Centuries_ (1894);
Wernle's _Anfaenge unserer Religion_ (1901; Eng. tr. 1902 ff.); Rainy's
_Ancient Catholic Church_ (1902); Knopf's _Nachapostolisches Zeitalter_
(1905); Duchesne's _Histoire ancienne de l'Eglise_ (vol. i., 1906).
   (A. C. McG.)


  History of the Christian Church.

In the following account of the historical evolution of the Church, the
subject will be treated in three sections:--(A) The ancient Church to
the beginning of the pontificate of Gregory the Great (A.D. 590); (B)
The Church in the middle ages; (C) The modern Church.


A. THE ANCIENT CHURCH

1. _Origin and Growth._--The crucifixion of Jesus Christ resulted in the
scattering of his followers, but within a short time they became
convinced that he had risen from the dead, and would soon return to set
up the expected Messianic kingdom, and so to accomplish the true work of
the Messiah (cf. Acts i. 6 ff.). They were thus enabled to retain the
belief in his Messiahship which his death had threatened to destroy
permanently. This belief laid upon them the responsibility of bringing
as many of their countrymen as possible to recognize him as Messiah, and
to prepare themselves by repentance and righteousness for the coming
kingdom (cf. Acts ii. 21, 38, iii. 19 sq.). It was with the sense of
this responsibility that they gathered again in Jerusalem, the political
and religious metropolis of Judaism. In Jerusalem the new movement had
its centre, and the church established there is rightly known as the
mother church of Christendom. The life of the early Jewish disciples, so
far as we are able to judge from our meagre sources, was very much the
same as that of their fellows. They continued faithful to the
established synagogue and temple worship (cf. Acts iii. 1), and did not
think of founding a new sect, or of separating from the household of
Israel (cf. Acts x. 14, xv. 5, xxi. 21 sq.). There is no evidence that
their religious or ethical ideals differed in any marked degree from
those of the more serious-minded among their countrymen, for the
emphasis which they laid upon the need of righteousness was not at all
uncommon. In their belief, however, in the Messiahship of Jesus, and
their consequent assurance of the speedy establishment by him of the
Messianic kingdom, they stood alone. The first need of the hour,
therefore, was to show that Jesus was the promised Messiah in spite of
his crucifixion, a need that was met chiefly by testimony to the
resurrection, which became the burden of the message of the early
disciples to their fellow-countrymen (cf. Acts ii. 24 ff., iii. 15 ff.,
v. 31). It was this need which led also to the development of Messianic
prophecy and the ultimate interpretation of the Jewish Bible as a
Christian book (see BIBLE). The second need of the hour was to bring the
nation to repentance and righteousness in order that the kingdom might
come (cf. Acts iii. 19). The specific gospel of Jesus, the gospel of
divine fatherhood and human brotherhood, received no attention in the
earliest days, so far as our sources enable us to judge.

Meanwhile the new movement spread quite naturally beyond the confines of
Palestine and found adherents among the Jews of the dispersion, and at
an early day among the Gentiles as well. Many of the latter had already
come under the influence of Judaism, and were more or less completely in
sympathy with Jewish religious principles. Among the Christians who did
most to spread the gospel in the Gentile world was the apostle Paul,
whose conversion was the greatest event in the history of the early
Church. In his hands Christianity became a new religion, fitted to meet
the needs of all the world, and freed entirely of the local and national
meaning which had hitherto attached to it. According to the early
disciples Jesus was the Jewish Messiah, and had significance only in
relation to the expected Messianic kingdom. To establish that kingdom
was his one great aim. For the Gentiles he had no message except as they
might become members of the family of Israel, assuming the
responsibilities and enjoying the privileges of proselytes. But Paul saw
in Jesus much more than the Jewish Messiah. He saw in Christ the divine
Spirit, who had come down from heaven to transform the lives of men, all
of whom are sinners. Thus Jesus had the same significance for one man as
for another, and Christianity was meant as much for Gentiles as for
Jews. The kingdom of which the early disciples were talking was
interpreted by Paul as righteousness and peace and joy in the Holy Ghost
(Rom. xiv. 17), a new principle of living, not a Jewish state. But Paul
taught also, on the basis of a religious experience and of a distinct
theory of redemption (see McGiffert's _Apostolic Age_, ch. iii.), that
the Christian is freed from the obligation to observe the Jewish law. He
thus did away with the fundamental distinction between Jews and
Gentiles. The transformed spiritual life of the believer expresses
itself not in the observance of the Jewish law, but in love, purity and
peace. This precipitated a very serious conflict, of which we learn
something from the Epistle to the Galatians and the Book of Acts (xv.
and xxii.). Other fundamental principles of Paul's failed of
comprehension and acceptance, but the belief finally prevailed that the
observance of Jewish law and custom was unnecessary, and that in the
Christian Church there is no distinction between the circumcised and the
uncircumcised. Those Jewish Christians who refused to go with the rest
of the Church in this matter lived their separate life, and were
regarded as an heretical sect known as the Ebionites.

It was Christianity in its universal form which won its great victories,
and finally became permanently established in the Roman world. The
appeal which it made to that world was many-sided. It was a time of
moral reformation, when men were awaking to the need of better and purer
living. To all who felt this need Christianity offered high moral
ideals, and a tremendous moral enthusiasm, in its devotion to a beloved
leader, in its emphasis upon the ethical possibilities of the meanest,
and in its faith in a future life of blessedness for the righteous. It
was a time of great religious interest, when old cults were being
revived and new ones were finding acceptance on all sides. Christianity,
with its one God, and its promise of redemption and a blessed
immortality based upon divine revelation, met as no other contemporary
faith did the awakening religious needs. It was a time also of great
social unrest. With its principle of Christian brotherhood, its emphasis
upon the equality of all believers in the sight of God, and its
preaching of a new social order to be set up at the return of Christ, it
appealed strongly to multitudes, particularly of the poorer classes.
That it won a permanent success, and finally took possession of the
Roman world, was due to its combination of appeals. No one thing about
it commended it to all, and to no one thing alone did it owe its
victory, but to the fact that it met a greater variety of needs and met
them more satisfactorily than any other movement of the age.
Contributing also to the growth of the Church was the zeal of its
converts, the great majority of whom regarded themselves as missionaries
and did what they could to extend the new faith. Christianity was
essentially a proselytizing religion, not content to appeal simply to
one class or race of people, and to be one among many faiths, but
believing in the falsity or insufficiency of all others and eager to
convert the whole world. Moreover, the feeling of unity which bound
Christians everywhere together and made of them one compact whole, and
which found expression before many generations had passed in a strong
organization, did much for the spread of the Church. Identifying himself
with the Christian circle from the 2nd century on, a man became a member
of a society existing in all quarters of the empire, every part
conscious of its oneness with the larger whole and all compactly
organized to do the common work. The growth of the Church during the
earlier centuries was chiefly in the middle and lower classes, but it
was not solely there. No large number of the aristocracy were reached,
but in learned and philosophical circles many were won, attracted both
by Christianity's evident ethical power and by its philosophical
character (cf. the Apologists of the 2nd century). That it could seem at
once a simple way of living for the common man and a profound philosophy
of the universe for the speculative thinker meant much for its
success.[1]

But it did not win its victory without a struggle. Superstition,
misunderstanding and hatred caused the Christians trouble for many
generations, and governmental repression they had to suffer
occasionally, as a result of popular disturbances. No systematic effort
was made by the imperial authorities to put an end to the movement until
the reign of Decius (250-251), whose policy of suppression was followed
by Diocletian (303 ff.) and continued for some years after his
abdication. In spite of all opposition the Church steadily grew, until
in 311 the emperor Galerius upon his death-bed granted toleration (see
Eusebius _H.E._ x.4, and Lactantius, _De mortibus persecutorum_, 34),
and in 313 the emperors Constantine and Licinius published the edict of
Milan, proclaiming the principle of complete religious liberty, and
making Christianity a legal religion in the full sense (see Eusebius x.
5, and Lactantius 48. Seeck, _Zeitschrift fuer Kirchengeschichte_, xii.
381 sq., has attempted to show that the edict of Milan had no
significance, but without success).

Constantine, recognizing the growing strength of the Church and wishing
to enlist the loyal support of the Christians, treated them with
increasing favour, and finally was baptized upon his death-bed (337).
Under his successors, except during the brief reign of Julian (361-363),
when the effort was made to reinstate paganism in its former place of
supremacy, the Church received growing support, until, under Theodosius
the Great (379-395), orthodox Christianity, which stood upon the
platform adopted at Nicaea in 325, was finally established as the sole
official religion of the state, and heathen worship was put under the
ban. The union between Church and State thus constituted continued
unbroken in the East throughout the middle ages. The division of the
Empire resulted finally in the division of the Church, which was
practically complete by the end of the 6th century, but was made
official and final only in 1054, and the Eastern and Western halves, the
Greek Catholic and the Roman Catholic Churches, went each its separate
way. (See Theodosian Code, book 16, for the various imperial edicts
relating to the Church, and for fuller particulars touching the relation
between Church and Empire see the articles CONSTANTINE; GRATIAN;
THEODOSIUS; JUSTINIAN.)

For a long time after the establishment of Christianity as the state
religion, paganism continued strong, especially in the country
districts, and in some parts of the world had more adherents than
Christianity, but at length the latter became, at any rate nominally,
the faith of the whole Roman world. Meanwhile already before the
beginning of the 3rd century it went beyond the confines of the Empire
in Asia, and by the end of our period was strong in Armenia, Persia,
Arabia and even farther east. It reached the barbarians on the northern
and western borders at an early day, and the Goths were already
Christians of the Arian type before the great migrations of the 4th
century began. Other barbarians became Christian, some in their own
homes beyond the confines of the Empire, some within the Empire itself,
so that when the hegemony of the West passed from the Romans to the
barbarians the Church lived on. Thenceforth for centuries it was not
only the chief religious, but also the chief civilizing, force at work
in the Occident. Losing with the dissolution of the Western Empire its
position as the state church, it became itself a new empire, the heir of
the glory and dignity of Rome, and the greatest influence making for the
peace and unity of the western world.

2. _The Christian Life._--The most notable thing about the life of the
early Christians was their vivid sense of being a people of God, called
and set apart. The Christian Church in their thought was a divine, not a
human, institution. It was founded and controlled by God, and even the
world was created for its sake (cf. the _Shepherd of Hermas_, Vis. ii.
4, and 2 Clement 14). This conception, which came over from Judaism,
controlled all the life of the early Christians both individual and
social. They regarded themselves as separate from the rest of the world
and bound together by peculiar ties. Their citizenship was in heaven,
not on earth (cf. Phil. iii. 20, and the epistle to Diognetus, c. 5),
and the principles and laws by which they strove to govern themselves
were from above. The present world was but temporary, and their true
life was in the future. Christ was soon to return, and the employments
and labours and pleasures of this age were of small concern. Some went
so far as to give up their accustomed vocations, and with such Paul had
to expostulate in his epistles to the Thessalonians. A more or less
ascetic mode of life was also natural under the circumstances. Not
necessarily that the present world was evil, but that it was temporary
and of small worth, and that a Christian's heart should be set on higher
things. The belief that the Church was a supernatural institution found
expression in the Jewish notion of the presence and power of the Holy
Spirit. It was believed among the Jews that the Messianic age would be
the age of the Spirit in a marked degree, and this belief passed over
into the Christian Church and controlled its thought and life for some
generations. The Holy Spirit was supposed to be manifest in various
striking ways, in prophecy, speaking with tongues and miracle working.
In this idea Paul also shared, but he carried the matter farther than
most of his contemporaries and saw in the Spirit the abiding power and
ground of the Christian life. Not simply in extraordinary phenomena, but
also in the everyday life of Christians, the Holy Spirit was present,
and all the Christian graces were the fruits (cf. Gal. v. 22). A result
of this belief was to give their lives a peculiarly enthusiastic or
inspirational character. Theirs were not the everyday experiences of
ordinary men, but of men lifted out of themselves and transported into a
higher sphere. With the passing of time the early enthusiasm waned, the
expectation of the immediate return of Christ was widely given up, the
conviction of the Spirit's presence became less vivid, and the conflict
with heresy in the 2nd century led to the substitution of official
control for the original freedom (see below). The late 2nd century
movement known as Montanism was in essence a revolt against this growing
secularization of the Church, but the movement failed, and the
development against which it protested was only hastened. The Church as
an institution now looked forward to a long life upon earth and adjusted
itself to the new situation, taking on largely the forms and customs of
the world in which it lived. This did not mean that the Church ceased to
regard itself as a supernatural institution, but only that its
supernatural character was shown in a different way. A Christian was
still dependent upon divine aid for salvation, and his life was still
supernatural at least in theory. Indeed, the early conviction of the
essential difference between the life of this world and that of the next
lived on, and, as the Church became increasingly a world-institution,
found vent in monasticism, which was simply the effort to put into more
consistent practice the other-worldly life, and to make more
thoroughgoing work of the saving of one's soul. Contributing to the same
result was the emphasis upon the necessity of personal purity or
holiness, which Paul's contrast between flesh and spirit had promoted,
and which early took the supreme place given by Christ to love and
service. The growing difficulty of realizing the ascetic ideal in the
midst of the world, and within the world-church, inevitably drove
multitudes of those who took their religion seriously to retire from
society and to seek salvation and the higher life, either in solitude,
or in company with kindred spirits.

There were Christian monks as early as the 3rd century, and before the
end of the 4th monasticism (q.v.) was an established institution both in
East and West. The monks and nuns were looked upon as the most
consistent Christians, and were honoured accordingly. Those who did not
adopt the monastic life endeavoured on a lower plane and in a less
perfect way to realize the common ideal, and by means of penance to
atone for the deficiencies in their performance. The existence of
monasticism made it possible at once to hold up a high moral standard
before the world and to permit the ordinary Christian to be content with
something lower. With the growth of clerical sacerdotalism the higher
standard was demanded also of the clergy, and the principle came to be
generally recognized that they should live the monastic life so far as
was consistent with their active duties in the world. The chief
manifestation of this was clerical celibacy, which had become widespread
already in the 4th century. Among the laity, on the other hand, the
ideal of holiness found realization in the observance of the ordinary
principles of morality recognized by the world at large, in attendance
upon the means of grace provided by the Church, in fasting at stated
intervals, in eschewing various popular employments and amusements, and
in almsgiving and prayer. Christ's principle of love was widely
interpreted to mean chiefly love for the Christian brotherhood, and
within that circle the virtues of hospitality, charity and helpfulness
were widely exercised; and if the salvation of his own soul was regarded
as the most important affair of every man, the service of the brethren
was recognized as an imperative Christian duty. The fulfilling of that
duty was one of the most beautiful features of the life of the early
Church, and it did perhaps more than anything else to make the Christian
circle attractive.

3. _Worship._--The primitive belief in the immediate presence of the
Spirit affected the religious services of the Church. They were regarded
in early days as occasions for the free exercise of spiritual gifts. As
a consequence the completest liberty was accorded to all Christians to
take such part as they chose, it being assumed that they did so only
under the Spirit's prompting. But the result of this freedom was
confusion and discord, as is indicated by Paul's First Epistle to the
Corinthians (see chapters xi., xiv.). This led to the erection of
safeguards, which should prevent the continuance of the unseemly
conditions (on Paul's action in the matter, see McGiffert's _Apostolic
Age_, p. 523). Particular Christians were designated to take charge of
the services, and orders of worship were framed out of which grew
ultimately elaborate liturgies (see LITURGY). The Lord's Supper first
took on a more stereotyped character, and prayers to be used in
connexion with it are found already in the _Didach[=e]_ (chapters ix.
and x.). The development cannot here be traced in detail. It may simply
be said that the general tendency was on the one hand toward the
elaboration and growing magnificence of the services, especially after
the Church had become a state institution and had taken the place of the
older pagan cults, and on the other hand toward the increasing solemnity
and mystery of certain parts, particularly the eucharist, the sacred
character of which was such as to make it sacrilegious to admit to it
the unholy, that is, outsiders or Christians under discipline (cf.
_Didach[=e]_, ix.). It was, in fact, from the Lord's table that
offending disciples were first excluded. Out of this grew up in the 3rd
or 4th century what is known as the _arcani disciplina_, or secret
discipline of the Church, involving the concealment from the uninitiated
and unholy of the more sacred parts of the Christian cult, such as
baptism and the eucharist, with their various accompaniments, including
the Creed and the Lord's Prayer. The same interest led to the division
of the services into two general parts, which became known ultimately as
the _missa catechumenorum_ and the _missa fidelium_,--that is, the more
public service of prayer, praise and preaching open to all, including
the catechumens or candidates for Church membership, and the private
service for the administration of the eucharist, open only to full
members of the Church in good and regular standing. Meanwhile, as the
general service tended to grow more elaborate, the _missa fidelium_
tended to take on the character of the current Greek mysteries (see
EUCHARIST; Hatch, _Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the
Christian Church_, 1890; Anrich, _Das antike Mysterienwesen in seinem
Einfluss auf das Christentum_, 1894; Wobbermin, _Religionsgeschichtliche
Studien zur Frage der Beeinflussung des Urchristentums durch das antike
Mysterienwesen_, 1896). Many of the terms in common use in them were
employed in connexion with the Christian rites, and many of the
conceptions, particularly that of sharing in immortality by communion
with deity, became an essential part of Christian doctrine. Thus the
early idea of the services, as occasions for mutual edification through
the interchange of spiritual gifts, gave way in course of time to the
theory that they consisted of sacred and mysterious rites by means of
which communion with God is promoted. The emphasis accordingly came to
be laid increasingly upon the formal side of worship, and a value was
given to the ceremonies as such, and their proper and correct
performance by duly qualified persons, i.e. ordained priests, was made
the all-important thing.

4. _The Church and the Sacraments._--According to Paul, man is flesh and
so subject to death. Only as he becomes a spiritual being through
mystical union with Christ can he escape death and enjoy eternal life in
the spiritual realm. In the Epistle to the Ephesians the Christian
Church is spoken of as the body of Christ (iv. 12 ff., v. 30); and
Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, early in the 2nd century, combined the two
ideas of union with Christ, as the necessary condition of salvation, and
of the Church as the body of Christ, teaching that no one could be saved
unless he were a member of the Church (cf. his Epistle to the Ephesians
4, 5, 15; Trall. 7; Phil. 3, 8; Smyr. 8; Magn. 2, 7). Traces of the same
idea are found in Irenaeus (cf. _Adv. Haer._ iii. 24, 1, iv. 26, 2), but
it is first clearly set forth by Cyprian, and receives from him its
classical expression in the famous sentence "Salus extra ecclesiam non
est" (Ep. 73, 21; cf. also Ep. 4, 4; 74, 7; and _De unitate ecclesiae_,
6: "habere non potest Deum patrem qui ecclesiam non habet matrem"). The
Church thus became the sole ark of salvation, outside of which no one
could be saved.

Intimately connected with the idea of the Church as an ark of salvation
are the sacraments or means of grace. Already as early as the 2nd
century the rite of baptism had come to be thought of as the sacrament
of regeneration, by means of which a new divine nature is born within a
man (cf. Irenaeus, _Adv. Haer._ i. 21, 1, iii. 17, 1; and his newly
discovered _Demonstration of the Apostolic Teaching_, chap. 3), and the
eucharist as the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, feeding upon
which one is endowed with immortality (cf. Irenaeus, _Adv. Haer._ iv.
18, 5, v. 2, 2). In the early days the Church was thought of as a
community of saints, all of whose members were holy, and as a
consequence discipline was strict, and offenders excluded from the
Church were commonly not readmitted to membership but left to the mercy
of God. The idea thus became general that baptism, which had been almost
from the beginning the rite of entrance into the Church, and which was
regarded as securing the forgiveness of all pre-baptismal sins, should
be given but once to any individual. Meanwhile, however, discipline grew
less strict (cf. the _Shepherd of Hermas_, Vis. v. 3; M. iv. 7; Sim.
viii. 6, ix. 19, 26, &c.); until finally, under the influence of the
idea of the Church as the sole ark of salvation, it became the custom to
readmit all penitent offenders on condition that they did adequate
penance. Thus there grew up the sacrament of penance, which secured for
those already baptized the forgiveness of post-baptismal sins. This
sacrament, unlike baptism, might be continually repeated (see PENANCE).
In connexion with the sacraments grew up also the theory of clerical
sacerdotalism. Ignatius had denied the validity of a eucharist
administered independently of the bishop, and the principle finally
established itself that the sacraments, with an exception in cases of
emergency in favour of baptism, could be performed only by men regularly
ordained and so endowed with the requisite divine grace for their due
administration (cf. Tertullian, _De Exhort. cast. 7; De Bapt. 7, 17; De
Praescriptione Haer. 41_; and Cyprian, _Ep. 67._ For the later influence
of the Donatist controversy upon the sacramental development see
DONATISTS). Thus the clergy as distinguished from the laity became true
priests, and the latter were made wholly dependent upon the former for
sacramental grace, without which there is ordinarily no salvation (see
ORDER, HOLY).

5. _Christian Doctrine._--Two tendencies appeared in the thought of the
primitive Church, the one to regard Christianity as a law given by God
for the government of men's lives, with the promise of a blessed
immortality as a reward for its observance; the other to view it as a
means by which the corrupt and mortal nature of man is transformed, so
that he becomes a spiritual and holy being. The latter tendency appeared
first in Paul, afterwards in the Gospel and First Epistle of John, in
Ignatius of Antioch and in the Gnostics. The former found expression in
most of our New Testament writings, in all of the apostolic fathers
except Ignatius, and in the Apologists of the 2nd century. The two
tendencies were not always mutually exclusive, but the one or the other
was predominant in every case. Towards the end of the 2nd century they
were combined by Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons. To him salvation bears a
double aspect, involving both release from the control of the devil and
the transformation of man's nature by the indwelling of the Divine. Only
he is saved who on the one hand is forgiven at baptism and so released
from the power of Satan, and then goes on to live in obedience to the
divine law; and on the other hand receives in baptism the germ of a new
spiritual nature and is progressively transformed by feeding upon the
body and blood of the divine Christ in the eucharist. This double
conception of salvation and of the means thereto was handed down to the
Church of subsequent generations and became fundamental in its thought.
Christianity is at once a revealed law which a man must keep, and by
keeping which he earns salvation, and a supernatural power whereby his
nature is transformed and the divine quality of immortality imparted to
it. From both points of view Christianity is a supernatural system
without which salvation is impossible, and in the Christian Church it is
preserved and mediated to the world.

The twofold conception referred to had its influence also upon thought
about Christ. The effect of the legal view of Christianity was to make
Christ an agent of God in the revelation of the divine will and truth,
and so a subordinate being between God and the world, the Logos of
current Greek thought. The effect of the mystical conception was to
identify Christ with God in order that by his incarnation the divine
nature might be brought into union with humanity and the latter be
transformed. In this case too a combination was effected, the idea of
Christ as the incarnation of the Logos or Son of God being retained and
yet his deity being preserved by the assertion of the deity of the
Logos. The recognition of Christ as the incarnation of the Logos was
practically universal before the close of the 3rd century, but his deity
was still widely denied, and the Arian controversy which distracted the
Church of the 4th century concerned the latter question. At the council
of Nicaea in 325 the deity of Christ received official sanction and was
given formulation in the original Nicene Creed. Controversy continued
for some time, but finally the Nicene decision was recognized both in
East and West as the only orthodox faith. The deity of the Son was
believed to carry with it that of the Spirit, who was associated with
Father and Son in the baptismal formula and in the current symbols, and
so the victory of the Nicene Christology meant the recognition of the
doctrine of the Trinity as a part of the orthodox faith (see especially
the writings of the Cappadocian fathers of the late 4th century, Gregory
of Nyssa, Basil and Gregory Nazianzen).

The assertion of the deity of the Son incarnate in Christ raised another
problem which constituted the subject of dispute in the Christological
controversies of the 4th and following centuries. What is the relation
of the divine and human natures in Christ? At the council of Chalcedon
in 451 it was declared that in the person of Christ are united two
complete natures, divine and human, which retain after the union all
their properties unchanged. This was supplemented at the third council
of Constantinople in 680 by the statement that each of the natures
contains a will, so that Christ possesses two wills. The Western Church
accepted the decisions of Nicaea, Chalcedon and Constantinople, and so
the doctrines of the Trinity and of the two natures in Christ were
handed down as orthodox dogma in West as well as East.

Meanwhile in the Western Church the subject of sin and grace, and the
relation of divine and human activity in salvation, received especial
attention; and finally, at the second council of Orange in 529, after
both Pelagianism and semi-Pelagianism had been repudiated, a moderate
form of Augustinianism was adopted, involving the theory that every man
as a result of the fall is in such a condition that he can take no steps
in the direction of salvation until he has been renewed by the divine
grace given in baptism, and that he cannot continue in the good thus
begun except by the constant assistance of that grace, which is mediated
only by the Catholic Church. This decision was confirmed by Pope
Boniface II., and became the accepted doctrine in the Western Church of
the middle ages. In the East, Augustine's predestinationism had little
influence, but East and West were one in their belief that human nature
had been corrupted by the fall, and that salvation therefore is possible
only to one who has received divine grace through the sacraments.
Agreeing as they did in this fundamental theory, all differences were of
minor concern.

In general it may be said that the traditional theology of the Church
took its material from various sources--Hebrew, Christian, Oriental,
Greek and Roman. The forms in which it found expression were principally
those of Greek philosophy on the one hand and of Roman law on the other
(see CHRISTIANITY).

6. _Organization._--The origin and early development of ecclesiastical
organization are involved in obscurity. Owing to the once prevalent
desire of the adherents of one or another polity to find support in
primitive precept or practice, the question has assumed a prominence out
of proportion to its real importance, and the few and scattered
references in early Christian writings have been made the basis for
various elaborate theories.

In the earliest days the Church was regarded as a divine institution,
ruled not by men but by the Holy Spirit. At the same time it was
believed that the Spirit imparted different gifts to different
believers, and each gift fitted its recipient for the performance of
some service, being intended not for his own good but for the good of
his brethren (cf. 1 Cor. xii.; Eph. iv. 11). The chief of these was the
gift of teaching, that is, of understanding and interpreting to others
the will and truth of God. Those who were endowed more largely than
their fellows with this gift were commonly known as apostles, prophets
and teachers (cf. Acts xiii. 1; 1 Cor. xii. 28; Eph. ii. 20, iii. 5, iv.
11; _Didach[=e]_, xi.). The apostles were travelling missionaries or
evangelists. There were many of them in the primitive Church, and only
gradually did the term come to be applied exclusively to the twelve and
Paul. There is no sign that the apostles, whether the twelve or others,
held any official position in the Church. That they had a large measure
of authority of course goes without saying, but it depended always upon
their brethren's recognition of their possession of the divine gift of
apostleship, and the right of Churches or individuals to test their
claims and to refuse to listen to them if they did not vindicate their
divine call was everywhere recognized. Witness, for instance, Paul's
reference to false apostles in 2 Cor. xi. 13, and his efforts to
establish his own apostolic character to the satisfaction of the
Corinthians and Galatians (1 Cor. ix. 1 ff.; 2 Cor. x. 13; Gal. i. 8
ff.); witness the reference in Rev. ii. 2 to the fact that the Church at
Ephesus had tried certain men who claimed to be apostles and had found
them false, and also the directions given in the _Didach[=e]_ for
testing the character of those who travelled about as apostles. The
passage in the _Didach[=e]_ is especially significant: "Concerning the
apostles and prophets, so do ye according to the ordinance of the
gospel. Let every apostle when he cometh to you be received as the Lord.
But he shall not abide more than a single day, or if there be need a
second likewise. But if he abide three days he is a false prophet. And
when the apostle departeth let him receive nothing save bread until he
findeth shelter. But if he ask money he is a false prophet" (ch. xi.).
It is clear that a man who is to be treated in this way by the
congregation is not an official ruler over it.

Between the apostles, prophets and teachers no hard-and-fast lines can
be drawn. The apostles were commonly missionary prophets, called
permanently or temporarily to the special work of evangelization (cf.
Acts xiii. 1; _Did_. xi.), while the teachers seem to have been
distinguished both from apostles and prophets by the fact that their
spiritual endowment was less strikingly supernatural. The indefiniteness
of the boundaries between the three classes, and the free interchange of
names, show how far they were from being definite offices or orders
within the Church. Apostleship, prophecy and teaching were only
functions, whose frequent or regular exercise by one or another, under
the inspiration of the Spirit, led his brethern to call him an apostle,
prophet or teacher.

But at an early day we find regular officers in this and that local
Church, and early in the 2nd century the three permanent offices of
bishop, presbyter and deacon existed at any rate in Asia Minor (cf. the
Epistles of Ignatius of Antioch). Their rise was due principally to the
necessity of administering the charities of the Church, putting an end
to disorder and confusion in the religious services, and disciplining
offenders. It was naturally to the apostles, prophets and teachers, its
most spiritual men, that the Church looked first for direction and
control in all these matters. But such men were not always at hand, or
sometimes they were absorbed in other duties. Thus the need of
substitutes began to be felt here and there, and as a consequence
regular offices within the local Churches gradually made their
appearance, sometimes simply recognized as charged with responsibilities
which they had already voluntarily assumed (cf. 1. Cor. xvi. 15),
sometimes appointed by an apostle or prophet or other specially inspired
man (cf. Acts xiv. 23; Titus i. 5; 1 Clement 44), sometimes formally
chosen by the congregation itself (cf. Acts vi., _Did._ xi.). These men
naturally acquired more and more as time passed the control and
leadership of the Church in all its activities, and out of what was in
the beginning more or less informal and temporary grew fixed and
permanent offices, the incumbents of which were recognized as having a
right to rule over the Church, a right which once given could not
lawfully be taken away unless they were unfaithful to their trust. Not
continued endowment by the Spirit, but the possession of an
ecclesiastical office now became the basis of authority. The earliest
expression of this genuinely official principle is found in Clement's
Epistle to the Corinthians, ch. xliv. Upon these officers devolved
ultimately not only the disciplinary, financial and liturgical duties
referred to, but also the still higher function of instructing their
fellow-Christians in God's will and truth, and so they became the
substitutes of the apostles, prophets and teachers in all respects (cf.
1 Tim. iii. 2, v. 17; Titus i. 9; _Did._ 15; 1 Clement 44; Justin's
first _Apology_, 67).

Whether in the earliest days there was a single officer at the head of a
congregation, or a plurality of officers of equal authority, it is
impossible to say with assurance. The few references which we have look
in the latter direction (cf., for instance, Acts vi.; Phil. i. 1; 1
Clement 42, 44; _Did._ 14), but we are not justified in asserting that
they represent the universal custom. The earliest distinct evidence of
the organization of Churches under a single head is found in the
Epistles of Ignatius of Antioch, which date from the latter part of the
reign of Trajan (c. 116). Ignatius bears witness to the presence in
various Churches of Asia Minor of a single bishop in control, with whom
are associated as his subordinates a number of elders and deacons. This
form of organization ultimately became universal, and already before the
end of the 2nd century it was established in all the parts of
Christendom with which we are acquainted, though in Egypt it seems to
have been the exception rather than the rule, and even as late as the
middle of the 3rd century many churches there were governed by a
plurality of officers instead of by a single head (see Harnack, _Mission
und Ausbreitung des Christenthums_, pp. 337 seq.). Where there were one
bishop and a number of presbyters and deacons in a church, the
presbyters constituted the bishop's council, and the deacons his
assistants in the management of the finances and charities and in the
conduct of the services. (Upon the minor orders which arose in the 3rd
and following centuries, and became ultimately a training school for the
higher clergy, see Harnack, _Texte und Untersuchungen_, ii. 5; English
translation under the title of _Sources of the Apostolic Canons_, 1895.)

Meanwhile the rise and rapid spread of Gnosticism produced a great
crisis in the Church of the 2nd century, and profoundly affected the
ecclesiastical organization. The views of the Gnostics, and of Marcion
as well, seemed to the majority of Christians destructive of the gospel,
and it was widely felt that they were too dangerous to be tolerated. The
original dependence upon the Spirit for light and guidance was
inadequate. The men in question claimed to be Christians and to enjoy
divine illumination as truly as anybody, and so other safeguards
appeared necessary. It was in the effort to find such safeguards that
steps were taken which finally resulted in the institution known as the
Catholic Church. The first of these steps was the recognition of the
teaching of the apostles (that is, of the twelve and Paul) as the
exclusive standard of Christian truth. This found expression in the
formulation of an apostolic scripture canon, our New Testament, and of
an apostolic rule of faith, of which the old Roman symbol, the original
of our present Apostles' Creed, is one of the earliest examples. Over
against the claims of the Gnostics that they had apostolic authority,
either oral or written, for their preaching, were set these two
standards, by which alone the apostolic character of any doctrine was to
be tested (cf. Irenaeus, _Adv. Haer._ i. 10, iii. 3, 4; and Tertullian,
_De Prescriptione Haer. passim_). But these standards proved inadequate
to the emergency, for it was possible, especially by the use of the
allegorical method, to interpret them in more than one way, and their
apostolic origin and authority were not everywhere admitted. In view of
this difficulty, it was claimed that the apostles had appointed the
bishops as their successors, and that the latter were in possession of
special divine grace enabling them to transmit and to interpret without
error the teaching of the apostles committed to them. This is the famous
theory known as "apostolic succession." The idea of the apostolic
appointment of church officers is as old as Clement of Rome (see 1
Clement 44), but the use of the theory to guarantee the apostolic
character of episcopal teaching was due to the exigencies of the Gnostic
conflict. Irenaeus (_Adv. Haer._ iii. 3 ff., iv. 26, iv. 33, v. 20),
Tertullian (_De prescriptione_, 32), and Hippolytus (_Philosophumena_,
bk. i., preface) are our earliest witnesses to it, and Cyprian sets it
forth clearly in his epistles (e.g. Ep. 33, 43, 59, 66, 69). The Church
was thus in possession not only of authoritative apostolic doctrine, but
also of a permanent apostolic office, to which alone belonged the right
to determine what that doctrine is. The combination of this idea with
that of clerical sacerdotalism completed the Catholic theory of the
Church and the clergy. Saving grace is recognized as apostolic grace,
and the bishops as successors of the apostles become its sole
transmitters. Bishops are therefore necessary to the very being of the
Church, which without them is without the saving grace for the giving of
which the Church exists (cf. Cyprian, _Ep._ 33, "ecclesia super
episcopos constituitur"; 66, "ecclesia in episcopo"; also _Ep._ 59, and
_De unitate eccles._ 17).

These bishops were originally not diocesan but congregational, that is,
each church, however small, had its own bishop. This is the organization
testified to by Ignatius, and Cyprian's insistence upon the bishop as
necessary to the very existence of the Church seems to imply the same
thing. Congregational episcopacy was the rule for a number of
generations. But after the middle of the 3rd century diocesan episcopacy
began to make its appearance here and there, and became common in the
4th century under the influence of the general tendency toward
centralization, the increasing power of city bishops, and the growing
dignity of the episcopate (cf. canon 6 of the council of Sardica, and
canon 57 of the council of Laodicea; and see Harnack, _Mission und
Ausbreitung_, pp. 319 seq.). This enlargement of the bishop's parish and
multiplication of the churches under his care led to a change in the
functions of the presbyterate. So long as each church had its own bishop
the presbyters constituted simply his council, but with the growth of
diocesan episcopacy it became the custom to put each congregation under
the care of a particular presbyter, who performed within it most of the
pastoral duties formerly discharged by the bishop himself. The
presbyters, however, were not independent officers. They were only
representatives of the bishop, and the churches over which they were set
were all a part of his parish, so that the Cyprianic principle, that the
bishop is necessary to the very being of the Church, held good of
diocesan as well as of congregational episcopacy. The bishop alone
possessed the right to ordain; through him alone could be derived the
requisite clerical grace; and so the clergy like the laity were
completely dependent upon him.

The growth of the diocesan principle promoted the unity of the churches
gathered under a common head. But unity was carried much further than
this, and finally resulted in at least a nominal consolidation of all
the churches of Christendom into one whole. The belief in the unity of
the entire Church had existed from the beginning. Though made up of
widely scattered congregations, it was thought of as one body of Christ,
one people of God. This ideal unity found expression in many ways.
Intercommunication between the various Christian communities was very
active. Christians upon a journey were always sure of a warm welcome and
hospitable entertainment from their fellow-disciples. Messengers and
letters were sent freely from one church to another. Missionaries and
evangelists went continually from place to place. Documents of various
kinds, including gospels and apostolic epistles, circulated widely. Thus
in various ways the feeling of unity found expression, and the
development of widely separated parts of Christendom conformed more or
less closely to a common type. It was due to agencies such as these that
the scattered churches did not go each its own way and become ultimately
separate and diverse institutions. But this general unity became
official, and expressed itself in organization, only with the rise of
the conciliar and metropolitan systems. Already before the end of the
2nd century local synods were held in Asia Minor to deal with Montanism,
and in the 3rd century provincial synods became common, and by the
council of Nicaea (canon 5) it was decreed that they should be held
twice every year in every province. Larger synods representing the
churches of a number of contiguous provinces also met frequently; for
instance, in the early 4th century at Elvira, Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea and
Arles, the last representing the entire Western world. Such gatherings
were especially common during the great doctrinal controversies of the
4th century. In 325 the first general or ecumenical council,
representing theoretically the entire Christian Church, was held at
Nicaea. Other councils of the first period now recognized as ecumenical
by the Church both East and West are Constantinople I. (381), Ephesus
(431), Chalcedon (451), Constantinople II. (553). All these were called
by the emperor, and to their decisions he gave the force of law. Thus
the character of the Church as a state institution voiced itself in
them. (See COUNCIL.)

The theory referred to above, that the bishops are successors of the
apostles, and as such the authoritative conservators and interpreters of
apostolic truth, involves of course the solidarity of the episcopate,
and the assumption that all bishops are in complete harmony and bear
witness to the same body of doctrine. This assumption, however, was not
always sustained by the facts. Serious disagreements even on important
matters developed frequently. As a result the ecumenical council came
into existence especially for the purpose of settling disputed questions
of doctrine, and giving to the collective episcopate the opportunity to
express its voice in a final and official way. At the council of Nicaea,
and at the ecumenical councils which followed, the idea of an infallible
episcopate giving authoritative and permanent utterance to apostolic and
therefore divine truth, found clear expression, and has been handed down
as a part of the faith of the Catholic Church both East and West. The
infallibility of the episcopate guarantees the infallibility of a
general council in which not the laity and not the clergy in general,
but the bishops as successors of the apostles, speak officially and
collectively.

Another organized expression of the unity of the Church was found in the
metropolitan system, or the grouping of the churches of a province under
a single head, who was usually the bishop of the capital city, and was
known as the metropolitan bishop. The Church thus followed in its
organization the political divisions of the Empire (cf. for instance
canon 12of the council of Chalcedon, which forbids more than one
metropolitan see in a province; also canon 17 of the same council: "And
if any city has been or shall hereafter be newly erected by imperial
authority, let the arrangement of ecclesiastical parishes follow the
political and municipal forms"). These metropolitan bishops were common
in the East before the end of the 3rd century, and the general existence
of the organization was taken for granted by the council of Nicaea (see
canons 4,6,7). In the West, on the other hand, the development was much
slower.

Meanwhile the tendency which gave rise to the metropolitan system
resulted in the grouping together of the churches of a number of
contiguous provinces under the headship of the bishop of the most
important city of the district, as, for instance, Antioch, Ephesus,
Alexandria, Rome, Milan, Carthage, Arles. In canon 6 of the council of
Nicaea the jurisdiction of the bishops of Alexandria, Rome and Antioch
over a number of provinces is recognized. At the council of
Constantinople (381) the bishop of Constantinople or New Rome was ranked
next after the bishop of Rome (canon 3), and at the council of Chalcedon
(451) he was given authority over the churches of the political dioceses
of Pontus, Asia and Thrace (canon 28). To the bishops of Rome,
Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria was added at the council of
Chalcedon (session 7) the bishop of Jerusalem, the mother church of
Christendom, and the bishops thus recognized as possessing supreme
jurisdiction were finally known as patriarchs.

Meanwhile the Roman episcopate developed into the papacy, which claimed
supremacy over the entire Christian Church, and actually exercised it
increasingly in the West from the 5th century on. This development was
forwarded by Augustine, who in his famous work _De civitate Dei_
identified the Church with the kingdom of God, and claimed that it was
supreme over all the nations of the earth, which make up the _civitas
terrena_ or earthly state. Augustine's theory was ultimately accepted
everywhere in the West, and thus the Church of the middle ages was
regarded not only as the sole ark of salvation, but also as the ultimate
authority, moral, intellectual and political. Upon this doctrine was
built, not by Augustine himself but by others who came after him, the
structure of the papacy, the bishop of Rome being finally recognized as
the head under Christ of the _civitas Dei_, and so the supreme organ of
divine authority on earth (see PAPACY and POPE).

  _Historical Sources of the First Period._--These are of the same
  general character for Church history as for general history--on the
  one hand monumental, on the other hand documentary. Among the
  monuments are churches, catacombs, tombs and inscriptions of
  various kinds, few antedating the 3rd century, and none adding
  greatly to the knowledge gained from documentary sources (see
  De Rossi, _Roma sotteranea_, 1864 ff., and its English abridgment
  by Northcote and Brownlow, 1870; Andre Perate, _L'Archeologie
  chretienne_, 1892; W. Lowrie, _Monuments of the Early Church_, 1901,
  with good bibliography). The documents comprise imperial edicts,
  rescripts, &c, liturgies, acts of councils, decretals and letters of
  bishops, references in contemporary heathen writings, and above all
  the works of the Church Fathers. Written sources from the 1st and
  2nd centuries are relatively few, comprising, in addition to some
  scattered allusions by outsiders, the New Testament, the Apostolic
  Fathers, the Greek Apologists, Clement of Alexandria, the old
  Catholic Fathers (Irenaeus, Tertullian and Hippolytus) and a few
  Gnostic fragments. For the 3rd, and especially the 4th and following
  centuries, the writers are much more numerous; for instance, in the
  East, Origen and his disciples, and later Eusebius of Caesarea,
  Athanasius, Apollinaris, Basil and the two Gregories, Cyril of
  Jerusalem, Epiphanius, Chrysostom, Ephraim the Syrian, Cyril of
  Alexandria, Pseudo-Dionysius; in the West, Novatian, Cyprian,
  Commodian, Arnobius, Lactantius, Hilary, Ambrose, Rufinus,
  Jerome, Augustine, Prosper, Leo the Great, Cassian, Vincent of
  Lerins, Faustus, Gennadius, Ennodius, Avitus, Caesarius, Fulgentius
  and many others.

  There are many editions of the works of the Fathers in the original,
  the most convenient, in spite of its defects, being that of J.P. Migne
  (_Patrologia Graeca_, 166 vols., Paris, 1857 ff.; _Patrologia Latina_,
  221 vols., 1844 ff.). Of modern critical editions, besides those
  containing the works of one or another individual, the best are the
  Berlin edition of the early Greek Fathers (_Die griechischen
  christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderie_, 1897 ff.),
  and the Vienna edition of the Latin Fathers (_Corpus scriptorum
  ecclesiasticorum Latinorum_, 1867 ff.), both of first-rate importance.
  There is a convenient English translation of most of the writings of
  the ante-Nicene Fathers by Roberts and Donaldson (_Ante-Nicene
  Christian Library_, 25 vols., Edinburgh, 1868 ff., American reprint in
  nine vols., 1886 ff.). A continuation of it, containing selected works
  of the Nicene and post-Nicene period, was edited by Schaff and others
  under the title _A Select Library of Nicene and post-Nicene Fathers_
  (series 1 and 2; 28 vols., Buffalo and New York, 1886 ff.).

  On early Christian literature, in addition to the works on Church
  history, see especially the monumental _Geschichte der altchristlichen
  Litteratur bis Eusebius_, by Harnack (1893 ff.). The brief _Geschichte
  der altchristlichen Litteratur in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten_, by
  G. Krueger (1895, English translation 1897) is a very convenient
  summary. Bardenhewer's _Patrologie_ (1894) and his _Geschichte der
  altkirchlichen Litteratur_ (1902 ff.) should also be mentioned. See
  also Smith and Wace's invaluable _Dictionary of Christian Biography_
  (1877 ff.).    (A. C. Mcg.)


B. THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES

The ancient Church was the church of the Roman empire. It is true that
from the 4th century onwards it expanded beyond the borders of that
empire to east and west, north and south; but the infant churches which
gradually arose in Persia and Abyssinia, among some of the scattered
Teutonic races, and among the Celts of Ireland, were at first not
co-operating factors in the development of Christendom: they received
without giving in return. True historic life is only to be found within
the church of the Empire.

The middle ages came into being at the time when the political structure
of the world, based upon the conquests of Alexander the Great and the
achievements of Julius Caesar, began to disintegrate. They were present
when the believers in Mahomet held sway in the Asiatic and African
provinces which Alexander had once brought under the intellectual
influence of Hellenism; while the Lombards, the West Goths, the Franks
and the Anglo-Saxons had established kingdoms in Italy, Spain, Gaul and
Britain. The question is: what was the position of the Church in this
great change of circumstances, and what form did the Church's
development take from this time onwards? In answering this question we
must consider East and West separately; for their histories are no
longer coincident, as they had been in the time of the Roman dominion.

I. THE EAST. (a) _The Orthodox Church._--Ancient and medieval times were
not separated by so deep a gulf in the East as in the West; for in the
East the Empire continued to exist, although within narrow limits, until
towards the end of the middle ages. Constantinople only fell in 1453.
Ecclesiastical Byzantinism is therefore not a product of the middle
ages: it is the outcome of the development of the eastern half of the
empire from the time of Constantine the Great. Under Justinian I. all
its essential features were already formed: imperial power extended
equally over State and Church; indeed, care for the preservation of
dogma and for the purity of the priesthood was the chief duty of the
ruler. To fulfil this duty was to serve the interests of both State and
people; for thus "a fine harmony is established, and whatever good
exists becomes the portion of the whole human race." Since the emperor
ruled the Church there was no longer any question of independence for
the bishops, least of all for the patriarch in Constantinople; they were
in every respect subordinate to the emperor.

The _orthodoxy_ of the Eastern Church was also a result of the Church's
development after the time of Constantine. In the long strife over dogma
the old belief of the Greeks in the value of knowledge had made itself
felt, and this faith was not extinct in the Eastern Church. There is no
doubt that in the beginning of the middle ages both general and
theological education stood higher among the Greeks than in more western
countries. In the West there were no learned men who could vie with
Photius (ca. 820-891) in range of knowledge and variety of scientific
attainment. But the strife over dogma came to an end with the 7th
century. After the termination of the monothelite controversy (638-680),
creed and doctrines were complete; it was only necessary to preserve
them intact. Theology, therefore, now resolved itself into the
collection and reproduction of the teaching of ancient authorities. The
great dogmatist of the Eastern Church, John of Damascus (ca. 699-753),
who stood on the threshold of the middle ages, formulated clearly and
precisely his working principle: to put forward nothing of his own, but
to present the truth according to the authority of the Bible and of the
Fathers of the Church. Later teachers, Euthymius Zigadenus (d. circa
1120), Nicetas Choniates (d. circa 1200), and others, proceeded further
on the same lines; Euthymius, in particular, often uses an excerpt
instead of giving his own exposition.

This attitude towards dogma did not mean that it was less prized than
during the period of strife. On the contrary, the sacred formulae were
revered because they were believed to contain the determination of the
highest truths: the knowledge of God and of the mystery of salvation.
Yet it is intelligible that religious interest should have concerned
itself more keenly with the mystic rites of divine worship than with
dogma. Here was more than knowledge; here were representations of a
mystic sensuousness, solemn rites, which brought the faithful into
immediate contact with the Divine, and guaranteed to them the reception
of heavenly powers. What could be of more importance than to be absorbed
in this transcendental world? We may gauge the energy with which the
Greek intellect turned in this direction if we call to mind that the
controversy about dogma was replaced by the controversy about images.
This raged in the Eastern Church for more than a century (726-843), and
only sank to rest when the worship of images was unconditionally
conceded. In this connexion the image was not looked upon merely as a
symbol, but as the vehicle of the presence and power of that which it
represented: in the image the invisible becomes operative in the visible
world. Christ did not seem to be Christ unless he were visibly
represented. What an ancient teacher had said with regard to the worship
of Christ as the revelation of the Eternal Father--"Honours paid to the
earthly representative are shared by the heavenly Archetype"--was now
transferred to the painted image: it appeared as an analogy to the
Incarnation. It was for this reason that the victory of image worship
was celebrated by the introduction of the festival of the Orthodox
Faith.

It is consistent with this circle of ideas that initiation into the
profound mysteries of the liturgy was regarded, together with the
preservation of dogma, as the most exalted function of theology. A
beginning had been made, in the 5th century, by the neo-platonic
Christian who addressed his contemporaries under the mask of Dionysius
the Areopagite. He is the first of a series of theological mystics which
continued through every century of the middle ages. Maximus Confessor,
the heroic defender of Dyotheletism (d. 662), Symeon, the New Theologian
(d. circa 1040), Nicolaus Cabasilas (d. 1371), and Symeon, like
Nicholas, archbishop of Thessalonica (d. 1429), were the most
conspicuous representatives of this Oriental mysticism. They left all
the dogmas and institutions of the Church untouched; aspiring above and
beyond these, their aim was religious experience.

It is this striving after religious experience that gives to the
Oriental monachism of the middle ages its peculiar character. In the 5th
and 6th centuries Egypt and Palestine had been the classic lands of
monks and monasteries. But when, in consequence of the Arab invasion,
the monasticism of those countries was cut off from intercourse with the
rest of Christendom, it decayed. Constantinople and Mount Athos gained
proportionately in importance during the middle ages. At Constantinople
the monastery of Studium, founded about 460, attained to supreme
influence during the controversy about images. On Mount Athos the first
monastery was founded in the year 963, and in 1045 the number of
monastic foundations had reached 180. In Greek monachism the old
Hellenic ideal of the wise man who has no wants ([Greek: autarkeia]) was
from the first fused with the Christian conception of unreserved
self-surrender to God as the highest aim and the highest good. These
ideas governed it in medieval times also, and in this way monastic life
received a decided bent towards mysticism: the monks strove to realize
the heavenly life even upon earth, their highest aim being the
contemplation of God and of His ways. The teachings of Symeon "the New
Theologian" on these matters lived on in the cloisters; it was taken up
by the Hesychasts of the 14th century, and developed into a peculiar
theory as to the perception of the Divine Light. In spite of all
opposition their teaching was finally justified by the Eastern Church
(sixth synod of Constantinople, 1351). And rightly so, for it was the
old Greek piety minted afresh.

The Eastern Church, then, throughout the middle ages, remained true in
every particular to her ancient character. It cannot be said that she
developed as did the Western Church during this period, for she remained
what she had been; but she freely developed her original
characteristics, consistently, in every direction. This too is life,
though of a different type from that of the West.

That there was life in the Eastern Church is also proved by the fact
that the power of _expansion_ was not denied her. Through her agency an
important bulwark for the Christian faith was created in the new nations
which had sprung into existence since the beginning of the middle ages:
the Bulgarians, the Servians, and the multifarious peoples grouped under
the name of Russians. There is a vast difference in national character
between these young peoples and the successors of the Hellenes; and it
is therefore all the more significant to find that both the Church and
religious sentiment should in their case have fully preserved the
Byzantine character. This proves once more the ancient capacity of the
Greeks for the assimilation of foreign elements.

There was yet another outcome of this stubborn persistency of a peculiar
type--the impossibility of continuing to share the life of the Western
Church. Neither in the East nor in the West was a _separation_ desired;
but it was inevitable, since the lives of East and West were moving in
different directions. It was the fall of Constantinople that first
weakened the vital force of the Eastern Church. May we hope that the
events of modern times are leading her towards a renaissance?

(b) _The Nestorian and the Monophysite Churches._--Since the time when the
church of eastern Syria had decided, in opposition to the church of the
Empire, to cling to the ancient views of Syrian theologians--therefore
also to the teaching and person of Nestorius--her relations were broken
off with the church in western Syria and in Greek and Latin countries; but
the power of Nestorian, or, as it was termed, _Chaldaic_ Christianity, was
not thereby diminished. Separated from the West, it directed its energies
towards the East, and here its nearest neighbour was the Persian church.
The latter followed, almost without opposition, the impulse received from
Syria; from the rule of the patriarch Babacus (Syr. B[=a]b-h[=a]i,
498-503) she may be considered definitely Nestorian. A certain number,
too, of Arabic Christians, believers living on the west coast of India,
the so-called Christians of St Thomas, and finally those belonging to
places nearer the middle of Asia (Merv, Herat, Samarkand), remained in
communion with the Nestorian church. Thus there survived in mid-Asia a
widely-scattered remnant, which, although out of touch with the ancient
usages of Christian civilization, yet in no way lacked higher culture.
Nestorian philosophers and medical practitioners became the teachers of
the great Arabian natural philosophers of the middle ages, and the latter
obtained their knowledge of Greek learning from Syriac translations of the
works of Greek thinkers.

Political conditions at the beginning of the middle ages favoured the
Nestorian church, and the fact that the Arabs had conquered Syria,
Palestine and Egypt, made it possible for her to exert an influence on
the Christians in these countries. Of still more importance was the
brisk commercial intercourse between central Asia and the countries of
the Far East; for this led the Nestorians into China. The inscription of
Si-ngan-fu (before 781) proves a surprisingly widespread extension of
the Christian faith in that country. That it also possessed adherents in
southern Siberia we gather from the inscriptions of Semiryetchensk, and
in the beginning of the 11th century it found its way even into
Mongolia. Nowhere were the nations Christian, but the Christian faith
was everywhere accepted by a not insignificant minority. The foundation
of the Mongolian empire in the beginning of the 13th century did not
disturb the position of the Nestorian church; but the revival of the
Mahommedan power, which was coincident with the downfall of the
Mongolian empire, was pregnant with disaster for her. The greater part
of Nestorian Christendom was now swallowed up by Islam, so that only
remnants of this once extensive church have survived until modern times.

The middle ages were far more disastrous for the Monophysites than for
the Nestorians; in their case there was no alternation of rise and
decline, and we have only a long period of gradual exhaustion to
chronicle. Egypt was the home of Monophysitism, whence it extended also
into Syria. It was due to the great Jacob of Edessa (Jacob Baradaeus, d.
578) that it did not succumb to the persecution by the power of the
Orthodox Empire, and out of gratitude to him the Monophysite Christians
of Syria called themselves _Jacobites_. The Arab conquest (after 635)
freed the Jacobite church entirely from the oppression of the Orthodox,
and thereby assured its continuance. The church, however, never attained
any greater development, but on the contrary continued to lose adherents
from century to century. While Jacob of Edessa is said to have ordained
some 100,000 priests and deacons for his fellow-believers, in the 16th
century the Jacobites of Syria were estimated at only 50,000 families.

The Monophysite church of Egypt had a like fate. At the time of the
separation of the churches the Greeks here had remained faithful to
Orthodoxy, the Copts to Monophysitism. Here too the Arab conquest (641)
put an end to the oppression of the native Christians by the Greek
minority; but this did not afford the Coptic church any possibility of
vigorous development. It succumbed to the ceaseless alternation of
tolerance and persecution which characterized the Arab rule in Egypt,
and the mass of the Coptic people became unfaithful to the Church. At
the time of the conquest of the country by the Turks (1517) the Coptic
church seems already to have fallen to the low condition in which the
19th century found it. Though at the time of the Arab conquest the Copts
were reckoned at six millions, in 1820 the Coptic Christians numbered
only about one hundred thousand, and it is improbable that their number
can have been much greater at the close of the middle ages. Only in
Abyssinia the daughter church of the Coptic church succeeded in keeping
the whole people in the Christian faith. This fact, however, is the sole
outcome of the history of a thousand years; a poor result, if measured
by the standard of the rich history of the Western world, yet large
enough not to exclude the hope of a new development.

II. THE WEST, (a) _The Early Middle Ages. The Catholic Church as
influenced by the Foundation of the Teutonic States._--While the Eastern
Church was stereotyping those peculiar characteristics which made her a
thing apart, the Church of the West was brought face to face with the
greatest revolution that Europe has ever experienced. At the end of the
6th century all the provinces of the Empire had become independent
kingdoms, in which conquerors of Germanic race formed the dominant
nationality. The remnants of the Empire showed an uncommonly tough
vitality. It is true that the Teutonic states succeeded everywhere in
establishing themselves; but only in England and in the erstwhile Roman
Germany did the Roman nationality succumb to the Teutonic. In the other
countries it not only maintained itself, but was able to assimilate the
ruling German race; the Lombards, West Goths, Swabians, and even the
Franks in the greater part of Gaul became Romanized. Consequently the
position of the Christian Church was never seriously affected. This is
the great fact which stands out at the beginning of the history of the
Church in the middle ages. The continuity of the political history of
Europe was violently interrupted by the Germanic invasion, but not that
of the history of the Church. For, in view of the facts above stated, it
was of small significance that in Britain Christianity was driven back
into the western portion of the island still held by the Britons, and
that in the countries of the Rhine and Danube a few bishoprics
disappeared.

This was of the less importance, as the Church immediately made
preparations to win back the lost territory. On the frontier line of
ancient and medieval times stands the figure of Gregory I., the
incarnation as it were of the change that was taking place: half Father
of the Church, half medieval pope. He it was who sent the monk Augustine
to England, in order to win over the Anglo-Saxons to the Christian
faith. Augustine was not the first preacher of the Gospel at Canterbury.
A Frankish bishop, Liudhard, had laboured there before his time; but the
mission of Augustine and his ordination as a bishop were decisive in the
conversion of the country and the establishment of the Anglo-Saxon
church. On the continent an extension of the Frankish supremacy towards
the east had already led to the advance of Christendom. Not only were
the bishoprics in the towns of the Rhine country re-established, but as
the Franks colonized the country on both sides of the Main, they carried
the Christian faith into the very heart of Germany. Finally, the
dependence of the Swabian and Bavarian peoples on the Frankish empire
paved the way for Christianity in those provinces also. Celtic monks
worked as missionaries in this part of the country side by side with
Franks. In England it had not been possible to bring the old British and
the young Anglo-Saxon churches into friendly union; but in spite of this
the Celts did not abstain from working at the common tasks of
Christendom, and the continent has much to thank them for. When the
first century of the middle ages came to an end the Church had not only
reoccupied the former territory of the Empire, she had already begun to
overstep its limits.

In so doing she had remained as of old and had yet become new. Creed and
dogma, above all, remained unchanged. The doctrinal decisions of the
ancient Church remained the indestructible canon of belief, and what the
theologians of the ancient Church had taught was reverenced as beyond
improvement. The entire form of divine worship remained therefore
unaltered. Even where the Latin tongue was not understood by the people,
the Church preserved it in the Mass and in the administration of the
sacraments, in her exorcisms and in her benedictions. Furthermore, the
organization of ecclesiastical offices remained unchanged: the division
of the Church into bishoprics and the grouping together of bishoprics
into metropolitan dioceses. Finally, the property and the whole social
status of the Church and of the hierarchy remained unchanged, as did
also the conviction that the perfection of the Christian life was to be
sought and found in the monastic profession.

Nevertheless, the new conditions did exercise the strongest influence
upon the character of the Church. The churches of the Lombards, West
Goths, Franks and Anglo-Saxons, all counted themselves parts of the
Catholic Church; but the Catholic Church had altered its condition; it
lacked the power of organization, and split up into territorial
churches. Under the Empire the ecumenical council had been looked upon
as the highest representative organ of the Catholic Church; but the
earlier centuries of the middle ages witnessed the convocation of no
ecumenical councils. Under the Empire the bishop of Rome had possessed
in the Church an authority recognized and protected by the State;
respect for Rome and for the successor of Saint Peter was not forgotten
by the new territorial churches, but it had altered in character; legal
authority had become merely moral authority; its wielder could exhort,
warn, advise but could not command.

On the other hand, the kings did command in the Church. They certainly
claimed no authority over faith or doctrine, and they too respected
doctrinal law; but they succeeded in asserting their rights to a
practical share in the government of the Church. The clergy and laity of
a diocese together elected their bishop, as they had done before; but no
one could become a bishop against the will of the king, and the
confirmation of their choice rested with him. The bishops continued to
meet in synods as before, but the councils became territorial synods;
they were called together at irregular intervals by the king, and their
decisions obtained legal effect only by royal sanction.

In these circumstances the intrusion of Germanic elements into
ecclesiastical law is easy to understand. This is most clearly
recognizable in the case of churches which arose alongside the
episcopal cathedrals. In the Empire all churches, and all the property
of the Church, were at the disposal of the bishops; in Germanic
countries, on the contrary, the territorial nobles were looked upon as
the owners of churches built upon their lands, and these became
"proprietary churches." The logical consequence of this was that the
territorial nobles claimed the right of appointing clergy, and the
enjoyment of the revenues of these churches derived from the land
(tithes). Even a certain number of the monastic establishments came in
this way into the possession of the feudal landowners, who nominated
abbots and abbesses as they appointed the incumbents of their churches.

With these conditions, and with the diminution of the ascendancy of town
over country that resulted from the Teutonic conquests, is connected the
rise of the parochial system in the country. The parishes were further
grouped together into rural deaneries and archdeaconries. Thus the
diocese, hitherto a simple unit, became an elaborately articulated
whole. The bishopric of the middle ages bears the same name as that of
the ancient Church; but in many respects it has greatness that is new.

This transformation of old institutions is the first great result of
Germanic influence in the Christian Church. It continues to the present
day in the universal survival of the parochial system.

In the middle ages the civilizing task of the Church was first
approached in England. This was the home of the Latin Christian
literature and theology of medieval times. Aldhelm (d. 709) and the
Venerable Bede (d. 735) were the first scholars of the period. England
was also the home of Winfrid Bonifatius (d. 757). We are accustomed to
look upon him chiefly as a missionary; but his completion of the
conversion of the peoples of central Germany (Thuringians and Hessians)
and his share in that of the Frisians, are the least part of his
life-work. Of more importance is the fact that, in co-operation with the
bishops of Rome, he carried out the organization of the church in
Bavaria, and began the reorganization of the Frankish church, which had
fallen into confusion and decay during the political disorders of the
last years of the Merovingians. It was Boniface, too, who, with the aid
of numerous English priests, monks and nuns, introduced the literary
culture of England into Germany.

Pippin (d. 768) and Charlemagne (d. 814) built on the foundations laid
by Winfrid. For the importance of Charlemagne's work, from the point of
view of the Church, consists also, not so much in the fact that, by his
conversion of the Saxons, the Avars and the Wends in the eastern Alps,
he substantially extended the Church's dominions, as in his having led
back the Frankish Church to the fulfilment of her functions as a
religious and civilizing agent. This was the purpose of his
ecclesiastical legislation. The principal means to this end taken by him
was the raising of the status of the clergy. From the priests he
demanded faithfulness in preaching and teaching, from the bishops the
conscientious government of their dioceses. The monasteries, too,
learned to serve the Church by becoming nurseries of literary and
theological culture. For the purpose of carrying out his ideas
Charlemagne gathered round him the best intellects of Europe. None was
more intimately associated with him than the Anglo-Saxon Alcuin (d.
804); but he was only one among many. Beside him are the Celts Josephus
Scottus and Dungal, the Lombards Paulinus and Paulus Diaconus, the West
Goth Theodulf and many Franks. Under their guidance theology flourished
in the Frankish empire. It was as little original as that of Bede; for
on the continent, too, scholars were content to think what those of old
had thought before them. But in so doing they did not only repeat the
old formulae; the ideas of the men of old sprang into new life. This is
shown by the searching discussions to which the Adoptionist controversy
gave rise. At the same time, the controversy with the Eastern Church
over the adoration of images shows that the younger Western theology
felt itself equal, if not superior to the Greek. This was in fact the
case; for it knew how to treat the question, which divided the Greeks,
in a more dispassionate and practical manner than they.

The second generation of Frankish theologians did not lag behind the
first. Hrabanus of Fulda (who died archbishop of Mainz in 856) was in
the range of his knowledge undoubtedly Alcuin's superior. He was the
first learned theologian produced by Germany. His disciple, Abbot
Walafrid Strabo of Reichenau (d. 849), was the author of the _Glossa
Ordinaria_, a work which formed the foundation of biblical exposition
throughout the middle ages. France was still more richly provided with
theologians in the 9th century: her most prominent names are Hincmar,
archbishop of Reims (d. 882), Bishop Prudentius of Troyes (d. 861), the
monks Servatus Lupus (d. 862), Radbert Paschasius (d. circa 860), and
Ratramnus (d. after 868); and the last theologian who came into France
from abroad, Johannes Scotus Erigena (d. circa 880). The theological
method of all these was merely that of restatement. But the controversy
about predestination, which, in the 9th century, Hincmar and Hrabanus
fought out with the monk Gottschalk of Fulda, as well as the discussions
that arose from the definition of the doctrine of transubstantiation of
Radbert, enable us to gauge the intellectual energy with which
theological problems were once more being handled.

Charlemagne followed his father's policy in carrying out his
ecclesiastical measures in close association with the bishops of Rome.
He renewed the donation of Pippin, and as _Patrician_ he took Rome under
his protection. From Pope Adrian I. he received the _Dionyso-Hadriana_,
the Roman collection of material bearing on the ancient ecclesiastical
law. But the Teutonic elements maintained their place in the law of the
Frankish Church; and this was not altered by the fact that, since
Christmas 800, the king of the Franks and Lombards had borne the title
of Roman emperor. On the contrary, Rome itself was now for the first
time affected by the predominance of the new empire; for Charlemagne
converted the patriciate into effective sovereignty, and the successor
of St Peter became the chief metropolitan of the Frankish empire.

There were, indeed, forces tending in the contrary direction; and these
were present in the Frankish empire. Evidence of this is given by the
canon law forgeries of the 9th century: the _capitula_ of Angelram, the
Capitularies of Benedictus Levita (see CAPITULARY), and the great
collection of the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals. For the moment, however,
this party met with no success. Of more importance was the fact that at
Rome the old conditions, the old claims, and the old law were
unforgotten. Developing the ideas of Leo I., Gelasius I. and Gregory the
Great, Nicholas I. (858-867) drew a picture of the divine right and
unlimited power of the bishop of Rome, which anticipated all that the
greatest of his successors were, centuries later, actually to effect.
The time had not, however, yet come for the establishment of the papal
world-dominion. For, while the power of Charlemagne's successors was
decaying, the papacy itself became involved in the confusion of the
party strife of Italy and of the city of Rome, and was plunged in
consequence into such an abyss of degradation (the so-called
Pornocracy), that it was in danger of forfeiting every shred of its
moral authority over Christendom.

(b) _Central Period of the Middle Ages. Dominance of the Roman Spirit in
the Church._--After the accession of the House of Saxony (919), the
national ecclesiastical system, founded upon the principles of
Carolingian law, developed in Germany with fresh energy. The union in
962 by Otto I. of the revived Empire with the German kingship brought
the latter into uninterrupted contact with the papacy. The revelation of
the antagonism between the German conception of ecclesiastical affairs
and Roman views of ecclesiastical law was sooner or later inevitable.
This was most obvious in the matter of appointment to bishoprics. At
Rome canonical election was alone regarded as lawful; in Germany, on the
other hand, developments since the time of Charlemagne had led to the
actual appointment of bishops being in the hands of the king, although
the form of ecclesiastical election was preserved. For the transference
of a bishopric a special legal form was evolved--that of investiture,
the king investing the bishop elect with the see by delivering to him
the ring and pastoral staff. No one found anything objectionable in
this; investiture with a bishopric was parallel with the appointment by
a territorial proprietor to a patronal church.

The practice customary in Germany was finally transferred to Rome
itself. The desperate position of the papacy in the 11th century obliged
Henry III. to intervene. When, on the 24th of December 1046, after three
rival popes had been set aside, he nominated Suidgar, bishop of Bamberg,
as bishop of Rome before all the people in St Peter's, the papacy was
bestowed in the same way as a German bishopric; and what had occurred in
this case was to become the rule. By procuring the transference of the
patriciate from the Roman people to himself Henry assured his influence
over the appointment of the popes, and accordingly also nominated the
successors of Clement II.

His intervention saved the papacy. For the popes nominated by him, Leo
IX. in particular, were men of high character, who exercised their
office in a loftier spirit than their corrupt predecessors. They placed
themselves at the head of the movement for ecclesiastical reform. But
was it possible for the relation between Empire and Papacy to remain
what Henry III. had made it?

The original sources of this reform movement lay far back, in the time
of the Carolingians. It has been pointed out how Charlemagne pressed the
monks into the service of his civilizing aims. We admire this; but it is
certain that he thereby alienated monasticism from its original ideals.
These, however, had far too strong a hold upon the Roman world for a
reaction against the new tendency to be long avoided. This reaction
began with the reform of Benedict of Aniane (d. 821), the aim of which
was to bring the Benedictine order back to the principles of its
original rules. In the next century the reform movement acquired a fresh
centre in the Burgundian monastery of Cluny. The energy of a succession
of distinguished abbots and the disciples whom they inspired succeeded
in bringing about the victory of the reforming ideas in the French
monasteries; once more the rule of St Benedict controlled the life of
the monks. A large number of the reformed monasteries attached
themselves to the congregation of Cluny, thus assuring the influence of
reformed monasticism upon the Church, and securing likewise its
independence of the diocesan bishops, since the abbot of Cluny was
subordinate of the pope alone. (See CLUNY; BENEDICTINES and
MONASTICISM.) At the same time that Cluny began to grow into importance,
other centres of the monastic reform movement were established in Upper
and Lower Lorraine; and before long the activity of the Cluniac monks
made itself felt in Italy. In Germany Poppo of Stavelot (d. 1048) was a
successful champion of their ideas; in England Dunstan (d. 988 as
archbishop of Canterbury) worked independently, but on similar lines.
Everywhere the object was the same: the supreme obligation of the Rule,
the renewal of discipline, and also the economic improvement of the
monasteries. The reform movement had originally no connexion with
ecclesiastical politics; but that came later when the leaders turned
their attention to the abuses prevalent among the clergy, to the
conditions obtaining in the Church in defiance of the ecclesiastical
law. "Return to the canon law!" was now the battle-cry. In the Cluniac
circle was coined the principle: _Canonica auctoritas Dei lex est_,
canon law being taken in the Pseudo-Isidorian sense. The programme of
reform thus included not only the extirpation of simony and Nicolaitism,
but also the freeing of the Church from the influence of the State, the
recovery of her absolute control over all her possessions, the liberty
of the Church and of the hierarchy.

As a result, the party of reform placed itself in opposition to those
ecclesiastical conditions which had arisen since the conversion of the
Teutonic peoples. It was, then, a fact pregnant with the most momentous
consequences that Leo IX. attached himself to the party of reform. For,
thanks to him and to the men he gathered round him (Hildebrand, Humbert
and others), their principles were established in Rome, and the pope
himself became the leader of ecclesiastical reform. But the carrying out
of reforms led at once to dissensions with the civil power, the
starting-point being the attack upon simony.

Originally, in accordance with Acts viii. 18 et seq., simony was held to
be the purchase of ordination. In the 9th century the interpretation was
extended to include all acquisition of ecclesiastical offices or
benefices for money or money's worth. Since the landed proprietors
disposed of churches and convents, and the kings of bishoprics and
abbeys, it became possible for them too to commit the sin of simony;
hence a final expansion, in the 11th century, of the meaning of the
term. The Pseudo-Isidorian idea being that all lay control over things
ecclesiastical is wrong, all transferences by laymen of ecclesiastical
offices or benefices, even though no money changed hands in the process,
were now classed as simony (Humbert, _Adversus Simoniacos_, 1057-1058).
Thus the lord who handed over a living was a simonist, and so too was
the king who invested a bishop. On this question the battle began. The
Church at first refrained from contesting the rights of the landowners
over their own churches, and concentrated her attack upon investiture.
In 1059 the new system of papal election introduced by Nicholas II.
ensured the occupation of the Holy See by a pope favourable to the party
of reform; and in 1078 Gregory VII. issued his prohibition of lay
investiture. In the years of conflict that followed Gregory looked far
beyond this point; he set his aim ever higher; until, in the end, his
idea was to concentrate all ecclesiastical power in the hands of the
pope, and to raise the papacy to the dominion of the world. Thus was to
be realized the old dream of Augustine: that of a Kingdom of God on
earth under the rule of the Church. But it was not given to Gregory to
reach this goal, and his successors had to return again to the strife
over investiture. The settlement of 1111 may be said to have embodied
the only solution of the great question that was right in principle,
since it pronounced in favour of a clear distinction between the
spiritual and temporal spheres. However, a solution that was right in
principle proved impossible in practice, and the long struggle ended in
a compromise by the Concordat of Worms (1122). The essential part of
this was that the Empire accepted the canonical election of bishops, and
allowed the metropolitan to confer the sacred office by gift of ring and
pastoral staff; while the Church acknowledged that the bishop held his
temporal rights from the Empire, and was therefore to be invested with
them by a touch from the royal sceptre. A similar solution was arrived
at in England. Henry I. also renounced his claim to bestow ring and
pastoral staff, but kept the right of induction into the temporalities
(1106-1107). In France the demands of the Church were successful to the
same degree as in England and Germany, but without any conflict. Thus
the Germanic element in the law regarding appointment to bishoprics was
eliminated. Somewhat later it disappeared also in the case of the
churches of less importance, patronal rights over these being
substituted for the former absolute ownership. The pontificate of
Alexander III. (1159-1181) decided this.

Since the time of Charlemagne Germanic influence had preponderated in
the West, as is shown in the expansion of the Church no less than in
matters of ecclesiastical law. The whole progress of Christianity in
Europe from the 9th to the 12th century was due--if we exclude Eastern
Christendom--to the Teutonic nations; neither the papacy nor the peoples
of Latin race were concerned in it. German priests and bishops carried
the Christian faith to the Czechs and the Moravians, laboured among the
Hungarians and the Poles, and won the wide district between the Elbe and
the Oder at once for Christianity and for the German nation. Germany,
too, was the starting-point for the conversion of the Scandinavian
countries, which was completed by English priests with the assistance of
native princes.

But, even while the Teutonic peoples were thus taking the lead, we can
see the Latin races beginning to assert themselves. The monastic reform
movement was essentially Latin in origin; and even more significant was
the fact that scholasticism, the new theology, had its home in the Latin
countries. Aristotelian dialectics had always been taught in the
schools; and reason as well as authority had been appealed to as the
foundation of theology; but for the theologians of the 9th and 10th
centuries, whose method had been merely that of restatement, _ratio_ and
_auctoritas_ were in perfect accord. Then Berengar of Tours (d. 1088)
ventured to set up reason against authority: by reason the truth must be
decided. This involved the question of the relation in theology of
authority and reason, and of whether the theological method is
authoritative or rational. To these questions Berengar gave no answer;
he was ruined by his opposition to Radbert's doctrine of
transubstantiation. The Lombard Anselm (d. 1109), archbishop of
Canterbury, was the first to deal with the subject. He took as his
starting-point the traditional faith; but he was convinced that whoever
has experience of the truths of the faith would be able to understand
them. In accordance with this principle he pointed out the goal of
theology and the way to its attainment: the function of theology is to
demonstrate dogmas _sola ratione_.

It was a bold conception--too bold for the medieval world, for which
faith was primarily the obligation to believe. It was easy, therefore,
to understand why Anselm's method did not become the dominant one in
theology. Not he, but the Frenchman Abelard (d. 1142), was the creator
of the scholastic method. Abelard, too, started from tradition; but he
discovered that the statements of the various authorities are very often
in the relation of _sic et non_, yes and no. Upon this fact he based his
pronouncement as to the function of theology: it must employ the
dialectic method to reconcile the contradictions of tradition, and thus
to shape the doctrines of the faith in accordance with reason. By
teaching this method Abelard created the implements for the erection of
the great theological systems of the schoolmen of the 12th and 13th
centuries: Peter Lombard (d. 1160), Alexander of Hales (d. 1245),
Albertus Magnus (d. 1280), and Thomas Aquinas (d. 1275). They adventured
a complete exposition of Christian doctrine that should be altogether
ecclesiastical and at the same time altogether rational. In so doing
they set to work at the same time to complete the development of
ecclesiastical dogma; the formulation of the Catholic doctrine of the
Sacraments was the work of scholasticism.

Canon law is the twin-sister of scholasticism. At the very time when
Peter Lombard was shaping his Sentences, the monk Gratian of Bologna was
making a new collection of laws. It was not only significant that in the
_Concordia discordantium canonum_ ecclesiastical laws, whether from
authentic or forged sources, were gathered together without regard to
the existing civil law; of even greater eventual importance was the fact
that Gratian taught that the contradictions of the canon law were to be
reconciled by the same method as that used by theology to reconcile the
discrepancies of doctrinal tradition. Thus Gratian became the founder of
the science of canon law, a science which, like the scholastic theology,
was entirely ecclesiastical and entirely rational (See CANON LAW).

Like the new theology and the new science of law, the new monasticism
was also rooted in Latin soil. In the first of the new orders, that of
the Cistercians (1098), the old monastic ideal set forth in the Rule of
Benedict of Nursia still prevailed; but in the constitution and
government of the order new ideas were at work. In the Premonstratensian
order, however, founded in 1120 by Norbert of Xanten, a new conception
of the whole function of monachism was introduced: the duty of the
priest-monk is not only to work out his own salvation, but, by preaching
and cure of souls, to labour for others. This was the dominant idea of
the order of friars preachers founded in 1216, on the basis of the
Premonstratensian rule, by Dominic of Osma (see DOMINIC, SAINT, and
DOMINICANS). It was also the basis of the order of friars minor
(Franciscans, q.v.), founded in 1210. For the foundation of Francis of
Assisi came into existence as a society of itinerant preachers: no one
was more deeply convinced than Francis of the duty of working for
others, and his own mission was, as he said, to win souls. But with this
idea he fused another, namely, that it is the task of the monk to
imitate the humility and poverty of Jesus; and his order thus became a
mendicant order. From the earliest times the monks had renounced all
private property, and no individual monk, but only the order to which he
belonged, could acquire possessions. For Francis this was not enough: he
put "holy poverty" in place of renunciation of private property, and
allowed neither monk nor monastery to have any possessions whatever; for
only thus is the following of Jesus complete. So mighty was the
impression made by the poverty of the Minorites, that the Dominicans
promptly followed their example and likewise became mendicant.

This alone would serve to indicate the remarkable deepening of the
religious life that had taken place in the Latin countries. Its
beginning may be traced as early as the 11th century (Pietro Damiani,
q.v.), and in the 12th century the most influential exponent of this new
piety was Bernard (q.v.) of Clairvaux, who taught men to find God by
leading them to Christ. Contemporary with him were Hugh (q.v.) of St
Victor and his pupil Richard (q.v.) of St Victor, both monks of the
abbey of St Victor at Paris, the aim of whose teaching, based on that of
the Pseudo-Dionysius, was a mystical absorption of thought in the
Godhead and the surrender of self to the Eternal Love. Under the
influence of these ideas, in part purely Christian and in part
neo-platonic, piety gained in warmth and depth and became more personal;
and though at first it flourished in the monasteries, and in those of
the mendicant orders especially, it penetrated far beyond them and
influenced the laity everywhere.

The new piety did not set itself in opposition either to the hierarchy
or to the institutions of the Church, such as the sacraments and the
discipline of penance, nor did it reject those foreign elements
(asceticism, worship of saints and the like) which had passed of old
time into Christianity from the ancient world. Its temper was not
critical, but aggressively practical. It led the Romance nations to
battle for Christendom. In the 11th and 12th centuries the chivalry of
Spain and southern France took up the struggle with the Moors as a holy
war. In the autumn of 1096 the nobles of France and Italy, joined by the
Norman barons of England and Sicily, set out to wrest the Holy Land from
the unbelievers; and for more than a century the cry, "Christ's land
must be won for Christ," exercised an unparalleled power in Western
Christendom.

All this meant a mighty exaltation of the Church, which ruled the minds
of men as she had hardly ever done before. Nor was it possible that the
position of the bishop of Rome, the supreme head of the Western Church,
should remain unaffected by it. Two of the most powerful of the German
emperors, Frederick I. and his son Henry VI., struggled to renew and to
maintain the imperial supremacy over the papacy. The close relations
between northern Italy and the Empire, and the union of the sovereignty
of southern Italy with the German crown, seemed to afford the means for
keeping Rome in subjection. But Frederick I. fought a losing battle, and
when at the peace of Venice (1177) he recognized Alexander III. as pope,
he relinquished the hope of carrying out his Italian policy; while Henry
VI. died at the early age of thirty-two (1197), before his far-reaching
schemes had been realized.

The field was thus cleared for the full development of papal power. This
had greatly increased since the Concordat of Worms, and reached its
height under Innocent III. (1198-1216). Innocent believed himself to be
the representative of God, and as such the supreme possessor of both
spiritual and temporal power. He therefore claimed in both spheres the
supreme administrative, legislative and judicial authority. Just as he
considered himself entitled to appoint to all ecclesiastical offices, so
also he invested the emperor with his empire and kings with their
kingdoms. Not only did he despatch his decretals to the universities to
form the basis of the teaching of the canon law and of the decisions
founded upon it, but he considered himself empowered to annul civil
laws. Thus he annulled the Great Charter in 1215. Just as the Curia was
the supreme court of appeal in ecclesiastical causes, so also the pope
threatened disobedient princes with deposition, e.g. the emperor Otto
IV. in 1210, and John of England in 1212.

The old institutions of the Catholic Church were transformed to suit the
new position of the pope. From 1123 onward there had again been talk of
general councils; but, unlike those of earlier times, these were
assemblies summoned by the pope, who confirmed their resolutions. The
canonical election of bishops also continued to be discussed; but the
old electors, i.e. the clergy and laity of the dioceses, were deprived
of the right of election, this being now transferred exclusively to the
cathedral chapters. The bishops kept their old title, but they described
themselves accurately as "bishops by grace of the apostolic see," for
they administered their dioceses as plenipotentiaries of the pope; and
as time went on even the Church's criminal jurisdiction became more and
more concentrated in the hands of the pope (see INQUISITION).

The rule of the Church by the Roman bishop had thus become a reality;
but the papal claim to supreme temporal authority proved impossible to
maintain, although Innocent III. had apparently enforced it. The long
struggle against Frederick II., carried on by Gregory IX. (1227-1241)
and Innocent IV. (1243-1254), did not result in victory; no papal
sentence, but only death itself, deprived the emperor of his dominions;
and when Boniface VIII. (1294-1303), who in the bull _Unam Sanctam_
(1302) gave the papal claims to universal dominion their classical form,
quarrelled with Philip IV. of France about the extension of the royal
power, he could not but perceive that the national monarchy had become a
force which it was impossible for the papacy to overcome.

(c) _Close of the Middle Ages. Disintegration._--While the Church was
yet at the height of her power the great revolution began, which was to
end in the disruption of that union between the Temporal and the
Spiritual which, under her dominion, had characterized the life of the
West. The Temporal now claimed its proper rights. The political power of
the Empire, indeed, had been shattered; but this left all the more room
for the vigorous development of national states, notably of France and
England. At the same time intellectual life was enriched by a wealth of
fresh views and new ideas, partly the result of the busy intercourse
with the East to which the Crusades had given the first impetus, and
which had been strengthened and extended by lively trade relations,
partly of the revived study, eagerly pursued, of ancient philosophy and
literature (see RENAISSANCE). Old forms became too narrow, and
vigorously growing national literatures appeared side by side with the
universal Latin literature. The life of the Church, moreover, was
affected by the economic changes due to the rise of the power of money
as opposed to the old economic system based upon land.

The effects of these changes made themselves felt on all sides, in no
case more strongly than in that of the papal claims to the supreme
government of the world. Theoretically they were still unwaveringly
asserted; indeed it was not till this time that they received their most
uncompromising expression (Augustinus Triumphus, d. 1328; Alvarus
Pelagius, d. 1352). After Boniface VIII., however, no pope seriously
attempted to realize them; to do so had in fact become impossible, for
from the time of their residence at Avignon (1305-1377) the popes were
in a state of complete dependence upon the French crown. But even the
curialistic theory met everywhere with opposition. In France Philip
IV.'s jurists maintained that the temporal power was independent of the
spiritual. In Italy, a little later, Dante championed the divine right
of the emperor (_De Monarchia_, 1311). In Germany, Marsiglio of Padua
and Jean of Jandun, the literary allies of the emperor Louis IV.,
ventured to define anew the nature of the civil power from the
standpoint of natural law, and to assert its absolute sovereignty
(_Defensor pacis_, c. 1352); while the Franciscan William of Occam (d.
1349) examined, also in Louis' interests, into the nature of the
relation between the two powers. He too concluded that the temporal
power is independent of the spiritual, and is even justified in invading
the sphere of the latter in cases of necessity.

While these thoughts were filling men's minds, opposition to the papal
rule over the Church was also gaining continually in strength. The
reasons for this were numerous, first among them being the abuses of the
papal system of finance, which had to provide funds for the vast
administrative machinery of the Curia. There was also the boundless
abuse and arbitrary exercise of the right of ecclesiastical patronage
(provisions, reservations); and further the ever-increasing traffic in
dispensations, the abuse of spiritual punishments for worldly ends, and
so forth. No means, however, existed of enforcing any remedy until the
papal schism occurred in 1378. Such a schism as this, so intolerable to
the ecclesiastical sense of the middle ages, necessitated the discovery
of some authority superior to the rival popes, and therefore able to put
an end to their quarrelling. General councils were now once more called
to mind; but these were no longer conceived as mere advisory councils to
the pope, but as the highest representative organ of the universal
Church, and as such ranking above the pope, and competent to demand
obedience even from him. This was the view of the Germans Conrad of
Gelnhausen (d. 1390) and Heinrich of Langenstein (d. 1397), as also of
the Frenchmen Pierre d'Ailli (d. 1420) and Jean Charlier Gerson (d.
1429). These all recognized in the convocation of a general council the
means of setting bounds to the abuses in the government of the Church by
an extensive reform. The council of Pisa (1409) separated without
effecting anything; but the council of Constance (1414-1418) did
actually put an end to the schism. The reforms begun at Constance and
continued at Basel (1431-1449) proved, however, insufficient. Above all,
the attempt to set up the general council as an ordinary institution of
the Catholic Church failed; and the Roman papacy, restored at Constance,
preserved its irresponsible and unlimited power over the government of
the Church. (See PAPACY; CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF, and BASEL, COUNCIL OF.)

Thus the attempt to reform the Church by means of councils failed; but
this very failure led to the survival of the desire for reform. It was
kept alive by the most various circumstances; in the first instance by
the attitude of the European states. Thanks to his recognition by the
powers, Pope Eugenius IV. (1431-1447) had been victorious over the
council of Basel; but neither France nor Germany was prepared to forgo
the reforms passed by the council. France secured their validity, as far
as she herself was concerned, by the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (July
7, 1438); Germany followed with the Acceptation of Mainz (March 26,
1439). The theory of the papal supremacy held by the Curia was thus at
least called in question.

The antagonism of the opposition parties was even more pronounced. The
tendencies which they represented had been present when the middle ages
were yet at their height; but the papacy, while at the zenith of its
power, had succeeded in crushing the attacks made upon the creed of the
Church by its most dangerous foes, the dualistic Cathari. On the other
hand it had not been able to overcome the less radical opposition of the
"Poor Man of Lyons" (Waldo, d. _c._ 1217), and even in the 15th century
stray supporters of the Waldensian teaching were to be found in Italy,
France and Germany, everywhere keeping alive mistrust of the temporal
power of the Church, of her priesthood and her hierarchy. In England the
hierarchy was attacked by John Wycliffe (d. 1384), its greatest opponent
before Luther. Starting from Augustine's conception of the Church as the
community of the elect, he protested against a church of wealth and
power, a church that had become a political institution instead of a
school of salvation, and against its head, the bishop of Rome.
Wycliffe's ideas, conveyed to the continent, precipitated the outbreak
of the Hussite storm in Bohemia. The council of Constance thought to
quell it by condemnation of Wycliffe's teaching and by the execution of
John Huss (1415). But in vain. The flame burst forth, not in Bohemia
alone, where Huss's death gave the signal for a general rising, but also
in England among the Lollards, and in Germany among those of Huss's
persuasion, who had many points of agreement with the remnant of the
Waldenses.

(See HUSS; WYCLIFFE; LOLLARDS; WALDENSES.)

This was open opposition; but there was besides another opposing force
which, though it raised no noise of controversy, yet was far more widely
severed from the views of the Church than either Wycliffe or Huss: this
was the Renaissance, which began its reign in Italy during the 14th
century. The Renaissance meant the emancipation of the secular world
from the domination of the Church, and it contributed in no small
measure to the rupture of the educated class with ecclesiastical
tradition. Beauty of form alone was at first sought, and found in the
antique; but, with the form, the spirit of the classical attitude
towards life was revived. While the Church, like a careful mother,
sought to lead her children, never allowed to grow up, safely from time
into eternity, the men of the Renaissance felt that they had come of
age, and that they were entitled to make themselves at home in this
world. They wished to possess the earth and enjoy it by means of secular
education and culture, and an impassable gulf yawned between their views
of religion and morality and those of the Church.

This return to the ideals of antiquity did not remain confined to Italy,
but the humanism of the northern countries presents no close parallel to
the Italian renaissance. However much it agreed in admiration of the
ancients, it differed absolutely in its preservation of the fundamental
ideas of Christianity. But neither Reuchlin (d. 1522), Erasmus (d.
1536), Faber d'Etaples (d. 1536), Thomas More (d. 1535), nor the
numerous others who were their disciples, or who shared their views,
were in the least degree satisfied with the conditions prevailing in the
Church. Their ideal was a return to that simplicity of primitive
Christendom which they believed they found revealed in the New Testament
and in the writings of the early Fathers.

To this theology could not point the way. Since the time of Duns Scotus
(d. 1308) theologians had been conscious of the discrepancy between
Aristotelianism and ecclesiastical dogma. Faith in the infallibility of
the scholastic system was thus shaken, and the system itself was
destroyed by the revival of philosophic nominalism, which had been
discredited in the 11th century by the realism of the great schoolmen.
It now found a bold supporter in William of Occam (q.v.), and through
him became widely accepted. But nominalism was powerless to inspire
theology with new life; on the contrary, its intervention only increased
the inextricable tangle of the hairsplitting questions with which
theology busied itself, and made their solution more and more
impossible.

Mysticism, moreover, which had no lack of noteworthy supporters in the
14th and 15th centuries, and the various new departures in thought
initiated by individual theologians such as Nicolaus Cusanus (d. 1464)
and Wessel Gansfort (d. 1489), were not competent to restore to the
Church what she had once possessed in scholasticism--that is to say, a
conception of Christianity in which all Christendom recognized the
convictions in which it lived and had its being.

This was all the more significant because Western Christendom in the
15th century was by no means irreligious. Men's minds were agitated by
spiritual questions, and they sought salvation and the assurance of
salvation, using every means prescribed by the Church: confession and
the communion, indulgences and relics, pilgrimages and oblations,
prayers and attendance at church; none of all these were contemned or
held cheap. Yet the age had no inward peace.

After the failure of the attempts at reform by the councils, the
guidance of the Church was left undisturbed in the hands of the popes,
and they were determined that it should remain so. In 1450 Eugenius IV.
set up in opposition to the council of Basel a general council summoned
by himself, which met first at Ferrara and afterwards at Florence. Here
he appeared to score a great success. The split between East and West
had led in the 11th century to the rupture of ecclesiastical relations
between Rome and Constantinople. This schism had lasted since the 16th
of July 1054; but now a union with the Eastern Church was successfully
accomplished at Florence. Eugenius certainly owed his success merely to
the political necessities of the emperor of the East, and his union was
forthwith destroyed owing to its repudiation by oriental Christendom;
yet at the same time his decretals of union were not devoid of
importance, for in them the pope reaffirmed the scholastic doctrine
regarding the sacraments as a dogma of the Church, and he spoke as the
supreme head of all Christendom.

This claim to the supreme government of the Church was to be steadily
maintained. In the year 1512 Julius II. called together the fifth
Lateran general council, which expressly recognized the subjection of
the councils to the pope (Leo X.'s bull _Pastor Aeternum_, of the 19th
of December 1516), and also declared the constitution _Unam Sanctam_
(see above) valid in law.

But the papacy that sought to win back its old position was itself no
longer the same as of old. Eugenius IV.'s successor, Nicholas V.
(1447-1455), was the first of the Renaissance popes. Under his
successors the views which prevailed at the secular courts of the
Italian princes came likewise into play at the Curia: the papacy became
an Italian princedom. Innocent VIII., Alexander VI., Julius II. were in
many respects remarkable men, but they were scarcely affected by the
convictions of the Christian faith. The terrible tragedy which was
consummated on the 23rd of May 1498 before the Palazzo Vecchio, in
Florence, casts a lurid light upon the irreconcilable opposition in
which the wearers of the papal dignity stood to medieval piety; for
Girolamo Savonarola was in every fibre a loyal son of the medieval
Church.

Twenty years after Savonarola's death Martin Luther made public his
theses against indulgences. The Reformation which thus began brought the
disintegrating process of the middle ages to an end, and at the same
time divided Western Catholicism in two. Yet we may say that this was
its salvation; for the struggle against Luther drove the papacy back to
its ecclesiastical duties, and the council of Trent established medieval
dogma as the doctrine of modern Catholicism in contradistinction to
Protestantism. (See also PAPACY; RENAISSANCE; REFORMATION, and
biographies of popes, &c.)

  AUTHORITIES.--For sources see U. Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources
  historiques du moyen-age_ (Paris, 1903); A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca
  historica medii aevi_ (Berlin, 1896); W. Wattenbach, _Deutschlands
  Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter_ (7th ed., Stuttgart, 1904); A.
  Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de la France_ (Paris, 1901).
  General Treatises: Philip Schaff, _History of the Christian Church_
  (12 yols., 5th ed., New York, 1889-1892), vol. iv. _Medieval
  Christianity_; W. Moeller, _Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte_, vol. ii.
  _Das Mittelalter_ (Freiburg, 1891); H.H. Milman, _History of Latin
  Christianity_ (6 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1857). Particular Treatises:
  J. Lingard, _The History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church_ (2
  vols. 3rd ed., London, 1845); E. Churton, _The Early English Church_
  (London, 1878); A. Martineau, _Church History in England from the
  Earliest Times to the Reformation_ (London, 1878); W. Hunt, _The
  English Church from its Foundation to the Norman Conquest_ (London,
  1899); W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History of England_ (3 vols.,
  London, 1874-1878); A. Bellesheim, _Geschichte der kathol. Kirche in
  Schottland_ (2 vols., Mainz, 1883; Engl. transl. with Notes and
  Additions by O.H. Blair, 4 vols., Edinburgh, 1887-1890); W. Stephen,
  _History of the Scottish Church_ (Edinburgh, 1894-1896, 2 vols.); W.D.
  Killen, _The Ecclesiastical History of Ireland_ (2 vols., London,
  1875-1878); A. Bellesheim, _Geschichte der kath. Kirche in Irland_ (3
  vols., Mainz, 1890-1891); F. Rettberg, _Kirchengeschichte
  Deutschlands_ (2 vols. Goettingen, 1846, 1848); A. Hauck,
  _Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands_ (4 vols., Leipzig, 3rd ed., 1904);
  _Gallia Christiana in provincias eccl. distributa_ (16 and 3 vols.,
  Paris, 1715-1900); F.N. Fager, _Histoire de l'eglise cathol. en France
  depuis son origine_ (19 vols., Paris, 1862-1873); Ughelli, _Italia
  sacra_ (10 vols., Venice, 1717-1722); P. Gams, _Kirchengeschichte von
  Spanien_ (5 vols., Regensburg, 1862-1879); H. Reuterdahl, _Svenska
  Kyrkans historia_ (3 vols., Lund, 1838-1863); A. v. Maurer, _Die
  Bekehrung des norwegischen Stammes_ (2 vols., Munich, 1855-1856);
  Bang, _Udsigt over den norske Kirkes historie under Katholicismen_
  (Christiania, 1887); P. Gams, _Series episcoporum ecclesiae
  catholicae_ (Regensburg, 1873); C. Eubel, _Hierarchia catholica medii
  aevi_ (2 vols., Muenster, 1898, 1901); P. Hinschius, _System des kath.
  Kirchenrechts_ (6 vols., Berlin, 1869-1896); E. Friedberg, _Lehrbuch
  des Kirchenrechts_ (5th ed., Leipzig, 1903); U. Stutz, "Kirchenrecht"
  (Holtzendorff-Kohler, _Encyklopaedie der Rechtswissenschaft_, 6th ed.
  II. Leipzig, 1904); B. Haureau, _Histoire de la philosophie
  scolastique_ (Paris, 1872); F. Schwane, _Dogmengeschichte der
  mittleren Zeit_ (Freiburg, 1882); A. Ebert, _Allgem. Geschichte der
  Literatur des Mittelalters im Abendlande_ (3 vols., Leipzig,
  1874-1887); C.F. v. Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_ (2nd ed., 9 vols.,
  Freiburg, 1873-1890).    (A. H.*)


C. THE MODERN CHURCH

The issue in 1564 of the canons of the council of Trent marks a very
definite epoch in the history of the Christian Church. Up till that
time, in spite of the schism of East and West and of innumerable
heresies, the idea of the Church as Catholic, not only in its faith but
in its organization, had been generally accepted. From this conception
the Reformers had, at the outset, no intention of departing. Their
object had been to purify the Church of medieval accretions, and to
restore the primitive model in the light of the new learning; the idea
of rival "churches," differing in their fundamental doctrines and in
their principles of organization, existing side by side, was as
abhorrent to them as to the most rigid partisan of Roman
centralization. The actual divisions of Western Christendom are the
outcome, less of the purely religious influences of the Reformation
period than of the political forces with which they were associated and
confused. When it became clear that the idea of doctrinal change would
find no acceptance at Rome, the Reformers appealed to the divine
authority of the civil power against that of the popes; and princes
within their several states succeeded, as the result of purely political
struggles and combinations, in establishing the form of religion best
suited to their convictions or their policy. Thus over a great part of
Europe the Catholic Church was split up into territorial or national
churches, which, whatever the theoretical ties which bound them
together, were in fact separate organizations, tending ever more and
more to become isolated and self-contained units with no formal
intercommunion, and, as the rivalry of nationalities grew, with
increasingly little even of intercommunication.

It was not, indeed, till the settlement of Westphalia in 1648, after the
Thirty Years' War, that this territorial division of Christendom became
stereotyped, but the process had been going on for a hundred years
previously; in some states, as in England and Scotland, it had long been
completed; in others, as in South Germany, Bohemia and Poland, it was
defeated by the political and missionary efforts of the Jesuits and
other agents of the counter-Reformation. In any case, it received a vast
impetus from the action of the council of Trent. With the issue of the
Tridentine canons, all hope even of compromise between the "new" and the
"old" religions was definitely closed. The anathema of the Roman Church
had fallen upon all the fundamental doctrines for which the Reformers
had contended and died; the right of free discussion within the limits
of the creeds, which had given room for the speculations of the medieval
philosophers, was henceforth curtailed and confined; and the definitions
of the schoolmen were for ever exalted by the authority of Rome into
dogmas of the Church. The Latin Church, which, by combining the
tradition of the Roman centralized organization with a great elasticity
in practice and in the interpretation of doctrine, had hitherto been the
moulding force of civilization in the West, is henceforth more or less
in antagonism to that civilization, which advances in all its
branches--in science, in literature, in art--to a greater or less degree
outside of and in spite of her, until in its ultimate and most
characteristic developments it falls under the formal condemnation of
the pope, formulated in the famous Syllabus of 1864. Considered from the
standpoint of the world outside, the Roman Church is, no less than the
Protestant communities, merely one of the sects into which Western
Christendom has been divided--the most important and widespread, it is
true, but playing in the general life and thought of the world a part
immeasurably less important than that filled by the Church before the
Reformation, and one in no sense justifying her claim to be considered
as the sole inheritor of the tradition of the pre-Reformation Church.

If this be true of the Roman Catholic Church, it is still more so of the
other great communities and confessions which emerged from the
controversies of the Reformation. Of these the Anglican Church held most
closely to the tradition of Catholic organization; but she has never
made any higher claim than to be one of "the three branches of the
Catholic Church," a claim repudiated by Rome and never formally admitted
by the Church of the East. The Protestant churches established on the
continent, even where--as in the case of the Lutherans--they approximate
more closely than the official Anglican Church to Roman doctrine and
practice, make no such claim. The Bible is for them the real source of
authority in doctrine; their organization is part and parcel of that of
the state. They are, in fact, the state in its religious aspect, and as
such are territorial or national, not Catholic. This tendency has been
common in the East also, where with the growth of racial rivalries the
Orthodox Church has split into a series of national churches, holding
the same faith but independent as to organization.

A yet further development, of comparatively recent growth, has been the
formation of what are now commonly called in England the "free
churches." These represent a theory of the Church practically unknown to
the Reformers, and only reached through the necessity for discovering a
logical basis for the communities of conscientious dissidents from the
established churches. According to this the Catholic Church is not a
visibly organized body, but the sum of all "faithful people" throughout
the world, who group themselves in churches modelled according to their
convictions or needs. For the organization of these churches no divine
sanction is claimed, though all are theoretically modelled on the lines
laid down in the Christian Scriptures. It follows that, while in the
traditional Church, with its claim to an unbroken descent from a divine
original, the individual is subordinate to the Church, in the "free
churches" the Church is in a certain sense secondary to the individual.
The believer may pass from one community to another without imperilling
his spiritual life, or even establish a new church without necessarily
incurring the reproach of schism. From this theory, powerful in Great
Britain and her colonies, supreme in the United States of America, has
resulted an enormous multiplication of sects.

It follows from the above argument that, from the period of the
Reformation onward, no historical account of the Christian Church as a
whole, and considered as a definite institution, is possible. The stream
of continuity has been broken, and divides into innumerable channels.
The only possible synthesis is that of the Christianity common to all;
as institutions, though they possess many features in common, their
history is separate and must be separately dealt with. The history of
the various branches of the Christian Church since the Reformation will
therefore be found under their several titles (see ROMAN CATHOLIC
CHURCH; ENGLAND, CHURCH OF; PRESBYTERIANISM; BAPTISTS, &c, &c.).
   (W. A. P.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Upon the spread of the Church during the early centuries see
    especially Harnack's _Mission und Ausbreitung des Christenthums in
    den ersten drei Jahrhunderten_. An interesting parallel to the
    spread of Christianity in the Roman empire is afforded by the
    contemporary Mithraism. See Cumont's _Les Mysteres de Mithra_
    (1900), Eng. tr. _The Mysteries of Mithra_ (1903).




CHURCHILL, CHARLES (1731-1764), English poet and satirist, was born in
Vine Street, Westminster, in February 1731. His father, rector of
Rainham, Essex, held the curacy and lectureship of St John's,
Westminster, from 1733, and the son was educated at Westminster school,
where he became a good classical scholar, and formed a close and lasting
intimacy with Robert Lloyd. Churchill was entered at Trinity College,
Cambridge, in 1749, but never resided. He had been refused at Oxford,
ostensibly on the unlikely ground of lack of classical knowledge, but
more probably because of a hasty marriage which he had contracted within
the rules of the Fleet in his eighteenth year. He and his wife lived in
his father's house, and Churchill was afterwards sent to the north of
England to prepare for holy orders. He became curate of South Cadbury,
Somersetshire, and, on receiving priest's orders (1756), began to act as
his father's curate at Rainham. Two years later the elder Churchill
died, and the son was elected to succeed him in his curacy and
lectureship. His emoluments amounted to less than L100 a year, and he
increased his income by teaching in a girls' school. He fulfilled his
various duties with decorum for a while, but his marriage proved
unfortunate, and he spent much of his time in dissipation in the society
of Robert Lloyd. He was separated from his wife in 1761, and would have
been imprisoned for debt but for the timely help of Lloyd's father, who
had been an usher and was now a master of Westminster school.

Churchill had already done some work for the booksellers, and his friend
Lloyd had had some success with a didactic poem, "The Actor." His
intimate knowledge of the theatre was now turned to account in the
_Rosciad_, which appeared in March 1761. This reckless and amusing
satire described with the most disconcerting accuracy the faults of the
various actors and actresses on the London stage. Its immediate
popularity was no doubt largely due to its personal character, but its
real vigour and raciness make it worth reading even now when the objects
of Churchill's wit are many of them forgotten. The first impression was
published anonymously, and in the _Critical Review_, conducted by Tobias
Smollett, it was confidently asserted that the poem was the joint
production of George Colman, Bonnell Thornton and Robert Lloyd.
Churchill owned the authorship and immediately published an _Apology
addressed to the Critical Reviewers_, which, after developing the
subject that it is only the caste of authors that prey on their own
kind, repeats the fierce attack on the stage. Incidentally it contains
an enthusiastic tribute to Dryden, of whom Churchill was a not unworthy
scholar. In the _Rosciad_ he had given warm praise to Mrs Pritchard, Mrs
Cibber and Mrs Clive, but no leading London actor, with the exception of
David Garrick, had escaped censure, and in the _Apology_ Garrick was
clearly threatened. He deprecated criticism by showing every possible
civility to Churchill, who became a terror to the actors. Thomas Davies
wrote to Garrick attributing his blundering in the part of Cymbeline "to
my accidentally seeing Mr Churchill in the pit, it rendering me confused
and unmindful of my business." Churchill's satire made him many enemies,
and inquiries into his way of life provided abundant matter for retort.
In _Night, an Epistle to Robert Lloyd_ (1761), he answered the attacks
made on him, offering by way of defence the argument that any faults
were better than hypocrisy. His scandalous conduct brought down the
censure of the dean of Westminster, and in 1763 the protests of his
parishioners led him to resign his offices, and he was free to wear his
"blue coat with metal buttons" and much gold lace without remonstrance
from the dean. The _Rosciad_ had been refused by several publishers, and
was finally published at Churchill's own expense. He received a
considerable sum from the sale, and paid his old creditors in full,
besides making an allowance to his wife.

He now became a close ally of John Wilkes, whom he regularly assisted
with the _North Briton_. _The Prophecy of Famine: A Scots Pastoral_
(1763), his next poem, was founded on a paper written originally for
that journal. This violent satire on Scottish influence fell in with the
current hatred of Lord Bute, and the Scottish place-hunters were as much
alarmed as the actors had been. When Wilkes was arrested he gave
Churchill a timely hint to retire to the country for a time, the
publisher, Kearsley, having stated that he received part of the profits
from the paper. His _Epistle to William Hogarth_ (1763) was in answer to
the caricature of Wilkes made during the trial. In it Hogarth's vanity
and envy were attacked in an invective which Garrick quoted as "shocking
and barbarous." Hogarth retaliated by a caricature of Churchill as a
bear in torn clerical bands hugging a pot of porter and a club made of
lies and _North Britons_. _The Duellist_ (1763) is a virulent satire on
the most active opponents of Wilkes in the House of Lords, especially on
Bishop Warburton. He attacked Dr Johnson among others in _The Ghost_ as
"Pomposo, insolent and loud, Vain idol of a scribbling crowd." Other
poems are "The Conference" (1763); "The Author" (1763), highly praised
by Churchill's contemporaries; "Gotham" (1764), a poem on the duties of
a king, didactic rather than satiric in tone; "The Candidate" (1764), a
satire on John Montagu, fourth earl of Sandwich, one of Wilkes's
bitterest enemies, whom he had already denounced for his treachery in
the _Duellist_ (Bk. iii.) as "too infamous to have a friend"; "The
Farewell" (1764); "The Times" (1764); "Independence," and an unfinished
"Journey."

In October 1764 he went to Boulogne to join Wilkes. There he was
attacked by a fever of which he died on the 4th of November. He left his
property to his two sons, and made Wilkes his literary executor with
full powers. Wilkes did little. He wrote an epitaph for his friend and
about half a dozen notes on his poems, and Andrew Kippis acknowledges
some slight assistance from him in preparing his life of Churchill for
the _Biographia Britannica_ (1780). There is more than one instance of
Churchill's generosity to his friends. In 1763 he found his friend
Robert Lloyd in prison for debt. He paid a guinea a week for his better
maintenance in the Fleet, and raised a subscription to set him free.
Lloyd fell ill on receipt of the news of Churchill's death, and died
shortly afterwards. Churchill's sister Patty, who was engaged to Lloyd,
did not long survive them. William Cowper was his schoolfellow, and left
many kindly references to him.

  A partial collection of Churchill's poems appeared in 1763. They are
  included in Chalmers's edition of the English poets, and were edited
  (1804) by W. Tooke. This was reprinted in the Aldine edition (1844).
  There is a revised edition (1892) in the same series, _The Poetical
  Works of Charles Churchill, with a Memoir by J.L. Hannay and copious
  notes by W. Tooke_. For Churchill's biography, see _Genuine Memoirs
  of Charles Churchill, with an account of and observations on his
  writings; together with some Original letters ... between him and the
  author_ (1765); A. Kippis, in _Biographia Britannica_ (1780); also
  John Forster in the _Edinburgh Review_ (January 1845).




CHURCHILL, LORD RANDOLPH HENRY SPENCER (1840-1895), English statesman,
third son of John, seventh duke of Marlborough, by Frances, daughter of
the third marquess of Londonderry, was born at Blenheim Palace, on the
13th of February 1849. His early education was conducted at home, and at
Mr Tabor's preparatory school at Cheam. In January 1863 he went to Eton,
where he remained till July 1865. He was not specially distinguished
either in school work or games while at Eton; his contemporaries
describe him as a vivacious and rather unruly lad. In October 1867 he
matriculated at Merton College, Oxford. He was fond of amusement, and
had carried to Oxford an early taste for sport which he retained
throughout life. But he read with some industry, and obtained a second
class in jurisprudence and modern history in 1870. In 1874 he was
elected to parliament in the Conservative interest for Woodstock,
defeating Mr George Brodrick, a fellow, and afterwards warden, of Merton
College. His maiden speech, delivered in his first session, made no
impression on the House.

It was not till 1878 that he forced himself into public notice as the
exponent of a species of independent Conservatism. He directed a series
of furious attacks against some of the occupants of the front
ministerial bench, and especially that "old gang" who were distinguished
rather for the respectability of their private characters, and the
unblemished purity of their Toryism, than for striking talent. Mr
Sclater-Booth (afterwards 1st Lord Basing), president of the Local
Government Board, was the especial object of his ire, and that
minister's County Government Bill was fiercely denounced as the
"crowning dishonour to Tory principles," and the "supreme violation of
political honesty." The audacity of Lord Randolph's attitude, and the
vituperative fluency of his invective, made him a parliamentary figure
of some importance before the dissolution of the 1874 parliament, though
he was not as yet taken quite seriously. In the new parliament of 1880
he speedily began to play a more notable role. With the assistance of
his devoted adherents, Sir Henry Drummond Wolff, Sir John Gorst and
occasionally of Mr Arthur Balfour, and one or two others, he constituted
himself at once the audacious opponent of the Liberal administration and
the unsparing critic of the Conservative front bench. The "fourth
party," as it was nicknamed, was effective at first not so much in
damaging the government as in awakening the opposition from the apathy
which had fallen upon it after its defeat at the polls. Churchill roused
the Conservatives and gave them a fighting issue, by putting himself at
the head of the resistance to Mr Bradlaugh, the member for Northampton,
who, though an avowed atheist or agnostic, was prepared to take the
parliamentary oath. Sir Stafford Northcote, the Conservative leader in
the Lower House, was forced to take a strong line on this difficult
question by the energy of the fourth party, who in this case clearly
expressed the views of the bulk of the opposition. The long and
acrimonious controversy over Mr Bradlaugh's seat, if it added little to
the reputation of the English legislature, at least showed that Lord
Randolph Churchill was a parliamentary champion who added to his
audacity much tactical skill and shrewdness. He continued to play a
conspicuous part throughout the parliament of 1880-1885, dealing his
blows with almost equal vigour at Mr Gladstone and at the Conservative
front bench, some of whose members, and particularly Sir Richard Cross
and Mr W.H. Smith, he assailed with extreme virulence. From the
beginning of the Egyptian imbroglio Lord Randolph was emphatically
opposed to almost every step taken by the government. He declared that
the suppression of Arabi Pasha's rebellion was an error, and the
restoration of the khedive's authority a crime. He called Mr Gladstone
the "Moloch of Midlothian," for whom torrents of blood had been shed in
Africa. He was equally severe on the domestic policy of the
administration, and was particularly bitter in his criticism of the
Kilmainham treaty and the _rapprochement_ between the Gladstonians and
the Parnellites. It is true that for some time before the fall of the
Liberals in 1885 he had considerably modified his attitude towards the
Irish question, and was himself cultivating friendly relations with the
Home Rule members, and even obtained from them the assistance of the
Irish vote in the English constituencies in the general election. By
this time he had definitely formulated the policy of progressive
Conservatism which was known as "Tory democracy." He declared that the
Conservatives ought to adopt, rather than oppose, reforms of a popular
character, and to challenge the claims of the Liberals to pose as the
champions of the masses. His views were to a large extent accepted by
the official Conservative leaders in the treatment of the Gladstonian
Franchise Bill of 1884. Lord Randolph insisted that the principle of the
bill should be accepted by the opposition, and that resistance should be
focused upon the refusal of the government to combine with it a scheme
of redistribution. The prominent, and on the whole judicious and
successful, part he played in the debates on these questions, still
further increased his influence with the rank and file of the
Conservatives in the constituencies. At the same time he was actively
spreading the gospel of democratic Toryism in a series of platform
campaigns. In 1883 and 1884 he invaded the Radical stronghold of
Birmingham itself, and in the latter year took part in a Conservative
garden party at Aston Manor, at which his opponents paid him the
compliment of raising a serious riot. He gave constant attention to the
party organization, which had fallen into considerable disorder after
1880, and was an active promoter of the Primrose League, which owed its
origin to the happy inspiration of one of his own "fourth party"
colleagues.

In 1884 the struggle between stationary and progressive Toryism came to
a head, and terminated in favour of the latter. At the conference of the
Central Union of Conservative Associations, Lord Randolph was nominated
chairman, notwithstanding the strenuous opposition of the parliamentary
leaders of the party. The split was averted by Lord Randolph's voluntary
resignation; but the episode had confirmed his title to a leading place
in the Tory ranks. It was further strengthened by the prominent part he
played in the events immediately preceding the fall of the Liberal
government in 1885; and when Mr Childers's budget resolutions were
defeated by the Conservatives, aided by about half the Parnellites, Lord
Randolph Churchill's admirers were justified in proclaiming him to have
been the "organizer of victory." His services were, at any rate, far too
important to be refused recognition; and in Lord Salisbury's cabinet of
1885 he was appointed to no less an office than that of secretary of
state for India. During the few months of his tenure of this great post
the young free-lance of Tory democracy surprised the permanent officials
and his own friends by the assiduity with which he attended to his
departmental duties and the rapidity with which he mastered the
complicated questions of Indian administration. In the autumn election
of 1885 he contested Central Birmingham against Mr Bright, and though
defeated here, was at the same time returned by a very large majority
for South Paddington. In the contest which arose over Mr Gladstone's
Home Rule scheme, both in and out of parliament, Lord Randolph again
bore a conspicuous part, and in the electioneering campaign his activity
was only second to that of some of the Liberal Unionists, the marquess
of Hartington, Mr Goschen and Mr Chamberlain. He was now the recognized
Conservative champion in the Lower Chamber, and when the second
Salisbury administration was formed after the general election of 1886
he became chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the House of
Commons. His management of the House was on the whole successful, and
was marked by tact, discretion and temper. But he had never really
reconciled himself with some of his colleagues, and there was a good
deal of friction in his relations with them, which ended with his sudden
resignation on the 20th of December 1886. Various motives influenced him
in taking this surprising step; but the only ostensible cause was that
put forward in his letter to Lord Salisbury, which was read in the House
of Commons on 27th January. In this document he stated that his
resignation was due to his inability, as chancellor of the exchequer, to
concur in the demands made on the treasury by the ministers at the head
of the naval and military establishments. It was commonly supposed that
he expected his resignation to be followed by the unconditional
surrender of the cabinet, and his restoration to office on his own
terms. The sequel, however, was entirely different. The cabinet was
reconstructed with Mr Goschen as chancellor of the exchequer (Lord
Randolph had "forgotten Goschen," as he is said to have remarked), and
Churchill's own career as a Conservative chief was practically closed.

He continued, for some years longer, to take a considerable share in the
proceedings of parliament, giving a general, though decidedly
independent, support to the Unionist administration. On the Irish
question he was a very candid critic of Mr Balfour's measures, and one
of his later speeches, which recalled the acrimonious violence of his
earlier period, was that which he delivered in 1890 on the report of the
Parnell commission. He also fulfilled the promise made on his
resignation by occasionally advocating the principles of economy and
retrenchment in the debates on the naval and military estimates. In
April 1889, on the death of Mr Bright, he was asked to come forward as a
candidate for the vacant seat in Birmingham, and the result was a rather
angry controversy with Mr Chamberlain, terminating in the so-called
"Birmingham compact" for the division of representation of the Midland
capital between Liberal Unionists and Conservatives. But his health was
already precarious, and this, combined with the anomaly of his position,
induced him to relax his devotion to parliament during the later years
of the Salisbury administration. He bestowed much attention on society,
travel and sport. He was an ardent supporter of the turf, and in 1889 he
won the Oaks with a mare named the Abbesse de Jouarre. In 1891 he went
to South Africa, in search both of health and relaxation. He travelled
for some months through Cape Colony, the Transvaal and Rhodesia, making
notes on the politics and economics of the countries, shooting lions,
and recording his impressions in letters to a London newspaper, which
were afterwards republished under the title of _Men, Mines and Animals
in South Africa_. He returned with renewed energy, and in the general
election of 1892 once more flung himself, with his old vigour, into the
strife of parties. His seat at South Paddington was uncontested; but he
was active on the platform, and when parliament met he returned to the
opposition front bench, and again took a leading part in debate,
attacking Mr Gladstone's second Home Rule Bill with especial energy. But
it was soon apparent that his powers were undermined by the inroads of
disease. As the session of 1893 wore on his speeches lost their old
effectiveness, and in 1894 he was listened to not so much with interest
as with pity. His last speech in the House was delivered in the debate
on Uganda in June 1894, and was a painful failure. He was, in fact,
dying of general paralysis. A journey round the world was undertaken as
a forlorn hope. Lord Randolph started in the autumn of 1894, accompanied
by his wife, but the malady made so much progress that he was brought
back in haste from Cairo. He reached England shortly before Christmas
and died in London on the 24th of January 1895.

Lord Randolph Churchill married, in January 1874, Jennie, daughter of Mr
Leonard Jerome of New York, U.S.A., by whom he had two sons. In 1900
Lady Randolph Churchill married Mr G. Cornwallis-West.

His elder son, WINSTON CHURCHILL (1874-   ), was educated at Harrow, and
after serving for a few years in the army and acting as a special
correspondent in the South African War (being taken prisoner by the
Boers, Nov. 15, 1899, but escaping on Dec. 12), was elected Unionist
member of parliament for Oldham in October 1900. As the son of his
father, his political future excited much interest. His views, however,
as to the policy of the Conservative party gradually changed, and having
during 1904-1905 taken an active part in assisting the Liberal party in
parliament, he stood for N.W. Manchester at the general election (1906)
and was triumphantly returned as a Liberal and free-trader. He was made
under-secretary for the colonies in the new Liberal government. In this
position he became as conspicuous in parliament as he had already
become on the platform as a brilliant and aggressive orator, and no
politician of the day attracted more interest or excited more
controversy. He was promoted to cabinet rank as president of the Board
of Trade in Mr Asquith's government in April (1908), but was defeated at
the consequent by-election in Manchester after a contest which aroused
the keenest excitement. He was then returned for Dundee, and later in
the year married Miss Clementine Hozier.

  An interesting and authoritative biography of Lord Randolph, by his
  son Winston (who had already won his spurs as a writer in his _River
  War_, 1899, and other books on his military experiences), appeared in
  1906; and a brief and intimate appreciation by Lord Rosebery, inspired
  by this biography, was published a few months later. Lord Randolph's
  earlier speeches were edited, with an introduction and notes, by Louis
  Jennings (2 vols., London, 1889). See also T.H.S. Escott, _Randolph
  Spencer Churchill_ (1895); H.W. Lucy, _Diary of Two Parliaments_
  (1892); and Mrs Cornwallis-West, _The Reminiscences of Lady Randolph
  Churchill_ (i.e. of the author) (1908).    (S. J. L.)




CHURCHILL (MISSINNIPPI or ENGLISH), the name of a river of the province
of Saskatchewan and district of Keewatin, Canada. It rises in La Loche
(or Methy) lake, a small lake in 56 deg. 30' N. and 109 deg. 30' W., at an
altitude of 1577 ft. above the sea, and flows E.N.E. to Hudson's Bay,
passing through a number of lake expansions. Its principal tributaries
are the Beaver (350 m. long), Sandy and Reindeer rivers. Between Frog
and Methy portages (480 m.) it formed part of the old _voyageur_ route
to the Peace, Athabasca, and Mackenzie. It is still navigated by canoes,
but has many rapids. Its principal affluent, the Reindeer, discharges
the waters of Reindeer Lake (1150 ft. above the sea, with an area of
2490 sq. m.) and Wollaston Lake (altitude, 1300 ft). The Churchill is
925 m. long. Fort Churchill, at its mouth, is the best harbour in the
southern portion of Hudson's Bay. The portage of La Loche (or Methy),
121/2 m. in length, connects its head waters with the Clearwater river, a
tributary of the Athabasca, draining into the Arctic Ocean.




CHURCHING OF WOMEN, the Christian ceremony of thanksgiving on the part
of mothers shortly after the birth of their children. It no doubt
originated in the Mosaic regulation as to purification (Lev. xii. 6). In
ancient times the ceremony was usual but not obligatory in England. In
the Greek and Roman Catholic Churches to-day it is imperative. The
custom is first mentioned in the pseudo-Nicene Arabic canons. No ancient
form of service exists, and that which figures in the English
prayer-book of to-day dates only from the middle ages. Custom differs,
but the usual date of churching was the fortieth day after confinement,
in accordance with the Biblical date of the presentment of the Virgin
Mary and the Child Jesus at the Temple. It was formerly regarded as
unlucky for a woman to leave her house to go out at all after
confinement till she went to be churched. It was not unusual for the
churching service to be said in private houses. In Herefordshire it was
not considered proper for the husband to appear in church at the
service, or at all events in the same pew. In some parishes there was a
special pew known as "the churching seat." The words in the rubric
requiring the woman to come "decently apparelled" refer to the times
when it was thought unbecoming for a woman to come to the service with
the elaborate head-dress then the fashion. A veil was usually worn, and
in some parishes this was provided by the church, for an inventory of
goods belonging to St Benet's, Gracechurch Street, in 1560, includes "A
churching cloth, fringed, white damask."

The "convenient place," which, according to the rubric, the woman must
occupy, was in pre-Reformation times the church-door. In the first
prayer-book of Edward VI., she was to be "nigh unto the quire door." In
the second of his books, she was to be "nigh unto the place where the
Table standeth." Bishop Wren's orders for the diocese of Norwich in 1636
are "That women to be churched come and kneel at a side near the
Communion Table without the rail, being veiled according to custom, and
not covered with a hat." In Devonshire churching was sometimes called
"being uprose." Churchings were formerly registered in some parishes. In
pre-Reformation days it was the custom in England for women to carry
lighted tapers when being churched, in allusion to the Feast of the
Purification of the Virgin (February 2nd), the day chosen by the Roman
Catholic church for the blessing of the candles for the whole year (see
CANDLEMAS). At her churching a woman was expected to make some offering
to the church, such as the chrisom or alb thrown over the child at
christening.




CHURCH RATE, the name of a tax formerly levied in each parish in England
and Ireland for the benefit of the parish church. Out of these rates
were defrayed the expenses of carrying on divine service, repairing the
fabric of the church, and paying the salaries of the officials connected
with it. The church rates were made by the churchwardens, together with
the parishioners duly assembled after proper notice in the vestry or the
church. The rates thus made were recoverable in the ecclesiastical
court, or, if the arrears did not exceed L10 and no questions were
raised as to the legal liability, before two justices of the peace. Any
payment not strictly recognized by law made out of the rate destroyed
its validity. The church rate was a personal charge imposed on the
occupier of land or of a house in the parish, and, though it was
compulsory, much difficulty was found in effectually applying the
compulsion. This was especially so in the case of Nonconformists, who
had conscientious objections to supporting the Established Church; and
in Ireland, where the population was preponderatingly Roman Catholic,
the grievance was specially felt and resented. The agitation against
church rates led in 1868 to the passing of the Compulsory Church Rates
Abolition Act. By this act church rates are no longer compulsory on the
person rated, but are merely voluntary, and those who are not willing to
pay them are excluded from inquiring into, objecting to, or voting in
respect of their expenditure (s. 8).




CHURCHWARDEN, in England, the guardian or keeper of a church, and
representative of the body of the parish. The name is derived from the
original duty attached to the office,--that of the custody or
guardianship of the fabric and furniture of the church,--which dates from
the 14th century, when the responsibility of providing for the repairs of
the nave, and of furnishing the utensils for divine service, was settled
on the parishioners. Churchwardens are always lay persons, and as they
may, like "artificial persons," hold goods and chattels and bring actions
for them, they are recognized in law as quasi-corporations. Resident
householders of a parish are those primarily eligible as churchwardens,
but non-resident householders who are habitually occupiers are also
eligible, while there are a few classes of persons who are either
ineligible or exempted. The appointment of churchwardens is regulated by
the 89th canon, which requires that the churchwardens shall be chosen by
the joint consent of the ministers and parishioners, if it may be; but if
they cannot agree upon such a choice, then the minister is to choose one,
and the parishioners another. If, however, there is any special custom of
the place, the custom prevails, and the most common custom is for the
minister to appoint one, and the parishioners another, and this has been
established by English statute, in the case of new parishes, by the
Church Building and New Parishes Acts 1818-1884. There are other special
customs recognized in various localities, e.g. in some of the larger
parishes in the north of England a churchwarden is chosen for each
township of the parish; in the old ecclesiastical parishes of London both
churchwardens are chosen by the parishioners; in some cases they are
appointed by the select vestry, or by the lord of the manor, and in a few
exceptional cases are chosen by the outgoing churchwardens.

In general, churchwardens are appointed in Easter week, usually Easter
Monday or Easter Tuesday, but in new parishes the first appointment must
be within twenty-one days after the consecration of the church, or two
calendar months after the formation of the parish, subsequent
appointments taking place at the usual time for the appointment of
parish officers. Each churchwarden after election subscribes before the
ordinary a declaration that he will execute his office faithfully.

The duties of churchwardens comprise the provision of necessaries for
divine service, so far as the church funds or voluntary subscriptions
permit, the collecting the offertory of the congregation, the keeping
of order during the divine service, and the giving of offenders into
custody; the assignment of seats to parishioners; the guardianship of
the movable goods of the church; the preservation and repair of the
church and churchyard, the fabric and the fixtures; and the presentment
of offences against ecclesiastical law.

In the episcopal church of the United States churchwardens discharge
much the same duties as those performed by the English officials; their
duties, however, are regulated by canons of the diocese, not by canons
general. In the United States, too, the usual practice is for the
parishes to elect both the churchwardens.

  See Prideaux's _Churchwarden's Guide_ (16th ed., London, 1895);
  Steer's _Parish Law_ (6th ed., London, 1899); Blunt's _Book of Church
  Law_ (7th ed., London, 1894).




CHURCHYARD, THOMAS (c. 1520-1604), English author, was born at
Shrewsbury about 1520, the son of a farmer. He received a good
education, and, having speedily dissipated at court the money with which
his father provided him, he entered the household of Henry Howard, earl
of Surrey. There he remained for four years, learning something of the
art of poetry from his patron; some of the poems he contributed later
(1557) to _Songes and Sonettes_ may well date from this early period. In
1541 he began his career as a soldier of fortune, being, he said,
"pressed into the service." He fought his way through nearly every
campaign in Scotland and the Low Countries for thirty years. He served
under the emperor Charles V. in Flanders in 1542, returning to England
after the peace of Crepy (1544). In the Scottish campaign of 1547 he was
present at the barren victory of Pinkie, and in the next year was taken
prisoner at Saint Monance, but aided by his persuasive tongue he escaped
to the English garrison at Lauder, where he was once more besieged, only
returning to England on the conclusion of peace in 1550. A broadside
entitled _Davy Dycars Dreame_, a short and seemingly alliterative poem
in the manner of Piers Plowman, brought him into trouble with the privy
council, but he was dismissed with a reprimand. This tract was the
starting-point of a controversy between Churchyard and a certain Thomas
Camel. The whole of the "flyting" was reprinted in 1560 as _The
Contention betwixte Churchyard and Camell_.

In 1550 he went to Ireland to serve the lord deputy, Sir Anthony St
Leger, who had been sent to pacify the country. Here Churchyard enriched
himself at the expense, it is to be feared, of the unhappy Irish; but in
1552 he was in England again, trying vainly to secure a fortune by
marriage with a rich widow. After this failure he departed once more to
the wars to the siege of Metz (1552), and "trailed a pike" in the
emperor's army, until he joined the forces under William, Lord Grey of
Wilton, with whom he says he served eight years. Grey was in charge of
the fortress of Gaines, which was besieged by the duke of Guise in 1558.
Churchyard arranged the terms of surrender, and was sent with his chief
to Paris as a prisoner. He was not released at the peace of Cateau
Cambresis for lack of money to pay his ransom, but he was finally set
free on giving his bond for the amount, an engagement which he
repudiated as soon as he was safely in England. He is not to be
identified with the T.C. who wrote for the _Mirror for Magistrates_ (ed.
1559), "How the Lord Mowbray ... was banished ... and after died
miserablie in exile," which is the work of Thomas Chaloner, but "Shore's
Wife," his most popular poem, appeared in the 1563 edition of the same
work, and to that of 1587 he contributed the "Tragedie of Thomas
Wolsey." These are plain manly compositions in the seven-lined
Chaucerian stanza. Repeated petitions to the queen for assistance
produced at first fair words, and then no answer at all. He therefore
returned to active service under Lord Grey, who was in command of an
English army sent (1560) to help the Scottish rebels, and in 1564 he
served in Ireland under Sir Henry Sidney. The religious disturbances in
the Netherlands attracted him to Antwerp, where as the agent of William
of Orange he allowed the insurgents to place him at their head, and was
able to save much property from destruction. This action made him so
hated by the mob that he had to fly for his life in the disguise of a
priest. In the next year he was sent by the earl of Oxford to serve
definitely under the prince of Orange. After a year's service he
obtained leave to return to England, and after many adventures and
narrow escapes in a journey through hostile territory he embarked for
Guernsey, and thence for England. His patron, Lord Oxford, disowned him,
and the poet, whose health was failing, retired to Bath. He appears to
have made a very unhappy marriage at this time, and returned to the Low
Countries. Falling into the hands of the Spaniards he was recognized as
having had a hand in the Antwerp disturbance, and was under sentence to
be executed as a spy when he was saved by the intervention of a noble
lady. This experience did not deter him from joining in the defence of
Zutphen in 1572, but this was his last campaign, and the troubles of the
remaining years of his life were chiefly domestic.

Churchyard was employed to devise a pageant for the queen's reception at
Bristol in 1574, and again at Norwich in 1578. He had published in 1575
_The firste parte of Churchyarde's Chippes_, the modest title which he
gives to his works. No second part appeared, but there was a much
enlarged edition in 1578. A passage in _Churchyarde's Choise_ (1579)
gave offence to Elizabeth, and the author fled to Scotland, where he
remained for three years. He was only restored to favour about 1584, and
in 1593 he received a small pension from the queen. The affectionate
esteem with which he was regarded by the younger Elizabethan writers is
expressed by Thomas Nashe, who says (_Foure Letters Confuted_) that
Churchyard's aged muse might well be "grandmother to our
grandiloquentest poets at this present." Francis Meres (_Palladis
Tamia_, 1598) mentions him in conjunction with many great names among
"the most passionate, among us, to bewail and bemoan the perplexities of
love." Spenser, in "Colin Clout's come home again," calls him with a
spice of raillery "old Palaemon" who "sung so long until quite hoarse he
grew." His writings, with the exception of his contributions to the
_Mirror for Magistrates_, are chiefly autobiographical in character or
deal with the wars in which he had a share. They are very rare, and have
never been completely reprinted. Churchyard lived right through
Elizabeth's reign, and was buried in St Margaret's church, Westminster,
on the 4th of April 1604.

  The extant works of Churchyard, exclusive of commendatory and
  occasional verses, include:--_A lamentable and pitifull Description of
  the wofull warres in Flanders_ (1578); _A general rehearsall of
  warres, called Churchyard's Choise_ (1579), really a completion of the
  _Chippes_, and containing, like it, a number of detached pieces; _A
  light Bondel of livelie Discourses, called Churchyardes Charge_
  (1580); _The Worthines of Wales_ (1587), a valuable antiquarian work
  in prose and verse, anticipating Michael Drayton; _Churchyard's
  Challenge_ (1593); _A Musicall Consort of Heavenly harmonie ... called
  Churchyards Charitie_ (1595); _A True Discourse Historicall, of the
  succeeding Governors in the Netherlands_ (1602).

  The chief authority for Churchyard's biography is his own "Tragicall
  Discourse of the unhappy man's life" (_Churchyardes Chippes_). George
  Chalmers published (1817) a selection from his works relating to
  Scotland, for which he wrote a useful life. See also an edition of the
  _Chippes_ (ed. J.P. Collier, 1870), of the _Worthines of Wales_
  (Spenser Soc. 1876), and a notice of Churchyard by H.W. Adnitt
  (_Transactions_ of the Shropshire Archaeological and Nat. Hist. Soc.,
  reprinted separately 1884).




CHURCHYARD, a piece of consecrated ground attached to a parochial
church, and used as a burial place. It is distinguished from a cemetery
(q.v.), which is also a place of burial, but is separate and apart from
any parochial church. A cemetery in England is either the property of a
private company, incorporated by special act of parliament, or of a
local authority, and is subject to the Cemeteries Clauses Act 1847,
incorporated in the Public Health Acts. The practice of burying in
churches or churchyards is said to have been connected with the custom
of praying for the dead, and it would appear that the earlier practice
was burying in the church itself. In England, about the year 750, spaces
of ground adjoining the churches were enclosed and appropriated to the
burial of those who had been entitled to attend divine service in those
churches.

The right to burial in the parish churchyard is a common law right,
controlled in many points by the provisions of the law ecclesiastical.
This double character is sufficient to explain the controversy which has
so long raged round the subject of burials in England. Every man,
according to the common law, has a right to be buried in his own
churchyard, or, as it is sometimes put, in the churchyard of the parish
where he dies. But the churchyard, as well as the church itself, is the
freehold of the parson, who can in many respects deal with it as if it
were a private estate. A statute of Edward I. (35, st. 2) speaks of the
churchyard as the soil of the church, and the trees growing in the
churchyard "as amongst the goods of the church, the which laymen have no
authority to dispose," and prohibits "the parsons from cutting down such
trees unless required for repairs." Notwithstanding the consecration of
the church and churchyard and the fact that they are the parson's
freehold, a right of way may be claimed through them by prescription.
The right to burial may be subject to the payment of a fee to the
incumbent, if such has been the immemorial custom of the parish, but not
otherwise. The spirit of the ancient canons regarded such burial fees as
of a simoniacal complexion, inasmuch as the consecrated grounds were
among the _res sacrae_--a feeling which Lord Stowell says disappeared
after the Reformation. No person can be buried in a church without the
consent of the incumbent, except when the owner of a manor-house
prescribes for a burying-place within the church as belonging to the
manor-house. In the case of _Rex_ v. _Taylor_ it was held that an
information was grantable against a person for opposing the burial of a
parishioner; but the court would not interpose as to the person's
refusal to read the burial service because he never was baptized--that
being matter for the ecclesiastical court. Strangers (or persons not
dying in the parish) should not be buried, it appears, without the
consent of the parishioners or churchwardens, "whose parochial right of
burial is invaded thereby."

In Scotland the obligation of providing and maintaining the churchyard
rests on the heritors of the parish. The guardianship of the churchyard
belongs to the heritors and also to the kirk-session, either by
delegation from the heritors, or in right of its ecclesiastical
character. The right of burial appears to be strictly limited to
parishioners, although an opinion has been expressed that any person
dying in the parish has a right to be buried in the churchyard. The
parishioners have no power of management. The presbytery may interfere
to compel the heritors to provide due accommodation, but has no further
jurisdiction. It is the duty of the heritors to allocate the churchyard.
The Scottish law hesitates to attach the ordinary incidents of real
property to the churchyard, while English law treats the ground as the
parson's freehold. It would be difficult to say who in Scotland is the
legal owner of the soil. Various opinions appear to prevail, e.g. as to
grass growing on the surface and minerals found beneath. The difficulty
as to religious services does not exist. On the other hand, the
religious character of the ground is hostile to many of the legal rights
recognized by the English law.

  See also BURIAL AND BURIAL ACTS; CEMETERY.




CHURL (A.S. _ceorl_, cognate with the Ger. _Kerl_ and with similar words
in other Teutonic languages), one of the two main classes, _eorl_ and
_ceorl_, into which in early Anglo-Saxon society the freemen appear to
have been divided. In the course of time the status of the ceorl was
probably reduced; but although his political power was never large, and
in some directions his freedom was restricted, it hardly seems possible
previous to the Norman Conquest to class him among the unfree. Some
authorities, however, accept this view. At all events it is certain that
the ceorl was frequently a holder of land, and a person of some
position, and that he could attain the rank of a thegn. Except in Kent
his wergild was fixed at two hundred shillings, or one-sixth of that of
a thegn, and he is undoubtedly the _twyhynde_ man of Anglo-Saxon law. In
Kent his wergild was considerably higher, and his status probably also,
but his position in this kingdom is a matter of controversy. After the
Norman Conquest the ceorls were reduced to a condition of servitude, and
the word translates the _villanus_ of Domesday Book, although it also
covers classes other than the _villani_. The form _ceorl_ soon became
_cherl_, as in _Havelok the Dane_ (ante 1300) and several times in
Chaucer. and subsequently _churl_. Taking a less technical sense than
the ceorl of Anglo-Saxon law, churl, or cherl was used in general to
mean a "man," and more particularly a "husband." In this sense it was
employed about 1000 in a translation of the New Testament to render the
word [Greek:_aner_] (John iv. 16, 18). It was then employed to describe
a "peasant," and gradually began to denote undesirable qualities. Hence
comes the modern use of the word for a low-born or vulgar person,
particularly one with an unpleasant, surly or miserly character.

  See H.M. Chadwick, _Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_ (Cambridge,
  1905); F. Seebohm, _Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law_ (London, 1902).




CHURN (O. Eng. _cyrin_; found in various forms in most Teutonic
languages, cf. Dutch _karn_; according to the _New English Dictionary_
not connected with "quern," a mill), a vessel in which butter is made,
by shaking or beating the cream so as to separate the fatty particles
which form the butter from the serous parts or buttermilk. Early churns
were upright, and in shape resembled the cans now used in the transport
of milk, to which the name "churn" is also given. The upright churn was
worked by hand by a wooden "plunger"; later came a box-shaped churn with
a "splasher" revolving inside and turned by a handle. The modern type of
churn, in large dairies worked by mechanical means, either revolves or
swings itself, thus reverting to the most primitive method of
butter-making, the shaking or swinging of the cream in a skin-bag or a
gourd. (See DAIRY.)




CHUSAN, the principal island of a group situated off the eastern coast
of China, in 30 deg. N. 122 deg. E., belonging to the province of
Cheh-kiang. It lies N.W. and S.E., and has a circumference of 51 m., the
extreme length being 20, the extreme breadth 10, and the minimum breadth
6 m. The island is beautifully diversified with hill and dale, and well
watered with numerous small streams, of which the most considerable is the
Tungkiang, falling into the harbour of Tinghai. Most of the surface is
capable of cultivation, and nineteen-twentieths of the inhabitants are
engaged in agriculture. Wherever it is possible to rear rice every other
product is neglected; yet the quantity produced is not sufficient for
the wants of the inhabitants. Millet, wheat, sweet potatoes, yams and
tares are also grown. The tea plant is found almost everywhere, and the
cotton plant is largely cultivated near the sea. The capital, Tinghai,
stands about half a mile from the southern shore, and is surrounded by a
wall nearly 3 m. in circuit. The ditch outside the wall is interrupted
on the N.W. side by a spur from a neighbouring hill, which projects into
the town, and forms an easy access to an attacking force. The town is
traversed by canals, and the harbour, which has from 4 to 8 fathoms
water, is landlocked by several islands. Temple (or Joss-house) Hill,
which commands the town and harbour close to the beach, is 122 ft. high.
The population of the entire island is estimated at 250,000, of which
the capital contains about 40,000. Chusan has but few manufactures; the
chief are coarse cotton stuffs and agricultural implements. There are
salt works on the coast; and the fisheries employ a number of the
inhabitants. In Tinghai a considerable business is carried on in carving
and varnishing, and its silver wares are in high repute. The principal
exports are fish, coarse black tea, cotton, vegetable tallow, sweet
potatoes, and some wheat. Chusan was occupied by the Japanese during the
Ming dynasty, and served as an important commercial entrepot. It was
taken by the British forces in 1840 and 1841, and retained till 1846 as
a guarantee for the fulfilment of the stipulations of the treaty. It was
also occupied by the British in 1860.




CHUTE (Fr. for "fall," of water or the like; pronounced as "shoot," with
which in meaning it is identical), a channel or trough, artificial or
natural, down which objects such as timber, coal or grain may slide from
a higher to a lower level. The word is also used of a channel cut in a
dam or a river for the passage of floating timber, and in Louisiana and
on the Mississippi of a channel at the side of a river, or narrow way
between an island and the shore. The "Water-Chute" or water tobogganing,
is a Canadian pastime, which has been popular in London and elsewhere.
A steep wooden slope terminates in a shallow lake; down this run
flat-bottomed boats which rapidly increase their velocity until at the
end of the "chute" they dash into the water.




CHUTNEY, or CHUTNEE (Hindustani _chatni_), a relish or seasoning of
Indian origin, used as a condiment. It is prepared from sweet fruits
such as mangoes, raisins, &c., with acid flavouring from tamarinds,
lemons, limes and sour herbs, and with a hot seasoning of chillies,
cayenne pepper and spices.




CHUVASHES, or TCHUVASHES, a tribe found in eastern Russia. They form
about one-fourth of the population of the government of Kazan, and live
in scattered communities throughout the governments of Simbirsk, Samara,
Saratov, Orenburg and Perm. They have been identified with the Burtasses
of the Arab geographers, and many authorities think they are the
descendants of the ancient Bolgars. In general they physically resemble
the Finns, being round-headed, flat-featured and light-eyed, but they
have been affected by long association with the Tatar element. In dress
they are thoroughly Russianized, and they are nominally Christians,
though they cling to many of the Old Shamanistic practices. They number
some half a million. Their language belongs to the Tatar or Turkish
group, but has been strongly influenced by the Finno-Ugrian idioms
spoken round it.

  See Schott, _De Lingua Tschuwaschorum_ (Berlin, 1841).




CIALDINI, ENRICO (1811-1892), Italian soldier, politician and
diplomatist, was born at Castelvetro, in Modena, on the 10th of August
1811. In 1831 he took part in the insurrection at Modena, fleeing
afterwards to Paris, whence he proceeded to Spain to fight against the
Carlists. Returning to Italy in 1848, he commanded a regiment at the
battle of Novara. In 1859 he organized the Alpine Brigade, fought at
Palestro at the head of the 4th Division, and in the following year
invaded the Marches, won the battle of Castelfidardo, took Ancona, and
subsequently directed the siege of Gaeta. For these services he was
created duke of Gaeta by the king, and was assigned a pension of 10,000
lire by parliament. In 1861 his intervention envenomed the
Cavour-Garibaldi dispute, royal mediation alone preventing a duel
between him and Garibaldi. Placed in command of the troops sent to
oppose the Garibaldian expedition of 1862, he defeated Garibaldi at
Aspromonte. Between 1862 and 1866 he held the position of
lieutenant-royal at Naples, and in 1864 was created senator. On the
outbreak of the war of 1866 he resumed command of an army corps, but
dissensions between him and La Marmora prejudiced the issue of the
campaign and contributed to the defeat of Custozza. After the war he
refused the command of the General Staff, which he wished to render
independent of the war office. In 1867 he attempted unsuccessfully to
form a cabinet sufficiently strong to prevent the threatened Garibaldian
incursion into the papal states, and two years later failed in a similar
attempt, through disagreement with Lanza concerning the army estimates.
On the 3rd of August 1870 he pleaded in favour of Italian intervention
in aid of France, a circumstance which enhanced his influence when in
July 1876 he replaced Nigra as ambassador to the French Republic. This
position he held until 1882, when he resigned on account of the
publication by Mancini of a despatch in which he had complained of
arrogant treatment by M. Waddington. He died at Leghorn, on the 8th of
September 1892.    (H. W. S.)




CIBBER (or CIBERT), CAIUS GABRIEL (1630-1700), Danish sculptor, was born
at Flensburg. He was the son of the king's cabinetmaker, and was sent to
Rome at the royal charge while yet a youth. He came to England during
the Protectorate, or during the first years of the Restoration. Besides
the famous statues of Melancholy and Raving Madness ("great Cibber's
brazen brainless brothers"), now at South Kensington, Cibber produced
the bas-reliefs round the monument on Fish Street Hill. The several
kings of England and the Sir Thomas Gresham executed by him for the
Royal Exchange were destroyed with the building itself in 1838. Cibber
was long employed by the fourth earl of Devonshire, and many fine
specimens of his work are to be seen at Chatsworth. Under that nobleman
he took up arms in 1688 for William of Orange, and was appointed in
return carver to the king's closet. He died rich, and, according to
Horace Walpole, built the Danish church in London, where he lies buried
beside his second wife, to whom he erected a monument. She was a Miss
Colley of Glaiston, grand-daughter of Sir Anthony Colley, and the mother
of his son Colley Cibber.




CIBBER, COLLEY (1671-1757), English actor and dramatist, was born in
London on the 6th of November 1671, the eldest son of Caius Gabriel
Cibber, the sculptor. Sent in 1682 to the free school at Grantham,
Lincolnshire, the boy distinguished himself by an aptitude for writing
verse. He produced an "Oration" on the death of Charles II.--whom he had
seen feeding his ducks in St James's Park,--and an "Ode" on the
accession of James II. He was removed from school in 1687 on the chance
of election to Winchester College. His father, however, had not then
presented that institution with his statue of William of Wykeham, and
the son was rejected, although through his mother he claimed to be of
"founder's kin." The boy went to London, and indulged his passion for
the theatre. He was invited to Chatsworth, the seat of William
Cavendish, earl (afterwards duke) of Devonshire, for whom his father was
then executing commissions, and he was on his way when the news of the
landing of William of Orange was received; father and son met at
Nottingham, and Colley Cibber was taken into Devonshire's company of
volunteers. He served in the bloodless campaign that resulted in the
coronation of the Prince of Orange, and on its conclusion presented a
Latin petition to the earl imploring his interest. The earl did nothing
for him, however, and he enrolled himself (1690) as an actor in
Betterton's company at Drury Lane.

After playing "full three-quarters of a year" without salary, as was
then the custom of all apprentice actors, he was paid ten shillings a
week. His rendering of the little part of the chaplain in Otway's
_Orphan_ procured him a rise of five shillings; and a subsequent
impersonation (1694) on an emergency, and at the author's request, of
Lord Touchwood in _The Double Dealer_, advanced him, on Congreve's
recommendation, to a pound a week. On this, supplemented by an allowance
of L20 a year from his father, he contrived to live with his wife and
family--he had married in 1693--and to produce a play, _Love's Last
Shift, or the Fool in Fashion_ (1696). Of this comedy Congreve said that
it had "a great many things that were like wit in it"; and Vanbrugh
honoured it by writing his _Relapse_ as a sequel. Cibber played the part
of Sir Novelty Fashion, and his performance as Lord Foppington, the same
character renamed, in Vanbrugh's piece, established his reputation as an
actor. In 1698 he was assailed, with other dramatists, by Jeremy Collier
in the _Short View_. In November 1702 he produced, at Drury Lane, _She
Wou'd and She Wou'd Not; or the Kind Impostor_, one of his best
comedies; and in 1704, for himself and Mrs Oldfield, _The Careless
Husband_, which Horace Walpole classed, with Cibber's _Apology_, as
"worthy of immortality." In 1706 Cibber left Drury Lane for the
Haymarket, but when the two companies united two years later he rejoined
his old theatre through the influence of his friend Colonel Brett, a
shareholder. Brett made over his share to Wilks, Estcourt and Cibber.
Complaints against the management of Christopher Rich led, in 1709, to
the closing of the theatre by order of the crown, and William Collier
obtained the patent. After a series of intrigues Collier was bought out
by Wilks, Doggett and Cibber, under whose management Drury Lane became
more prosperous than it ever had been. In 1715 a new patent was granted
to Sir Richard Steele, and Barton Booth was also added to the
management. In 1717 Cibber produced the _Nonjuror_, an adaptation from
Moliere's _Tartuffe_; the play, for which Nicholas Rowe wrote an abusive
prologue, ran eighteen nights, and the author received from George I.,
to whom it was dedicated, a present of two hundred guineas. Tartuffe
became an English Catholic priest who incited rebellion, and there is
little doubt that the Whig principles expressed in the _Nonjuror_ led to
Cibber's appointment as poet laureate (1730). It also provoked the
animosity of the Jacobite and Catholic factions, and was possibly one of
the causes of Pope's hostility to Cibber. Numerous "keys" to the
_Nonjuror_ appeared in 1718. In 1720 Drury Lane was closed for three
days by order of the duke of Newcastle, ostensibly on account of the
refusal of the patentees to submit to the authority of the lord
chamberlain, but really (it is asserted) because of a quarrel between
Newcastle and Steele, in which the former demanded Cibber's resignation.
In 1726 Cibber pleaded the cause of the patentees against the estate of
Sir Richard Steele before Sir Joseph Jekyll, master of the rolls, and
won his case. In 1730 Mrs Oldfield died, and her loss was followed in
1732 by that of Wilks; Cibber now sold his share in the theatre,
appearing rarely on the stage thereafter. In 1740 he published _An
Apology for the Life of Colley Cibber, Comedian ... with an Historical
View of the Stage during his Own Time_. "There are few," wrote
Goldsmith, "who do not prefer a page of Montaigne or Colley Cibber, who
candidly tell us what they thought of the world, and the world thought
of them, to the more stately memoirs and transactions of Europe." But
beside the personal interest, this book contains criticisms on acting of
enduring value, and gives the best account there is of Cibber's
contemporaries on the London stage. Samuel Johnson, who was no friend of
Cibber, gave it grudging praise (see Boswell's _Life of Johnson_, ed.
Birkbeck Hill, vol. iii. p. 72).

In 1742 Cibber was substituted for Theobald as the hero of Pope's
_Dunciad_. Cibber had introduced some gag into the _Rehearsal_, in which
he played the part of Bayes, referring to the ill-starred farce of
_Three Hours after Marriage_ (1717). This play was nominally by Gay, but
Pope and Arbuthnot were known to have had a hand in it. Cibber refused
to discontinue the offensive passage, and Pope revenged himself in
sarcastic allusions in his printed correspondence, in the _Epistle to Dr
Arbuthnot_ and in the _Dunciad_. To these, Cibber replied with _A Letter
from Mr Cibber to Mr Pope, inquiring into the motives that might induce
him in his satirical works to be so frequently fond of Mr Cibber's name_
(1742). Cibber scored with an "idle story of Pope's behaviour in a
tavern" inserted in this letter, and gives an account of the original
dispute over the _Rehearsal_. By the substitution of Cibber for Theobald
as hero of the _Dunciad_, much of the satire lost its point. Cibber's
faults certainly did not include dullness. A new edition contained a
prefatory discourse, probably the work of Warburton, entitled "Ricardus
Aristarchus, or the Hero of the Poem," in which Cibber is made to look
ridiculous from his own _Apology_. Cibber replied in 1744 with _Another
Occasional Letter ..._, and altogether he had the best of the argument.
When he was seventy-four years old he made his last appearance on the
stage as Pandulph in his own _Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John_
(Covent Garden, 15th of February 1745), a miserable paraphrase of
Shakespeare's play. He died on the 11th of December 1757.

Cibber's reputation has suffered unduly from the depreciation of Pope
and Johnson. "I could not bear such nonsense," said Johnson of one of
Cibber's odes, "and I would not let him read it to the end." Fielding
attacked Cibber's style and language more than once in _Joseph Andrews_
and elsewhere. Nevertheless, Cibber possessed wit, unusual good sense
and tact; and in the _Apology_ he showed himself the most delicate and
subtle critic of acting of his time. He was frequently accused of
plagiarism, and did not scruple to make use of old plays, but he is said
to have been ashamed of his Shakespearian adaptations, one of which,
however, _Richard III._ (Drury Lane, 1700), kept its place as the acting
version until 1821. Cibber is rebuked for his mutilation of Shakespeare
by Fielding in the _Historical Register for 1736_, where he figures as
Ground Ivy.

If Cibber had not as much wit as his predecessors, he displayed in his
best plays abundant animation and spirit, free from the extreme
coarseness of many of his contemporaries, and a thorough knowledge of
the requirements of the stage. His most successful comedies kept their
place in the acting repertory for a long time. He was an excellent
actor, especially in the role of the fashionable coxcomb. Horace Walpole
said that as Bayes in _The Rehearsal_ he made the part what it was
intended to be, the burlesque of a great poet, whereas David Garrick
degraded him to a "garretteer."

  The _Apology_ was edited in 1822 by E. Bellchambers and in 1889 by
  R.W. Lowe, who printed with it other valuable theatrical books and
  pamphlets. It is also included in Hunt and Clarke's _Autobiographies_
  (1826, &c). Cibber's _Dramatic Works_ were published in 1760, with an
  account of the life and writings of the author, and again in 1777.
  Besides the plays already mentioned, he wrote _Woman's Wit, or the
  Lady in Fashion_ (1697), which was altered later (1707) into _The
  Schoolboy, or the Comical Rivals_; _Xerxes_ (1699), a tragedy acted
  only once; _The Provoked Husband_ (acted 1728), completed from
  Vanbrugh's unfinished _Journey to London_; _The Rival Queens, with the
  Humours of Alexander the Great_ (acted 1710), a comical tragedy;
  _Damon and Phyllida_ (acted 1729), a ballad opera; and adaptations
  from Beaumont and Fletcher, Dryden, Moliere and Corneille. A
  bibliography of the numerous skits on Cibber is to be found in Lowe's
  _Bibliographical Account of English Theatrical Literature_.


Colley Cibber's son, THEOPHILUS CIBBER (1703-1758), also an actor and
playwright, was born on the 26th of November 1703. In 1734 he was
acting-manager at the Haymarket, and he subsequently played at Drury
Lane, Lincoln's Inn Fields and Covent Garden. His best impersonation was
as Pistol, but he also distinguished himself in some of the
fine-gentleman parts affected by his father. He was one of the
ringleaders in the intrigues against John Highmore, who had bought a
share in the patent of Drury Lane from Colley Cibber. Theophilus Cibber,
with a number of other actors, seceded from Drury Lane, and in thus
depreciating the value of the patent, for which his father had received
a considerable sum, acted with doubtful honesty. He contemplated the
publication of an autobiography, but was effectually dissuaded by the
appearance (1740) of a scathing account of his career by an unknown
author, entitled _An Apology for the Life of Mr T.... C.... supposed to
be written by himself_. In 1753 he began _The Lives and Characters of
the most Eminent Actors and Actresses of Great Britain and Ireland_, but
he went no further than the life of Barton Booth. He wrote some plays of
no great merit. In 1753 appeared _An Account of the Lives of the Poets
of Great Britain and Ireland_, with the name of "Mr Cibber" on the title
page. The five volumes of _Lives_ are chiefly based on the earlier works
of Gerard Langbaine and Giles Jacob, and the MS. collections of Thomas
Coxeter (1689-1747). The book is said to have been largely written by
Robert Shiels, Dr Johnson's amanuensis. Theophilus Cibber perished by
shipwreck on his way to Dublin to play at the Theatre Royal.


SUSANNAH MARIA CIBBER (1714-1766), wife of Theophilus, was an actress of
distinction. She was the daughter of a Covent Garden upholsterer, and
sister of Dr Arne (1710-1778) the composer. Mrs Cibber had a beautiful
voice and began her career in opera. She was the original Galatea in
Handel's _Acis and Galatea_, and the contralto arias in the _Messiah_
are said to have been written for her. She played Zarah in Aaron Hill's
version of Voltaire's _Zaire_ in 1736, and it was as a tragic actress,
not as a singer, that her greatest triumphs were won. From Colley Cibber
she learned a sing-song method of declamation. Her mannerisms, however,
did not obscure her real genius, and she freed herself from them
entirely when she began to act with Garrick, with whom she was
associated at Drury Lane from 1753. She died on the 30th of January
1766. She married Theopihilus Cibber in 1734, but lived with him but a
short time. Appreciations of Mrs Cibber's fine acting are to be found in
many contemporary writers, one of the most discriminating being in the
_Rosciad_ of Charles Churchill.

Colley Cibber's youngest daughter, CHARLOTTE, married Richard Charke, a
violinist, from whom she was soon separated. She began as an understudy
to actresses in leading parts, but quarrelled with her manager, Charles
Fleetwood, on whom she wrote a one-act skit, _The Art of Management_
(1735). She also wrote two comedies and two novels of small merit, and
an untrustworthy, but amusing _Narrative of Life of ... Charlotte
Charke, ... by herself_ (1755), reprinted in Hunt and Clarke's
_Autobiographies_ (1822).




CIBORIUM, a name in classical Latin for a drinking-vessel. It is the
latinized form of the Gr. [Greek: kiborion], the cup-shaped seed-vessel
of the Egyptian water-lily, the seeds or nuts of which were known as
"Egyptian beans." In the early Christian Church the _ciborium_ was a
canopy over the altar (q.v.), supported on columns, and from it hung the
receptacle in which was reserved the consecrated wafer of the Eucharist.
The use of the word has probably been much influenced by the early false
connexion with _cibus_, food, cf. Agatio, bishop of Pisa (quoted in Du
Cange, _Gloss._ s.v.), "Ciborium vas esse ad ferendos cibos." In the
Eastern Church the columns rested on the altar itself, in the Western
they reached the ground. The name was early transferred from the canopy
to the vessel containing the reserved sacrament, and in the Western
Church the canopy was known as a "baldaquin," Ital. _baldacchino_, from
_Baldacco_, the Italian name of Bagdad, and hence applied to a rich kind
of embroidered tapestry made there and much used for canopies, &c. At
the present day it is usual in the Roman Church to use the term "pyx"
([Greek: pyxis], properly a vessel made of boxwood) for the receptacle
for the reserved sacrament used in administering the _viaticum_ to the
sick or dying. Medieval pyxes and ciboria are often beautiful examples
of the goldsmith's, enameller's and metal-worker's craft. They take most
usually the shape of a covered chalice or of a cylindrical box with
conical or cylindrical cover surmounted by a cross. An exquisite
ciborium fetched L6000 at the sale of the Jerdone Braikenridge
collection at Christie's in 1908. It is supposed to have come from
Malmesbury Abbey, and is probably of 13th-century English make. It is of
copper-gilt and ornamented with champleve enamels, apple and chrysoprase
green, scarlet, mauve and white, turquoise and lapis lazuli, the flesh
tints being of a pale jasper. Various subjects from the Old and New
Testament, such as the sacrifice of Abel, the brazen serpent, the
nativity, crucifixion and resurrection are represented on circular
medallions on the outside. It is illustrated in colours in the catalogue
of the exhibition of the Burlington Fine Arts Club, 1897.




CIBRARIO, LUIGI, COUNT (1802-1870), Italian statesman and historian,
descended from a noble but impoverished Piedmontese family, was born in
Usseglia on the 23rd of February 1802. He won a scholarship at the age
of sixteen, and was teaching literature at eighteen. His verses to King
Charles Albert, then prince of Carignano, on the birth of his son Victor
Emmanuel, attracted the prince's attention and proved the beginning of a
long intimacy. He entered the Sardinian civil service, and in 1824 was
appointed lecturer on canon and civil law. His chief interest was the
study of ancient documents, and he was sent to search the archives of
Switzerland, France and Germany for charters relating to the history of
Savoy. During the war of 1848, after the expulsion of the Austrians from
Venice, Cibrario was sent to that city with Colli to negotiate its union
with Piedmont. But the proposal fell through when the news of the
armistice between King Charles Albert and Austria arrived, and the two
delegates were made the objects of a hostile demonstration. In October
1848 Cibrario was made senator, and after the battle of Novara (March
1849), when Charles Albert abdicated and retired to a monastery near
Oporto, Cibrario and Count Giacinto di Collegno were sent as
representatives of the senate to express the sympathy of that body with
the fallen king. He reached Oporto on the 28th of May, and after staying
there for a month returned to Turin, which he reached just before the
news of Charles Albert's death. In May 1852 he became minister of
finance in the reconstructed d'Azeglio cabinet, and later minister of
education in that of Cavour. In the same year he was appointed secretary
to the order of SS. Maurizio and Lazzaro. It was he who in 1853 dictated
the vigorous memorandum of protest against the confiscation by Austria
of the property of Lombard exiles who had been naturalized in Piedmont.
He strongly supported Cavour's Crimean policy (1855), and when General
La Marmora departed in command of the expeditionary force and Cavour
took the war office, Cibrario was made minister for foreign affairs. He
conducted the business of the department with great skill, and ably
seconded Cavour in bringing about the admission of Piedmont to the
congress of Paris on an equal footing with the great powers. On retiring
from the foreign office Cibrario was created count. In 1860 he acted as
mediator between Victor Emmanuel's government and the republic of San
Marino, and arranged a treaty by which the latter's liberties were
guaranteed. After the war of 1866 by which Austria lost Venetia,
Cibrario negotiated with that government for the restitution of state
papers and art treasures removed by it from Lombardy and Venetia to
Vienna. He died in October 1870, near Salo, on the lake of Garda.

His most important work was his _Economia politica del medio evo_
(Turin, 1839), which enjoyed great popularity at the time, but is now of
little value. His _Schiavitu e servaggio_ (Milan, 1868-1869) gave an
account of the development and abolition of slavery and serfdom. Among
his historical writings the following deserve mention:--_Delle
artiglierie dal 1300 al 1700_ (Turin, 1847); _Origini ... della
monarchia di Savoia_ (Turin, 1854); _Degli ordini cavallereschi_ (Turin,
1846); _Degli ordini religiosi_ (Turin, 1845); and the _Memorie Segrete_
of Charles Albert, written by order of Victor Emmanuel but afterwards
withdrawn. Cibrario was a good example of the loyal, industrious, honest
Piedmontese aristocrat of the old school.

  His biography has been written by F. Odorici, _Il Conte L. Cibrario_
  (Florence, 1872).    (L. V.*)




CICADA (_Cicadidae_), insects of the homopterous division of the
Hemiptera, generally of large size, with the femora of the anterior legs
toothed below, two pairs of large clear wings, and prominent compound
eyes. Cicadas are chiefly remarkable for the shrill song of the males,
which in some cases may be heard in concert at a distance of a quarter
of a mile or more. The vocal organs, of which there is a pair in the
thorax, protected by an opercular plate, are quite unlike the sounding
organs of other insects. Each consists in essence of a tightly stretched
membrane or drum which is thrown into a state of rapid vibration by a
powerful muscle attached to its inner surface and passing thence
downwards to the floor of the thoracic cavity. Although no auditory
organs have been found in the females, the song of the males is believed
to serve as a sexual call. Cicadas are also noteworthy for their
longevity, which so far as is known surpasses that of all other insects.
By means of a saw-like ovipositor the female lays her eggs in the
branches of trees. Upon hatching, the young, which differ from the adult
in possessing long antennae and a pair of powerful fossorial anterior
legs, fall to the ground, burrow below the surface, and spend a
prolonged subterranean larval existence feeding upon the roots of
vegetation. After many years the larva is transformed into the pupa or
nymph, which is distinguishable principally by the shortness of its
antennae and the presence of wing pads. After a brief existence the pupa
emerges from the ground, and, holding on to a plant stem by means of its
powerful front legs, sets free the perfect insect through a slit along
the median dorsal line of the thorax. In some cases the pupa upon
emerging constructs a chimney of soil, the use of which is not known. In
one of the best-known species, _Cicada septemdecim_, from North America,
the lifecycle is said to extend over seventeen years. Cicadas are
particularly abundant in the tropics, where the largest forms are found.
They also occur in temperate countries, and were well known to the
ancient Greeks and Romans. One species only is found in England, where
it is restricted to the southern counties but is an insect not commonly
met with.




CICELY, _Myrrhis odorata_ (natural order Umbelliferae), a perennial herb
with a leafy hollow stem, 2 to 3 ft. high, much divided leaves, whitish
beneath, a large sheathing base, and terminal umbels of small white
flowers, the outer ones only of which are fertile. The fruit is dark
brown, long (3/4 to 1 in.), narrow and beaked. The plant is a native of
central and southern Europe, and is found in parts of England and
Scotland in pastures, usually near houses. It has aromatic and stimulant
properties and was formerly used as a pot-herb.




CICERO, the name of two families of ancient Rome. It may perhaps be
derived from _cicer_ (pulse), in which case it would be analogous to
such names as _Lentulus, Tubero, Piso_. Of one family, of the plebeian
Claudian _gens_, only a single member, Gaius Claudius Cicero, tribune in
454 B.C., is known. The other family was a branch of the Tullii, settled
from an ancient period at Arpinum. This family, four of whose members
are noticed specially below, did not achieve more than municipal
eminence until the time of M. Tullius Cicero, the great orator.


I. MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO (106-43 B.C.), Roman orator and politician, was
born at Arpinum on the 3rd of January 106 B.C. His mother, Helvia, is
said to have been of good family. His father was by some said to have
been descended from Attius Tullius, the Volscian host of Coriolanus,
while spiteful persons declared him to have been a fuller; in any case
he was a Roman knight with property at Arpinum and a house in Rome. His
health was weak, and he generally lived at Arpinum, where he devoted
himself to literary pursuits. Cicero spent his boyhood partly in his
native town and partly at Rome. The poet Archias, he says, first
inspired him with the love of literature. He was much impressed by the
teaching of Phaedrus, the Epicurean, at a period before he assumed the
_toga virilis_; he studied dialectic under Diodotus the Stoic, and in 88
B.C. attended the lectures of Philo, the head of the Academic school,
whose devoted pupil he became. He studied rhetoric under Molo (Molon) of
Rhodes, and law under the guidance of Q. Mucius Scaevola, the augur and
jurisconsult. After the death of the augur, he transferred himself to
the care of Q. Mucius Scaevola, the _pontifex maximus_, a still more
famous jurisconsult, nephew of the augur. His literary education at this
period consisted largely of verse-writing and making translations from
Greek authors. We hear of an early poem named _Pontius Glaucus_ the
subject of which is uncertain, and of translations of Xenophon's
_Oeconomica_ and the _Phenomena_ of Aratus. Considerable fragments of
the latter work are still extant. To this period also belongs his _de
Inventione rhetorica_, of which he afterwards spoke lightly (_de Orat._
i. 5), but which enjoyed a great vogue in the middle ages. Cicero also,
according to Roman practice, received military training. At the age of
seventeen he served in the social war successively under Pompeius Strabo
and Sulla (89 B.C.). In the war between Marius and Sulla his sympathies
were with Sulla, but he did not take up arms (_Sext. Rosc._ 136, 142).

His forensic life begins in 81 B.C., at the age of twenty-five. A speech
delivered in this year, _pro Quinctio_, is still extant; it is concerned
with a technical point of law and has little literary merit. In the
following year he made his celebrated defence of Sextus Roscius on a
charge of parricide. He subsequently defended a woman of Arretium, whose
freedom was impugned on the ground that Sulla had confiscated the
territory of that town. Cicero then left Rome on account of his health,
and travelled for two years in the East. He studied philosophy at Athens
under various teachers, notably Antiochus of Ascalon, founder of the Old
Academy, a combination of Stoicism, Platonism and Peripateticism. In
Asia he attended the courses of Xenocles, Dionysius and Menippus, and in
Rhodes those of Posidonius, the famous Stoic. In Rhodes also he studied
rhetoric once more under Molo, to whom he ascribes a decisive influence
upon the development of his literary style. He had previously affected
the florid, or Asiatic, style of oratory then current in Rome. The chief
faults of this were excess of ornament, antithesis, alliteration and
assonance, monotony of rhythm, and the insertion of words purely for
rhythmical effect. Molo, he says, rebuked his youthful extravagance and
he came back "a changed man."[1]

He returned to Rome in 77 B.C., and appears to have married at this time
Terentia, a rich woman with a domineering temper, to whom many of his
subsequent embarrassments were due.[2] He engaged at once in forensic
and political life. He was quaestor in 75, and was sent to Lilybaeum to
supervise the corn supply. His connexion with Sicily led him to come
forward in 70 B.C., when curule-aedile elect, to prosecute Gaius Verres,
who had oppressed the island for three years. Cicero seldom prosecuted,
but it was the custom at Rome for a rising politician to win his spurs
by attacking a notable offender (_pro Caelio_, 73). In the following
year he defended Marcus (or Manius) Fonteius on a charge of extortion in
Gaul, using various arguments which might equally well have been
advanced on behalf of Verres himself.

In 68 B.C. his letters begin, from which (and especially those to T.
Pomponius Atticus, his "second self") we obtain wholly unique knowledge
of Roman life and history. In 66 B.C. he was praetor, and was called
upon to hear cases of extortion. In the same year he spoke on behalf of
the proposal of Gaius Manilius to transfer the command against
Mithradates from Lucullus to Pompey (_de Lege Manilia_), and delivered
his clever but disingenuous defence of Aulus Cluentius (_pro Cluentio_).
At this time he was a prospective candidate for the consulship, and was
obliged by the hostility of the nobles towards "new men" to look for
help wherever it was to be found. In 65 B.C. he even thought of
defending Catiline on a charge of extortion, and delivered two brilliant
speeches on behalf of Gaius Cornelius, tribune in 67 B.C., a leader of
the democratic party. In 64 B.C. he lost his father and his son Marcus
was born. The optimates finally decided to support him for the
consulship in order to keep out Catiline, and he eagerly embraced the
"good cause," his affection for which from this time onward never
varied, though his actions were not always consistent.

The public career of Cicero henceforth is largely covered by the general
article on ROME: _History_, II. "The Republic," ad fin. The year of his
consulship (63) was one of amazing activity, both administrative and
oratorical. Besides the three speeches against Publius Rullus and the
four against Catiline, he delivered a number of others, among which that
on behalf of Gaius Rabirius is especially notable. The charge was that
Rabirius (q.v.) had killed Saturninus in 100 B.C., and by bringing it
the democrats challenged the right of the senate to declare a man a
public enemy. Cicero, therefore, was fully aware of the danger which
would threaten himself from his execution of the Catilinarian
conspirators. He trusted, however, to receive the support of the nobles.
In this he was disappointed. They never forgot that he was a "new man,"
and were jealous of the great house upon the Palatine which he acquired
at this time. Caesar had made every possible effort to conciliate
Cicero,[3] but, when all overtures failed, allowed Publius Clodius to
attack him. Cicero found himself deserted, and on the advice of Cato
went into exile to avoid bloodshed. He left Rome at the end of March 58,
and arrived on the 23rd of May at Thessalonica, where he remained in the
deepest dejection until the end of November, when he went to Dyrrhachium
(Durazzo) awaiting his recall. He left for Italy on the 4th of August
57, and on arriving at Brundisium (Brindisi) found that he had been
recalled by a law passed by the _comitia_ on the very day of his
departure. On his arrival at Rome he was received with enthusiasm by all
classes, but did not find the nobles at all eager to give him
compensation for the loss of his house and villas, which had been
destroyed by Clodius. He was soon encouraged by the growing coolness
between Pompey and Caesar to attack the acts of Caesar during his
consulship, and after his successful defence of Publius Sestius on the
10th of March he proposed on the 5th of April that the senate should on
the 15th of May discuss Caesar's distribution of the Campanian land.
This brought about the conference of Luca (Lucca). Cicero was again
deserted by his supporters and threatened with fresh exile. He was
forced to publish a "recantation," probably the speech _de Provinciis
Consularibus_, and in a private letter says frankly, "I know that I have
been a regular ass." His conduct for the next three years teems with
inconsistencies which we may deplore but cannot pass over. He was
obliged to defend in 54 Publius Vatinius, whom he had fiercely attacked
during the trial of Sestius; also Aulus Gabinius, one of the consuls to
whom his exile was due; and Rabirius Postumus, an agent of Gabinius. On
the other hand, he made a violent speech in the senate in 55 against
Lucius Piso, the colleague of Gabinius in 58. We know from his letters
that he accepted financial aid from Caesar, but that he repaid the loan
before the outbreak of the civil war.[4] There is no doubt that he was
easily deceived. He was always an optimist, and thought that he was
bringing good influence to bear upon Caesar as afterwards upon Octavian.
His actions, however, when Caesar's projects became manifest,
sufficiently vindicated his honesty. During these unhappy years he took
refuge in literature. The _de Oratore_ was written in 55 B.C., the _de
Republica_ in 54, and the _de Legibus_ at any rate begun in 52. The
latter year is famous for the murder of Clodius by T. Annius Milo on the
Appian Way (on the 18th of January), which brought about the appointment
of Pompey as sole consul and the passing of the special laws dealing
with rioting and bribery. Cicero took an active part in the trials which
followed, both as a defender of Milo and his adherents and as a
prosecutor of the opposite faction. At the close of the year, greatly to
his annoyance, he was sent to govern Cilicia under the provisions of
Pompey's law (see POMPEY and ROME: _History_). His reluctance to leave
Rome, already shown by his refusal to take a province, after his
praetorship and consulship, was increased by the inclination of his
daughter Tullia, then a widow, to marry again.[5] During his absence she
married the profligate spendthrift, P. Cornelius Dolabella.

The province of Cilicia was a large one. It included, in addition to
Cilicia proper, Isauria, Lycaonia, Pisidia, Pamphylia and Cyprus, as
well as a protectorate over the client kingdoms of Cappadocia and
Galatia. There was also danger of a Parthian inroad. Cicero's legate was
his brother Quintius Cicero (below), an experienced soldier who had
gained great distinction under Caesar in Gaul. The fears of Parthian
invasion were not realized, but Cicero, after suppressing a revolt in
Cappadocia, undertook military operations against the hill-tribes of the
Amanus and captured the town of Pindenissus after a siege of forty-six
days. A _supplicatio_ in his honour was voted by the senate. The early
months of 50 were occupied by the administration of justice, chiefly at
Laodicea, and by various attempts to alleviate the distress in the
province caused by the exactions of his predecessor, Appius Claudius. He
had to withstand pressure from influential persons (e.g. M. Brutus, who
had business interests in his province), and refused to provide his
friends with wild beasts for their games in Rome. Leaving his province
on the earliest opportunity, he reached Brundisium on the 24th of
November, and found civil war inevitable. He went to Rome on the 4th of
January, but did not enter the city, since he aspired to a triumph for
his successes.[6] After the outbreak of war he was placed by Pompey in
charge of the Campanian coast. After much irresolution he refused
Caesar's invitations and resolved to join Pompey's forces in Greece. He
was shocked by the ferocious language of his party, and himself gave
offence by his bitter jests (Plut. _Cic._ 38). Through illness he was
not present at the battle of Pharsalus, but afterwards was offered the
command by Cato the Younger at Corcyra, and was threatened with death by
the young Cn. Pompeius when he refused to accept it. Thinking it useless
to continue the struggle, he sailed to Brundisium, where he remained
until the 12th of August 47, when, after receiving a kind letter from
Caesar, he went to Rome. Under Caesar's dictatorship Cicero abstained
from politics. His voice was raised on three occasions only: once in the
senate in 46 to praise Caesar's clemency to M. Claudius Marcellus (_pro
Marcello_), to plead in the same year before Caesar for Quintus
Ligarius, and in 45 on behalf of Deiotarus, tetrarch of Galatia, also
before Caesar. He suffered greatly from family troubles at this period.
In 46, his patience giving way, he divorced Terentia, and married his
young and wealthy ward Publilia. Then came the greatest grief of his
life, the death of Tullia, his beloved daughter. He shortly afterwards
divorced Publilia, who had been jealous of Tullia's influence and proved
unsympathetic. To solace his troubles he devoted himself wholly to
literature. To this period belong several famous rhetorical and
philosophical works, the _Brutus_, _Orator_, _Partitiones Oratoriae_,
_Paradoxa_, _Academica_, _de Finibus_, _Tusculan Disputations_, together
with other works now lost, such as his _Laus Catonis_, _Consolatio_ and
_Hortensius_.

His repose was broken by Caesar's murder on the 15th of March 44, to
which he was not a party. On the 17th of March he delivered a speech in
the senate urging a general amnesty like that declared in Athens after
the expulsion of the Thirty Tyrants. When it became apparent that the
conspirators had only removed the despot and left the despotism, he
again devoted himself to philosophy, and in an incredibly short space of
time produced the _de Nature Deorum_, _de Divinatione_, _de Fato_, _Cato
maior_ (or _de Senectute_), _Laelius_ (or _de Amicitia_), and began his
treatise _de Officiis_. To this period also belongs his lost work _de
Gloria_. He then projected a journey to Greece in order to see his son
Marcus, then studying at Athens, of whose behaviour he heard
unfavourable reports. He reached Syracuse on the 1st of August, having
during the voyage written from memory a translation of Aristotle's
_Topica_. He was driven back by unfavourable winds to Leucopetra, and
then, hearing better news, returned to Rome on the 21st of August. He
was bitterly attacked by Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) in the senate on
the 1st of September for not being present there, and on the next day
replied in his First _Philippic_. He then left Rome and devoted himself
to the completion of the _de Officiis_, and to the composition of his
famous Second _Philippic_, which was never delivered, but was
circulated, at first privately, after Antony's departure from Rome to
Cisalpine Gaul on the 28th of November.

Cicero returned to Rome on the 9th of December, and from that time
forward led the republican party in the senate. His policy, stated
briefly, was to make use of Octavian, whose name was all-powerful with
the veterans, until new legions had been raised which would follow the
republican commanders (_Phil._ xi. 39). Cicero pledged his credit for
the loyalty of Octavian, who styled him "father" and affected to take
his advice on all occasions (_Epp. ad Brut._ i. 17. 5). Cicero, an
incurable optimist in politics, may have convinced himself of Octavian's
sincerity. The breach, however, was bound to come, and the saying,
maliciously attributed to Cicero, that Octavian was an "excellent youth
who must be praised and--sent to another place," neatly expresses the
popular view of the situation.[7] Cicero was sharply criticized by M.
Junius Brutus for truckling to Octavian while showing irreconcilable
enmity to Antony and Lepidus (_ad Brut._ i. 16. 4, i. 15. 9); but Brutus
was safe in his province, and it is difficult to see what other course
was open to a politician in Rome. Whether Cicero was right or wrong,
none can question his amazing energy. He delivered his long series of
_Philippics_ at Rome, and kept up a correspondence with the various
provincial governors and commanders, all short-sighted and selfish, and
several of them half-hearted, endeavouring to keep each man in his place
and to elaborate a common plan of operations. He was naturally included
in the list of the proscribed, though it is said that Octavian fought
long on his behalf, and was slain near Formiae on the 7th of December
43. He had a ship near in which he had previously attempted to fly, but
being cast back by unfavourable winds he returned to his villa, saying,
"Let me die in the country which I have often saved." His head and hands
were sent to Rome and nailed to the rostra, after Fulvia, wife of Antony
and widow of Clodius, had thrust a hairpin through the tongue.

_Works._--The literary works of Cicero may be classed as (1) rhetorical;
(2) oratorical; (3) philosophical and political; (4) epistolary.

(i.) _Rhetorical._[8]--His chief works of this kind are: (_a_) _de
Oratore_, a treatise in three books dedicated to his brother Quintus.
The discussion is conducted in the form of a dialogue which is supposed
to have occurred in 91 B.C. chiefly between the two orators L. Crassus
and M. Antonius. The first book deals with the studies necessary for an
orator; the second with the treatment of the subject matter; the third
with the form and delivery of a speech. Cicero says of this work in a
letter (_Fam._ i. 9. 23) that it "does not deal in hackneyed rules and
embraces the whole theory of oratory as laid down by Isocrates and
Aristotle." (_b_) _Brutus_, or _de claris oratoribus_, a history of
Roman eloquence containing much valuable information about his
predecessors, drawn largely from the _Chronicle_ (_liber annalis_) of
Atticus (Sec.Sec. 14, 15). (_c_) _Orator_, dedicated to M. Brutus, sketching a
portrait of the perfect and ideal orator, Cicero's last word on oratory.
The sum of his conclusion is that the perfect orator must also be a
perfect man. Cicero says of this work that he has "concentrated in it
all his taste" (_Fam._ vi. 18. 4). The three treatises are intended to
form a continuous series containing a complete system of rhetorical
training.

  It will be convenient to mention here a feature of Ciceronian prose on
  which singular light has been thrown by recent inquiry. In the _de
  Oratore_, iii. 173 sqq., he considers the element of rhythm or metre
  in prose, and in the _Orator_ (174-226) he returns to the subject and
  discusses it at length. His main point is that prose should be
  metrical in character, though it should not be entirely metrical,
  since this would be poetry (_Orator_, 220). Greek writers relied for
  metrical effect in prose on those feet which were not much used in
  poetry. Aristotle recommended the paean [uuu-]. Cicero preferred the
  cretic [-u-] which he says is the metrical equivalent of the paean.
  Demosthenes was especially fond of the cretic. Rhythm pervades the
  whole sentence but is most important at the end or _clausula_, where
  the swell of the period sinks to rest. The ears of the Romans were
  incredibly sensitive to such points. We are told that an assembly was
  stirred to wild applause by a double trochee [-u-u].[9] If the order
  were changed, Cicero says, the effect would be lost. The same rhythm
  should be found in the _membra_ which compose the sentence. He quotes
  a passage from one of his own speeches in which any change in the
  order would destroy the rhythm. Cicero gives various _clausulae_ which
  his ears told him to be good or bad, but his remarks are desultory, as
  also are those of Quintilian, whose examples were largely drawn from
  Cicero's writings. It was left for modern research to discover rules
  of harmony which the Romans obeyed unconsciously. Other investigators
  had shown that Cicero's _clausulae_ are generally variations of some
  three or four forms in which the rhythm is trochaic. Dr Thaddaeus
  Zielinski of St Petersburg, after examining all the _clausulae_ in
  Cicero's speeches, finds that they are governed by a law. In every
  _clausula_ there is a basis followed by a cadence. The basis consists
  of a cretic or its metrical equivalent.[10] This is followed by a
  cadence trochaic in character, but varying in length. The three
  favourite forms are (i.) [-u--[=u]], (ii.) [-u--u[=u]], (iii.)
  [-u--u-[=u]]. These he styles _verae (V)_. Other frequent _clausulae_,
  which he terms _licitae (L)_, are those in which a long syllable is
  resolved, as in verse, into two shorts, e.g. _[=e]ss[)e]
  v[)i]d[)e][=a]t[)u]r_. These two classes, _V_ and _L_, include 86% of
  the _clausulae_ in the orations. Some rarer _clausulae_ which he terms
  _M (= malae)_ introduce no new principle. There remain two interesting
  forms, viz. _S (= selectae)_, in which a spondee is substituted for a
  trochee in the cadence, e.g. [-u----], this being done for special
  emphasis, and _P (= pessimae)_, where a dactyl is so used, e.g.
  [-u--uu-[=u]], this being the _heroica clausula_ condemned by
  Quintilian. Similar rules apply to the _membra_ of the sentence,
  though in these the _S_ and _P_ forms are more frequent, harmony being
  restored in the _clausula_.

  These results apply not only to the speeches but also to the
  philosophical writings and the more elaborate letters, and with
  modifications to other rhythmical prose, e.g. that of Pliny and
  Seneca. Rhythm was avoided by Caesar who was an Atticist, and by
  Sallust who was an archaist. Livy's practice is exactly opposite to
  that of Cicero, since he has a marked preference for the _S_ forms,
  thereby exemplifying Cicero's saying that long syllables are more
  appropriate to history than to oratory.[11]

(ii.) _Speeches_.--These were generally delivered before the senate or
people, if political in character, and before jurors sitting in a
_quaestio_, if judicial. The speech against Vatinius was an attack upon
a witness under examination; that _de Domo_ was made before the
Pontifices; that _pro C. Rabirio perduellionis reo_ in the course of a
_provocatio_ to the people; and those _pro Ligario_ and _pro rege
Deiotaro_ before Caesar. The five orations composing the _Actio Secunda
in Verrem_ were never spoken, but written after Verres had gone into
exile. The Second _Philippic_ also was not delivered but issued as a
pamphlet. Cicero's speech for Milo at his trial was not a success,
though, as Quintilian (ix. 2. 54) quotes from it, as taken down by
shorthand reporters, an example of a rhetorical figure well used, it
cannot have been such a failure as is alleged by later writers. The
extant speech was written by Cicero at his leisure. None of the other
speeches are in the exact form in which they were delivered. Cicero's
method was to construct a _commentarius_ or skeleton of his speech,
which he used when speaking. If he was pleased with a speech he then
wrote it out for publication. Sometimes he omitted in the written speech
a subject on which he had spoken. A record of this is sometimes
preserved: e.g. "de Postumi criminibus" (_Mur._ 51), "de teste Fufio"
(_Cael._ 19). These _commentarii_ were published by his freedman Tiro
and are quoted by Asconius (_ad Orat. in Toga Candida_, p. 87).

Cicero in his speeches must be given all the privileges of an advocate.
Sometimes he had a bad client; he naively confesses the straits to which
he was put when defending Scamander (_Clu._ 51; cf. _Phil._ xiii. 26).
He thought of defending Catiline, though he says that his guilt is clear
as noon-day (_Att._ i. 1-2 and 2. 1). Sometimes the brief which he held
at the moment compelled him to take a view of facts contrary to that
which he had previously advocated. Thus in the _pro Caecina_ he alleges
judicial corruption against a witness, Falcula, while in the _pro
Cluentio_ he contends that the offence was not proved (_Caec._ 28,
_Clu._ 103). He says quite openly that "it is a great mistake to suppose
that statements in his speeches express his real opinions" (_Clu._ 139).
It is therefore idle to reproach him with inconsistencies, though these
are sometimes very singular. Thus in the _pro Cornelio_ he speaks with
praise of Aulus Gabinius, who, when a colleague vetoed his proposal,
proceeded to depose him after the precedent set by Tiberius Gracchus
(Asconius _in Cornel._ p. 71). In the _pro Cluentio_, 111, he contends
that nothing is easier than for a new man to rise at Rome. In the _pro
Caelio_ he says that Catiline had in him undeveloped germs of the
greatest virtues, and that it was the good in him that made him so
dangerous (_Cael._ 12-14). He sometimes deliberately puts the case upon
a wrong issue. In the _pro Milone_ he says that either Milo must have
lain in wait for Clodius or Clodius for Milo, leaving out of sight the
truth, that the encounter was due to chance. He used to boast that he
had cast dust into the eyes of the jury in the case of Cluentius
(Quintil. ii. 17-21).

Cicero had a perfect mastery of all weapons wielded by a pleader in
Rome. He was specially famous for his pathos, and for this reason, when
several counsel were employed, always spoke last (_Orat._ 130). A
splendid specimen of pathos is to be found in his account of the
condemnation and execution of the Sicilian captains (_Verr._ (_Act_.
ii.) v. 106-122). Much exaggeration was permitted to a Roman orator.
Thus Cicero frequently speaks as if his client were to be put to death,
though a criminal could always evade capital consequences by going into
exile. His enemies scoffed at his "tear-drops." He indulged in the more
violent invective, which, though shocking to a modern reader, e.g. in
his speeches against Vatinius and Piso, was not offensive to Roman taste
(_de Orat._ ii. 216-290). He was much criticized for his jokes, and
even Quintilian (ii. 17-21) regrets that he made so many in his
speeches. He could never resist the temptation to make a pun. It must be
remembered, however, that he was the great wit of the period. Caesar
used to have a collection of Cicero's _bon-mots_ brought to him. Cicero
complains that all the jokes of the day were attributed to himself,
including those made by very sorry jesters (_Fam._ vii. 32. 1). A fine
specimen of sustained humour is to be found in his speech _pro Murena_,
where he rallies the jurisconsults and the Stoics. He was also
criticized for his vanity and perpetual references to his own
achievements. His vanity, however, as has been admirably remarked, is
essentially that of "the peacock, not of the gander," and is redeemed by
his willingness to raise a laugh at his own expense (Strachan-Davidson,
p. 192). Some critics have impugned his legal knowledge, but probably
without justice. It is true that he does not claim to be a great expert,
though a pupil of the Scaevolas, and when in doubt would consult a
jurisconsult; also, that he frequently passes lightly over important
points of law, but this was probably because he was conscious of a flaw
in his case.

(iii.) _Political and Philosophical Treatises._--These are generally
written in the form of dialogues, in which the speakers sometimes belong
to bygone times and sometimes to the present. The first method was known
as that of Heraclides, the second as that of Aristotle (_Att._ xiii. 19.
4). There is no reason to suppose that the speakers held the views with
which Cicero credits them, or had such literary powers as would make
them able to express such views (_ib._ xiii. 12. 3). The political works
are _de Republica_ and _de Legibus_. The first was a dialogue in six
books concerning the best form of constitution, in which the speakers
are Scipio Africanus Minor and members of his circle. He tells us that
he drew largely from Plato, Aristotle, Theophrastus and writings of the
Peripatetics. The famous "Dream of Scipio" recalls the "Vision of Er" in
Plato's _Republic_ (Book x. _ad fin._). The _de Legibus_, a sequel to
this work in imitation of Plato's _Laws_, is drawn largely from
Chrysippus.

Cicero as a philosopher belonged to the New Academy. The followers of
this school were free to hear all arguments for and against, and to
accept the conclusion which for the moment appeared most probable
(_Acad._ ii. 131). Thus in the _Tusculan Disputations_ v. he expresses
views which conflict with _de Finibus_ iv., and defends himself on the
ground that as an Academic he is free to change his mind. He was much
fascinated by the Stoic morality, and it has been noticed that the
_Tusculan Disputations_ and _de Officiis_ are largely Stoic in tone. He
has nothing but contempt for the Epicureans, and cannot forgive their
neglect of literary style. As Cicero's philosophical writings have been
severely attacked for want of originality, it is only fair to recollect
that he resorted to philosophy as an anodyne when suffering from mental
anguish, and that he wrote incredibly fast. He issued two editions of
his _Academics_. The first consisted of two books, in which Catulus and
Lucullus were the chief speakers. He then rewrote his treatise in four
books, making himself, Varro and Atticus the speakers. The Romans at
this time had no manuals of philosophy or any philosophical writings in
Latin apart from the poem of Lucretius and some unskilful productions by
obscure Epicureans. Cicero set himself to supply this want. His works
are confessedly in the main translations and compilations (_Att._ xii.
52. 3); all that he does is to turn the discussion into the form of a
dialogue, to adapt it to Roman readers by illustrations from Roman
history, and to invent equivalents for Greek technical terms. This is
equally true of the political treatises. Thus, when Atticus criticized a
strange statement in _de Republ._ ii. 8, that all the cities of the
Peloponnese had access to the sea, he excuses himself by saying that he
found it in Dicaearchus and copied it word for word (_Att._ vi. 2. 3).
In the same passage he used an incorrect adjective, _Phliuntii_ for
_Phliasii_; he says that he had already corrected his own copy, but the
mistake survives in the single palimpsest in which this work has been
preserved. The only merits, therefore, which can be claimed for Cicero
are that he invented a philosophical terminology for the Romans, and
that he produced a series of manuals which from their beauty of style
have had enduring influence upon mankind.

  The most famous of these treatises are the following:--

  _De Finibus_, on the Supreme Good. In Book i. L. Manlius Torquatus
  explains the Epicurean doctrine, which is refuted in ii. by Cicero. In
  iii. and iv. M. Porcius Cato sets forth the doctrine of the Stoics
  which is shown by Cicero to agree with that of Antiochus of Ascalon;
  in v. M. Pupius Piso explains the views of the Academics and
  Peripatetics.

  _Tusculanae Disputationes_, so called from Cicero's villa at Tusculum
  in which the discussion is supposed to have taken place. The subjects
  treated are:--in Book i., the nature of death and the reasons for
  despising it; Book ii., the endurance of pain: Pain is not an evil;
  Book iii., wisdom makes a man insensible to sorrow; Book iv., wisdom
  banishes all mental disquietude; Book v., virtue is sufficient to
  secure happiness. The materials are drawn largely from works of
  Dicaearchus.

  _De Deorum Natura._--The dialogue is placed in 77 B.C. In Book i.
  Velleius attacks other philosophies and explains the system of
  Epicurus. He is then refuted by Cotta. In Book ii. Balbus, speaking as
  a Stoic, discusses the existence of the gods, nature, the government
  of the world and providence. In Book iii. Cotta criticizes the views
  of Balbus. The statement of the Epicurean doctrine is drawn from the
  work of Phaedrus [Greek: Peri theon], the criticism of this from
  Posidonius. The Stoic teaching is derived from Cleanthes, Chrysippus
  and Zeno, and is criticized from the writings of Carneades and
  Clitomachus.

  _De Officiis_, addressed to his son Marcus. In this the form of
  dialogue was not employed. The material is chiefly drawn from Stoic
  sources, e.g. works of Panaetius in Books i. and ii., of Posidonius
  and Hecato in Book iii.

  The _Academica_, as they have come down to us, are a conflation from
  the two editions of this work. They consist of the second book from
  the first edition, and a portion of the first book from the second
  edition.

  _Cato maior_, or _de Senectute_, a dialogue placed in 150 B.C. in
  which Cato, addressing Scipio and Laelius, set forth the praises of
  old age. The idea is drawn from Aristo of Chios, and the materials
  largely derived from Xenophon and Plato.

  _Laelius_, or _de Amicitia_, a dialogue between Laelius and his
  sons-in-law, in which he sets forth the theory of friendship, speaking
  with special reference to the recent death of Scipio. Cicero here
  draws from a work of Theophrastus on the same subject and from
  Aristotle.

(iv.) _Letters._--Those preserved are (1) _ad Familiares_, i.-xvi.; (2)
_ad Atticum_, i.-xvi.; (3) _ad Quintum_, i.-iii., _ad Brutum_, i.-ii.
Some thirty-five other books of letters were known to antiquity, e.g. to
Caesar, to Pompey, to Octavian and to his son Marcus.

The collection includes nearly one hundred letters written by other
persons. Thus, the eighth Book _ad Fam._ consists entirely of letters
from Caelius to Cicero when in Cilicia. When writing to Atticus Cicero
frequently sent copies of letters which he had received. There is a
great variety in the style not only of Cicero's correspondents, but also
of Cicero himself. Caelius writes in a breezy, school-boy style; the
Latinity of Plancus is Ciceronian in character; the letter of Sulpicius
to Cicero on the death of Tullia is a masterpiece of style; Matius
writes a most dignified letter justifying his affectionate regard for
Caesar's memory. There is an amazingly indiscreet letter of Quintus to
his brother's freedman, Tiro, in which he says of the consuls-elect,
Hirtius and Pansa, that he would hesitate to put one of them in charge
of a village on the frontier, and the other in that of the basement of a
tavern (_Fam._ xvi. 27. 2). Several of his correspondents are
indifferent stylists. Cato labours to express himself in an awkward and
laconic epistle, apologizing for its length. Metellus Celer is very
rude, but gives himself away in every word. Antony writes bad Latin,
while Cicero himself writes in various styles. We have such a _cri de
coeur_ as his few words to one of the conspirators after Caesar's
murder, "I congratulate you. I rejoice for myself. I love you. I watch
your interests; I wish for your love and to be informed what you are
doing and what is being done" (_Fam._ vi. 15). When writing to Atticus
he eschews all ornamentation, uses short sentences, colloquial idioms,
rare diminutives and continually quotes Greek. This use of Greek tags
and quotations is also found in letters to other intimate friends, e.g.
Paetus and Caelius; also in letters written by other persons, e.g.
Cassius to Cicero; Quintus to Tiro, and subsequently in those of
Augustus to Tiberius. It is a feature of the colloquial style and often
corresponds to the modern use of "slang." Other letters of Cicero,
especially those written to persons with whom he was not quite at his
ease or those meant for circulation, are composed in his elaborate style
with long periods, parentheses and other devices for obscuring thought.
These are throughout rhythmical in character, like his speeches and
philosophical works.

We know from Cicero's own statement (_Att._ xvi. 5. 5) that he thought
of publishing some of his letters during his lifetime. On another
occasion he jestingly charges Tiro with wishing to have his own letters
included in the "volumes" (_Fam._ xvi. 17. 1). It is obvious that Cicero
could not have meant to publish his private letters to Atticus in which
he makes confessions about himself, or those to Quintus in which he
sometimes outsteps the limits of brotherly criticism, but was thinking
of polished productions such as the letters to Lentulus Spinther or that
to Lucceius which he describes as "very pretty" (_Att._ iv. 6. 4).

It is universally agreed that the letters _ad Familiares_ were published
by Tiro, whose hand is revealed by the fact that he suppresses all
letters written by himself, and modestly puts at the end those written
to him. That Cicero kept copies of his letters, or of many of them, we
know from a passage in which, when addressing a friend who had
inadvertently torn up a letter from him, he says that there is nothing
to grieve about; he has himself a copy at home and can replace the loss
(_Fam._ vii. 25. 1). Tiro may have obtained from Terentia copies of
letters written to her. It has been suggested that he may also have
edited the letters to Quintus, as he could obtain them from members of
the family. The letters _ad Familiares_ were generally quoted in
antiquity by books, the title being taken from the first letter, e.g.
_Cicero ad Varronem epistula Paeti_.

While the letters _ad Familiares_ were circulated at once, those to
Atticus appear to have been suppressed for a considerable time.
Cornelius Nepos (_Att._ 16) knew of their existence but distinguishes
them from the published letters. Asconius (p. 87), writing under
Claudius, never quotes them, though, when discussing Cicero's projected
defence of Catiline, he could hardly have failed to do so, if he had
known them. The first author who quotes them is Seneca. It is,
therefore, probable that they were not published by Atticus himself, who
died 32 B.C., though his hand may be seen in the suppression of all
letters written by himself, but that they remained in the possession of
his family and were not published until about A.D. 60. At that date they
could be published without expurgation of any kind, whereas in the
letters _ad Familiares_ the editor's hand is on one occasion (iii. 10.
11) manifest. Cicero is telling Appius, his predecessor in Cilicia, of
the measures which he is taking on his behalf. There then follows a
lacuna. It is obvious that Tiro thought the passage compromising and
struck it out. In the letters to Atticus, on the other hand, we have
Cicero's private journal, his confessions to the director of his
conscience, the record of his moods from day to day, without alterations
of any kind.

Cicero's letters are the chief and most reliable source of information
for the period. It is due to them that the Romans of the day are living
figures to us, and that Cicero, in spite of, or rather in virtue of his
frailties, is intensely human and sympathetic. The letters to Atticus
abound in the frankest self-revelation, though even in the presence of
his confessor his instinct as a pleader makes him try to justify
himself. The historical value of the letters, therefore, completely
transcends that of Cicero's other works. It is true that these are full
of information. Thus we learn much from the _de Legibus_ regarding the
constitutional history of Rome, and much from the _Brutus_ concerning
the earlier orators. The speeches abound in details which may be
accepted as authentic, either because there is no reason for
misrepresentation or on account of their circumstantiality. Thus the
_Verrines_ are our chief source of information for the government of the
provinces, the system of taxation, the powers of the governor. We hear
from them of such interesting details as that the senate annul a
judicial decision improperly arrived at by the governor, or that the
college of tribunes could consider the status at Rome of a man affected
by this decision (_Verr._ II. ii. 95-100). We have unfolded to us the
monstrous system by which the governor could fix upon a remote place
for the delivery of corn, and so compel the farmer to compound by a
payment in money which the orator does not blame, on the ground that it
is only proper to allow magistrates to receive corn wherever they wish
(_ib._ iii. 190). From the speech _pro Cluentio_ (145-154) we gain
unique information concerning the condition of society in a country
town, the extraordinary exemption of equites from prosecution for
judicial corruption, the administration of domestic justice in the case
of slaves examined by their owner (_ib._ 176-187). But we have always to
be on our guard against misrepresentation, exaggeration and falsehood.
The value of the letters lies in the fact that in them we get behind
Cicero and are face to face with the other _dramatis personae_; also
that we are admitted behind the scenes and read the secret history of
the times. One of the most interesting documents in the correspondence
is a despatch of Caesar to his agent Oppius, written in great haste and
in disjointed sentences. It runs as follows: "On the 9th I came to
Brundisium. Pompey is at Brundisium. He sent Magius to me to treat
of peace. I gave him a suitable answer" (_Att._ ix. 13, Ai.). In the _de
Bello civili_, on the other hand, Caesar, who wishes to show that he did
his best to make peace, after stating that he sent his captive Magius to
negotiate, expresses mild surprise at the fact that Pompey did not send
him back (_Bell. Civ._ i. 26). We hear of the extraordinary agreement
made by two candidates for the consulship in Caesar's interest with the
sitting consuls of 54 B.C., which Cicero says he hardly ventures to put
on paper. Under the terms of this the consuls, who were _optimates_,
bound themselves to betray their party by securing, apparently
fraudulently, the election of the candidates while they in turn bound
themselves to procure two ex-consuls who would swear that they were
present in the senate when supplies were voted for the consular
provinces, though no meeting of the senate had been held, and three
augurs who would swear that a _lex curiata_ had been passed, though the
_comitia curiata_ had not been convened (_Att._ iv. 18. 2). But perhaps
the most singular scene is the council of three great ladies presided
over by Servilia at Antium, which decides the movements of Brutus and
Cassius in June 44 B.C., when Cassius "looking very fierce--you would
say that he was breathing fire and sword"--blustered concerning what he
considered an insult, viz. a commission to supply corn which had been
laid upon him. Servilia calmly remarks she will have the commission
removed from the decree of the senate (_Att._ xv. 11. 2).

(v.) _Miscellaneous._--It is not necessary to dwell upon the other forms
of literary composition attempted by Cicero. He was a fluent versifier,
and would write 500 verses in one night. Considerable fragments from a
juvenile translation of Aratus have been preserved. His later poems upon
his own consulship and his exile were soon forgotten except for certain
lines which provoked criticism, such as the unfortunate verse:

  "O fortunatam natam me consule Romam."

He wrote a memoir of his consulship in Greek and at one time thought of
writing a history of Rome. Nepos thought that he would have been an
ideal historian, but as Cicero ranks history with declamation and on one
occasion with great _naivete_ asks Lucius Lucceius (q.v.), who was
embarking on this task, to embroider the facts to his own credit, we
cannot accept this criticism (_Fam._ vi. 2. 3).

(vi.) _Authenticity._--The genuineness of certain works of Cicero has
been attacked. It was for a long time usual to doubt the authenticity of
the speeches _post reditum_ and _pro Marcello_.[12] Recent scholars
consider them genuine. As their rhythmical structure corresponds more or
less exactly with the canon of authenticity formed by Zielinski from the
other speeches, the question may now be considered closed.[13] Absurd
suspicion has been cast upon the later speeches _in Catilinam_ and that
_pro Archia_. An oration _pridie quam in exsilium iret_ is certainly a
forgery, as also a letter to Octavian. There is a "controversy" between
Cicero and Sallust which is palpably a forgery, though a quotation from
it occurs in Quintilian.[14] Suspicion has been attached to the letters
to Brutus, which in the case of two letters (i. 16 and 17) is not
unreasonable since they somewhat resemble the style of _suasoriae_, or
rhetorical exercises, but the latest editors, Tyrrell and Purser, regard
these also as genuine.

  _Criticism_. (i.) _Ancient._--After Cicero's death his character was
  attacked by various detractors, such as the author of the spurious
  _Controversia_ put into the mouth of Sallust, and the calumniator from
  Whom Dio Cassius (xlvi. 1--28) draws the libellous statements which he
  inserts into the speech of Q. Fufius Calenus in the senate. Of such
  critics, Asconius (in _Tog. Cand._ p. 95) well says that it is best to
  ignore them. His prose style was attacked by Pollio as Asiatic, also
  by his son, Asinius Gallus, who was answered by the emperor Claudius
  (Suet. 41). The writers of the silver age found fault with his
  prolixity, want of sparkle and epigram, and monotony of his
  clausulae.[15] A certain Largius Licinius gained notoriety by
  attacking his Latinity in a work styled _Ciceromastix_. His most
  devoted admirers were the younger Pliny, who reproduced his oratorical
  style with considerable success, and Quintilian (x. 1. 112), who
  regarded him as the perfect orator, and draws most of his
  illustrations from his works. At a later period his style fascinated
  Christian writers, notably Lactantius, the "Christian Cicero," Jerome
  and S. Augustine, who drew freely from his rhetorical writings.

  The first commentator upon Cicero was Asconius, a Roman senator living
  in the reign of Claudius; who wrote a commentary upon the speeches, in
  which he explains obscure historical points for the instruction of his
  sons (see ASCONIUS). Passing over a number of grammatical and
  rhetorical writers who drew illustrations from Cicero, we may mention
  the _Commentary_ of Victorinus, written in the 4th century, upon the
  treatise _de Inventione_, and that of Boethius (A.D. 480-524) upon the
  _Topica_. Among scholiasts may be mentioned the _Scholiasta Bobiensis_
  who is assigned to the 5th century, and a pseudo-Asconius, who wrote
  notes upon the _Verrines_ dealing with points of grammar and rhetoric.

  (ii.) _Medieval Scholars._--In the middle ages Cicero was chiefly
  known as a writer on rhetoric and morals. The works which were most
  read were the _de Inventione_ and _Topica_--though neither of these
  was quite so popular as the treatise _ad Herennium_, then supposed to
  be by Cicero--and among the moral works, the _de Officiis_, and the
  _Cato Maior_. John of Salisbury (1110-1180) continually quotes from
  rhetorical and philosophical writings, but only once from the
  speeches. The value set upon the work _de Inventione_ is shown by a
  passage in which Notker (d. 1022) writing to his bishop says that he
  has lent a MS. containing, the _Philippics_ and a commentary upon the
  _Topics_, but has received as a pledge something far more valuable,
  viz. the _de Inventione_, and the "famous commentary of
  Victorinus."[16] We have an interesting series of excerpts made by a
  priest named Hadoard, in the 9th century, taken from all the
  philosophical writings, now preserved, also from the _de Oratore_.[17]

  The other works of Cicero are seldom mentioned. The most popular
  speeches were those against Catiline, the _Verrines_, _Caesarianae_
  and _Philippics_, to which may be added the spurious _Controversia_. A
  larger knowledge of the speeches is shown by Wibald, abbot of Corvey,
  who in 1146 procured from Hildesheim a MS. containing with the
  _Philippics_ the speeches against Rullus, wishing to form a _corpus_
  of Ciceronian works.[18] Gerbert (afterwards Pope Silvester II.,
  940-1003) was especially interested in the speeches, and in a letter
  to a friend (_Epist._ 86) advises him to take them with him when
  journeying. The letters are rarely mentioned. The abbey of Lorsch
  possessed in the 9th century five MSS. containing "Letters of Cicero,"
  but those to Atticus are only mentioned once, in the catalogue of
  Cluny written in the 12th century.[19] Letters of Cicero were known to
  Wibald of Corvey, also to Servatus Lupus, abbot of Ferrieres
  (805-832), who prosecuted in the 9th century a search for MSS. which
  reminds us of the Italian humanists in the 15th century. A good deal
  of textual criticism must have been devoted to Cicero's works during
  this period. The earliest critic was Tiro, who, as we know from Aulus
  Gellius (i. 7. 1), corrected MSS. which were greatly valued as
  containing his recension. We have a very interesting colophon to the
  speeches against Rullus, in which Statilius Maximus states that he had
  corrected the text by the help of a MS. giving the recension of Tiro,
  which he had collated with five other ancient copies.[20]

  It is interesting to notice that Servatus Lupus did similar work in
  the 9th century. Thus, writing to Ansbald of Pruem, he says, "I will
  collate the letters of Cicero which you sent with the copy which I
  have so as to elicit the true reading, if possible, by comparing the
  two."[21] He asks another correspondent to supply him with a copy of
  the _Verrines_ or any other works for a similar purpose.

  Brunetto Latini (d. ca. 1294), the master of Dante, translated the
  _Caesarianae_ into Italian. Dante himself appears to be acquainted
  only with the _Laelius_, _Cato Maior_, _de Officiis_, _de Finibus_,
  _de Inventione_ and _Paradoxa_. Petrarch says that among his
  countrymen Cicero was a great name, but was studied by few. Petrarch
  himself sought for MSS. of Cicero with peculiar ardour. He found the
  speech _pro Archia_ at Liege in 1333, and in 1345 at Verona made his
  famous discovery of the letters to Atticus, which revealed to the
  world Cicero as a man in place of the "god of eloquence" whom they had
  worshipped. Petrarch was under the impression in his old age that he
  had once possessed Cicero's lost work _de Gloria_, but it is probable
  that he was misled by one of the numerous passages in the extant
  writings dealing with this subject.[22] The letters _ad Familiares_
  were discovered towards the close of the 14th century at Vercelli. The
  largest addition to the sum of Ciceronian writings was made by Poggio
  (Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini) in the course of his celebrated
  mission to the Council of Constance (1414-1417). He brought back no
  less than ten speeches of Cicero previously unknown to the Italians,
  viz. _pro Sexto Roscio_, _pro Murena_, _pro Cacina_, _de lege agraria_
  i.-iii., _pro Rabirio perduellionis reo_, _pro Rabirio Postumo_, _pro
  Roscio Comoedo_, and _in Pisonem_. An important discovery was made at
  Lodi in 1422 of a MS. which, in addition to complete copies of the _de
  Oratore_ and _Orator_, hitherto known from mutilated MSS., contained
  an entirely new work, the _Brutus_. The second book of Cicero's
  letters to Brutus was first printed by Cratander of Basel in 1528 from
  a MS. obtained for him by Sichardus from the abbey of Lorsch.[23]

  All these MSS. are now lost, except that containing the _Epistolae ad
  Familiares_, a MS. written in the 9th century and now at Florence
  (Laur. xlix. 9). A similar fate overtook three other MSS. containing
  the letters to Atticus, independent of the _Veronensis_, viz. a
  mutilated MS. of Books i.-vii. discovered by Cardinal Capra in 1409, a
  Lorsch MS. used by Cratander (C), and a French MS. (Z), generally
  termed _Tornaesianus_ from its owner, Jean de Tournes, a printer of
  Lyons, probably identical with No. 492 in the old Cluny catalogue,
  used by Turnebus, Lambinus and Bosius. A strange mystification was
  practised by the last named, a scholar of singular brilliancy, who
  claimed to have a mutilated MS. which he called his _Decurtatus_,
  bought from a common soldier who had obtained it from a sacked
  monastery; also to have been furnished by a friend, Pierre de
  Crouzeil, a doctor of Limoges, with variants taken from an old MS.
  found at Noyon, and entered in the margin of a copy of the Lyons
  edition. The rough draft of his notes, however, upon Books x.-xvi.,
  which afterwards came into the hands of Baluze, is preserved in the
  Paris library (Lat. 8538 A), in which he continually ascribes
  different readings to these MSS., the alteration corresponding with a
  change in his own conjecture. It is, therefore, obvious that he
  invented the readings in order to strengthen his own corrections. The
  book, which he termed his _Crusellinus_, may well be his copy of the
  Lyons edition of 1545 (number 8665 in the sale-catalogue of Baluze),
  which is described as _cum notis et emendationibus MSS. manu ejusdem
  Bosii_.[24]

  The oldest evidence now existing for any works of Cicero is to be
  found in palimpsests written in the 4th or 5th century. The most
  interesting of these, now in the Vatican (Lat. 5757), discovered by
  Angelo Mai in 1822, contains the treatise _de Republica_, only known
  from this source. Fragments of the lost speeches _pro Tullio_ and _pro
  Scauro_ were discovered in two Milan and Turin palimpsests. The
  Vatican also possesses an important palimpsest of the _Verrines_ (Reg.
  2077). A palimpsest containing fragments of various orations was
  recently destroyed by the fire at the Turin library. The works _de
  Oratore_ and _Orator_ are well represented by ancient MSS., the two
  best known being one at Avranches (_Abrincensis_ 238) and a Harleian
  MS. (2736), both written in the 9th century. The _Brutus_ is only
  known from 15th-century transcripts of the lost _cod. Lodensis_.

  The oldest MS. of any speeches, or indeed of any work of Cicero's,
  apart from the palimpsests, belongs to the Chapter-house of St Peter's
  in Rome (H. 25). It contains the speeches _in Pisonem_, _pro Fonteio_,
  _pro Flacco_ and the _Philippics_. The earlier part of the MS. was
  written in the 8th century. The Paris library has two 9th-century
  MSS., viz. 7774 A. containing _in Verrem_ (_Act._ ii.), iv. and v.,
  and 7794, containing the _post reditum_ speeches, together with those
  _pro Sestio_, _in Vatinium_, _de provinciis consularibus_, _pro
  Balbo_, _pro Caelio_. The only other 9th-century MS. of the speeches
  is now in Lord Leicester's library at Holkham, No. 387.[25] It
  originally belonged to Cluny, being No. 498 in the old catalogue. It
  contains in a mutilated form the speeches _in Catilinam_, _pro
  Ligario_, _pro rege Deiotaro_ and _in Verrem_ (_Act._ ii.) ii.

  The speeches _pro Sex. Roscio_ and _pro Murena_ are only known from an
  ancient and illegible MS. discovered by Poggio at Cluny, No. 496 in
  the old catalogue, and now lost. The most faithful transcript was made
  in France (Paris, Lat. 14,749) before the MS. passed into Poggio's
  hand by a writer who carefully reproduced the corruptions, sometimes
  in facsimile.[26] The speeches _pro Roscio Comoedo_, _pro Rabirio
  perduellionis reo_ and _pro Rabirio Postumo_ are only known from
  Italian copies of the transcript (now lost) made by Poggio from lost
  MSS. The _de Officiis_, _Tusculan Disputations_ and _Cato Maior_ are
  found in a number of 9th-century MSS. A collection, consisting of _de
  Natura deorum_, _de Divinatione_, _Timaeus_, _de Fato_, _Paradoxa_,
  _Lucullus_ (= _Acad. Prior_.) and _de Legibus_, is found in several
  MSS. of the same date. Only one MS. of the _Laelius_ is as old as the
  10th century.

  The _Academica Posteriora_ are said by editors to be found only in
  15th-century MSS. A MS. in the Paris library (Lat. 6331) is, however,
  assigned by Chatelain to the 12th century.

  For the letters _ad Familiares_ our chief source of information is
  Laur. xlix. 9 (9th century), which contains all the sixteen books.
  There are independent MSS. written in France and Germany in the 11th
  and 12th centuries, containing i.-viii. and ix.-xvi. respectively.
  There is no extant MS. of the letters to Atticus older than the 14th
  century, apart from a few leaves from a 12th-century MS. discovered at
  or near Wuerzburg in the last century. Very great importance has been
  attached to a Florentine MS. (Laur. xlix. 18) M., which until recently
  was supposed to have been copied by Petrarch himself from the lost
  _Veronensis_. It is now known not to be in the hand of Petrarch, but
  it was still supposed to be the archetype of all Italian MSS., and
  possibly of all MSS., including the lost C and Z. It has, however,
  been shown by Lehmann that there is an independent group of Italian
  MSS., termed by him [Sigma], containing Books i.-vii. in a mutilated
  form, and probably connected with the MS. of Capra. These often agree
  with CZ against M, and the readings of CZ[Sigma] are generally
  superior.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--It is impossible to mention more than a few works as
  the literature is so vast. (1) _Historical._--J.L. Strachan-Davidson,
  _Life of Cicero_ (Heroes of the Nations); G. Boissier, _Ciceron et ses
  amis_; Suringar, _Cicero de vita sua_ (Leiden, 1854); W. Warde Fowler,
  _Social Life at Rome_ (1908); introductions to Tyrrell and Purser's
  edition of the letters. (2) _Palaeographical._--Facsimiles of the
  best-known MSS. are given by E. Chatelain in _Paleographie des
  classiques latins_, parts 2, 3 and 7. Information regarding various
  MSS. will be found in Halm, _Zur Handschriftenkunde der ciceronischen
  Schriften_ (Munich, 1850); Deschamps, _Essai bibliographique sur
  Ciceron_ (Paris, 1863) (an unscientific work); Lehmann, _De Ciceronis
  ad Atticum epistulis recensendis_ (Berlin, 1892); _Anecdota
  Oxoniensia_, classical series, parts vii., ix., x. (3) _Literary._--M.
  Schanz, _Geschichte der roemischen Litteratur_, i, 194-274 (Muenchen,
  1890). (4) _Linguistic._--Merguet, _Lexicon to Oratorical and
  Philosophical Works_; Le Breton, _Etudes sur la langue et la grammaire
  de Ciceron_ (Paris, 1901); Norden, _Die antike Kunstprosa_ (Leipzig,
  1898); Th. Zielinski, _Das Clauselgesetz in Ciceros Reden_ (Leipzig,
  1904). Much information on points of Ciceronian idiom and language
  will be found in J.S. Reid's _Academica_ (London, 1885) and Landgraf's
  _Pro Sext. Roscio_ (Erlangen, 1884). (5) _Legal._--A.H.J. Greenidge,
  _The Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time_ (Oxford, 1901). (6)
  _Philosophical._--An excellent account of Cicero as a philosopher is
  given in the preface to Reid's edition of the _Academica_. (7)
  _Editions_ (critical) of the complete texts.--Baiter-Halm (1845-1861);
  C.F.W. Mueller (1880-1896); Oxford Classical Texts.    (A. C. C.)


2. QUINTUS TULLIUS CICERO, brother of the orator and brother-in-law of
T. Pomponius Atticus, was born about 102 B.C. He was aedile in 67,
praetor in 62, and for the three following years propraetor in Asia,
where, though he seems to have abstained from personal aggrandizement,
his profligacy and ill-temper gained him an evil notoriety. After his
return to Rome, he heartily supported the attempt to secure his
brother's recall from exile, and was nearly murdered by gladiators in
the pay of P. Clodius Pulcher. He distinguished himself as one of Julius
Caesar's legates in the Gallic campaigns, served in Britain, and
afterwards under his brother in Cilicia. On the outbreak of the civil
war between Pompey and Caesar, Quintus, like Marcus, supported Pompey,
but after Pharsalus he deserted and made peace with Caesar, largely
owing to the intercession of Marcus. Both the brothers fell victims to
the proscription which followed Caesar's death, Quintus being put to
death in 43, some time before Marcus. His marriage with Pomponia was
very unhappy, and he was much under the influence of his slave Statius.
Though trained on the same lines as Marcus he never spoke in public, and
even said, "One orator in a family is enough, nay even in a city."
Though essentially a soldier, he took considerable interest in
literature, wrote epic poems, tragedies and annals, and translated plays
of Sophocles. There are extant four letters written by him (one to his
brother Marcus, and three to his freedman Tiro) and a short paper, _De
Petitione Consulatus_ (on canvassing for the consulship), addressed to
his brother in 64. Some consider this the work of a rhetorician of later
date. A few hexameters by him on the twelve signs of the Zodiac are
quoted by Ausonius.

  Cicero in several of his _Letters_ (ed. Tyrrell and Purser); _pro
  Sestio_, 31; Caesar, _Bell. Gal._; Appian, _Bell. Civ._ iv. 20; Dio
  Cassius, xl. 7, xlvii. 10; text of the _De Petit, Cons._ in A.
  Eussner, _Commentariolum Petitionis_ (1872), see also R.Y. Tyrrell in
  _Hermathena_, v. (1877), and A. Beltrami, _De Commentariolo Petitionis
  Q. Ciceroni vindicando_ (1892); G. Boissier, _Cicero and His Friends_
  (Eng. trans., 1897), especially pp. 235-241.


3. MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, only son of the orator and his wife Terentia,
was born in 65 B.C. At the age of seventeen he served with Pompey in
Greece, and commanded a squadron of cavalry at the battle of Pharsalus.
In 45 he was sent to Athens to study rhetoric and philosophy, but
abandoned himself to a life of dissipation. It was during his stay at
Athens that his father dedicated the _de Officiis_ to him. After the
murder of Caesar (44) he attracted the notice of Brutus, by whom he was
offered the post of military tribune, in which capacity he rendered good
service to the republican cause. After the battle of Philippi (42), he
took refuge with Sextus Pompeius in Sicily, where the remnants of the
republican forces were collected. He took advantage of the amnesty
granted by the treaty of Misenum (39) to return to Rome, where he took
no part in public affairs, but resumed his former dissipated habits. In
spite of this, he received signal marks of distinction from Octavian,
who not only nominated him augur, but accepted him as his colleague in
the consulship (30). He had the satisfaction of carrying out the decree
which ordered that all the statues of Antony should be demolished, and
thus "the divine justice reserved the completion of Antony's punishment
for the house of Cicero" (Plutarch). He was subsequently appointed
proconsul of Asia or Syria, but nothing further is known of his life. In
spite of his debauchery, there is no doubt that he was a man of
considerable education and no mean soldier, while Brutus, in a letter to
his father (_Epp. ad Brutum_, ii. 3), even goes so far as to say that
the son would be capable of attaining the highest honours without
borrowing from the father's reputation.

  See Plutarch, _Cicero, Brutus_; Appian, _Bell. Civ._ ii. 20. 51, iv.
  20; Dio Cassius xlv. 15, xlvi. 18, li. 19; Cicero's _Letters_ (ed.
  Tyrrell and Purser); G. Boissier, _Cicero and His Friends_ (Eng.
  trans., 1897), pp. 104-107.


4. QUINTUS TULLIUS CICERO (_c_. 67-43 B.C.), son of Quintus Tullius
Cicero (brother of the orator). He accompanied his uncle Marcus to
Cilicia, and, in the hope of obtaining a reward, repaid his kindness by
informing Caesar of his intention of leaving Italy. After the battle of
Pharsalus he joined his father in abusing his uncle as responsible for
the condition of affairs, hoping thereby to obtain pardon from Caesar.
After the death of Caesar he attached himself to Mark Antony, but, owing
to some fancied slight, he deserted to Brutus and Cassius. He was
included in the proscription lists, and was put to death with his father
in 43. In his last moments he refused under torture to disclose his
father's hiding-place. His father, who in his concealment was a witness
of what was taking place, thereupon gave himself up, stipulating that he
and his son should be executed at the same time.

  See Cicero, _ad Att._ x. 4. 6, 7. 3; xiv. 20. 5; Dio Cassius xlvii. 10.


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] _Brutus_, Sec. 316 "(Molon) dedit operam ... ut nimis redundantis nos
    et supra fluentis iuvenili quadam dicendi impunitate et licentia
    reprimeret et quasi extra ripas diffluentis coerceret."

  [2] According to Plutarch she urged her husband to take vigorous
    action against Catiline, who had compromised her half-sister Fabia,
    a vestal virgin; also to give evidence against Clodius, being
    jealous of his sister Clodia.

  [3] Caesar, at one time, offered him a place on the coalition, which
    on his refusal became a triumvirate (_Att._ ii. 3. 3; _Prov. Cons._
    41), and afterwards a post on his commission for the division of the
    Campanian land, or a _legatio libera_.

  [4] _Att._ vii. 8. 5 "est enim [Greek: amorphon antipoliteuomenou
    chreopheileten] esse."

  [5] She was married in 63 B.C. to C. Calpurnius Piso Frugi, whom
    Cicero found a model son-in-law. He appears to have died before 56,
    since in that year Tullia was betrothed to Furius Crassipes
    (quaestor in Bithynia in 51). It is not known if this marriage
    actually took place.

  [6] That the loss of his triumph rankled in his mind may be seen
    from _Brutus_, Sec. 255: "hanc gloriam ... tuae quidem supplicationi
    non, sed triumphis multorum antepono."

  [7] _Fam._ xi. 20 "laudandum adolescentem, ornandum, tollendum."

  [8] With these it is usual to include a treatise to Herennius by an
    anonymous author, a contemporary of Sulla, in modern times generally
    identified with a person named Cornificius, quoted by Quintilian
    (iii. 1. 21). This is a manual of rhetoric derived from Greek
    sources with illustrations of figures drawn from Roman orators.
    Cicero's juvenile work _de Inventione_ appears to be drawn partly
    from this and partly from a treatise by Hermagoras. This is a slight
    production and does not require detailed notice. Other minor works
    written in later life, such as the _Partitiones Oratoriae_, a
    catechism of rhetoric, in which instruction is given by Cicero to
    his son Marcus; the _Topica_, and an introduction to a translation
    of the speeches delivered by Demosthenes and Aeschines for and
    against Ctesiphon, styled _de optimo genere oratorum_, also need
    only be mentioned.

  [9] _Orator_, Sec. 214 "patris dictum sapiens temeritas fili
    c[=o]mpr[)o]b[=a]v[)i]t--hoc dichoreo tantus clamor contionis
    excitatus est ut admirabile esset. Quaero, nonne id numerus
    efficerit? Verborum ordinem immuta, fac sic: 'Comprobavit fili
    temeritas' jam nihil erit."

  [10] This theory is partly anticipated by Terentianus Maurus (c.
    A.D. 290), who says of the cretic (v. 1440 sqq.):--

      "Plurimum orantes decebit quando paene in ultimo
       Obtinet sedem beatam, terminet si clausulam
       Dactylus spondeus imam, nec trochaeum respuo;
       Plenius tractatur istud arte prosa rhetorum."

  [11] _Orator_, Sec. 212 "cursum contentiones magis requirunt,
    expositiones rerum tarditatem."

  [12] Markland and F.A. Wolf first rejected them.

  [13] In the speeches generally _L_+_V_=86%. In the _de Domo_ the
    proportion is 88 and in the _pro Marcello_ 87%.

  [14] Quintil. iv. 1. 68. It is possible that the writer may have
    used a quotation preserved from a real speech by Quintilian.

  [15] Tacitus, _Dial._ 22 "omnis clausulas uno et eodem modo
    determinet."

  [16] Ed. P. Piper, p. 861.

  [17] _Philologus_ (1886), Suppl. Bd. v.

  [18] Jaffe, _Bibl. Rer. German._, i. 326.

  [19] Delisle, _Cabinet des MSS._, ii 459.

  [20] "Statilius Maximus rursus emendavi ad Tironem et Laeccanianum
    et dom. et alios veteres III." He was a grammarian who lived at the
    end of the 2nd century.

  [21] _Epist._ 69 "Tullianas epistulas quas misisti cum nostris
    conferri faciam ut ex utrisque, si possit fieri, veritas
    exsculpatur."

  [22] Nolhac, _Petrarque et l'humanisme_, pp. 216-223.

  [23] Lehmann, _De Ciceronis ad Atticum epp. recensendis_, p. 128.

  [24] _Philologus_, 1901, p. 216.

  [25] _Anecdota Oxoniensia_, Classical Series, part ix. (W. Petersen).

  [26] _Anecdota Oxoniensia_, Classical Series, part x. (A.C. Clark).




CICERONE, a guide, one who conducts visitors to museums, galleries, &c,
and explains matters of archaeological, antiquarian, historic or
artistic interest. The word is presumably taken from Marcus Tullius
Cicero, as a type of learning and eloquence. The _New English
Dictionary_ finds examples of the use earlier in English than Italian,
the earliest quotation being from Addison's _Dialogues on Medals_
(published posthumously 1726). It appears that the word was first
applied to "learned antiquarians who show and explain to foreigners the
antiquities and curiosities of the country" (quotation of 1762 in the
_New English Dictionary_).




CICHLID (_Cichlidae_), a family of Acanthopterygian fishes, related to
the perches and wrasses, and confined to the fresh and brackish waters
of Central and South America, Africa, Syria, and India and Ceylon. It
has recently assumed special importance through the large number of
genera and species, many of them showing extraordinary modifications of
the dentition, which have been discovered in tropical Africa, especially
in the great lakes Victoria, Tanganyika and Nyasa. About 180 species are
known from Africa (with Syria and Madagascar), 150 from America, and 3
from India and Ceylon. They were formerly known under the inappropriate
name of _Chromides_.

These fish are further remarkable for their nursing habits. It was
formerly believed that the male takes charge of the eggs, and later the
young, by sheltering them in the mouth and pharynx. This may still be
true of some of the American species, but a long series of recent
observations have shown that this most efficacious parental care
devolves invariably on the female in the African and Syrian species. We
are now acquainted with a large number of species in which this
extraordinary habit has been observed, the number having lately been
greatly increased by the collections made in Lakes Tanganyika and
Victoria.

L. Lortet had described a fish from Lake Tiberias in which he believed
he had observed the male take up the eggs after their deposition and
retain them in his mouth and pharynx long after eclosion, in fact until
the young are able to shift for themselves, and this fish he named
_Chromis paterfamilias_. A. Guenther had also ascribed the same sex to a
fish from Natal, _Chromis philander_, observed by N. Abraham to have
similar habits. G.A. Boulenger has since had an opportunity to examine
the latter specimen and found it to be a female, as in all other nursing
individuals from various parts of Africa, previously observed by
himself; whilst J. Pellegrin has acertained the female sex of a specimen
with eggs in the mouth presented to the Paris museum by Lortet as his
_Chromis paterfamilias_ (= _Tilapia simonis_). Further observations by
Pellegrin on _Tilapia galilaea_ and _Pelmatochromis lateralis_, by E.
Schoeller on _Paralilapia multicolor_, have led to the same result.

It therefore remains unproven whether in any of the African _Cichlidae_
the buccal "incubation," as it has been called by Pellegrin, devolves on
the male; the instances previously adduced being unsupported by the only
trustworthy evidence--an examination of the genital glands.

The relative size and number of the eggs thus taken charge of vary very
much according to the species. Thus they may be moderately large and
numerous (100 to 200) in _Tilapia nilotica_ and _galilaea_, larger and
only about 30 in number in _Paratilapia multicolor_, while in _Tropheus
moorii_, a fish measuring only 110 mm., the eggs filling the mouth and
pharynx measure 4 mm. in diameter and are only four in number, they
being proportionally the largest Teleostome eggs known. In _Paratilapia
pfefferi_, a fish measuring 75 mm., the eggs found in the pharynx were
only about a dozen in number, and they measure 2-1/2 mm. in diameter. In
_Tilapia dardennii_, which grows to a length of 240 mm., a score of eggs
fills the mouth and pharynx, and each measures 5 to 6 mm. in diameter,
an enormous size for so small a fish.

Pellegrin has made the interesting observation on _Tilapia galilaea_
that while the eggs are developing in the bucco-pharyngeal cavity the
ovarian eggs are rapidly growing towards maturity, so that a fresh
deposition of ova may almost immediately follow the release of the young
fishes from maternal care.    (G. A. B.)




CICISBEO (Ital.; of uncertain origin; perhaps an inversion of _bel
cece_, "beautiful chick (pea)," or from Fr. _chiche beau_, with same
meaning), the term in Italy from the 17th century onwards for a dangler
about women. The cicisbeo was the professed gallant of a married woman,
who attended her at all public entertainments, it being considered
unfashionable for the husband to be escort.




CICOGNARA, LEOPOLDO, COUNT (1767-1834), Italian archaeologist and writer
on art, was born at Ferrara on the 17th of November 1767. Mathematical
and physical science diverted him a while; but his bent was decided, and
not even the notice of such men as Spallanzani and Scarpa could make a
savant of him. A residence of some years at Rome, devoted to painting
and the study of the antiquities and galleries of the Eternal City, was
followed by a visit to Naples and Sicily, and by the publication, at
Palermo, of his first work, a poem of no merit. The island explored, he
betook himself to Florence, Milan, Bologna and Venice, acquiring a
complete archaeological knowledge of these and other cities. In 1795 he
took up his abode at Modena, and was for twelve years engaged in
politics, becoming a member of the legislative body, a councillor of
state, and minister plenipotentiary of the Cisalpine Republic at Turin.
Napoleon decorated him with the Iron Crown; and in 1808 he was made
president of the Academy of the Fine Arts at Venice, a post in which he
did good work for a number of years. In 1808 appeared his treatise _Del
bello ragionamenti_, dedicated in glowing terms to Napoleon. This was
followed (1813-1818) by his _magnum opus_, the _Storia delta scultura
dal suo risorgimento in Italia al secolo di Napoleone_, in the
composition of which he had been encouraged and advised by Giordano and
Wilhelm Schlegel (1767-1845). The book was designed to complete the
works of Winckelmann and D'Agincourt, and is illustrated with 180 plates
in outline. In 1814, on the fall of Napoleon, Cicognara was patronized
by Francis I. of Austria, and published (1815-1820), under the auspices
of that sovereign, his _Fabbriche piu cospicue di Venezia_, two superb
folios, containing some 150 plates. Charged by the Venetians with the
presentation of their gifts to the empress Caroline at Vienna, Cicognara
added to the offering an illustrated catalogue of the objects it
comprised; this book, _Omaggio delle Provincie Venete alla maesta di
Carolina Augusta_, has since become of great value to the bibliophilist.
Reduced to poverty by these splendid editorial speculations, Cicognara
contrived to alienate the imperial favour by his political opinions. He
left Venice for Rome; his library was offered for sale; and in 1821 he
published at Pisa a _catalogue raisonne_, rich in bibliographical lore,
of this fine collection, the result of thirty years of loving labour,
which in 1824 was purchased _en bloc_ by Pope Leo XII., and added to the
Vatican library. The other works of Cicognara are--the _Memorie storiche
de' litterati ed artisti Ferraresi_ (1811); the _Vite de' piu insigni
pittori e sculiori Ferraresi_, MS.; the _Memorie spettanti alla storia
della calcografia_ (1831); and a large number of dissertations on
painting, sculpture, engraving and other kindred subjects. (See Papoli,
in No. II of the _Exile_, a print written and published by Italian
refugees.) Cicognara's work in the academy at Venice, of which he became
president in 1808, had important results in the increase in number of
the professors, the improvement in the courses of study, the institution
of prizes, and the foundation of a gallery for the reception of Venetian
pictures. He died on the 5th of March 1834.

  See Zanetti, _Cenni biografici di Leopoldo Cicognara_ (Venice, 1834);
  Malmani, _Memorie del conte Leopoldo Cicognara_ (Venice, 1888).




CID, THE, the favourite hero of Spain, and the most prominent figure in
her literature. The name, however, is so obscured by myth and fable as
scarcely to belong to history. So extravagant are the deeds ascribed to
him, and so marvellous the attributes with which he has been clothed by
the fond idolatry of his countrymen, that by some he has been classed
with the Amadises and the Orlandos whose exploits he emulated. The
Jesuit Masdeu stoutly denies that he had any real existence, and this
heresy has not wanted followers even in Spain. The truth of the matter,
however, has been expressed by Cervantes, through the mouth of the Canon
in _Don Quixote _: "There is no doubt there was such a man as the Cid,
but much doubt whether he achieved what is attributed to him." The
researches of Professor Dozy, of Leiden, have amply confirmed this
opinion. There is a Cid of history and a Cid of romance, differing very
materially in character, but each filling a large space in the annals of
his country, and exerting a singular influence in the development of the
national genius.

The Cid of history, though falling short of the poetical ideal which the
patriotism of his countrymen has so long cherished, is still the
foremost man of the heroical period of Spain--the greatest warrior
produced out of the long struggle between Christian and Moslem, and the
perfect type of the Castilian of the 12th century. Rodrigo Diaz, called
de Bivar, from the place of his birth, better known by the title given
him by the Arabs as the _Cid_ (_El Seid_, the lord), and _El Campeador_,
the champion _par excellence_, was of a noble family, one of whose
members in a former generation had been elected judge of Castile. The
date of his birth cannot be fixed with any certainty, but it was
probably between 1030 and 1040. As Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar he is first
mentioned in a charter of Ferdinand I. of the year 1064. The legends
which speak of the Cid as accompanying this monarch in his expeditions
to France and Italy must be rejected as purely apocryphal. Ferdinand, a
great and wise prince, under whom the tide of Moslem conquest was first
effectually stemmed, on his deathbed, in 1065, divided his territories
among his five children. Castile was left to his eldest son Sancho, Leon
to Alphonso, Galicia to Garcia, Zamora and Toro to his two daughters
Urraca and Elvira. The extinction of the western caliphate and the
dispersion of the once noble heritage of the Ommayads into numerous
petty independent states, had taken place some thirty years previously,
so that Castilian and Moslem were once again upon equal terms, the
country being almost equally divided between them. On both sides was
civil war, urged as fiercely as that against the common enemy, in which
the parties sought allies indiscriminately among Christians and
Mahommedans.

No condition of affairs could be more favourable to the genius of the
Cid. He rose to great distinction in the war between Sancho of Castile
and Sancho of Navarre, in which he won his name of _Campeador_, by
slaying the enemy's champion in single combat. In the quarrel between
Sancho and his brother Alphonso, Rodrigo Diaz espoused the cause of the
former, and it was he who suggested the perfidious stratagem by which
Sancho eventually obtained the victory and possession of Leon. Sancho
having been slain in 1072, while engaged in the siege of Zamora,
Alphonso returned from exile and occupied the vacant throne. One of the
most striking of the passages in the Cid's legendary history is that
wherein he is represented as forcing the new king to swear that he had
no part in his brother's death; but there was cause enough without this
for Alphonso's animosity against the man who had helped to despoil him
of his patrimony. For a time the Cid, already renowned throughout Spain
for his prowess in war, was even advanced by the king's favour and
entrusted with high commissions of state. In 1074 the Cid was wedded to
Ximena, daughter of the count of Oviedo, and granddaughter, by the
mother's side, of Alphonso V. The original deed of the marriage-contract
is extant. Some time afterwards the Cid was sent on an embassy to
collect tribute from Motamid, the king of Seville, whom he found engaged
in a war with Abdallah, the king of Granada. On Abdallah's side were
many Castilian knights, among them Count Garcia Ordonez, a prince of the
blood, whom the Cid endeavoured vainly to persuade of the disloyalty of
opposing their master's ally. In the battle which ensued under the walls
of Seville, Abdallah and his auxiliaries were routed with great
slaughter, the Cid returning to Burgos with many prisoners and a rich
booty. There fresh proofs of his prowess only served to kindle against
him the rancour of his enemies and the jealousy of the king. Garcia
Ordonez accused him to Alphonso of keeping back part of the tribute
received from Seville, and the king took advantage of the Cid's absence
on a raid against the Moors to banish him from Castile.

Henceforth Rodrigo Diaz began to live that life of a soldier of fortune
which has made him famous, sometimes fighting under the Christian
banner, sometimes under Moorish, but always for his own hand. At the
head of a band of 300 free lances he offered his services first to the
count of Barcelona; then, failing him, to Moktadir, the Arab king of
Saragossa, of the race of the Beni Houd. Under Moktadir, and his
successors Moutamin and Mostain, the Cid remained for nearly eight
years, fighting their battles against Mahommedan and Christian, when not
engaged upon his own, and being admitted almost to a share of their
royal authority. He made more than one attempt to be reconciled with
Alphonso, but, his overtures being rejected, he turned his arms against
the enemies of the Beni Houd, extending their dominions at the expense
of the Christian states of Aragon and Barcelona, and harrying even the
border lands of Castile. Among the enterprises of the Cid the most
famous was that against Valencia, then the richest and most flourishing
city of the peninsula, and an object of cupidity to both Christian and
Moslem. The Cid appeared before the place at the head of an army of 7000
men, for the greater part Mahommedans. In vain did the Valencians
implore succour from the emir of Cordova, and from their co-religionists
in other parts of the peninsula. In defiance of an army which marched to
the relief of the beleaguered city under Yusef the Almoravide, the Cid
took Valencia after a siege of nine months, on the 15th of June
1094--the richest prize which up to that time had been recovered from
the Moors. The conditions of the surrender were all violated--the cadi
Ibn Djahhaff burnt alive, a vast number of the citizens who had escaped
death by famine slaughtered, and the possessions divided among the
Campeador's companions. In other respects the Cid appears to have used
his victory mildly, ruling his kingdom, which now embraced nearly the
whole of Valencia and Murcia, for four years with vigour and justice. At
length the Almoravides, whom he had several times beaten, marched
against him in great force, inflicting a crushing defeat at Cuenca upon
the Cid's army, under his favourite lieutenant, Alvar Fanez. The blow
was a fatal one to the aged and war-worn Campeador, who died of anger
and grief in July 1099. His widow maintained Valencia for three years
longer against the Moors, but was at last compelled to evacuate the
city, taking with her the body of the Cid to be buried in the monastery
of San Pedro at Cardena, in the neighbourhood of Burgos. Here, in the
centre of a small chapel, surrounded by his chief companions-in-arms, by
Alvar Fanez Minaya, Pero Bermudez, Martin Antolinez and Pelaez the
Asturian, were placed the remains of the mighty warrior, the truest of
Spanish heroes, the embodiment of all the national virtues and most of
the national vices. The bones have since been removed to the town hall
of Burgos. Philip II. tried to get him canonized, but Rome objected, and
not without reason.

Whatever were his qualities as a fighter, the Cid was but indifferent
material out of which to make a saint,--a man who battled against
Christian and against Moslem with equal zeal, who burnt churches and
mosques with equal zest, who ravaged, plundered and slew as much for a
livelihood as for any patriotic or religious purpose, and was in truth
almost as much of a Mussulman as a Christian in his habits and his
character. His true place in history is that of the greatest of the
_guerrilleros_--the perfect type of that sort of warrior in which, from
the days of Viriathus to those of Juan Diaz, El Empecinado, the soil of
Spain has been most productive.

The Cid of romance, the Cid of a thousand battles, legends and dramas,
the Cid as apotheosized in literature, the Cid invoked by good Spaniards
in every national crisis, whose name is a perpetual and ever-present
inspiration to Spanish patriotism, is a very different character from
the historical Rodrigo Diaz--the freebooter, the rebel, the consorter
with the infidels and the enemies of Spain. He is the Perfect One, the
Born in a Happy Hour, "My Cid," the invincible, the magnanimous, the
all-powerful. He is the type of knightly virtue, the mirror of patriotic
duty, the flower of all Christian grace. He is Roland and Bayard in one.
In the popular literature of Spain he holds a place such as has no
parallel in other countries. From an almost contemporary period he has
been the subject of song; and he who was chanted by wandering minstrels
in the 12th century has survived to be hymned in revolutionary odes of
the 19th. In a barbarous Latin poem, written in celebration of the
conquest of Almeria by Alphonso VII. in the year 1147, we have the bard
testifying to the supereminence of the Cid among his country's heroes:--

  "Ipse Rodericus _Mio_ Cid semper vocatus,
  De quo cantatur quod ab hostibus haud superatus,
  Qui domuit Mauros, comites domuit quoque nostros."

Within a hundred years of his death the Cid had become the centre of a
whole system of myths. The _Poema del Cid_, written in the latter half
of the 12th century, has scarcely any trace of a historical character.
Already the Cid had reached his apotheosis, and Castilian loyalty could
not consent to degrade him when banished by his sovereign:--

  "Dios, que buen vassalo si oviese buen senor!"

cry the weeping citizens of Burgos, as they speed the exile on his way.

The Poem of the Cid is but a fragment of 3744 lines; written in a
barbarous style, in rugged assonant rhymes, and a rude Alexandrine
measure, but it glows with the pure fire of poetry, and is full of a
noble simplicity and a true epical grandeur, invaluable as a living
picture of the age. The ballads relating to the Cid, of which nearly two
hundred are extant, are greatly inferior in merit, though some of them
are not unworthy to be ranked with the best in this kind. Duran believes
the greater part of them to have been written in the 16th century. A few
betray, not more by the antiquity of their language than by their
natural and simple tone, traces of an earlier age and a freer national
life. They all take great liberties with history, thus belying the
opinion of Sancho Panza that "the ballads are too old to tell lies."
Such of them as are not genuine relics of the 12th century are either
poetical versions of the leading episodes in the hero's life as
contained in the _Chronicle_, that _Chronicle_ itself having been
doubtless composed out of still earlier legends as sung by the wandering
_juglares_, or pure inventions of a later time, owing their inspiration
to the romances of chivalry. In these last the ballad-mongers, not to
let their native hero be outdone by the Amadises, the Esplandians, and
the Felixmartes, engage him in the most extravagant adventures--making
war upon the king of France and upon the emperor, receiving embassies
from the soldan of Persia, bearding the pope at Rome, and performing
other feats not mentioned even in the Poem or the Chronicle. The last
and the worst of the Cid ballads are those which betray by their frigid
conceits and feeble mimicry of the antique the false taste and
essentially unheroic spirit of the age of Philip II. As for the
innumerable other poems, dramas and tales which have been founded on the
legend of the Cid, from the days of Guillen de Castro and Diamante to
those of Quintana and Trueba, they serve merely to prove the abiding
popularity of the national hero in his native land.

  The chief sources from which the story of the Cid is to be gathered
  are, first, the Latin chronicle discovered by Risco in the convent of
  San Isidro at Leon, proved by internal evidence to have been written
  before 1258; the _Cronica General_, composed by Alphonso X. in the
  second half of the 13th century, partly (so far as relates to the Cid)
  from the above, partly from contemporary Arabic histories, and partly
  from tradition; the _Cronica del Cid_, first published in 1512, by
  Juan de Velorado, abbot of the monastery of San Pedro at Cardena,
  which is a compilation from the last, interlarded with new fictions
  due to the piety of the compiler; lastly, various Arabic manuscripts,
  some of contemporary date, which are examined and their claims weighed
  in the second volume of Professor Dozy's _Recherches sur l'histoire
  politique et litteraire de l'Espagne pendant le moyen age_ (Leiden,
  1849). Huber, Mueller, and Ferdinand Wolf are among the leading
  authorities in the history and literature of the Cid. M. Damas Hinard
  has published the poem, with a literal French translation and notes,
  and John Hookham Frere has rendered it into English with extraordinary
  spirit and fidelity. The largest collection of the Cid ballads is that
  of Durant, in the _Romancero general_, in two volumes, forming part of
  Rivadeneyra's _Biblioteca de autores espanoles_.    (H. E. W.)




CIDER, or CYDER (from the Fr. _cidre_, derived from the Lat. _sicera_ or
_cisera_, Gr. [Greek: sikera], Heb. _sh[=e]k[=a]r_, strong drink), an
alcoholic beverage made from apples.

Cider and perry (the corresponding beverage made from pears) are liquors
containing from as little as 2% of alcohol to 7 or 8%, seldom more, and
rarely as much, produced by the vinous fermentation of the expressed
juice of apples and pears; but cider and perry of prime quality can only
be obtained from vintage fruit, that is, apples and pears grown for the
purpose and unsuited for the most part for table use. A few table apples
make good cider, but the best perry is only to be procured from pears
too harsh and astringent for consumption in any other form. The making
of perry is in England confined, in the main, to the counties of
Hereford, Worcester and Gloucester. These three counties, together with
Somerset and Devon, constitute, too, the principal cider-making district
of the country; but the industry, which was once more widely spread,
still survives an Norfolk, and has lately been revived in Kent, though,
in both these counties, much of the fruit used in cider-making is
imported from the west country and some from the continent. Speaking
generally, the cider of Herefordshire is distinguished for its lightness
and briskness, that of Somerset for its strength, and that of Devonshire
for its lusciousness.

Cider used to be made in the south of Ireland, but the industry had
almost become extinct until revived by the Department of Agriculture,
which in 1904 erected a cider-making plant at Drogheda, Co. Louth, gave
assistance to private firms at Dungarvan, Co. Waterford, and Fermoy, Co.
Cork, and provided a travelling mill and press to work in the South
Riding of Co. Tipperary. The results have been highly satisfactory, a
large quantity of good cider having been produced.

Inasmuch as English orchards are crowded with innumerable varieties of
cider apples, many of them worthless, a committee composed of members of
the Herefordshire Fruit-Growers' Association and of the Fruit and
Chrysanthemum Society was appointed in 1899 to make a selection of
vintage apples and pears best suited to Herefordshire and the districts
adjoining. The following is the list drawn up by the committee:--

_Apples_.--Old Foxwhelp, Cherry Pearmain, Cowarne Red, Dymock Red,
Eggleton Styre, Kingston Black or Black Taunton, Skyrme's Kernel,
Spreading Redstreak, Carrion apple, Cherry Norman, Cummy Norman, Royal
Wilding, Handsome Norman, Strawberry Norman, White Bache or Norman,
Broad-leaved Norman, Argile Grise, Bramtot, De Boutville, Frequin
Audievre, Medaille d'Or, the last five being French sorts introduced
from Normandy about 1880, and now established in the orchards of
Herefordshire.

_Pears_.--Taynton Squash, Barland, Oldfield, Moorcroft or Malvern Hill,
Red-pear, Thurston's Red, Longland, Pine pear.

No equally authoritative selection has been made for the Somerset and
Devon districts, but the following varieties of cider apples are held in
good repute in those parts:--Kingston Black, Jersey Chisel, Hangdowns,
Fair Maid of Devon, Woodbine, Duck's Bill, Slack-my-Girdle, Bottle
Stopper, Golden Ball, Sugar-loaf, Red Cluster, Royal Somerset and
Cadbury (believed to be identical with the Royal Wilding of
Herefordshire). As a rule the best cider apples are of small size.
"Petites pommes, gros cidre," say the French.

Cider and perry not being taxable liquors in England, it is impossible
to estimate with even an approach to accuracy the amount of the annual
production of them. In 1896 Mr Sampson, the then secretary of the
National Association of English Cider-makers, in his evidence before the
royal commission on agriculture, put it at 551/2 million gallons. Since
that date the increased demand for these native wines has given such an
impetus to the industry that this figure might with safety be doubled.
In France official statistics are available, and these show not only
that that country is the largest producer of cider (including perry) in
the world, but that the output is yearly increasing. A great proportion,
however, of what passes as cider in France is _boisson_, i.e. cider to
which water has been added in the process of making or at a subsequent
stage; while much of the perry is disposed of to the makers of
champagne. Although some cider is made in sixty-five departments, by far
the largest amount comes from the provinces of Normandy and Brittany. In
Germany cider-making is a considerable and growing industry.
Manufactories on a small scale exist in north Germany, as at Guben and
Gruenberg, but the centre of the industry is at Frankfort-on-Main,
Sachsenhausen and the neighbourhood, where there are five large and
twenty-five small factories employing upwards of 1000 hands. Large
quantities of cider fruit are imported from foreign countries, as,
speaking generally, the native-grown fruit used in Germany for
cider-making consists of inferior and undersized table apples not worth
marketing. The bottled cider for export is treated much like champagne,
and is usually fortified and flavoured until, in the words of an
acknowledged French authority, M. Truelle, it becomes a hybrid between
cider and white wine rather than pure cider.

The practice which formerly prevailed in England of making cider on the
farm from the produce of the home orchards has within the last few years
been to a large extent given up, and, as in Germany and many parts of
France, farmers now sell their fruit to owners of factories where the
making of cider and perry is carried on as a business of itself. In
these hand or horse power is superseded by steam and sometimes by
electricity, as in the factory of E. Seigel in Gruenberg, and the
old-fashioned appliances of the farm by modern mills and presses capable
of turning out large quantities of liquor. The clearing of the juice,
too, which used to be effected by running it through bags, is in the
factories accomplished more quickly by forcing it through layers of
compressed cotton in a machine of German origin known as Lumley's
filter. The actual process of cider and perry making is simple, and
resembles that of making grape wine. The fruit is ground or crushed in
machines of various construction, the latest and most powerful being of
American origin. The resulting pomace is pressed for the extraction of
the juice, which is then run into vats, where it undergoes fermentation,
which, converting the saccharine ingredients into alcohol and carbonic
acid gas, turns it into cider. Cider made from a judicious mixture of
several varieties of apples is to be preferred to cider made from one
variety only, inasmuch as it is less difficult to find the requisite
degrees of richness, astringency and flavour in several varieties than
in one; but the contrary is the case with pears, of which the most noted
sorts, such as the Barland, the Taynton Squash and the Oldfield, produce
the best perry when unmixed with other varieties. Some fining of an
albuminous nature is generally requisite in order to clear the juice and
facilitate its passage through the filter, but the less used the better.
The simplest and cleanest is skim milk whipped to a froth and blended
gradually with the cider as it is pumped into the mixing vat. Many
nostrums are sold for the clearing of cider, but none is necessary and
most are harmful.

Of late years the practice has largely obtained of using preservatives
for the purpose of checking fermentation. The principal preservatives
employed are salicylic and boracic acids and formalin. The two former
are ineffective except in quantities likely to prove hurtful to health,
while formalin, in itself a powerful and deleterious drug, though it
stops fermentation, renders the liquor cloudy and undrinkable. Other
foreign ingredients, such as saccharin and porcherine, both coal-tar
derivatives--the latter a recent discovery of a French chemist, after
whom it is named--are used by many makers, chiefly for the purpose of
rendering bad and therefore unwholesome cider palatable and saleable.
Provided that cider and perry be properly filtered, and attention paid
to perfect cleanliness of vessels and appliances, there is no need of
preservatives or sweeteners, and their use ought to be forbidden by law
in England, as it is in most continental states in the case of liquors
to be consumed within their borders, though not, it is significant to
note, in the case of liquors intended for exportation.

The wholesome properties of cider and perry when pure and unadulterated
have been recognized by medical men, who recommend them as pleasant and
efficacious remedies in affections of a gouty or rheumatic nature,
maladies which, strange to say, these very liquors were once supposed to
foster, if not actually to originate. Under a similar false impression
the notion is general that hard rough cider is apt to cause diarrhoea,
colic and kindred complaints, whereas, as a fact, disorders of this kind
are conspicuous by their absence in those parts of the country where
rough cider and perry constitute the staple drinks of the
working-classes. This is especially the case in Herefordshire, which is
said also to be the only county in England whence no instance of the
occurrence of Asiatic cholera has ever been reported.

The importance which the cider industry has of late attained in England
has been marked by the establishment of the National Fruit and Cider
Institute at Long Ashton near Bristol. This institute, founded in 1903
at the instance of the Board of Agriculture, is supported by grants from
the board, the Bath and West of England Society, the councils of the
cider-producing counties of Hereford, Gloucester, Worcester, Monmouth,
Devon and Somerset, and by subscription of members. The objects of the
institute are the promotion of research into the causes of the changes
which occur in cider and perry during fermentation, with the view of
imparting to these liquors a degree of exactitude hitherto unattainable;
the adoption from time to time of improved machinery and methods in
cider-making; the detection of adulteration; the giving of instruction
in the principles and practice of cider-making; the publication of
reports detailing the results of the researches undertaken at the
institute; the testing and selection of the sorts of fruit best suited
for vintage purposes; the propagation of useful varieties likely from
neglect to go out of cultivation; and the conducting of experiments in
regard to the best systems of planting and protecting young fruit trees.

Fruit-growers who look to cider-making "as a means of utilizing
windfalls and small and inferior apples of cooking and dessert varieties
not worth sending to market" should be warned that it is as important to
the cider industry that good cider only should be on sale as it is to
the fruit-growing industry that good fruit only should be sent to
market. The juice of the apple is naturally affected by the condition of
the fruit itself, and if this be unripe, unsound or worm-eaten the cider
made from it will be inferior to that made from full-grown, ripe and
sound fruit. If such fruit be not good enough to send to market, neither
will the cider made from it be good enough to place before the public.
Nevertheless, it may furnish a sufficiently palatable drink for home
consumption, and may therefore be so utilized. But when, as happens from
time to time in fruit-growing districts, there is a glut, and even the
best table fruit is not saleable at a profit, then, indeed, cider-making
is a means of storing in a liquid form what would otherwise be left to
rot on the ground; whilst if a proportion of vintage fruit were mixed
therewith, a drink would be produced which would not discredit the cider
trade, and would bring a fair return to the maker.    (C. W. R. C.)




CIENFUEGOS, NICASIO ALVAREZ DE (1764-1809), Spanish poet and publicist,
was born at Madrid on the 14th of December 1764. He studied with
distinction at Salamanca, where he met the poet Melendez Valdes. His
poems, published in 1778, immediately attracted attention. He was
successively editor of the _Gaceta_ and _Mercurio_, and was condemned to
death for having published an article against Napoleon; on the petition
of his friends, he was respited and deported to France; he died at
Orthez early in the following year. His verses are modelled on those of
Melendez Valdes; though not deficient in technique or passion, they are
often disfigured by spurious sentimentality and by the flimsy philosophy
of the age. Cienfuegos was blamed for an unsparing use of both archaisms
and gallicisms. His plays, _Pitaco, Zoraida, La Condesa de Castilla_ and
_Idomeneo_, four tragedies on the pseudo-classic French model, and _Las
Hermanas generosas_, a comedy, are deservedly forgotten.




CIENFUEGOS (originally FERNANDINA DE JAGUA), one of the principal cities
of Cuba, in Santa Clara province, near the central portion of the S.
coast, 195 m. E.S.E. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 30,100. Cienfuegos is served
by the United railways and by steamers connecting with Santiago,
Batabano, Trinidad and the Isle of Pines. It lies about 6 m. from the
sea on a peninsula in the magnificent landlocked bay of Jagua. Vessels
drawing 16 ft. have direct access to the wharves. A circular railway
about the water-front, wharves and warehouses facilitates the loading
and unloading of vessels. The city streets are broad and regularly laid
out. There is a handsome cathedral; and the Tomas Terry theatre (given
to the city by the heirs of one of the millionaire sugar planters of the
jurisdiction), the governor's house (1841-1844), the military and
government hospitals, market place and railway station are worthy of
note. In the Cathedral Square (Plaza de Armas), embracing two
city-squares, and shaded--like all the plazas of the island--with
laurels and royal palms, are a statue of Isabel the Catholic, and two
marble lions given by Queen Isabel II.; elsewhere there are statues of
General Clouet and Marshal Serrano, once captain-general. The city is
lighted by gas and electricity, has an abundant water-supply, and cable
connexion with Europe, the United States, other Antilles and South
America. The surrounding country is one of the prettiest and most
fertile regions in Cuba, varied with woods, rivers, rocky gulches,
beautiful cascades and charming tropic vegetation. Several of the
largest and finest sugar estates in the world are situated in the
vicinity, including the Soledad (with a botanical experiment station
maintained by Harvard University), the Terry and others--most of them
connected with the city by good driveways. Cienfuegos is a centre of the
sugar trade on the south coast; tobacco too is exported.

The bay of Jagua was visited by Columbus. The city was founded in 1819,
with the aid of the Spanish government, by a Louisianian, General Luis
de Clouet; it was destroyed by a hurricane and was rebuilt in 1825. Many
naturalized foreign Catholics, including Americans, were among the
original settlers. The settlement was first named in honour of Ferdinand
VII., and later in honour of Captain-General Jose Cienfuegos Jovellanos.
The harbour was known from the earliest times, and has been declared by
Mahan to be the most important of the Caribbean Sea for strategic
purposes. In 1740-1745 a fortification called Nuestra Senora de los
Angeles was erected at the entrance; it is still standing, on a steep
bluff overlooking the sea, and is one of the most picturesque of the old
fortifications of the island. On the 11th of May 1898 a force from two
vessels of the United States fleet under Admiral Schley, searching for
Cervera and blockading the port, cut two of the three cables here (at
Point Colorado, at the entrance of the harbour), and for the first time
in the Spanish-American War the American troops were under fire.




CIEZA, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia, on the
right bank of the river Segura, and on the Madrid-Cartagena railway.
Pop. (1900) 13,626. Cieza is built in a narrow bend of the Segura
valley, which is enclosed on the north by mountains, and on the south
broadens into a fertile plain, producing grain, wine, olives, raisins,
oranges and esparto grass. In the town itself there are flour and paper
mills, sawmills and brandy distilleries. Between 1870 and 1900 local
trade and population increased rapidly, owing partly to improved means
of communication; and the appearance of Cieza is thoroughly modern.




CIGAR, the common term for tobacco-leaf prepared for smoking by being
rolled into a short cylinder tapering to a point at the end which is
placed in the mouth, the other end, which is lighted, being usually cut
square (see TOBACCO). The Spanish _cigarro_ is of doubtful origin,
possibly connected with _cigarra_, a cicada, from its resemblance to the
body of that insect, or with _cigarral_, a word of Arabic origin meaning
a pleasure garden. The explanation that it comes from a Cuban word for a
certain species of tobacco is probably erroneous, since no native word
of the kind is known. The diminutive, _cigarette_, denotes a roll of cut
tobacco enclosed usually in thin paper, but sometimes also in
tobacco-leaf or the husk of Indian corn.




CIGNANI, CARLO (1628-1719), Italian painter, was born of a noble family
at Bologna, where he studied under Battista Cairo, and afterwards under
Francesco Albani. Though an intimate friend of the latter, and his most
famous disciple, Cignani was yet strongly and deeply influenced by the
genius of Correggio. His greatest work, moreover, the "Assumption of the
Virgin," round the cupola of the church of the Madonna della Fuoca at
Forli, which occupied him some twenty years, and is in some respects one
of the most remarkable works of art of the 17th century, is obviously
inspired from the more renowned fresco of Correggio in the cupola of the
cathedral of Parma. Cignani had some of the defects of his masters; his
elaborate finish, his audacious artificiality in the use of colour and
in composition, mark the disciple of Albani; but he imparted to his work
a more intellectual character than either of his models, and is not
without other remarkable merits of his own. As a man Cignani was
eminently amiable, unassuming and generous. His success, however, made
him many enemies; and the envy of some of these is said to have impelled
them to deface certain of his works. He accepted none of the honours
offered him by the duke of Parma and other princes, but lived and died
an artist. On his removal to Forli, where he died, the school he had
founded at Bologna was fain in some sort to follow its master. His most
famous pictures, in addition to the Assumption already cited, are--the
"Entry of Paul III. into Bologna"; the "Francois I. Touching for King's
Evil"; a "Power of Love," painted under a fine ceiling by Agostino
Carracci, on the walls of a room in the ducal palace at Parma; an "Adam
and Eve" (at the Hague); and two of "Joseph and Potiphar's Wife" (at
Dresden and Copenhagen). His son Felice (1660-1724) and nephew Paolo
(1709-1764) were also painters.




CIGOLI (or CIVOLI), LODOVICO CARDI DA(1559-1613), Italian painter,
architect and poet, was born at Cigoli in Tuscany. Educated under
Alessandro Allori and Santi di Tito, he formed a peculiar style by the
study at Florence of Michelangelo, Correggio, Andrea del Sarto and
Pontormo. Assimilating more of the second of these masters than of all
the others, he laboured for some years with success; but the attacks of
his enemies, and intense application to the production of a wax model of
certain anatomical preparations, induced an alienation of mind which
affected him for three years. At the end of this period he visited
Lombardy, whence he returned to Florence. There he painted an "Ecce
Homo," in competition with Passignani and Caravaggio, which gained the
prize. This work was afterwards taken by Bonaparte to the Louvre, and
was restored to Florence in 1815. Other important pictures are--a "St
Peter Healing the Lame Man," in St Peter's at Rome; a "Conversion of St
Paul," in the church of San Paolo fuori le Mura, and a "Story of
Psyche," in fresco, at the Villa Borghese; a "Martyrdom of Stephen,"
which earned him the name of the Florentine Correggio, a "Venus and
Satyr," a "Sacrifice of Isaac," a "Stigmata of St Francis," at Florence.
Cigoli, who was made a knight of Malta at the request of Pope Paul III.,
was a good and solid draughtsman and the possessor of a rich and
harmonious palette. He died, it is said, of grief at the failure of his
last fresco (in the Roman church of Santa Maria Maggiore), which is
rendered ridiculous by an abuse of perspective.




CILIA (plural of Lat. _cilium_, eyelash), in biology, the thread-like
processes by the vibration of which many lowly organisms, or the male
reproductive cells of higher organisms, move through water.




CILIATA (M. Pertz), one of the two divisions of Infusoria, characterized
by the permanent possession of cilia or organs derived from these
(cirrhi, membranelles, &c.), and possessing a single mouth (except in
the _Opalinopsidae_, all parasitic). They are the most highly
differentiated among the Protozoa.




CILICIA, in ancient geography, a district of Asia Minor, extending along
the south coast from the Alara Su, which separated it from Pamphylia, to
the Giaour Dagh (Mt. Amanus), which parted it from Syria. Its northern
limit was the crest of Mt. Taurus. It was naturally divided into Cilicia
Trachea, W. of the Lamas Su, and Cilicia Pedias, E. of that river.

Cilicia Trachea is a rugged mountain district formed by the spurs of
Taurus, which often terminate in rocky headlands with small sheltered
harbours,--a feature which, in classical times, made the coast a resort
of pirates, and, in the middle ages, led to its occupation by Genoese
and Venetian traders. The district is watered by the Geuk Su (Calycadnus
and its tributaries), and is covered to a large extent by forests, which
still, as of old, supply timber to Egypt and Syria. There were several
towns but no large trade centres. In the interior were Coropissus (Da
Bazar), Olba (Uzunjaburj), and, in the valley of the Calycadnus,
Claudiopolis (Mut) and Germanicopolis (Ermenek). On or near the coast
were Coracesium (Alaya), Selinus-Trajanopolis (Selinti), Anemourium
(Anamur), Kelenderis (Kilindria), Seleucia ad Calycadnum (Selefkeh),
Corycus (Korghoz) and Elaeusa-Sebaste (Ayash). Roads connected Laranda,
north of the Taurus, with Kelenderis and Seleucia.

Cilicia Pedias included the rugged spurs of Taurus and a large plain,
which consists, in great part, of a rich stoneless loam. Its eastern
half is studded with isolated rocky crags, which are crowned with the
ruins of ancient strongholds, and broken by the low hills that border
the plain of Issus. The plain is watered by the Cydnus (Tarsus Chai),
the Sarus (Sihun) and the Pyramus (Jihun), each of which brings down
much silt. The Sarus now enters the sea almost due south of Tarsus, but
there are clear indications that at one period it joined the Pyramus,
and that the united rivers ran to the sea west of Kara-tash. Such
appears to have been the case when Alexander's army crossed Cilicia. The
plain is extremely productive, though now little cultivated. Through it
ran the great highway, between the east and the west, on which stood
Tarsus on the Cydnus, Adana on the Sarus, and Mopsuestia (Missis) on the
Pyramus. North of the road between the two last places were
Sision-Flaviopolis (Sis), Anazarbus (Anazarba) and Hierapolis-Kastabala
(Budrum); and on the coast were Soli-Pompeiopolis, Mallus (Kara-tash),
Aegae (Ayash), Issus, Baiae (Piyas) and Alexandria ad Issum
(Alexandretta). The great highway from the west, on its long rough
descent from the Anatolian plateau to Tarsus, ran through a narrow pass
between walls of rock called the Cilician Gate, Ghulek Boghaz. After
crossing the low hills east of the Pyramus it passed through a masonry
(Cilician) gate, Demir Kapu, and entered the plain of Issus. From that
plain one road ran southward through a masonry (Syrian) gate to
Alexandretta, and thence crossed Mt. Amanus by the Syrian Gate, Beilan
Pass, to Antioch and Syria; and another ran northwards through a masonry
(Amanian) gate, south of Toprak Kaleh, and crossed Mt. Amanus by the
Amanian Gate, Baghche Pass, to North Syria and the Euphrates. By the
last pass, which was apparently unknown to Alexander, Darius crossed the
mountains prior to the battle of Issus. Both passes are short and easy,
and connect Cilicia Pedias geographically and politically with Syria
rather than with Asia Minor. Another important road connected Sision
with Cocysus and Melitene. In Roman times Cilicia exported the
goats'-hair cloth, Cilicium, of which tents were made.

The Cilicians appear as Khilikku in Assyrian inscriptions, and in the
early part of the first millennium B.C. were one of the four chief
powers of western Asia. It is generally assumed that they had previously
been subject to the Syro-Cappadocian empire; but, up to 1909 at all
events, "Hittite" monuments had not been found in Cilicia; and we must
infer that the "Hittite" civilizations which flourished in Cappadocia
and N. Syria, communicated with each other by passes E. of Amanus and
not by the Cilician Gates. Under the Persian empire Cilicia was
apparently governed by tributary native kings, who bore a name or title
graecized as Syennesis; but it was officially included in the fourth
satrapy by Darius. Xenophon found a queen in power, and no opposition
was offered to the march of Cyrus. Similarly Alexander found the Gates
open, when he came down from the plateau in 333 B.C.; and from these
facts it may be inferred that the great pass was not under direct
Persian control, but under that of a vassal power always ready to turn
against its suzerain. After Alexander's death it was long a battle
ground of rival marshals and kings, and for a time fell under Ptolemaic
dominion, but finally under that of the Seleucids, who, however, never
held effectually more than the eastern half. Cilicia Trachea became the
haunt of pirates, who were subdued by Pompey. Cilicia Pedias became
Roman territory in 103 B.C., and the whole was organized by Pompey, 64
B.C., into a province which, for a short time, extended to and included
part of Phrygia. It was reorganized by Caesar, 47 B.C., and about 27
B.C. became part of the province Syria-Cilicia-Phoenice. At first the
western district was left independent under native kings or
priest-dynasts, and a small kingdom, under Tarkondimotus, was left in
the east; but these were finally united to the province by Vespasian,
A.D. 74. Under Diocletian (circa 297), Cilicia, with the Syrian and
Egyptian provinces, formed the Diocesis Orientis. In the 7th century it
was invaded by the Arabs, who held the country until it was reoccupied
by Nicephorus II. in 965.

The Seljuk invasion of Armenia was followed by an exodus of Armenians
southwards, and in 1080 Rhupen, a relative of the last king of Ani,
founded in the heart of the Cilician Taurus a small principality, which
gradually expanded into the kingdom of Lesser Armenia. This Christian
kingdom--situated in the midst of Moslem states, hostile to the
Byzantines, giving valuable support to the crusaders, and trading with
the great commercial cities of Italy---had a stormy existence of about
300 years. Gosdantin I. (1095-1100) assisted the crusaders on their
march to Antioch, and was created knight and marquis. Thoros I.
(1100-1123), in alliance with the Christian princes of Syria, waged
successful war against Byzantines and Seljuks. Levond (Leo) II., "the
Great" (1185-1219), extended the kingdom beyond Mount Taurus and
established the capital at Sis. He assisted the crusaders, was crowned
king by the archbishop of Mainz, and married one of the Lusignans of
Cyprus. Haithon I. (1224-1269) made an alliance with the Mongols, who,
before their adoption of Islam, protected his kingdom from the Mamelukes
of Egypt. When Levond V. died (1342), John of Lusignan was crowned king
as Gosdantin IV.; but he and his successors alienated the Armenians by
attempting to make them conform to the Roman Church, and by giving all
posts of honour to Latins, and at last the kingdom, a prey to internal
dissensions, succumbed (1375) to the attacks of the Egyptians. Cilicia
Trachea was occupied by the Osmanlis in the 15th century, but Cilicia
Pedias was only added to the empire in 1515.

From 1833 to 1840 Cilicia formed part of the territories administered by
Mehemet Ali of Cairo, who was compelled to evacuate it by the allied
powers. Since that date it has formed the vilayet of Adana (q.v.).

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Beside the general authorities for ASIA MINOR,
  see:--W.B. Barker, _Lares and Penates_ (1853); V. Langlois, _Voyage
  dans la Cilicie_ (1861); F. Beaufort, _Karamania_ (1817); W.F.
  Ainsworth, _Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition_ (1888), and
  _Travels in Asia Minor_ (1842); R. Heberdey and A. Wilhelm, _Reisen in
  Kilikien_ (1896); D.G. Hogarth and J.A.R. Munro, _Mod. and Anc. Roads
  in E. Asia Minor_ (R.G.S. Supp. Papers, iii.) (1893); D.G. Hogarth, _A
  Wandering Scholar_ (1896); G.L. Schlumberger, _Un Empereur byzantin_
  (1890); T. Kotschy, _Reise in dem cilicschen Taurus_ (1858); H.C.
  Barkley, _Ride through Asia Minor and Armenia_ (1891); E.J. Davis,
  _Life in Asiatic Turkey_ (1879); J. Marquardt, _Roem.
  Staatsverwaltung_, i. (1874); J.R.S. Sterrett, _Wolfe Expedition_
  (1888). See also authorities under ARMENIA and MEHEMET ALI.
     (C. W. W.; D. G. H.)




CILLI, ULRICH, COUNT OF (1406-1456), son of Frederick II., count of
Cilli, and Elizabeth Frangepan. Of his youth we know nothing certain.
About 1432 he married Catherine, daughter of George Brankovich, despot
of Servia.

His influence in the troubled affairs of Hungary and the Empire early
overshadowed that of his father, together with whom he was made a prince
of the Empire by the emperor Sigismund (1436). Hence feuds with the
Habsburgs, wounded in their rights as overlords of Cilli, ending,
however, in an alliance with the Habsburg king Albert II., who made
Ulrich for a short while his lieutenant in Bohemia. After Albert's death
(1439) Ulrich took up the cause of his widow Elizabeth, and presided at
the coronation of her infant son Ladislaus V. Posthumus (1440). A feud
with the Hunyadis followed, embittered by John Hunyadi's attack on
George Brankovich of Servia (1444) and his refusal to recognize Ulrich's
claim to Bosnia on the death of Stephen Tvrtko (1443). In 1446 Hunyadi,
now governor of Hungary, harried the Cilli territories in
Croatia-Slavonia; but his power was broken at Kossovo (1448), and Count
Ulrich was able to lead a successful crusade, nominally in the Habsburg
interest, into Hungary (1450). In 1452 he forced the emperor Frederick
III. to hand over the boy king Ladislaus V. to his keeping, and became
thus practically ruler of Hungary. In 1454 his power was increased by
his succession to his father's vast wealth; and in 1456 he was named by
Ladislaus his lieutenant in Hungary. The Hunyadis now conspired to
destroy him. On the 8th of November, in spite of warnings, he entered
Belgrade with the king; the next day he was attacked by Laszlo Hunyadi
and his friends, and done to death. With him died the male line of the
counts of Cilli.

Count Ulrich's ambition was boundless, his passions unbridled; but the
hostile judgments passed by Aeneas Sylvius and other contemporaries
upon him must be read with caution.




CILLI (Slovene, _Celje_), a town in Styria, Austria, 82 m. S. by W. of
Graz by rail. Pop. (1900) 6743. It is picturesquely situated on the left
bank of the river Sann, and still has remains of the old walls and
towers, with which it was once surrounded. Memorials of a still earlier
period in its history--Roman antiquities--are to be seen in the
municipal museum, while its canals and sewers are also of Roman origin.
These were discovered during the second half of the 19th century, and
were in such a good state of preservation that after a few small repairs
they are now utilized. The parish church, dating from the 14th century,
with its beautiful Gothic chapel, is one of the most interesting
specimens of medieval architecture. The so-called German church, in
Romanesque style, belonged to the Minorite monastery, founded in 1241
and closed in 1808. The throne of the counts of Cilli is preserved here,
and also the tombs of several members of the family. On the Schlossberg
(1320 ft.), situated to the S.E. of the town, are the ruins of the
castle of Ober-Cilli, the former residence of the counts of Cilli. Ten
miles to the N.W. of Cilli are situated the baths of Neuhaus, with
indifferent thermal waters (117 deg. F.), frequented by ladies. Not far
from it is the ruined castle of Neuhaus, called since 1643 Schlangenburg,
from which an extensive view of the neighbouring Alps is obtained.

Cilli is one of the oldest places in Styria, and was probably a Celtic
settlement. It was taken possession of by the Romans in 15 B.C., and in
A.D. 50 the emperor Claudius raised it to a Roman municipium and named
it _Claudia Celeja_. It soon became one of the most flourishing Roman
colonies, and possessed numerous great buildings, of which the temple of
Mars was famous throughout the whole empire. It was incorporated with
Aquileia, under Constantine; and towards the end of the 6th century was
destroyed by the invading Slavs. It had a period of exceptional
prosperity from the middle of the 14th to the latter half of the 15th
century, under the counts of Cilli, on the extinction of which family it
fell to Austria. In the 16th century it suffered greatly both from
revolts of the peasantry and from the Counter-Reformation, Protestantism
having made many converts in the district, particularly among the
nobles.

  See Glantschnigg, _Celeja_ (Cilli, 1892).




CIMABUE, GIOVANNI (1240 to about 1302), Italian painter, was born in
Florence of a respectable family, which seems to have borne the name of
Gualtieri, as well as that of Cimabue (Bullhead). He took to the arts of
design by natural inclination, and sought the society of men of learning
and accomplishment. Vasari, the historian of Italian painting, zealous
for his own native state of Florence, has left us the generally current
account of Cimabue, which later researches have to a great extent
invalidated. We cannot now accept his assertion that art, extinct in
Italy, was revived solely by Cimabue, after he had received some
training from Greek artists invited by the Florentine government to
paint the chapel of the Gondi in the church of S. Maria Novella; for
native Italian art was not then a nullity, and this church was only
begun when Cimabue was already forty years old; Even Lanzi's qualifying
statement that Greek artists, although they did not paint the chapel of
the Gondi, did execute rude decorations in a chapel below the existing
church, and may thus have inspired Cimabue, makes little difference in
the main facts. What we find as the general upshot is that some Italian
painters preceded Cimabue--particularly Guido of Siena and Giunta of
Pisa; that he worked on much the same principle as they, and to a like
result; but that he was nevertheless the most advanced master of his
time, and, by his own works, and the training which he imparted to his
mighty pupil Giotto, he left the art far more formed and more capable of
growth than he found it (see PAINTING).

The undoubted admiration of his contemporaries would alone demonstrate
the conspicuous position which Cimabue held, and deserved to hold. For
the chapel of the Rucellai in S. Maria Novella he painted in tempera a
colossal "Madonna and Child with Angels," the largest altarpiece
produced up to that date; before its removal from the studio it was
visited with admiration by Charles of Anjou, with a host of eminent men
and gentle ladies, and it was carried to the church in a festive
procession of the people and trumpeters. Cimabue was at this time living
in the Borgo Allegri, then outside the walls of Florence; the legend
that the name Allegri (Joyous) was bestowed on the locality in
consequence of this striking popular display is more attractive than
accurate, for the name existed already. Of this celebrated picture, one
of the great landmarks of modern and sacred art, some details may be
here given, which we condense from the _History of Painting in Italy_ by
Crowe and Cavalcaselle.

  "The Virgin in a red tunic and blue mantle, with her feet resting on
  an open-worked stool, is sitting on a chair hung with a white drapery
  flowered in gold and blue, and carried by six angels kneeling in
  threes above each other. A delicately engraved nimbus surrounds her
  head, and that of the infant Saviour on her lap, who is dressed in a
  white tunic, and purple mantle shot with gold. A dark-coloured frame
  surrounds the gabled square of the picture, delicately traced with an
  ornament interrupted at intervals by thirty medallions on gold ground,
  each of which contains the half-figure of a saint. In the face of the
  Madonna is a soft and melancholy expression; in the form of the
  infant, a certain freshness, animation and natural proportion; in the
  group, affection--but too rare at this period. There is sentiment in
  the attitudes of the angels, energetic mien in some prophets,
  comparative clearness and soft harmony in the colours. A certain loss
  of balance is caused by the overweight of the head in the Virgin as
  compared with the slightness of her frame. The features are the old
  ones of the 13th century; only softened, as regards the expression of
  the eye, by an exaggeration of elliptical form in the iris, and
  closeness of the curves of the lids. In the angels the absence of all
  true notions of composition may be considered striking; yet their
  movements are more natural and pleasing than hitherto. One indeed, to
  the spectator's right of the Virgin, combines more tender reverence in
  its glance than any that had yet been produced. Cimabue gave to the
  flesh-tints a clear and carefully fused colour, and imparted to the
  forms some of the rotundity which they had lost. With him vanished the
  sharp contrasts of hard lights, half-tones and shadows."

In a general way, it may be said that Cimabue showed himself forcible in
his paintings, as especially in heads of aged or strongly characterized
men; and, if the then existing development of art had allowed of this,
he might have had it in him to express the beautiful as well. He,
according to Vasari, was the first painter who wrote words upon his
paintings,--as, for instance, round the head, of Christ in a picture of
the Crucifixion, the words addressed to Mary, _Mulier ecce filius tuus_.

Other paintings still extant by Cimabue are the following:--In the
academy of Arts in Florence, a "Madonna and Child," with eight angels,
and some prophets in niches,--better than the Rucellai picture in
composition and study of nature, but more archaic in type, and the
colour now spoiled (this work was painted for the Badia of S. Trinita,
Florence); in the National Gallery, London, a "Madonna and Child with
Angels," which came from the Ugo Baldi collection, and had probably once
been in the church of S. Croce, Florence; in the Louvre, a "Madonna and
Child," with twenty-six medallions in the frame, originally in the
church of S. Francesco, Pisa. In the lower church of the Basilica of S.
Francesco at Assisi, Cimabue, succeeding Giunta da Pisa, probably
adorned the south transept,--painting a colossal "Virgin and Child
between four Angels," above the altar of the Conception, and a large
figure of St Francis. In the upper church, north transept, he has the
"Saviour Enthroned and some Angels," and, on the central ceiling of the
transept, the "Four Evangelists with Angels." Many other works in both
the lower and the upper church have been ascribed to Cimabue, but with
very scanty evidence; even the above-named can be assigned to him only
as matter of probability. Numerous others which he indisputably did
paint have perished,--for instance, a series (earlier in date than the
Rucellai picture) in the Carmine church at Padua, which were destroyed
by a fire.

From Assisi Cimabue returned to Florence. In the closing years of his
life he was appointed capomaestro of the mosaics of the cathedral of
Pisa, and was afterwards, hardly a year before his death, joined with
Arnolfo di Cambio as architect for the cathedral of Florence. In Pisa he
executed a Majesty in the apse,--"Christ in glory between the Virgin and
John the Evangelist," a mosaic, now much damaged, which stamps him as
the leading artist of his time in that material. This was probably the
last work that he produced.

The debt which art owes to Cimabue is not limited to his own
performances. He was the master of Giotto, whom (such at least is the
tradition) he found a shepherd boy of ten, in the pastures of
Vespignano, drawing with a coal on a slate the figure of a lamb. Cimabue
took him to Florence, and instructed him in the art; and after his death
Giotto occupied a house which had belonged to his master in the Via del
Cocomero. Another painter with whom Cimabue is said to have been
intimate was Gaddo Gaddi.

It had always been supposed that the bodily semblance of Cimabue is
preserved to us in a portrait-figure by Simon Memmi painted in the
Cappella degli Spagnuoli, in S. Maria Novella,--a thin hooded face in
profile, with small beard, reddish and pointed. This is, however,
extremely dubious. Simone Martini of Siena (commonly called Memmi) was
born in 1283, and would therefore have been about nineteen years of age
when Cimabue died; it is not certain that he painted the work in
question, or that the figure represents Cimabue. The Florentine master
is spoken of by a nearly contemporary commentator on Dante (the
so-called Anonimo, who wrote about 1334) as _arrogante e disdegnoso_; so
"arrogant and scornful" that, if any one, or if he himself, found a
fault in any work of his, however cherished till then, he would abandon
it in disgust. This, however, to a modern mind, looks more like an
aspiring and fastidious desire for perfection than any such form of
"arrogance and scorn" as blemishes a man's character. Giovanni Cimabue
was buried in the cathedral of Florence, S. Maria del Fiore, with an
epitaph written by one of the Nini:--

  "Credidit ut Cimabos picturae castra tenere,
   Sic tenuit vivens; nunc tenet astra poli."

Here we recognize distinctly a parallel to the first clause in the
famous triplet of Dante:

  "Credette Cimabue nella pintura
   Tener lo campo; ed ora ha Giotto il grido,
   Si che la fama di colui s' oscura."

  Besides Vasari, and Crowe and Cavalcaselle (re-edited by Langton), the
  following works may be consulted:--P. Angeli, _Storia della basilica
  d' Assisi_; Cole and Stillman, _Old Italian Masters_ (1892); Mrs Ady,
  _Painters of Florence_ (1900).    (W. M. R.)




CIMAROSA, DOMENICO (1749-1801), Italian musical composer, was born at
Aversa, in the kingdom of Naples, on the 17th of December 1749. His
parents were poor, but anxious to give their son a good education; and
after removing to Naples they sent him to a free school connected with
one of the monasteries of that city. The organist of the monastery,
Padre Polcano, was struck with the boy's intellect, and voluntarily
instructed him in the elements of music, as also in the ancient and
modern literature of his country. To his influence Cimarosa owed a free
scholarship at the musical institute of Santa Maria di Loreto, where he
remained for eleven years, studying chiefly the great masters of the old
Italian school. Piccini, Sacchini and other musicians of repute are
mentioned amongst his teachers. At the age of twenty-three Cimarosa
began his career as a composer with a comic opera called _Le Stravaganze
del Conte_, first performed at the Teatro dei Fiorentini at Naples in
1772. The work met with approval, and was followed in the same year by
_Le Pazzie di Stellidanza e di Zoroastro_, a farce full of humour and
eccentricity. This work also was successful, and the fame of the young
composer began to spread all over Italy. In 1774 he was invited to Rome
to write an opera for the _stagione_ of that year; and he there produced
another comic opera called _L'Italiana in Londra_.

The next thirteen years of Cimarosa's life are not marked by any event
worth mentioning. He wrote a number of operas for the various theatres
of Italy, living temporarily in Rome, in Naples, or wherever else his
vocation as a conductor of his works happened to call him. From
1784-1787 he lived at Florence, writing exclusively for the theatre of
that city. The productions of this period of his life are very numerous,
consisting of operas, both comic and serious, cantatas, and various
sacred compositions. The following works may be mentioned amongst many
others:--_Caio Mario_; the three biblical operas, _Assalone_, _La
Giuditta_ and _Il Sacrificio d' Abramo_; also _Il Convito di Pietra_;
and _La Ballerina amante_, a pretty comic opera first performed at
Venice with enormous success.

About the year 1788 Cimarosa went to St Petersburg by invitation of the
empress Catherine II. At her court he remained four years and wrote an
enormous number of compositions, mostly of the nature of _pieces
d'occasion_. Of most of these not even the names are on record. In 1792
Cimarosa left St Petersburg, and went to Vienna at the invitation of the
emperor Leopold II. Here he produced his masterpiece, _Il Matrimonio
segreto_, which ranks amongst the highest achievements of light operatic
music. In 1793 Cimarosa returned to Naples, where _Il Matrimonio
segreto_ and other works were received with great applause. Amongst the
works belonging to his last stay in Naples may be mentioned the charming
opera _Le Astuzie feminili_. This period of his life is said to have
been embittered by the intrigues of envious and hostile persons, amongst
whom figured his old rival Paisiello. During the occupation of Naples by
the troops of the French Republic, Cimarosa joined the liberal party,
and on the return of the Bourbons, was, like many of his political
friends, condemned to death. By the intercession of influential admirers
his sentence was commuted into banishment, and he left Naples with the
intention of returning to St Petersburg. But his health was broken, and
after much suffering he died at Venice on the 11th of January 1801, of
inflammation of the intestines. The nature of his disease led to the
rumour of his having been poisoned by his enemies, which, however, a
formal inquest proved to be unfounded. He worked till the last moment of
his life, and one of his operas, _Artemizia_, remained unfinished at his
death.




CIMBRI, a Teutonic tribe who made their first appearance in Roman
history in the year 113 B.C., when they defeated the consul Gnaeus
Papirius Carbo near Noreia in the modern Carinthia. It was the common
belief that they had been driven from their homes on the North Sea by
inundations, but, whatever the cause of their migration, they had been
wandering along the Danube for some years warring with the Celtic tribes
on either bank. After the victory of 113 they passed westwards over the
Rhine, threatening the territory of the Allobroges. Their request for
land was not granted, and in 109 B.C. they defeated the consul Marcus
Junius Silanus in southern Gaul, but did not at once follow up the
victory. In 105 they returned to the attack under their king Boiorix,
and favoured by the dissensions of the Roman commanders Gnaeus Mallius
Maximus and Caepio, defeated them in detail and annihilated their armies
at Arausio (Orange). Again the victorious Cimbri turned away from Italy,
and, after attempting to reduce the Arverni, moved into Spain, where
they failed to overcome the desperate resistance of the Celtiberian
tribes. In 103 they marched back through Gaul, which they overran as far
as the Seine, where the Belgae made a stout resistance. Near Rouen the
Cimbri were reinforced by the Teutoni and two cantons of the Helvetii.
Thereupon the host marched southwards by two routes, the Cimbri moving
on the left towards the passes of the Eastern Alps, while the newly
arrived Teutoni and their allies made for the western gates of Italy. In
102 B.C. the Teutoni and Ambrones were totally defeated at Aquae Sextiae
by Marius, while the Cimbri succeeded in passing the Alps and driving Q.
Lutatius Catulus across the Adige and Po. In 101 Marius overthrew them
on the Raudine Plain near Vercellae. Their king Boiorix was killed and
the whole army destroyed. The Cimbri were the first in the long line of
the Teutonic invaders of Italy.

The original home of the Cimbri has been much disputed. It is recorded
in the _Monumentum Ancyranum_ that a Roman fleet sailing eastwards from
the mouth of the Rhine (_c._ A.D. 5) received at the farthest point
reached the submission of a people called Cimbri, who sent an embassy to
Augustus. Several early writers agree in saying that the Cimbri occupied
a peninsula, and in the map of Ptolemy Jutland appears as the Cimbric
Chersonese. As Ptolemy seems to have regarded the district north of the
Liimfjord (Limfjord) as a group of islands, the territory of the Cimbri,
the northernmost tribe of the peninsula, would be included in the modern
county (_Amt_) of Aalborg. This was formerly called Himbersyssel or
Himmerland, forms which may very well preserve their name, especially as
the name Charydes, mentioned next to them in the _Monumenlum Ancyranum_,
appears to survive in the modern Hardeland. Possibly also the district
across the Liimfjord formerly called Thythsyssel or Thyland may in the
same way preserve the name of the Teutoni (q.v.). Strabo and other early
writers relate a number of curious facts concerning the customs of the
Cimbri, which are of great interest as the earliest records of the
manner of life of the Teutonic nations.

  SOURCES.--Livy, _Epitome_, lxvii., lxviii.; _Monumenlum Ancyranum_;
  Pomponius Mela iii. 3; C. Plinius Secundus, _Nat. Hist._ iv. cap. 13
  and 14, Sec.Sec. 95 ff.; Strabo p. 292 ff.; Plutarch, _Marius. passim_;
  Florus iii. 3; Ptolemy ii. 11. 11 f.    (F. G. M. B.)




CIMICIFUGA, in botany, a small genus of herbaceous plants, of the
natural order Ranunculaceae, which is widely distributed in the north
temperate zone. _C. foetida_, bugbane, is used as a preventive against
vermin; and the root of a North American species, _C. racemosa_, known
as black snake-root, as an emetic.




CIMMERII, an ancient people of the far north or west of Europe, first
spoken of by Homer (_Odyssey_, xi. 12-19), who describes them as living
in perpetual darkness. Herodotus (iv. 11-13), in his account of Scythia,
regards them as the early inhabitants of South Russia (after whom the
Bosporus Cimmerius [q.v.] and other places were named), driven by the
Scyths along by the Caucasus into Asia Minor, where they maintained
themselves for a century. But the Cimmerii are often mentioned in
connexion with the Thracian Treres who made their raids across the
Hellespont, and it is quite possible that some Cimmerii took this route,
having been cut off by the Scyths as the Alani (q.v.) were by the Huns.
Certain it is that in the middle of the 7th century B.C., Asia Minor was
ravaged by northern nomads (Herod, iv. 12), one body of whom is called
in Assyrian sources _Gimirrai_ and is represented as coming through the
Caucasus. They were probably Iranian speakers, to judge by the few
proper names preserved. The name has also been identified with the
biblical Gomer, son of Japheth (Gen. x. 2, 3). To the north of the
Euxine their main body was merged in the invading Scyths. Later writers
identified them with the Cimbri of Jutland, who were probably Teutonized
Celts, but this is a mere guess due to the similarity of name. The
Homeric Cimmerii belong to an early part of the _Odyssey_ in which the
hero was conceived as wandering in the Euxine; these adventures were
afterwards translated to the western Mediterranean in accordance with a
wider geographical outlook.

  For the Cimmerian invasions described by Herodotus, see SCYTHIA;
  LYDIA; GYGES.    (E. H. M.)




CIMON [[Greek: Kimon]] (_c_. 507-449), Athenian statesman and general,
was the son of Miltiades (q.v.) and Hegesipyle, daughter of the Thracian
prince Olorus. Miltiades died in disgrace, leaving unpaid the fine
imposed upon him for his conduct at Paros. Cimon's first task in life,
therefore, was to remove the stain on the family name by paying this
fine (about L12,000). In the second Persian invasion, especially at
Salamis, and in the consolidation of the Delian League, he won a high
reputation for courage and integrity. At first with Aristides, and
afterwards as sole commander, he directed the Athenian contingent of the
fleet; on the disgrace of Pausanias he practically commanded the entire
Greek fleet and drove Pausanias from his retreat in Byzantium. Having
captured Eion (at the mouth of the Strymon), he expelled the Persian
garrisons from the entire seaboard of Thrace with the exception of
Doriscus, and, having defeated the piratical Dolopians of Scyros (470),
confirmed his popularity by transferring thence to Athens the supposed
bones of the Attic hero Theseus. The bones were buried in Athens, and
over the tomb the Theseum (temple) was erected. In 466 Cimon proceeded
to liberate the Greek cities of Lyda and Pamphylia, and at the mouth of
the Eurymedon he defeated the Persians decisively by land and sea.

The Persian danger was now over, and the immediate purpose of the
Delian League was achieved. Already, however, Athens had introduced the
policy of coercion which was to transform the league into an empire, a
policy which, after the ostracism of Themistocles and the death of
Aristides, must be attributed to Cimon, whose fundamental idea was the
union of the Greeks against all outsiders (see DELIAN LEAGUE). Carystus
was compelled to join the league; Naxos (c. 469) and Thasos (465-463),
which had revolted, were compelled to accept the position of tributary
allies. In 464 Sparta was involved in war with her Helots (principally
of Messenian origin) and was in great difficulties. Cimon, then the most
prominent man in Athens, persuaded the Athenians to send assistance, on
the ground that Athens could not "stand without her yoke-fellow" and
leave "Hellas lame." The expedition was a failure, and Cimon was exposed
to the attacks of the democrats led by Ephialtes. The history of this
party struggle is not clear. The ordinary account is that Ephialtes
during Cimon's absence in Messenia destroyed the powers of the Areopagus
(q.v.) and then obtained the ostracism of Cimon, who attempted to
reverse his policy. Without going fully into the question, which is full
of difficulty, it may be pointed out (1) that when the Messenian
expedition started Cimon had twice within the preceding year triumphed
over the opposition of Ephialtes, and (2) that presumably the Cimonian
party was predominant until after the expedition proved a failure. It is
therefore unlikely that, immediately after Cimon's triumph in obtaining
permission to go to Messenia, Ephialtes was able to attack the Areopagus
with success. The probability is that when the expedition failed, Cimon
was ostracized, and that then Ephialtes defeated the Areopagus, and also
made a change in foreign policy by making alliances with Sparta's
enemies, Argos and Thessaly. This hypothesis alone explains the absence
of any account of a third struggle between Cimon and Ephialtes over the
Areopagus. The chronology would thus be: ostracism of Cimon, spring,
461; fall of the Areopagus and reversal of Philo-Laconian policy,
summer, 461.

A more difficult question is involved in the date of Cimon's return from
ostracism. The ordinary account says that he was recalled after the
battle of Tanagra (457) to negotiate the Five Years' Truce (451 or 450).
To ignore the unexplained interval of six or seven years is an
uncritical expedient, which, however, has been adopted by many writers.
Some maintaining that Cimon did return soon after 457, say that the
truce which he arranged was really the four months' truce recorded by
Diodorus (only). To this there are two main objections: (1) if Cimon
returned in 457, why does the evidence of antiquity connect his return
specifically with the truce of 451? and (2) why does he after 457
disappear for six years and return again to negotiate the Five
Years'Truce and to command the expedition to Cyprus? It seems much more
likely that he returned in 451, at the very time when Athens returned to
his old policy of friendship with Sparta and war in the East against
Persia (i.e. the Cyprus expedition). Thus it would appear that from 453
onwards there was a recrudescence of conservative influence, and that
for four years (453-449) Pericles was not master in Athens (see
PERICLES); this theory is corroborated by the fact that Pericles, in the
alarm caused by the Egyptian failure of 454, was induced to remove the
Delian treasury to Athens and to abandon his anti-Spartan policy of land
empire.

Cimon died in Cyprus before the walls of Citium (449), and was buried in
Athens. Later Attic orators speak in glowing terms of a "Peace" between
Athens and Persia, which is sometimes connected with the name of Cimon
and sometimes with that of one Callias. If any such peace was concluded,
it cannot have been soon after the battle of the Eurymedon as Plutarch
assumes. It can have been only after Cimon's death and the evacuation of
Cyprus (_i.e. c._ 448). It is only in this form that the view has been
maintained logically in modern times. Apart from the fact that the peace
is ignored by Thucydides and that the earliest reference to it is the
passage in Isocrates (_Paneg._ 118 and 120), there are weighty reasons
which render it improbable that any formal peace can have been concluded
at that period between Athens and Persia (see further Ed. Meyer's
_Forschungen_, ii.).

Cimon's services in connexion with the consolidation of the Empire rank
with those of Themistocles and Aristides. He is described as genial,
brave and generous. He threw open his house and gardens to his
fellow-demesmen, and beautified the city with trees and buildings. But
as a statesman he failed to cope with the new conditions created by the
democracy of Cleisthenes. The one great principle for which he is
memorable is that of the balance of power between Athens and Sparta, as
respectively the naval and military leaders of a united Hellas. It has
been the custom to regard Cimon as a man of little culture and
refinement. It is clear, however, from his desire to adorn the city,
that he was by no means without culture and imagination. The truth is
that, as in politics, so in education and attitude of mind, he
represented the ideals of an age which, in the new atmosphere of
democratic Athens, seemed to savour of rusticity and lack of education.

  The lives of Cimon by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos are uncritical; the
  conclusions above expressed are derived from a comparison of Plutarch,
  _Cimon_, 17, _Pericles_, 10; Theopompus, fragm. 92; Andocides, _de
  Pace_, Sec.Sec. 3, 4; Diodorus xi. 86 (the four months' truce). See
  histories of Greece (e.g. Grote, ed. 1907, I vol.); also PERICLES;
  DELIAN LEAGUE, with works quoted.    (J. M. M.)




CIMON OF CLEONAE, an early Greek painter, who is said to have introduced
great improvements in drawing. He represented "figures out of the
straight, and ways of representing faces looking back, up or down; he
also made the joints of the body clear, emphasized veins, worked out
folds and doublings in garments" (Pliny). All these improvements are
such as may be traced in the drawing of early Greek red-figured vases
(see GREEK ART).




CINCHONA, the generic name of a number of trees which belong to the
natural order Rubiaceae. Botanically the genus includes trees of varying
size, some reaching an altitude of 80 ft. and upwards, with evergreen
leaves and deciduous stipules. The flowers are arranged in panicles,
white or pinkish in colour, with a pleasant odour, the calyx being
5-toothed superior, and the corolla tubular, 5-lobed and fringed at the
margin. The stamens are 5, almost concealed by the tubular corolla, and
the ovary terminates in a fleshy disk. The fruit is an ovoid or
subcylindrical capsule, splitting from the base, and held together at
the apex. The numerous seeds are flat and winged all round. About 40
species have been distinguished, but of these not more than about a
dozen have been economically utilized. The plants are natives of the
western mountainous regions of South America, their geographical range
extending from 10 deg. N. to 22 deg. S. lat.; and they flourish generally
at an elevation of from 5000 to 8000 ft. above sea-level, although some
have been noted growing as high up as 11,000 ft., and others have been
found down to 2600 ft.

The trees are valued solely on account of their bark, which long has
been the source of the most valuable febrifuge or antipyretic medicine,
quinine (q.v.), that has ever been discovered. The earliest
well-authenticated instance of the medicinal use of cinchona bark is
found in the year 1638, when the countess of Chinchon (hence the name),
the wife of the governor of Peru, was cured of an attack of fever by its
administration. The medicine was recommended in her case by the
corregidor of Loxa, who was said himself to have practically experienced
its supreme virtues eight years earlier. A knowledge of the bark was
disseminated throughout Europe by members of the Jesuit brotherhood,
whence it also became generally known as Jesuits' bark. According to
another account, this name arose from its value having been first
discovered to a Jesuit missionary who, when prostrate with fever, was
cured by the administration of the bark by a South American Indian. In
each of the above instances the fever was no doubt malaria.

The procuring of the bark in the dense forests of New Granada, Ecuador,
Peru and Bolivia is a work of great toil and hardship to the Indian
_cascarilleros_ or _cascadores_ engaged in the pursuit. The trees grow
isolated or in small clumps, which have to be searched out by the
experienced _cascarillero_, who laboriously cuts his way through the
dense forest ta the spot where he discovers a tree. Having freed the
stem from adhering parasites and twining plants, he proceeds, by beating
and cutting oblong pieces, to detach the stem bark as far as is within
his reach. The tree is then felled, and the entire bark of stem and
branches secured. The bark of the smaller branches, as it dries, curls
up, forming "quills," the thicker masses from the stems constituting the
"flat" bark of commerce. The drying, packing and transport of the bark
are all operations of a laborious description conducted under most
disadvantageous conditions.

The enormous medicinal consumption of these barks, and the wasteful and
reckless manner of procuring them in America long ago, caused serious
and well-grounded apprehension that the native forests would quickly
become exhausted. The attention of European communities was early
directed to the necessity of securing steady and permanent supplies by
introducing the more valuable species into localities likely to be
favourable to their cultivation. The first actual attempt to rear plants
was made in Algeria in 1849; but the effort was not successful. In 1854
the Dutch government seriously undertook the task of introducing the
trees into the island of Java, and an expedition for that purpose was
fitted out on an adequate scale. Several hundreds of young trees were
obtained, of which a small proportion was successfully landed and
planted in Java; and as the result of great attention the cultivation of
cinchona plantations in that island became highly prosperous and
promising. The desirability of introducing cinchonas into the East
Indies was urged in a memorial addressed to the East India Company
between 1838 and 1842 by Sir Robert Christison and backed by Dr Forbes
Royle; but no active step was taken till 1852, when, again on the motion
of Dr Royle, some efforts to obtain plants were made through consular
agents. In the end the question was seriously taken up, and Sir Clements
R. Markham was appointed to head an expedition to obtain young trees
from South America and convey them to India. The transference of the
plants was attended with considerable difficulty, but in 1861 under his
superintendence a consignment of plants was planted in a favourable
situation in the Nilgiri Hills. For several years subsequently
additional supplies of plants of various species were obtained from
different regions of South America, and some were also procured from the
Dutch plantations in Java. Now the culture has spread over a wide area
in southern India, in Ceylon, on the slopes of the Himalayas, and in
British Burma, and has become widely spread through the tropics
generally. The species grown are principally _Cinchona officinalis, C.
Calisaya, C. succirubra, C. pitayensis_, and _C. Pahudiana_, some
agreeing with certain soils and climates better than others, while the
yield of alkaloids and the relative proportions of the different
alkaloids differ in each species.

The official "bark" of the British Pharmacopoeia is that of _Cinchona
succirubra_ or red bark. It is imported in the form of quills or
recurved pieces, with a rough brown outer surface and a deep red inner
surface, forming a reddish brown odourless powder, which has a bitter,
astringent taste. The British Pharmacopoeia directs that the bark, when
used to make the various medicinal preparations, shall contain not less
than 5 nor more than 6% of total alkaloids, of which at least one-half
is to be constituted by quinine and cinchonidine. The preparations of
this bark are four: a liquid extract, standardized to contain 5% of
total alkaloids; an acid infusion; a tincture standardized to contain 1%
of total alkaloids; and a compound tincture which must possess one-half
the alkaloidal strength of the last. The only purpose for which these
preparations of cinchona bark should be used is as tonics; and even when
this is the desired action there are many reasons why the alkaloid
should be preferred, even though the recent introduction of
standardization removes one of the chief objections to their use.

  The pharmacology of red bark, dependent as it is almost entirely upon
  the contained quinine, will not here be discussed (see QUININE). But
  the composition of cinchona bark is a matter of importance and
  interest. The bark contains, in the first place, five alkaloids, of
  which all but quinine may here be dealt with. Quinidine, C20H24N2O2,
  is isomeric with quinine, from which it differs in crystallizing in
  prisms instead of needles, in being dextro- and not laevo-rotatory,
  and in being insoluble in ammonia except in much excess. Cinchonine
  has the formula C19H22N2O, quinine being methoxy cinchonine, i.e.
  C19H21(OCH3)N2O. It occurs in inodorous, bitter, colourless prisms;
  unlike the two alkaloids already named, does not yield a green colour
  with chlorine water and ammonia; is dextro-rotatory; not fluorescent,
  and practically insoluble in ammonia and in ether. A fourth alkaloid,
  cinchonidine, is isomeric with cinchonine, which yields it when boiled
  with amyl alcoholic potash, but is laevo-rotatory, slightly soluble in
  ether, and faintly fluorescent. When red bark is extracted with dilute
  hydrochloric acid, the product filtered, and excess of sodium hydrate
  added thereto, quinine and quinidine are precipitated: on
  concentrating the mother liquor, cinchonine falls down, and on further
  concentration with addition of still more alkali, cinchonidine is
  thrown out. Yellow bark, which is not official, yields 3% of quinine,
  and pale bark about 10% of total alkaloids, of which hardly any is
  quinine, cinchonine and quinidine being its chief constituents. The
  various forms of bark also yield a very small quantity of an
  unimportant alkaloid, _conquinamine_. In addition to the above, red
  bark contains _quinic acid_, C7H12O6, which is closely allied to
  benzoic acid and is excreted in the urine as hippuric acid. There also
  occurs _chinovic acid_, derived from a glucoside _chinovin_, which
  occurs as such in the bark. Besides a trace of volatile oil which
  gives the bark its characteristic odour, and cinchona red (the bark
  pigment), there occurs about 2% of _cincho-tannic acid_, closely
  allied to tannic acid and giving the bark its astringent property.
  Cinchona is never used, however, in order to obtain an astringent
  action.

  The importance of recognizing the complex and inconstant composition
  of cinchona bark lies, as in so many other instances, in this--that
  the physician who employs it can have only a very imperfect knowledge
  of the drug he is using. The latest work on the action of these
  alkaloids has shown that cinchonine has a tendency to produce
  convulsions in certain patients, and that this action is a still more
  marked feature of cinchonidine and cinchonamine. Even small doses
  administered to epileptics increase the number of their attacks. They
  will probably be classified later among the convulsive poisons. The
  use of cinchona bark and its preparations, now that definite active
  principles can be readily obtained and precisely studied, is almost
  entirely to be deprecated. Quinidine is almost as powerful an antidote
  to malaria as quinine; cinchonidine has about two-thirds the power of
  quinine, and cinchonine less than one-half.




CINCINNATI, a city and the county-seat of Hamilton county, Ohio, U.S.A.,
on the Ohio river, opposite the mouth of the Licking, about 100 m. S.W.
of Columbus, about 305 m. by rail S.E. of Chicago, and about 760 m. (by
rail) W.S.W. of New York. Through the city flows Mill Creek, which
empties into the Ohio. Pop. (1890[1]) 296,908; (1900) 325,902, of whom
197,896 were of foreign parentage (i.e. either their fathers or mothers
or both were foreign-born), 57,961 were foreign-born, and 14,482 were
negroes; (1910) 363,591. The German is by far the most important of the
foreign elements. In addition to the large number of inhabitants of
German descent, there were, in 1900, 107,152 of German parentage, and of
the foreign-born 38,219 came from Germany.

Cincinnati is situated on the N. side of the river upon two terraces or
plateaus--the first about 60 ft., the second from 100 to 150 ft., above
low water--and upon hills which enclose these terraces on three sides in
the form of an amphitheatre, rising to a height of about 400 ft. on the
E. and of about 460 ft. on the W., and commanding magnificent views of
the river, the valley, the numerous suburbs, and the more distant wooded
hills. About half of the hill-enclosed plain lies S. of the river, and
it is upon this southern half that Covington, Newport, Dayton, Ludlow
and other Kentucky suburbs of Cincinnati are situated. Cincinnati has a
river-frontage of about 14 m., extends back about 6 m. on the W. side in
the valley of Mill Creek, and occupies a total area of about 44 sq. m.
Since 1867 it has been connected with Covington by a wire suspension
bridge designed by John A. Roebling, and rebuilt and enlarged in 1897.
This bridge is 1057 ft. long between towers (or, including the
approaches, 2252 ft. long), with a height of 101 ft. above low water,
and has a double wagon road and two ways for pedestrians. By two bridges
there is direct communication with Newport; by one, that of the
Cincinnati Southern railway, with Ludlow; and by one (Chesapeake & Ohio;
see vol. v., p. 109) with West Covington. On the terraces the streets
generally intersect at right angles, but on the hills their directions
are irregular. To the "bottoms" (which have suffered much from
floods[2]) between Third Street and the river the manufacturing and
wholesale districts are for the most part confined, although many of
these interests are now on the higher levels or in the suburbs; the
principal retail houses are on the higher levels N. of Third Street, and
the handsomest residences are on the picturesque hills before mentioned,
in those parts of the city, formerly separate villages, known as
Avondale, Mt. Auburn, Clifton, Price Hill, Walnut Hills and Mt. Lookout.
The main part of the city is connected with these residential districts
by electric street railways, whose routes include four inclined-plane
railways, namely, Mt. Adams (268 ft. elevation), Bellevue (300 ft.),
Fairview (210 ft.) and Price Hill (350 ft.), from each of which an
excellent panoramic view of the city and suburbs may be obtained. There
are various suburbs, chiefly residential, in the Mill Creek valley,
among them being Carthage, Hartwell, Wyoming, Lockland and Glendale.
Other populous and attractive suburbs N. of the Ohio river are Norwood
and College Hill.

_Buildings, &c._--Brick, blue limestone, and a greyish buff freestone
are the most common building materials, and the city has various
buildings of much architectural merit. The chamber of commerce
(completed 1889), designed by H.H. Richardson, is one of the finest
public buildings in the United States. Its walls are of undressed
granite, and it occupies a ground area of 100 by 150 ft. The United
States government building (designed by A.B. Mullet, and built of Maine
and Missouri granite) is a fine structure in classic style, 360 ft. long
and 160 ft. wide, and 4-1/2 storeys high; its outer walls are faced with
sawn freestone. It was erected in 1874-1885 and cost (including the
land) $5,250,000. The city hall (332 ft. by 203 ft.), with walls of red
granite and brown sandstone, is a massive and handsome building erected
at a cost of $1,600,000. The county court house (rebuilt in 1887) is in
the Romanesque style, and with the gaol attached occupies an entire
square. The Cincinnati hospital (completed 1869), comprising eight
buildings grouped about a central court and connected by corridors,
occupies a square of four acres. A new public hospital for the suburbs
was projected in 1907. St Peter's (Roman Catholic) cathedral (begun
1839, consecrated 1844), Grecian in style, is a fine structure, with a
graceful stone spire 224 ft. in height and a chime of 13 bells; it has
as an altar-piece Murillo's "St Peter Liberated by an Angel." The church
of St Francis de Sales (in Walnut Hills), built in 1888, has a bell,
cast in Cincinnati, weighing fifteen tons, and said to be the largest
swinging bell in the world. Several of the Protestant churches, such as
the First Presbyterian (built 1835; steeple, including spire, 285 ft.
high), Second Presbyterian (1872), Central Christian (1869), St Paul's
Methodist Episcopal (1870), and St Paul's Protestant Episcopal
pro-cathedral (1851), are also worthy of mention, and in the residential
suburbs there are many fine churches. Cincinnati is the seat of a Roman
Catholic archbishopric and a Protestant Episcopal and Methodist
Episcopal bishopric. The Masonic temple (195 ft. long and 100 ft. wide),
in the Byzantine style, is four storeys high, and has two towers of 140
ft.; the building was completed in 1860 and has subsequently been
remodelled. Among other prominent buildings are the Oddfellows' temple
(completed 1894), the public library, the art museum (1886), a Jewish
synagogue (in Avondale), and the (Jewish) Plum Street temple (1866),
Moorish in architecture. The Soldiers', Sailors' and Pioneers' building
(1907) is a beautiful structure, classic in design. The business houses
are of stone or brick, and many of them are attractive architecturally;
there are a number of modern office buildings from 15 to 20 storeys in
height. There are also several large hotels and ten theatres (besides
halls and auditoriums for concerts and public gatherings), the most
notable being Springer music hall.

One of the most noted pieces of monumental art in the United States is
the beautiful Tyler Davidson bronze fountain in Fountain Square (Fifth
Street, between Walnut and Vine streets), the business centre of the
city, by which (or within one block of which) all car lines run. The
fountain was unveiled in 1871 and was presented to the city by Henry
Probasco (1820-1902), a wealthy citizen, who named it in honour of his
deceased brother-in-law and business partner, Mr Tyler Davidson. The
design, by August von Kreling (1819-1876), embraces fifteen bronze
figures, all cast at the royal bronze foundry in Munich, the chief being
a female figure with outstretched arms, from whose fingers the water
falls in a fine spray. This figure reaches a height of 45 ft. above the
ground. The city has, besides, monuments to the memory of Presidents
Harrison and Garfield (both in Garfield Place, the former an equestrian
statue by Louis T. Rebisso, and the latter by Charles H. Niehaus); also,
in Spring Grove cemetery, a monument to the memory of the Ohio
volunteers who lost their lives in the Civil War. The art museum, in
Eden Park, contains paintings by celebrated European and American
artists, statuary, engravings, etchings, metal work, wood carving,
textile fabrics, pottery, and an excellent collection in American
ethnology and archaeology. The Cincinnati Society of Natural History
(incorporated 1870) has a large library and a museum containing a
valuable palaeontological collection, and bones and implements from the
prehistoric cemetery of the mound-builders, at Madisonville, Ohio.

_Parks._--In 1908 Cincinnati had parks covering about 540 acres; there
are numerous pleasant driveways both within the city limits and in the
suburban districts, and several attractive resorts are within easy
reach. Eden Park, of 214 acres, on Mount Adams, about 1 m. E. of the
business centre and near the river, is noted for its natural beauty,
greatly supplemented by the landscape-gardener's skill, and for its
commanding views. The ground was originally the property of Nicholas
Longworth (1782-1863), a wealthy citizen and well-known horticulturist,
who here grew the grapes from which the Catawba wine, introduced by him
in 1828, was made. The park contains the art museum and the art academy.
Its gateway, Elsinore, is a medieval reproduction; other prominent
features are the reservoirs, which resemble natural lakes, and a high
water tower, from which there is a delightful view. In Burnet Woods
Park, lying to the N.E. of Eden and containing about 163 acres, are the
buildings and grounds of the University of Cincinnati, and a lake for
boating and skating. The zoological gardens occupy 60 acres and contain
a notable collection of animals and birds. Other pleasure resorts are
the Lagoon on the Kentucky side (in Ludlow, Ky.), Chester Park, about 6
m. N. of the business centre, and Coney Island, about 10 m. up the river
on the Ohio side. Washington (5.6 acres), Lincoln (10 acres), Garfield
and Hopkins are small parks in the city. In 1907 an extensive system of
new parks, parkways and boulevards was projected. Spring Grove cemetery,
about 6 m. N.W. of Fountain Square, contains 600 acres picturesquely
laid out on the park plan. It contains many handsome monuments and
private mausoleums, and a beautiful mortuary chapel in the Norman style.

_Water-Supply._--A new and greatly improved water-supply system for the
city was virtually completed in 1907. This provides for taking water
from the Ohio river at a point on the Kentucky side opposite the village
of California, Ohio, and several miles above the discharge of the city
sewers; for the carrying of the water by a gravity tunnel under the
river to the Ohio side, the water being thence elevated by four great
pumping engines, each having a daily capacity of 30,000,000 gallons, to
settling basins, being then passed through filters of the American or
mechanical type, and flowing thence by a gravity tunnel more than 4 m.
long to the main pumping station, on the bank of the river, within the
city; and for the pumping of the water thence, a part directly into the
distributing pipes and a part to the principal storage reservoir in Eden
Park.

_Education._--Cincinnati is an important educational centre. The
University of Cincinnati, originally endowed by Charles M'Micken (d.
1858) and opened in 1873, occupies a number of handsome buildings
erected since 1895 on a campus of 43 acres in Burnet Woods Park, has an
astronomical observatory on the highest point of Mt. Lookout, and is the
only strictly municipal university in the United States. The institution
embraces a college of liberal arts, a college of engineering, a college
of law (united in 1897 with the law school of Cincinnati College, then
the only surviving department of that college, which was founded as
Lancaster Seminary in 1815 and was chartered as Cincinnati College in
1819), a college of medicine (from 1819 to 1896 the Medical College of
Ohio; the college occupies the site of the old M'Micken homestead), a
college for teachers, a graduate school, and a technical school (founded
in 1886 and transferred to the university in 1901); while closely
affiliated with it are the Clinical and Pathological School of
Cincinnati and the Ohio College of Dentistry. With the exception of
small fees charged for incidental expenses, the university is free to
all students who are residents of the city; others pay $75 a year for
tuition. It is maintained in part by the city, through public taxation,
and in part by the income from endowment funds given by Charles
M'Micken, Matthew Thoms, David Sinton and others. The government of the
university is entrusted mainly to a board of nine directors appointed by
the mayor. In 1909 it had a faculty of 144 and 1364 students. Lane
Theological Seminary is situated in Walnut Hills, in the north-eastern
part of the city; it was endowed by Ebenezer Lane and the Kemper family;
was founded in 1829 for the training of Presbyterian ministers; had for
its first president (1832-1852) Lyman Beecher; and in 1834 was the scene
of a bitter contest between abolitionists in the faculty and among the
students, led by Theodore Dwight Weld, and the board of trustees, who
forbade the discussion of slavery in the seminary and so caused about
four-fifths of the students to leave, most of them going to Oberlin
College. The city has also Saint Francis Navier College (Roman Catholic,
established in 1831 and until 1840 known as the Athenaeum); Saint Joseph
College (Roman Catholic, 1873); Mount St Mary's of the West Seminary
(Roman Catholic, theological, 1848, at Cedar Point, Ohio); Hebrew Union
College (1875), the leading institution in the United States for
educating rabbis; the largely attended Ohio Mechanics' Institute
(founded 1828), a private corporation not conducted for profit, its
object being the education of skilled workmen, the training of
industrial leaders, and the advancement of the mechanic arts (in 1907
there were in all departments 1421 students, a large majority of whom
were in the evening classes); an excellent art academy, modelled after
that of South Kensington; the College of Music and the Conservatory of
Music (mentioned below); the Miami Medical College (opened in 1852); the
Pulte Medical College (homeopathic; coeducational; opened 1872); the
Eclectic Medical Institute (chartered 1845); two women's medical
colleges, two colleges of dental surgery, a college of pharmacy, and
several business colleges. The public, district, and high schools of the
city are excellent. The City (or public) library contained in 1906
301,380 vols. and 57,562 pamphlets; the University library (including
medical, law and astronomical branches), 80,000 vols. (including the
Robert Clarke collection, rich in Americana, and the library--about 5000
vols.--of the American Association for the Advancement of Science); the
Young Men's Mercantile library, 70,000 vols.; and the Law library,
35,000 vols.; in addition, the Lloyd library and museum of botany and
pharmacy, and the library of the Historical and Philosophical Society of
Ohio (1831), which contains a valuable collection of rare books,
pamphlets and manuscripts, are worthy of mention.

_Art, &c._--The large German population makes the city noteworthy for
its music. The first Saengerfest was held in Cincinnati in 1849, and it
met here again in 1870, when a new hall was built for its accommodation.
Under the leadership of Theodore Thomas (1835-1905), the Cincinnati
Musical Festival Association was incorporated, and the first of its
biennial May festivals was held in 1873. In 1875-1878 was built the
large Springer music hall, named in honour of Reuben R. Springer
(1800-1884), its greatest benefactor, who endowed the Cincinnati College
of Music (incorporated in 1878), of which Thomas was director in
1878-1881. Until his death Thomas was director of the May festivals
also. The grounds for the music hall were given by the city and are
perpetually exempt from taxation. The great organ in the music hall was
dedicated at the third of the May festivals in 1878. The Saengerfest met
in Cincinnati for the third time in 1879, and its jubilee was held here
in 1899. By 1880 the May festival chorus had become a permanent
organization. The city has several other musical societies--the Apollo
and Orpheus clubs (1881 and 1893), a Liederkranz (1886), and a United
Singing Society (1896) being among the more prominent; and there are two
schools of music--the Conservatory of Music and the College of Music.

The city has large publishing interests, and various religious
(Methodist Episcopal and Roman Catholic) and fraternal periodicals, and
several technical journals and trade papers are published here. The
principal daily newspapers are the _Enquirer_, a Democratic journal,
established in 1842 and conducted for many years after 1852 by
Washington McLean (1816-1890), and then by his son, John Roll McLean (b.
1848); the _Commercial Tribune_ (Republican; previously the
_Commercial-Gazette_ and still earlier the _Commercial_, founded in
1793, _The Tribune_ being merged with it in 1896), the _Times-Star_ (the
_Times_ established in 1836), and the _Post_, established in 1881 (both
evening papers); and several influential German journals, including the
_Volksblatt_ (Republican; established 1836), and the _Volksfreund_
(Democratic; established 1850).

Among the social clubs of the city are the Queen City Club, organized in
1874; the Phoenix Club, organized in 1856 and the leading Jewish club in
the city; the Cuvier Club, organized in 1871 and originally an
association of hunters and anglers for the preservation of game and
fish; the Cincinnati Club, the Business Men's Club, the University Club,
the Art Club, and the Literary Club, of the last of which many prominent
men, including President Hayes, have been members. This club dates from
1849, and is said to be the oldest literary club in the country. There
are various commercial and trade organizations, the oldest and most
influential being the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce and Merchants'
Exchange, which dates from 1839.

_Administration._--The city is governed under the municipal code enacted
by the state legislature in 1902, for the provisions of which see OHIO.

Among the institutions are the City infirmary (at Hartwell, a suburb),
which, besides supporting pauper inmates, affords relief to outdoor
poor; the Cincinnati hospital, which is supported by taxation and treats
without charge all who are unable to pay; twenty other hospitals, some
of which are charitable institutions; a United States marine hospital;
the Longview hospital for the insane, at Carthage, 10 m. from the city,
and belonging to Hamilton county, whose population consists largely of
the inhabitants of Cincinnati; an insane asylum for negroes; six orphan
asylums--the Cincinnati, two Protestant, two Roman Catholic, and one for
negroes; a home for incurables; a day nursery; a fresh-air home and farm
for poor children; the Franciscan Brothers' Protectory for boys; a
children's home; two widows' homes; two old men's homes; several homes
for indigent and friendless women; a foundling asylum; the rescue
mission and home for erring women; a social settlement conducted by the
University of Cincinnati; the house of refuge (1850) for "the
reformation and education of homeless and incorrigible children under 16
years of age"; and a workhouse for adults convicted of minor offences.

_Communications._--Cincinnati is a railway centre of great importance
and has an extensive commerce both by rail and by river. It is served by
the following railways: the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis
(Pennsylvania system), the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis
(New York Central system), the Chicago, Cincinnati & Louisville, the
Cincinnati, New Orleans & Texas Pacific (the lessee of the Cincinnati
Southern railway,[3] connecting Cincinnati and Chattanooga, Tenn., its
line forming part of the so-called Queen & Crescent Route to New
Orleans), the Erie, the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western (Baltimore & Ohio
system), the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Norfolk & Western, the Louisville &
Nashville, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Cincinnati Northern
(New York Central system), the Cincinnati & Muskingum Valley
(Pennsylvania system), and the Cincinnati, Lebanon & Northern
(Pennsylvania system). Most of these railways use the Union Station; the
Pennsylvania and the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, have separate
stations. The city's river commerce, though of less relative importance
since the advent of railways, is large and brings to its wharves much
bulky freight, such as coal, iron and lumber; it also helps to
distribute the products of the city's factories; and the National
government has done much to sustain this commerce by deepening and
lighting the channel. Formerly there was considerable commerce with Lake
Erie by way of the Miami & Erie Canal to Toledo; the canal was completed
in 1830 and has never been entirely abandoned.

_Industries._--Although the second city in population in the state,
Cincinnati ranked first in 1900 as a manufacturing centre, but lost this
pre-eminence to Cleveland in 1905, when the value of Cincinnati's
factory product was $166,059,050, an increase of 17.2% over the figures
for 1900. In the manufacture of vehicles, harness, leather, hardwood
lumber, wood-working machinery, machine tools, printing ink, soap,
pig-iron, malt liquors, whisky, shoes, clothing, cigars and tobacco,
furniture, cooperage goods, iron and steel safes and vaults, and pianos,
also in the packing of meat, especially pork,[4] it ranks very high
among the cities of the Union. The well-known and beautiful Rookwood
ware has been made in Cincinnati since 1880, at the Rookwood Pottery (on
Mt. Adams), founded by Mrs Bellamy (Maria Longworth) Storer, named from
her father's home near the city, the first American pottery to devote
exclusive attention to art ware. The earlier wares were yellow, brown
and red; then came deep greens and blues, followed by mat glazes and by
"vellum" ware (first exhibited in 1904), a lustreless pottery,
resembling old parchment, with its decoration painted or modelled or
both. The clays used are exclusively American, much being obtained in
Missouri. Among the more important manufactures of the city in 1905 were
the following, with the value of the product for that year: clothing
($16,972,484), slaughtering and meat-packing products ($13,446,202),
foundry and machine-shop products ($11,528,768), boots and shoes
($10,596,928), distilled liquors ($9,609,826), malt liquors
($7,702,693), and carriages and wagons ($6,323,803).[5]

_History._--Cincinnati was founded by some of the first settlers in that
part of the North-West Territory which afterwards became the state of
Ohio. It lies on part of the land purchased for himself and others by
John Cleves Symmes (1742-1814) from the United States government in
1788, and the settlement was established near the close of the same year
by immigrants chiefly from New Jersey and Kentucky. When the town was
laid out early in 1789, John Filson, one of the founders, named it
Losantiville (L for Licking; _os_, Latin for mouth; _anti_, Greek for
opposite; and _ville_, French for town), but early in the next year
Symmes caused the present name to be substituted in honour of the Order
of the Cincinnati, General Arthur St Clair, the governor of the
North-West Territory, being then president of the Pennsylvania State
Society of the Cincinnati. St Clair arrived about the time the change in
name was made, immediately erected Hamilton County, and made Cincinnati
its seat of government; the territorial legislature also held its
sessions here from the time of its first organization in 1799 until
1801, when it removed to Chillicothe. During the early years the Indians
threatened the life of the settlement, and in 1789 Fort Washington, a
log building for protection against the Indians, was built in the city;
General Josiah Harmar, in 1790, and General St Clair, in 1791, made
unsuccessful expeditions against them, and the alarm increased until
1794, when General Wayne won a decisive victory over the savages at
Maumee Rapids in the battle of Fallen Timbers, after which he secured
their consent to the terms of the treaty of Greenville (1795).
Cincinnati was incorporated as a village in 1802, received a second
charter in 1815, was chartered as a city in 1819, and received its
second city charter in 1827 and its third in 1832; since 1851 it has
been governed nominally by general laws of the state, although by the
state's method of classifying cities many acts for its government have
been in reality special. When first incorporated its limits were
confined to an area of 3 sq. m., but by annexations in 1849 and 1850
this area was doubled; in 1854 another square mile was added; in 1869
and 1870 large additions were made, which included the villages of
Sedamsville, Price Hill, Walnut Hills, Mount Auburn, Clintonville,
Corryville, Vernon, Mount Harrison, Barrsville, Fairmount, West
Fairmount, St Peters, Lick Run and Clifton Heights; in 1872 Columbia,
which was settled a short time before Cincinnati, was added; in 1873
Cumminsville and Woodburn; in 1895 Avondale, Riverside, Clifton, Linwood
and Westwood; in 1903 Bond Hill, Winton Place, Hyde Park and Evanston;
in 1904 portions of Mill Creek township, and in 1905 a small tract in
Mill Creek Valley.

In 1829 Mrs Frances Trollope established in Cincinnati, where she lived
for a part of two years, a "Bazar," which as the principal means of
carrying out her plan to benefit the town was entirely unsuccessful; a
vivid but scarcely unbiassed picture of Cincinnati in the early thirties
is to be found in her _Domestic Manners of the Americans_ (1831). In
1845 began the marked influx of Germans, which lasted in large degree up
to 1860; they first limited themselves to the district "Over the Rhine"
(the Rhine being the Miami & Erie Canal), in the angle north-east of the
junction of Canal and Sycamore streets, but gradually spread throughout
the city, although this "Over the Rhine" is still most typically German.

For more than ten years preceding the Civil War the city was much
disturbed by slavery dissension--the industrial interests were largely
with the South, but abolitionists were numerous and active, and the city
was an important station on the "Underground Railroad," of which Dr
Norton S. Townshend (1815-95) was conductor, and one of the stations was
the home of Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, who lived in Cincinnati from
1832 to 1850, and gathered there much material embodied in _Uncle Tom's
Cabin_. In 1834 came the Lane Seminary controversies over slavery
previously referred to. In 1835 James G. Birney established here his
anti-slavery journal, _The Philanthropist_, but his printing shops were
repeatedly mobbed and his presses destroyed, and in January of 1836 his
bold speech before a mob gathered at the court-house was the only thing
that saved him from personal violence, as the city authorities had
warned him that they had not sufficient force to protect him.

At the time of the Civil War the city was strongly in sympathy with the
North. In September 1862 the city was threatened by a Confederate force
under General Kirby Smith, who led the advance of General Bragg's army
(see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR). On the 28th of March 1884 many of the citizens
met at Music Hall to protest against the lax way in which the law was
enforced, notably in the case of a recent murder, when the confessed
criminal had been found guilty of manslaughter only. An attack was made
on the gaol by the lawless element outside the hall, but was
futile,--the murderer having been removed by the authorities to
Columbus. In its efforts to break into the gaol and court-house the mob
was confronted by the militia, and bloodshed and loss of life resulted;
during the rioting the courthouse was fired by the mob and practically
destroyed, and many valuable records were burned. Various important
political conventions have met in Cincinnati, including the national
Democratic convention of 1856, the national Liberal-Republican
convention of 1872, the national Republican convention of 1876, and the
national Democratic convention of 1880,--by which, respectively, James
Buchanan, Horace Greeley, R.B. Hayes and Winfield Scott Hancock were
nominated for the presidency.

  See C.T. Greve, _Centennial History of Cincinnati and Representative
  Citizens_ (Chicago, 1904), the official municipal documents, the
  Annual Reports of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, &c.


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] Previous census reports of the total population were as follows:
    (1810) 2540; (1820) 9642; (1830) 24,831; (1840) 46,338; (1850)
    115,435; (1860) 161,044; (1870) 216,239; (1880) 225,139. In the
    territory within a radius of 10 m. of the United States government
    building there was in 1900 a population of about 480,000.

  [2] The most destructive floods have been those of 1832, 1847, 1883,
    1884 and 1907; the highest stage of the water before 1904 was 71 ft.
    3/4 in. in 1884, the lowest 1 ft. 11 in. in 1881.

  [3] The Cincinnati Southern railway is of especial interest in that
    it was built by the city of Cincinnati in its corporate capacity.
    Much of the city's trade had always been with the Southern states,
    and the urgent need of better facilities for this trade than the
    river and existing railway lines afforded led to the building of
    this road by the city. The work was carried on under the direction
    of a board of five trustees appointed by the superior court of
    Cincinnati in accordance with the so-called Ferguson Act passed by
    the Ohio legislature in 1869, and the railway was completed to
    Chattanooga in February 1880. For accounts of the building and the
    management of the railway, see J.H. Hollander, _The Cincinnati
    Southern Railway; A Study in Municipal Activity_ (Baltimore, 1894),
    one of the Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and
    Political Science; and _The Founding of the Cincinnati Southern
    Railway, with an Autobiographical Sketch by E.A. Ferguson_
    (Cincinnati, 1905).

  [4] Before 1863 Cincinnati was the principal centre in the United
    States for the slaughtering of hogs and the packing of pork. The
    industry began as early as 1820 and rapidly increased in importance,
    but after 1863 Chicago took the lead.

  [5] These figures are from the U.S. census, and are of course for
    Cincinnati proper: some of the largest industrial establishments,
    however, are just outside the city limits--among these are
    manufactories of soap (the Ivory Soap Works), machine tools,
    electrical machinery and appliances, structural and architectural
    iron work, and office furnishings.







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