Produced by Thanks to, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, and the
Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe Europe at
http://dp.rastko.net. ( This book was produced from scanned
images of public domain material from the Digital &
Multimedia Center, Michigan State University Libraries.)











THE SHORES OF THE ADRIATIC

THE AUSTRIAN SIDE

[Illustration: HERZEGOVINIAN WOMEN AT A BAKER'S SHOP IN RAGUSA.

_Frontispiece_]




THE SHORES OF THE ADRIATIC

THE AUSTRIAN SIDE

THE KÜSTENLANDE, ISTRIA, AND DALMATIA


By F. HAMILTON JACKSON, R.B.A.

VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE INSTITUTE OF DECORATIVE DESIGNERS CANTOR LECTURER,
ETC.

FULLY ILLUSTRATED WITH PLANS. DRAWINGS BY THE AUTHOR, AND PHOTOGRAPHS
TAKEN SPECIALLY FOR THIS WORK


[Illustration]


LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. 1908

PRINTED BY HAZELL, WATSON AND VINEY, LD., LONDON AND AYLESBURY.




PREFACE


This volume is complementary to that dealing with the Italian side of
the Adriatic, and follows much the same lines. It has not been thought
necessary to repeat what appeared there about the sea itself, but some
further details on the subject have been added in an introductory
chapter. The concluding chapter treats of the influence which the two
coasts exerted on each other, and contains some hints as to certain
archæological problems of great interest, which deserve fuller and more
individual treatment than they can receive in such a work as the
present.

In a country which still contains so much that is unfamiliar, so many
mediæval survivals in customs and costume, and so much that is fine in
scenery, architecture, and the decorative arts, the picturesque aspect
of the country has been dwelt upon more than was the case in dealing
with the Italian side, and the meticulous description of buildings has
to a great extent been abandoned, except in cases where it was necessary
for the full understanding of the deductions drawn from existing
details. At the same time, matters of archæology have not been
neglected, and the rich remains of mediæval goldsmiths' work have
received special attention. The costume, the customs, and the folk-lore
of the Morlacchi are also treated of in considerable detail.

The determination of the Croat majority to stamp out the Italian
language by insisting upon instruction in the schools being given
solely in Croat will, in the course of a generation, make Italian a
foreign language understood by few; and it seems wise for those who
desire to visit Dalmatia to do so soon, while it is still understood and
before Italian culture is forgotten.

The present work does not pretend to in any way rival Mr. T.G. Jackson's
classic volumes on the architecture of the country, in completeness of
historical treatment or architectural detail. Though Sir Gardner
Wilkinson had published a book on the country, and the brothers Adam's
full description of Diocletian's Palace was well known to connoisseurs,
he may be said to have practically discovered Dalmatia for the
Englishman; and it is a proof of the excellence of his work that, though
twenty years have elapsed since it was published, it has never been
surpassed, and its value remains undiminished. To these volumes the
author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness, as well as to the
"Mittheilungen" of the Austrian Central Commission for the Conservation
of Historical Monuments; the "Bullettino di Storia Dalmata," conducted
by Mgr. Bulić at Spalato; the "Atti" of the Istrian "Società di
Archeologia e Storia Patria," published at Parenzo; and the "Archeografo
Triestino," published at Trieste, all chronicling discoveries as they
were made, and containing articles giving interesting and reliable
information upon the history and antiquities of the coast. In addition,
the following works have been consulted:

Freeman's "Subject Lands of Venice"; Munro's "Rambles and Studies in
Bosnia and Herzegovina"; Neale's "Travels in Dalmatia"; Villari's
"Ragusa"; Benussi's "L'Istria"; Bianchi's "Zara Cristiana" and
"Antichità Romane e mediævale di Zara"; Mgr. Bulić's "Guide to Spalato
and Salona"; Caprin's "Il Trecento a Trieste," "Alpi Gulie," and
"L'Istria noblissima"; Carrara's "La Dalmazia descritta"; Chiudina's
"Le Castella di Spalato"; Fabianich's "La Dalmazia nè primi cinque
secoli del Cristianesimo"; Fosco's "La Cathedrale di Sebenico";
Franceschi's "L'Istria"; Gelcich's "Memorie storiche delle Bocche di
Cattaro" and "Dello Sviluppo civile di Ragusa"; Lago's "Memorie sulla
Dalmazia"; Lucio's "History of Dalmatia and Traù"; Ludwig and Molmenti's
"Vittore Carpaccio"; Mantegazza's "L'Altra Sponda"; Modrich's "La
Dalmazia"; Pasini's "Il Tesoro di S. Marco in Venezia"; Cav. G.B. di
Rossi's "La Capsella Argentea africana," &c., and the two series of
"Bullettino di Archeologia Cristiana"; Sabalich's "Guida Archeologica di
Zaza"; Tamaro's "Le Citta dell' Istria"; and volumes of the Zara
"Annuario Dalmatico"; Bamberger's "Blaues Meer und Schwarze Berge";
Danilo's "Dalmatien"; "Die Monarchic in Wort und Bild"; Eitelberger von
Edelberg's "Gesammelte Kunsthistorischen Schriften"; Hauser's "Spalato
und die monumente Dalmatiens"; Heider's "Mittelaltliche Kunst denkmale
des Œsterreichischen Kaiserstaates"; Passarge's "Dalmatien und
Montenegro"; Petermann's "Führer durch Dalmatien"; Tomasin's "Die
Volkstamme im Gebiete von Triest und in Istrien"; Von Warsberg's
"Dalmatien"; and Count Lanckoronski's magnificent monograph of the
Cathedral of Aquileia.

A small portion of the matter of this volume has appeared in _The
Builder_ and _The Guardian_, but has been revised and, to a great
extent, rewritten. The author's thanks are due to the proprietors for
permission to republish these articles. He desires to express his thanks
also to the Austrian Government especially, and to the ecclesiastical
authorities, for special facilities very kindly afforded him for
prosecuting his studies; to the Central Commission, for the loan of
clichés of most of the plans; to the directorate of the Archeografo
Triestino, for permission to reproduce the plan of the cathedral,
Trieste; to the Istrian Archæological Society, for the plan of the three
cathedrals of Parenzo, and for permission, very courteously given by the
president, Dr. Amoroso, to use anything published by them on the
subject; to Mgr. Bulić, Sig. Maionica, Curator of the Museum, Aquileia,
and to Sig. Puschi, of the Museum, Trieste, for much information kindly
given by word of mouth; and to Mr. Palmer, Librarian of the Art Library,
South Kensington, for calling his attention to several books which were
exceedingly useful.

The photographs (as in the Italian volume) are from the excellent
negatives of Mr. Cooper Ashton, the travelling companion of many foreign
archæological expeditions.




CONTENTS


                                                           PAGE

  PREFACE                                                     v

  LISTS OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND PLANS                        xi-xv

  I. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER                                     1

  II. THE RACES AND THEIR CUSTOMS                             6

  III. AQUILEIA                                              23

  IV. GRADO                                                  41

  V. GRADO TO TRIESTE                                        54

  VI. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF ISTRIA                            69

  VII. MUGGIA TO PIRANO                                      79

  VIII. UMACO TO PARENZO                                    104

  IX. PARENZO                                               107

  X. TO POLA BY SEA                                         127

  XI. TO POLA BY LAND                                       133

  XII. POLA                                                 143

  XIII. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ISTRIAN COAST                160

  XIV. FIUME AND VEGLIA                                     163

  XV. OSSERO AND CHERSO                                     180

  XVI. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF DALMATIA                        187

  XVII. ARBE                                                192

  XVIII. ZARA                                               205

  XIX. SEBENICO                                             245

  XX. TRAÙ AND THE RIVIERA DEI SETTE CASTELLI               262

  XXI. SPALATO                                              292

  XXII. THE SOUTHERN GROUP OF ISLANDS                       316

  XXIII. RAGUSA                                             333

  XXIV. THE BOCCHE DI CATTARO                               369

  XXV. THE RECIPROCAL INFLUENCES OF THE TWO SHORES          397

        INDEX                                               409




ILLUSTRATIONS

I. FROM PHOTOGRAPHS


  Herzegovinian Women at a Baker's Shop in Ragusa          _Frontispiece_
  Statue of Venus, Museum, Aquileia                     _Facing page_ 36
  Pulpit in the Cathedral, Grado                           "          45
  Shipping at Trieste: the Canal, with the Greek Church
    and Sant' Antonio                                      "          57
  Pirano, from near the Cathedral                          "          97
  Marble Capital of the Sixth Century, Parenzo             "         113
  High-altar, Parenzo, from the South Aisle                "         116
  Wine-boats in the Fiumara Canal, Fiume                   "         163
  South Portion of Choir-screen, Cathedral, Veglia         "         173
  The Harbour of Besca Nova                                "         176
  Chimneys at Besca Nova                                   "         178
  Monstrance in Colleggiata, Ossero                        "         184
  Smergo Fishermen                                         "         186
  Ascent to the Ramparts, Zara                             "         205
  Carving on Right Jamb of West Door, Cathedral, Traù      "         272
  Interior of the Cathedral, Traù                          "         276
  Door of the "Atrio Rotondo," Palace of Diocletian,
      Spalato                                              "         294
  Interior of the Cathedral, Spalato                       "         296
  Panel from Guvina's Doors of the Cathedral, Spalato      "         299
  Stall-backs in Choir, Cathedral, Spalato                 "         300
  A Morlacco Family, between Salona and Clissa             "         314
  Travelling at ease: among the Islands                    "         329
  Herzegovinian Charcoal Porter, Gravosa                   "         334
  Reliquary of the Head of S. Blaise, Cathedral
    Treasury, Ragusa                                      "          343
  Cloister of the Dominican Convent, Ragusa               "          349
  Lavabo in Sacristy of Franciscan Convent, Ragusa        "          353
  Loggia of Rector's Palace, Ragusa                       "          354
  Capital from the Loggia, Rector's Palace, Ragusa        "          355
  Æsculapius Capital, Rector's Palace, Ragusa             "          356
  Fountain of Onofrio di La Cava, Ragusa                  "          357
  Reliquary of the Head of S. Trifone, Cattaro            "          384
  Albanian Horse-dealers, Cattaro                         "          388


  II. FULL-PAGE LINE DRAWINGS

  Narthex of the Cathedral, Aquileia                      "           35
  A Corner in Grado                                       "           42
  The Patriarch's Throne, Cathedral, Grado                "           46
  Choir-screen and Ambo, Muggia Vecchia                   "           81
  The "Fontico" and S. Giacorno, Capodistria              "           90
  The Piazza da Ponte, Capodistria                        "           92
  The Inner Harbour, Pirano                               "           94
  Opus Sectile in the Apse, Cathedral, Parenzo            "          114
  The Atrium and Western Façade, Cathedral, Parenzo       "          119
  View across the Nave, Cathedral, Parenzo                "          131
  An Istrian Farm-house                                   "          133
  Interior of the Basilica, San Lorenzo in Pasenatico     "          134
  Entrance to the Castle, Pisino                          "          137
  An Angle of the Castle, San Vincenti                    "          139
  Arch of the Sergii, Pola                                "          145
  The Amphitheatre, Pola                                  "          146
  West Doorway, S. Francesco, Pola                        "          154
  Interior of the Cathedral, Veglia                       "          171
  In the Harbour, Besca Nova                              "          175
  The Main Street, Besca Nova                             "          177
  Lussin Grande                                           "          181
  West Door of the Colleggiata, Ossero                    "          183
  The Landing-place, Arbe                                 "          193
  The Porta Marina, Zara                                  "          207
  North Door of Western Façade, Cathedral, Zara           "          220
  Apse of S. Crisogono, Zara                              "          230
  Entrance to the Town of Nona                            "          239
  Eastern End of Cathedral, Sebenico                      "          248
  Late Venetian-Gothic Doorway, Sebenico                  "          253
  South-east Portion of Choir, Cathedral, Sebenico        "          254
  Belfry of Greek Church, Sebenico                        "          257
  The Porta Marina and Custom House, Traù                 "          265
  The Porta S. Giovanni, Traù                             "          266
  A Decayed Palace, Traù                                  "          282
  The Quay, Castel Vecchio                                "          287
  The Porta Aurea, Spalato                                "          293
  Italian Fruit and Vegetable Boats, Spalato              "          303
  Cloister of S. Francesco, Spalato                       "          305
  Osteria at Salona                                       "          310
  Basilica of the Christian Cemetery, Salona              "          312
  Porta Pile, Ragusa                                      "          336
  Torre Menze and Fort S. Lorenzo, Ragusa                 "          337
  La Sponza and Onofrio's Fountain, Ragusa                "          359
  The Ruined Bastion, Castelnuovo, Bocche di Cattaro      "          373
  Dobrota, Bocche di Cattaro                              "          378
  Ciborium of S. Trifone, Cattaro                         "          383
  S. Luka, Cattaro                                        "          385
  The Scuola Nautica, Cattaro                             "          386


  III. LINE DRAWINGS IN TEXT

  Knocker of the Rector's Palace, Ragusa                       _On Title_
  Antique Statue in the Museum, Aquileia                     _page_   37
  Figure of S. Giusto, Campanile of the Cathedral, Trieste    "       63
  Arco di Riccardo, Trieste                                   "       65
  West End of the Church, Muggia Vecchia                      "       80
  Knocker on Palazzo Tacco, Capodistria                       "       91
  Greek Benedictional Cross, Parenzo                          "      117
  Sarcophagus of S. Eufemia, Rovigno                          "      130
  Wayside Chapel outside San Vincenti                         "      140
  Stall on the Wine-quay, Fiume                               "      164
  Veglia, showing the Castle Towers                                  172
  Reliquary of the Head of Sant Christopher                          196
  Arbe, from the Shore                                               203
  Morlacco Girl, Zara                                                212
  Going to Market, Zara                                              213
  Altar of Sant' Anastasia, Zara                                     225
  Reliquary of Sant' Orontius, Zara                                  226
  Reliquary of the Clothes of Our Lord, S. Maria Nuova, Zara         234
  Costume of Sebenico                                                257
  Late Gothic Lintel at Traù                                         283
  A Quaint Costume, Traù                                             286
  Reliquaries and Chalice, Treasury, Spalato Cathedral               297
  Morse in the Treasury, Spalato Cathedral                           298
  Porta Maggiore, Lesina                                             319
  West Door of the Cathedral, Curzola                                326
  Head Reliquary in Cathedral, Ragusa                                345
  Reliquary of the Jaw of S. Stephen of Hungary                      346
  A Corner of the Walls, Cattaro                                     388
  Montenegrins in the Market, Cattaro                                392
  Early Greek Ship, from Millingen's Vases                    _Tailpiece_


  IV. PLANS AND SECTIONS

  Plan of the Cathedral, Aquileia                                     28
  Plan of the Cathedral, Trieste                                      60
  Plan of Pulpit, Muggia Vecchia                                      82
  Plan of the Three Basilicas, Parenzo                               109
  Plan of S. Maria Formosa, Pola                                     148
  Plans of S. Donate, Zara                                           214
  Plans and Section of S. Lorenzo,
    Zara                                   _Between pages_ 216 _and_ 217
  Plan of Foundations discovered on the Riva Nuova, Zara             218
  Plan of the Cathedral, Zara                                        223
  Plan of Cathedral Crypt, Zara                                      224
  Plan of S. Nicolò, Nona                                            242
  Plan and Sections, S. Barbara, Traù                                268
  Plan of the Cathedral, Traù                                        271
  Plan of Cathedral and Campanile, Spalato                           295
  Plan of the Dominican Convent, Ragusa                              348
  Plan and Elevation of one Bay of Cloister, Dominican
    Convent, Ragusa                                                  352
  Plan of La Sponza, Ragusa                                          358
  Plan of the Cathedral, Cattaro                                     381

  Map of Istria and Dalmatia                             _At end of book_




I

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER


The two shores of the Adriatic are totally different in their natural
characteristics; the western being almost islandless and destitute of
harbours, while the eastern is fringed by an almost continuous chain of
islands and possesses several magnificent harbours which communicate
with the open sea by narrow channels easily fortified, the rocks rising
precipitously from the water along the greater part of the coast,
whereas on the Italian side there is an equally continuous strip of
alluvial plain between the foothills and the sea.

The Adriatic was once bounded by a kind of ridge stretching from Monte
Gargano to Albania. North of this line the depth is much less than in
the Ionian Sea. When the surface of the earth sank, the Dalmatian
islands were formed by the letting in of the sea. The depth near Parenzo
is about 120 ft.; in the Quarnero, near Fiume, 195 ft.; between Cherso
and Arbe, 335 ft.; and south-west of the island Zuri (some 24 miles from
the mainland), about 700 ft. Depths as great as 335 ft. to 490 ft. are,
however, not very common within nine miles of the mainland. In the
Bocche di Cattaro the depth near the mouth is 165 ft., but half a mile
west of the Punta d'Ostro, 335 ft. North of the line from Monte Gargano
to Pelagosa, Cazza, and Curzola it is never as much as 780 ft.;
south-east of this line the bottom sinks so much that between Cattaro
and Brindisi it reaches a depth of over 5,000 ft. The tide is scarcely
perceptible, and the currents are very slight. The land is still
sinking, as is proved by the Roman sarcophagi found beneath the water at
Vranjic and the submerged roads between Aquileia and Grado; while there
are records of the destruction of ancient towns from sudden subsidences,
as that of Cissa, near Rovigno. The subsidence has been calculated as
about a yard in 1,000 years. Cluverius proves from Ptolemy that in
antiquity the name Adriatic only applied to that part of the gulf which
lay to the north of a line between Monte Gargano and Durazzo. A passage
of Strabo, describing the people of Epirus, runs: "The Adriatic being
ended, the Ionian commences, the first shore of which is in the
neighbourhood of Epidamnus and Apollonia." When Venice conquered Durazzo
the limits of the Adriatic were extended, and it was thenceforth called
the Gulf of Venice. In 1859 the almost incredible fact is recorded that
it was frozen for several days!

The Austrian provinces which lie along the coast are, commencing at the
north, the Küstenlande, Istria, and Dalmatia. In the first the Julian
Alps form a great boundary wall to the plain of the Isonzo, from which
the ground rises between Monfalcone and Nabresina to the stony district
of the Karst. The Istrian ranges are spurs from this lofty plateau, the
chain culminating in Monte Maggiore, north-west of Fiume. All these
heights belong to the Julian Alps. Beyond Fiume, southwards, there are
three principal mountain chains, all of which have much the same
formation of limestone, pale brownish or grey in colour, with fossils
and streaks of other colours. The first is the Dinaric Alps or Velebits,
a continuation of the Julian Alps. These separate Dalmatia from Bosnia
as far as Imoschi, where they enter Herzegovina, finally joining the
Montenegrin chain. The chain of the shore commences on the left bank of
the Kerka and extends to the Narenta, which cuts it. It runs as far as
Trebinje, beyond the river. The Montenegrin mountains, which are so
impressive above the Bocche di Cattaro, joining with those of the
Herzegovina, make the third chain. The islands and rocks in the sea
appear to be submarine branches of the littoral chain; the strata lie in
the same direction--in the North Dalmatian islands to the north-west, in
the Southern to the west. On the peninsula of Sabbioncello they lie
partly in one and partly in the other direction. The former connection
between the islands and the mainland is proved by the remains of
rhinoceros, horse, and stag in the diluvial bone breccias of Lesina, and
the survival of the jackal in Giuppana, Curzola, and Sabbioncello.
Geologists hold that the deeply cut bays of Sabbioncello and Gravosa, as
well as of the Bocche di Cattaro, and the step-shaped sinkings of the
northern and eastern limestone mountains towards the Adriatic basin are
signs of the tearing away of the islands from the mainland, perhaps
through the destruction of the permeable strata.

These generally show in their forms the craggy and stony character of
the Dinaric Alps, rising perpendicularly from the water on the side of
the prevailing wind, and without vegetation. On the other side are
softer hills and plains with southern vegetation, the aromatic scents
from which are carried by the breeze. There are about twenty large
islands, some of which are over 30 miles long; but the number may be
raised to a hundred by counting in the small ones. They are generally in
groups or chains, though some are isolated. The water is generally deep
up to the shore, so there are very few sandbanks.

The greater portion of the naked surface of the land is formed of
limestone and dolomites, which are closely related: there are also, on
the lower levels, grey or red sands, among which schistous loams of
uniform colour predominate. These two formations stretch from one end of
the province to the other in sloping beds. They are interrupted here and
there by loam and schistous clay and horizontal beds of a kind of
limestone: below these are lignites and chalky limestone, in which
shells are found belonging to a later formation. The oldest formations
are the volcanic mountains near Knin and on Lissa. Next follow the trias
strata, as under the Velebits and westwards from Sinj, then the
sandstone beds, the different eocene beds and alluvial strata, as in the
plain of Dernis, north of the Vrana Lake, by Nona and Imoski. The
principal characteristic of the Karst district (to which Dalmatia
belongs geologically) is the way the water flows, sometimes above,
sometimes under ground. Where the woods were cut down to supply the
Romans and Venetians with material for constructing their fleets, and
where natural afforestation has been stopped by the feeding of sheep and
goats, the red earth has either been washed away by the rains or blown
away by the winds, so that it is only in the hollows that cultivation
can be carried on.

The bitter north wind, the Bora, is the curse of the district. In the
island of Arbe it sometimes blows even in June and July, stripping the
vineyards as if hundreds of men had been at work, and carrying the salt
spray all over the island, to the great detriment of vegetation. It is
sometimes strong enough to upset pedestrians, and it is said that if it
were not for it, there would be neither winter nor cold in the Dalmatian
littoral. On the heights winter begins in November and lasts till April,
with heavy snowfalls; but on the coast spring begins in February, and
winter only at the beginning of December. The summer, which commences in
May, is usually rainless, with the heat tempered by sea-breezes, though
at the end of August heavy rains commence, and in autumn the frequent
changes of temperature are dangerous. The flora consists of nearly 2,500
species, described by Visiani in his "Flora Dalmatica." The aquatic
flora contains nearly 700 varieties, many of the seaweeds being
exclusively Dalmatian. Views on the coast of Ragusa, or at Castelnuovo,
in the Bocche, resemble those of Sardinia and Sicily. On one side may be
seen green meadows, fruit trees, flowing water, cornfields, beechwoods,
&c.; on the other, olive groves, thickets of arbutus, hedge plants the
height of a tree, myrtles, and bay; on the naked rock aloes grow and the
_opuntia_; in gardens, dwarf and date-palms, unprotected _cycas
revoluta_, and orange and lemon trees; and wide valleys are filled with
lofty carob trees--so close are the boundaries between the flora of
middle Europe and of the Mediterranean. Almonds flower in December, and
peas and beans are often gathered at Christmas. At Cannosa the date-palm
ripens its fruit, and flowers are always to be seen. The Euphorbia
Dendroides grows as high as in Crete, and rosemary bushes are frequently
up to the shoulder of a man. In August the Syrian hibiscus is violet-red
and the scarlet-red arbutus fruit hangs till Christmas. On Monte Marjan,
near Spalato, where Diocletian had his parks, the sheltered aspect
creates a tropical climate. Wild aloes grow 6 ft. high, and in midwinter
numbers of field flowers may be picked as if it were spring.




II

THE RACES AND THEIR CUSTOMS


The people of Istria and Dalmatia are a very mixed race, as might be
expected from the history of the countries. On these shores and islands
were Greek colonies and Roman _municipia_, which have left their trace
in the names of places and families. Greek colonies were at Issa
(Lissa), Pharia (Lesina), Epetium (Stobreč), Tragurium (Traù), Melita
(Meleda), Corcyra (Curzola), Buta (Budua), and Ambrachia (Brazza), to
name some of those which have survived as towns to the present day.
Roman family names occur especially round Spalato, such as Lutia
(Lucio), Cæpia (Cippico), Valeria (Valeri), Junia (Giunio), Coceia
(Coceich), Marcia (Marce), Cassia (Cassio), Cælia (Celio), and Statilia
(Statileo). Byzantine names testify to the rule of Byzantium, such as
Paleologo, Lascaris, Andronico, Grisogono, Catacumano. In Istria there
is a considerable admixture of German blood; on the rocks of Zara the
Crusaders abandoned sick Frenchmen; whilst thither and to Spalato also
came Ghibellines in exile. Franks, Croats, Bosniaks, Hungarians,
Genoese, Neapolitans, and above all, Venetians have held sway over
portions of the coast at different times. Families of Hungarian and
Bosnian gentlemen established the free commune of Poglizza; exiles from
Spain, Jews, for the most part driven out in 1492, established
themselves at Spalato and Ragusa; Lombards descended upon the coasts and
islands; and Venetians commenced to establish themselves in Dalmatia in
the eleventh century, Istria coming even earlier more or less under
their influence. In 1552, in the Council of Zara, out of seventeen noble
families more than two-thirds were of Italian descent; and at Lesina the
proportion was even greater. At Zara the Italians still preponderate,
but the Slav element is in the majority in the greater part of Dalmatia,
and even in the country parts of Istria. There are also many French,
Hungarians, Bosniaks, Herzegovinians, Germans, Swiss, and gypsies, the
Slav majority increasing towards the south.

In Istria the present inhabitants may be divided into Italians,
Roumanians, and Slavs: to the last division belong the Morlacchi, the
Tschitsches, Slovens, and Croats. The Italians are the most intelligent
portion of the population, and are craftsmen, large occupiers of land,
merchants, and sailors. They are the descendants of those who were
subjects of Venice from the fourteenth century till the fall of the
Republic. The Slovens were in Istria as early as the eighth century, and
Paulus Diaconus mentions them as being near Cividale. Records exist of
Croats raids in the tenth century, whilst further south there were two
great immigrations--the first, in the seventh century, by the
"Belocroats," called by Porphyrogenitus, Croats, from the banks of the
Elbe, descendants of whom may to-day be found in the islands; and the
second, in the fourteenth century, by the people of Rascia, who now
inhabit much of the interior and are known as "Morlacchi," a name
derived from the Slav "Mauro vlach," the black Wallachs.

According to Lucio, who refers to William of Tyre, all Dalmatians used
the Roman language until 1200. After the Croats came down, the name of
"Dalmatian," strictly speaking, belonged only to the cities of Zara,
Traù, Spalato, and Ragusa, to the western islands of Dalmatia, and to
Lissa and Lagosta--Eastern Dalmatia was a Servian province; Western, a
Croatian. It is known that Slavs came in 1463 to Salvore, in 1526 to the
district of Rovigno, in 1549 to the district of Cittanova, Montona,
Parenzo, and Pola, in 1595 to Fontane, in 1624 and 1634 (the plague
years) to Fillipano, 1647 to near Pola, and 1650 to Peroi, near Fasano.
Those now there came from the Bocche and Montenegro, settled in
1658-1659 by Doge Giovanni Pesaro, after the great plague. The women
still wear the ancient costume. The Slavs are most numerous between
Dragogna and Trieste. Procopius gives an interesting description of them
worth quoting: "The two nations of the Autars and the Slavs know no
monarchical government; but from ancient times live freely in common
fashion. They take all questions of great importance or difficulty to a
common national council. The customs of the two nations are alike in
everything else. These barbarians believe, by an article of faith
transmitted from their ancestors, that, among many, there is one sole
master of all things, whom they look upon as the author of the thunder;
and to him they sacrifice bulls and other victims. They do not know what
the goddess Fortune may be, nor believe that she has any influence on
human affairs. When they feel themselves threatened by death, either by
illness or wounds given in battle, they are told to promise a sacrifice
to God if they escape the danger. Then, if they soon get about again,
they fulfil the vow, firmly persuaded that by it they have recovered
their health. They offer worship to woods, to nymphs, and other genii,
immolating victims to them, and prophesying in the act. They live in
rough huts far away from each other, and often change the situation. The
greater part of them fight on foot, armed with shield and with darts,
but without corslet. Some of them do not wear their ordinary clothes in
battle, but draperies which scarcely reach to the thigh, and so they
present themselves to the enemy. They all speak the same barbarous
tongue, nor differ much in appearance, but are all tall and powerful.
The colour of the flesh and the hair is neither vermilion nor brown, but
reddish. They live a somewhat fatiguing life, somewhat neglected and
uncultivated, like the Massagetae, and, like them, on sordid food. They
are not cunning, nor evildoers, but follow the customs of the Huns in
sacking and rapine. They possess vast lands and occupy the greater part
of the further bank of the Danube." They have retained many
characteristics of an earlier age, though not of the period of
Procopius.

The men are tall and muscular, with strongly marked features. Their eyes
are generally either grey or blue, the forehead broad and prominent, the
teeth white and strong, the hair sometimes blonde, but ranging through
all shades to black, and the countenance intelligent and expressive. The
boys herd the flocks barefoot and half naked, so that their skin is
always bronzed, and the men generally have bare breasts. Their sight and
hearing are remarkably keen, and in Dalmatia they can make themselves
heard from one hill to another, a feat which is partly owing to the
quality of the air. Their excellent health enables them to support all
kinds of hardships; they sleep out of doors (covering the head), except
in winter, at which season they stay a good deal by the fire, though
they may be seen in the city with icicles on their hairy chests. They
have neither stoves, chimneys, nor glass in the windows. A case of a
monk has been recorded, who, at the age of 105, made watches and read
with the naked eye, ate and drank, walked and "wept" like a boy of
twenty. The costume is distinctive and, with slight variations, is worn
throughout Dalmatia. In Istria there are considerable differences both
in colour and form. "The Morlacco in full dress has on his head the
_kapa_, a cap of scarlet cloth, with black embroidery on the border and
hanging fringe on one side; in some districts bordering on Bosnia a rich
band of silk or coloured wools is twisted round it. Over the skirt of
rough linen (the _kosulja_), open to show the breast, is the _krozet_, a
waistcoat crossed on the breast with flat buttons of silver, or tin, and
embroidery; it is bound to the sides with a girdle (_pas_) made of red
strings. The trousers (_benevrechi_) are of a coarse blue cloth fitting
to the legs and very tight at the calf, below which they are split up
and fastened by _sponje_, copper or silver hooks. The stockings
(_nazubei_) are of wool of various patterns. The shoes (_opanci_) have a
sole of ox-leather and uppers of strips of dried sheeps' skin (_opute_);
a longer _oputa_ passes several times round the ankle and holds the shoe
firm; it turns up at the toe and looks quite Oriental. Instead of the
_krozet_, or over it, some wear the _jacerma_, a sleeveless red cloth
jacket, covered in front with little discs of tin (_siliki_), or large
balls of silver (_toke_), or by rows of coins. And over the _pas_ they
have the _pasnjaca_, a band of red leather covering part of the abdomen,
with various divisions, in which they used to carry their rich arms,
pistols, knives, &c., now filled with the pipe, pipe-cleaner, _britva_,
a very small scimitar with a bone handle, and a small knife in a sheath.
Finally, there is the _koporan_, a jacket with sleeves of blue cloth,
with embroidery on the elbows and back; but few Morlacchi wear it.

"The women have a large handkerchief (_jačmak_) on their heads,
embroidered on the borders; instead of the _kosulja_, or above it, they
have the _oplece_--that is, the coverer of the shoulders; it is closed
at the neck, embroidered on the breast, and on the ample sleeves also.
Round the neck is the _gerdan_, several strings of glass beads of
different colours; it is bound at the stomach by the _litar_, a long
band of leather a couple of inches wide covered with little tin discs
and very heavy. From the _litar_ hang the _britva_ and a lot of keys, by
chains, which are sometimes costly. The gown (_vustan_) is of blue
cloth, but in summer of linen, reaching to the middle of the calf. The
apron (_prejaca_, or, in Venetian, _travesa_) is always a _chef-d'œuvre_
of workmanship, which the Morlacca thinks a deal of. The footwear is
composed of three parts: _bicve_, of blue cloth reaching up to the knee,
tightly laced up with little hooks, and finishing at the ankle in a
ring; over them the true stockings (_nazubei_) of rough wool, with
patterns in vivid colours and _opanci_, or _filare_, like the men's. The
girl does not have the _litar_; on her head is no _jačmak_, but a red
cloth cap, sparkling with antique or modern coins of silver, and
occasionally of gold. In some places the girl has on her bosom the
_gendar_, several rows of coins which hang from the neck, sometimes
below the stomach, tinkling at every step; this is her dowry, and
sometimes worth as much as £50. When she is married she puts off the
_gendar_ and sparkling _kapa_. The men used to have a pigtail, of which
they were very proud. The wife used to comb it twice a month, anoint it
with butter, and tie up the end with ribbons and amulets. It was the
only time when a Morlacco addressed his wife affectionately. In barracks
and in prison the hair is cut, so the pigtail is rarely seen now. To
complete the toilet the _torba_ and _torbak_ must be mentioned: the
first of red wool, with embroidery, worn by both men and women on the
back, laced round the shoulders; the second generally of skin, worn only
by the men, and hanging crosswise by a broad band of leather on the left
hip."

I have given this detailed description of the costume (quoted from
Signor Modrich's "Dalmazia"), thinking it would be of interest; but
descriptions of the costumes as they appear to the ordinary traveller
will be found in the sections dealing with the various places on the
coast.

The Dalmatians are very fond of music and are constantly singing. They
have a proverb: "He who sings thinks not of evil." Tomaseo thought their
folk-songs richer than those of any other nation, ranging as they do
over all manner of subjects. They are generally heroical or amorous in
character, divided into short verses and sung in two parts; the bass
delivers a kind of recitative, and the baritone joins in, the long final
note with which each finishes dying away in a full chord. It is
extraordinary how serious the men are over it, even when singing over
their wine, in which they sometimes exceed. At Traù one Sunday afternoon
we saw a party of eight or ten sitting round a table in a café as
serious as if at a funeral, with wine before them, and enjoying their
melancholy music. On this occasion the alto part was flat, and the
effect was not as good as it is out of doors. Later we came across more
than one group of four, standing where two streets met, and singing
without looking at each other. In the narrow ancient streets the notes
sounded quite in character with the surroundings and with the quaint
dresses of the singers. Modrich says that they use the _svirala_, a kind
of bagpipe with two canes, one with four and the other with three holes,
and suggests that the long-drawn terminating notes of the songs are in
imitation of its sound; but we neither saw nor heard this instrument,
all the singing being unaccompanied. The principal occupations of the
people are agriculture, cattle-raising, and fishing, or sea-faring. They
are exceedingly religious, devoted to church and priest, and observe the
great festivals with feasting and rejoicing, and with ceremonies many of
which are evidently survivals of heathen observances. The greatest
festival is Christmas. In preparation all clothes are washed and
mended, house and yard cleaned, and better and richer food than they
usually have is provided. On the Eve they work hard; before sunrise
house and yard are decked with bay or olive branches or some other
evergreen, which they think protects from lightning. On this day the
sun, which the ancient Slavs worshipped, woke from sleep, as one may
say, and the days began to lengthen perceptibly.

The father of the sun was Perun, the thunder-god. To this god the oak
was dedicated. In the folk-songs he is replaced by S. Elias, and to this
day a great log of oak is placed on the fire on Christmas Eve, and
kindled for the preparation of the evening meal. It burns all night and
the whole of the following day, and in many places is kept smouldering
for eight days. The customs observed are as follows. The head of the
family bares his head and says: "Blessed be thou, O log; God preserve
thee!" and sprinkles wine upon it crosswise. Then corn is thrown over
it, and he invokes every blessing from heaven for the health of those
belonging to the house, present or absent, for the success of domestic
undertakings, and for the harvest, to which the others present reply
"Amen," fire off guns in sign of joy, and say: "Welcome to the evening
of the log." Then they sit down to table in the kitchen, even if other
rooms are available, which suggests a survival of the practice of eating
by the ancient family altar, the hearth. In the centre of the table are
three candles twisted together in honour of the Trinity, lighted, and
stuck into a great loaf ornamented with ivy. This loaf is afterwards
broken up and given to the sheep and cows when bringing forth, or when
sick. A little of every kind of food is thrown on to the burning log. If
there are three logs (as in some places), the right-hand one must be the
biggest--the Father, the Son to the left, and the Spirit in the middle,
the aspersion being made in this order. Boccaccio, in the "Genealogy of
the Gods," refers to a similar custom in his day in Florence, evidently
the survival, or transmutation, of some heathen rite. After supper the
hymn "Es wurde geboren der Himmels König von der unbefleckten Jungfrau
Maria" is sung, and then the young people usually play Christmas games.
Little houses are made of flour or bran, with a piece of money in one,
which belongs to the person who selects that house. On Christmas Day
they visit neighbours and relations, married daughters come with husband
and children to the midday meal, bringing two loaves--one of finer
quality for the mother, one of the usual kind as big as possible for the
father. During the octave groups of young people (and sometimes of men
also) go singing carols from house to house, and are rewarded with money
and wine in return for wishing the donors a rich wine, olive, and fruit
crop. On New Year's Day the three tapers of Christmas Eve are
re-lighted. Before drinking at the meal the head of the house uses the
following formula: "I wish you a good New Year; may you enjoy it in
health and happiness, neither offend God, nor lose your soul, but have
every tender joy and celestial glory." Then he drinks in undiluted wine
three times, and blesses those present in the name of the Father, Son,
and Spirit, and pours the remainder of the wine on the candles to
extinguish them. If by chance one remains alight it is considered an
augury of long life to the person in front of whom it stands. The holy
water of the Vigil of the Epiphany, called "water of the Three Kings,"
and used by the priests to bless every dwelling, is preserved to
sprinkle the fields and the sick also, and is thought to be specific
against the temptations of the devil at the hour of death. It is said to
remain uncorrupted for as long as twenty-five years. Children go about
on New Year's Day with a branch of rosemary stuck in an apple in which
are kreuzer or ten-kreuzer pieces, wishing good fortune and collecting
gifts. In Trieste and some of the Istrian towns, girls and boys go about
throughout the octave of Epiphany with little lanterns, kneel on the
steps of the houses, sing a song in honour of the three Holy Kings, and
then, knocking, ask for money. The song tells how Christ was born poor,
lived poor, and died on the Cross, and then goes on to wish friendly
donors as many angels to take them to heaven as a sieve has holes; for
the hard-hearted as many devils to take them as nails stuck in the door!
In some neighbourhoods children are taken into the vineyards on
Innocents' Day, when they strike the vines with switches and sing:
"Bear, bear fruit, pretty vine, else will I cut thy head off."

Great preparations are made for Easter, when young lambs and turkeys are
slain, which the folk-songs tell us used to be offered to the sun-god.
Roasted lamb, cooked eggs, cheese, and bread and salt are carried early
to the church to be blessed by the priest. When the bearers return, the
table is blessed by the head of the family, and God thanked for the
well-completed Lenten fast, after which they sit cheerfully down to
their meal, burning all fragments left, since the food has been blessed,
and taking care not to let anything fall to the ground. In Lent, and
during other fasts, they eat neither flesh nor eggs, nor any kind of
milk food. They have a saying that it is less culpable to kill a person
in _vendetta_ than to eat rich food in Lent. S. John the Baptist's Day
is one of their principal feasts. On the Eve the shepherds light fires
on all the hills. On the morning they swim for the first time in the
year, or wash from head to foot, and also wash all their animals. The
girls and boys make garlands of flowers and broom, set them on their
heads, and dance "with devotional joy." This is no doubt part of the
ancient heathen festival of midsummer. Another festival which has
nothing to do with the Church is the "Fasching" or "Pust," on Monday
during Carnival. Groups of masked male dancers go through the villages
with horns on their heads, or with bells at their girdles weighing
several pounds, in one hand a strong stick, in the other a bag of ashes.
They dance, jest, fight with other bands, and throw ashes over the women
and children who run away. One of them generally carries a clothed
figure like a man--the "Pust"--which next day, or on Ash Wednesday, is
burnt or buried. This is a relic of the heathen custom of destroying
Morana or Mora, the goddess of night, of darkness, winter, and death,
who, the country-folk say, sits on men at night and drinks their blood,
and of Mrak (twilight), her helper, who brings little children to her by
twilight. The priest, who used to be an oracle to his flock, was asked
first to every festivity, and consulted in every difficulty. "The priest
says so" put an end to all questioning. With their religious feeling,
superstition goes hand in hand. They believe in vampires, nightmares,
witches, and "Vilen." The vampire is an evil spirit which appears by
night to frighten men, in the guise of a lately dead man or woman "who
had not lived piously." It is a human skin filled with blood, covered
with a shroud, and shows itself at crossways and on bridges, in caves
and graveyards, but also rattles window-shutters and throws down tiles
from the roof. It is not safe to call to it; if it reaches out to any
one three times that is taken as a sign that it is a good spirit from
purgatory asking for help. For protection a thorn-stick is carried, with
which the vampire is thrust through. The "Alp" (the nightmare) is an
evil old maid who sits on the back or breast of sleepers, holds their
hands and feet, and stops their mouth so that they cannot cry for help;
therefore they never sleep on the back, but on the right side, and keep
near the bed an open bottle-gourd, of which the "Alp" or "Mora" is
afraid. It generally wears a white dress and black bodice, with a white
veil over loose hair. Witches only appear in bad weather, and hold their
assemblies under walnut-trees or on certain hills. Excessive hail is
supposed to be their work. They can be killed by firing with three
grains of corn and the Paschal wax-candle at the lightning before the
thunder sounds. If this can be done, the witch dies. "Vilen" are maidens
with horses' hoofs. They are found in caves and collect in woods, at the
sources of streams or springs. The name comes from the Slav "bijela,"
the white; they are not regarded as evil spirits. In the neighbourhood
of Spalato they think that new-born children, if strong and handsome,
are likely to be taken away by "Vilen," and therefore watch the infants
most carefully till they are baptized. These maidens busy themselves
with rope-making, spinning, and gold and silver embroidery, and have the
power of changing stones and coal to gold and silver. In summer, when
hail falls on the vineyards, peasants may still be seen to turn to the
black clouds and throw up salt and shredded garlic. It is said that the
devil can be seen if one stand at the church door in such weather with a
priest, treading with the right foot upon the priest's right. He is like
a great dragon spreading his claws and reaching to the upper clouds from
the earth; but the priests never allow the trial, for fear the man
should die of fright at the sight. This reminds one of the Chinese and
Japanese storm-dragon.

The peasants practise astrology to find lucky times to commence
undertakings. Falling stars are considered to be the opening of heaven,
and anything asked for at that moment will be granted. Thunders are the
rumbling which S. Elias makes with his car. Amulets are worn,
especially near the Turkish border. It is considered lucky to spill wine
on oneself. To meet a snake, a viper in the house, or a centipede
crawling over the walls is also lucky. On the other hand, misfortune
attends crackling wood, the birth of black lambs, the entering a house
left foot first, sitting at table seven or thirteen in number, giving
drink with the left hand, spilling oil or salt, and leaving two rods or
knife and spoon crosswise. A crowing hen means domestic misfortune--she
must be killed to avoid it; and the baying of a dog or hooting of an owl
at night imports the death of a neighbour. Their customs are
patriarchal. The father has full authority over his sons, and their
wives are merely fresh daughters of the house. Every boy is held to be
worth more than the women, from the age of eight, and girls and women
who meet a man are expected to salute him. In some places, in the middle
of the last century, this salutation was accompanied with a kiss. The
oldest man in the house (_stareshina_) was the only one who could leave
anything by will. He said prayers morning and evening, blessed the
table, welcomed the guests, sat with them at table, and hurried the
service of his family. He arranged the work of each member of the
household, carried on all commercial transactions, and disposed of the
results as he pleased. If he found the duties too heavy for him he
transferred the responsibility to some other male member. The
_stopanjica_ (the mistress) was the directress of the house, and the
other women worked under her orders. These people are exceedingly
honest, and in some of the villages no locks are to be found either on
door or chest.

They have a ceremony by which two persons swear friendship before the
altar, and are then called half-brothers or half-sisters. At one time
the usage was also practised between persons of different sex. They are
also tenacious in prosecuting a _vendetta_, and, till about seventy
years ago, there was but one way in which a blood feud could be
extinguished. It was called the _Karvarina_, or price of blood, and its
acceptance was preceded by several very curious ceremonies. The
relations dipped the murdered man's shirt in his blood, and kept it till
he was avenged, or the price of blood was arranged. The family of the
murderer asked for a truce of several weeks, and sent a solemn embassy
of twelve young women with their babies. Arrived at the house, the
babies were put down, and the women wept, asking for peace and pity in
the name of S. John the Baptist, and the putting away of anger for pity
of the little ones. After a time the people of the house picked up the
children and promised to bring to the font twelve of their children yet
unborn to be attendants at the marriage of as many girls, and gave the
mothers a piece of silver, a veil, and a cloth in sign of peace. Then
the relations of the slain chose twenty-four judges, who were entreated
by the other side to serve, and could not refuse, nor might they receive
payment. To the preliminaries of the judgment on the appointed day the
"dance of blood" succeeded. The criminal, with joined hands, and with
the fatal sword at his neck, extricated himself from the slow,
melancholy dance, and cried three times: "Pardon!" The nearest relation
ordered the principal judge to drive him ignominiously away. The judge
obeyed, and struck him to the earth with his foot, but as soon as his
forehead touched the ground he turned and cried again: "In the Name of
God, pardon me!" The dancing stopped, and the dancers burst into tears.
The embittered relative of the murdered man went to him, raised him,
embraced him, and kissed him on the forehead, and, turning to the rest,
cried out: "This man has been my enemy hitherto, but shall be my
friend--my brother--henceforward, to me and to you all also, and to any
who were blood-relations of our dear friend who was killed," and then
broke a silver coin in two, giving him one half. Then the oldest of the
judges read the sentence imposing the price of blood, from 50 to 140
zecchins of gold. Part of the money went to the Church, a third to the
expenses of the judgment, and the rest to the family, who generally
applied it to some pious use.

Marriage customs vary slightly. About Pola and Parenzo the country
people make a great display, and go through ceremonies pointing to the
capture or purchase of the bride. The cortège is headed by a
standard-bearer, an unmarried relation, carrying a linen flag of
different colours, and on it a wheel-shaped loaf with a great apple on
the point of a long pole. The guests knock loudly at the door: after a
time a voice asks who they are and what they want. The oldest man
answers: "A rose out of the garden," or "A hind out of the thicket."
After some debate, first an old woman is brought out, then a younger,
then the bridesmaids. They take them all, but want another--"A barefoot
girl is still there." At last the bride appears. "That is the right one;
we will take her away," all cry, and the bride-leader asks for her
stockings and fine shoes, which generally contain a silver coin. These
she herself puts on. The bridegroom gives shoes or some other gift to
the mother and all the home people. Then one of the guests fires at an
apple on a stick fixed to the roof, or on a tree-top, and it is
considered a disgrace to all if he misses. Now the bride comes down,
garlanded and with one or two apples in her hand, which she throws at
the bridegroom, who tries to cover her with the flag. Whether struck or
not, he picks the apples up, to eat with his bride after the ceremony.
Then they go off to church. Other customs accompany the journey home.

The Morlacchi are very hospitable; if any one approaches one of their
houses they ask him in, and will not let him go without his tasting
bread and wine. They are exceedingly loyal and devoted to their native
land. They are very fond of proverbs, of which I quote a few: "The empty
sack does not stand upright"; "Penitence does not make the madman well
again"; "If you will not be a thief I will not watch"; "You can't shut
out the sun with the palm of your hand"; "Be married by your ears and
not your eyes"; "There is most milk in other people's cows"; "He who
cries most loudly works the least"; "Promises console the foolish"; "He
who has been bitten by a viper fears the lizard"; "The wolf changes his
skin, but not his habits"; "As the mother spins, so the daughter
weaves"; "Horses by their pace, maidens by their stock."

They are a powerful and a proud race, as the following story from Fortis
shows, and will without doubt leave their mark on European history when
their culture equals their physical powers; but the present
race-animosity between Croat and Italian is deplorable. The Croats,
being in the majority, are using their power to oppress the
Italian-speaking portion of the population. The schools are now all
Croat, and the Italians have no means of instruction for their children
in their own language except at Zara. At Spalato the race-feeling is
especially bitter; it is the only city in Dalmatia in which the
anniversary of the Italian defeat at Lissa is fêted with display of
flags and music by the _municipio_. The Italian theatre was burnt down
some years ago, and the Croat majority on the council voted a large sum
of money (stated to have been £60,000) to build a new Croat theatre to
replace it; and this they refused to let to Italian companies. But there
are no Croat companies ready to bear the expense of coming to Spalato,
so the theatre remains closed!

The story told by Fortis is as follows: "Venice was exchanging
prisoners-of-war with the Turks, and gave several Turkish soldiers for
each Dalmatian. A deputy of the Porte observed that this was scarcely
fair, to whom a Morlacco of Sinj replied fiercely: 'Know that our prince
willingly gives many asses for a horse.'"




III

AQUILEIA


The city of Aquileia, called by the Greeks Chrysopolis, because it was
one of the largest and richest cities of the empire, is now represented
by a cluster of houses, a cathedral, and a museum in which the greater
part of the objects found by excavating are housed. It is easily reached
by carriage from either Villa Vicentina or Cervignano, a pleasant drive
of an hour or so; and it gives one some idea of the size of the ancient
city to remember that the whole of the ground passed over, at least from
Villa Vicentina, was originally included in its suburbs. The city
stretched 16 miles along the shore, but the ground has sunk some five
feet, and much of ancient Aquileia now lies beneath the lagoon. The
inscriptions show that most of the inhabitants were foreigners. At
present the environs are malarious; but at the time when the naval
station was established here the climate must have been much more
healthy; on account, probably, of the great pine-forest which stretched
along the shore, and of which there are still some small remains towards
the Belvedere. At that time the Natisone debouched close to the town,
and there was ample anchorage for ships. In the eleventh century the
great port and arsenal were at Morrano and S. Marco al Belvedere, which
were then still islands. The sea-mouth was between Grado and S. Pietro
d'Oro, where the pharos was.

The city was founded in 181 B.C., and its name is said to have
originated in the appearance of an eagle which was seen while the plan
was being laid out. It was the centre from which numerous roads
diverged. Here Vespasian was hailed emperor by his legion. In 238
Maximin and his son were killed beneath its walls. Alaric besieged it,
and Attila destroyed it in 452. Forty years later Theodoric took the
lordship of Italy from Odoacer on the banks of the Isonzo, and in 552
the citizens who had returned were again driven away to the deltas of
other rivers by Alboin, who was, it is said, called from Pannonia by
Narses to wreak his vengeance on the son of Justinian.

Christianity was planted in Aquileia in apostolic times. According to
tradition S. Mark was sent by S. Peter from Rome to the city, and there
wrote or translated his gospel into Greek. S. Hermagoras, who was
Aquileian by birth, followed him as overseer of the Church. He was
consecrated the first bishop of Italy in Rome, the diocese ranking next
to the Roman see as being the most ancient after that city. There is no
doubt possible as to the existence of Christianity here at the end of
the third century. There were churches in the time of Constantine, and a
baptistery as early as 270, in the days of Aurelian. In Constantinian
times it was a centre of Catholic life. SS. Jerome and Ambrose lived
within its walls, and towards the end of the fourth century the bishops
of Como, Venetia, Istria, Noricum, Pannonia, and even Augsburg, as some
say, were under Valerian the bishop. Till Carolingian times the
patriarchs were Italians, Greeks, or Friulians; but, with the
establishment of the Holy Roman Empire, the patriarchs of Aquileia
politically were attached to it, and were friends of the emperors, who
often stayed in the city on their journeys to and from Italy. All the
names are German from the end of the tenth century to the middle of the
thirteenth. The patriarchate was exceedingly prosperous under Poppo
(1019-1045), who had been chancellor to Henry II. He moved his seat back
to Aquileia from Cividale, built a fine palace (of which the two
isolated pillars and the ruined walls to the south of the cathedral
remain) and the existing cathedral, using portions of an earlier one as
material.

As at Parenzo, excavations have revealed the plan of earlier buildings
upon and around the site of the cathedral. This was the Capitol of the
ancient city, and probably a street ran between the baptistery and the
cathedral. To the north lay the forum and the cattle-market, as
inscriptions prove. The discovery of drains proves that there were
dwelling-houses as well as temples near; but the wall of the original
city was just east of the cathedral, and beyond it a branch of the
Natisone flowed, affording additional protection. The river was
canalised and navigable for seven miles. The piers of a bridge still
remain near Monastero.

A large antique building of some kind, perhaps a prison or
courts-of-law, connected with the martyrdom of SS. Hermagoras and
Fortunatus, was used in the construction of the first cathedral, and
portions of imperial work are to be seen in the lower parts of the
eastern wall and the paving of the crypt. The baptistery, which rises to
the west, also is on the base of a heathen temple. In the year 348 a new
church was so far ready that a great meeting could be held in it, at
which the emperor's brother was present, Athanasius tells us. It was
finished in 381, when a council was held in it. The destruction wrought
by Attila appears to have been complete, for no inscriptions have been
found of his date, nor any Lombard objects, and at the time of the
Lombard invasion the patriarch fled to Grado with all the church
valuables, and moved his seat thither.

The foundations show that there were two basilicas side by side, with a
narthex common to both and a passage between them up to the transept. To
the south the narthex terminated in an apse nearly 20 ft. across, and
there was a hall, probably open to the sky, between the narthex and the
baptistery, with others to the north and south of it. The basilica to
the north of the present cathedral extended under the campanile and the
graveyard, and mosaics of its floor have been found on two levels,
sunken in part by the weight of the campanile. The lower mosaic has been
found over a space of more than 120 ft., but the excavations could not
be made complete owing to the ground being used as a cemetery. One
pattern is purely geometrical; another has birds, dogs, hares, baskets
of flowers, and floral scrolls in octagons and squares set diagonally
between them; both marble and vitreous pastes are used, as well as gold
tesseræ. Inscriptions were also found in letters of the third or
beginning of the fourth century: "***ore Felix hic crevisti hic Felix"
and "Cyriacus vivas." The former is held to prove that there was a
domestic basilica here at that period. The bottom of the wall was
painted with geometrical patterns imitating marble plating. The mosaic
runs right under the campanile. There is a door to the south, and two
pillars parallel to the face of the wall, and one to the left, opposite
the north angle. The upper building has a double row of bases of
columns, nine or ten in number, with an external wall 19 ft. 6 in. from
the present basilica, and with the western wall of the narthex level
with the present narthex, beneath the piazza. Antique fragments were
used in the foundations. The lower part of the wall of the existing
building is of the same materials and thickness, and probably of the
same date. The much simpler mosaic patterns of the floor are at the same
level both inside and outside--viz. 2 ft. 9 in. below the present
pavement. Near the round building in the north aisle a fish mosaic was
found on which the sarcophagus of Poppo stood. Signs of a
conflagration--fragments of charcoal, &c.--were also found on this
pavement. The colours used in the mosaics are white, blue, grey, palish
green-grey, yellow, brown, black, several blues and reds, and two
greens. The finest fragment has a figure of a peacock with tail
displayed, which was in the narthex in front of the door to the church,
and is now in the museum. On the pavement coins were found, most of
which belonged to the third and fourth centuries; but there were also
one Greek coin of Marcianopolis, two so-called Consular coins, one
Augustan, three of the second century, one Ostrogothic of Ravenna, and
several Aquileian of 1400. In the eighteenth century sarcophagi were
disinterred bearing fourth-century crosses, of an earlier date than
Attila, at all events.

There appears to have been a restoration in the sixth century, probably
under Narses; the use of super-abaci and the caps in the transept
suggest this. Perhaps the council of 557 may have had something to do
with it. Twin basilicas occur elsewhere in Istria, though they were not
always of the same date, as at Trieste, S. Michele in Monte, Pola, and
probably at Ossero, where the seven-naved basilica of which Mr. T.G.
Jackson gives the plan would be easily explained by the supposition.

The original east end was square. The semicircular apse within it is of
a later date, probably of the ninth century, of which period there are
other remains--viz. the beautiful slabs of the choir now in the south
transept, with the remains of the bases of the pillars of the screen
above. Two of the patterns are exactly like some at Muggia Vecchia;
others resemble ornamented pillars of the door of S. Ambrogio, Milan;
others are very like the fragments preserved at S. Maria in Valle,
Cividale; whilst a band of interlacings resembles one which occurs on an
Assyrian cylinder, not only in its forms, but in its irregularities. A
piece of antique fluted pilaster now does duty as a base. The ornament
on the steps of the throne is also of this period, probably executed
under either Paulinus ([Symbol: cross]802) or Maxentius ([Symbol:
cross]833) by Comacines, who probably went on to Rome to work in S.
Maria in Cosmedin. The Liber Pontificalis under Hadrian I. mentions the
"tres apsides in ea constituens" of that church as if they were
something new.

[Illustration: PLAN OF THE CATHEDRAL, AQUILEIA]

The cathedral was much damaged by the earthquake of 998, and Poppo began
to rebuild it after the Latcran Council of 1027 had declared the see of
Aquileia first in Italy after Rome, It was sufficiently finished in 1031
for it to be consecrated by him on the festival of the patron saint
(July 13), two Roman cardinal-bishops and twelve bishops being present,
as a later inscription states. Of this building the greater part
remains, though with considerable alterations and additions made in the
fourteenth century, after the earthquake of 1348, and in the fifteenth
century. The twenty columns of the nave arcade, some of which are
granite and some Istrian limestone, show by their different heights and
thickness that they came from other buildings. Some of them are in more
than one piece. The bases are Attic of different heights and are of
Poppo's time, as the caps appear to be also. Two similar caps are in the
churchyard; and one, hollowed out, is used as a holy-water basin. Some
of the same character were found at Monastero under another basilica.
The central nave is 39 ft. broad, and the aisles 26 ft. The transept is
about 136 ft. long, with an apse 32 ft. 6 in. broad opening from it, 21
ft. deep. The exterior length of the building is 218 ft. The round
arches from the aisles to the transepts are older than the nave arcade.
The columns are antique; that on the south has also a Corinthian cap,
but the base is Romanesque. The base of the northern column is a
shapeless block; the cap is like those of the nave, but the super-abacus
is plain. Across the transepts two round arches are thrown in a line
with the aisle walls, resting on very thin columns of cipollino; that on
the south is of several pieces not belonging to each other. The caps
vary in design. North and south of these arches are the chapels, with
their apses. The arch of the apse is round, with two antique granite
columns; it had three small round windows in it. The bishop's throne is
from the earlier church. Beneath the late-Gothic seats round the apse
are the seats of Poppo's time, with remains of inscriptions: the
pavement of marble slabs and mosaic patterns is also due to him.

In 1896 frescoes of the eleventh century were discovered beneath the
rococo plaster-work in the semi-dome. In the centre is the Madonna and
Child enthroned in a vesica above six saints, and surrounded by the
symbols of the Evangelists. The saints to the spectator's right are SS.
Hermagoras, Fortunatus, and Euphemia; to the left are SS. Mark, Hilarus,
and Titianus. Among them are persons on a smaller scale--Poppo holding
his church, the emperor (Conrad II.) and the empress, an unnamed person,
and a boy "Einricus" (afterwards Henry III.); a border of medallions,
with heads and peacocks alternately, surrounds the field. Below, between
the three windows, are six more saints, three on each side. Two
different hands can be traced. In the crypt are also paintings of the
eleventh and twelfth centuries, the difference in technique being
marked. On the vaults are the legends of SS. Hermagoras and Fortunatus;
in the lunettes the life of the Virgin, angels, Apostles, and saints,
and on the soffits of the arches; and painted hangings in outline with
figure-subjects upon them, on the lower part of the wall. There is one
subject from the life of S. Mark. Two kinds of intonaco are used, one
hard and white, the other grey and sandier. There are two rows of
pillars in the crypt, six in the wall round the apse, and two
(Renaissance) at the sides of the westward niche, which looks like a
western apse with altar in front of it. The roof is a wagon vault
pierced with cross-vaults, but not truly quadripartite, and the caps a
curious combination of badly cut foliage and scrolls and round-arched
arcading. Iron grilles of 1500 isolate the space within the columns
where the sarcophagus stands. There were doorways to the triangular
spaces left between the apse and the rectangular external form, which
were walled up at a later date. The stairs to the crypt go through the
side wings of the Renaissance tribune above with a crookedly set room on
each side, with little windows in the walls, one of which is blocked by
the marble sheeting, while those towards the crypt are also walled up,
showing that the structure is early, and is probably Poppo's. The doors
are of iron, with lions' heads on the south side and man-headed animals
on the other.

The Patriarch Raimondo della Torre (who died in 1299) built the chapel
of SS. Ambrogio and Margherita, which was used as the sepulchral chapel
of the family. It opens to the nave, with two pointed arches with an
oculus above. In the middle of the side wall, between two sarcophagi of
white marble, is that of Allegranza di Rho, second wife of Moschino
della Torre and mother of the Patriarch Gastone. She died July 23, 1300,
and her sarcophagus is the only one of the five in the chapel inscribed.
On the front are reliefs, and on the sloping cover her effigy. One of
those at her side has a figure of a person in subdeacon's dress, with a
key, no doubt Rainaldo della Torre, treasurer to the church and brother
of Gastone. His will of March 31, 1332, gives a precise description of
the monument he wished to have erected to him. There was to be an
archivolt over it, but if it was erected it must have fallen in the
earthquake of 1348, as there are no traces of it. One of red marble,
with a patriarch fully robed, with pallium and mitre, standing on a
dragon between a processional cross and a crozier, with censing angels
on each side of the head, is that of either Raimondo or Pagano. It also
bears a relief of the Annunciation. On the front of another are three
circular plaques with the Agnus Dei in the centre and crosses in the
others; in the spaces between are flatly treated towers, the arms of the
family. In the north transept a sarcophagus front, or altar, stands
against the wall supported on pillars. It has five ogee trefoil niches
with saints within them, and a framing of late Gothic foliage, with
half-lengths of angels in the spandrils. The central saint is
accompanied by two small kneeling donors; the other four are the
Aquileian virgins. In the south transept is a sarcophagus on four
Romanesque columns with twisted pillars at the corners, and the sides of
the central subject (S. Hermagoras, with the four virgins small, on
their knees, and the hand of God above). The spaces between are inlaid
with red marble. The caps appear to be of the fourteenth century, the
period of the foliage cornice.

As a consequence of the earthquake of January 25, 1348, a good part of
the church fell down on October 19. Constant wars prevented the
patriarch from having money to spend on its restoration. A document of
1354 reveals a lamentable state of things--the population was but
100--worshippers did not come, and the clergy had fled to save
themselves from sickness and death; no one came to the services of Holy
Week because the roads were under water, &c.; with a final request that
Udine might be named as the seat of the patriarchate. The rebuilding was
commenced under Lodovico della Torre (1360) and finished under Marquard
da Randeck (1365-1380), the architect being unknown. At this time the
nave arcade was made pointed, and some of the super-abaci carved with
Gothic foliage. After Venice had expropriated the patriarch (in 1420)
money was spent upon the cathedral. In 1479 the choir seats were
renewed. In 1493, under Nicolò Donato, the winter choir was renewed. In
1495 the high-altar was erected, upon which Antonio di Osteno,
Bernardino di Bissone, and Domenico di Udine were employed. Work was
also done in the crypt, in connection with the better preservation of
the relics of some saints. In 1498 the tribune appears to have been
made, under Domenico Grimani. This is a very decorative arrangement,
with a central feature, flanked by two flights of steps, and side
platforms furnished with a balustrade, which project some way into the
transepts, and are carved elaborately with graceful arabesques. In the
centre below is a niche with shell-head and grated window, through which
the inside of the crypt is visible. To the right is a ciborium altar,
with a relief of Christ in the tomb half-length, supported by the Virgin
and S. John, flanked by two scroll-bearing angels. An inscription
describes it as an oratory, where relics of the saints are venerated.
The pillars bear an architrave--a shell-he ad beneath, an arch above,
and a gable termination of early Renaissance shape--above a shallow
cornice. The effect is heavy. The left side was used as a
singing-gallery. In the apse hangs a picture by Pellegrino di S. Daniele
(which was put up in 1503), a good deal repainted--a Risen Christ with
SS. Peter and Herniagoras. The fine frame was carved by Giovanni Pietro
di Udine in 1500, and gilded two years later by Antonio de' Tironi of
Bergamo. Before 1484 the floor was of beaten earth; at that time a
pavement of red Veronese marble was commenced, completed in 1544. The
aisles are at a slightly higher level than the nave. The Gothic roof was
remade on the pattern of those of SS. Zeno and Fermo, Verona, in 1526
(signed Giuliano q Vivente of Udine), and restored in 1560. It is now
painted in chequers. Beams resting on corbels beneath the windows cross
the nave, while the aisles have a flat panelled roof, with bosses at the
intersections of the framing.

The font is supported by four small pillars surrounding a larger central
one. In the north aisle is a circular building with a conical wooden
roof supported upon a little colonnade--work of the fifteenth century in
its present form. There was, however, a "sepolcro"--a copy of the Holy
Sepulchre--here, with a flat cupola, mentioned in 1077, and described as
being near the grave of Patriarch Sigeard, and in 1085 an altar was
consecrated within it by Patriarch Frederick II. The ceremony of
carrying the Host thither on Good Friday and locking and sealing the
door, from which it was brought out on Easter Day, lasted till the
suppression of the patriarchate in 1751.

[Illustration: NARTHEX OF THE CATHEDRAL, AQUILEIA

_To face page 35_]

At that time the treasure and archives were divided between the
bishoprics of Görz and Udine. The precious objects were stolen from
Udine, and have disappeared, but at Görz there still remain several.
There is a bishop's crozier of the end of the twelfth century,
Romanesque in style, decorated with seven pieces of rock-crystal
arranged diagonally, and with a knop of the same, set at a later date.
The crook is set with precious stones, rubies, turquoises, aquamarine,
and lapis lazuli. Within is the Lamb holding a cross; under it the whorl
finishes with a dragon. A much older bishop's staff is of worm-eaten
wood--set in metal at a later date to preserve it from
destruction--said to have been given to S. Hermagoras by S. Peter or S.
Mark. There is also a great crucifix of gilded silver on a wood basis
worked with a rough naturalism free from Byzantine influence. The cross
is made into a tree, from which grapes hang; the nimbus is set with
large amethysts and small rubies. Of the same period is a fine
book-cover of gilded silver with the subject of the Ascension. Christ
enthroned in a vesica is supported by two angels; below is the Madonna
as _orante_, surrounded by the Apostles. The border consists of fine
leaf-scrolls, late twelfth century in character. A silver statuette of
the Madonna and Child is of the fourteenth century. The Child is nude,
tall, and thin, and wears a crown decorated with pearls and trefoils.
The naked portions are matt silver, the draperies are gilded. It stands
on a pedestal of three ornamented steps. The fate of the precious
objects is reversed in the case of the documents. Those sent to Görz
have disappeared, whilst Udine still preserves a considerable number. At
Aquileia the only object remaining from the treasury is a statue of the
Madonna and Child, of Istrian marble, heavily painted. The work
resembles in style the carving at S. Giovanni in Fonte, Verona.

The campanile must have been built by Poppo, although the base looks
like Roman masonry, since the mosaics go right under it, but it was
added to later, and the octagonal bell-chamber is inscribed: "MD ·
XLVIII TADEVS · LVRANVS · HOC · O · FECIT." It is 39 ft. square and the
walls are over 7 ft. thick. The entrance is approached by 27 steps. It
is 70 ft. to the floor of the bell-chamber.

The narthex has three thick antique pillars, part granite and part
marble, with heavy early Christian Corinthian caps and super-abaci with
crosses upon them. The baptistery lies to the west of the narthex,
united to it by a building known as the Chiesa dei Pagani. This consists
of three bays with a descent of three steps from the first, over which
there was once a cupola. The other bays are cross-vaulted, and there are
several round-headed windows. In the pavement is a curious pierced
stone. It has a cross with the Agnus Dei in the centre (pierced), and
four little window shapes in the angles with round-headed tympana and
oblong piercings below. There was a second story; part of the wall of
this remains, constructed of ancient tiles, which were much used in
Aquileia in the Middle Ages; an inscription records a restoration in
1738. The baptistery was originally a Roman building, square externally
and octagonal within, with four niches, one of which is partially
preserved. Remains of the others have been found outside the octagon.
There was an hexagonal font in the centre, and in the angles of the
walls are the springings of vaults; there are also six pillar-stumps of
different thicknesses. Most of the present building is modern, the
result of several restorations. On each side of the baptistery and
Chiesa dei Pagani were halls with mosaic floors of the Christian period,
of which that to the south was least damaged when discovered; it had
three patterned fields, with borders. The open hall between was
stone-paved--a bit of the paving was found a foot deeper than the
original floor of the baptistery.

[Illustration: STATUE OF VENUS, MUSEUM. AQUILEIA

_To face page_ 36]

[Illustration: ANTIQUE STATUE IN THE MUSEUM, AQUILEIA]

The museum contains a quantity of exceedingly interesting objects, the
fruit of excavations, which the director, Signor Maionica, most kindly
piloted me through, calling attention to the various objects of special
interest and giving me details about them of which otherwise I should
have been ignorant. The collection of objects in amber, many of them
stained a fine red, is the finest in existence, though the most
splendid examples have gone to the British Museum, to Udine and Görz.
The sculptured objects include a very beautiful youthful Venus, a girl
apparently of about 17, a draped statue of the Emperor Claudius in Greek
costume, one of Tiberius as Pontifex Maximus (both found near the
theatre),one of Livia, showing the arrangement of the back hair, and
marble wigs to place upon the heads of statues to keep them in the
fashion. There is also a draped Venus with a Cupid hiding beneath her
robe, a copy of the Aura (Spring-rain) of Scopas, of which another is in
the museum at Trieste, and a most interesting sculptor's model for use
in the studio, showing how arms and legs of other pieces of marble were
affixed to statues. A pedestal shows the life of Priapus, from his birth
in the spring to his winter's inactivity; others have winged Cupids
bearing torches and bestriding dolphins, the idea being of a voyage to
the Islands of the Blest. A panel shows Bacchanalian Cupids; one desires
to drink, one is drinking from a crater, another, supported away,
inebriated; the robed master of the feast bears a sceptre and is playing
the Pan-pipes. Another relief represents a banquet in a triclinium. One
man sounds a double pipe, another carries food to the guests, one of
whom is singing an obscene song, which disgusts the women, who make the
sign of displeasure at him. In a relief of the time of Heliogabalus a
meteoric stone is seen carried in procession, preceded by duumvirs,
lictors, &c.--an evidence of an Oriental cult practised in Aquileia.
Five great medallions from the same building show busts in very high
relief of Jupiter, Mercury, Vulcan, Venus, and Minerva. A stone table
with a sundial and windrose engraved upon it has a low seat on three
sides, but the fourth free, so that the hour may be seen at all times of
the day without the annoyance of dodging one's shadow. The letters of
the inscription point to the second century A.D. as the date of its
production. Many sarcophagi come from the north-east of Aquileia near
Columbara, where a monument was found much resembling those of Petra and
Baalbek in its forms. Inscriptions name clothiers, fullers, joiners,
linen-weavers, builders and servants, purple-dyers, pikesmiths, a
silver-worker, an Oriental pearl merchant with a sign of the city of
Rome, &c. In the eighteenth century the Mint was discovered, with bars
of silver and baskets of coin. A fine plate of beaten silver, with the
story of Triptolemus, found here is now at Vienna.

Many pieces of ornament are preserved, often very finely modelled and
also with traces of colour. The larger pieces, many of which are coarse
in workmanship, are housed under a long shed in the open; among them are
slabs of ninth-century ornament, lead coffins, and pipes with pointed
covers to keep the sand out, urns for ashes, &c. There appears to have
been a Roman rococo at Aquileia, earlier than at Spalato or Florence.
Here, too, are some of the early Christian mosaics found during

the excavations in and around the cathedral. Especially beautiful are
the fragments with peacocks and other birds, and lambs, with freely
growing scrolls of vine. An asbestos net, found at Monastero, used to
wrap round the body during cremation and so keep the bones together, is
interesting, as are lachrymatories misshapen by the flames, small
bottles of rock-crystal beautifully cut, a few enamelled objects and
carvings in ivory, principally children's toys. Rings set with gems were
made of gold for the nobles and of iron for the citizens, who at a later
period used silver and even gold. Over 40,000 coins have been found in
the course of the excavations, and lamps bearing no less than 800
different makers' marks. The marks are the same as those found all
through Istria, Dalmatia, and the islands, proving a large export trade.
The most important were those of C. Vibio Pansa, whose stamp (or those
of his successors) is found in conjunction with imperial names till the
time of Constantine. In the delta of the Isonzo, near Monfalcone, a
portion was called "Insula Pansiana" even in the Middle Ages. A river in
the bay of Monfalcone is still called Panzano, and near there is a place
of the same name. There were also glass works at S. Stefano, Aquileia,
where fragments of coloured glass have been found.

Ruskin refers to a curious ceremony, instituted in the twelfth century,
which was observed in Venice till 1549 "in memorial of the submission of
Woldaric, patriarch of Aquileia, who, having taken up arms against the
patriarch of Grado, and being defeated and taken prisoner by the
Venetians, was sentenced, not to death, but to send every year on
'Giovedi Grasso' sixty-two large loaves, twelve fat pigs, and a bull, to
the Doge; the bull being understood to represent the patriarch and the
twelve pigs his clergy; and the ceremonies of the day consisting in the
decapitation of these representatives, and a distribution of their
joints among the senators; together with a symbolic record of the attack
on Aquileia, by the erection of a wooden castle in the rooms of the
Ducal Palace, which the _Doge and the Senate_ attacked and demolished
with clubs." Mutinelli quotes the decree.

The patriarchate reached the zenith of its power under Volfkertis of
Cologne, known to the Italians as Volchero. He was elected in 1204, and
ruled till 1218. His dioceses included seventeen bishoprics of Venice on
terra firma, stretching as far as Como and Trent, and six in Istria. The
Venetian island bishoprics, by the convention of 1180, were under the
Patriarch of Grado. In 1208 his dominions were so much increased that
they almost exceeded those of the Pope in extent. He held the duchies of
Carniola and Friuli, as well as the marquisate of Istria. He struck his
own coins, of which there are two types, one closely resembling those of
Aix-la-Chapelle and Cologne, and governed constitutionally with the
assistance of a parliament of three estates.




IV

GRADO


From Aquileia a steam-launch plies back and forth to Grado, a distance
of some six or seven miles, at first along a canal with grassy banks
plentifully besprinkled with giant snowdrops in the spring, then through
wide stretches of lagoon along a channel, marked by piles, sometimes
approaching the fishermen's huts, which occupy the summit of slight
elevations rising but little above the surface of the water. These huts
are mere shelters of reeds, and, one would think, quite unfit for human
habitation, but close by them the nets may be seen drying, and perhaps
food in course of preparation over an open fire, while the boat, thrust
into a creek or tied to a stake, occupies the foreground. These
wide-spreading lagoons, the resort of many kinds of water-fowl in their
passage from north to south and _vice versâ_, are very pictorial. The
enclosures in which fish brought in by the tide are retained, the beds
of reeds and rushes with yellow water-lilies, the figures of women and
children wading and seeking fishy treasures, provide excellent material
for the artist. Occasionally a boat passes in which a woman is taking
fish to Aquileia, leaving behind it a long trail of ripples. The two
great campanili, of Grado which we are nearing, and of Aquileia passing
into the distance behind us, each with its cluster of low buildings
around, are prominent against the horizon showing dark against the fine
cumulus clouds, which are heaped in sharply defined masses against the
blue of the upper sky and rise in threatening billows like exhalations
from some vast cauldron, soon to fade away innocuously in the late
afternoon.

Grado is on one of the islands of which a chain stretches from the mouth
of the Isonzo to that of the Brenta right across the northern border of
the Adriatic. Its port was one of the harbours of Aquileia, at first for
purposes of war, but later for those of commerce. The town was square in
plan, walled, and full of people. Cassiodorus speaks of its material
conditions. The modern town is most picturesque, with narrow streets and
numerous courtyards, with outside staircases, quaint shops, and
fascinating plays of light and shade, and so much of the life of the
people passes in the open air that there is always interesting matter
for observation. It is a seaside resort, visited a good deal for bathing
during the summer months, and there is also, as at Rovigno, an
establishment for scrofulous children. But its chief attraction for us
is archæological, for it contains early Christian antiquities of
considerable importance.

[Illustration: A CORNER IN GRADO

_To face page_ 42]

Its greatest prosperity was between the time of the great wanderings of
the peoples and the descent of the barbarians into Italy. Its patriarch
took the lead in establishing the government of the islands from which
the Venetian Republic sprang. In 460 Nicetas called all the bishops,
clergy, and leading officials of the islands together to deliberate on
the question of government, and, after discussion, they agreed to
establish one under the directorship of Tribunes. The first tribune was
to live at Grado, with three others, called "maggiori," but depending
upon him, one for Rivoalto, one for Candeana, and one for Dorsea, living
at Rialto, Eraclea, and Torcello respectively. They had charge of the
administration of justice, presided over the execution of the laws,
enforced discipline, and met at times in council to discuss propositions
laid before them. Grado lost its supremacy in 696, when the assembly
held at Eraclea gave it to that city, though the Patriarch of Grado,
Cristoforo, was given equality with the three tribunes which Eraclea
then had. The next year the first doge, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was
elected. It was by means of Fortunatus of Trieste, Patriarch of Grado
(803-825), that the cry of the Istrians, oppressed by the Frankish duke
and his supporters, came to the ears of Charlemagne, with the result
that after a strict inquiry held at Risano in 804, when the
representatives of the cities and castella exposed the odious
proceedings of the bishop, the duke, and their adherents, they obtained
redress. In 875 the Saracens attacked Grado, but were repulsed. The next
year a similar attack was made by the Slavs of Croatia and Dalmatia, but
the Doge Orso met them, defeated them, and gave back to several Istrian
towns objects of which they had been robbed.

Between Grado and Aquileia there was a constant struggle for supremacy,
which was in reality a contest between Venice and the empire, Aquileia
standing for the latter and Grado for the former. A formal peace was
concluded between them during the Lateran Council of 1180, by which the
Patriarch of Grado renounced all claims over the Istrian bishoprics,
except as regards the hundred amphoras of wine sent by Capodistria from
1075, given as a personal honour to the Doge Pietro Candiano, and by him
handed over to the Patriarch of Grado. In 452 the Patriarch of Aquileia
fled to Grado from the Huns, returning after they had passed, and in
578, when Aquileia had become Lombard, Paulinus transferred his seat to
Grado, thus putting himself under Byzantine protection. In 579 a synod
was held in the church. From 607 there were two patriarchs--one in Grado
and one in Aquileia--established for political reasons by the Lombards;
they were schismatical, that is to say, adherents of the "three
chapters." During the continuance of this schism, in 610, three Istrian
bishops were taken from their very churches by the military, and carried
off to Grado, where they were compelled to bend to the Imperial will in
the matter. Gregory III. sanctioned the division of the two
patriarchates in 731, both having become orthodox, Aquileia in 698 and
Grado in 715. In 1451 the patriarchate of Grado was transferred to
Venice, where the patriarch had been living for a long time.

The foundations of the cathedral were laid under Nicetas (456) by the
architect Paulus, who was sent to him by Pope Leo I. The plan is
Romanesque, a basilica with nave and aisles and no transept, the nave
terminating in an apse eastward. It has two western doors, which open
into a portico of almost the whole breadth of the church, part being cut
off by the campanile, which is nearly 20 ft. square and over 160 ft.
high. The clerestory and low-pitched wooden roof of the nave are
supported by two piers and ten columns on each side. The columns are
antique, but of varied material--cipollino, white and black and
white-veined marble, and granite; and there is one of a rosy and white
breccia. The caps vary both in design and size, and have been repaired
with stucco. Some of them are decadent Roman and the rest Byzantine: the
bases are hidden by a square wooden boxing. The eleven arches of the
nave arcade are round. The round-headed windows of both nave and aisles
had pierced slabs of stone in them, but in 1740 the openings were made
lunette-shaped. One pierced slab of the ninth century has been found,
and is now placed high up in the apse above the patriarch's throne.
Under Fortunatus and John the Younger, about the beginning of the ninth
century, the church appears to have been beautified; and again, in
the second half of the tenth, under Vitalis. It is related that the
relics were then provided with fresh receptacles and inscriptions. The
choir occupies three bays of the nave, with a modern enclosure raised by
several steps. Just outside the rail, by the fourth column on the left,
stands the interesting pulpit, which has a later canopy, but itself
appears to be of the ninth century, judging by the columns, two of which
are twisted, and by the carving of the symbols of the Evangelists, which
seems to be rather later. On the other hand, there is a square O in the
inscription on S. John's book, of which other instances occur at Cattaro
in an inscription of the ninth century, and in one of the seventh at
Spalato. The pulpit is sexfoil in plan; one side is open, and one has a
large cross carved upon it. The canopy has six fourteenth or
fifteenth-century octagonal colonnettes, supporting ogee trefoiled
arches with a domical termination, coloured in red and white chequers,
and with scrolls and rosettes of red on the spandrils of the arches
below. The shape and decoration show Arab influence strongly.

[Illustration: PULPIT IN THE CATHEDRAL, GRADO

_To face page 45_]

In the pavement is still preserved a great deal of that laid down by
Elias in the sixth century. It filled the nave, being entirely worked in
tesseræ of very few colours--black, a green-grey, red, yellow, and
white. From the west door a pattern, surrounded by a border, stretches
as far as the fifth pair of columns. It consists of a central band of a
wavy pattern, interrupted by inscriptions and medallions; the
easternmost one is blank and has a running border, with the corners of
the square (cut off by the band of inscriptions) filled with
scroll-work. The side portions are cut up into squares by bands of open
interlacings, with ivy leaves in the interstices, and different designs
within the squares, or with inscriptions, most of them in Latin, but one
in Greek. They record the gift of so many feet of pavement, as at
Parenzo; and one donor, Laurentius the Viscount Palatine, seems to have
been generous to both cathedrals. A long inscription leaves no doubt as
to the date, and that it was laid down under the Patriarch Elias
(571-585); it runs: "Atria quae cernis vario formata decore squallida
sub picto caelatur marmore tellus longa vetustatis senio fuscaverat ætas
prisca en cesserunt magno novitatis honori praesulis Haeliae studio
praestante beati haec sunt tecta pio semper devota timori."

The flat ceilings and the rococo stucco-work are due to the restorations
of 1740. The apse contains remains of mediæval painting--a seated Christ
of colossal size surrounded by the symbols of the four Evangelists, with
raised right hand and a closed book in the left; on one side S. John the
Baptist holding an open scroll, and on the other a saint in green, with
gold-shot stole and nimbus, but no attribute--both larger than life. The
corners are occupied by the patron saints, Hermagoras and Fortunatus.
Round the apse, just above the patriarch's seat, runs a row of portraits
of bishops of later date, half-lengths, beneath a round-arched arcade on
a gold ground. On the left nave pier, near the door, are the remains of
a painting of S. Helena, who has nimbus, cross, and book. In the centre
of the apse is the ancient patriarch's seat, with an inscription upon
the wall commemorating the ancient supremacy of the see: it is mainly
composed of mutilated ninth-century carved slabs, probably portions of
the chancel of that date. Other slabs with similar designs and portions
of a ciborium are preserved in a little collection of marbles under a
shed behind the apse, where are also several sarcophagi and other
antique fragments.

[Illustration: THE PATRIARCH'S THRONE. CATHEDRAL, GRADO

_To face page 46_]

In the treasury are two early reliquaries of silver, found beneath the
high-altar in August, 1871. One is cylindrical, with a convex lid,
upon which is represented in relief the Virgin enthroned, with the Babe
at her breast. Her right hand holds a cross-headed sceptre, and behind
her head is a nimbus with the usual monogram, MMΗ ΘT. The
cylinder has no decoration but two bands of names of saints in Roman
capital letters. These are: "Sanc. Maria, Sanc. Vitvs, Scs. Cassianvs,
Sanc. Pancrativs, Sanc. Ypolitvs, Sanc. Apollinaris, Sanc. Martinvs."
Within is a central cylinder and six compartments radiating from it,
which contained a small cylindrical vase of gold with rings round it, a
little glass flask, closed up and containing water, a little gold box
with crosses and a leaf pattern on the outside, and a cross of
dark-green enamel on the cover, a small slab of chalk or cement with a
Greek cross imprinted on it, and several thin gold plates with the names
of saints upon them. Several of the printed accounts of the discovery of
this treasure say that there were six of these plates in the casket; but
the glass case which encloses it and its contents has eleven, with the
names as follows: "Domna Maria, Scs. Cassianvs, Sc. Martinvs, Sc.
Brancativs, Scs. Troteomvs, Sca. Agnes, Scs. Bitvs, Scs. Apolinnaris,
Scs. Hyppolitvs, Scs. Sabastianvs, Scs. Severvs." Dr. Kandler thought
that it came from the church of S. Niceta in Aquileia, and was brought
to the island with other treasures in 452, for safety, from Attila. De
Rossi thought that the appellative "Domna" distinguishing the Virgin was
an argument against such high antiquity; but in a later number of his
"Bullettino" he described an inscription of about 457 at Loja, in Spain,
in which the title "Domnus" or "Domna" is applied to all the saints,
including the Virgin. There is a legend that "When Paul was patriarch of
Aquileia the priest Geminianus was told in a vision to go to the
destroyed city of Trieste to find the bodies of 42 martyrs buried
between the wall of the church dedicated to them and the city wall.
Going thither with many other Venetians he found the holy bodies in the
specified place, covered over with marble slabs, and, taking them, went
to the destroyed city of Aquileia, where he added to the relics the
bodies of Cantius, Cantianus, Cantianilla, and the virgins Euphemia,
Dorothea, Thecla, and Erasma, and then took them all to Grado." Paul is
Paulinus I. (557-569), and the occurrence took place after the Lombards
had gone by in 568. The forty-two martyrs were laid side by side in the
church of S. Vitale, and Paul died the next year.

The other reliquary is elliptical, and has upon its sides reliefs and
inscriptions bordered with a rough leaf-moulding. Round the middle are
eight medallions with male and female heads, divided into two groups of
five and three by palm-trees. Above and below is a row of names; those
of the top row being: "[Symbol: cross] Sanctvs Cantivs, Sanc. Cantianvs,
Sancta Cantianilla, Santvs Qvirinvs, Santvs Latinv." The lower row runs:
"[Symbol: cross] S. Lavrentivs, vs loannes, vs Niceforvs
Santisreddedidbotvm" (vir spectabilis, &c., reddidit votum). The use of
b for v is characteristic of the period of the Patriarch Elias. The
cover is slightly domical; upon it are two lambs, and between them a
gemmed cross. They stand on a hill from which the four rivers of
Paradise flow. Within was a second silver casket filled with water, and
some remains of relics. At Pola some reliquaries of somewhat the same
kind were found, of which a description will be given later.

In the Museo Sacro of the Vatican library is a similar capsella found at
Aïn Beida in Tunisia. It is oval, and has the same bands of ornament;
round the body are reliefs. On one side is a lamb with a cross above his
back, and on either side four sheep (with tufted tails, a Tunisian
variety) coming towards him from an arched and pillared building. On the
other is the Labarum monogram with ornamental terminations on a hill
from which the four Paradise streams flow; a stag on either side kneels
to drink. On the cover stands a saint, on the four Paradise streams,
between two lighted tapers in candlesticks, holding a crown; whilst the
hand of God holds another over his head. There are no nimbi. The
reliquary was empty and without any compartments. De Rossi pronounced it
to be of the sixth century, or the end of the fifth.

The treasury also contains an oblong fourteenth-century casket and two
Limoges _gemellions_, as well as a good deal of late silver work, and an
interesting altar frontal. The _gemellions_ are champlevé on copper,
with engraved backs showing traces of gilding. A central circle on the
face contains a shield with a rampant lion, enamelled in blue; round it
is a quatrefoil made by four larger circles which overlap at the
reentering angle. The spandril spaces are filled with dragon-like
monsters on a green ground. The ring and the shield show metal. The
quatrefoil is outlined with white, and filled with scrolls and figures
fighting with each other or with beasts. The corner pieces have a little
tower and scrolls, the windows and cornice are red enamel, the ground is
green. The outside edge has a zigzag of blue enamel. The hole through
which the water was poured over the hands has a spout representing an
animal's head. I believe these basins to be the only examples of Limoges
work to be found along the coast.

The altar-frontal is inscribed: "[Symbol: cross]MCCCLXII de Settembrio
in lo tempo del nobele Miser Andrea Contarini Doxe di Vanesia e Miser
Francesco Contarini Conte de' Grado fo fatta questa palla e Donado
Macalorso da Vinesia me fece." It is of silver-gilt, 4 ft. 7 in. high
and 7 ft. 4 in. long, with twenty-one divisions, in three rows of seven
panels, the bars being covered with leaf scrolls and with medallion
half-lengths of Greek saints at the crossings. In the upper row, in the
middle panel, is a half-length "Ecce Homo," right and left are the
symbols of the Evangelists, and the outer corners have the
Annunciation--the Virgin on the right, and the angel on the left. In the
centre of the second row Christ sits in the attitude of blessing, with
raised right hand, and holding an open book in the left. On its pages is
inscribed: "Ego sum lux mundi qui in me crediderit non morietur in
æternum Amen." On the right are SS. John, Paul, and Fortunatus; on the
left, SS. Felix, Peter, and Martha. In the lowest row the centre shows a
chalice with the Host; on the right, SS. Hermagoras, Thecla, and Erasma;
on the left, SS. Dorothea, Euphemia, and another Fortunatus.

The patriarchal seat given by Heraclius to the Patriarch Primigenius was
taken in 1520 to S. Mark's, Venice, where it may still be seen in the
treasury. Pasini says it is certainly of Egyptian manufacture, in proof
of which both the character of the ornaments and tradition are invoked.
The Chronicles of the Acts of S. Mark in Aquileia, which are earlier
than the eleventh century, say that it was covered with ivory plaques,
"utique antiquo," but the large amount of carving upon it leaves little
space for the attachment of further ornament. Its history seems quite
clear. Heraclius brought it from Alexandria to Constantinople about 630,
and between 1520 and 1534 it was behind the high-altar of S. Mark's. In
the latter year it was moved into the baptistery on to the altar, where
it stayed till taken into the treasury.

It is made of Oriental cipollino. The medallion at the top is cemented
on. On it is a crux ansata, with two figures at the sides, both in
front and behind, believed to be the four Evangelists. On the exterior
of the arms are ten lighted tapers, thought to symbolise the ten
churches founded in Africa by SS. Matthew and Mark. Below the medallion
in front is a Lamb on a hill, from which the rivers of Paradise flow,
and on which is either a vine or a fig-tree. On the back are an eagle
and a lion, each with six wings. The background is starred, there are
two palms at the bottom, and a Tree of Life in the space between the
lion's lower wings. Above the eagle's head is a crescent. Beneath the
tapers on the outside is a bull with six wings on a starred background,
and on the other side an angel, also with six wings, with two palms
below, and two little two-winged trumpeting angels in the top corners,
on a similarly starred ground. These three sides have a band of
lattice-work at the base; the front has a panel with zigzag lines. The
inscription on the front has puzzled paleographists. It has been read as
Hebrew and as stating that it is the chair of S. Mark. A hole in the
back and another in the side are thought to have perhaps held the débris
of the wooden chair which he actually used.

Herr Graeven believes that he has identified several plaques of ivory
which belonged to the chair in different museums. They all display the
type of head afterwards used for S. Paul in Western art, which Dr.
Strzygowski has identified as representing S. Mark in Alexandrian
ivories.

The octagonal baptistery, to the north of the cathedral, shows no sign
of its age, which must no doubt be considerable; near to it is the
church of S. Maria delle Grazie, which has fragments of similar paving
to that in the cathedral, including the inscriptions. In the floor in
front of the altar are also several pieces of ninth-century ciborium
heads, and bits of twelfth-century carving. It is possible that the
baptistery once had a canopy such as still exists at Cividale, and that
the fragments here and at the cathedral formed part of it. The nave has
six bays, with five antique columns on each side, of cipollino, granite,
white and black, and white-veined marble. The caps are very varied. Some
are Byzantine of the type of those at S. Apollinare in Classe; two are
truncated reversed pyramids with roughly cut scrolls on the surface, and
one of these has a super-abacus. Two of them are queer, rough things,
with brackets at the angles in place of volutes, and a deep abacus
sloping back, with a cross upon it. The bases of the pillars are boxed
in, as at the cathedral. An antique base serves as support to the
holy-water basin. The floor has been mended with slabs of red and white
marble and tiles, and the mosaic goes on into the rooms which flank the
apse, at the ends of the aisles. This arrangement of the plan is exactly
the same as that in a church at Kanytelides not far from Tarsus, the
plan of which Miss Lowthian Bell gives in her book on Cilicia and
Lycaonia; it also occurs in the church of Bir-Umm-Ali in Tunisia. De
Vogué gives two plans closely resembling it, and Mr. H.C. Butler
describes some very similar plans near Is-Sanemên in the Northern Haurân
(the ancient Ære), which are probably Constantinian. It seems certain
that it is an Oriental importation, especially in connection with the
fact that the free-standing apse, as in the earlier church at Parenzo
and at Salona, occurs quite frequently in Cilicia and Lycaonia, as Miss
Lowthian Bell shows.

Between Grado and Aquileia is a little island with a celebrated church,
S. Maria di Barbana. In the early centuries of the Christian era legend
says that a picture of the Virgin floated hither on a springtide, and
was caught in the branches of a little tree, which lived till the
middle of the nineteenth century when a great storm destroyed it. The
picture and the church which contains it are the object of an annual
pilgrimage on the Feast of the Assumption; people from all around
accompany a sacred picture from Grado to visit it. On this day the
lagoon is alive with numberless craft, the priests' boat leading, with
banners and tapers and fully vested ecclesiastics; and the air resounds
with simple church melodies. At Barbana the Virgin's picture waits on
the pier to greet that from Grado; and report says that it has been
observed to nod at the moment the sister picture reached the shore!




V

GRADO TO TRIESTE


There is a small steamer which plies from Grado to Trieste, going one
day and returning the next, but fine weather is very necessary for that
mode of travel, as the sea can be very rough between Venice and Trieste.
We did not hit the day of its sailing, so retraced our steps to Villa
Vicentina and went _viâ_ Monfalcone and Nabresina. Between these two
places the railway rises steadily, giving fine views over the sea and
plain. Looking forward and back the pale-grey line of the viaducts winds
round and about the slopes like some gigantic snake, or like the
aqueducts of the Campagna of Rome. Here the grey limestone breaks
through the vegetation more and more, for the line is approaching the
lofty stony plateau of the Karst, and enormous heaps of débris
accentuate the position of the numerous quarries. They are very
extensive, going far into the rock, which is also pierced by many great
hollows, like entrances to an unknown under-world. All over Istria these
memorials of sunken river channels occur--a maze of holes and paths, in
which the water is still sinking deeper through the porous stone as
through a sieve. Curious funnel-shaped depressions often occur amid
uniform slopes, several hundred feet across and sometimes 200 ft. deep,
as if worn by ancient whirlpools, and many of the rivers become
subterranean, sometimes coming to the surface again many miles away.
The river Rjeka, for instance, enters into the grottoes of S. Canzian,
near Divača--a succession of narrow abysses, hollows, pits, waterfalls,
and stalactite grottoes, with pools in them; and other examples will be
noted farther down the coast.

The Castle of Duino has been called "The pearl of the Coastlands." It
stands finely upon its rock, just where the diluvial plain meets the
lime or sandstone formation. In a couple of hundred paces or so the
vegetation changes its character from that of upper Italy to the
softness of the southern islands, the sheltered slope to the sea being
like an evergreen garden. Aloes root in the rocks as at Sorrento, and
even in winter the purple cyclamen may be found in flower. Its name in
antiquity was Castrum Pucinum. Here Augustus had a villa, whence the
best wine for his table was brought. From the line, too, the campanili
of Grado and Aquileia are visible, far away over the plain, dark against
lagoon or sky in the evening, or flashing white in the morning sun.

At Monfalcone we took corner seats in an unoccupied carriage, but while
we were arranging our things an old man, rather infirm, got in and made
me to understand that he wanted mine. German was the language which he
spoke. I thought perhaps I was intruding, though there was nothing on
the seat to show that it was taken, so gave it up. We had two nice
youths, who were talking Italian, at the other end of the compartment,
cadets of some kind in uniform, going home for the Easter holidays. The
old man was very short-sighted and gazed at the landscape through a
little telescope. When we left Nabresina and went the other way to run
down to Trieste, the views changed to the other side of the carriage,
and to my astonishment the selfish old fellow moved across and turned
one of the youths out of his place! to which he submitted quite meekly.

The descent from the high land to the coast level is very fine, the eye
ranging far over the blue water, headland projecting beyond headland,
paler and more diaphanous, till the historic point of Salvore fades into
the distance scarcely distinguishable. Below the blue is stained by the
smoke of steamers and flecked with the many-coloured sails of other
craft, while in the middle-distance populous Trieste stretches round the
curve of the bay, with many vessels at its wharves, and the smoke from
the Lloyd-Arsenal mingling with that from the iron-works at Muggia
beyond S. Servolo across the bay; or, if it should be night, lines of
lights define the long stretch of quays and streets like strings of
pearls, and sparkle up the heights which the houses climb in several
directions. Prosecco is passed, which gives its name to a celebrated
wine much esteemed in Trieste; Miramar, with its memories of the
ill-fated Maximilian of Mexico, who delighted in its beautiful situation
and splendour of appointment; then comes Barcola, where excavations have
proved the existence of Roman villas, which have enriched the museum of
Trieste with many interesting objects; and at last the train slackens
and stops at the west end of the town, in the fine station built with
that disregard for economy of space and lavish expenditure of material
which the Englishman finds remarkable in Continental railway management.

[Illustration: SHIPPING AT TRIESTE: THE CANAL, WITH THE GREEK CHURCH AND
SANT' ANTONIO

_To face page 57_]

Trieste is primarily a modern town, and the people are very proud of the
important buildings which adorn it, as they have every right to be. The
post office, for instance, is palatial, and round and near to the Piazza
Grande are large and showy edifices which include the Town Hall and the
Lloyd Palace, while the Greek church is a fine building in the Byzantine
style, decorated with mosaics, and the church of Sant' Antonio makes
a very effective termination to the Canale Grande. The broad quays are
thronged with people of many nationalities and varied costumes, from the
ships which lie along them flaunting ensigns of all kinds--red and white
crosses, blue, yellow, and black stripes, moons and stars--Italian,
Norwegian, Greek, Turkish, French, and Montenegrin, as well as Istrian
and Dalmatian. The Greek ships generally lie in the Canal, the Norwegian
by the Molo S. Carlo (so called from a warship which was sunk in 1737),
and beyond the health office for the port at the Molo Giuseppino, where
many others also lie, and the various passenger steamers in definite
berths--the big English steamers at the end of the projecting quays.
From a Sicilian ship hundreds of chests of oranges and lemons may be
seen unloading; from a Venetian _trabarcolo_ great heaps of onions and
ropes of garlic; an Istrian boat disgorges a small mountain of green
water-melons; from a Dalmatian cutter barrel after barrel of wine is
rolled out, much of which goes on to Bordeaux (!); and the same from a
Greek schooner near, while its neighbour from the Levant lands grapes
and chests of raisins, and the Norwegian ship brings train oil or wood.
Many Turkish and Albanian costumes lighten up the crowd with their
brilliant colours and quaint shapes, Bosniaks and Montenegrins are
occasionally seen, and a fair number of Morlacchi, though fewer than
lower down the coast. The weather-beaten Chioggian fishermen, too, with
their red caps and waist-scarves, black curly hair and great rings in
their ears, are very picturesque, though less unusual. The Triestines
themselves are abandoning the old costume of the countryman, the
"mandriere," described as consisting of a long waistcoat with great
silver buttons hanging on it, short black hose open at the knee, and a
short black, close-fitting jacket. In summer he wore a broad, flapping
hat; in winter a costly cap of so-called beaver-skin, which he had
probably inherited from his grandfather. The women had broad frocks with
coloured borders, and a short, heavy cloth jacket; and on their heads a
white linen cloth hanging down behind, with costly lace upon it. The
girl of the people, the "sessolotta," and the seamstress, the
"sartorella," both go bareheaded, and are proud of their hair; they are
fond of flowers and songs, and spend much of their time in the open air.
I quote a Gradese song, which is also sung at Trieste, and must be of
some antiquity, since it names the gondola, which is not now seen either
at Grado or Trieste.

  Lisetta guarda, bella è la luna
  Argento piove sulla laguna,
  Non è una nuvola; quieto è il mar--
  Lisetta, in gondola ti voi menar?

  La bavisella che va soffiando
  Con quel bel viso di quando in quando
  I biondi boccoli te li fa far--
  Lisetta, in gondola ti voi menar?

The markets are rich with colour and well looked after. Officials go
round constantly testing the articles of food sold, while the women (who
are generally the sellers) look on with anxiety. A dozen or more, men
and women, will bring in their wares on a cart, 10 or 15 ft. long, each
putting a hand to the work.

The city existed in antiquity. Strabo knew it as a Carnian market-town.
Various derivations of the Latin name "Tergeste" have been suggested, of
which perhaps the most probable is from the Celtic "twr," water or sea,
and "geste," colony, establishment. The fact that it was the only city
held by the Carni on the sea-coast increases the probability. A Roman
colony was established here in 129 B.C. The amount of tribute paid by
the various cities is an index of their importance; both Pola and
Parenzo paid more than Trieste. The Triestines were enrolled in the
tribe Pupinia. The city was the landing-place for Roman troops, as was
the case in Trajan's campaign against the Dacians. The fulling
establishments of both Trieste and Pola were known far and wide.

The Romans made the hill of S. Giusto the centre of their colony, adding
to the defensive works the temple of the Capitoline divinities,
reconstructed with a magnificence worthy of the increased importance of
the city by Clodius Quirinale, prefect of the fleet of Ravenna. Remains
of it are the seven columns within the campanile (built in 1337 and
restored in 1556), still bearing architrave, frieze, and cornice, and
fragments of architectural carving and inscriptions encrusted in its
walls, or preserved in the civic Museo Lapidario. There was an antique
theatre at Trieste also; its shape only can be traced, though the name
of the street is still "Rena Vecchia."

[Illustration: PLAN OF THE CATHEDRAL, TRIESTE]

S. Hermagoras is said to have planted a church here about 50 A.D., by
means of missionaries sent from Aquileia. S. Giusto, one of the patron
saints of the city, probably died about 303. The other two are S.
Sergio, a soldier, whose halberd still appears in the arms of the town,
and S. Servolo, a pious youth who lived at one time in a grotto not far
from this place, where they both were martyred. There is said to have
been a bishop in the fourth century, but the list of authentic bishops
begins with Frugiferus in the sixth. When Christianity triumphed, a
church was built on the Capitol on the ruins of the ancient temple of
Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, dedicated to the Virgin of the Assumption.
This was the part to the north of the present church (see plan), now the
nave of the Holy Sacrament, "del Santissimo," in the apse of which are
the mosaics of the twelve Apostles, probably earlier than the sixth
century; while those in the vault, together with the border, are later.
Till some twenty years ago a difference in the level of the floor
between the three columns farthest east on each side (where the pulpit
stands) marked the place of the original choir. The walled-up clerestory
windows of the right side are ancient. The fourteen columns have been
plastered over to make them uniform, but are evidently of different
thicknesses, suggesting the use of older material. The caps are for the
most part rough imitations of Corinthian, and the bases are stilted
Attic in type. Of the baptistery nothing remains but the hexagonal font
of marble in the chapel of S. John the Baptist, where there is also an
ancient well and the apparatus for baptism by ablution, not now used. In
the time of Justinian, the second, smaller, church (probably dedicated
to SS. Giusto and Servolo) was erected at the south side by Bishop
Frugiferus, about 550, as the monogram at the left of the apse shows.
The mosaics in the apse are late Byzantine. Four great columns support a
cupola in front of the presbytery, by means of four round arches,
pendentives, and a drum, round which is an arcade of sixteen stilted
round arches with foliated caps and prominently projecting abaci, which
it is thought may belong to the original building, though the cupola
itself is later. The small apse of the south aisle, with vaulted roof,
also belonged to the first building. In front of the apses is a _solea_
with a wagon vault, except in front of the small aisle apse, where it is
quadripartite. The aisle is raised a step above the nave. The arcades
are uniformly round-arched and stilted, and the caps generally have
super-abaci. The north aisle has pointed arches at intervals and a flat
roof; the nave of the Santissimo also has a flat roof with beams and
brackets. There is a triumphal arch and one blocked window in the apse,
with mosaic on the splay of the jamb.

The mosaic in the semi-dome is probably an eleventh-century restoration
of an older work, itself very carefully restored in 1863. The Virgin,
robed in blue and holding the Divine Child to her bosom, is enthroned
between the archangels Michael and Gabriel, who hold lilies and are
robed in priestly costume. The Child blesses with the right hand in the
Greek fashion. Below, on the wall, are figures of the Apostles, of a
very early date, for SS. Peter and Paul are without their usual
attributes, and the white draperies shaded with pale colours are early
Christian in arrangement. Between the figures are palm-trees and
conventional plant ornaments. The church is very dark, but the details
of the mosaics may be studied in the careful copies in the museum. Above
the altar of S. Giusto, to the right, in the semi-dome, SS. Giusto and
Servolo stand on each side of our Saviour, beneath whose feet are two
monsters, asp and basilisk. The central apse was reconstructed in the
seventeenth century. The main reconstruction took place in the
fourteenth century. The aisle walls of the two churches were demolished,
and a nave built reaching from the pillars of one church to those of the
other, thus uniting them under one roof, the western wall being placed
contiguous to the campanile, and chapels added at each side. The
memorial of the Gens Barbia was sawn in two and used as jambs for the
west door, and inscriptions from the pedestals of statues and classical
ornamental fragments were used in the campanile, both round the openings
and close to the niche which encloses the statue of S. Giusto holding a
model of the cathedral and castle. The consecration took place in 1385,
Bishop Henry of Wildenstein officiating. Below the S. Giusto mosaics are
wall-paintings of the fourteenth century, in niches of a much earlier
date, with slender antique columns of precious marbles; in the centre
the saint stands with a model of the city in his hand--the earliest
record of its appearance extant; the other niches show his sufferings.
In the niche of S. Apollinaris are remains of frescoes of two dates
found in 1892, and thought to belong to the sixth and the tenth
centuries; other remains of the fourteenth or fifteenth century, found
under whitewash, prove that the whole church was ornamented with
painting as the "Acts" relate. When the roof was raised the exterior of
the drum of S. Giusto was enclosed within the church. The trilobate roof
of the nave was mediæval, but has lately been restored. The façade also
was restored in 1843, and the gravestones ranged along its base were
then removed from the floor.

[Illustration: FIGURE OF S. GIUSTO, CAMPANILE OF THE CATHEDRAL, TRIESTE]

In the sacristy is a picture signed Tommaso Giottino, and dated 1313; it
is thought to have belonged to the high-altar. There is a picture by
Benedetto Carpaccio, of the Madonna, between SS. Giusto and Servolo, in
the right-hand portion of the church. The treasury is kept in the chapel
of S. Antonio Abate, to the north of the apse of the Santissimo; it is
closed with a very fine late Renaissance German iron grille, with
elaborate projecting floral bosses. It contains a thirteenth-century
processional cross, with a _repoussé_ Christ on a ground of gilded
silver.

The original wheel-window of the façade is in the Museo Lapidario, just
below the cathedral, where a good many well-heads of Venetian type are
also preserved, and a few fragments of eighth and ninth-century carving,
as well as the usual antique columns, bases, and inscriptions, one
expects to find. There are also stone balista balls, relics of ancient
sieges, many cinerary urns, and a few mutilated figures, grouped under
the trees and upon the terraces which descend to the little temple in
which the better pieces are housed. These include the lower half of a
female figure, graceful in pose, and, in the folds of the drapery, a
decree of the Decurions' College of Trieste in honour of the quæstor and
Senator Fabius Severus (of the time of Antoninus Pius), engraved on one
of two large pedestals, a sarcophagus and steles, the inscriptions from
the jambs of the campanile, &c. The collection is mainly due to Dr. Dom.
di Rossetti, who, in 1830, erected the monument to Winckelmann (murdered
here in 1768), which is against one of the walls. Near the Jesuit
church, half-way down the slope of the hill, is a half-buried Roman
arch of the time of Severus, ornamented equally on both sides, perhaps a
memorial of one of the ancient gates. It is known as the Arco di
Riccardo, from some fancied connection with Richard Cœur de Lion.

[Illustration: ARCO DI RICCARDO, TRIESTE]

The finest objects in the Civic Museum are two pieces of antique Greek
metal-work found at Taranto. One is a bronze jug, upon which are
represented two griffins, facing each other by the sides of a palmette,
with a flowing band of vine-leaves surrounding the body above. The
relief is very delicate, and the design beautiful. The other is a
rhyton of silver which is almost unique. The _motif_ is the head of a
young deer. The ears, which project at right angles, are riveted on; the
rest is _repoussé_ in one piece. It is so finely modelled and so
accurate in its detail, that it has been recognised as a representation
of the _Cervus Dama_, which was formerly common in South Italy. The
interior of the ears and the lip of the cup have been gilt, and in the
nostrils is niello. Round the neck is a band with four small figures,
probably representing the nuptials of Poseidon and Saturia, daughter of
Minos, from which sprang Taras, the mythical founder of Taranto. Two of
the figures are seated, two standing; their draperies are gilded. The
handle curves gracefully to the back of the jawbones, where it is
attached to a palmette. The work may be of the fourth century B.C., the
doe's head being much finer than the figures, which are possibly a later
addition. The only similar piece of silver-work known is the bull's-head
rhyton in the Hermitage Collection, St. Petersburg. In this also the
figures (which are of barbarians) are inferior to the animal forms.

There are various sculptures discovered at Barcola, the finest of which
is a male torso with the greater part of the legs, prehistoric objects,
coins, a personification of Istria, things found at Pirano, and three
splendid large Chinese bronzes. The copies of the mosaics of the
Apostles from S. Giusto are on the ceiling of the upper room. A seal of
the city of the fourteenth century bears three towers and the
inscription: "Sistilianum · publica · Casiilir · mare · Certos · dat ·
michi · fines." Sistiana was on the north of Trieste; Castilir, the
river Risano, was the southern boundary. The present arms were given by
Frederick IV., 1464--a black two-headed eagle on gold on the first of
three horizontal fields, and on the lowest the halberd of S. Sergius, on
the colours of the archduchy of Austria.

The bishopric of Trieste corresponded to the Roman _municipium_ in its
boundaries. The bishops gradually became temporal lords of the city, and
in 1295 the commune bought its freedom from Brissa di Toppo for two
hundred marks. At this time the first communal palace was built. The
first statute, however, dates from 1313-1319. It provides for a foreign
podestà, a greater and lesser council, and the usual officials from the
noble families. The title of Count of Trieste was first taken by Antonio
di Negri (1350-1370). During his time Venice besieged the city for
eleven months, conquering it in 1368, notwithstanding the attempted
succour of Leopold of Austria. They then built a fort on the hill of S.
Giusto and another on the shore called Amarina. Trieste made overtures
to the dukes of Austria, and war continued between them and Venice till
1370, when it was ended by the peace of Kaisach, by which Venice agreed
to pay 75,000 florins of gold, and to give up the castle of Vragna, as
well as to relinquish all claim to Trieste and her territory. The
Venetian forts were demolished, and in 1382 the city gave itself to the
Habsburgs to make itself secure. In 1470 Frederick III. built the castle
to control the factions which had been indulging in civil war, and
Trieste lost a good deal of her liberty. The mediæval city formed a
triangle on the north-west slope of the castle. Till the middle of the
eighteenth century it was a small town of 6,000 inhabitants, but the
gift of free harbour rights by Charles VI., in 1719, soon made it
prosperous. Italian, German, and Swiss merchants settled in numbers, and
the population grew till it is now over 160,000.

The bishop of Trieste was subject to the Patriarch of Aquileia, and a
special form of worship was used, invented by the Patriarch Paulinus.
This is still in existence, partly printed and partly in MS.

On Saturday, June 10, 1501, Canon Johannes Baptista, the chancellor,
used the Roman rite in the cathedral for the first time, a fact noted as
remarkable in several documents. In Aquileia itself the form continued
in use till 1585, and in S. Mark's, Venice, till the fall of the
Republic. In Trieste confraternities were established very early. That
of S. Giusto is mentioned in 1072.




VI

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF ISTRIA


The name "Istria" is derived from the Istro, confounded by the ancient
geographers with the Danube (Ister), and therefore supposed to be a
branch of it. Considering the testimony of ancient writers as to the
migration of Thracians, it appears probable that the Istrians were of
these people, a band who left Pontic Istria by ascending the rivers
Danube, Save, and Lubiana, crossed the Julian Alps, and descended to the
Adriatic. Some such migration may be at the root of the story of the
passage of the Argonauts, pursued by the Colchians. In the ninth century
B.C. Ionians from Miletus settled colonies in Istria, who were followed
by Corinthians in 735 B.C. It has been claimed that the name "Adriatic"
is derived from Adar, the Asiatic sun-god, or god of fire. Plenty of
stone implements and other prehistoric objects have been found in caves
and burial places, and there are many Celtic place-names; the Celts
arrived in the fourth or fifth century B.C., and contested the country
with the older immigrants. Under Roman rule the two races ultimately
intermixed, the Celts being in the majority.

The oldest inhabitants thus appear to have been of Pelasgic stock,
Celto-Thracian. The Carnians were a branch of those of Lycaonia and
Acarnania, who also settled in Gaul, and, according to Livy, mixed with
the Etruscans during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus. They were sailors
and merchants, but also pirates. When the Romans founded Aquileia they
were forced to take measures to ensure safe navigation and to prevent
danger to the new colony. Therefore, in 178 B.C., an expedition against
the Istrians was undertaken under the Consul Aulus Manlius Vulso, but
without the authorisation of the Senate, the army being transported by
ship to the environs of Muggia. The Istrians attacked the camp in a fog,
and, having driven the Romans to the shore, sat down to eat--and drink.
While they were incapacitated in consequence, the Romans returned and
killed most of them. The following year they entered Istria again,
sacking and devastating the country. In the battle which followed, 4,000
Istrians were left on the field, and the rest took refuge in the cities,
and asked for peace. The negotiations were broken off owing to the
Consul Claudius proceeding in an irregular manner, and Nesactium was
vigorously besieged with two fresh legions. A stream which defended the
walls and supplied drinking-water was diverted by the Romans; its
failure convinced the inhabitants that their gods were either powerless
or angry, and during the final assault the despairing Istrians killed
their women and children to save them from slavery, and threw their
bodies over the walls. Epulus, the king, fell upon his sword when he saw
the enemy within the walls; the rest either perished or were made
slaves. Mutila and Faveria were also attacked and levelled with the
ground, and quiet reigned in Istria. Livy says that at that time 5,622
persons were sold into slavery, the authors of the war were beaten and
then decapitated, and Istria was garrisoned with Roman troops. In 129
B.C. the Istrians rose in revolt when Rome was occupied with the Gepid
war. The Consul Caius Sempronius Tuditanus crushed this revolt, and
after that colonies were established at Ægida (Capodistria), Æmonia
(Cittanova), Albona, Parentium, Piquentum, Pola, Tergeste, and probably
in other places. Many Istrians fled into the Karst region, and for a
long time the land was unsafe. Julius Cæsar had to take measures to
protect Tergeste from raids.

The Italianising of the country proceeded apace. Many Slav names occur
in Roman inscriptions; but in 127 B.C. 14,000 Roman colonists arrived,
and year by year more came, until the time of Augustus, both plebeians
and patricians. Many of the latter of Istrian birth occupied important
posts outside Istria; and, according to an ancient Aquileian breviary
quoted by Dr. Kandler, many of the Christian martyrs belonged to
patrician families. The names of SS. Euphemia, Thecla, Apollinaris,
Lazarus, Justina, Zeno, Sergius, Bacchus, Servulus, and Justus may be
quoted. The towns benefited in material ways, aqueducts were constructed
to supply them with water, and fine roads, such as the consular road
from Pola to Aquileia and Venetia, with its many branches, provided easy
and rapid communication. There was traffic in wines, wood, marble, and
granite. Istrian acorns nourished a fine breed of pigs which were
exported to Rome. The purple-dyeing factories of Cissa near Rovigno, the
fulling works of Pola and Trieste, and the potteries of Aquileia were
known far and wide. Nor were philanthropic works neglected. Under some
of the later Pagan emperors foundling hospitals and schools were
established in separate provinces for orphans and poor children.

Under the just and wise rule of Theodoric the province flourished; but
the people always regarded the Goths as barbarians, and when the
Byzantines attacked Istria in 539-544 and 552 the troops of Vitalius,
Belisarius, and Narses were welcomed. They called the Greek Government
"Sancta Respublica," and erected basilicas in gratitude for the freeing
of the land from the Arian Goths. Justinian re-established the Roman
constitution with certain alterations, among which was the power of
appeal to the court of the bishop, which gave him control and
surveillance over the municipal functionaries. His power was not
supreme, however, the military defence of the frontier being equally
important. For some sixty years the "Schism of the Three Chapters" rent
this part of Christendom, and caused a great deal of ill-feeling and
many questionable actions. It arose from the Emperor Justinian in 544
condemning (1) the writings of Theodore, bishop of Mopsnestia, who
anticipated the heresy of Nestorius; (2) the writings of Theodoret,
bishop of Cyrus, against the twelve anathemas of S. Cyril of Alexandria,
and the decrees of the Council of Ephesus; and (3) the letter of Ibas,
bishop of Edessa, to Maris the Persian. The Latin Church, with Vigilius
the pope at its head, declined to accept the Imperial decree, which was
in contradiction to the Council of Chalcedon of 451. In 548 the pope,
while at Constantinople, was induced to repudiate them; but, on finding
how strong the opposition was, revoked his agreement in 550, and induced
the emperor to summon a council, which met in 553 and condemned the
three chapters and their authors. The pope returned to Rome, and died
there in 554, having confirmed the decision of the Council of
Constantinople, and anathematised those who refused to accept it.
Notwithstanding this, the bishops of Lombardy, Venice, and Istria, with
the Aquileian patriarch Macedonius at their head, and other bishops,
refused, and this refusal produced the "Istrian schism," or schism of
the "Tre Capitoli." Paulinus, who succeeded Macedonius, called a synod
at Aquileia in 557, which repudiated the decision of the Council of
Constantinople. Pelagius II., who was then pope, called in the secular
arm, but the descent of the Lombards in 568 stopped the discussion.
Euphrasius of Parenzo was one of the principal supporters of Macedonius,
and the pope did not hesitate to make the most disgraceful charges
against him. In 578 Paulinus transferred the patriarchate to Grado, so
putting himself under Byzantine protection. Elias of Grado held the same
opinions as his predecessor, even excommunicating his adversaries. His
successor, Severus, holding the same views, Smaragdus the Exarch made an
expedition to Grado in 588, took Severus and the bishops of Parenzo and
Trieste to Ravenna, and kept them there in prison for a twelvemonth,
till they agreed to condemn the three chapters. When they returned they
found their clergy would not go with them, so a synod was convened at
Marano, and there they revoked their condemnation. Smaragdus, exarch
again in 603, so arranged matters that on the death of Severus (who had
preached revolt) Candidiano was appointed patriarch, a man who was
devoted to the papal authority, and who reconciled himself with Rome,
thus ending the schism. It had caused grievous disorders, the bishops
being sometimes for and sometimes against it, and the clergy sometimes
in strife among themselves and sometimes with the Patriarch of Grado;
but the mode in which it was ended was quite as disgraceful as any of
the deeds done during its course. In 610 armed Byzantine soldiers
entered the basilicas and dragged three Istrian bishops from the altars,
with menaces and vituperation, compelling them to accompany them to
Grado, where they were forced to bend to the Imperial commands and
reconsecrate Candidiano patriarch.

The Lombards re-established the patriarchate of Aquileia, electing Abbot
John, who was opposed to the pope, and thus there was a double
patriarchate. The Aquileian patriarchs only became reconciled to the
papacy in 698 when the Lombards had ceased to be Arians. The Istrian
bishops obeyed the Patriarch of Grado until the Council of Mantua (827),
which decided that they should return to Aquileia. Istria was Lombard
only from 751 to 788.

When Charlemagne conquered the country in 789 feudalism was substituted
for the Roman autonomy with the co-operation of the higher clergy. The
Frank duke was supreme, and his underlings had arbitrary power. Public
property was confiscated for the benefit of the duke and his supporters,
and all kinds of arbitrary and exorbitant imposts and restraints were
imposed upon the people, even to the prohibition of fishing! The result
was great discontent, and at last, in 804, by the intervention of
Fortunatus, Patriarch of Grado, an inquiry was held at Risano, the acts
of which were embodied in the "placito" of Risano. The envoys of
Charlemagne restored the communal property and the jurisdiction over
foreigners, exempted freemen from servile tasks, suppressed arbitrary
imposts, and restored the tribunes and other Byzantine magistrates, whom
the people were allowed to select freely according to the ancient
custom. In 952 Istria became a German fief by gift of Otho I. of Germany
(who had conquered Italy the year before) in feud to his brother Henry,
duke of Bavaria, together with Verona and Friuli. Documents show the
presence of large numbers of persons of German origin during the tenth
century; but the maritime cities, depending upon commerce, were forced
into connection with Venice by the necessity of making arrangements for
mutual defence against Slav and Saracen Corsairs, and thus the
foundations were laid for the Republic's later supremacy.

Great part of the history of Istria relates to incursions by the
barbarians, either beaten off, or successful, with the destruction of
towns, and the carrying off of slaves and booty. The descent of the
Lombards was followed by a raid of the Avars in 599, but they were
beaten off. Three years later they came again in company with Slavs and
Lombards. In 611 the Huns or Slovens descended on Istria, in 670 they
were defeated near Cividale by Duke Vetturi, and in 718 were conquered
in three battles near Lauriana by Duke Pemmo. His son Ratchis copied the
bad example of the Huns, sacking and killing far into Carniola. Between
620 and 630 the Serbo-Croats descended from the Carpathians and crossed
the Danube by suggestion of Heraclius, driving the Avars from Dalmatia
and taking their place. The result of these constant barbarian raids was
the concentration of the population in the towns on the sea-coast.

The pirates in the Adriatic were first the Narentans and next the
Saracens, who devastated the coasts of Dalmatia in 840, fruitlessly
besieging Ragusa for fifteen months, and afterwards taking Taranto and
Bari. In 842 they defeated the Venetians at Taranto, and, on the octave
of Easter, took Ossero and burnt it. They then passed on to Ancona and
Adria, and as they returned captured a whole Venetian squadron. In 876
the Slavs of Croatia and Dalmatia raided the Istrian coast towns, but
were defeated at Grado. The Emperor Basil occupied Dalmatia in 877 on
the pretext of Slav piracy. He gave the tribute from the Roman cities of
Dalmatia to the Croats and Narentans, so that Spalato, Zara, Traù, Arbe,
and the Byzantine cities of Veglia and Ossero had to pay tribute to the
Croats. The successful expedition of Pietro Orseolo II. against the
Narentan pirates tended to the greater security of the coast towns and
strengthened the bond which Venice was weaving.

In 933 a solemn treaty of peace was signed at Rialto between Istria and
Venice by the Marquis of Istria, the bishops of Pola and Cittanova, two
"locopositi," two "scabini," and twelve other trustees from Pola,
Capodistria, Muggia, and Pirano, there convened. A fresh treaty was made
in 977 with Capodistria, giving Venice special advantages, and these
negotiations were carried on without reference to the Imperial
authority, the nominal feudal lord. Walking thus warily, avoiding
offence to the Emperor of Germany, Venice took 200 years of continuous
political action to acquire the Istrian cities. By 1145 Venice had
obtained for herself liberty of commerce in most of the Istrian towns
and complete exemption from any kind of taxation; she had established at
Pola and Capodistria a representative, to look after the punctual
execution of treaties, and to protect Venetians from injustice, and had
also made the Istrian cities pay her a tribute, either in money or
products, obtaining also assistance for her navy from them whenever it
was fighting beyond Zara and Ancona. The importance attached by Venice
to these concessions is proved by the triumph which was given to the
squadron of Morosini and Gradonico when returning victorious from
Istrian waters. It was then that the doge assumed the title of "dux
totius Istriæ," but the dates of the dedition of the several cities are
much later. The re-organisation of the communes took place between 1150
and 1180. The podestà had a council of assessors, the "consiglio
minore"; the larger "consiglio del popolo" was called together for the
more important matters, such as declaration of war, conclusion of peace,
legislation, imposition of taxes, election of podestà and consuls, &c.;
while many documents show that the whole body of citizens was summoned
to a "parlamento" for the publication of new laws, very important
deliberations requiring practical unanimity, the installation of fresh
magistrates, &c. The "statute" was apparently drawn up when a foreign
podestà succeeded to native consuls as an assertion of the ancient
judicial custom. That of Capodistria, the earliest, is of 1238-1239;
that of Pola, 1264. As soon as the communes began to extend their work
of domestic supervision a "fontico" was established, a place where corn
was sold at little above cost price. Everything was supervised--the time
of vintage and of selling the new wine was fixed, the amount of bread to
be baked in each oven was prescribed, the justices tasted the wine
before the taverners began to sell, cut off the tails of fish unsold by
the evening, and generally looked after the strict fulfilment of the
regulations affecting food. As the vintage approached, the guards in the
vineyards were doubled, and, from August 3, dogs were tethered to a
stake to intimidate thieves. The prices of foreign goods were fixed and,
before commencing to sell, merchants were obliged to expose their wares
on the quays or in the piazza for three days. Standard measures were cut
in stone in conspicuous places, and at Albona the various imposts were
carved on the clock-tower in the piazza. Armed men were not allowed to
enter the cities, and the officials interested themselves in everything
going on, an example of which may be quoted from Pirano. When S.
Francesco was built in 1301, the podestà carried the first stone on his
shoulder, and set it in the ground before the assembled people. Venice
succeeded the patriarch as overlord of the Istrian communes in 1420, and
after this the history of Istria is merged in that of the Republic.

The ravages of the plague were fearful, and practically depopulated the
province, returning again and again till 1631. In the fourteenth century
it decimated the Brioni Islands; no less than five Benedictine convents
were abandoned--three in Pola and one near Barbana d'Arsia, as well as
that on the Brioni Islands. In Muggia an inscription states that half
the population died in 1347. In 1361 Ossero was so devastated that two
years later the bishop abandoned it and went to live in Zara. In 1371
the country round Pola was so afflicted that of seventy-two towns only
eleven preserved their names, the rest disappearing without leaving any
trace. In Cittanova in 1643 there were only ten inhabitants left, the
bishop abandoned it to live in Buie or Verteneglio, and in 1686, as
there were not enough citizens to constitute a council, they had to add
strangers to make a quorum. Angelo Morosini, podestà of Capodistria in
1646, described it as "Goddess of desolation and refuge of solitude
itself." Parenzo was so severely smitten that only thirty persons
remained. At Pola in 1631 there were but 300 persons left, including the
garrison of foreigners, and of the citizens but three families. This was
the last visitation.




VII

MUGGIA TO PIRANO


From Trieste steamers, large and small, ply to most of the places on the
coast, and the islands down to Fiume. Though there is railway
communication with a few places, travelling by water is much pleasanter
in fine weather, and the towns are more easily accessible from the
seaside. The country people throng to market in the early hours of the
morning, and are ready to return by the time the average English tourist
has finished his breakfast and sets out sightseeing.

[Illustration: WEST END OF THE CHURCH, MUGGIA VECCHIA]

[Illustration: CHOIR-SCREEN AND AMBO, MUGGIA VECCHIA

_To face page 81_]

We went to Muggia about midday by one of the little steamboats which
round the Punta S. Andrea, and, passing the Lloyd-Arsenal, cross the
bay, the Vallone di Muggia. The boat was full of belated _contadini_,
for the most part rugged and picturesque, among whom was an old woman
with a few long candles, which she vainly offered for sale to every
person on the boat; a boy with nuts and sweets was more fortunate, and
lessened his stock considerably. The deck was lumbered up with baskets,
milk-cans, &c., which had been full in the early morning, and most of
the passengers had bundles and parcels containing their purchases. Some
thirty minutes were sufficient in the fine weather with which we were
favoured to take us across, and, passing the smoky iron-works which are
the principal industry of modern Muggia, we disembarked at the little
quay, and immediately became objects of interest to a small crowd of
impertinent boys. Our principal objective was the ancient church on the
hill where Muggia Vecchia once stood. We found on inquiry that it was
closed as being in a dangerous state. This entailed visits to the
_municipio_ and to the parish priest, under escort of a uniformed
official, who then conducted us by a steep and stony path up the hill
Monte Michele, towards the summit of which, higher than the church,
prehistoric graves have been found, consisting of stone slabs set
roughly together, making a kind of chest which opens on to the hillside.
The church stands amid fragments of ruined walls, the remains of the
town destroyed by the Genoese in 1354. To the west is a stony space
where wild irises grow and bloom profusely in the crevices of the rocks,
and from which there is a fine view over the sea northwards to the
highlands of the Karst. Between this flowery wilderness and the church
is an open grassy space enclosed by a wall, and with a few trees round
its edges, which was probably the atrium. Opening upon this is the
narthex, an open portico level with the tower which stands at the west
end of the north aisle, with a stone seat running round the wall. Two
steps lead _down_ into the nave, and there is a door in the south aisle,
which has two windows, the clerestory having four; though on the north
side, where the graveyard lies, there are none. The building consists of
a nave and aisles divided by an arcade of five round arches upon
rectangular piers without caps, the two eastern bays being enclosed by
dwarf walls with framings of marble slabs upon which interlacing
patterns of the ninth century are carved. They return across the ends of
the aisles, in each of which is an altar beneath a wagon vault, though
there is no apse. The central apse is vaulted with a semi-dome, but does
not show externally. The choir is raised two steps above the nave, and
the altar is approached by a third. The ambo or pulpit stands outside
the screen on four columns, approached by steep steps from within; an
octagonal column of coloured marble supports a slab for a book-rest,
facing eastwards at the foot of the steps. In plan the ambo somewhat
resembles that at Grado, with six half-colonnettes projecting from the
curved form, two of them terminating in heads on each side of the
book-rest, itself supported on an octagonal shaft which dies into its
underside with very flat vine or oak leaves spread over the surface. The
whole has been so plentifully whitewashed that detail is nearly
obliterated, but there is sufficient difference between the styles of
various parts to make it probable that a reconstruction took place at
some period, older material being employed to a great extent. The fact
that two of the bases have angle claws and are manifestly not in their
original position supports this theory. The altar to the left is part of
a Roman sarcophagus with a funerary inscription in letters of the
Imperial period:

              C. IVLIO
             NICOSTRATO
          FILIO · PIISSIMO
  ANN · XVIII · M · VIIII · D · XII
        IVLIVS · NICOSTRATVS.

[Illustration: PLAN OF PULPIT, MUGGIA VECCHIA]

Upon the piers and walls are remains of paintings of various dates. On
the first pier to the left is S. Catherine, vested as a Byzantine
empress. Further to the east are the Madonna "Blacherniotissa" and S.
Dominic, and near the ambo figures of the four Evangelists; the last
apparently of the period of the foundation of the church, the ninth or
early tenth century. On the last pier, which is broader than the others,
and suggests a later addition (perhaps in the thirteenth century), is a
gigantic S. Christopher, roughly painted, and with the well-known
inscription stating that whoso looks at it will not die a sudden death
that day. The aisles have lean-to roofs, and the nave roof we found
shored up, the supporting timbers being wreathed with garlands of
artificial flowers. The dedication is to SS. Peter and Paul.

As we descended the hill our guide, observing that flowers interested
us, made a sudden dive through the gate of a garden full of wallflowers
and picked a bunch for us, presenting it with as much grace as if they
had been his own! a proceeding to which the rightful owners appeared to
have no objection. The more modern town lay below us with its walls and
towers, some of them ruinous and some restored, and looked picturesque
enough except for the ancient castle which has been turned into a modern
house by its latest purchaser, who has tried with more zeal than
judgment to copy the style of the older portions. Through the postern by
which we had left the town a number of workmen from the iron-works
straggled, grimy and weary; in their modern dress and employment marking
a contrast with their surroundings. Muggia Nuova first appears in
history in 1235. When Paganino Doria destroyed Monticula (Muggia
Vecchia) in 1354, the port Vicuna Lauri (now Muggia) increased, and
twenty years later was surrounded with walls by the Patriarch Marquand
da Randeck after his triumphal entry. It had nine square towers, a
bastioned keep on the east, and a barbican with unequal sides, which
covered the Porta a Mare, or of S. Rocco. Three other gates, the Porta
Grande, which faced to the country, the Porta S. Francesco or Del
Castello, and the Portizza, which joined the Imperial road of Zaule with
a drawbridge, added to the defences, and a chain closed the port.

The nave of the church is of the eighteenth century, the apse twelfth,
and the façade of the fifteenth century, with a wheel window of 1467
above the west door, and a gable of an ogee-trefoil shape. In the
centre of the rose of sixteen rays is a little relief of the Virgin and
Child; the tracery is like that of the cathedral at Trieste. The door is
square-headed, with a cable moulding on the inner and a dentil on the
outer edge, and with a slightly ogee tympanum above, in which are an
enthroned God the Father with Christ in His lap, two kneeling figures
with palms at the sides, and two little angels on the uprights of the
throne. On the architrave is an Agnus Dei. Two windows, slightly
ogee-headed, flank the door. Coats of arms and inscriptions give the
date. The treasury contains a late Gothic ostensory with Renaissance
patterns on the foot, a chalice which has portions of several dates, and
a seventeenth-century processional cross. The contemporary municipal
palace is now made into dwelling-houses, though the lion of S. Mark,
with closed book and the date 1444, still looks down from the wall, and
the shapes of the windows reveal a mediæval building.

While we were on the hill the few children had become a crowd, and our
proceedings were much hampered, although our friendly guard adopted very
rough measures more than once to keep them in order. The people have
always been turbulent and unruly, and no doubt there is still an
hereditary disposition among them to resist authority, though one must
acknowledge that it was only among the young that we ourselves observed
it.

Muggia Vecchia is first mentioned in a diploma of Ugo and Lothair, king
of Italy, in 971, by which the Castello was given to the church of
Aquileia. In 1202, when the Venetians were on their way to the Holy
Land, they subjected the coast towns under the pretext of enforcing the
patriarch's rights. Doge Enrico Dandolo disembarked at Muggia with part
of his troops, and was received by clergy and people with the ringing of
bells. The citizens being collected swore fealty and subjection to the
Republic, promising not to help pirates, and to pay each S. Martin's Day
twenty-five "orne" of good wine. From this date till 1420 the city was
ruled by a podestà elected every six months by the council and confirmed
by the patriarch. There were three judges and several "anziani," who
formed the lesser council, to attend to daily business. In the
thirteenth century it had its own statute, and at that time the commune
paid a doctor, a surgeon, and a schoolmaster. The crest is a turreted
castle, seen on the campanile of the old church borne by two figures. It
was sometimes under Venice and sometimes under the patriarch till 1420.
At one time four noble hostages were confined for the latter in
Cividale, who were obliged to prove their presence every day; at another
the procurator swore fealty to Venice and received the standard of S.
Mark with much pomp. In 1371 the council decided to elect every year two
upright men who should do their best to settle disputes and quarrels
among the citizens, and in case of failure to report to the council,
when extraordinary measures were to be taken. The next year Raffaello
Steno attacked the city at the head of the exiles and killed many
supporters of the patriarch, sacking their houses and proscribing his
followers; and it was only at the end of 1374 that he succeeded in
retaking the town, coming in person to do so. After his triumphal entry
in that year a castle was built to keep the people in subjection, and a
castellan with a garrison was left in it; but the town rebelled again in
1377.

Capodistria is at the head of the next bay to the south-west, on rising
ground which was once an island, though now joined to the mainland. From
the sea the most conspicuous building is a great yellow prison. There
is also a naval school there, the cadets from which have to endure a
certain amount of chaff when they acknowledge having spent five years at
Capodistria. According to Dandolo the city was founded on the island of
Capraria, and named in honour of Justin II. (565-578) Justinopolis; the
fact of its having been free of money taxes during the Byzantine
dominion makes some such origin probable; but it occupies the site of
the Roman colony of Ægida, founded in 128 B.C., and a few antique
fragments have been found, such as the restored statue of Justice on the
communal palace, a Roman work of the Lower Empire, and the reliefs of an
ox and a female dancer encrusted in the wall of a garden. In the church
of S. Clemente there is also a little round antique altar, used as a
holy-water basin.

Under Pietro Orseolo a treaty was made between Venice and Capodistria in
977, under which the hundred amphoras of wine (which had been sent since
932 as an annual present to the doge, and handed by him to the Patriarch
of Grado) were made obligatory and a perpetual tribute, while a Venetian
officer resided in Capodistria to look after it. Another stipulation was
that the city should always be at peace with Venice, even if the rest of
Istria were at war. The Venetian representative or consul had the right
to sit with the Capodistrian judges whenever a Venetian had cause to
appear before them. In 1145, envoys had to go to Venice to swear on the
Gospels true and loyal fidelity to S. Mark, the Doge Polano, and all his
successors, and to the commune of Venice, undertaking to renew the oath
on the election of each new doge. In 1186 the commune was represented by
a podestà and four consuls, the year in which the bishopric was founded
on the strength of their promise to provide sufficient income. Eight
years later they were obliged to decree that if any one did not pay his
dues by the usual time he should have his vineyard taken away, and if
the tithe of oil was not paid by the Purification, it should be doubled.
It was the first Istrian city with a fully formed commune, and the
notice of the meeting of the council on July 5, 1186, is the earliest
notice preserved of such a meeting. The first statute appears in
1238-1239.

When Venice had acquired the city the senate commanded Tommaso Gritti
and Piero Gradenigo to build Castel Leone; it was constructed astride
the road which crossed the marshes, so that all travellers and vehicles
entering or leaving the city had to pass through it. The walls, for
which the Patriarch Gregorio Montelungo was responsible, were damaged in
1278, when the city swore fealty to Venice, and were thrown down on the
sea side after the insurrection of 1348. They were not completely
repaired till the sixteenth century. In 1550 Michele Sanmicheli, and
subsequently his nephew Alvise Brignoli and others were sent by the
senate to report, and finally the repair of the walls of many of the
Istrian towns was committed to Constantine and Francesco Capi. A hundred
years later they were in such a state that Stefano Capello reported that
it was useless to guard the gates, for entrance was easy through the
ruinous part of the walls. The only portion now remaining is the Porta
della Muda, built by Sebastian Contarini in the seventeenth century. It
bears an inscription of 1701 stating that the sea then no longer flowed
round it.

The Palazzo Comunale was burnt after the revolt of 1348, when the city
had to surrender unconditionally, the clergy carrying crosses, and the
citizens in procession, followed by the soldiers and the other
foreigners, meeting the army outside the gates. Fifty of the persons
most compromised were sent to Venice for trial, and the city was
punished by increase of taxation and modification of some of the
chapters of the statute. A few years after it rebelled again, and was
then deprived of all municipal rights. The burnt portion of the palace
was ordered to be restored in 1353, but it had to be pulled down
afterwards, and in 1385 the senate gave orders to the Podesti Leonardo
Bembo to level it and rebuild. It bears resemblance in some of its
details to palaces of the Bembo family in Venice. It was not completed
till 1447, under Domenico Diedo. The right wing was altered in 1481, and
further damaging alterations were made in 1664 by Vincenzo Bembo, who
was so proud of his work that he put up a pompous inscription. There are
numerous coats of arms of podestàs and busts on the façade, the earliest
of which is dated 1432. Under the portico were the "bocche del leone"
for secret denunciations, and, though the masks are gone, the chests
within are still in position.

At right angles to the Palazzo Comunale is the cathedral, with the
campanile projecting and flanking the façade to the south. It has a
ground story of Gothic, three pointed arches, the central one pierced by
a doorway with clustered pillars, and figures beneath niches above them,
and an upper story with classic pilasters and cornice, the central space
pierced by a circular window. These are somewhat the characteristics of
the cathedral at Cividale, of which two Capodistrians, Bartolommeo Costa
and Giovanni Sedula, were architects. It was reconsecrated in 1445, but
the upper part was not finished till 1598. The side doors, with
beautiful arabesques carved on the jambs, were constructed with material
from the tribune in which the big Carpaccio was housed. It was destroyed
in 1714 during the restoration of the cathedral. There is a terra-cotta
medallion of Constantino Copronymus on the façade. The present campanile
is of 1480. The great bell was cast in 1333 by two sons of the
celebrated bell-founder, Jacopo da Venezia. Under the bell-chamber of
the older campanile was an iron cage in which ecclesiastics guilty of
grievous crime were exposed, a punishment abolished in 1497.

The interior of the church, considered the finest of the period in
Istria, was recast in 1741 by the Venetian engineer Giorgio Massari.
Under the last arch of the nave to the right is a picture by Vittore
Carpaccio, signed and dated 1516--a Madonna and Child enthroned upon a
damask-hung seat raised on five steps, which are covered with an
Oriental carpet. Upon the steps saints are ranged, SS. Jerome, Roch, and
an old man to the left--perhaps Zacchariah or Joseph; SS. Sebastian,
George, and a bishop to the right--probably S. Louis of Toulouse: at the
bottom a little lute-playing angel sits, flanked by two amorini on a
lower level with white drapery. The Virgin is seated in an arched
vestibule with a flat ceiling through which the sky and trees are seen.
It was restored in 1829. Another picture from S. Nicolò near the port
shows the Virgin with SS. Nicholas of Bari and John the Baptist. The
organ wings were painted by Vittore's son Benedetto in 1538, and two
other pictures of his are affixed to the west wall. The subjects are the
Slaughter of the Innocents and the Presentation in the Temple. Other
pictures by him are a Coronation of the Virgin, in the communal palace,
signed and dated 1537, his earliest known picture; the Virgin between
SS. James and Bartholomew, 1538; and the town damaged by a sea-storm. In
Santa Anna is a picture of the Name of Jesus adored by SS. Paul, John
the Baptist, Francis, and Bernardino, and surrounded by cherubs' heads.
In the communal palace an indifferent picture of the entrance of a
podestà escorted by the councillors (dated 1517) is ascribed to Vittore
Carpaccio, who has been claimed as a Capodistrian, as his son Benedetto
certainly was. He lived in the Largo di Porta S. Martino, in an old
house of two stories. In 1500 it was inhabited by the Scarpaza family,
and before that they possessed a little farm in the locality called San
Vittore; but the Capodistrian tradition as to Vittore's birthplace is
erroneous, since he was born at Venice of a family of Mazzorbo, record
of which has been found by Signor Molmenti. Lazzaro Sebastiani is also
claimed as Capodistrian, and memorials of two other painters exist,
Cleriginus de Justinopoli, who was living in 1471, and Giorgio Vincenti.
A Mag. Domenico di Capodistria began the pretty octagonal chapel at
Vicovaro above Tivoli.

In the choir of the church of Santa Anna is a picture by Cima da
Conegliano in the original frame made by Vittore da Feltre. In the
central arched compartment the Virgin sits enthroned with the Child on
her knees and angels at her sides; on the steps below are two child
angels with mandoline and fiddle. The lower range of panels has
full-length figures of SS. Anna, Mary Magdalene, Joachim, and Catherine.
In the upper are half-lengths of SS. Chiara, Francis, Jerome, and
Nazario, with Christ between SS. Peter and Andrew in the centre. It has
been restored. There is also an altar-frontal of cut and gilded leather.

The lions from the ancient cathedral doors are now in the atrium of the
high-school. The ancient baptistery is close to the north side of the
cathedral; it has suffered Renaissance alteration inside, but outside
still shows the early arrangement of pilaster-strips and corbel-tables.
It is circular in plan, and has several round-headed, unmoulded windows
built up, as well as a pointed-arched door with fourteenth-century
shields in the tympanum.

[Illustration: THE "FONTICO" AND S. GIACOMO, CAPODISTRIA

_To face page 90_]

In the large piazza which stretches to the south-east of the cathedral
are two well-heads and the "fontico" or place where corn was sold
cheaply to the poor, a building of 1432, restored in 1529, plentifully
studded with coats of arms. Opposite the Palazzo Comunalelis the
Loggia, now a café, built in 1464 for a literary academy. It has seven
pointed and traceried arches in front and two at the side, a Madonna and
Child decorates the south-west angle, and coats of arms are between the
windows of the upper story. Here the Compagnia della Calza was
instituted in 1478 in imitation of that of Venice. A few houses have
remains of late Gothic painting, and in others something of the mediæval
arrangement may still be seen. Upon the Palazzo Tacco is a very
beautiful knocker, ascribed to Sansovino, now happily the property of
the commune; and the Casa del Bello has a fine negro's head as handle,
rather worn by use, and an elaborate knocker, probably of German work.
The Casa Borisi also has a handle with the head and shoulders of a child
emergent from leaves, and a knocker of similar design.

[Illustration: KNOCKER ON PALAZZO TACCO, CAPODISTRIA]

In the cathedral treasury is a late fifteenth-century silver-gilt
chalice with elaborately worked knop and stem; on the knop are saints
under canopies, and angels with outspread wings emerge from scroll-work
round the base of the cup. Also a monstrance of the same period with
very elaborate and beautiful architectural ornament and figures of
angels in adoration. In two elaborate silver-gilt crosses of the
sixteenth century there is a curious mixture of Gothic and Renaissance
details.

There is also a Byzantine civil casket at Capodistria, with traces of
ancient gilding upon it. It has the usual rosettes in the borders, and
small plaques with figure subjects. On the front there are three gods
and goddesses, separated by a repetition of the border pattern. The
handle and fastenings are later in date.

Just inside the Porta della Muda is the Piazza da Ponte, so called after
the Podestà Lorenzo da Ponte, who in 1666 had the very curious fountain
erected, in which he imagined a further memorial of himself by the
punning design of the bridge, so unsuitable for its position. In front
of the Palazzo Tacco is a column with a statue of S. Giustina, set up to
commemorate the battle of Lepanto, at which Domenico di Tacco commanded
a ship fitted out at his own expense.

[Illustration: THE PIAZZA DA PONTE, CAPODISTRIA

_To face page 92_]

In the churches on Good Friday a crucifix was laid on the chancel steps.
Women and children knelt round and kissed it. In one or two of them a
dead Christ, life-size and painted, was exhibited behind glass. There
was also the "tomba," a custom to which one is used in Italy. A few men
joined in the devotion. The Good Friday procession is over half a mile
long, and takes two hours to get round the town, starting from the
cathedral west door at twilight. It is formed in great part of the
ancient confraternities (among which that of S. Maria is mentioned as
early as 1082), who carry some 200 implements and standards, torches,
candelabra, wax tapers, figures of saints, and lanterns. At the end of
the procession a rich baldacchino is borne aloft above the priest who
carries the Host. "Mazzieri" (from the mace which they carry as sign
of authority) keep order. Other processions by daylight take place on
Corpus Domini and S. Nazario (June 19). The people have always been fond
of such displays, and till the seventeenth century there was a great
function at the departure of the rector, who was solemnly bidden
farewell by one of the syndics or nobles in the cathedral. These Istrian
coast towns have always shown enlightenment in the matter of education.
In 1699 a school was opened in Capodistria for the sons of citizens and
patricians, in which Latin, Greek, Italian, mathematics, rhetoric, and
physics were taught. And, in order that poor and talented young men
should not be cut off from the possibility of learning, this town, and,
after its example, Isola, Muggia, Parenzo, Pola, and Trieste established
scholarships at the University of Padua, where Istrian professors became
rectors. But, even in the fourteenth century, there were already school
teachers in Pirano, Muggia, and Capodistria.

It is Pirano on its headland, with the cathedral standing out against
the sea, and with its crown of battlemented towers among cypresses and
other trees which terminates the land as seen from the railway
descending from Nabresina to Trieste; for, though the Point of Salvore
stretches actually farther out, it is low, and does not catch the eye as
Pirano does, especially when its characteristic silhouette is emphasised
by the blue shadow of a passing cloud. The headland upon which the
cathedral is built, with its arched buttresses below, hides the town,
except for the fortified cresting high above the trees; but, when the
point is rounded and the harbour entered, one is tempted to assert that
there are few places so picturesque. The quays are crowded with
fishing-boats, which are backed by the brilliantly white buildings. The
green water reflects boats, buildings, and sky with a bewildering
flashing and mingling of varied colours; while, above the houses of the
Piazza Tartini, other houses and towers climb to the battlemented walls
which crown the hill above a space filled with the grey of olives and
green of the grass beneath them. Within the town the streets are narrow
and often arched over, producing striking effects of light and shade;
and there are external stairs to some of the houses and many balconies.

It is an ancient town, and may have been founded by Celtic immigrants,
since the word "pyrn" (a possible derivation for its name) means "top of
the hill" in Celtic. It certainly was inhabited in Roman times, for the
foundations of a Roman house have been found, as well as inscriptions,
bronzes, and other objects now preserved in the museums of Trieste,
Parenzo, and Pola. The names of a good many places near are of Roman
derivation, but the first definite mention of Pirano is made by the
anonymous Ravennese chronicler. In the tenth century the Istrians
attacked the possessions of the Patriarch of Grado and of Venice, under
the Marquis Winter, who governed for Ugo, king of Italy. The doge
retaliated by prohibiting all commerce with Pirano, Trieste, Muggia,
Capodistria, Cittanova, and Pola, and this soon brought them to their
knees, finally resulting in the treaty of 933.

[Illustration: THE INNER HARBOUR, PIRANO

_To face page 94_]

A castle, the residence of the count or burgrave, was built nearly
opposite the cathedral, with a wall falling sheer to the sea; this wall
was still in existence in 1483, and was seen by Sanudo, but it was
destroyed soon after. Venice gradually laid a heavier hand on this part
of the eastern shore of the Adriatic, and, though the citizens struggled
to retain their independence, the year 1283 saw the dedition of Pirano.
Yet it always retained the right of displaying its own standard of S.
George in the Piazza by the side of that of S. Mark. The existing bases
for the support of these standards date from 1464 and 1466, and bear
the figure of S. George on one, and S. Mark's lion on the other, with
the arms of the podestàs who ruled in those years. On the base of the
Venetian standard the measures of length then in use are engraved. The
standards for measures of capacity were three hollows sunk in a stone
which once stood at the foot of the stair of the communal palace. This
palace was demolished in 1877. It was a building erected in 1291,
outside the circuit of the walls as it then existed, "to show that a new
spirit ought to animate the citizens to forget their ancient divisions,"
as a chronicler says. From 1264 Venice practically had control of the
government, being the principal customer for the salt, which was (and is
still) the chief product of the place.

The city is an irregular triangle in plan, and is divided into four
sections, known as "Porte"--Porta Muggia, Porta Domo, Porta Misana, and
Porta Campo. Walls enclosed each of these sections, which were thrown
down by Venice at the same time that many of the nobles' towers were
destroyed; but some portions remain here and there, utilised for the
erection of later houses. Round the "Punta," the most ancient part of
the city, are remains of early walls, thought to be late Roman. The
Venetians allowed only one wall for protection, and the present towered
portion, so conspicuous along the crest of the hill, was finished in
1488. The suburb, the Borgo Marzana, which stretched along the shore,
was also enclosed within their circuit by 1533. They recall those of
Soave and Marostica in North Italy, where the houses cluster round the
piazza below, and the hillside is covered with olives, through and above
which the line of battlements may be traced high above the tops of the
campanili. The harbour was once larger than it now is, the Piazza
Tartini occupying the site of part of it. In 1320 the Venetians sent
three engineers to construct a port, but all that was done was to
strengthen the inner harbour as then existing. The chain which closed it
was replaced by a drawbridge in 1578, shown in a picture in the
cathedral, but this was demolished in 1894.

In 1379 the Genoese fleet of fifteen galleys demanded the surrender of
Pirano. Reply was made with cannon-shots which sank three large ships,
and the others sailed away. It was the only Istrian city which thus
repelled the Genoese attack, and the incident is also interesting as
showing that the Venetians used bombards before the war of Chioggia.

The statute is more ancient than those of most of the neighbouring
cities, and gives curious details as to pains and penalties and
municipal regulations. The penalty for mutilation was a corresponding
mutilation unless the fine prescribed was paid. The making of false
money was punished with death. The false witness, if insolvent, lost his
right nostril, and his name was published as a perjurer on the stair of
the communal palace. He who destroyed the property of another lost his
right hand. But there was no public executioner; and there are many
records of the flight of guilty persons, though an intention to make
"the punishment fit the crime" is evident. No one was allowed to build a
house close to the walls, and thatch was forbidden. A blasphemer was
pilloried for a day (a list of illegal words and phrases is attached to
this section). Workmen were forbidden to receive more than the wage
prescribed, butchers had to accept the price fixed for meat by the
justices, and the times and places for fishing were specified. The
commune had an inn "let to an honest man," with six good beds, which he
had to provide. No one else was allowed to let rooms till 1469, when the
payment of a tax of three ducats a year entitled the payer to a license.
In 1484 interest on loans was fixed at 20 per cent., and Jews were
allowed to charge no more. This people enjoyed considerable liberties,
as in Venice, and corresponding concessions were made to them. With the
establishment of a "Monte di Pietà" their occupation was gone, and they
migrated to Trieste. The commune paid a chief bombardier, a captain of
ordnance, a palace chaplain, two doctors and a surgeon, a canon of the
Community, a master of arithmetic, a professor of humanities and
rhetoric, and a preacher for Lent.

[Illustration: PIRANO, FROM NEAR THE CATHEDRAL

_To face page_ 97]

An academy, called "Dei Virtuosi," was also sustained at the public
expense, and by it public festivals were organised, with the
accompaniment of decorations and music, &c. The festival of Corpus
Domini is still celebrated with the hanging of cloths and paintings on
the walls of the houses, and with stretching awnings, like the
Florentine mediæval "cieli," across the streets, which are strewn with
flowers and ornamented with altars and fountains. Processions also still
accompany funerals and marriages, when garlands, flowers, and confetti
are thrown upon the cortège as it passes. The banner and pall are black,
with white embroidery, and the members of a red-clothed confraternity
attend the funerals, bearing a crucifix and tapers. Many of them are
quite old men, and they raise a quavering chant as they climb the steep
ascent to the cathedral, which is a late Renaissance building, and not
interesting, though finely placed. The campanile is an evident copy of
that of S. Mark at Venice.

In 1572, under an altar in the cathedral, a fine Byzantine civil casket
of ivory was found. Presented in 1884 to the Emperor by the
municipality, it is now in the Court museum at Vienna. It has a sliding
lid, the usual borders of rosettes, and long panels of subjects imitated
from the antique. In the library above the sacristy are several early
paintings in carved and gilt frames. The most important represents a
long arcade with four saints on each side of a broader central panel,
on which are the Virgin and Child enthroned. The figures have small
heads and meagre limbs. There is also a Crucifixion, which, from its
shape, was probably the top panel of a large picture in compartments.
These are of the fourteenth century. A later example shows four saints
in trefoil-headed panels, with a cornice above, composed of a series of
shell-headed tops of niches. These originally formed the doors of a
cupboard. There are also said to be a psalter and antiphonary of the
fourteenth century, and a Bull of Urban V. relating to the Crusades of
1365. The ancient baptistery stood opposite the cathedral, if one may
trust the views in Carpaccio's picture, and in one by Domenico
Tintoretto in the town-hall. The modern one is on the slope of the hill,
just below the campanile. It contains an early rectangular font. On the
side facing the door is a carving similar to that on the font at
Venzone--a naked youth astride of a sea-monster, said to typify the
control of the bodily appetites by the reason. The other sides are much
damaged.

The other important church is that of S. Francesco, which has a good
early Renaissance doorway and a cloister, some seventeenth-century
carved chairs, several Venetian pictures, and an early altar-piece. On
the façade a curious inscription is set in the wall, which states that
the church was dedicated on S. Mark's Eve, 1344, and that seven altars
were then consecrated by seven bishops--nine being mentioned,
however--Justinoplensis (Capodistria), Enonensis (Cittanova),
Parentinus, Polensis, Petenesinus (Pisino), Capiolensis, Evelinensis
(Buie), Domatensis, Soaralensis. The lion of the church is, however, the
fine Carpaccio in the chapel to the left at the bottom of the nave,
dated 1518, and signed "Victoris Charpatii Veneti opus," considered by
some his best work. It represents the Virgin seated, and holding the
Child to her breast. He has two cherries in His left hand; to His right
are three saints --S. Francis with a cross, S. George, and S. Louis of
Toulouse; to the left, S. Anthony, Santa Chiara, and S. Louis of France.
At the feet of the Virgin are two angels with lute and violin on each
side of a pot of lilies; a pillared hall, with a view of Pirano in the
distance, forms the background. The chapel has pilasters with very
beautiful arabesques. The design of the architecture and of the picture
agrees perfectly, and it is evident that it was intended that the
painted architecture should continue the effect of perspective, which
commences with the reality of carved and built-up marble.

In the office of the salt-works is a picture by Carpaccio's son
Benedetto, signed and dated 1541, which came from S. Lucia di Val di
Fasano. It shows the Virgin seated with the Child in a little shirt, in
the act of blessing. On the left is S. Lucy, on the right S. George
standing, with their heads on the same level as the Virgin, and
therefore on a smaller scale. The throne has a very shallow step. The
figure of S. George is a repetition of that by Benedetto's father in S.
Francesco.

In the Piazza Tartini, near a fourteenth-century house of Venetian
Gothic, once the palace of the family of del Bello, is a modern statue
of Tartini the violinist (1692-1770), who here commenced the study of
music, which led him to extraordinary executive triumphs and the
production of the celebrated "Trillo del diavolo."

Outside the walls, on the road to Porto Rose, are the ruins of the
monastery of S. Bernardino, founded in 1450 by S. Giovanni da
Capistrano, to whom the ruined convent on the island opposite Rovigno is
also due. It once possessed a Vivarini, a Madonna with a sleeping Child,
which was sent to Vienna in 1803. In the church of S. George is a
fragment of a carved stall with a figure of the saint, which should be
mentioned.

The town of Salvore seems to have been under the jurisdiction of Pirano,
and the commune held a fair there on S. John the Baptist's Day, to
celebrate the naval battle in 1177, in which Frederick Barbarossa was
conquered in the deep bay between it and Pirano. The jousts, boat-races,
and hunts which were held then and on the feasts of Pentecost and S.
Orligo were so sumptuous that the _provveditore_ limited the
expenditure.

The last boat for Trieste left Pirano at 1.30 p.m., an hour so
ridiculously early, that we determined to walk to Isola and proceed
thence by train. We started off bravely up the steep road which led to
the fifteenth-century Porta di Raspo, obtaining fine views down the
alleys and through garden doors as we ascended the hill. High above our
heads the battlements towered, and as we approached the walls we
realised what a business it must have been to attack a town so protected
before the invention of gunpowder. Soon the road bent away to the right,
which was not the direction in which we wished to go, but a path led to
some brick-works, and there we found an idle workman, who advised us to
go along the shore as being much shorter. So we plunged and slid about
among rocks of a considerable size, and skirted the base of slippery
cliffs, and ploughed through sand and shingle for some miles, rejoicing
when we met the road again in a flat piece of land where there were
salt-pans. From this point it made a long sweep inland and then rose in
wide curves up the shoulder of a hill which divided us from Isola. Here
we saw a train draw up to take on board two gentlemen and a little boy;
there was no sign of station or halting-place, and we wondered whether
all that was necessary was to stand by the line and wave one's hand to
the driver in order to be taken up! A stony path led us to the
summit--another short cut, which happily called for less exertion than
our previous jaunt along the shore--and a charming view amply repaid us
for our labours. In the foreground the stony path dropped between steep
banks, the soil being occupied by vines and olives, with a little shrine
perched on one of the banks. In the middle distance Isola lay like a
jewel upon the sea, opalescent with delicate blue shadows and the
indescribable tints of grey stone buildings at a distance in sunlight;
with the campanile crowning the slight elevation of the clustered
houses. Beyond were the horns of the Bay of Capodistria and the
highlands of the Julian Alps, blue in the shadow of the declining sun. A
few lighter houses scattered along the peninsula served to soften the
transition from the grey town to the green country.

The town is at least as old as the beginning of the eleventh century,
for in 1041 it was ceded to the monastery of Aquileia; at this time it
was probably unwalled, for in 1165 the Abbess Valperta allowed the
inhabitants to remove to Monte Albuciano and build fresh houses there,
as they did not feel secure. After the dedition to Venice in 1280 it was
strengthened; but that did not prevent a body of the patriarch's troops
scaling the walls and taking it on August 25, 1379, to be driven out a
few days after by the podestàs of Capodistria, Pirano, and Umago. Since
1411 it has been joined to the Capodistria road by a bridge, and no one
would now suppose that it was originally--as its name denotes--an
island. Nine square towers defended the walls, and the principal gate
was protected by a barbican. The ditch was so useful to the people in
peaceful times that the commune threatened with severe penalties those
who went by night to deposit in it the refuse of their houses and
stables. No trace of these works now remains.

The _Colleggiata_ is a late Renaissance building, but contains some
interesting things, including a picture by Girolamo Santa Croce of the
Madonna enthroned, with SS. Nicholas and Joseph, and a child angel with
a violin on the plinth, signed and dated 1537, but restored. The
treasury contains a fine monstrance of silver, Gothic in design, with
bands of pierced work and tabernacles at the sides on twisted columns.
It has a spire-like top with windows and pinnacles between round its
base, a feature which is repeated on the knop. In the seventeenth
century several figures were added or replaced and the stem repaired.
The Scuola dei Battuti, built in 1451, has a door with a frescoed
tympanum beneath a pointed arch on brackets, a good deal
weather-worn--Madonna sheltering the penitents beneath her cloak--and
pretty arabesque scrolls on the soffit.

Isola is delightful from outside; but inside there is much dirt, and
little food for the traveller. All that we could obtain was bread and
rough red wine. While waiting for the train, as the sun set and twilight
fell, we saw many of the _contadini_ returning from their work, most of
them on donkeys or ponies--a father with a little son before or behind
him, a man in a black cloak with panniers laden with branches of trees,
which hid the saddle, and, in the semi-obscurity, made them look like
some monstrous beast of strange form, another perched upon a great
bundle of hay or grass, and so on, all passing rapidly from the malaria
of the fields to the safety of the malodorous town.

It reminded one of the return of the townspeople within the walls at
nightfall necessitated by the mediæval custom of closing the gates an
hour after "Ave Maria," after which none could enter or leave the
cities; and how the lamps of the shrines were the only illumination of
the streets, about which none were allowed to go without carrying a
light.

In the train we had as fellow traveller an engineer who spoke English
well. He said that all over Istria nothing could be obtained to eat
(except, of course, in the more important towns). He had been
constructing a new line near Divača, where nothing was obtainable, and
he and his companions had been obliged to take a cook and all supplies
with them. He appeared to have a very bad opinion of the Triestines,
whom he characterised as drunken swine, which we had not observed
ourselves. He said that beer was too dear for the majority, so they got
drunk on black wine and brandy--a statement which sounded strange to our
English ears. The smaller boats, being for the use of the country
people, are very inconvenient for tourists, since they generally start
so as to arrive at Trieste early in the day, thus allowing of return the
same night with the purchases made. Baedeker advises an excursion to
Muggia and on to Capodistria and Isola and Pirano, "returning by boat in
the evening"; but the last boat from Pirano leaves at 1.30 p.m., and the
last one from Capodistria at 4.0 (by which, by-the-bye, we paid twice as
much as we paid for the same journey in the morning), and after that the
traveller is dependent upon the little railway, which lands him in
Trieste after 10.0 p.m., at the S. Andrea Station, rather late to obtain
a meal.




VIII

UMAGO TO PARENZO


The next place along the coast, after passing the Promontory of Salvore
and turning south, is Umago. It is sheltered behind a shoal, upon which
the Chronicles say that the ship laden with the relics of S. Mark struck
during a storm on its way to Venice. It was given as a feud to the
bishop of Trieste in 929, at Pavia, by Ugo of Provence, king of Italy,
and to the bishop of Cittanova in 1029 or 1038 by the Emperor Conrad. It
had been sacked by the Slavs of Croatia and Dalmatia in 876, at the same
time with Cittanova, Rovigno, and Sipar (at which last place very early
wall-paintings are said to exist). It swore fealty to Venice in 1269;
but very little is known of its history, the English apparently having
burnt the archives in the piazza early in the nineteenth century. At
that period no one seems to have thought that such things could be of
any value; indeed at Portole, about 1850, the podestà actually sold all
the communal deeds to the grocer of the place, thinking them useless
rubbish, and at Cittanova the parchments were used by the citizens to
mend windows!

Cittanova lies at the mouth of the Quieto valley which, commencing at
Pinguente, passes Montona on its isolated hill (visible from the coast
like lofty Buie), and terminates in a marsh seven or eight miles long.
The mouth is known as Porto Torre, from a little place on the Parenzo
side of the river. The city was a Roman colony with the name Æmonia,
and the seat of an early Istrian bishop. A few years ago some seventy
carved slabs of the eighth or ninth century were discovered face
downwards in the pavement of the crypt of the basilica, which appear to
have belonged to the font and choir enclosure. Among them are several
archivolt pieces, very much like those of the font of Calixtus at
Cividale, which show by a mutilated inscription that they were due to
Bishop Maurizio, apparently a bishop suspected of being on the side of
the Franks, and therefore blinded by the Byzantines in 781. The slabs
are all of Istrian stone, except one, which is of marble, and the
carvings therefore may possibly to some extent be of local workmanship,
though we know that Comacines from Cividale were employed in Croatia.
They have the characteristic Lombard furrows and interweavings, and
other details met with in different parts of Italy. There are no
mouldings, but a slight bead and reel along the interior edge of the
arches. One slab shows two birds drinking from a vase in the upper part,
and, below, two others apparently going to divide a fish--at each side
vine scrolls springing from vases; another is carved with figures of
griffins. There are two window-slabs with pierced patterns: one has
simple rhomboidal forms; the other a central stem, with curling branches
terminating in trefoils of much more advanced type, suggesting the
panels in the later tomb of the Dogaressa Michieli in the atrium of S.
Mark's, Venice. The basilica was restored in 1409-1414, and in the
sixteenth century, with the assistance of Venice, at which time the
baldacchino was destroyed. The church stands on the edge of the land,
and has a small round-arched arcade on the façade divided by the
doorway, which is covered with a pointed hood on brackets. In the gable
is an oculus. The campanile resembles S. Mark's, Venice, as is usual.
Within, a Venetian Madonna and Child is preserved, Mantegnesque in
style, and therefore ascribed to Mantegna or John Bellini. In the
eighteenth century a picture by the latter was sent to Venice to be
restored, and, if this is the picture, the restoration was very
thorough. The baptistery, destroyed in 1780, had a vestibule like that
at Concordia. It was octagonal, with four little round-headed windows,
and the hexagonal font was built up from the floor, the rim being level
with the top-most of the three steps which surrounded the building.
Three steps also descended into it.

The city swore fealty to Venice in 1270. It still retains a portion of
its ancient battlemented walls, which have a curious feature--a
projecting spur, which runs out into the sea a long way, and was
probably intended to make the sea-front secure at low water. The commune
was very zealous in its preparations for war, and, according to the
statute, a citizen who wounded or killed a spectator during military
evolutions or practice was able to secure immunity from punishment!

In 1466 the see was divided from the patriarchate of Venice by Paul II.,
Francesco Contarini being made bishop, and was enriched by the gift of
the property of the suppressed bishopric of Equilium. Fifty years before
leave was granted to the then bishop to sell wine grown in his vineyards
outside the territory.




IX

PARENZO


The next town along the coast, Parenzo, is celebrated for its fine
sixth-century cathedral, the pride of the whole of Istria "the land of
basilicas," and is the headquarters of the Istrian Archæological
Society, several of whose members have devoted much time and money to
the elucidation of the history, construction, and decoration of the
building.

The excavations undertaken by the late Monsignore P. Deperis, Parroco
Decano, showed that there have been four main epochs of construction, as
well as restorations and embellishments: (1) Roman, or Early Christian,
(2) Byzantine, (3) Gothic, and (4) Modern. There was a primitive
Christian basilica to the north of the present one; and Euphrasius, in
the sixth century, built his church upon the foundations of a second,
which had succeeded it. The site of the first was used as a cemetery
till the end of the eighteenth century, and was then made into the
garden of the bishop's palace. It was oblong in shape, like the most
ancient Christian churches, and had no apse, being 75 ft. 6 in. long and
55 ft. 9 in. wide. It had one main door of entrance, and the altar was
at the eastern end of the northern portion. The pavement is 5 ft. 9 in.
below the level of the basilica of Euphrasius. In the south wall of the
portion first discovered (one half of the total area) a door, the cill
of which is still preserved, led to an oratory. On the mosaic pavement
is this inscription in black letters on a white ground:

         [Lu]PICINVS
        [et Pa]SCASIA
  [cum r]EVERENTIA PA[mula]
   FE[cerunt pedes] C[entum].

The remains of this pavement are good in design and execution, and the
colours are well distributed. The nave was surrounded by a broad white
band, within which was another still broader, sown with starred crosses.
The panels with subjects were also surrounded by a similar band. In the
first panel from the door is a crown formed of a triple row of leaves
within a double circle; the outer one has an octagon formed of meanders,
and the inner a circular treatment of the same kind. Outside are lilies
and other flowers within geometrical forms, and the whole is bordered
with interlaced lines. In the small circle is a portion of an
inscription, the right part of which has been destroyed by a tomb:

     INFAN[tius]
   ET INNOC[entia]
  EX SVO P[alatio]
   BASI[licam et]
    TES[sellati]
      P[edes].

The middle panel is square; within it is a handled _crater_ with a high
foot. Two branches spring from it, which are bursting into flowers and
leaves; they fill the whole space with their convolutions. At the top is
an inscription:

[Lu]PICINVS ET PASCASIA P[edes] CCCC F[ecerunt]; and at the bottom
another:

  CLAMOSVS MAG PVER ET SVCCESSA P[edes] C[entum]
  FELICISSIMVS CVM SVIS P[edes] C[entum].

[Illustration: PLAN OF THE THREE BASILICAS, PARENZO]

This inscription is interesting as showing that there was a school
attached to the basilica before the fourth century. The third panel
surrounded the altar, the rectangle of which is marked by the sunken
places in the marble slab where the columns stood. A piece of marble of
the same size as the sinkings was found not far away. At the right is a
square of about 3 ft. 3 in., with a framing of white bands and triangles
of colour 10 in. broad, reducing the internal square to 19 in. In the
centre is a portion of a cross based on the swastika, and a fish. On the
left a cross, formed by the intersection of two oval rings, appears
above the fish. These symbolic crosses point to a very early date. The
doorstep of the oratory shows signs of considerable wear, and the mosaic
has been roughly repaired near the word PICINVS. The fishes are
apparently insertions, later in date than the original mosaic (which has
the structural characteristics of the second century). This suggests
that the first basilica may have been a portion of the house of a
Christian of position, of which examples occur in Rome. It was probably
burnt when Diocletian ordered the destruction of all Christian churches
in 303 A.D., since charcoal was found amongst the masonry. The pavement,
much broken up by tombs and by the old cistern constructed in the
garden, extended under the north aisle of the present building; and the
site of the altar is shown by lifting a trap-door in the chapel in the
north arm of the cross, for the present basilica was made cruciform in
plan in 1846-1847, by the erection of two chapels. The mosaics found in
the garden have been completely excavated; they are covered over with
glazed outhouses, and can be easily seen. Later excavations made in 1900
have proved that this first basilica had two equal naves, and remains of
a marble chancel recalled the phrase in the S. Maurus inscription found
beneath the high-altar in 1846: "ideo in honorem duplicatus est locus."

The second basilica was probably Constantinian. The present one
coincides with it, except that the apse is polygonal and projects
towards the east, and that the lines of the walls bend a little to the
left from a line drawn across between the modern chapels. The floor of
this basilica is about 2 ft. 9 in. below that of the present one. The
mosaic pavement is well preserved nearly all over the surface; and the
sacristan opens numerous trap-doors, and puts down tapers, to show the
most interesting portions. The cills of two of the doors still remain 9
in. higher and much worn by traffic; the third was destroyed to place a
sarcophagus against the wall of the church. Between the two pavement
levels several unfinished caps and columns of limestone were found, and
also two pedestals and one base among the foundations of the present
nave arcade.

Beneath the presbytery is a choir and presbytery of the form used in the
most ancient Constantinian basilicas. A sloping platform led up to the
step upon which the bishop's seat stood at the centre of the semicircle,
flanked by seats on each side for presbyters, the places being marked by
red lines painted upon the fine plaster which covers the low wall,
rising about 8 in. above the floor, itself 2 ft. 3½ in. above the level
of that of the nave. The diameter of the semicircle is about 18 ft., and
it is floored with mosaic. Outside runs a white band 6 in. wide, within
which is a band of ornament with two black lines at each side; one of
them dentilled. This feature is 20 in. wide, with a waving stem with
volutes and leaves of ivy occupying the central 12 in., black and grey
on white. In the centre of all are other black leaves and scrolls in
red, damaged by a mediæval tomb. Three steps led down to the choir, for
the singers, sub-deacons, and deacons. It has a plaster floor of a
porphyry purple colour, and reaches as far as the third column of the
present nave, counting from the east. It was afterwards extended on a
lower level, reached by steps on each side, one of which is still in
place. The mosaic pavement of this lower nave continues as far as a line
which cuts across the central apse, appearing outside the ends of the
aisles, as well as outside the semicircle of the presbytery just
described, as at S. Maria, Grado. The presbytery wall is rough masonry,
as if it had been external, and there are no signs of its having been
decorated in any way; but the oblong plan with the apse some way within
is found also at Salona, and in Syria and North Africa. Traces of a wall
parallel to that of the north aisle, and beyond it, suggest the
existence of rooms to the north.

An excavation in front of the door of the sacristy discovered a square
mosaic on this level with inscription--

  THEOFRASTVS [et]
   IANVARIVS DIAC
   FEC · P · CCC

--which commenced beneath the chord of the existing apse and terminated
in a line with the end of the wall of the earlier presbytery. West of
it, and separated by a smooth and even division, as if a wall or screen
had been there, mosaics previously discovered stretched to the west
door. On the south side a similar division of the mosaic was found, a
bit of a colonnette and a few fragments as of a balustrade or
_cancellum_. The spaces thus marked off were probably _prothesis_ and
_diaconicon_, the latter being to the left, where the two deacons gave
the pavement. In the left aisle were five different designs given by as
many donors. The right aisle was simpler. In the nave an inscription was
found mentioning the Clamosus who was named on the earlier pavement, but
in conjunction with Victorina, either his daughter or a second wife.
This proves that no great time intervened between the erection of the
second and the regular use of the first basilica. The inscription found
beneath the high-altar, already referred to, mentions two churches, and
states that the first was repaired by the prayers of S. Maurus, and that
his body was transferred to that place; and calls him bishop and
confessor. Till 1354 his relics remained there, when the Genoese
admiral, Pagano Doria, took them to Genoa as booty when he had sacked
the city, placing them in the abbey church belonging to his family. The
Marquis Doria soon returned them. In mediæval documents the district of
the city of Parenzo is called "territorio, terra di S. Mauro."

[Illustration: MARBLE CAPITAL OF THE SIXTH CENTURY, PARENZO

_To face page 113_]

The present cathedral was erected by Euphrasius between 531 and 542.
This is proved by his mosaic inscription, which states that "in the
eleventh year of his episcopate" (543) he had endowed it; for the
endowment would naturally come after the building. He found the second
basilica likely to fall, with the roof only kept up by chains. The
columns are of Greek cipollino, like those at S. Vitale, Spirito Santo,
S. Francesco, SS. Apollinare Nuovo and in Classe, Ravenna, and in S.
Maria, Pomposa, and were worked by the same workmen in the Proconesos
workshops: for on columns at S. Vitale and Parenzo, and also at Pomposa,
are found the same mason's marks, monograms uniting the letters ΠΤΕ for
Petrus and Ιω for Joannes. The bases are Attic, as at Ravenna and SS.
Sergius and Bacchus, Constantinople; and, of the eighteen caps in the
nave, six are exactly similar to those of the lower arcade of S. Vitale,
several are like others at Grado, two are like a damaged one at Pomposa,
and others are much like some at Otranto and Rome. At Venice, too,
capitals of the same types occur in considerable number. The super-abaci
are of Greek marble, with a circular plaque bearing the monogram of
Euphrasius. On the north the soffits of the arches retain the original
stucco ornaments, all different; on the south they have disappeared.

The mosaics in the apse closely resemble those of the Arian baptistery
at Ravenna in style. The figure of S. Maurus might almost have been
worked from the cartoon of one of the Apostles there. In the centre of
the semi-dome is a figure of the Virgin with the Infant Saviour, clothed
in white and gold. Above, a hand holding a crown emerges from clouds. On
each side are an angel and three large figures; on the left are
Archbishop Claudius, Euphrasius the bishop, with a small figure of his
son, and S. Maurus, holding a jewelled urn; Euphrasius holds his church.
The three figures on the other side are unnamed; one bears a book, and
the other two crowns. The ground is gold, and below, at the springing of
the dome, is the long dedicatory inscription in gold letters on a blue
ground. On the wall below are mosaics between the windows. An angel
occupies the central pier, and on the piers on either side is a saint,
probably SS. Maurus and John the Baptist. On the wide wall spaces beyond
the windows are the Annunciation on the north, and the Salutation on the
south. The soffit of the triumphal arch has medallions of female saints
within wreaths, and at the summit an Agnus Dei. The lower part of the
wall is separated from the mosaics by an ornamental plaster moulding,
and is decorated with a remarkably fine series of panels in _opus
sectile_, eight designs in couples answering to each other on either
side, with a single design above the bishop's seat in the centre, on
which the monogram of Euphrasius again occurs. The colours and materials
used are green and red porphyry, two blues, a green vitreous paste, a
dull-red marble, and a bluish-green marble which has perished a good
deal and is now preserved under glass plates cut to fit the shapes,
occasional spots of a beautiful orange colour, like a marble used in
inlays at S. Vitale, a very dark blue, almost black, a pale
yellow-green, and a pale purple like chocolate powder. The white is
generally mother-of-pearl, or marble, veined with a pale grey, and a
good deal of Oriental alabaster is used. The panel above the simple
bishop's throne has a hill, with a golden cross on a green ground
diapered with mother-of-pearl, and with tall panels at the sides with
the seven golden candlesticks. On a lower level than the throne a marble
seat runs round the apse, terminated by two slabs carved with dolphins.

[Illustration: OPUS SECTILE IN THE APSE, CATHEDRAL, PARENZO

_To face page 114_]

The architect, Signor Tommaso Natale, discovered a mosaic above the
triumphal arch a few years ago, which had been hidden by the late
Renaissance "improvements." It consisted of a long strip of gold, on
which the Apostles stood, clothed in white robes gemmed with crosses,
six on each side of a central figure of Christ, robed in purple and
seated on the globe. He has a cruciferous nimbus, and is blessing with
the right hand, whilst with the left He holds an open book inscribed
"EGO SVM LVX VERA." On the right are S. Peter with the keys, S. Andrew
with a book, S. James with a crown, SS. Bartholomew and Thomas with
books, and S. Simon with a crown; on the left S. Paul with two scrolls,
S. John with a crown, SS. Philip and Matthew with books, S. James
Alpheus with a crown, and S. Jude with a book. The names are inscribed
above the figures, and a band of dark red with golden gems surrounds the
whole. The heads of Christ and SS. Bartholomew and Matthew were damaged
by brackets belonging to the roof. The whole of these mosaics have been
restored by a Roman mosaicist, Signor Bornia.

The altar of Euphrasius was retained till the time of Bishop Folcherius
(1208-1220), who substituted a larger one to contain more relics. A few
years after, Bishop Adalpert raised the level of the choir about eight
inches, and the altar to correspond, reconsecrating it May 8, 1233. The
present ciborium was put up in 1277 by Bishop Otho, using the old
columns and caps. It has slightly pointed arches, with Venetian dentil
borderings, and mosaics in the spandrils. On the west side is the
Annunciation, and on the other three sides heads of saints in circles;
the vault is also covered with mosaic. A long inscription in Lombardic
letters gives the date and the name of the donor.

The pala was made in 1452, and cost 600 ducats of gold, half of which
the commune contributed by selling useless church objects, while half
was paid by Bishop Giovanni, a Parentine by birth. It is a fine work in
the style of the early Renaissance, with a Virgin and Child in the
centre, S. Mark to the right, and S. Peter to the left, and outside of
them a bishop with an elaborate crozier, and a deacon holding a model of
the town--SS. Maurus and Eleutherius. The figures are within classical
niches, the sides of which vanish in perspective towards the central
point. Along the cornice runs a series of small medallions with busts of
the Apostles. In the chapel of the Sacrament are some stalls to which
the same date (1452) is given. They are quite Gothic as to the ornament
and structure, and even the figures present considerable contrast with
those of the pala. There are five seats with backs, canopy, and ends at
each side of the altar. At each end are well-executed figures among
foliage scrolls, which are out of scale--on one side, a Virgin and Child
and a bishop; on the other, two saints, one of whom is an ecclesiastic.
The uprights between the seats are faced with twisted colonnettes, and
the backs have a quatrefoil pattern made by cutting the bars of a
rectangular framing ornamentally.

[Illustration: HIGH-ALTAR, PARENZO, FROM THE SOUTH AISLE

_To face page 116_]

[Illustration: GREEK BENEDICTIONAL CROSS, PARENZO]

In the sacristy is a picture by Antonio da Murano in the original frame.
Both frame and picture are in a bad state, the gesso having scaled off
in places. In the centre is the Madonna and Child, flanked by two
full-length saints on each side, SS. Francis and Nicholas, S. Simeon,
and another male saint; above the Virgin is a half-length of the dead
Christ; and, above the other saints, half-lengths of SS. Mary Magdalene
and Christopher, Catherine and Anthony. It is signed "Antonius de
Muriano, 1448." In the treasury is a Greek Benedictional cross, with
subjects carved in wood, and a silver-gilt enamelled case. There are
five subjects on each face, well carved and traditional in their design.
On one side is the Annunciation at the top; in the centre, the Baptism,
with angels assisting; at each end, an Evangelist seated; below, Christ
as Judge between two saints, and at His feet men in the abyss. On the
other side is the Presentation in the Temple at the top; in the centre,
the Crucifixion, with the thieves, the Virgin, and holy women. Two
Evangelists are seated in the arms, and below is either the
Resurrection, or the Harrowing of Hell. The case has jewels and pearls
inserted plentifully, and is decorated with floral enamelled ornament in
green, blue, and red enamel. It is made to take to pieces. The handle
bears the name of the maker, "Ezechiel, monk of the monastery of Laura."
It is ascribed to the thirteenth century, but is very like those at
Kloster Savina in the Bocche, which are seventeenth-century, the
character of the floral design agreeing well with that period.

In 1847 Bishop Peteani made considerable alterations, which included the
re-arrangement of the high-altar to face the east; and at that time the
relics of SS. Julian and Demetrius were found in a square chest of white
marble inscribed with the date of consecration and the name of the
maker, Adalpert. The ambo in the right aisle, made up of columns and
carved slabs of the sixth century, is due to him, as are the chapels to
right and left of the nave. The present pavement was laid down in 1880,
when some inscriptions of the Euphrasian period were removed to the
baptistery. The triapsidal chapel, entered through an elliptical
ante-room, beyond the sacristy, was probably a relic chapel, and is of
the sixth century--a mosaic of that date was found here five feet below
the surface; but the vaulted passage by which it is approached is of the
thirteenth century, while the superstructure of the chapel is Venetian,
added to assist in the defence of the place from this side, for the sea
is quite close. To the east of the city towards Torre Nuova a Christian
cemetery was discovered in 1893 close to the road, consisting of
three little apsed buildings close together, a larger one with a small
one contiguous, with buildings belonging to the original villa which
occupied that site at the end of the first or beginning of the second
century. A coin of Vespasian was found at the time, and a ring with a
palm engraved on it. There are several tombs of the kind in Rome
belonging to the fourth century. The mosaics found in the fifth building
are now in the baptistery. It is believed that these buildings were
memorial chapels erected over the tombs of the Parentine martyrs, and
that the greater part of the materials was used in the erection of the
church of S. Eleutherius near, after the translation of the relics to
the cathedral.

[Illustration: THE ATRIUM AND WESTERN FAÇADE, CATHEDRAL, PARENZO

_To face page 119_]

The plan of the atrium of the cathedral is Roman, not Byzantine like
those at Grado, Ravenna, and Constantinople, which have a portico and
the baptistery at the side, separate from the basilica. In this case the
pavement of the atrium was seven or eight inches above that of the
narthex. Along the façade a herring-bone pattern pavement of white and
red tesseræ was found which continued farther to the north. The gable of
the church was decorated with mosaic; between the windows the seven
Apocalyptic candlesticks were represented, and there were figures at the
sides, all within a containing border. This has been restored. Above, in
the centre, the feet of a figure of Christ seated on the globe may be
traced, and folds of the draperies of figures at the sides. Scarcely any
of the tesseræ remain, but the lights of the drawing appear in relief. A
certain test of the age of the different parts of the building is
afforded by the quality of the mortar used. By this it is proved that
the eastern apse is due purely to Euphrasius, the foundations being set
in mortar of the kind used by him; and also that he kept the atrium
pretty much as it was, only adding the columns with Byzantine caps. The
baptistery on the other side also was very little altered. It had a
floor of stucco, and was circular internally; enough was found between
the campanile and the door from the piazza into the atrium to develop
the whole curve. Euphrasius made it octagonal, and surrounded the font
with marble slabs, the marks of which still remain; a few fragments were
found, together with some gilded and coloured tesseræ, showing that it
had mosaic enrichments. It is now used to store discarded portions of
the early buildings. Here is the Euphrasian altar, standing on a slab of
marble with sunk squares in the corners for the bases of the ciborium
columns, and enough panels and colonnettes to make a restoration of the
chancel of the choir, though it is equally likely that they belonged to
a baldacchino above the font, similar to that which still exists at
Cividale, and once existed at Pola and at Cittanova. Here are also two
caps from the fourth-century church, fragments of mosaic pavement found
in mediæval tombs, and a good many pieces of eighth and ninth-century
carving.

[Illustration: VIEW ACROSS THE NAVE, CATHEDRAL, PARENZO

_To face page 121_]

The survival of the Constantinian plan is explained by the slight
alterations made by Euphrasius. The walled-up doors in the baptistery
show that it was not an isolated building. They probably gave entrance
to dressing-rooms for the two sexes attached to it, waiting-rooms for
the baptized and their relations, &c.; and an arch of the fourth
century, near to which the herring-bone pavement runs, was probably the
entrance to a portico joining the basilica with the baptistery, or the
_consignatorium_, where the bishop anointed the neophytes directly after
baptism, before they made their solemn entry into the church. This
latter building still exists as the "cantina" of the bishop's palace--a
true basilica, with a nave almost square, and with a double-walled apse
on the north, and corridors east and west, approached on the south
side by a portico. In front was an oblong court. The walls are all of
Roman work, and the outer apse has an arcade on pilasters, with large
arched windows. A few years ago repairs to the roof led to the discovery
of windows in the inner apse. The work round the doors is Euphrasian.
The corridors were spanned by arches, which are now built up, and thus
make small rooms. There was a second story, which was the bishop's
palace; but the second floor of the west wing is mediæval, and it is
probable that the great hall was made at that period by dividing the
basilica horizontally on the level of the second story. After the custom
of anointing the newly baptized in the _consignatorium_ was abandoned,
it became the chapel of S. Nicolò, then of S. Mary Magdalene, and the
original use was quite forgotten. The campanile is of the fifteenth
century and uninteresting.

It was Easter Eve on the occasion of our first visit to Parenzo, and
while we were studying the architecture women were constantly bringing
their Easter cakes and other food to be blessed at the altar of S.
Maurus in the north aisle. Later there was a Resurrection service with a
fine procession, with many men and boys robed in scarlet carrying long
candles. A crucifer in purple bore the capitular cross, followed by
canons in violet and other officials, the bishop's coachman in a long
blue buttoned coat, two little acolytes in surplices, with cloths
embroidered with crosses on their shoulders and censers, deacons in
dalmatics of cloth of gold, a suffragan bishop in cope of cloth of gold
and a white mitre, and the bishop similarly robed. A large painted flag
of red silk was carried in the procession, and two small painted figures
of our Lord, one on the cross, and the other, a half-length, emergent
from the tomb. The bishop, fully robed, went first into the capitular
chapel and then to the chapel of the Holy Sacrament, where the dead
Christ was laid out in a tomb, took the Host and brought it out, being
then bareheaded beneath a canopy. The procession then filed out into the
atrium, leaving it by the bishop's door at the side of the baptistery,
and, passing through the street, regained the atrium by the usual
entrance. The Host was then placed on the high-altar, and a kind of
benediction service held, in which a fine bass sang several solos. The
church was thronged by a devout crowd of both sexes and all classes.

The city was called "Julia Parentium" under the Romans, from the colony
of legionaries sent by Augustus. The tribute to Rome was as much as that
paid by Pola, the capital of the province. There were temples to Mars
and Neptune, of which there are some remains, drums of a few of the
columns and a portion of the podium and steps, now used as the lower
courses of poor houses. The buildings were destroyed in the fifteenth
century, the materials being used to construct the quay. The main street
leading from this part of the town to the Porta a Terra may be the Via
Decumana of a Roman camp. The site of the amphitheatre is indicated by
the curved line of the houses built on its foundations, but there are no
remains of Roman work visible. Reliefs of the tenth century are
encrusted in the wall of a house on the site of the ancient church of S.
Peter; and the Casa dei Santi in the Via Predol, which probably occupies
part of the area of the convent and church of S. Cassiano, has two
figures on brackets between the windows of the first floor, apparently
late eleventh-century work. The Canonica, built in 1251, a fine piece of
Romanesque domestic architecture, has six two-light windows on the first
floor, and shell-headed niches round the door, with a cross and
inscriptions. It was burnt in 1488, and in the eighteenth century was
converted by the chapter into a store for the tithes of wine, corn,
oil, and fruit, but has been restored, together with the adjoining
entrance to the atrium. There are several Venetian palaces in the main
street. One, of the fourteenth century, is especially fine. It has big
cable string-courses and brackets of lions' heads and necks, and a large
and imposing window on the first floor.

There have been three enceintes: (_a_) Roman; (_b_) that completed about
1250 under Patriarch Warner of Gillach; (_c_) a third commenced in the
fifteenth century on the same lines, but a little larger. In the
eighteenth century the circuit of the walls was about a mile. There were
two principal gates--the Porta a Mare and the Porta a Terra--and two
posterns made for the convenience of the inhabitants. The city was
divided into four _Rioni_--Pusterla, Porta Nuova, Marafor, and Predol.
The existing square tower flanking the Porta a Terra was erected in 1447
under Nicolò Lion; he signs it with initials, and there is a coat of
arms beneath the panel of the lion of S. Mark. At the bottom of the
frame are the date and an inscription giving the name of the architect,
"Mag. Johannes de Pari Tergestinus," and of his son Lazarus, the
sculptor. His name occurs on the architrave of the rebuilt church of S.
John the Baptist of Volciana on the Carso, with the date 1429. The round
tower dates from after the incursion of the Turks into the Carso in
1470, built under Pietro da Mula, 1474. On the Porta della Campana the
length of the dagger which was allowed is marked, and the town still
preserves one of the "Bocche de' leoni" which were used for secret
denunciations. The communal palace was built in 1270, one year before
Parenzo gave herself to Venice. Games of cards and dice were allowed
under its portico and in the loggia, where the players were under the
eyes of the guards.

During the latter half of the thirteenth century Parenzo was in
constant contest with her bishop, resisting the financial demands of the
ecclesiastical authority with threats and violence. A podestà, at the
head of the people, broke into the cathedral, burst open the treasury,
and seized the precious objects. In 1270 Marco Michiel, in the name of
the commune, forbad the citizens to pay tithe, proclaimed liberty of
fishing and pasturage, and took possession of several of the church
properties, saying that they had returned to those to whom they properly
belonged. In 1278 Bishop Otho excommunicated them for refusing to pay
tithe, and because of a rising, in which the palace was invaded and all
the authentic privileges and documents thrown into the sea; but the
citizens were the stronger, and bishop and canons were driven away from
the city. In 1280 there was a delimitation of the land belonging to
church and commune. The next bishop, Boniface, renewed the episcopal
pretensions denying freehold to both commune and individual citizens.
The podestà, Jacopo Soranzo, the commune, and citizens were so enraged
that the bishop, in fear of his life, fled to Rovigno, and from thence
to Venice. The podestà lodged soldiers in his palace during the war; and
in 1284 Boniface fulminated a comprehensive excommunication from Venice
against podestà and city. Matters were arranged and he returned to
Parenzo, but only to renew his claims. In 1293 the podestà, Jacopo
Querini, was disputing with him over a feud at Cervera which he claimed,
though it had been in the possession of others for eighty years, and
both lost their tempers. The podestà turned to the bishop and said: "I
promise you that when my term of office is over I will do you all the
harm I can, both publicly and privately; and I pray God and His saints
to let me live long enough to see with my own eyes the prophecies
fulfilled of the destruction of the Church of Rome, for one may well
see that the time is near." On September 14, 1296, the podestà, Giovanni
Soranzo, attacked the bishop's palace at the head of the armed populace,
intending, as the bishop asserted, to kill him. The prelate took refuge
in the Franciscan convent, and escaped by ship to Pirano. Thence he went
again to Venice, and excommunicated the whole of his opponents. The
podestà threatened to cut off hand and foot from whoever published or
executed the ban; and Boniface ordered the _prepositum_ of Pisino to
send it to the clergy, which was done next year, but without the desired
effect. He acted in the same way with other podestàs, and was often
absent from his seat in consequence, thus incurring reproofs from the
patriarchs Raimondo and Pietro Gerra. The latter went so far as to
attack and destroy the castle of Orsera, where the bishop took refuge.

The people of Parenzo now are more concerned with developing their
commerce than with insisting upon their rights, and the quay presents a
busy scene when the wine-boats are lading. The casks are so large that
two are a load for a yoke of oxen. The cart has sloping sides, and a bed
of fresh-cut boughs and hay acts as springs. One of the sides of the
cart (of wicker or staves) is removed at the quay, and the casks are
rolled down an inclined plane. There were much excitement and some
danger as the lumbering weight was turned at right angles to its former
course, which was towards the water. The fishermen were busy too; they
catch spider-crabs with long spears ending in five prongs, at right
angles to the shaft, and forming a kind of cage, which the crabs find it
difficult to negotiate when they are raked out of the crannies of the
rocks. There was a semi-lunar implement in the boats also, with four
internal prongs, at the end of a long shaft, used for catching
cuttle-fish.

At the hotel in which we stayed on our first visit there was a
green-and-yellow parrot which was very tame. His accomplishments
included the saying "Marietta, padrona, and hello" quite clearly,
singing and laughing. Its mistress made it flirt with a highly coloured
young lady on a poster in a very diverting fashion. At Fiume we saw two
parrots of the same kind on perches outside a shop; and my friend,
recollecting the friendly bird at Parenzo, made overtures to them, which
were not received in the proper spirit, and I am sorry to say that his
finger was sore for days after.

There is record of a joust held at Parenzo as late as February 14, 1745.
There must have been diverting incidents on that occasion, since the
combatants contended with unfamiliar weapons which had been long out of
use!

Parenzo is poor in records of craftsmen, and its only artist of repute
is Bernardo of Parenzo, who was much employed in his day; pictures by
him are preserved in the Accademia at Venice, the Doria Gallery, Rome,
in the Louvre, and at Modena. He studied at Padua with Mantegna, under
Squarcione, and executed frescoes and chiaroscuro arabesques in the
cloister of S. Giustina in that city. When the Austrians converted the
convent to military uses the paintings were plastered over, and,
although again uncovered in 1895, they were found to be in a much
damaged condition. Bernardo died in 1531.




X

TO POLA BY SEA


From Parenzo Pola may be reached either by land or sea, the latter being
the more convenient way. The only place of importance passed is Rovigno,
though the Canal di Leme, an arm of the sea 7-½ miles long, from 70 to
100 ft. deep, and some 500 yds. broad, which affords accommodation for
much more shipping than ever makes use of it, leads up towards Due
Castelli, now ruinous, but at one time a thriving and important town. On
the way, near Orsera, the little island of "Scoglio Orlandino" is
passed, rocky and divided into two portions by a chasm or crack. Legend
says that Orlando, passing that way, made a slash at it and left it as
it now is.

Rovigno is thought to be the ancient Arupenum or Rubinum, but is first
mentioned by the anonymous Ravennese chronicler, and was probably
founded in the third or fourth century. In the walls of the principal
church are fragments of sixth-century work. There is a tradition that it
was founded when Cissa sank into the sea in the seventh century. The
site of this city was near the modern lighthouse, and remains of its
buildings are believed to be recognisable beneath the water at the point
called Barbariga, on the further side of the Bay of S. Pelagio. The
large beds of murex shells in certain places are an indication that
there were purple dye-works here, an industry for which Cissa was
celebrated. Rovigno is situated upon a rock, and was surrounded with
walls. Within their area the houses, as seen from the sea or from the
railway station behind the town, seem to be piled one over the other,
and culminate very picturesquely in the campanile at the top. Beyond the
railway station on the Bay of S. Pelagio are the Berlin aquarium for the
study of the marine fauna of the Adriatic, and a sanatorium for
scrofulous children, opened in 1888. The neighbourhood being
fever-stricken the peasants live in the city, going and returning to
their work morning and evening. Their Sunday costume consists of
ornamented leather shoes, tight white hose of wool, a broad-sleeved
white shirt with a frill in front, dark waistcoat, and flat black cap.
They have the curious custom of wearing one large earring in the left
ear. Rovigno is a good market for wine--considered the best in
Istria--olives, sardines, and hazel-nuts which are reputed the finest in
the world. Consequently, amongst the inhabitants are many merchants, and
the fishers' guild is very numerous; but the steep streets are narrow
and, in wet weather, noisome, and the children do not look as healthy as
in many other places. During our stay we saw two funerals in the
_Colleggiata_ within a few hours, both attended by a red-robed
confraternity which included boys and men. The spectacle in the
darkening nave (for it was late afternoon) of the two rows of red-robed
figures holding lighted tapers, with two or three ensigns or symbols in
the background, was impressive, but marred by atrocious singing. The
officiating priest was a fine man; and, as the cortège departed to the
cemetery just below the church on the seaward side, there was an
impression of solemnity which is often lacking in English funerals. A
few late Venetian palaces, with fine loggias at the top to catch the
sea-breezes, show above the other houses, and the arch between the
fish-market and the Piazza S. Damiano, erected in 1680 under Daniele
Balbi, still stands, with the Venetian lion holding a book proudly
inscribed: "Victoria tibi Marce Evangelista meus"; but the walls have
entirely disappeared, with the exception of one ruinous tower, the
"Torre del Boraso," which has been in that state since the sixteenth
century. At the beginning of the fourteenth century it belonged to the
bishop of Pola; the Colleggio dei Cinque Savi acquired it in 1332, and
ordered its occupation by the captain of the Pasenatico and the podestà
of Rovigno, asking whether it was best to preserve or destroy it, the
former course being determined on.

A curious heptagonal building, the Oratory of the Trinity, which stands
some distance outside the ancient walls, appears to be rather early in
date. It has a polygonal drum rising from the roof of the lower portion,
and two curious little pierced and carved windows about three feet high;
one of them is too much broken to make out the design. The other has a
crucifix with half-length figures, and consecration cross among the
piercings, very roughly cut. The head is slightly pointed. The
_Colleggiata_ has been rebuilt in late Renaissance style; and the
campanile, crowned by a figure of S. Eufemia, the patron saint of the
town, is a copy of that of S. Mark's, Venice. The chapel to the right of
the high-altar contains the shrine of the saint, a large unfinished
sarcophagus of Greek marble. It has two arches on the side with figures
scarcely begun, and an octagonal tablet with curved sides in the middle.
The legend is that the body of the saint floated over the waves in the
great sarcophagus, and was driven by a storm into a little inlet called
the "Armo di S. Eufemia," a short way from the pier, where a square
pillar with an inscription of 1720 and the communal arms marks the place
where it grounded. Some fishers who went out at dawn were attracted by
the miraculous light which shone around it. Several days passed before
the heavy sarcophagus could be moved. A certain pious widow, with the
suggestive name of "Astuta," had a dream, as a consequence of which a
pair of bullocks was yoked to it by her little son, and so it went up
the hill to the summit at such a rate as to run over one of the
bystanders, who was nearly killed, and fainted. When he revived he
revealed the name of the saint, and her bones were found within the
sarcophagus together with the history of her martyrdom. From that time
the hill has had the name of S. Eufemia. The relics were taken by the
Genoese in 1380 and carried to Chioggia. The Venetians rescued them,
but carried them to S. Canciano, Venice, where they stayed for thirty
years. On their return to Rovigno in 1410 a storm drove the ship to the
salt-works in the Canal di Leme, where certain cattle-boats were
sheltering. The cattle jumped into the water and danced round the ship!
So, at least, a manuscript in the capitular archives relates. Scenes
from this legend are painted on the walls of the chapel. In the sacristy
is a fourteenth or fifteenth-century picture on a gold ground--a figure
of S. John the Baptist, with incidents from his life. It came from a
church dedicated to him which was destroyed in 1839.

[Illustration: SARCOPHAGUS OF S. EUFEMIA, ROVIGNO]

Rovigno and the neighbourhood have suffered much from piracy. In 965 the
Slavs sacked the city. Into the harbour the Uscocs entered one night at
the beginning of 1597, and sacked a galley and ten ships laden with rich
merchandise belonging to Venice. In the port of Vestre (the birthplace
of Maximian of Ravenna), about three miles from Rovigno, an Uscoc ship,
with 150 men, attacked a ship of Cattaro which carried letters from the
doge of Venice, 6,000 ducats of public money and 4,000 of private, with
valuable merchandise. They took everything and also stripped the other
Venetian ships in the harbour, leaving the sailors nothing but their
shirts!

The Canal of Fasana, between the Brioni Islands and the mainland, a
little to the south, was the scene of the crushing defeat of the
Venetians by the Genoese in 1379. The quarries in these islands,
together with those of Rovigno, provided stone for the ducal and other
palaces, the Procuratie at Venice, the _murazzi_ at Chioggia, and the
mole at Malamocco. It is but a short distance hence to the entrance to
the magnificent harbour of Pola.

Craftsmen of Rovigno have made the name of the town celebrated, such as
the sculptors Lorenzo and Antonio del Vescovo, who worked in 1468 at
the Camaldulan church of Murano, and Taddeo da Rovigno, who did much
decorative carving in Venetian palaces. A more distinguished man was Fra
Sebastiano da Rovigno, the lame Slavonian (il Zoppo Schiavone), the
teacher of the still more celebrated _intarsiatore_, Fra Damiano of
Bergamo. Some of his works are in the choir and sacristy of S. Mark's,
Venice. The name of Donato of Parenzo is also coupled with these
Rovignese craftsmen.

[Illustration: AN ISTRIAN FARM-HOUSE

_To face page 133_]




XI

TO POLA BY LAND


One Easter Sunday we drove in lovely weather from Parenzo to S. Lorenzo
in Pasenatico, and on to Canfanaro. By the road we passed every now and
then farmers' houses, such as the one illustrated, and met groups of
peasants going into Parenzo to the _festa_. As we got further from the
city the men were collected in groups, talking, smoking, or playing
bowls; whilst the women also by themselves, in knots of as many as
twenty, were seated together enjoying a gossip. The landscape was
pleasant, but rather featureless, except for the bulk of Monte Maggiore
blue to the south-east. We reached S. Lorenzo at the moment of the
elevation of the Host, and found the ancient basilica crowded with
worshippers, while several men knelt with rosary in clasped hands
outside the open doors, their eyes fixed intently upon the altar. After
a time the congregation poured out, dressed in most picturesque
costumes, and evidently found our appearance quite as interesting and
strange as we found theirs. The men had one big earring (as at Rovigno),
and wore white shirts with full sleeves, sometimes embroidered, hose of
woven wool, a jacket hung loosely over the shoulders, and a little black
cap on the head. The women had full skirts of beautiful tertiary
colours, rows of coral round their necks, and large silver-gilt
brooches, and rosette ornaments on their breasts with chains attached.
On their heads, tied round the base of the skull, they had white
handkerchiefs, sometimes with ornamented borders. Over the bodice a kind
of loose waistcoat was worn.

The church is a basilica with nave and aisles, all terminated by
semicircular apses, with an arcade of nine arches of unequal width,
owing perhaps partly to the obliquity of the west wall, itself caused by
the close proximity of the palace of the Count, which was still in
existence till 1833. The three easternmost bays are enclosed as
presbytery, and this and other alterations are the work of the
seventeenth century; but two of the original pierced window-slabs are
still in position in the side apses, traces of the small clerestory
windows are visible, and in a wall to the left of the façade are
encrusted several fragments of carving which apparently formed part of
the original chancel of the ninth or early tenth century. The style of
the caps of the nave arcade, the irregularity in their size, and in that
of the plain super-abaci above them, also point to the same period. The
apses have shallow arcading outside; the campanile is an addition built
on to the tower of one of the town gates, the exterior arch of which is
stopped; about the height of the nave cornice two great brackets
project. Another of the wall-towers near at hand still retains the
staircase by which it was ascended. Along the south wall of the church
runs a loggia supported on slender columns, and in the piazza in front
is the base of the flagstaff which once supported the standard of S.
Mark. A gateway with a very pointed arch at the bottom of this piazza
forms the entrance to the town. The walls are all of the early Venetian
period, and a well-head ordered to be carved in 1331 by Giovanni
Contarini has a rampant winged lion half-length, crowned and nimbed, and
with a closed book.

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE BASILICA, SAN LORENZO IN PASENATICO

_To face page 134_]

The city swore fealty to Venice in 1271, and became in 1304 the seat of
the captain of the Pasenatico, an officer who had charge of the
fortresses and town walls throughout Istria, and the duty of enlisting
foot soldiers, sailors, and oarsmen. Marco Soranzo was the first
captain. Fifty-two years after his time a second captaincy was created
in Umago, afterwards transferred to Grisignana. At some time between
1312 and 1328 Marino Faliero was governor here. In 1394 the captaincy
was removed to Raspo, and subsequently to Pinguente. In 1595 it was
given to the podestà and captain of Capodistria, except as regarded
Pirano.

The church is said to contain the bodies of SS. Victor and Corona, taken
from Due Castelli during the war of Chioggia. The "Chronicle" relates
that a Genoese squadron was in the Canal di Leme, and the people of S.
Lorenzo sent a deputation suggesting co-operation in an attack on Due
Castelli, between which town and itself there were rivalry and hatred.
The enterprise was successful, and Due Castelli was sacked and burnt.
Tommasini records that the marks of fire were visible in his time. The
bodies of the saints were carried off as spoil; but it seems probable
that it was a Venetian and not a Genoese fleet which co-operated with
the men of S. Lorenzo, since Due Castelli belonged to the patriarch, who
was allied to the Genoese.

The road from S. Lorenzo to Canfanaro crosses the Draga valley (which is
600 or 700 ft. deep) by long zigzags, from which the ruins of Due
Castelli are seen towards the west. They can be visited from Canfanaro.
Where the valley narrows upon two projecting spurs, nearly opposite to
each other, were Monte Castello, or Moncastello, and Castello Parentino,
given to the church of Parenzo by Otho II., but entirely destroyed long
ago. These were the "Due Castelli" (two castles). The sea is five
kilometres away. The walls and towers (which were built about 1616 by
the _provveditore_, Marco Loredan) from a distance appear well
preserved, but the only buildings remaining within are two churches and
the castle.

The double girdle of walls of the castle, with well-preserved
battlemented towers, is the principal factor in the effect. The gateways
are pointed: outside the walls, towards Castel Parentino, is the
pedestal for the municipal standard; on the other side is an illegible
inscription in which the date 1475 may be deciphered. The more important
church, S. Sofia, still has its outside walls, the three apses, with
traces of frescoes in the central one, and the walls of the sacristy. At
the beginning of the fourteenth century it appears to have belonged to
the Castropola, and then to the Count of Gorizia; but in 1420 the
Venetians appointed a podestà. In 1616 the Uscocs sacked the place, and
the plague of 1630-1631 slew many of the remaining inhabitants. The
district grew malarious; and at the beginning of the next century the
rector, the ministers, the chapter, and the few people who remained took
the precious things which the church still retained and moved to S.
Silvestro, Canfanaro. S. Sofia was abandoned on June 7, 1714. The
fourteenth-century pulpit, brought with them, is hexagonal, with
subjects in the panels, and supported on six columns. In one panel a
female figure holds two triple-towered castles of the same shape as
those in the arms of Muggia. Malaria still keeps the district clear of
houses, though the land is cultivated.

[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO THE CASTLE, PISINO

_To face page 137_]

A few miles from Canfanaro to the north-west is Pisino, the capital of
Istria, situated upon and about the rock beneath which the river Foiba
disappears. The railway winds round the sides of green and wooded hills,
rising with each curve till it is some height above the city. The
landscape is more striking than is usual in Istria, hills of some
size appearing on the horizon, while in the middle distance the Foiba
meanders through a fruitful valley, occasionally broken by a low
waterfall. The copses which clothe the hillsides here and there are
vocal with the song of birds, and nightingales may be heard in plenty in
the spring. The situation is magnificent. The town stands upon the
summit of a promontory spreading out like the fingers of a hand, and at
its base the river foams and rushes, entering a deep winding ravine and
plunging beneath a rocky precipice several hundred feet high, on the top
of which a few houses appear. The steep sides are green with trees to a
certain height, and then the grey rock appears scantily covered with
grass in places; above the abyss swallows dart and hawks hover. On all
sides the rushing of water is heard, and fountains in the streets
betoken an unusual supply, for Istria is generally a thirsty land. The
castle is so close to the chasm that from one of the windows a stone can
be tossed into the water. The dwarf wall shown in the illustration runs
along the top of the precipice. Upon the door the date of 1785 is cut,
but the greater part of the walls with their machicolations belongs to a
reconstruction of the ancient castle in the fifteenth century. It is
still inhabited, and part of it is used for district offices, but there
is little of archæological interest in city or castle. In the courtyard
is a well on a platform ornamented with stone balls to which twelve
steps ascend, a rather curious arrangement. The place for the bar which
fastened the doors is still there, but in these peaceful times they
appear to stand open day and night; at all events they were open when we
reached the place about 7 a.m., having left Pola soon after 5. In the
cathedral are a silver processional cross with figures of saints, and a
tabernacle of 1543, rich of its kind, also a picture by Girolamo da S.
Croce.

There was a cattle-fair on the day we were in the town; the place was
full of _contadini_, and the roads were thronged with cattle being
driven in for sale. The lambs were slung on donkeys' backs in couples,
confined in sacks with their heads out of the mouths, and one lively
little black fellow escaped and caused much excitement before he was
caught and reimprisoned. The type of the peasants is quite different
from that of those lower down the coast; the head is long, the nose
aquiline, and the countenance seamed with many deep wrinkles. The older
men wore one large earring in the right ear, hose of a thick whitish
woollen material, or brown or blue trousers which sometimes reached but
a little below the knee, a white shirt, and a brown jacket hung over the
shoulder. The daughter of the house, who served us at a rough restaurant
where we had _déjeuner_ together with some of the country folk, was
anxious to know whether the language we were speaking together was
Russian. I fancy English travellers are very rare in that part of the
country.

A few miles south of Canfanaro is the little town of San Vincenti, in
which is one of the best preserved of the Istrian castles, showing
indeed little sign of ruin externally. It occupies one side of the main
piazza. At right angles to it is the church, with a façade recalling the
work of the Lombardi, and there is a loggia and a public cistern, made
in 1808 to ensure a good supply of drinking-water. In this piazza a
joust was held as late as June 24, 1713. There Maria Radoslavich was
hung and then burnt as a witch on February 25, 1632.

[Illustration: AN ANGLE OF THE CASTLE, SAN VINCENTI

_To face page 130_]

The castle is quadrilateral with a round and an octagonal tower at the
angles of the northern face. The opposite side has a square tower at the
angle to the right, and to the left the house of the governor just
beyond the entrance-gate; the walls splay out widely to the bottom of
the ditch. The slits for the chains of the drawbridge are on each side
of a little grated window, and above the door are the date 1485 and the
arms of Marino Grimani, with an inscription recording a restoration in
1589 after a fire in 1586. On a small door inside is the date 1728,
showing that the castle underwent restorations and rebuildings. In the
middle of the cornice is an arch for the castle-bell. The town was part
of the feud of S. Apollinare, and was destroyed in 1330 by the soldiers
of the Patriarch Pagano della Torre. The castle belonged first to the
Castropola, then to the Morosini, and finally to the Grimani. It was
dismantled by Bernardo Tiepolo after the war of Gradisca (during which
Loredano used it as his quarters general), with the object of freeing
the people from forced service of various kinds. Low buildings used as
harness and store-rooms, &c., still remain against the walls inside, but
the stair to the suite of principal rooms is ruinous. It is external,
and led to a terrace beneath which were prisons, and from which another
flight rose to a door of entrance, walled up but still traceable, at a
considerable height. Other prisons were in the towers, which were bound
together by the gallery which ran round the interior. The ground floor
of the seventeenth-century house which occupies the ancient keep was
arranged as guard-rooms and soldiers' lodgings; an internal stair
conducts to a few rooms which look into the courtyard; the floors of the
rest have been destroyed. Externally there is no opening for half the
height; then there are two pointed windows with a considerable space
between; above these in the middle is a large loggia with two pointed
doors, at the sides quadrangular windows, and higher up, beneath the
eaves, four more small window-openings. Some of the towers are
ivy-grown.

[Illustration: WAYSIDE CHAPEL OUTSIDE SAN VINCENTI]

In the church in the piazza is a S. Sebastian ascribed to Schiavone. The
most ancient church is, however, in the cemetery to the north, a simple
nave with pointed windows. The little chapel illustrated, at a crossing
of the ways, is characteristic of this part of Istria. The people still
speak Venetian Italian, though there are a good many Slav _contadini_,
brought from Dalmatia by the Grimani in 1628. The type has regular and
marked features, with dark eyes and hair. The costume is not quite that
of the Morlacchi, being all black except the shoes, which are of natural
leather. The women have short skirts, black stockings, and shiny shoes,
many chains round the neck, and earrings, and on festas have a coronal
of pins in their carefully arranged hair, like the women of the Brianza.
Their weddings are celebrated amid great gatherings of friends; two
pipers, with instruments timed in thirds, march first, playing a kind of
tarantella; then follows a company of _contadini_ two and two, not
arm-in-arm, but with a coloured handkerchief from one head to the other.
The bride has a kind of turban of brilliant colours on her head, from
which masses of vari-coloured silken ribbons hang, covering her to the
shoulders and breast except for her eyes, nose, and mouth. Her chemise
is finely pierced and embroidered on neck, bosom, and cuffs, and her
stockings are of open work, while her shoes are almost like sandals.
Rows of coral deck her neck, and her fingers have as many gold rings on
them as possible. The bridegroom's hat bears a crown of artificial
flowers, as does that of the best man; all the friends have a similar
bunch in their hands or caps. After the marriage the pipers play, and
the whole of the company form up in a straight line outside the church.
Then the best man comes forward with a kind of cake, which, after
various feints, he throws among the crowd of children which quickly
collects, and they scramble for it. Then the husband and wife, with the
best man, go to the goldsmith's to buy the marriage present. Later there
is a dance. The men and women face each other in line. They pace rapidly
back and forth without moving forward. Then the couples advance, the man
raises his right arm and opens the hand to the woman, who grasps it, and
turns herself under the arch of the two arms. Then the man passes his
arm round his partner's waist and they go round in measured walk.

Between San Vincenti and Pola are Valle and Dignano. At the former the
fortifications are earlier than the fourteenth century, heavy and
imposing, with five lofty towers (two of which are embattled), so that
projectiles were dangerous rather from the force of gravity than from
the impulse given. A portion of them is ruined, and one of the towers is
now the communal cistern. In the crypt of the church are fragments of
ninth-century carving, cut up disgracefully and made into a modern
altar, and there is a sarcophagus of the same period in the cemetery.
The campanile is considered to be the oldest in Istria. In the treasury
are a silver-gilt monstrance with many pinnacles and Renaissance scrolls
on the foot, a cross and a chalice of silver-gilt with medallions on the
foot, which once had an enamel ground. The most interesting thing,
however, is a chasuble of the fifteenth century, with embroidered
figures of silver-gilt thread in high relief upon the cross. At the
back, on the upright part, is a half-length of our Lord in a chalice,
and two saints, all three beneath canopies, and on the arms SS. Peter
and Paul. On the front are two figures and an Annunciation on the arms;
the Virgin on one side, and the angel on the other. The flesh is
painted.




XII

POLA


The town and arsenal of Pola lie at the head of one of those convenient
inlets which provide the Austrian coast so plentifully with fine
harbours. As the steamer passes between Cape Compare and Monte Grosso
the naval port appears to the right with many powerful ships-of-war
anchored in the bay: beyond and above the island of Olivi, occupied by
part of the arsenal, rises the town, its buildings climbing the hill
towards the castle which crowns the summit. To the left is the ample
commercial port with its long quays stretching towards the railway
station, the imposing mass of the amphitheatre dominating the whole of
that side of the picture. These two structures, the amphitheatre and the
arsenal, show the chief interests of Pola--the glory of antiquity, and
modern utility devoted to defence; for the monuments of mediæval times
are few in the city, and the destruction wrought alternately by Venice
and Genoa left it poor, and in many parts ruinous, till the modern
revival, with the transference of the headquarters of the Austrian navy
from Venice in 1861. The mouth of the harbour is less than half a mile
across and is over 100 ft. deep. The eastern portion has a depth of 20
ft. against the quays, which are all constructed on made ground. The
quarries on the Brioni Islands have afforded excellent material close at
hand for the buildings and fortifications both in antiquity and in
modern times.

The castle hill was the capitol of the Roman city, and the streets ran
round it, with others diverging like the ladders of a spider's web. A
canal isolating the city from the land existed to the east. Of the land
gates two still remain--the Porta Gemina (anciently the Porta Jovia) and
the Porta Ercole; the arch of the Sergii formed the interior face of a
third (of which a portion of the lower courses remain), the Porta Aurea,
so called probably from its having had grilles of gilded bronze. There
were also seven gates in the walls towards the sea. The forum was twice
the size of the present piazza, which occupies part of its site, and had
twin temples at one end, with the comitium between them, of which one
remains in good preservation, and a portion of the back part of the
other. There was a temple of Jupiter Conservatorius, upon the site of
which the cathedral stands; and one to Minerva, afterwards the site of
the destroyed basilica of S. Maria in Canneto. The theatre was near the
Porta Aurea, and is now marked only by the excavation of its curve in
the hillside and a few ruined arches in a private garden. The
destruction of ancient Pola is largely due to Venice, who appeared to
think that when the communes gave themselves to her she acquired the
right of removing any of the monuments to beautify herself; and it even
went so far as for a patrician to seriously propose to bear the cost of
transporting the amphitheatre to Venice, and re-erecting it on the site
of the present public gardens!

[Illustration: ARCH OF SERGII, POLA

_To face page 145_]

The Porta Gemina consists of twin arches, beneath a simple frieze and
more elaborate cornice supported by modillions, which rest upon three
engaged composite columns raised upon pedestal blocks. The key-stones
are flat, and the piercing of some holes in them suggests that metal
enrichments were affixed. It was an important gate, being the direct way
to the amphitheatre from the Capitol, and also the starting-point of
the military road towards the Arsa and Albona. By it also the aqueduct
passed into the city. The Porta Ercole is simpler, and probably older;
it bears the names of two duumvirs, Lucius Cassius Longinus and Lucius
Calphurnius Piso, and some rough carving. Of the Porta Aurea itself,
which had a central gate for chariots and two side gates for
pedestrians, little remains. Beneath the arch of the Sergii the ancient
pavement has been uncovered, bearing wheelmarks made many centuries ago,
and the lower courses of the gateway adjacent, but all the part above
the present street-level has disappeared. The carving on the arch of the
Sergii shows a curious economy. Since the gate was so close to it only a
portion of the coupled Corinthian columns could be seen; the fluting,
therefore, was carried only a third of the way round, and the capitals
were left merely roughed out, as were also the mouldings of the attic
which would be hidden by the cornice, except in the portions visible
from the external sides. The soffit of the arch is carved, and the face
of the pilaster below has a very rich and graceful vine arabesque upon
it. The other side is fully decorated with victories in the spandrils,
festoons and chariot-races on the frieze, and the attic develops three
pedestals for statues, inscribed to members of the family of Salvia
Postumia, who erected it in honour of her husband, Lucius Sergius, his
father of the same name, and his uncle Cnæus Sergius. Lucius Sergius was
tribune of the 29th Legion. The work is probably of the time of
Augustus.

The finely proportioned temple was erected at a later period during his
lifetime by the grateful Polese; such adulation could be tolerated only
in Asia, and Augustus declined to allow the dedication without the
addition of "Rome." The façade has four Corinthian columns, and at the
angles of the cella are four channelled pilasters; between these and the
four columns of the façade is a similar column on each side. The roof is
modern. Within it and around are collected numerous sculptured
fragments, antique and of the early mediæval period for the most part,
which would be the better for spacing and arranging. The other temple is
of a later date. They both stood upon a platform twelve steps above the
forum, themselves raised further by seven steps and a stylobate. The
rostra were on the forum side of the comitium.

Till 1875 the amphitheatre--which was built in 198-211 in honour of
Septimius Severus (who had been governor of Illyria) and of
Caracalla--lay open to the street. It was then railed round, and since
that time systematic excavations have disclosed the plan of the
sub-structures. The circuit, which is nearly perfect, consists of
seventy-two arches, and the elevation has a basement and a principal
story, with an attic of square windows to light the promenade, and a
finishing cornice through which the masts for the Velarium passed,
resting upon stone blocks above the cornice of the main story. The
arches at the extremities of the long diameter are wider than the rest,
and therefore cut into the frieze above, an unusual licence. There are
four towers, two towards the sea and two towards the hill, which
probably contained double staircases, but no sign of them remains,
though the doorways and grilles of pierced stone testify to their
usefulness. Excavations have brought to light forty or fifty pieces of
the steps of the auditorium, upon some of which the seats are marked by
dividing lines and by letters. The podium of the arena shows by its
lowness that fights with wild beasts did not take place in it. Until the
fourteenth century the interior remained nearly complete, the patriarch
having forbidden the removal of stones. At that time the seats were
taken to repair the town walls, and a great deal of the material was
subsequently sold to Venice. The stone of which the amphitheatre is
built has taken on a beautiful warm colour from the suns of centuries,
and glows in the sunset light as if it were the marble which makes so
many Italian buildings lovely in colour.

[Illustration: THE AMPHITHEATRE, POLA

_To face page 146_]

The most important church in Pola was S. Maria Formosa, or del Canneto
(of the marsh), built on the foundations of the temple of Minerva. It
was founded by Maximian, archbishop of Ravenna, the friend of Justinian,
who was born at Vistro, now Porto Vestre, a village to the south of
Rovigno. He came to Pola to consecrate it in 546. He also founded a
Benedictine monastery near, which soon became the richest in Istria by
its connection with Ravenna, endowed the convent of S. Andrea, and built
a house for the rector of the basilica. The site of the abbey is now
occupied by the buildings of the Hotel Central and other houses in the
parallel streets Via Minerva and Via Abbazia. It was a basilican church
with nave, and aisles raised two steps above it. There were ten columns
on each side, with varied capitals. The aisles were vaulted, and the
semi-dome of the apse was decorated with mosaics on a gold ground. The
high-altar was under a baldacchino; there was a throne for the abbot,
and seats in the choir for the monks. The windows were small and
round-headed, filled with pierced slabs. The ancient door of entrance is
between Nos. 27 and 33, Via Abbazia--a round arch simply moulded, with a
dentil round the tympanum and a lintel below. The nave stretched along
the space now occupied by the stable-yard of the hotel, and the wall of
the north aisle forms part of the stables. It has external pilaster
strips opposite to the places where the columns of the nave arcade
stood. The apse, with triumphal arch, still exists, and two round
chapels which flanked it and were entered from the aisles; one of them
was dedicated to the Madonna del Carmelo, and the other to S. Andrew.

[Illustration: PLAN OF S. MARIA FORMOSA, POLA]

The S. Maria del Canneto of to-day is a cruciform chapel which lay to
the right, and has an apsidal eastern end. The entrance is past the
kitchen of the hotel; and from a window of an upstairs corridor one can
"assist" at Mass when it is performed, for the church is entirely
enclosed in the hotel buildings. The arms of the cross have wagon
vaults; at the crossing is a quadripartite vault with ribs and central
oculus on a higher level; rough projections along the ribs suggest the
copying of leaf ribs of early mosaics. It is about 22 ft. 6 in. high,
and there is a window in each wall. The roof shows ancient material and
in some parts the ancient manner of using tiles. On the face of the
bell-turret a piece of eighth-century carving is fixed. The walls are
now whitewashed, and the floor covered with red tiles. The round chapel
to the left of the apse has a cupola with an oculus and a lantern at the
top. There are still remains of the mosaic pavement of the apse in No.
20, Via Minerva: in 1898, when building the stables, some fragments were
found near to the aisle wall, which, with others unearthed in 1902, are
now in the municipal museum. The patterns are a guilloche border with
fishes, enclosing a field of plant sprigs, and a lotus border with a
more conventional pattern within. The colours used are two reds, two
greens, black and white, and pale blue occasionally. The cloister lay
between the church and Via Abbazia; the houses 39, 37, and 35, stand on
its site. The last notices of the church occur in the middle of the
thirteenth century; later mention refers only to the ruins. The
destruction appears to have taken place when Pola was sacked by the
Venetians under Giacomo Tiepolo and Leonardo Querini in 1243, though
some think that it was in one of the later sackings by the Genoese, of
which there were three in the fourteenth century--1354, 1376, and 1380.
In 1600 a number of the pillars were still upright, and mosaics and
sculptures were visible; at that time they tried to raise a chapel
within its walls. It is certain that the Venetians gradually despoiled
it of everything of value, with the consent of the Polese. Much of the
material was used in the seventeenth century for the restoration and
rebuilding of the communal palace, and two at least of the pillars of
the ciborium of S. Mark's, Venice, as well as the four of Oriental
alabaster, which the tourist is told came from the Temple of Solomon,
were spoils from this splendid church, the latter annexed in 1605, and
the former by Giacomo Tiepolo in 1243.

In 1545 Sansovino was sent by the Senate to bring away the marble
columns to Venice. The African marble on the landings of the Libreria
Vecchia also came from Pola, and the shaft of the holy-water basin in S.
Mark's, with dolphins and tridents, once belonged to a temple of Neptune
there. The Polese presented the four central columns to S. Maria della
Salute, from the theatre on Monte Zaro. In 1632 the Venetian Senate
ordered the _provveditore_ of the castle, Pola, to inform himself as to
the number and quantity of the columns of "noble architecture" which
were in one of the ruinous churches, and on August 21, 1638, praised the
diligence of Bragadin in sending marbles for S. Maria della Salute. He
had sent fourteen columns in April, and information of others at
Parenzo.

Several other early churches in and around Pola were destroyed while
constructing the fortifications. On the island of S. Caterina was a
cemetery church, the plan of which indicated early Byzantine origin; on
that of S. Andrea were a cloister and church of the sixth century; and
on the hill whence the Tegethoff monument now looks over the harbour
the double basilica of S. Michele in Monte, partly dating from the
seventh century and partly from the eleventh. The grave of Salomon, king
of Hungary, who died here in 1087 and was canonised shortly after, whose
body had been venerated in the cathedral from the fifteenth century, was
then found. The sarcophagus is now in the museum.

The original cathedral appears to have been contemporary with that of
Parenzo, but it was restored in the ninth century. In 1884 the floor of
the presbytery was lowered, and near the high-altar, at a depth of two
feet, Roman fragments and ninth-century carvings were found, with an
inscription of the fifteenth century; lower still were Roman
inscriptions and sculptures, and then a semicircular mosaic floor of 13
ft. radius, with a lily border on a black and red ground (grey, yellow,
and white tessera? also being used), with an inscription mentioning
Donatian, and small medallions with cross and square. Under the first
step of the demolished stairs was a second much damaged mosaic
resembling the early one at Parenzo. It may be seen by lifting a
trap-door, A bronze medal of Agrippina was found at the same time. Three
rectangular windows were also discovered, a large one in the centre and
two smaller towards the sides, the former filled with a pierced slab now
preserved in the presbytery. The triumphal arch is round, with early
caps and impost mouldings; other early caps and columns are visible in
the walls of the choir in hollows made to expose them. The theory is
that there was a confessional behind the apse instead of below it, of
which these fragments are the remains. Encrusted in the outer wall of
the south aisle is an inscription which runs thus: "In the year 857,
fifth indiction, under Ludovicus, Emperor of Italy, Handegis was
elected and consecrated bishop on Whit Sunday, and occupied the seat
for five years." It is thought that he was the restorer of the building.
Some of the ninth-century carvings are in the museum. Several small
windows high in the nave walls still retain the slabs pierced with
ninth-century patterns, and two unbroken ciborium or baptistery
archivolts still exist, one in the courtyard of the Beata Vergine della
Miscricordia, and the other in the Piazza S. Giovanni, where it is made
up into a little shrine with two fourteenth-century caps, and a
Renaissance pediment with two uprights of a chancel of Lombard work,
with three furrowed scrolls and crosses of the usual Syrian derivation.

The church was subsequently much altered, the transepts and apse have
vanished, and stones found which bear the marks of fire suggest that it
was burnt, either by the Venetians in 1243 or by the Genoese in 1379,
when they took the bronze doors away and burnt the archives. An
inscription on the front of the reliquary tomb, which is to the right of
the high-altar, and claims to contain the bodies of SS. Basil,
Demetrius, George, and Theodore, and of Salomon, king of Hungary, states
that Bishop Biagio Molin rebuilt the church in 1417. To this building
the retable of the high-altar, dedicated in 1469 and now in the north
aisle, belongs, still called La Madonna del Coro. It has figures of
saints in the upper row, half length, and full length in the lower row,
in high relief; the Madonna in the centre, and above her Christ over His
tomb, showing His wounds, and attended by the Virgin and S. John, with
fine tabernacle work and pierced pinnacles, all gilded except the flesh,
which is painted, and the ground behind the pinnacles, which is blue. It
is rather over-restored and looks quite new. The ciborium has cipollino
columns, antique caps, pointed arches, and Venetian dentil enrichments
with marble inlays. The nave arcade, of nine columns, has slightly
pointed arches, unmoulded except for a simple hood-mould and a kind of
engrailed crown above the abacus. The caps are for the most part late
fourteenth century in character, but some are antique. The columns have
been made up to the same size with plaster, and painted to imitate
granite, only a few having escaped. The last one on the south has a ring
round the centre; one base looks antique, many of them have spurs. The
restorations of 1640 and 1712 have obliterated all appearance of
antiquity. Bishop Giuseppe Maria Bottari, the last restorer, used so
many inscribed slabs in repairing the interior and building the
campanile that he was nicknamed "the sexton of inscriptions." There was
a cruciform baptistery to the west, the remains of which were destroyed
in 1850 in connection with the harbour works. To the north of the
cathedral is the communal cistern, which covers a great part of the site
of the early church of S. Thomas. In 1860 some reliquaries were found
here between the cistern and the cathedral sacristy, where the centre of
the apse probably was, and further investigations disclosed the steps to
the presbytery, remains of the apse, and stones carved with ornament. In
1332 this church was used for service in place of the ruined cathedral,
and as late as 1812 some remains of the walls were visible. The
reliquaries were contained in a stone chest some three feet below the
ground level. Within it was another smaller chest of Greek marble, with
Byzantine ornament, and a gable roof with an inlaid cross of green
stone. This was preserved in the cathedral for some time, but has now
disappeared. Within it the workmen found a flat rectangular casket,
described as being divided into sixteen compartments, which held silver
reliquaries, and in the middle a small golden box, in which were two
little finger-bones. In another was a small yellow piece of silk with
blood-spots on it. The sacristan asserted that there were also twelve
golden statuettes a span high, and some smaller silver vases; but all
the reliquaries have disappeared except two, which have been preserved
at Vienna since 1888. The more important of the two is an hexagonal box
with an ogee-shaped lid and a little rosette on the apex; on the sides
are _repoussé_ figures, the upper parts of which are repeated with some
modifications on the lid. These figures are: Christ, between SS. Peter
and Paul, and three single figures, two of which hold symbols, a roll,
and a tau-cross. The Christ is youthful, without a nimbus, and holds an
open book in the left hand. The draperies are all antique in style, and
the work is believed to be of the first or second century. A hasp is
attached to the lid, but there is no sign of hinge or corresponding
button. The smaller casket is rectangular, resembling that found at
Grado. On the lid is a cross in dark-blue enamel with surroundings of
filigree.

The church of S. Francesco is halfway up the hill to the castle, and is
now used as a military magazine. Towards the road the wall terminates in
a gable, with two pointed openings for bells; below is a red cross
inlaid within an enclosing moulding. A ramping cornice of shallow arches
with dentils above it finishes the wall, the centre portion of which is
pierced with a two-light trefoiled window blocked up below, while a
chapel to the north is lighted by simple-pointed windows. The fine
entrance door, with its rich mouldings, twisted columns, and round arch,
looks rather older than 1314, which is the date of the first certain
mention of the church; but in Istria and Dalmatia styles lingered late.
It is said to have been built by the Castropola in 1285, and a
half-obliterated inscription by the door records the date of 1406, when
a provincial Franciscan council was held in the church. On each side
of the door is a window of two trefoiled lights with slender shafts, and
above it a rose with Gothic tracery. The interior has a simple unvaulted
nave, a choir of one bay with cross vaulting, and a small chapel,
probably the sepulchral chapel of the Castropola, since their arms are
on the windows. The only remaining piece of the cloister serves as
entrance portico. The little garden outside the principal door has a
bowling-alley beneath a vine pergola, from which there is a beautiful
view over the bay; and in it grow trees of euonymus and oleander with
thick trunks, and an aloe, besides the usual roses, peaches, and
mulberries.

[Illustration: WEST DOORWAY, S. FRANCESCO, POLA

_To face page 154_]

The communal palace was built in 1296; the back portion is part of the
second temple. Some portions of the ancient building remain on the right
flank. It was the palace of the Margrave of Istria, and later of the
Venetian rectors or counts of Pola. According to Kandler, the figure of
a knight upon it represents Albert II., Count of Istria. The Genoese
damaged the palace in 1390, but it was restored the next year. After the
façade fell in 1651, it was rebuilt in its present form, with material
from S. Maria Formosa, but it was not finished till 1703. During the
last years of the Republic the count lived in the back portion, had his
stables in the temple of Augustus and his kitchen in the other temple.

The castle was built on the ruins of the Capitol, probably about 1200.
Within was the habitation of the count, a three-naved chapel, arsenal,
lodging for two hundred soldiers, &c. The Sergii seized it in 1271 and
became known as Castropolæ. Here the captains of the people lived, who
ruled Pola for the sixty-three years before 1328. The count was a civil
governor, and after 1331, when the Polese gave themselves to Venice, had
authority in the lower city; but a _provveditore_ was appointed for the
castle, who had a captain, a sergeant, two lieutenants, and eighty
soldiers under his command. In 1638 the two offices were united. The new
castle was commenced after the plague of 1632 from the designs of the
Frenchman Deville, who used the material of the theatre. Kandler says
that he remembered this castle, which had double walls with four towers
to each, and one larger tower towards Monte Maggiore. The present castle
is quite modern, and one is warned off when approaching it. The mediæval
walls were demolished in 1848. They appear to have been generally in a
bad state of repair, and records of their restoration are frequent. The
sea-walls were thrown down by the Venetians, who did not like the cities
under their sway to have defences on the water-side, though they were
sometimes obliged to permit something of the sort. For instance, in
1351, the Polese were allowed to build a wall 10 ft. high towards the
sea, which was a sufficient defence against a sudden raid, but of little
use in the case of a strong attack. As a matter of fact, the Genoese
broke it down in 1380, sacked the city, and put all opponents to the
sword.

At the beginning of the fifteenth century Pola was surrounded by a
number of carefully built polygonal towers. There were eight gates with
machicolated defences above them, and the arms of fifteen rectors in
different places showed that the walls had been long in building. In
1610 the Uscocs sacked the city, entering through certain holes in the
walls, which, as Fra Paolo Sarpi relates, rendered the closing of the
great gates useless. The neglect of the Venetians in the matters of pay
and provision of war material in the seventeenth century reduced the
defences to a farce.

The laws of many of the cities prescribed penalties for crossing the
wall. Pola, 1442: "No person shall dare to pass over the walls of the
city of Pola in any manner, neither going nor returning, neither with
nor without a ladder, and neither shall they enter nor leave the gates
of the city, neither below nor above, under penalty of 50 lire di
piccoli and three months in prison." The inhabitants of walled places
had little liberty. Besides the duty of guarding the gates, a citizen
could neither enter nor leave except between certain fixed hours; if he
reached the opposite side of the ditch after the evening bell he found
the drawbridge raised, and had to seek a bed outside, or climb the wall,
in which case he ran the risk of being surprised and punished.

The communal museum contains many very interesting things belonging to
different periods of Polese history. Here are some very ancient stones
with Mycenean whorls cut upon Istrian material, perhaps by some prisoner
taken by Istrian pirates; also stones with these whorls half
obliterated, and hollows sunk here and there, which, it is thought, were
a kind of star map made by shepherds when Istria was wooded, to direct
them in driving their flocks. Here are two inscriptions mentioning an
entirely unknown god and goddess, and the inscription of Gordian in
which the name of Nesactium occurs, the discovery of which fixed the
site of the most important of the Istrian cities, the scene of the
massacre of the women and children by the hands of their husbands and
fathers, to prevent them from being taken by the Romans.

Many things found there are also in the museum--skulls, an ivory
spindle, fragments of pottery and glass, and two curious statues, very
archaic in style, from a tomb-building. One is a nude rider upon a
horse, the other an unclothed woman suckling a child, thought to be the
indigenous god Melescos and one of the goddess mothers. There are also a
prehistoric oven, bronze vases found in the well at Tivoli, near Pola,
fragments from S. Maria in Canneto and other destroyed churches; and
here also the chapter of the cathedral has deposited portions of the
cathedral ciborium and other architectural fragments.

Pola was founded as a Roman colony in 129 B.C., at the same time as
Trieste. It fought for Pompey, and was punished by destruction, but was
restored in 33 B.C. as "Pietas Julia"; and in 27 B.C. Augustus raised
the Istrian cities to the rank of _municipia_ by adding the province to
Italy. The Polese were inscribed in the tribe Valeria. Pola was also
called Polentia in honour of the mother of Vespasian, and Herculanea in
honour of Commodus. It had been the judicial capital under the Republic,
and was prosperous under the Empire, being the place where two lines of
traffic crossed, that from Rome through Ancona and so to the Danube, and
that from Britain to Constantinople, and also had agricultural riches
and manufactures of its own. It was the base of operations during the
reconquest of Italy from the Goths, both for Belisarius and for Narses,
and was made the principal city and harbour on the east coast of the
Adriatic. It was also the granary of the Exarchate, owing to the Lombard
destruction in Italy, and had a population of some 25,000. During the
plague of 1348, which lasted for several months, a fifth of the
population died, fifty patrician families became entirely extinct, and
privileges were offered to foreigners to induce them to re-people the
city. At the downfall of the Venetian Republic the population barely
amounted to 600 souls.

The popular tradition of the destruction of the Castropola (who had made
themselves lords of Pola) runs thus: Andrea di Tonata, the head of the
popular faction, arranged a conspiracy to free the city. The moment
chosen was the evening of Good Friday, during the annual procession
called "of the wood of the Holy Cross," which went round the city,
starting from the cathedral. Near the church of S. Stefano (which was
within the walls at the foot of the castle hill) the conspirators,
disguised in the dress of members of the Confraternity of S. Stephen,
drawing their daggers at a given signal, threw themselves upon the
Castropola, who were in a separate group in the procession, not thinking
of danger, and killed them. Then, calling on the people to rise, the
conspirators led them to the assault of the neighbouring castle, which
they took by surprise, killing any of the family or their adherents whom
they met. Only one child escaped, owing his life to the devotion of a
servant who hid him when the crowd had actually entered the castle, and
let him down by a cord into the Franciscan convent just below, from
which a monk took him secretly out of the city to one of the country
places belonging to the family. This tradition is not historical, for
the family continued in Pola till the fall of the Signory, and
flourished afterwards in Venice and Treviso; but there was certainly a
rising then in which the houses of certain of their adherents were
sacked. Two members of the aristocracy were appointed captains of the
people, but after a month they decided to give themselves to Venice; by
the Act of Dedition the Castropola were banished from Pola, Istria,
Friuli, and Schiavonia, though they were allowed to retain their
property. Their principal adherents were also banished. In 1334 an
attempt to regain the Signory caused the Polese to ask the Senate to
dismantle the castle, which was done, and the houses of the two heads of
the family were also destroyed. So Pola became a mere appanage of
Venice.




XIII

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ISTRIAN COAST


Istria is in great part a dry and stony land, but there are valleys with
streams and woods. It slopes to the west and south with a tolerably
continuous declivity, so that the base of the triangular peninsula is on
the whole the highest part. Much of the vegetation is greyish, and the
rocks also are generally a pale grey. It is divided into three
districts, named, from, the prevailing colour of the ground, white,
yellow, and red. The first is the stony portion, the grey limestone of
the Karst; next the yellow sandstone formation which begins at Trieste
and extends through middle Istria; and then the southern portion where
the white limestone is underneath, and clay of a red ochreous colour
occurs in streaks. Round Pisino and Pinguente and between them are
fields, meadows, and even woods, with plenty of streams which burst from
the sandstone, while limestone hills jut out here and there. Pisino lies
on the edge of "yellow" Istria, and hills rise around it; on the south
side is a hill of the red land; and the houses are on an outcrop of the
white limestone. The Foiba runs along the junction of the two
formations. Middle Istria undulates from about 1,200 ft. to 900 ft.
above the sea, while Lower Istria is but 500 ft. The hills are lower and
less steep, there is more cultivation, and the villages and towns look
more prosperous.



COAST TOWNS

The shore (except for the deltas of a few streams) has no flat portions,
and the banks (scarcely cliffs), though generally perpendicular and
difficult to climb, are not at all lofty. The coast is broken into bays
by projecting tongues of land, making harbours of differing degrees of
safety, with an enormous number of small islands, many of which are mere
rocks, obliging the steamers to keep some considerable distance from the
land. The first navigable passage between them and the coast is the
Canal of Fasana, within the Brioni Islands. The view from the sea shows
rough steep stretches of bank with picturesque harbour towns; the stone
walls and towers, the tall campanile, generally reminiscent of that of
S. Marco, Venice, the white houses, the grey of the bare shores and the
varied greens of the surrounding country, with its woods, fields and
gardens, harmonise pleasantly, especially in the afternoon and evening
light. Nearly every town has an upper or more ancient portion built for
security on a hill which was once an island, and a newer part close to
the water. From the outer harbour the "mandracchio," the inner harbour,
opens with the fish-market close by. The "piazza," in and near which are
the _municipio_, the _loggia_, and the patricians' palaces, is generally
approached by one of the steep streets, many of which are on the natural
rock and impassable for wheeled vehicles. Above the coastline the hills
of the interior rise in bluer distance, with here and there a town
crowning a lesser elevation. Montona appears, cresting its isolated hill
above the Quieto, and Buie, the look-out of Istria, while to the
south-east the blue mass of Monte Maggiore is hidden or disclosed as the
clouds gather and disperse.

Beyond the harbour of Pola is the low point of Promontore, where the
coastline turns and runs north-east. All around the harbour forts are
seated on points of vantage, some older, some very modern; and little
villages occupy those elevations left vacant by the military
authorities. To the south are the large islands of Cherso and Veglia. At
the mouth of the Bado valley lies the little port of that name, around
which are many tiny islands. From Caorano, near the mouth of the canal
of the Arsa, the land begins to rise, and with Punta Nera, an outlying
spur of the chain of Monte Maggiore, the coast becomes rocky and
precipitous, from 950 ft. to 3,200 ft. high, furrowed by valleys running
down to the sea. The villages are high above the water, and there is
little green except in the lower parts, the grey of the rock being
varied only with brushwood. Albona may be taken as a typical example of
the situation of these villages, being high above its harbour, Rabaz. As
the boat approaches nearer the shore the range of cliffs plunging down
into the green water is impressive. Towards Abbazia the red soil becomes
more abundant, the hills are terraced, and vegetation is more luxuriant,
great chestnuts and bay-trees appear, and cypresses when Lovrana is
reached. This north shore of the Quarnero, stretching to Fiume, is the
Riviera of Austria. The Dinaric Alps surround it from Monte Maggiore,
and the Liburnian Karst to the Velebits. In this district hedges of bay
flourish, and in the Villa Angiolina park may be seen many varieties of
trees in blossom or fruit, which luxuriate in the sheltered situation.
The view from the harbour at Fiume in the afternoon is delightful, the
mass of Monte Syss on Cherso guarding the entrance to the Quarnero on
one side, while the many spurs of the Monte Maggiore range on the other
troop to the sea, blue in the shadow, and paling and lowering with
greater distance.

[Illustration: WINE-BOATS IN THE FIUMARA CANAL, FIUME

_To face page 163_]




XIV

FIUME AND VEGLIA


Fiume is one of the few towns along the coast in which the Italians are
in the majority. It lies at the north-eastern end of the Bay of the
Quarnero, and is the chief seaport of Hungary, to which it has belonged
in the main since the beginning of the twelfth century; and permanently
since 1870. Though it was a thriving town in the Middle Ages, and
existed in Roman times, there is very little to be seen older than the
period of the late Renaissance. It is a busy modern town, and for the
archæologist is merely a convenient place of departure for other more
interesting sites, though there is some picturesqueness of costume and
situation about it; and the Englishman is pleased to see many ships with
the national flag, and to know that one of the great industries of the
place is the Whitehead torpedo factory. The Tarsia, as the Rjeka was
called, gave the name of Tarsatica to the ancient Liburnian city. The
Romans built a castle on the bank of the stream to rein in the ferocious
Gepids. Round this castle the ancient Tarsatica grew up. The only Roman
remains existing are: a triumphal arch said to have been erected in
honour of the Emperor Claudius II., Gothicus (268-270), which resembles
the Arco di Riccardo, Trieste, in its situation on the side of the hill
in the old city, but is much less ornamented and more dilapidated; some
remains of Roman construction in the Castle of the Frangipani; and at
the top of the hill above the Porto di Martinschizza (called "Solin"),
the remains of another Roman fortress, which protected the city to the
east, commanding the ravine of La Draga, a mile and a half from
Tarsatto. Tarsatica was destroyed in 799 by Charlemagne.

[Illustration: STALL ON THE WINE-QUAY, FIUME]

The wine-quay, by the Porto Canale, Fiumara, is shaded pleasantly with
trees, and always busy with its own particular trade, supplemented by
stalls at which various goods are offered for sale. Close by is a
street, which in the spring is bright with Judas-trees in flower. The
ravine down which the stream flows has always been the boundary of the
Croatian kingdom. On the further side is the ascent of 410 steps to the
pilgrimage church of the Madonna del Tarsatto, on one of the spurs of
the hills which surround the city; an ascent which devout pilgrims are
said to have negotiated on their knees. A chronogram over the church
door gives the date 1730, but it was founded in 1453 by one of the
Frangipani counts on the site once occupied by the Nazareth House now at
Loreto, the tradition being that this rested here for three years and
seven months, from 1291 to 1294; and in a dark passage behind the
high-altar a room is still shown said to be a part of it.

The church contains a picture of the Madonna and Child, ascribed as
usual to S. Luke, of which a little copy hangs by the choir arch in the
aisle; the two heads and hands are painted. The rest is covered with
silver-gilt plates modelled in low relief to represent the drapery,
nimbi, &c. Near the high-altar are frescoes with Latin inscriptions, of
no great interest, also two great silver candlesticks and portions of
Turkish harness, gifts of the Emperor Leopold I. The pillars are hung
with the votive offerings of rescued mariners. The church has only one
aisle, to the north. At the west end is an organ gallery on slight
columns with fifteenth-century carving. The choir has a fine
seventeenth-century wrought-iron grille with two amorini, a crown and
heart, &c., interwoven with scrolls, gilded and painted. The beaten work
is mixed with scrolls of flat thin material between strong uprights and
cross pieces. At the height of the face of a kneeling figure is a row of
small balusters. The upper portion is painted white.

In front of the church is an avenue of horse-chestnuts, and on a spur of
hill to the left is the Castle of Tarsatto, once belonging to the
Frangipani, now in the possession of Count Nugent, and completely
restored. In the castle is a collection of statues from Minturnum, a
gift of Ferdinand I. of Naples to Field-Marshal Nugent. From it a flight
of steps conducts to a pleasant field-path which rounds the shoulder of
the next hill and brings one back to the steps by which the church is
reached. The view from the plateau is very extensive, the islands of
Veglia and Cherso, in conjunction with the spurs of Monte Maggiore,
seeming almost to enclose the sea, while to the south the Velebit range
towers, generally cloud-capped.

The church of SS. Vito and Modesto was built in 1631 after the pattern
of S. Maria della Salute. In the wall by the entrance is a cannon-ball,
a memento of the English bombardment of 1813. On the quays there is to
be seen much the same mixture of types and costumes as at Trieste. The
country people wear a black loose coat with sleeves, over a kind of
sweater which hangs below it; the trousers resemble broad breeches with
a bit of loose stocking showing above the shoe. The rawhide shoes are of
the same kind as those worn at Grado, at Monte S. Angelo across the
water, and all over the country further south, pointed in shape and
turned up at the toes, generally brown, with the upper part covered with
lacing. On the men's heads are little caps, black, brown, or red.

While we were having dinner in the Piazza Adamich a military band came
and played two _morceaux_; after which they marched off to the
accompaniment of music, looking very picturesque, with the light from
candles in lanterns hanging from staves flashing from the brazen
instruments and lighting up the coloured uniforms against the dim
background of garden and distant house.

The islands of Cherso and Veglia divide the Quarrero into three
channels: that between Istria and Cherso, the Canale di Farasina;
between Cherso and Veglia, the Canale di Mezzo (becoming the Quarnerolo
further south); and between Veglia and the Croatian mainland, the Canale
di Maltempo or della Morlacca, in front of which the little island of S.
Marco lies. The scenery of the last-named channel is much finer than the
Quarnerolo, and its interest is enhanced because the steamer passes
Segna or Zengg, the rocky nest of the Uscocs, the pirates who were so
troublesome in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; but its first
name, the Canal of Evil Weather, is an accurate description of what may
be expected, since here the "Bora" blows with the greatest fury, making
it the most dangerous part of the whole coast. There is scarcely enough
of interest in the town itself to make it worthy of a visit, since the
picturesque and horrible exploits of its savage inhabitants (which are
its chief title to fame) may be read in the histories of the Uscocs.
They were refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina, driven out by the Turks;
the word "Scochi" in Slav meaning exiles or fugitives. Their first
establishment was at Clissa, near Spalato, under Pietro Crussich, lord
of Lupoglavo in Istria. From this place they made raids on the Turks,
who at last collected an army and besieged the place for a year. The
castellan was killed in a sortie, and the castle surrendered in 1537.
They then retired to Segna, where they were received and paid by the
Emperor. The original band numbered only five or six hundred, but they
had with them many assistants, Dalmatians banished by the Venetians or
escaped from the galleys, and brigands of other nations, as well as
indigenous camp-followers. At first they only attacked the Turks, more
or less straightforwardly, but gradually became mere pirates. The
Venetians fought fruitlessly against them for some time, and finally
became embroiled with Austria over the question. They were most daring
in their enterprises. On January 19, 1599, eight hundred of them
disembarked at Portolungo and assaulted Albona. They had entered the
suburb, when the citizens rushed to arms, led by the valiant parish
priest Don Priamo Luciani Cristoforo Negri, and succeeded in beating
them off. They then retired on Fianona, which they took by surprise,
established themselves there, hoisted the Austrian flag, and obliged the
inhabitants to swear fealty to Austria. One man who refused, Gaspare
Calovanich, they flayed alive! Many other outrages were committed,
shipping was attacked, and sailors robbed. The war which followed only
ended with the peace of Madrid, September 26, 1617, by the provisions of
which the Uscocs were to be interned and scattered over the Austrian
provinces, and their ships destroyed; whilst the Venetians were to
restore conquered places to Austria. A few of the Uscocs who were left
at Segna went on in their evil ways, and in February, 1619, took a
Venetian ship with 4,000 zecchins-worth of cargo. The Republic made a
claim, and Austria punished them with death and restored the booty. This
was the last of their raids. Sir Gardner Wilkinson says that out of a
number hanged in 1618 nine were Englishmen, of whom six were gentlemen.

They are described as being without discipline, but ready to follow
their captains blindly. They feared no fatigue, climbed the rocks like
cats, slept in the open air, preferred tactics of surprise, and cared
for nothing but the satisfaction of their cupidity. Some were dressed
gipsy-fashion, with arms and breast bare. The bulk, however, wore a
dress resembling that of the Morlacchi--tight hose, shoes of cord or
rawhide, a red-brown waistcoat without sleeves, and a red felt cap on
the head. They wore their hair in long locks, with wild-looking
moustaches, had earrings of iron or silver, and their weapons were
semicircular axes, and knives which they carried in their girdles.
Altogether a fearsome crew to have to do with!

Segna belonged to the Counts Frangipani, whose eyrie was fixed at Castel
Muschio on the island of Veglia. It is near the northern end above a
wide bay on the sea side of a broken plateau, partly crowned with
fortress-walls, in front of which a few houses sparkle white in the sun.
Only one tower remains, with doors on first and second-floor level and a
S. Mark's lion in relief. The island was the ancient Curicta, near which
there was a sea-fight between the ships of Cæsar and Pompey in 49 B.C.,
when the Istrians took the part of the latter. The Cæsarian fleet under
Dolabella was destroyed, and Caius Antonius, Cæsar's general, was shut
up in Veglia, where he was encamped with two legions. The soldiers
constructed three rafts made of two rows of boats fastened together with
chains, and with a platform of beams upon them, and a great tower at one
end, by means of which the rowers were to be protected and the enemy
attacked. Octavian, Pompey's admiral, retired behind Cherso, but left
the channel fouled with ropes and chains fastened to the rocks. In the
afternoon the rafts which had been launched reached the narrow part of
the strait. The two smaller ones got through, but the largest stuck.
Octavian then attacked. On the big raft were one thousand Opitergian
colonists, under the captaincy of the tribune Vulteius. They fought till
night, when, seeing that their case was hopeless, they determined to die
rather than surrender. At dawn the struggle recommenced, the Istrians
joining in the attack. The end was the suicide of Vulteius and his
followers, and the surrender of the cohorts on the island.

From 1126 the islands of the Quarnero belonged to Venice, but the peace
of Zara in 1358 ceded Dalmatia to Hungary and Veglia with it; and, when
Ladislas sold Dalmatia to Venice in 1409, Veglia was excluded, being
formally ceded by the last Count Giovanni in 1480. Nicholas Frangipani,
who was count in 1409, had nine sons, and left his property equally
divided among them, so that there were nine counts of Veglia at the same
time. Giovanni, the eldest, to make himself secure against his brothers,
put himself under the protection of Venice in 1452, married a daughter
of Paolo Morosini, and published his will in 1453, by which he left the
island to the Republic if he died without issue, thus making it clear to
his brothers that he was determined that they should never have the
island, and that if they tried to take it by force he would be protected
by Venice. At the same time he swore to the inhabitants to preserve
their ancient laws and customs. He had no intention of keeping his word
in any particular, and played off Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary,
against Venice in the most unblushing manner, making traitorous
suggestions to both sides alike, and attacking the towns of either party
alternately. His subjects, being much oppressed, invited the Hungarian
general, Magiar Blas, to invade the island in 1480, saying that he would
be received as a Messiah. He came and attacked Castel Muschio; but the
count invoked the protection of Venice. A few days later Veglia was
bombarded by the Hungarians, the Venetian galleys not being able to
render much assistance. The people refused to fight, saying that they
preferred to have even Turks as rulers rather than their count. After
consultation with the Venetian officers they were summoned to the
Palazzo Pubblico; and the count told them that he was the servant of
Venice, and that they must swear fealty to the Republic and would be
protected. Accordingly the oath was taken by all, and the Hungarians
were obliged to make terms. They were allowed to return safely to the
mainland. The count then began to threaten those of his subjects who had
been in favour of the Hungarians, and many fled in fear. The
captain-general of the Venetians, as corrective, published an order
authorising the inhabitants to kill any of the count's people who
molested them. Count Giovanni bit his lips, determining to be revenged
when the captain-general had gone, but never had the chance, as he was
carried off to Venice, at which the Veglians rang the bells for joy. The
Venetians set matters in order; but the count wrote letters saying that
he would soon return to Veglia and punish all traitors; in consequence
of which the Veglians assured the governor that, should he do so, they
would either call in the Turks or leave the island waste and
uninhabited. To solve the difficulty the Venetians pensioned him off. He
became, however, soon dissatisfied with the amount and fled from Venice,
his disappearance being regretted by no one. He was an abominable
character, and among the evil deeds of which he was guilty was the
making of false seals to enable him to forge documents.

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE CATHEDRAL, VEGLIA

_To face page 171_]

A considerable portion of the walls built by the Venetians round the
town still remains, overgrown with ivy, and the city is still entered by
the old gate-openings, the Porta di Su and the Porta Pisani, though the
actual gateways have disappeared. On one of the towers guarding the
latter is a rather fine relief of the Venetian lion. Close to the
cathedral is the castle of the Frangipani, two of the towers being
within the bishop's garden. The sea washes the rocks on which they are
built, and in time of storm the spray flies over the curtain wall.

Our prowlings around the walls attracted the attention of two guards,
who, after following us for some time, stopped us to question our
proceedings. The production of the Statthalter's letter which I carried
with me satisfied them that we had no nefarious designs, and it was
returned to me with the remark (made rather regretfully, I thought) that
it was all "in order." Travellers will find it advantageous to obtain
some kind of "permit" if their tastes are likely to lead to the
exhibition of unusual curiosity in relation to buildings and their
surroundings.

[Illustration: VEGLIA, SHOWING THE CASTLE TOWERS]

The cathedral, erected in 1133 in thanksgiving for a great victory over
Corsairs gained with the assistance of Venice, was therefore dedicated
to S. Mark. It consists of nave and aisles with an apse of five sides of
an octagon, which bears the date of 1688. The nave arcade is
semicircular, the arches varying in height, some being stilted, and
rests upon sixteen columns of granite, Istrian stone, red marble of the
island, and pavonazzetto. Several are in more than one piece, one or two
are made up to the requisite height with another stone, and two are
octagonal. Most of them have but the slightest projection for base, the
level of the pavement having apparently been raised. Most of the caps
have Byzantine thistly acanthus worked with great use of the drill, one
has quaint gambolling beasts and birds within arched forms in place of
foliage, which show imitation of Oriental ornamental forms, and one,
which has hollows for inlays of squares and diamonds, bounded by the
leaf shapes, is exactly like one in the pergola of the director's house
at Salona, which came from the campanile, Spalato. There is a fine early
Renaissance choir-screen with an ambo at each side, made of the red
variegated marble of the island; an angel of white marble supports the
book-rest. To the north of this screen is a rather late Gothic chapel
with apse of three sides and lierne vaulting. It has octagonal wall
shafts and shields as bosses, with devices upon them, and the arms of
the Frangipani. The place of the altar still shows on the pavement, and
it has been suggested that the silver pala belonged to this chapel. Two
more chapels open from the south aisle through Venetian slightly ogee
arches, with saints at the top emergent from leaves, and a cable
moulding within and dentils without. In one, the columns have been
replaced by Renaissance half-columns; in the other, the
fourteenth-century shafts still remain. In the choir are two fine Gothic
tomb slabs, commemorating a fourteenth-century bishop and an arch-priest
(1494), and other slabs with coats of arms in high relief.

[Illustration: SOUTH PORTION OF CHOIR-SCREEN, CATHEDRAL, VEGLIA

_To face page 173_]

The silver pala is preserved just within the west door upon the south
wall, behind glass in tolerably large sheets, so that it can be easily
studied. The present _parroco_ replaced the old heavy wooden framing by
one of lighter construction. It is thought to have been a triptych
originally. Each of the wings has ten figures in two rows of five, one
above the other--twenty in all. On the right S. Peter occupies the
middle of the top row with S. John the Baptist below; on the left are S.
Paul and S. Nicholas in the corresponding places. All the figures stand
on brackets. The upper centre is occupied by the Madonna and Child
standing on the crescent moon; below is the Coronation of the Virgin;
the other four niches have figures of angels, three half-lengths in
each, one above the other. SS. Jerome and George are recognisable among
the other saints. The heads are much too large, and the figure-work is
coarse. The niches are trefoiled and ogee-headed, with crockets and
finials and octagonal colonnettes between, springing from corbels, and
crowned with imbricated pinnacles; they have piercings resembling window
tracery, with rosettes between each repetition. The bar which divides
the two ranges of figures, and the frame have very beautiful triple rows
of vine-scrolling in exceedingly low relief, which is quite lost at a
little distance. An inscription gives the name of Peter Grimani and the
date of 1742; but this must refer to a restoration, as the style
suggests the fifteenth century, and would agree quite well with the date
1405, when one of the Frangipani is recorded to have established the
chapel of S. Vito in the cathedral. The treasury now contains nothing of
importance--at least, inquiries only produced a showy processional cross
of the seventeenth century.

The cathedral is entered from an archway beneath the campanile; on the
other side of the arch is the church of S. Quirinus, a Romanesque
building in two stories. The lower portion is now a wine-store; the
upper, reached by steps, is vaulted like a crypt, nine spans resting on
four low columns. It has been modernised, but the three apses are
untouched externally, crowned with a corbelled arcuated cornice, the
centre one being the largest. The cathedral has a doorway on the south
side not now used; the round arch has a torus moulding, pilaster strips,
and caps beneath a gabled hood, made of the local marble and bleached by
the sun to a delightful varied yellow.

[Illustration: IN THE HARBOUR, BESCA NOVA

_To face page 175_]

Close to the Porta di Su is another Romanesque church--S. Maria. The
interior has been modernised, though a few caps resembling those in
the cathedral remain; but the tower (at the west end) has two stories,
with two circular-headed windows with buttress between unspoilt. At the
other side of the road is S. Francesco, which has a tower of five
stories near the east end, and long trefoil-headed windows. The
high-altar-piece in this church (a Madonna with saints) is ascribed to
Pordenone (1531), and there is an interesting pulpit with five marquetry
panels, S. Francis receiving the stigmata in the centre, and
personifications of four Christian graces in the others, good work of
the seventeenth century.

The Venetian clock-tower, now a café, bears the date 1493 on a panel of
the winged lion above the pointed arch, but must be earlier than that
date, as it also bears the Frangipani escutcheon. The loggia was behind
it. In this piazza are carved panels from a Venetian well or fountain,
with an inscription of 1558 ascribing its erection to Antonio Gradenigo,
swags of flowers and fruit, a S. Mark's lion with a tower by the sea,
&c.; and in the walls here and there are encrusted a few antique
inscriptions.

A walk of about forty minutes brings one to the shore of Val Cassione, a
nearly semicircular bay with only a narrow entrance from the Quarnerolo.
The water is generally smooth like a pond, the mountain of Treskavac,
which rises to the north-east, sheltering it. The island of Zoccolante,
girdled with ilex and maples, lies opposite the village of Ponte, and on
it is the Franciscan monastery of Cassione. A pergola shelters the path
from the boat-house to the porch, and the cloister is full of flowers
and bushes. The church has an altar-piece by Girolamo da S. Croce,
signed and dated 1535, and a Raffaellesque Virgin and sleeping Child.
The library contains a few early printed books. Throughout the island,
except in this convent and in the town of Veglia, the Slav liturgy,
granted by Pope John VIII. (872-882), is in use.

[Illustration: THE HARBOUR OF BESCA NOVA

_To face page 176_]

The usual route to Castel Muschio and Veglia is from Fiume, but one of
our visits was made from Arbe to Besca Nova, a most picturesque and
equally evil-smelling port, sheltered by widely stretching rocky points
(one of which bears the appropriate name of Punta Scoglia), which rise
to mountainous masses behind the little town, with a modern cemetery
chapel on one of the lower spurs. The houses straggle round the curve of
the shore, with groups of trees here and there, and little creeks
running up into the land, crossed by narrow bridges; the streets, mere
alleys often, scarcely permitting two persons to pass each other, rise
to a church round which they cluster more thickly. At this end of the
town the houses cling to the side of the hill above and below the
street, and are approached by steps which descend to the front, though
there are also doors on the street level convenient for elopements, and
wonderful great chimneys of great originality and variety. There were a
good many boats in the harbour, and we had an excellent opportunity of
seeing it from all points of view, for the pier at which the steamer
stops is at one horn of the bay, and it is a walk of a quarter of an
hour to the indifferent inn. We asked a couple of gentlemen who were
coming out if we could get anything to eat there, and they replied: "Oh
yes, if you go at once." We found, however, that we must order what we
wanted and wait until it was cooked, so we left the civil _padrona_ to
her labours, and immediately were mobbed by a crowd of children to whom
strangers were a godsend. A gendarme approached and asked for our
credentials, but, being satisfied that we were not dangerous, offered to
assist us in any way he could, and we found that the children
disappeared for a time. I made inquiries of him as to a couple of
pictures ascribed to Vivarini and Basaiti, which I understood were
in the town, but he knew nothing about them. The Vivarini is a Madonna
enthroned with two child angels at her feet, with three saints on either
side of her and angels holding the baldacchino.

[Illustration: THE MAIN STREET, BESCA NOVA

_To face page 177_]

On our return to the inn the question of a carriage to Veglia engaged
our attention. There was an officer of some kind in the room, who had
taken one of the three carriages which appear to compose the transport
of Besca Nova and declined to share it. The second was under repair, one
of its wheels being in the hands of the wheelwright on the ground in
front of the inn. The third had been engaged by two Italian gentlemen,
father and son, and its appearance suggested doubts as to whether it
would take five persons and our luggage over the backbone of the island.
There was a diligence, but it started at 2 a.m., and the drivers tried
to persuade us to sleep at Besca, saying they could take us on at 6 a.m.
The _déjeuner_ we had had, however, inspired so little confidence that
we determined to get on to Veglia that night, sharing the third carriage
with the Italians, though in the end we did not benefit very much by the
arrangement. As the shadows began to lengthen, the horses were put to,
the harness being supplemented with bits of rope in some places, and we
packed ourselves and our belongings into the carriage, finding our
fellow-travellers very pleasant companions. The narrow road runs up a
rocky valley, at first with a considerable space of cultivated land on
each side, vineyards and grain occupying the greater part; and before
long Besca Valle came in sight, a barbarous-looking village, with
curious reed-thatched huts for styes and cart-hovels, and with
whitewashed walls to the houses which stood upon unparapeted terraces
supported on great arches used for storage of different kinds. In the
church of S. Lucia, some distance away, is the earliest Glagolitic
inscription known. Our driver appeared to be on familiar terms with most
of the population, and was continually calling out greetings to people
some distance from the road.

The valley narrowed and the rocks rose higher, the clear bright green
Fiumera foamed and tumbled in its rocky bed, and we passed a picturesque
mill astride of it, backed up with trees. Soon the driver called our
attention to a great rock hanging from the cliff which seemed as if its
fall from the height was merely a matter of moments, but which had
looked so, he said, for years. The continuous climb was interrupted by a
wooded depression through which the road wound; it then crossed the
stream and commenced a long ascent continuing for more than a mile,
which we negotiated on foot. As we rose higher the view expanded, and we
found it pleasant to turn and gaze at it, warm in the sunset-glow. The
Velebit Mountains, with their summits hidden in the clouds, blushed a
beautiful warm rose colour, while Arbe and the nearer island of
Pervicchio which shelters the harbour, rather more orange in colour,
contrasted with the pale sapphire of the sea, each increasing the
brilliancy of the other. The shadowed valley at our feet, with mill,
stream, and dark trees, enhanced the brightness of the distance and of
the final glow upon Besca Nova, where the curve of its houses embraced
the bay with chains of orange and cream colour.

A solitary horseman passed us while we were surmounting the stony waste
through which the higher portion of the road winds, a greyish and
reddish variegated marble used in buildings in the island, and just at
the summit we met the diligence on its way to Besca. The sunset was
superb, the glow of the sky reflected in the sea, with Cherso dark
against it and the shores of Veglia laid out below us, showing Ponte
and the Convent of Cassione, and Veglia beyond almost hidden in trees.
As we descended the long slope the colour faded from the sky, and long
before we reached the town of Veglia nothing could be discerned but the
silhouettes of branch and leaf against the sky.

[Illustration: CHIMNEYS AT BESCA NOVA

_To face page 178_]




XV

OSSERO AND CHERSO


On one of our journeys we went by boat from Trieste to Lussin Piccolo,
stopping only at Pola. It was just before Easter, and many sailors from
the fleet were going home for a holiday. The quay was crowded with
passengers, and a queerly shaped engine, belching forth thick smoke,
with train attached, was drawn up behind them. This we thought a fair
subject for a snap-shot, but the production of the camera attracted the
attention of a policeman who would not be satisfied until it was put
away, though the arsenal was behind us. The sailors swarmed on board and
filled the whole fore part of the boat--fine-looking fellows for the
most part, and very good-humoured. Their kits were done up in
handkerchiefs with the map of Europe printed on them in red, blue, or
buff. They were full of jokes, and were, in fact, just like a lot of big
schoolboys. Some of them gathered in a ring and sang in parts for some
time; the music sounded better a little way off than near. There were
also Montenegrins on board who had been working on some railway in
course of construction. One of them had two pairs of corduroy trousers
on, the upper whitish, the under the usual brown-green.

[Illustration: LUSSIN GRANDE

_To face page 181_]

Lussin Piccolo lies at the head of a deep bay, and climbs the ridge
along which the road runs to Lussin Grande, a place which is now much
smaller than its neighbour, but more picturesque and pleasant. The
bigger hotels are at Lussin Piccolo, where the larger harbour allows the
steamers to call. It has become a winter residence for Russians and
Austrians; and the keeper of the largest café told us that many of the
former came, instancing an officer of the guards who stayed six months,
and told him he was better off there than in St. Petersburg, or indeed
Manchuria, where he expected to be sent if he returned! The harbour is
called Val d'Augusto, because the fleet of the Emperor Augustus is said
to have remained at anchor there for a whole winter. It may be true, for
at the battle of Actium his fleet was principally manned by Dalmatians.
From above the town the view looking towards Ossero is rather fine, the
summits of the hills along the spine of the island rising one beyond the
other, culminating in Monte Ossero, paling and getting bluer with
greater distance. The sea, of a blue quite different in its quality,
runs into the land in many little inlets, while beyond are Veglia and
the mainland mountains often capped with clouds.

The road to Lussin Grande runs along the slope of the hills, rounding
tree-clad spurs and diving into hollows, with frequent peeps down into
little coves where boats are drawn up. In one of these a little fellow
was paddling himself about in a tub. On seeing us looking at him, he
raised the usual boatman's cry, "Barca, barca, Signori, per Lussin
Grande," and burst into a peal of laughter, in which we joined. The port
is delightfully picturesque; at the entrance is a church approached by a
flight of steps, with a terrace and cypresses, towards which nuns were
wending their way for "benediction"; the sun glowed upon white walls,
dark trees, and tiled roofs; while the harbour in shadow, full of boats
rich with the colour of nets and sails, and the reflections of the blue
sky upon its rippled surface, afforded an attractive contrast. One round
tower of the walls remains, built of stone, with machicolations and
Ghibelline battlements added in brick and plastered; a modern slab over
the door gives the date 1455. A kind of public garden called the Piazza
del Pozzo, from an old rope-worn well within it, contains many different
kinds of flowering and shady trees with seats beneath them, and aloes
grow on the rocks above the entrance to the harbour on both sides. The
town contains several fine houses, and in the churches are a few
interesting pictures, though architecturally they are not very
noticeable. One of them has a curious tiled ogee-shaped dome over the
sanctuary. The pictures are: in S. Nicolò, a Byzantine Madonna and Child
with S. Joseph; in S. Maria degli Angeli, a Bartolommeo Vivarini--God
the Father above, surrounded by angels; below, an enthroned Madonna with
SS. Augustine, Catherine, and Cicely on one side; on the other, SS.
Agnes, Jerome, and Lucy: the picture is dated 1475. There are also a
Pietro della Vacchia called a Titian, and a few others.

The women wear a curious head-dress something like a turban with a long
end hanging down the back; they generally have a loose sleeveless jacket
over a white full-sleeved blouse and a skirt in many pleats and often of
many colours, and an apron; sometimes a handkerchief is thrown over the
head instead of the head-dress. They also wear elaborate earrings, a
number of rings fastened together with a drop below, all of metal.

[Illustration: WEST DOOR OF THE COLLEGGIATA, OSSERO

_To face page 183_]

From Lussin Piccolo we drove in the opposite direction to Ossero, the
ancient Apsoros or Auxerrum, following a narrow road through
olive-yards, along the shore or some way up the hill among a bewildering
variety and luxuriance of vegetation. On the island, which is about
eighteen miles long, though nowhere more than two in breadth and seldom
more than one, there are three villages besides the two Lussins. They
are Neresine, Chiunschi, and S. Giacomo. At Neresine we were told that
there was an English-speaking landlady. So we looked her up at the
"Gasthaus Amicorum." We found that she and her husband had been in
America, and were told several strange stories of curious occurrences
which she had known of while there, especially with regard to the
drugging of drinks, which made one think she must find her life rather
lacking in excitement in this little out-of-the-way place where she was
apparently going to end her days. There is a Franciscan convent here
with a handsome campanile looking much more ancient than its date
(1590-1604), with double lights and a balustrade round the top. In the
church are pictures attributed to Girolamo da Santa Croce and the
younger Palma. The ascent of Monte Ossero may be made from here (1,900
ft.). The top is a bare, stony wilderness like the backbone of Veglia.

The weather was lovely, and we constantly came upon subjects which would
tempt the artist to stop and sketch--a monk seated under an olive-tree
in the shade; cattle and sheep tethered to the grey trunks, grouping
themselves as they clustered for company; a boat under sail seen through
the branches of the trees against a headland on the more distant hills
of Arbe and the mainland; and so on. The hillside was clothed with
bushes and plants in flower, among which we recognised the oleander,
white rose, juniper, laurustinus, fig-trees, ilex, cypress, strawberry
arbutus, a small-leaved myrtle, grape hyacinths thick on the ground,
giant and quite small spurges, a euphorbia with thorny trailing stems
and heart-shaped leaves, great ericas as high as a man, in some places
cyclamen in clumps by the wayside like daisies, a bush trifolium
something like cytisus but scentless, thyme, and a kind of sage, while
the bay-trees were so fully in bloom that they looked a pale yellowish
green instead of their usual colour. Just before we reached the bridge
connecting the islands of Ossero and Cherso, which has to be crossed
before the town of Ossero is reached, great banks of spurge made the
roadside as yellow as fields full of charlock in England.

In a wall at the entrance of the town the S. Mark's lion still watches,
though the two fortresses which report says were here are no longer
traceable. The cathedral is Lombardesque in style, built by Bishop
Antonio Palcić (1465-1474), and has a rather pretty doorway ascribed to
George of Sebenico, who was certainly employed by him upon other works,
and a massive campanile of 1675, which dominates the place. The nave is
five bays long, the arcade is round-arched with pretty caps and
ornamented archivolts, and the floor is paved with red and white marble
in chequers. The holy-water basins are simple, and the columns of the
ciborium rest on two red marble caps of the fourteenth century upside
down, one base of the same and one of the Lombardi period, showing the
use of older material. The church still retains a line monstrance, one
or two other pieces of silver-work, and some embroidered vestments,
though no longer the seat of a bishop, and over the high-altar is a
picture of the school of Titian. The monstrance is late Gothic, with a
foot added in the seventeenth century. It is decorated with many niches
and figures, and a fine cresting round the domical top. The curved
surfaces above and below the glass tube have scroll-work upon a blue
enamel ground, part of which has come away. In these places there is no
sign of pattern upon the silver, but only a general cross-patching
showing that the arabesques and other patterns were not soldered to the
ground beneath, but only arranged with the enamel flux before firing.
The architectural details are gilded, the rest is silver.

[Illustration: MONSTRANCE IN COLLEGGIATA, OSSERO

_To face page 184_]

There are some remains of Roman walls still traceable, between which and
the mediæval walls is the site of a large seven-aisled church, perhaps a
pair of twin basilicas. Upon the ruins of the seventh aisle the present
church of S. Maria was erected, and within it the ancient bishop's
throne, constructed of fragments of ninth-century carved slabs, was
still preserved till a few years ago. It was only after persistent
inquiries that we found it in a store-shed with other fragments of
ninth-century carving and some Roman antiquities thought of little
importance, though the inscriptions and other marble fragments and the
stone funerary urns are in their company. In the show museum are Roman
fragments, lamps, Pansiana pottery stamps, bronze vessels and utensils,
iron fragments, glass phials, &c. On the hill, not far off, prehistoric
tombs with interesting objects have been found; but the greater part of
the finds have been sent to more important museums.

The sea-passage, which is crossed by a swing bridge, is called the
"Cavanella di Ossero"; through it a strong current runs. The island of
Cherso, the ancient Apsirtide, is a miniature of Monte Maggiore, with
some fine mountain scenery in it, and a curious fresh-water lake, the
surface of which is only 50 ft. above sea-level, though it is 225 ft.
deep in some parts. The finest mountain scenery is near Smergo, where
the rock rises sheer from the water to the height of 1,000 ft. Here is
the "Dirupo di Smergo," a cave with a domed top. At one time the sea
broke into it, laying bare the interior, which is like a giant
amphitheatre with ribbed roof and sides. The fragments then detached lie
at the foot of the rock, making a wall between the sea and the cave. The
city of Cherso is best reached from Pola or Fiume. It lies at the head
of a winding inlet, protected by a round tower at the point, a relic of
the fortifications of an earlier period. It belonged to Venice from 1126
or 1130 till 1358, becoming finally Venetian in 1409, and was granted in
feud to various patrician families, so that all the objects of art in
the city show distinct traces of Venetian influence. The piazza by the
harbour is triangular in shape, the narrow streets, with many
picturesque houses in them, climb the hillside from the water, and the
ancient walls remain on the land side. The loggia is a simple
seventeenth-century building supported on six stone piers; in the back
wall are encrusted two inscriptions--one Roman, one mediæval. The
cathedral was burnt in 1827, but the west door still remains, very
closely resembling that of Ossero. A picture by Alvise Vivarini is
preserved in the priest's house--a Madonna with SS. Sebastian and
Catherine, and SS. Christopher and Cosmas.

In the chapel of the Mother of God is a Byzantine Madonna and Child on a
gold ground. The carnations are brownish; there is a cross on the breast
and on both sides of the head, with the Greek monogram ΜΗ Θϒ. There are
also some fine stalls in the church of the Franciscan monastery; but
there is not very much of interest in the town except the numerous
Venetian houses.

[Illustration: SMERGO FISHERMEN

_To face page 186_]




XVI

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF DALMATIA


The history of Dalmatia is obscure and confused for a great part of its
course. That there were Greek and Phœnician colonies along the coast and
on the islands is certain; the earliest of the former was that founded
by the Syracusans in Issa (Lissa) in 390 B.C. A Cyclopean building, the
so-called Gradina Gate at Gelsa, is attributable either to this colony
or to that of 385 B.C. in the ancient Pharia (Lesina). Tragurium (Traù)
and Epetium (Stobreć) were daughter colonies of Issa. The largest number
of inscriptions and coins have been found on Lesina and Lissa. Celts
were in the country from about the same period. The Roman conquest was
brought about by the appeal of the people of Issa for help against the
powerful native queen Teuta. Illyria, south of the Narenta, became a
Roman province in 168 B.C., though war with the inland tribes continued
till 34 B.C., when Augustus took the ships of the pirates of Curzola and
Meleda and the Liburnians, and conquered the inland tribes at
Promona--eight long and disastrous campaigns in all. There was, however,
another revolt in 6 A.D., when the danger to Rome was so great (800,000
men being in rebellion) that Augustus sent seven legions under such
generals as Tiberius, Germanicus, and Postumius, who took several years
to overcome their resistance, so that it was not till 12 A.D. that
Tiberius enjoyed his triumph. Some of the cities were made _municipia_,
and some colonies, and from this time Dalmatia was loyal to Rome. The
Antonines erected important buildings in Jadera and Burnum, and they
also fortified Salona.

Roman Dalmatia included the whole coast from Istria to the Drina, part
of Albania, all Montenegro, Herzegovina, Croatia, Servia, almost all
Bosnia, and some of the islands of the Quarnero. The legions for the
most part remained near the coast, which gradually increased in
commercial prosperity and civilisation; broad and safe roads were made
to the interior uniting the Save and the Danube on one side, and the
Drina on the other. From Burnum a road by way of Petrovac reached the
basin of the Save; from Salona a fan of carriage-roads spread out--one
across the Dinaric Alps by Æquum and the hill of Prolog to the Danube,
another by the same hill to Livno and Kupres, a third between Delminum
and Serajevo. From Narona (Vid) the great Roman Road of the Narenta
started, and in Albania was the Via Ignatia from Durazzo and Vallona to
Salonica. The great coast-road from Zara went past Scardona and Salona
to Narona and Scodra; the inner land route commenced at Tarsatico
(Fiume) and went by Zengg over the Velebits to Clambeta (near Obrovazzo)
and Zara, then by Nadinum, Asseria (Podgradje), Burnum, Promona,
Municipium Magnum, and Andetrium to Salona.

Illyricum was divided into Liburnia, from Istria to the river Kerka, the
people belonging to the juridical Convent of Scardona, which settled the
business of eighty-nine cities; from the Kerka to the Narenta they sent
their representatives to Salona; and Illyris Græca, from the Narenta to
Drilone in Epirus, which belonged to the juridical Convent of Narona.
With the successive Eastern invasions and the consequent race
differentiations, maritime and inland Dalmatia were separated, and the
Turkish conquest made the Dinaric Alps into a bulwark not to be crossed.

The Illyrians furnished the Romans with many distinguished soldiers, of
whom Claudius Gothicus, Aurelian, Septimius, Probus, and Carus of Narona
were soldier emperors. Diocletian was the most celebrated. More than
sixty Roman settlements are known. For about seventy years the country
was ruled by the Goths. After the recovery of Italy by Belisarius and
Narses it belonged to Byzantium from 537, and was ruled from Ravenna by
a _catapan_ at Salona. The war with Chosroes in 600-614 strained the
Byzantine resources and thus denuded the coast of soldiers, so that the
Avar and Slav inroads met with little resistance under Heraclius
(610-640), who had called in the latter to drive out the Avars; Narona,
Salona, Epidaurus, Burnum, and Rhizinium were destroyed. In 641 Pope
John IV., a Dalmatian by birth, sent Abbot John to Istria and Dalmatia
to ransom prisoners and collect relics.

The Croats and Serbs exterminated the Avars in the middle of the seventh
century and delivered the province, the Croats occupying the west to the
river Cetina, the Serbs the east from the Cetina to Albania. Under the
Serbs the southern portion was divided into four _zupanje_, of which the
only name which has survived is Trebinia, which reached from Cattaro to
Ragusa and included the mountain regions. The Croat dukes recognised the
sovereignty of the Carlovingians, as is proved by the oldest inscription
extant, that of Tripimir (852), being dated by the rule of the Emperor
Lothair. The title of king was assumed by Muncimir in 914. Two or three
of the kings resided at Nona in the eleventh century--Stepan ([symbol:
dagger] 1052), Peter Cresimir and Svinimir ([symbol: dagger] 1089). The
widow of the last invited her brother Ladislas of Hungary to take the
kingdom. In 1097 Coloman I. of Hungary married the daughter of Roger of
Sicily. Under Coloman II. (1102-1113) the coast towns from Zara to
Spalato were Hungarian, while Ragusa and Cattaro remained under the
protection of Byzantium.

The government of the Dalmatian cities was democratic to a considerable
extent, the oligarchy embracing a large proportion of the inhabitants,
and the monasteries were expected to contribute to the common needs and
share in the defence of the town. The supreme official was called prior;
judges and tribunes also are mentioned in contemporary documents. A
certain dependence upon the Greek Empire was recognised, for in Zara the
_strategos_, the _catapan_, and the proconsul of Dalmatia appear even
after the time of the Croatian kings. The Venetian doge had the title of
King of Dalmatia given him by the Emperor of Constantinople about the
end of the eleventh century in return for the help given by the fleet
against the Normans.

During the whole of the twelfth century Venice and Hungary contested the
possession of Dalmatia, victory inclining to Venice, who, by policing
the Adriatic, made her protection valuable to the coast cities. The
pirate raids from which the coasts suffered were of varied
nationality--Saracen and Turk, Uscoc and bands of native pirates. Of
these latter the Narentans were the most powerful. They remained pagan
till near the end of the ninth century, and beat off an attack by Doge
Pietro Candiano in 887, killing him. He was buried in the atrium at
Grado. For one hundred and sixty-eight years they carried on the contest
with Venice, being most powerful during the tenth century, when Otho I.
sought their alliance. They had then become Christian, and assisted in
driving the Saracens from Monte Gargano. In 992 the confederate
Dalmatian cities asked for the protection of Venice, in response to
which the expedition under Orseolo II. was fitted out, and broke their
power. The population of the Narenta valley is now but 12,000, in spite
of the facts that Metkovič, near the mouth, is the terminus of the
railway from Serajevo and Mostar, and that the government has spent much
money in dredging and embankment works at the mouth of the river. The
boundary of Herzegovina is but a mile from Metkovič, for which it serves
as port. Vid, a few miles away, is the ancient Narona. A good many
inscriptions and antique fragments have been found there, and are now
encrusted in the wall of a house. For many years Vid was a bulwark of
Christianity against the Turks, and the minarets of a little Turkish
village, Liubuski, in which half the population, male and female, wear
Turkish costume may be seen not far away.

By the middle of the fourteenth century Lewis of Hungary had acquired
the whole of Dalmatia from Zara to Cattaro. In 1409-1420 Venice bought
the territory from Hungary, with the exception of Ragusa, which for some
fifty years remained under Hungarian protection, but after 1467 was
protected by Turkey. In the sixteenth century the Cross and the Crescent
were bitterly opposed; Austria became the Christian champion in place of
Venice towards the end of the seventeenth century, and at the fall of
the Republic Istria and Dalmatia were given to her in 1797 by the treaty
of Passerino. From 1806 till 1814 they were French; but the peace of
Vienna settled their destiny as forming part of the Austrian dominions,
in which they have remained till the present day.




XVII

ARBE


It was very early in the morning when we arrived at Arbe the first time;
so early, in fact, that the innkeeper was still in bed and had to be
interviewed from his chamber-window, and we had to deposit our
belongings at the door before commencing our explorations breakfastless.
On this occasion we were unfortunate. The skull of S. Christopher was
exposed on the altar, but the shrine was locked up, and the _parroco_
had gone into the country to visit a sick man, with the key in his
pocket, while the ciborium was swathed in festival draperies. We
therefore determined to satisfy ourselves with a cursory inspection, and
arranged to return the next year; for the steamboats are not like
suburban trains, missing one of which merely means a slight delay. Many
of the islands have but one or two services in the week; and staying for
the next boat may derange the plan of a whole tour.

The city looks most attractive from the sea as one approaches. It
occupies a long tongue of land midway along the western coast, and the
walls drop into the water both towards the harbour and the open sea.
They are nearly complete in their circuit, but have lost their
battlements and some portions of their substance. There is a good deal
of ruin within them, which makes the foregrounds uninteresting and
squalid. To the west is a public garden planted with fir-trees, and
with seats here and there. Aloes grow plentifully on the rocks to the
south-west.

[Illustration: THE LANDING-PLACE, ARBE

_To face page 193_]

In the early Middle Ages Arbe was prosperous owing to its trade and its
position on the high-road between Venice and the East. The plague of
1456 depopulated it, and all the richer people fled except the bishop,
Johannes Scaffa, and five canons. In 1463 Bosniaks flying from the Turks
came to increase the population and were well received, but the town
never recovered its prosperity. The empty streets and ruined houses and
churches near the cathedral testify to the desolation. The style of the
houses is Venetian for the most part, as might be expected, since it was
the port of call for those going to Greece or the Holy Land. Some of
them are very interesting and beautiful. The quay has several fronting
on to it, specially a lofty tower-like building of the fourteenth
century with later windows and balconies inserted. Many marble coats of
arms may be seen here and there, and the windows and door-jambs often
have charming carved ornaments. The Palazzo Nemira shows a pleasing
combination of late Gothic and Renaissance detail in pierced panels and
balustrading; and the _parroco_ lives in a house which has a good
doorway of the usual Venetian-Gothic type. The house in which Archbishop
De Dominis was born (for some time Dean of Windsor, and celebrated for
his scientific attainments), a palace of somewhat later date, is now a
kind of club and reading-room, in which the innkeeper apparently has the
right of serving his patrons with meals. The families of De Dominis and
De Hermolais gave many bishops to the see between the twelfth and
fifteenth centuries. The loggia is well preserved or has been well
restored. Overlooking it is a window from which a parrot screams
insulting remarks to passers-by.

Arbe was known to the ancients as part of Liburnia. Pliny mentions it,
and so does Porphyrogenitus. There was a second city in the island in
antiquity called Colento, of which every trace has disappeared. The
island belonged sometimes to the Croats, sometimes to Byzantium, and
sometimes to Hungary, but from 1115 was mainly under the influence of
Venice. The history of the Church goes back to the tenth century, but
the first bishops' names are uncertain. A Zaraitan record of 986
mentions a Bishop Petrus. In 1062 a Bishop Dragus is named as being at
the consecration of S. Pietro in Valle, the oldest Benedictine convent
in Arbe. In the communal archives are preserved the oldest MSS. of the
kings of Dalmatia and Croatia of the tenth century.

The cathedral is a basilica with nave and aisles. The main apse is
octagonal outside and semicircular within; the apse to the north aisle
also exists; that of the south aisle has been replaced by a square
chapel. The nave arcade consists of six bays of round arches, resting on
five pairs of columns which, though they are made up with plaster and
painted, are probably antique, since the caps differ enormously in
height and column and cap frequently do not fit. Some of the capitals
might be late Roman, but most of them are very rude imitations.
Super-abaci are used. The ciborium is hexagonal and rests on six columns
of Greek cipollino, with the top and bottom mouldings worked on them;
the caps are Byzantine of the sixth or seventh century, but without
super-abaci. The front arches have huge Renaissance swags in the
spandrils and a moulded cornice with classic enrichments; at the back
are three ninth-century panels with arch and spandril in one piece,
carved with ornament similar to that on the baptistery of Calixtus at
Cividale; the pyramidal roof terminates in a carved finial. The greater
part of the building is of the thirteenth century. The church, having
become ruinous in 1237, was restored in 1287, and again in 1438 and
1490. It is now the chief parish church of the diocese of Veglia. The
west door belongs to the last restoration; in the tympanum is a poorly
carved Pietà. It is flanked by some remains of a flat arcading. The
wheel-window above, though Romanesque in design, bears the date 1439. A
pink marble is used in this façade with very good effect. In the north
wall is a square marble panel with an enthroned Christ, of Byzantine
type, like the ciborium and the nave columns a relic of an earlier
building. The stalls are fine of their kind, and we were told that an
offer of 50,000 florins and a new set had been made for them and
refused. They are dated 1445, and are elaborately carved with figures
and the usual nerveless foliage of the period, of which other good
examples occur at Zara and Parenzo. In a chapel in the north aisle is a
polygonal Renaissance font of rather pleasing design, with S. John the
Baptist in the central panel and fruit, &c., hanging in the others. In
the apse of the north aisle is an early Madonna with the Child, robed in
red and blue with golden diaper patterns; and over an altar in the south
aisle is an interesting tempera picture in a frame of the fourteenth
century, painted on a gold ground, with Greek inscriptions and
technique. In the central panel is a Crucifixion, on the left is S.
Matthew, and on the right S. Christopher.

S. Christopher was patron of the town and diocese, and the greatest
relic is his head, now that those of Shadrach, Meshech, and Abednego
have disappeared. The first mention of it occurs in the eleventh
century, when Bishop Dabrana or Domana (1080-1086) brought it forth with
prayers and hymns to deliver Arbe from an attacking horde which had
besieged the city for a month. A great stone fell from heaven into the
camp of the besiegers on that occasion, and the missiles which they
shot recoiled upon them. In Arbe, S. Christopher's Day is kept on May 9,
the day of this discomfiture, instead of July 25 as elsewhere. Other
deliverances took place in 1097 from Coloman of Hungary, and in 1105
from a Hungarian Count Sergius, according to tradition. The shrine
appears to be work of the twelfth century, and is based on the antique,
but betrays Byzantine influence also. It is decorated with gilded
reliefs upon a ground of silver. It is a rectangular wooden box with a
pyramidal lid, to which the silver plates are nailed. The subjects upon
the four sides are: 1. A seated king and an archer shooting at S.
Christopher, who is bound to a stake; the arrows fall deflected and
broken by the hand of God, which appears by the saint's head. Above is a
canopy supported on twisted columns. 2. The saint is beheaded beneath a
canopy; the hand of God again appears by the headless trunk. Two
soldiers in Roman costume stand by, one with lance, and the other with
raised sword. 3. Three holy men holding scrolls, barefoot and robed in
tunic and toga. 4. Three holy women, two holding a cross; the heads have
been restored. All these figures have large heads, especially those
standing under the round-arched arcade, with alternate twisted and
ringed colonnettes. The lid has _repoussé_ subjects upon all four
surfaces: 1. Christ enthroned, blessing and holding a book, with the
monograms IC and XC; in the corners the lion and eagle with books. 2. S.
John with the eagle and monogram IONS. 3. S. Christopher, beardless, as
a standard-bearer, and with a royal

  S.XPO

mantle, with inscription FOR; at his feet a male

  VS

and a female figure--donors probably. 4. The Virgin standing with
monograms ΜΗ Θϒ. An angel with a book stands near. The skull is
surrounded by a double crown, the outer of gold set with precious
stones, the inner of silver ornamented with lilies. The tradition is
that the reliquary was the gift of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary.

In the sacristy are also three strips of champlevé enamel from a
destroyed reliquary, with figures of eight of the Apostles--Matthew,
James, Bartholomew, Andrew, Thomas, Philip, Thaddeus, and Svhon
(Simon)--seated and holding symbols in one hand and churches in the
other (which have central domes sometimes, and pediments over the doors,
while the roofs and towers look much later than the thirteenth century,
to which they are generally ascribed). The colours used are blue, green,
yellow, white, and red, and the style resembles that of the Maestricht
school. Eitelberger describes another plaque on which SS. Peter, John,
Mark, and three others were represented. This seems to have disappeared
since his time, as it was not shown me with the others.

The campanile of the cathedral is one of the finest in Dalmatia, and is
older than the year 1212, in which year there is mention of it. It is 20
ft. square and more than 100 ft. high, with four stories separated by
ornamented string courses, a base and a pyramidal top. The base has a
door and eight windows, two on each side, on a higher level. The lowest
story has also two windows on each side, but beneath three corbelled
arches. In the next the windows are each coupled, with a central
colonnette and an arch above springing from the central and angle
pilaster strips. In the third the windows have three lights and coupled
colonnettes beneath a similar arch, but the story is loftier. In the top
story (which is as deep as two of those below) there are four lights
with coupled colonnettes and a square framing round them; a cornice
slightly projecting and a balustrade complete the perpendicular part.
All the arches are round and the window shafts have neither cap nor
base. The leaf ornament of the strings imitates the antique. The
pyramidal top is octagonal, and bears an inscription recording its
restoration after damage by lightning; the lower portion seems to be
original.

Four of five other churches have campaniles, of which S. Andrea is the
best, apparently twelfth-century work, as are the three apses at the
eastern end. S. Giustina has a curious bulbous top, plastered and
painted red. The churches generally have a semicircular apse and flat
wooden ceilings; those without campanili have bell-turrets on the west
wall, many of them no longer in use. S. Andrea was rebuilt in the middle
of the fifteenth century, and has a good Venetian Renaissance doorway.
In S. Antonio, just beyond the cathedral is a fifteenth-century
altar-piece with carved and painted figures. In S. Andrea is a woefully
repainted Bart. Vivarini, signed and dated 1485, and in the Franciscan
convent of S. Eufemia, some way outside the walls, there are said to be
two pictures by the same artist.

Of S. Giovanni Battista, which was so interesting for the construction
of its apse and ambulatory, scarcely anything remains--just the exterior
wall of the apse and north wall of the nave, with remains of one door
with an inscription. The obliging owner or renter of the ground showed
us a piece of the mosaic pavement in rather bad repair, which he said
the Duke of S. Stefano wished to buy, but it was impossible to get it up
from the grass which had grown round it, apart from the difficulty of
the three _permessi_ required from the bishop, the authorities, and the
proprietor. He had the earth swept off the piece which we saw, and there
was no grass growing just there. The patterns are interweavings rather
Roman in design, the colours used being black, red, rose-pink, and
white. The church is said to have been the first cathedral; later it
belonged to a Franciscan convent which was used as the palace of the
bishop some seventy years ago. Round the cloister were two stories of
rooms, with a curious chapter-house in the corner. The site is now laid
out as a garden, with pergolas and a terrace-walk looking over the sea;
amid these are still a good many architectural fragments lying about,
some of which appear to go back to the tenth century. Four boxes full of
such fragments were sent to the Museum of S. Donato at Zara without any
claim being made for expenses, but were refused.

One ought not to omit mentioning the chapel of the Campo Santo, which
has a strange façade with three great conventional shell forms above a
rose-window, and a carved architrave with Renaissance _motifs_ above
the door. It was restored in 1867; the adjoining ruinous building has
1657 over its door.

S. Pietro in Valle is some six miles from Arbe, and is as yet
undescribed. Signor Rismondo, whose kindness I have just referred to,
offered to drive us out to it, an attractive offer which I was
exceedingly sorry to have to decline; but the times of sailing of the
boats are not elastic, and it would have meant spending four days more
on the island, an amount of time which I could not spare. He also wanted
to take us to below Loparo, where he said the geological formations are
strange and impressive. The cliffs facing the mainland are riven into
detached pinnacles estimated to be as high as the campanile of the
cathedral, and the scenery is savage in the extreme.

Our second visit to Arbe was made from Zara, which we left in rather
stormy weather, the waves outside the harbour flashing with little white
caps, while flaws of rain constantly hid the island of Ugljan on the
other side of the channel. The boat was rather a small one, belonging to
the Zaratina company, with a crew which consisted of a captain, who also
acted as supercargo, an engineer, a stoker, a cook, one deck-hand, and a
cock. The cock's name was Nero, and he had voyaged with the boat for two
months (as the engineer testified) without suffering even from the most
tempestuous weather. There was an awning over the central portion of the
boat and flapping pieces of sailcloth, apparently intended to shield the
very varied merchandise which was being brought on board, and we found
that it was possible to shelter beneath it by observing the direction of
the wind and keeping to leeward. The crew comforted some women who
feared the roughness of the waves (one of whom carried a new hat in a
large paper-bag, which became rather dilapidated under the attentions of
the wind and the frequent showers) by saying it would be all right when
we got round the point behind which Nona lies; and as the boat was very
buoyant and seaworthy we found it possible to enjoy the passage
notwithstanding the doubtful weather. As we turned down the bay to Val
Cassione, however, the wind shifted a point and blew dead against us,
and we began to think that the boat was very small for such a sea. The
women and a child had to disembark here, and were almost in tears, and
the length of time that the boatmen took to make up their minds to come
out from the harbour and face the choppy sea did not reassure them. Nero
marched bravely up and down the deck, giving vent every now and then to
a rather cracked crow, and we wondered how he escaped being blown
overboard! Fortunately he carried very little sail, only two feathers
remaining in his dilapidated tail; but his spirit was high, and he was
always ready to respond to the challenges of the engineer.

As we rounded the point after leaving Val Cassione the wind shifted
again and the weather improved as if by magic. The clouds gradually
melted away, and the blue of the sky palpitated through the grey; the
sun shone warm upon the barren, featureless coast, adding colour to the
dispiriting grey of the limestone spotted with the dark green of shrubs,
a characteristic of most of the Dalmatian islands, and the Velebit
Mountains became clear, in some places to the summits, though the
greater part of the chain was still cloud-capped and barred with heavy
purple shadows.

The party at lunch consisted of the captain, the engineer, and a priest
who was now the one passenger beside ourselves. We comfortably filled
the table in the little cabin. The captain said that since the
phylloxera damaged the vines two-thirds of the Dalmatians (the country
people) had emigrated. He seemed to hold them in slight estimation,
perhaps because he was a sailor, which he said none of them are in that
part of the country (a statement we had an opportunity of verifying, for
we noticed that a very slight motion of the boat makes them sick), and
so ignorant "that it would require 2,000 years of teaching to civilise
them!" The captain himself belonged to one of the outlying islands,
where his wife and family lived and where he spent two nights in each
week; and he took a gloomy view of the prospects of the "Dalmati," as
the Italian-speaking Dalmatians call themselves. He said when he was a
boy the language used in the schools generally was Italian, then it was
changed to German for a time, but Croat is now universal, so that in
twenty years Italian will no longer be understood along the eastern
littoral; which will be bad for the culture of the country, almost the
whole of which is Italian, and has been so for centuries.

Our priest left us at a little convent with a chapel and two houses
standing close to the water's edge; and at Novaglia we took on board a
party of emigrants, some of whom were quite boys, while one was
grey-headed. Most of them wore the picturesque costume of the Morlacchi;
but the next day we saw them again, clad in the characterless, sack-like
slop-suit which seems to be thought a mark of civilisation, having lost
much of their individuality without gaining anything in exchange. A
number of friends lingered on the shore to see them off; but there was
no such singing as we heard next day at Loparo beyond Arbe, the
birthplace of the founder of the Republic of S. Marino, where some
twenty or more were waiting for us on a barge in the pretty bay, singing
a farewell song which wailed over the water as we approached. As they
boarded the steamboat they kissed their friends on both cheeks, and
crowded to the side as we got under way again, repeating their
melancholy song and waving adieus; while all along the tops of the hills
which flank both sides of the harbour figures silhouetted against the
sky, waved in response, and stood watching the boat as long as we could
distinguish them.

[Illustration: ARBE FROM THE SHORE]

When we reached Arbe, cresting its rocky point with a picturesque
confusion of walls, campanili, and house-roofs that seemed to grow out
of the rocks, so well do they harmonise with them, the afternoon was
sunny and delightful, though the roads showed signs of the rain which
had recently fallen. At sunset we climbed again to the public garden
and enjoyed the well-remembered view of towers and walls grey against
the glowing sky, the most beautiful grouping of one of the most
picturesque places that I know, intensified by the charm of the changing
colours as the glow gradually faded, and the opalescent sea by slow
degrees took its place in the quiet harmonies of twilight.

[Illustration: ASCENT TO THE RAMPARTS, ZARA

_To face page 205_]




XVIII

ZARA


The continuation of the Canale della Morlacca, which washes the
mainland, is the Canale della Montagna, on the west side of which is the
island of Pago, the Gissa of the ancients. The city of the same name was
founded by the Venetians, and was originally a defensive military post
against the Uscocs. The bay upon which it is situated lies open to the
"Bora," and therefore cannot always be entered in winter. For this
reason Val Cassione, on the west side of the narrow island, is the usual
port. A road over a slight hill conducts to the south end of the bay and
the city, in front of which the water is so narrow that it is bridged
over. On the near side are the celebrated salt-works, the richest in
Dalmatia. There are a few Roman remains, including those of a camp; and
near Novaglia is a tunnel 300 yards long, lighted by pierced apertures,
said to have belonged to a Roman aqueduct. The scenery outside the
island of Pago is uninteresting; the islands have little elevation,
beauty of form or colour, nor is there sufficient vegetation to disguise
the dull grey of the rocks, though, as the boat turns to the west to
gain the mouth of the Canal of Zara, the Velebit Mountains behind may
become imposing under certain circumstances. The first time we went to
Zara the sun was setting at this part of the voyage, and the sky effect
was fine, while the Velebits flushed a pinkish purple with blue-purple
shadows, the silhouette only showing in places beneath heavy masses of
cloud, in which some of the summits were hidden. Falling showers here
and there softened and veiled the strong light and shade, relieved by
the prismatic hues of a rainbow. As the sun sank lower the mountains and
clouds gradually became a pallid grey, while the sky to westward passed
through many gradations of colour and tone as the clouds slowly
dispersed and night fell. Far away over the darkening water the electric
lights of Zara flashed and glittered, reflected in chains of sparkles
which grew longer as we approached.

The boat turned to the left into the old port, and thus we escaped the
ordeal of the dogana to which passengers landing at the new quay are
subjected, and entered the town through the Porta Marina, the entrance
for all travellers arriving by water until, in 1868, the walls towards
the sea were thrown down, and the Riva Nuova constructed. It is proposed
to extend this fine promenade to Borgo Erizzo eventually. In making it
some remains of Roman walls were found. The city was declared "open,"
and the cannon were transported to the arsenal. On the other side of the
water is the island of Ugljan, with its conspicuous Venetian castle of
S. Michele, to which the peasants make a pilgrimage on Michaelmas Day.
From the height which it crowns, the second Canal of Zara may be seen,
and the islands of Incoronata, Isole Grosse, and the open sea beyond. It
is said that the coast of Italy can be seen with a telescope on a fine
day. The remaining portions of the fortifications have been planted with
trees, or turned into gardens, and form pleasant promenades both during
the day, when the shade of the trees is acceptable, and at evening, when
the sea breeze blows cool from off the water. Among the trees are found
palms and Paulownia in flower. Outside the Porta Terra Ferma a large
bastion has been made into a public park, named after General
Blazekovic, who created it in 1888-1890. The fortifications, commenced
by Sanmichele in 1533, were finished ten years later by his nephew
Giovanni Girolamo: a drawing for the Porta Terra Ferma exists in the
Uffizj at Florence, showing the whole depth to the bottom of the ditch,
which much improves the proportion. It was approached diagonally across
a wooden bridge; the road is now direct, and the ditch filled up. The
isthmus joining the peninsula to the land had been cut through to
strengthen the older fortifications, of which one tower, the pentagonal
Bo d'Antona, alone remains. When the new works were carried out, as a
stronger defence against the Turks, the suburbs were destroyed, and the
ditch was subsequently turned into the cisterns below the Cinque Pozzi.
This great reservoir, made in 1574, was provided with an elaborate
system of filtering-beds, the water being collected from the roofs until
the aqueduct was opened in 1838. The sand was renewed once in a hundred
years.

[Illustration: THE PORTA MARINA, ZARA

_To face page 207_]

The inner portion of the other gate, the Porta Marina, was, according to
local tradition, brought from Ænona. It is part of a triumphal arch
erected by a Roman lady, Melia Anniana, to her husband, Læpicius Bassus,
with additions of the period of the Renaissance. It bears a long Latin
inscription referring to the battle of Lepanto, October 5, 1571, and on
the water side has a pretty, early Renaissance upper part, with the lion
of S. Mark and _amorini_ supporting a shield within an architectural
framing.

Zara (anciently Jadera) is traditionally the capital of the Liburnians.
It became a Roman colony in 78 B.C., and many Roman fragments have been
found which attest its splendour and prosperity under the Empire.
Trajan built an aqueduct, of which traces have been found through Borgo
Erizzo to and beyond Makarska. Stone pipes of the same kind were found
on the shore at Zara Vecchia, in the ruins of the Templars' castle on
the hill Kastel; above the lake of Vrana, and in the marshes through
which the road from Vrana to Benkovac passes. It is believed that the
source was a spring at Biba on this hill. Salona, during the time of its
prosperity, was of more importance than Zara; but after its destruction
by the Avars in 639 the latter again became of first importance in
Dalmatia, the Byzantine fleet being stationed there when Ravenna was
taken by the Lombards in 752, and the town becoming the dwelling of the
"strategos." In 804 Donatus, bishop of Zara, acted as envoy with the
doge of Venice in concluding peace between Charlemagne and the Byzantine
Emperor Nicephorus. In the tenth century it was known as Diadora. In 991
it became Venetian for the first time, but without severing its
relations with Byzantium; and Orso Orseolo fortified it in 1018.
Somewhat later, the Venetians made it their principal city, putting the
bishoprics of Arbe, Veglia, and Ossero under the metropolitan in 1154,
and making Domenico Morosini, son of the doge, Count of Zara. The
inscription on the nuns' church of S. Maria records the fact that
Coloman entered Zara in 1105; from that date the Hungarian period
commences, though apparently the Venetians still had rule over maritime
Dalmatia. The sacking of the city by the French in 1202 appears to have
been due to the greed of the Venetians, and to their desire to get even
with the Hungarians also. Between 1169 and 1201 a Pisan fleet, probably
allied with Hungary, took Pola from the Venetians; but it was retaken
before long, and the discords between Henry or Emeric, son of Bela of
Hungary, and his brother Andrew facilitated the taking of Zara. It is
recorded that Andrew had most of the magnates on his side; but Emeric
went alone and unarmed to the malcontents, saying: "Now I wish to see
who of you will dare to raise his hand against his king"; and all
quietly and in silence let him pass. He then took his brother, led him
out, and imprisoned him in a certain castle. The magnates fell at his
feet asking pardon. Truly in those days divinity did hedge the king!

The French Crusaders had engaged the Venetians to take them to the Holy
Land, but did not assemble at Venice at the time appointed, nor had they
the money ready to pay for their transport. The Venetians, being men of
business, demanded cash down; and so the favourable time for reaching
Syria was allowed to pass without the expedition setting forth.
Provisions and ships had been prepared, and the Venetians, wishing to
use them, with the consent of Doge Enrico Dandolo, proposed to the
French an attack on Zara, part of the booty to be used to pay for their
passage. The attack took place on November 10, 1202, and the French
stayed till April 7, 1203. The Venetians took all the booty, and threw
down the wall on the seaward side, but it was restored shortly after.
They also sent colonists to Zara after a rebellion and a reconquest in
1243.

The Venetian counts were generally citizens of Venice, and had no
defined term of rule. In 1311 the city again returned to the Hungarians,
and the result was the siege of 1312-1313, which ended in the
condottiere Dalmasio, who was besieging, being offered the countship by
the ban of Dalmatia and Croatia. To prevent this the Venetians offered
to leave the Zaratines free to choose their own count, only reserving
the right of confirmation. In 1345 Zara rebelled for the seventh time,
when Andrea Dandolo was doge, and in consequence a long siege commenced
on August 12. The Venetians had at Nona 20,000 men, horse and foot, who
devastated the fields for three days and set fire to the villages; the
countrymen fled to the city, so that there were more than 20,000 within
the walls, of whom 6,000 only were armed. On August 30 they closed the
port with a chain made of thirteen beams, and on September 1 sent an
envoy to Andrew, king of Naples, to ask for aid. On the 8th they
received letters from the King of Hungary promising help, and raised the
Hungarian flag. The king sent the bani of Bosnia and Croatia to help
them, but the Venetian senate bought the rescuers off! In January, 1346,
the Venetians took the Castle of S. Damian and broke the chain of the
port. The Venetian trenches consisted of a bastion 200 yards long and
100 yards broad built of wood on three sides. On the east it had ten
towers, as many on the west, and fourteen on the north, being open on
the south towards the fleet. They now controlled 25,000 men. On June 2,
Ladislas of Hungary came to help the besieged, and encamped at Zemonico,
seven miles away, with 100,000 cavalry. On July 10 he advanced close to
the city with 2,000 of his best men. The citizens welcomed him with much
joy, and the next day sent legates with great solemnity to offer him the
keys of the city. On the 16th he attacked the bastion. On the 20th,
Bernardo, patriarch of Aquileia, entered the city; but the king held
aloof. The Venetians tried in vain to make terms, and the Zaratines
attacked the bastion with good heart, burning one of the towers; but the
Hungarians only looked on while the Venetians repelled the assault. The
king's behaviour is mysterious. On July 30 he returned to Vrana, and so
to Hungary; and, although his promised envoys went to Venice, they went
for other purposes. He appears to have been using Zara as a pawn in some
great game. Famine obliged the Zaratines to surrender, and the
Venetians entered the city on December 21, 1347, the war having lasted
two years and six months, and having cost the Republic from 40,000 to
60,000 ducats a month for soldiers' pay alone, without counting the
shipping. Eleven years later Zara again became Hungarian, but was
finally ceded to Venice in 1413 by the peace of Trieste.

The dialect spoken in the city is pure Venetian, and the municipality is
the only Italian one in Dalmatia. Zara is still the capital, and the
diet meets in the city. Here, too, are the only Italian schools in the
province, the Slav majority in most places exercising its power to veto
everything Italian. The only flourishing industry is the manufacture of
maraschino, of which 300,000 bottles are exported annually. The
cherries, which are the raw material, are imported from Sebenico,
Almissa, and Poljica, near Spalato. The streets are narrow and
impossible for carriage traffic; merchandise is put upon long narrow
carts, with long poles projecting in front and cross-pieces at the end;
the cart is then pushed and pulled by several men. The population is
13,000, and is increased by many country people in the mornings, who
come to market, so that the streets and piazzas are crowded with a most
distracting variety of costumes. Both men and girls from the country
wear little red caps. The men have great light-coloured woollen coats
which they throw over their shoulders without putting their arms in,
light shirts, sometimes with an embroidered jacket, trousers with
embroidery round the pocket-holes (which are in front of the thigh) and
a split at the lower part of the side which is buttoned up. They
sometimes have a sash round the waist with a knife. The women wear
leggings woven roughly in patterns like the wrong side of a tapestry
curtain, and shoes somewhat the shape of gondolas, thick skirts with
patterned aprons, and small waistcoat-like jackets. Their hair is
plaited round the head. The dress of the townspeople is less individual;
the head is covered with a white or coloured kerchief, the dress is
frequently black, and the modern blouse is sometimes seen. It is
interesting to watch the boatloads of country-folk arriving either by
the Porta Terra Ferma, close to which are steps and a small harbour, or
on the quay by the Porta Marina. Lambs and kids are brought alive and
killed and skinned on the quay, the women holding pots or jugs to catch
the blood, which they seem to think valuable. The wall of the quay was
being rebuilt when we were there the second time, and a diver was
working at it. It looked odd to see the stones and buckets of cement
lowered into the water with ropes.

[Illustration: MORLACCA GIRL, ZARA]

There are two antique columns still erect: one, fluted, is in the Piazza
S. Simeone, set up in 1729, and the other is in the Piazza dell' Erbe;
it was used as a pillory, and the chains with the iron collars still
hang to it, having, by centuries of friction, cut deep-curved grooves in
the marble with swinging to and fro. This column also has sockets for
the insertion of flagstaffs, and attached to it is a much-worn piece of
eighth-century sculpture, with the motif of an ornamented cross beneath
an arch fastened with clamps. The chroniclers of the seventeenth century
record that near this place several drums of columns projected from the
earth, and that two entire pillars were erect and united by a piece of
the architrave. One was moved to S. Simeone, near to which Mr. T.G.
Jackson saw in 1884 the base of a Roman arch excavated beneath the level
of the piazza. Other similar fragments have been used in the foundations
of S. Donato.

[Illustration: GOING TO MARKET, ZARA]

In the year 380 a bishop of Zara (Felix) is mentioned for the first
time. S. Donatus is reckoned the fourth bishop, Andrew and Sabinianus
(who are shown on a reliquary with Felix) traditionally preceding him.
As his episcopate lasted into the ninth century it is evident that the
list is not complete. His diplomatic mission took him either to
Diedenhofen or Aachen and then to Constantinople, where he had the
relics of S. Anastasia given him. It is probable that the sight of the
great churches which he saw during his journeys suggested the plan of S.
Donato, which was originally dedicated to the Holy Trinity.
Porphyrogenitus compares it to S. Sophia, Constantinople, which seems
strange in a Byzantine. It is circular in plan, about 60 ft. in
diameter. Six gigantic piers, wider than the arches which rest upon
them, placed ten feet from the wall, sustain a barrel vault, about 28
ft. high, over the ambulatory, which has strengthening arches. The piers
of the upper story sustained the drum of a cupola which no longer
exists. Opposite the entrance are three vaulted apses, the central one
larger and deeper than the others and with four windows, the others
having but one each; and these apses are repeated above, without the
windows. In front of them are two smooth columns of Oriental yellow
marble 7 ft. round, in place of piers, and thinner columns cut short
occupy the same relative place above. The caps are antique and a good
deal damaged. Three are composite like the arch of Septimius Severus,
and one is Corinthian. The roof is now tiled. A Roman inscription on the
fourth pilaster seems to indicate that there was a great temple to
Augusta Livia, wife of Augustus, here; and when the floor level was
lowered in 1888 a number of inscriptions were found, and portions of
carved friezes and pillars used as foundation material and simply laid
on the pavement of the Roman forum. Among these were portions of columns
resembling both of the two still upright. Part of a flight of steps was
also found, which may have been part of the sub-structure of the temple.
Fragments of four different buildings have been recognised. Two stairs
have served the upper story of the church--an early one with carved hood
mould of the ninth century to the external door, now blocked up, and a
second from the interior, which lands in a vestibule where some early
mediæval carvings are arranged. The upper portion is a double flight,
arranged, perhaps, to use when this stair was a "Scala Santa" ascended
by the faithful on their knees, whereby they gained the same indulgences
as were attached to the Scala Santa at Rome. The building was a military
magazine in 1649, again from 1798 to 1877, and then a wine-store till,
in 1888, the museum was founded. In 1890-1891 the ancient entrance-door
was found behind the eighteenth-century additions. It is a simple
square-headed door with semicircular opening above, made of Roman
uncarved material, with consecration-crosses sunk in the lintel and base
of the right-hand jamb; to the right and left of the lintel a little
above it are two simple brackets with crosses on them. The lintel itself
is double, and treated as if it were wood. The cill was two feet below
the ground level.

[Illustration: PLANS OF S. DONATO, ZARA]

The museum contains Roman and pre-Roman antiquities, inscriptions,
lamps, carved fragments, coins, bronze and glass vessels, pottery, &c.;
mediæval fragments, carved and gilded panels, lanterns and ensigns from
Venetian galleys, a crozier of Limoges work of the thirteenth century
found under the pavement of S. Crisogono, arms and carvings of the
Renaissance period, &c. But perhaps the most interesting things are the
plans of the early churches which have either been destroyed or very
much altered, and the early mediæval carvings; among these are two very
curious slabs with figures under arches, one of which was found under
the pavement of S. Crisogono, while the other, closely resembling it in
style, came from S. Domenico. The former shows the Flight into Egypt and
the Massacre of the Innocents; the latter the Nativity and Adoration of
the Kings. They probably formed part of a chancel enclosure. There are
also fragments of ciboria, altar frontals, or sarcophagi, while a column
sawn in two has furnished decorated jambs to the door of the upper
church. On a lintel of the early church of S. Lorenzo is a Christ in a
mandorla, supported by angels with a sacred tree on each side and a
griffin beyond; a rough astragal moulding surrounds the subject. The
jambs have a rough arabesque scroll, terminating in a two-headed bird.
These carvings are all of the ninth century.

[Illustration: SECTION OF S. LORENZO, ZARA

_To face page 217_]

The church of S. Lorenzo is in the courtyard of the military command
building on the Piazza dei Signori. The sides are in courts entered from
the Calle Larga and Via del Teatro Vecchio. It has a nave and aisles
about 21 ft. long and about 14 ft. broad, with four pillars, springing
from which are three unmoulded arches. The arches are stilted, and at
the height of the real springing an impost projects in profile. The
central compartment has a wagon vault, the other two quadripartite
vaults. The aisles have semi-domes running north and south, resting on
cross arches, with squinches in the corners. The choir has two stories,
the lower with three square-ended apses, and entered by a door flanked
by pillars. The walls which separate the apses ran up to a tower. The
vault is a transverse wagon pierced by wagon vaults at right angles. The
architecture is very simple, and shows Byzantine influence, but the
construction is hidden by plastering. The nave caps are debased
Corinthian, with ornamented volutes and one row of flat acanthus-leaves,
the abacus being square. The front leaf in each shows a half-length of a
male figure with nimbus, his arms raised as if in prayer, the body
hidden by a shorter loaf. The columns are of different sizes, but the
caps are all the same. The entrance door towards the Calle Larga has a
simply moulded round arch; the other has been mentioned as being in S.
Donato. The upper story of the choir has pillars with carved caps
supporting an arch of two orders, now built up, formerly no doubt an
oratory. The church is mentioned in a document of 919.

[Illustration: S. LORENZO, ZARA]

[Illustration: S. LORENZO, ZARA--TOP STORY

_Between pages 216 and 217_]

[Illustration: PLAN OF FOUNDATIONS DISCOVERED ON THE RIVA NUOVA, ZARA]

S. Domenico (which no longer exists) was of somewhat the same character;
but the choir was without dividing walls, and thus became an upper
church. It was only 21 ft. square and had three columns on each side,
the last close to the wall. The vaults were domically quadripartite,
springing from pilasters which rested on the caps. The arcade was
round-arched, the central and right-hand apses were square-ended, and
the left had a semicircular niche. The under church was wagon-vaulted
without architectural features. The foundation of a chapel was found on
the Riva Nuova with five niches of a six-niched circle and an entrance
passage in the sixth, which turned at right angles to the north to reach
the street. In the angle thus formed between the entrance and the main
building a sarcophagus stood. This circular-niched plan occurs
elsewhere in Dalmatia, as in the baptistery here, and SS. Trinita at
Spalato, and the dimensions are generally so nearly the same as to
suggest some common original design. S. Pietro Vecchio is considered to
be the oldest church in Zara. It is now desecrated, but was used as a
sacristy to the fourteenth-century church of S. Andrea, belonging to the
Fishers' Confraternity, the sixteenth-century apse of which projected
into the nave as far as the first pillar. It was cleared out by order of
the Central Commission in 1886. It is about 38 ft. long by 19 ft. broad,
and is built of ancient fragments with very little architectural
character. One of the two columns bears a Roman inscription, and both
have crosses cut in them. One of the caps is a damaged antique; the
other is an antique base upside down; neither column has any base. The
church is an irregular rectangle in plan, divided into two naves which
end in apses by two pillars and a pier. The pilasters are not upright,
the arches are deformed, and the two altar niches have half-cupola
vaults on a rectangular plan, with arches thrown across the corners.
There are two original doors, both built up. The pier between the two
apses has a round-arched niche in it. The church is mentioned in 918 in
the will of Prior Andrea.

There was a cathedral here in very early times, referred to in a will of
908 as S. Anastasia. It was originally S. Pietro, and the dedication was
changed when the relics of S. Anastasia which S. Donato brought from
Constantinople and placed in the church of the Holy Trinity were
transferred to the cathedral. This church was destroyed by the Venetians
in 1202, but probably portions of it were worked up in the new building
which the Crusaders are said to have erected as a votive church after
the pope had excommunicated them all for the sack of Zara. This seems,
however, a legend, since the new building was not consecrated till May
27, 1285, the Archbishop Lorenzo Periandro officiating, assisted by the
Metropolitan of Spalato and the suffragan bishops of both dioceses. On
the vault of the ciborium and on the jamb of the main door are
inscriptions, dated respectively 1332 and 1324, recording their erection
by "Joannis de Bvtvane, archiep: Jadren." Certain portions show by their
style that additions and alterations were made, still later. The length
is 170 ft. and the width 65 ft.

The façade has three doors, and is divided by pilaster strips which
emphasise the width of the nave; at either side of the central door is a
shallow recess filling the space between it and the pilaster strips. The
door itself has spiral and simple colonnettes in the jambs, with
corresponding arch moulds of four orders. In the tympanum is a later
relief of the Virgin and Child enthroned, with two saints, beneath a
pointed trefoil arcade; and on brackets at the sides are four figures of
Apostles. On the side doors the tympana have the Agnus Dei, and that to
the left has the Annunciation on brackets, one figure on each side of
the door. The colonnettes and arch moulds are both twisted in this door;
in that to the right they are plain; the figures on brackets are
similar. The lintels and jambs have elaborate arabesque scrolls, which
remind one of Provençal Romanesque ornament. The lower part of the wall
has courses of pinkish marble among the white, and bands of inlaid
ornament decorate both the wall and the campanile. Above the string
course over the doorways is a Romanesque-looking arcade with another
which fills the slope of the aisle walls, with animals standing at the
ends. The central portion has a restored wheel-window with radiating
colonnettes and round arches, and above it in the gable is another with
cusped tracery of a later date; round this an arcading ramps as at
the end of the aisles, and the lower rose is flanked by arcading in two
stages arched only in the upper one. Both of these arcadings have
coupled colonnettes, and are manifestly much later than the lower part
of the façade. The walls of the north aisle have an arcading separated
into groups by pilasters, echoing the internal divisions, with a gallery
above, like S. Nicola, Bari, and others of the Apulian churches. A
cornice of corbelled arches crowns the nave wall. The campanile was
commenced in 1449 by Archbishop Lorenzo Venier, and carried up by
Archbishop Matteo Valaresso in 1460 to the height from which Mr. T.G.
Jackson completed it. It has five stories and an octagonal pyramidal
termination. The three upper stories have two window openings in each,
the lowest being single lights, while the upper two have a central
colonnette and two stilted round arches beneath a containing arch. A
string with corbelled arches below divides the stories, and the square
portion terminates with a balustrade in the usual manner.

The inside was altered in the eighteenth century and the beginning of
the nineteenth. The nave arcade, which continues to the apse, consists
of ten round arches on each side resting alternately on columns and
piers with columns attached which have cushion caps. Some of the columns
are spirally fluted and have decadent antique caps. Some are cipollino,
and two are apparently cut from antique columns, one having four shafts
attached to the central cylindrical mass, and the corresponding one on
the other side being panelled, with octagonal colonnettes attached. The
pier at the choir steps has two small columns instead of one. Two bays
of the aisles equal one bay of the nave, and pilasters run up from the
piers, dividing the triforium arches into groups of six, on the tops of
which figures stand. The triforium arcade has round arches with coupled
colonnettes of red marble on the face and varied caps; the voussoirs are
alternately red and grey; and a string with carved leaf pattern, much
like that at Traù, runs along the triforium, between the nave arcade and
the balustrade. The nave arcade terminates at each end with a single
arch. The apse has a marble seat running round it, with the bishop's
seat in the centre raised on several steps. It has exactly the same
ornament on its sides as is on the font in the baptistery. The wall is
sheeted with red marble. The ciborium has pointed arches resting upon
Corinthianising caps and columns of cipollino carved in coffered
patterns or spiral and zigzag channelling; a cornice of acanthus-leaves
runs above the arches. It was erected by Archbishop Butuane, consecrated
in 1332, and restored in 1901-1902. The presbytery pavement is of 1336.
The stalls, once painted and gilt, are very fine examples of
Venetian-Gothic wood carving, and were partly made for Archbishop Biagio
Molin in 1420-1427, whose arms are carved on them; but those of his
predecessor and successor, and those of Valaresso, under whom the work
was probably completed, also appear. Between the stalls, elaborately
pierced and carved scroll-work runs up to the canopy level, where little
figures stand in niches. Above the canopies, which are slightly pointed
fluted shells, and separated from them by curious ogee-shaped gables,
are thirty-six half-length figures of prophets, emergent from scrolls
and holding labels. Above one of the side altars are six small
Carpaccios on panel much repainted--the one with the figure of S. Martin
bears his signature; also a Palma Giovine and an Andrea Schiavone.

[Illustration: NORTH DOOR OF WESTERN FAÇADE, CATHEDRAL, ZARA

_To face page 220_]

[Illustration: PLAN OF THE CATHEDRAL, ZARA]

Beneath the step of the high-altar is the sarcophagus of Oriental
marble, with porphyry cover, of the three saints, Agape, Chionia, and
Irene, whose remains are interred in the crypt. The crypt is entered by
two flights of stairs from the sides of the choir. It is of an
irregular shape, about 70 ft. long, 23 ft. broad, and 15 ft. high.
Eastwards it suddenly broadens out to a width of 33 ft. and terminates
in a semicircle. In this apse there are three windows. Two rows of nine
columns extend to just above the point where the change in width begins,
and four more follow the external curve of the wall. These support
quadripartite vaulting. The columns have heavy square caps and square
bases. In one is a grated aperture as if for relics. The sarcophagus
altar has a much worn representation of the Martyrdom of Sant'
Anastasia, with her name inscribed in Lombardic letters between two
foliage scrolls. Fragments of early work are visible here and there,
pointing to the reconstruction of the crypt. It is very dark, and is now
used as a store, having become too damp for ritual purposes.

[Illustration: PLAN OF CATHEDRAL CRYPT, ZARA]

The treasury contains some exceedingly interesting objects, and is rich
in reliquaries. It is kept in the wall between the body of the
cathedral and the baptistery in a rather evil-smelling vault, which
opens into the latter building. The most ancient reliquary, once
belonging to the cathedral at Grado, is that of Sant' Orontius; it
contains a portion of his head, and is work of the eleventh century,
material of an earlier date having been used in its construction. Upon
the sides and front is an arcade with alternate twisted and fluted
columns, beneath which are figures of saints robed in the Greek manner,
and holding Benedictional crosses. The names of the saints, inscribed in
mixed Latin and Greek letters, are Sabinianus, Felix, Vitalis, Satorus,
Repositus, Septimus, Januarius, Arotatius, Onoratus, and Fortunatianus.
On the back is a plate inscribed in Roman letters: "[Symbol: maltese
cross] Sergivs F. Mai Nepos zallae fecit hanc capsam sco capiti Arontii
Martins."[1]

[Illustration: ALTAR OF SANT' ANASTASIA, ZARA]

On the top are the escutcheon of Archbishop Pesaro (1505-1530) and two
quatrefoils. The casket has been mended with strips of stamped silver of
various periods. Two reliquaries of the twelfth century described by
Eitelberger and Mr. T.G. Jackson were not shown to us, though we were
assured that we had seen everything of interest. One contains the head
of S. Giacomo Interciso, a martyr of the fifth century. It has a domed
top, and round the ring is an inscription: "[Symbol: Maltese cross]
Ego Bosna ivssi fieri anch capsam ad onorem scs iacobi martiris
ob remedivm anime chasei viri mei et anime mee." On the lid in round
medallions are six figures--Christ with the monograms IC and XC,
"Jachbus, martyr," Judas, Simon, Johannes, and Maria. Round the drum is
an arcade supported on twisted, fluted, or diapered columns, under which
are the figures of nine Apostles, named SS. Petrus, Paulus, Andreas,
Jacobus, Tomas, Jacobus again, Filippus, Bartolomeus, and Mateus. The
ground is plain silver; the figures are gilded. On the summit is a
classic head with flying hair, a relief which did not form part of the
original work. The letters are like those of the monument to Vekenega,
who died in IIII; and Bianchi says there was a prior named Chaseus or
Chaseo in 1096. An arm reliquary bears the inscription in raised
Lombardic letters: "Ego Chacia usor Dimitrii feci fieri hoc opus." It is
of plain metal enriched with filigree, and set with stones and
patterned cloisonné enamels, and stands upon a triangular cast base with
three feet; on each side is a winged figure with sceptre and orb amid
twelfth-century scroll-work. Bianchi says Demetrius, husband of Chacia,
was prior in 1162. An interesting reliquary inscribed "Hic est spongia
dni quo potat fuit in patibulo crucis" is supported by four dragons
without wings, but with raised tails. It is a tube of crystal,
surmounted by a crucifix, below which is a band of natural leaves with
birds. Between this and the foot is a cube of crystal surrounded by cast
and pierced metal--a figure of a man in civilian dress blowing a horn,
alternately with a knight tilting and carrying a falcon through a wood,
typified by a tree behind him.

[Illustration: RELIQUARY OF SANT' ORONTIUS, ZARA]

The treasury contains many interesting things of a later date, of which
the reliquary of S. Crisogono is perhaps the most attractive, showing
earlier enamels in a good fourteenth-century setting. On the front are
two square enamels of SS. Zoilus and Anastasia, with little chapels at
their sides supported on slender twisted columns. Upon the lid are three
similar vesica-shaped medallions--S. Crisogono in the middle, S. John
the Baptist on the left, and S. John the Evangelist on the right.
Cypress-trees are on each side of the figures, enamelled dark green. S.
Crisogono is robed as a king, crowned, and holding a cross before his
breast; angels at each side of his head hold tapers. The material is
silver. The figures are delicately drawn, and the ground is filled in
with deep blue enamel, red and green also appearing. The borders show
good vine-leaf scrolls. The ends have a rough sexfoil rose, which is
repeated on the back between modern scrolls imitating the old. The
inscription is round the lid in Lombardic letters of silver on a ground
of red enamel: "Hoc op fvit fact tvr nobiliv viror viti cadvl vvlcin
martinvsii et Pavli de Galcign ann D. MCCCXXVI." An ugly head reliquary
of S. Mary Magdalene, dated 1332, is inscribed with the same name,
Volcine de Martinusio, who was one of the three rectors or judges of
Zara. It has flowing hair down to the shoulders. Several arm reliquaries
of late fourteenth century are up to the usual standard. One is of S.
Crisogono; one of S. Donate, with many jewels and a pierced band of
quatrefoils with some of a larger number representing the opening of the
sleeve; one with plaques of translucent enamel and vine scrolls said to
contain a finger of S. John the Baptist, &c. An hexagonal pyx on a stem
has on the knop and foot a half-length of our Lord erect in the tomb. A
foot of S. Crisogono in a shoe-shaped reliquary with jewelled bands has
a pretty flowing scroll pattern of the early Renaissance in low relief.
A casket reliquary of S. Daniel (which, according to Bianchi, also
encloses relics of SS. Peter and Paul and Martin) is rather coarser work
of the Renaissance (1496) upon the same lines as the early reliquaries.
It has figures of a Risen Christ and SS. Anatasia, Donato, and Daniel.
On the sides and top are double-headed eagles with "Μ" on the breast.
Bishop Valaresso's pastoral staff is also preserved here--a fine work of
1460, 6 ft. 6 in. high. It is hexagonal, divided into eight sections by
bands, of which every other one is broader and more decorated. These
bear a pierced pattern and projecting triangles, serving as spandrils to
the trefoiled arches, which are incised on the spaces between. The knop
is an elaborately niched and pinnacled architectural feature of two
stories with figures in the niches and beneath the canopies. It
terminates in a foliated form (a later addition), from which the crook
springs. Round the outside of this are half-lengths of prophets emerging
from foliage, facing in two directions, with a statuette of Christ on
the summit. Within are two figures, a crowned woman holding a book, and
a mitred male figure, probably intended for the Virgin and Valaresso
himself.

The baptistery is an hexagonal building with niches in each side within,
vaulted without ribs in wagon divisions, and with four windows above the
niches. Altars stand in two niches, a confessional-box in another, and
through the remaining three there are doors. In the centre is the
octagonal font raised on three circular steps. It is 6 ft. 6 in. broad
and 3 ft. 3 in. high, and has an enclosure in the centre. It is panelled
on the sides, sometimes with two panels, each of which has round-headed
sinkings like windows, sometimes with one panel containing three such
sinkings, separated by coupled colonnettes; the cornice and base are
moulded. The material is red Veronese marble like that used at Grado. A
white marble basin, quatrefoil in shape, upon a fourteenth-century cap,
holds the baptismal water, very green and slimy, and there is water at
the bottom of the font itself.

The sacristy, a Gothic building with two bays of cross vaults, was the
ancient church of S. Barbara, in which the Zaratines swore fealty to the
Hungarian crown on the arm of S. Crisogono on July 8, 1384. In 1794 a
mosaic pavement was found beneath the existing pavement. Between it and
the apse is a little wagon-vaulted room, perhaps the ancient sacristy.

S. Crisogono belongs to the most ancient Benedictine convent in
Dalmatia. The church was originally S. Antonio Abate; but when the body
of S. Crisogono was brought from Aquileia it was deposited here, and the
dedication was changed. In 906 the church and monastery were recorded
under the name of S. Crisogono, and as being ruined by barbarian
invasion. In 986 Majo, rector of Zara and proconsul of Dalmatia, rebuilt
both, and made Madius, a monk from Monte Cassino, abbot. The standard of
the city then bore S. Crisogono on horseback, added to the earlier
white cross on a red ground. Destroyed by the Venetians, the church was
rebuilt in 1032, and in 1056 the buried relics were re-discovered. The
final rebuilding was in the twelfth century, and it was consecrated on
May 4, 1175, by the first archbishop, Lampridius, though additions were
made at a later date. The central portion of the west front, though
Romanesque in style, is nothing like as fine as the eastern apses, and
may be work of the end of the fourteenth century, since a consecration
is recorded in 1407, though Bianchi states that the inscription in his
time gave the date 1298. It has a central door with three unmoulded
orders and a sunk tympanum beneath a gable. Above this is a heavy string
course from which two pilaster strips spring, a window flanked by four
arches on slender coupled columns, with semicircular niches, filling the
space between them; above, a space from which it is cut by a second
string forms the next stage; over it is another string and two small
windows beneath a gable cornice of corbelled arches, the same cornice
raking over the aisles. Beasts project at the gable angles, and the
summit it crowned by a finial. All the arches are round, and the little
arcade has red and grey voussoirs. To the left is a large squat
campanile which was built in 1546-1562, and was then higher. A fire
damaged it in 1645. The north aisle wall has an arcade of twelve arches
with twisted columns, and the cast end has three apses, the central one
larger and with a fine open arcade beneath the cornice; above its roof
in the gable is a cross which had _scodelle_ in the arms and centre. The
interior has an arcade of seven arches, arranged three, two, and two,
between piers, with a flat pilaster running up to what was once the wall
plate. The columns are antique, as are some of the caps. The horizontal
moulding above the nave arcade is the same as that above the apse
arcade, and is ornamented with beasts' heads, &c. A twelfth-century
mosaic in the apse was destroyed in 1791. The pavement of the presbytery
is of coloured marbles, and on the aisle wall hangs a great painted
crucifix which was once in S. Domenico, and recalls the work of the
early Tuscans. The church was the burial-place of many distinguished
Zaratines, and the body of Elizabeth of Hungary, who was killed in the
castle of Novigrad by Giovanni Palisna, prior of Vrana, in 1386, was
buried here for some years. When the church was restored, nineteen
historic gravestones were set in the outer wall. At the same time a
relief of S. Crisogono, remains of an early ciborium or chancel, and
traces of a crypt were found, also the Limoges pastoral staff now in the
museum. The cloister has been pulled down, and a school erected on the
site.

[Illustration: APSE OF S. CRISOGNO, ZARA

_To face page 230_]

S. Maria is first mentioned in 906. It was given in 1066 by the
Benedictine monks of S. Crisogono to nuns of their order. It is called
in the deed "Ecclesiola S. Mariæ minoris ante portam Beltatam." The
street opposite the lesser door led to the ancient city gate, Porta
Bellata or Belluata, by which animals were brought into the city. The
convent was rebuilt and enlarged by Cicca the abbess, who took the veil
after the murder of her husband, and who was sister to Cresimir the
younger, king of Dalmatia; and it was consecrated on October 28, 1072,
by Andrea, bishop of Zara, five other bishops and four abbots being
present, when Andrea and the President Drago gave the island of Selve to
it. The fine tower was built in 1105 by order of Coloman, to commemorate
his entry into Zara as king of Dalmatia, as an inscription states. Of
this period is the chapter-house containing the tomb of Vekenega, the
repudiated wife of the monarch, and daughter of Cicca, who died in IIII.
A window in the north aisle of the church communicates with it, but is
only opened when a nun professes, or when one dies. The nuns' choir is
above the main door on the level of the side galleries, shut off by a
gilded grating inscribed: "Placida abbatissa fieri fecit anno MCCCVI."
Within are the stalls made or altered by Giovanni da Curzola in 1495.
The façade of the church, which faces on to a small courtyard, is of the
period of the Lombardi. At the side of the high-altar towards the
sacristy Bishop Andrea was buried, and here are also the remains of
Coloman, brought in 1117 from Zara Vecchia, where he died. Cicca died in
1096. Just within the door to the right is a Christ crowned with thorns,
and the Virgin lamenting--a good picture of the school of Titian, if not
by the master. There is also a SS. Peter and Paul by Palma Vecchio.

The treasury is above an altar at the end of the north aisle. The
sacristan, who told us that he had filled that position for fifty years,
lighted candles before opening the doors, kissed each reliquary before
returning it to its place, and insisted upon the authenticity of each
relic. The objects are scarcely so interesting as those at the
cathedral, but include several fine fourteenth-century reliquaries as
well as one or two which were made, or remade, in Renaissance times. The
reliquary of S. Gregory has on the front Christ enthroned between
standing figures of SS. Mark and John beneath a round-arched arcade on
twisted columns. Three more saints are at the back, and at the ends are
the subjects of the Annunciation and the Visitation. Upon the sloping
parts of the lid are medallions of angels writing between scroll-work,
and at the top is a figure of S. Gregory. It was a votive offering of
Catherine, wife of Sandalius, Voivode of Bosnia, who died between 1433
and 1436. A reliquary of an unknown saint (which Bianchi speaks of as
S. Zoilus) has on the front a fine equestrian figure of a knight with
lance in rest, said to be S. Crisogono, between two figures of
ecclesiastics (SS. Zoilus and Donato), all three in high relief. Upon
the pyramidal cover are medallions of the symbols of the Evangelists in
lower relief, with bands of running ornament along all the angles. At
the back are figures of Christ and two saints, and at each end three
saints. The reliquary of S. Quirinus, another work of much the same
period, has saints under a pointed trefoiled arcade on twisted and
horizontally ringed columns, with foliage in the spandrils. In the
centre at the back is a figure of our Lord; on the lid are an angel,
Gethsemane, S. Peter sleeping, and the winged lion, between scrolls. A
panel of S. Gregory, with low mitre, and inscription in Lombardic
letters, holding a dragon-headed crozier, and with his bird at the other
side, has a stamped border of thirteenth-century character; and a fine
relief of the Madonna and Child, with decorated nimbi upon a ground
which has once been blue enamel, has a gabled top with a border of
relics in roundels with jewels in the interstices. It must once have
been used as a door, as the hinges, still attached to the wood, testify.

The reliquary of the clothes of Our Lord is of good early Renaissance
design, but some of the figures appear to be of an earlier date. In the
centre is an oblong panel with the Madonna "del Parto" in the centre,
and S. John the Baptist and S. Paul in high relief. Outside, on
brackets, are the Angel Gabriel and the Virgin; at the back are S.
Anthony and another saint. Above is a medallion containing three relics
from the manger at Bethlehem, from the house at Nazareth, and from the
clothes of Our Lord, crowned by a crucifix and flanked by figures of the
Virgin and S. John on brackets. On the foot are four medallions in
niello amid arabesques. There are also six arm reliquaries of the usual
pattern, two of which have little doors of niello, two or three heads,
and an ostensory, at the top of which is a thorn from the crown of
thorns.

[Illustration: RELIQUARY OF THE CLOTHES OF OUR LORD, S. MARIA NUOVA,
ZARA]

The church of S. Simeone was a "Colleggiata," instituted in 1150 by
Archbishop Lampridius, and dedicated to S. Stephen. It was subsequently
called the Madonna della Pace, because the Madonna so called was
deposited in it in 1567 from the suburban church of S. Matteo. The body
of S. Simeon was brought here in 1632, having been in Zara since 1280,
when it was brought from Jerusalem by Bishop Periandro. The celebrated
"arca" was in the collegiate church of S. Maria to the north, destroyed
in the middle of the sixteenth century to make room for the
fortifications, a small chapel only being left standing, in which the
wooden arca was kept, the silver one being consigned to the care of the
nuns. In 1632 a new chancel was added to the church now S. Simeone; the
arca was repaired and placed in its present position. The campanile was
built in 1707. In the nave on one side are antique fluted columns with
Corinthian caps, which belonged to S. Stefano. The area is of cypress
wood, covered with silver plates, which are fastened with silver screws.
It cost 28,000 ducats, and was supported on four angels of silver. These
were melted down at the time of the war between Venice and Cyprus, and
have been replaced by two of stone and two of bronze made from cannon
taken from the Turks and given to Zara by Venice in 1647. On the lid a
figure of the saint nearly life-size lies, and on the sides and ends are
subjects referring to the history of the relics, and an inscription
giving the date of 1380, and the names of the Queen of Hungary as the
donor, and the goldsmith Franciscus of Milan as the artist. On the roof
is a panel showing the artist at work on it. There is a reproduction in
the Victoria and Albert Museum. In the treasury is a chalice also given
by Queen Elizabeth the younger, late Gothic in style, with Renaissance
additions, made of silver, parcel gilt, with niello and a little enamel;
it has an octagonal knop with coats of arms reversed on quatrefoil ends
and on the sexfoil foot. Upon the base of the cup are subjects in
outline, the Crucifixion and figures of saints in petal-like forms. The
treasury also contains some curious rococo painted vestments, apparently
in water-colour on silk. To the right of the choir, in a chapel just
outside the sacristy, is a reredos of _repoussé_ silver--two big angels
kneeling below, and God the Father above a Madonna and Child with
painted faces, the rest of the figures being in relief. The frame is
flanked by S. Michael and a saint, with a little angel flying below and
holding a book, also with the heads only painted. These figures and the
Virgin and Child have a good deal of gilding about them, and may be of
the fifteenth century, since they look earlier than the rest, which is
late sixteenth or early seventeenth. In the chapel to the left is a
Byzantine-looking relief gilded all over except the hands and faces,
which are painted pink, mounted on a polished slab of black marble. The
subject is the Virgin and Child standing, the Child draped. A
half-finished building not far off is all that was completed of a
magnificent church designed to house the arca of S. Simeon. It was
commenced in 1572, but abandoned in 1600.

Beyond the cathedral, and not far from the walls, is the church and
convent of S. Francesco, consecrated in 1282 by Archbishop Lorenzo
Periandro, according to an inscription on a pilaster in the choir. The
choir contains a very fine set of stalls, made in 1394 by "Maestro
Giovanni quondam Giacomo da Borgo San Sepolcro in Venezia," at a cost of
456 ducats of gold. They used to be in front of the altar, but were
moved in 1808 when the new altar was put up. In the Cappella del
Crocifisso is a large Carpaccio, an allegory of the militant and
triumphant Church, with a row of portrait figures. It is in rather a bad
state, painted in tempera on panel. In the sky is a pretty Madonna and
Child in a vesica surrounded by angels. The rest of the sky has rows of
angels in it, and below, on the earth, kneeling bishops, potentates, and
others, with some nice little children in front. Between the two
divisions is a landscape with a shrine in the centre, and the whole
composition is contained in an upright oval, the corners being filled up
with later painting. The usual white dog appears with a red
collar-ribbon. The frame is well carved, but not architectural. In a
side chapel is a S. Francis by Palma Giovane. The chapel of S. Carlo,
once called degli Innocenti, can be entered either from the cloister or
the church. In it is an enormous painted crucifix of wood in relief,
with the Virgin and S. John half-length painted at the ends of the
cross, and an angel above. It bears inscriptions in Greek and Latin,
"ICTAVPωCIC" and "Rex Ivdeorvm," and, below the arms of Christ, "In me
credentes ad me concvrrite gentes." It is believed to be of the tenth
century, or even earlier. In the sacristy is a picture of 1430 on a gold
ground in the original frame, restored at the emperor's expense. In the
centre is the Madonna with the Child and little angels; on one side are
SS. Jerome, Simeon, and James; on the other, SS. Peter Martyr, Nicholas,
and Francis. A predella shows the twelve Apostles, with Christ in the
centre. Above, in the centre, is Christ half-length, flanked by smaller
nearly full-lengths of the Virgin and S. John; at each side three
half-lengths of saints--left, SS, Martin, Stephen, and John the Baptist;
right, a warrior, a bishop, and a man with green robe, and hat turned up
in four pieces. The frame is fine, a blue ground and gilded arabesques.
The church possesses four chalices of silver-gilt of the fourteenth or
early fifteenth century. Two of them have elaborate knops with crocketed
niches with figures, and one has the symbols of the Evangelists in high
relief on the foot, with leaf-scrolls and big stars, the plan being
octofoil. The finest has a sexfoil foot, and there are angular
projections in both between the foils, and a pierced perpendicular band
below. Upon the foot are six roundels, with Christ and saints in low
relief, as if for _basse-taille_ enamel. The third has a knop with
window tracery, pinnacles, and flying buttresses; on the foot, of a
later date, are graceful leaf-arabesques, rather like the work of
Aldegrever. The fourth is smaller and less elaborate. There are also
some fifteenth-century psalters and antiphonaries. One of the three
bells in the modern campanile is the oldest in Zara, dated 1328, and
signed "Magister Beloa Viccentius." The tradition runs that S. Francis,
going to or returning from the Holy Land in 1212, visited Dalmatia, and
founded this monastery among others.

The church of S. Domenico (anciently S. Michele) has a pointed Venetian
door, with a relief in the tympanum of S. Michael weighing souls, with
the Devil pulling the scale down, an armed angel at one side, and a
woman with a lighted taper at the other. On the lintel are a Virgin and
Child, and several saints in little panels also spreading beyond on to
the wall.

The Greek church, S. Elia, which the Servian orthodox Christians have
had since the French invasion, is nearly opposite the cathedral. One
year we were at Zara at the time when they were preparing to keep
Easter. In front of the iconostasis was an "Entombment," surrounded with
young grass amid which little lamps shone. The whole was covered with a
canopy similar to that carried over the Host. It was delicate and
pretty, and a great contrast to "Tombe," which we had seen in years gone
by in Italy, and a few days before at Capodistria.

There were thirty churches in Zara, fifteen of which have been destroyed
or given to different bodies. Seven are now Catholic, and four preserve
their outward shape, but are secularised.

The Loggia, the open hall of justice, ascribed to Sanmichele in its
original form, was restored shortly before the end of the Venetian rule.
It is now the Paravia library. It has three arches between coupled Doric
columns, and is still quite well preserved. The Palace of the Priors,
the former rulers of the town, was enlarged by the addition of private
houses for the residencas of the Venetian Count and the _provveditore_;
while the commune had to be content with the corn-magazine, near S.
Simeone, which is still the communal palace. When the Austrian governor
followed the Venetian _provveditore_ the palace was restored and
modernised. It is a Venetian building of 1562, with a clock-tower which
was restored in 1798; the clock itself was put up in 1807.

[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO THE TOWN OF NONA

_To face page 239_]

Nona is some hour-and-a-half's drive from Zara, for the greater part of
the way over stony uplands with very little vegetation, but with
extensive views over land and sea when the weather is fine. We were
troubled by showers and a bitter wind, against which our overcoats were
an insufficient protection; and we looked with some wonder at the herd
boys and girls and other peasants whom we met, many of them barefoot and
with no additional clothing to what they had found sufficient in the
market the day before when the sun shone strongly. The town is now a
mere village of some 500 inhabitants, and, though a few antique
fragments may be seen, and the ruins of several churches of different
periods, it is difficult to realise that it was once one of the most
important towns in Dalmatia. It appears to have been a Roman port, and
the head of one of the roads to Byzantium across Dalmatia--an ancient
Liburnian city, the great prosperity of which, at the end of the first
century A.D., is attested by the coins found here. It was called Ænona
and Ænonium by Pliny and Ptolemy, Nona by Porphyrogenitus. Destroyed by
the Slavs in the seventh century, re-occupied and restored by another
branch, the dukes and kings of Croatia made it one of the thirteen
Dalmatian "zupanje." Later it belonged at intervals to the King of
Hungary and to Venice, and after 1409 remained in the power of the
latter. In 1357 Count Giustiniani valiantly but vainly defended it
against the Hungarians, when the garrison was reduced to such straits by
famine that they had to eat their horses. It was twice burnt to prevent
it from falling into Turkish hands and being utilised as an outpost, in
1571 and 1646. The harbour has silted up, and only a small piece of the
walls is traceable. Of the Venetian dominion the only remains are the
entrance gateway, with the lion of S. Mark above it, and the
"Stabilimento," founded in 1786 by Girolamo Manfrin for the cultivation
of tobacco, but ruined by a fire, and no longer used for that purpose.

The Christian Church in Nona is said to have been founded by S. Anselm
in 117 A.D. Under the Croats it had a bishop and a chapter. The ancient
church of S. Croce was the cathedral, a small cruciform church with
three apses in the eastward wall, and a dome over the crossing. It is 30
ft. long, and each arm of the cross is 10 ft. wide. The dome has a
flat-pointed vault and windows, while the nave and transepts have wagon
vaults terminating in half-cupolas. To the west is a lintelled door,
with consecration crosses on the jambs and carving of the ninth century
on the lintel. A Slavonic inscription upon it (inside) has been read
"Godeslav Juppano Ch[risto] Domo Co[nservat]." The breaking of the upper
angles of the carved portion, and the difference in the character of the
crosses on lintel and jambs indicate the use of early material in a
later rebuilding; but the church is considered one of the oldest in
Dalmatia. From 1697 it served as an oratory to the Count of Nona, being
near his palace. Its bell (hung in the gable above the west door) served
to call the people together for public meetings, &c. The eastern apse
has a blank arcading on its exterior, which is square, and the same kind
of ornament occurs on the drum which conceals the dome. There are three
windows in the west wall, and others in the transept walls and gable.
The church was restored some seven or eight years ago, as well as the
somewhat similar church of S. Nicolò outside the town.

The parish church of S. Anselmo was the mediæval cathedral, rebuilt
during the eighteenth century. Close to it is another church, once
dedicated to S. Ambrogio, and now to the Madonna. In the treasury are
various interesting pieces of goldsmith's work kept in a marble chest
with glazed front and gilded metal door. When we were there the priest
was enjoying his siesta, and, though we were in charge of an official
from the town-hall, we were unsuccessful in rousing him from his
slumbers. I therefore take the description of them from Bianchi, as I
was not able to examine them critically. There are two caskets of
silver-gilt with the heads of S. Anselm and his sister, S. Marcella,
made by the same goldsmith. On the front are Christ, the Virgin, and S.
John in relief, with a frieze of a hunting subject, the figures beneath
trefoiled arches on twisted columns; on the back, SS. Anselm, Ambrose,
and Marcella; on the ends, SS. Peter and Paul, and a king and queen.
Bianchi says these are thirteenth century; Mr. T.G. Jackson says
fifteenth, which is more likely. On the lids are the symbols of the
Evangelists. Two other reliquaries contain the shoulder-blades of S.
Anselm. On the front are figures of the three protectors full-length. An
arm reliquary has pagan subjects in relief, and is set with precious
stones. An inscription gives the name of Simeon the goldsmith, and the
Bano Paolo (Lord of Bosnia also at the end of the thirteenth and
beginning of the fourteenth centuries). Two reliquaries of the feet of
S. Anselm, given by Radoslav Utusano, chancellor of the Bano Paolo, and
_zupan_ of the church of Nona, are dated 1309. There are two other
reliquaries: one of SS. Giacomo and Orontius, with three medallions of
saints; and the other with the Evangelists' symbols. Mr. T.G. Jackson
also saw two crosses and a sixteenth-century chalice. I particularly
regretted being unable to see the wooden area of S. Marcella, which is a
very remarkable example of early Christian art. Bianchi says that it is
varnished, and has eleven compartments, with figures in high relief.
One is entitled S. Barbara--the first on the left. Then come a king with
a double cross, S. Luke's ox, S. Marcella, S. Matthew's angel, the
Virgin and Child, S. Mark's lion, S. Ambrose, S. John's eagle, and a
queen with a lily in her hand. The eleventh compartment is not
recognisable.

[Illustration: PLAN OF S. NICOLÒ, NONA]

North of the parish church are remains of a Roman temple, and an antique
cap or two may be seen. In a private house are remains of a bath and a
mosaic pavement. The ruined church of S. Michele stands on the site of
the Roman arena. Antique fragments are also recognisable in the walls of
S. Nicolò. There are several ruined churches which appear to be of the
thirteenth or fourteenth centuries. Some of them have been altered at a
later period, but they contain nothing of first-rate interest. Nona had
sixteen in the Middle Ages. We walked out to S. Nicolò, an early church,
which crowns a hillock thickly sown with asphodels in blossom, some
little distance from the road and a mile or so from Nona. It is
cruciform in plan, with apsidal terminations to three arms, the west
being square, and having a door with a semicircular tympanum above it
internally. Squinches in the angles serve as transition to the semi-dome
which covers each arm. From the pilasters between the apses cross arches
spring beneath a domical vault with a pendant at their intersection; in
the left pilaster by the apse is a recess. The central tower is
octagonal and turreted; beneath the apse eaves are rough corbels, the
door has a semicircular tympanum externally, little brackets supporting
nothing, and the jambs and lintel are put together rather as if the
material were wood. The church is probably of the eleventh century.

Borgo Erizzo, an Albanian village, lies but a short distance from Zara.
In the eighteenth century the atrocities of Mehmed Begovich, pasha of
Albania, perpetrated on the Catholics, being very great, some of them
emigrated, seeking the protection of Vincenzo Zmajevich, bishop of
Antivari, who was living at his native city of Perasto. A little later
(1726) he became archbishop of Zara, and brought twenty-seven families
of Albanians with him, recommending them to the protection of Count
Erizzo, commandant of the fortress, who assigned them land near the
city, where they flourished and increased. There are now about 3,000 of
them. The church, which appears to be in a dangerous condition, was
built for them by Zmajevich. The girls work in the factories till they
marry, after which they remain at home. The men are agriculturists, and
some own fields and vineyards seven or eight miles away, to which they
walk or go in carts. The village is dirty and not very picturesque. They
get their drinking-water from the Kaiser Brunnen, a spring covered with
a dome close to the sea, said to be a Roman erection. Sailors also water
there. Before the aqueduct was restored, in years of drought Zara had to
import water, and in 1828, 1834, and 1835 it was brought from the Kerka
by Scardona.

Zara Vecchia, formerly Alba or Belgrad, is some eighteen miles down the
coast. Here Coloman of Hungary, nephew of S. Ladislas, was crowned in
1102. The "porto d'oro" is all that remains of a palace built by Bishop
Valaresso, with its foundations in the sea. Mention of the place is
infrequent. Towards the middle of the eleventh century Crescimeno
Pietro, third king of Croatia, assigned a prebend to the Benedictines of
Zara Vecchia. In 1092 Busita, daughter of Roger I., Count of Sicily and
Durazzo, and wife of Coloman, king of Hungary, came here accompanied by
Geoffrey Malaterra. In 1114 Ordelaffo Faliero took it, and in 1115 it
was destroyed to the foundations by Domenico Michieli. Some of the
inhabitants, with the bishop and clergy, fled to Scardona; the rest,
with the notables, to Sebenico. The nuns escaped to Zara, and the
Benedictines crossed to Tkon in the island of Pasman, where they still
are.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 1: Mgr. Bianchi has found the names of Madius and Zella in
documents of 1067 and 1096, and that of "Sergius tribunus" in one of
1091.]




XIX

SEBENICO


Sebenico lies within a fine harbour at the mouth of the Kerka, some six
hours from Zara. The entrance to the bay is defended by the strong fort
S. Nicolò, which bears the lion of S. Mark upon the landward side,
showing that Venice ruled when it was built in 1540 (according to
tradition, from Sanmichele's designs), though the actual sculpture is a
replacement of 1824 of the original thrown into the sea by the French in
1813. During the Italian struggle for freedom and unity many patriots
were shut up in the damp dungeons of this fort by the Austrians. Within
the strait, the Canale di S. Antonio, there is shelter for a large
fleet; and it is reported that the Austrian Government intends to make
it into a naval arsenal (of which the commencement may be seen in some
very ugly buildings to the left of the town). Sebenico is commanded by
three castles, from the highest of which, that of S. Giovanni,
constructed in 1646, a splendid view over town, bay, and islands rewards
the labour of the climb. The next is Fort Barone, so named after Baron
Degenfeldt, the gallant defender of the city against 20,000 Turks in
1647. It is now abandoned and in ruins. The third is Fort S. Anna, which
crowns the hill just above the houses. This is thought to occupy the
site of a king's castle mentioned in 1066. Fort S. Giovanni and the
walls, of which a great portion of the circuit still remains, were
restored in 1837. These walls are for the most part the work of kings of
Hungary, though the Venetians added to them. The sea suburb the Borgo di
Mare is probably the oldest portion of the place; that on the land side,
the Borgo di Terra, grew up with the need for the shelter of the
fortress during the Turkish wars.

In 1117 the town was taken and destroyed by Ordelaffo Faliero; but in
1127, when Zara Vecchia was razed to the ground by Domenico Michieli,
and the bishop and clergy were removed to Scardona, the bulk of the
population took refuge at Sebenico. It was a pirate city, and there was
continual strife between it and Traù. Until 1167 it was only a small
place, but in that year Stephen III. of Hungary gave it the title of
"city." Lago, however, says that it was only a "castello" till 1298,
when the bishopric was established by Boniface VIII. in consequence of
the representations of the archbishops of Zara and Spalato, and of Queen
Maria of Hungary. The first bishop was Martin of Arbe. When he was
consecrated, the ceremony took place in the piazza, because the church
was not large enough. In 1412 the chapter was allowed to choose its own
bishop; and the town and church authorities became responsible for law
and order throughout certain defined territories. The city seals bear
either an angel with nimbus standing on a dragon, and holding in his
right hand an upright sword, and in his left an orb, or a half-length of
a similar angel, holding an orb in his left hand and a sloping sceptre
in his right, with the sun on one side, and a crescent moon on the
other; above a city with a central gate and two side towers, with
windows on each side.

Sebenico owes its chief celebrity perhaps to its cathedral, the _chef
d'œuvre_ of Giorgio Orsini, known as George of Sebenico, an architect of
exceptional genius, whose work may also be seen at Spalato, Ragusa,
probably at Ossero, and at Ancona on the other side of the Adriatic. His
father was known as Matteo of Zara, and was also a stonemason, as George
proudly announced himself to be when he carved upon the door of his
house a mallet and chisels hung with garlands which are supported in the
centre of the lintel by the bear, the cognizance of the noble house
which acknowledged his grandson as a relation.

When it was determined to rebuild the cathedral on a larger scale in
1402, the bishop and council of forty-five nobles made provision in
various ways for the work. The territory of Vodizze was assigned for the
purpose, the bishop gave half of the tithes, fines inflicted were to go
to the fund, notaries were charged to remind testators to leave
something to the fabric, &c. If the community of Sebenico went back from
their promises they were to be fined 1,000 golden ducats. When the
towers protecting the mouth of the port were rebuilt in 1409 the
Venetians seized the stone prepared for the cathedral, but subsequently
paid 80 ducats of gold as compensation. The city became Venetian in
1412. In 1430, after some wavering, it was decided to add the bishop's
palace and the street between it and the church to the cathedral site.
The building was commenced in 1431, under Antonio, son of Pietro Paolo
Massegna, in the Gothic style as understood by the Venetians; but in
1441 he was superseded by Giorgio Orsini with a six years' engagement,
on the strength of a design which he had made showing how he proposed to
complete the building. The west door with its scroll-work of exaggerated
curvature, its pinnacled canopies supported on twisted columns, and
figures of various degrees of excellence, shows Antonio's capacity and
his limitations. The side door, which is rather simpler and in better
proportion, is in much the same style, but has foolish-looking lions on
brackets beneath the columns outside the door, with figures of Adam and
Eve interposed between the columns and the canopied tabernacles above,
which bear great resemblance to those in a similar position at Traù. The
pointed and cusped cornice of interlacing arches, surmounted by a cable
moulding, which continues to the end of the transept wall, seems to show
that the building had advanced as far as this point when Giorgio
appeared upon the scene in 1441. The arms of the Venetian rectors also
afford indications of the progress and intermissions of the work.

In the tracery of the windows of the central apse a modification of a
graceful Gothic pattern has been employed, resembling patterns used in
the campanile at Traù, combined with classic pilasters and colonnette
forms, but the greater part of the rest of the building is early
Renaissance. The aisles are roofed with a half-wagon vault above the
quadripartite pointed vaulting, forming a kind of triforium, which is,
however, inaccessible; the chapels at the sides of the choir have the
semicircular form of the roof of the nave and choir, perhaps suggested
by the temple at Spalato, now known as the baptistery; and the east end
is tri-apsidal, the apses being polygonal, but roofed with a semi-dome.
All these forms are evident externally, the joints of the roofing slabs
being covered by an ornamented band answering to the internal supporting
rib. The external sculpture is in the main restrained and delicate, and
the general proportions are excellent. The angle pier at the north-east
of the north transept has the simplicity of its outline destroyed to
provide place for figure sculpture and the dedicatory inscription, and
the string dividing the stylobate from the principal stage bears a
curious decoration of heads in the round; but these are slight blemishes
amid much beauty. The heads have a good deal of character, and some
may be portraits of the architect's assistants. The same _motif_ occurs
round the square-headed door of S. Francesco alle Scale, Ancona. The
construction of the semi-domes and of the roofs shows that Giorgio was a
competent constructor; but the inventive and beautiful treatment of the
decoration of the choir shows him as something more. The graceful
singing-galleries at each side, terminating in the curved ambos attached
to the main piers of the dome, are very delicate and beautiful; the
lofty proportions of the nave and choir are impressive; and the little
baptistery, with its curious mingling of Gothic and Renaissance forms,
is quaint and ingenious, if not very pure in style.

[Illustration: EASTERN END OF CATHEDRAL, SEBENICO

_To face page page 248_]

In 1444 Giorgio went to Spalato to build the chapel of S. Ranier in the
church of S. Benedetto, which was to have been finished in two years,
but it was nearly four before the donor was satisfied. The price was 306
ducats of gold. It no longer exists. After his first contract expired at
Sebenico, where the work apparently progressed very slowly, he went
again to Spalato in 1448 to make the chapel of S. Anastasius in the
cathedral. Here he had to compete with the work of Gaspare Bonino of
Milan, who had made the corresponding chapel on the other side in 1427.
They are both rather late Gothic in style. In 1449 he returned to
Sebenico, his contract with the chapter having been renewed in 1446 for
ten years at an advance of five ducats. The first contract was for six
years, at a salary of 115 ducats. In a notice of 1450 from Zara, he is
thus referred to: "Mistro Zorzi, taglia pietra, proto alia fabbrica
della chiesa di S. Giacomo di Sebenico." The contract for the sacristy
is dated March I, 1452. It cost 600 ducats. He was at Ancona in 1451,
when he undertook the façade of the Loggia de' Mercanti, an ornate work,
which took eight years to build, and has several details resembling
those parts of the cathedral, Sebenico, which are ascribed to Massegna.
In 1556 it was burnt, and was restored by Tipaldi. Barnabei, a
contemporary writer, states that Giorgio also built the adjoining
Palazzo Benincasa. He must have gone backwards and forwards between
Italy and Dalmatia, for in 1455, while he was under contract with the
Sebenico authorities, he completed the fine façade of S. Francesco alle
Scale, Ancona, receiving a bonus of 70 ducats above the price, according
to Lando Feretti. The church was built in 1323. The monastery is now
half barracks and half hospital. Between 1455 and 1459, the façade of S.
Agostino in the same town was built as an addition to a church of 1338,
which also is now a barrack. The foliage, twisted columns, and canopies
are a good deal like the earlier work at Sebenico. In 1460, Giorgio
returned to Sebenico, but in 1464 and 1465 was at Ragusa, where he
helped in building the Torre Menze, and in restoring the palace of the
Rectors. The next year he was at Pago, improving and enlarging the
courtyard of the bishop's palace. It was the Bishop of Ossero, who
thought he was going to obtain the removal of the see to Pago, but
failed to do so. The façade of the cathedral at Ossero has been ascribed
to him, and there is nothing in its design to make his authorship
impossible. In the next year he undertook work on the façade of the
Cappella Grande of the parish church at Pago. In 1470 he went to Rome,
where his compatriot Giovanni Dalmato, the sculptor, of Traù, was at
work on the monument of Paul II. He went as representative of the
procurators to Paul II., in reference to certain charities left by
Bishop Vignacco, who died at Porto, near Rome. In 1472 it is stated that
he had let all the houses which he had in the Venetian dominions. In
this year he commenced the façade of S. Maria, Cittanova, in the
Marche. During his frequent absences from home, his Venetian wife
Elizabeth looked after his affairs, apparently having a power of
attorney. He had many pupils, some of whom continued to work on the
cathedral at Sebenico after his death in 1476.

The cost of the building is stated to have been 80,000 Venetian ducats
of gold. It was thoroughly restored between 1843 and 1860; seven out of
the fourteen caps of the nave arcade have been replaced, and a good deal
of the framing of the panelling of red marble above. At each side of the
west door are monuments to bishops, and also at each side of the choir
steps. The slabs are sloping, and bear figures in relief. That on the
right of the door is Bishop Sisgoreo's, made under Giorgio's direction,
with an inscription added in 1874 by a descendant. The tomb of Lucio
Stafileo ([Symbol: cross]1557). under whom the cathedral was
reconsecrated, is to the north. Those at the entrance to the choir are
Luca Spignaroli ([Symbol: cross]1589) to the left, and Domenico Calegari
([Symbol: cross]1722) to the right. The choir is raised six steps above
the level of the nave, and the sanctuary seven steps higher still.

At the time of Giorgio's death the work had progressed as far as the
roofing in of the apses, if one may trust the arms of Bishop de
Tollentis (elected in 1468), placed above the upper arch of the
transept; while upon the external arch to the north are those of Count
Captain Piero Canal, who left in 1470; and on the arch of the central
apse inside, behind the sculptured bust representing God the Father, are
those of Count Captain Girolamo Pesaro, who began to rule in 1476. At
that time, therefore, the nave and cupola remained to be completed. Upon
the cupola there are no arms. Those of Count Nicolò Mulla on the
clerestory north wall show that it was finished to the cornice in
1491-1493. Those of Nicolò Navager, who died 1489, fastened with iron
clamps in the same place, suggest that it was not completed at his
death, though it was probably in course of construction. The arms of
Count Andrea Gritti, captain in 1534-1537, on the summit of the façade,
show that the western end of the vault was completed by Giovanni
Masticevich in 1536. The western rose (at which Giacomo, son of Matteo
da Mestre, capo mastro, 1528-1535, was working in 1531) has Gothic
cusped arches to the radiating bars, but the mouldings round are
Renaissance, as are the angle pilasters to the nave wall and the pateræ
decorating the quarter-circles of the aisles. The fluted pilasters of
the dome are in harmony with the pilasters of the open gallery above the
nave arcade. The pointed arches, which were certainly finished in 1444,
are probably Massegna's work, though the leafy cornice above bears great
resemblance to carving for which Giorgio was responsible at Ancona.

The baptistery is a queer little building at the eastern end of the
south aisle, and one of the entrances to the cathedral is through it.
The font has a bowl and base of variegated marble, like that used at
Veglia, very flat in shape and unmoulded, supported by three _amorini_,
carved in Istrian stone, who stand round the supporting stem. The plan
of the building is cruciform, the arms of the cross being semicircular
niches which have shell-heads. The wall above them has Gothic tracery,
on the eastern side pierced to give light. The ribs at the angles are
supported on engaged columns, above which are Gothic figures beneath
canopies, of which two, David and Simeon, remain; the other two were
destroyed or stolen, I understand, by thieves who broke into the
building. The figures bend forward awkwardly beneath the curve of the
vault, which becomes domical, with angels and cherubs upon it. The boss
in the centre bears a head of God the Father and the Holy Dove, with
an inscription round the edge: "Hic est filius meus," &c.

[Illustration: LATE VENETIAN-GOTHIC DOORWAY, SEBENICO

_To face page 253_]

The question of the part played by Giorgio in the construction of the
cathedral is difficult to decide, being complicated by the mixture of
styles and the possibly later insertion of several of the coats of arms
of the rectors and bishops. The western piers of the crossing are
considered to be part of the earlier work, because of the close
resemblance of the carved foliage to Venetian-Gothic ornament; but it
must be remembered that Giorgio was trained in Venice, just as Massegna
was, and would be familiar with such work. Foliage of similar style
occurs in domestic work at Traù, and in other places along the coast, so
that it is scarcely safe to consider it the sign-manual of any one
sculptor. The time from 1441, when he signed a contract for six years,
to 1443 was spent in widening the street to allow of the eastward
extension of the church. On June 16, 1442, the demand for the rebuilding
of the façade of the count's palace (which was on the other side) was
formally made for the bishop, procurators, and chapter. This additional
space was necessitated by the design of the apse, &c., as laid down in
Giorgio's plan, and still existing.[2] The Gothic character of the
domestic doorway illustrated, with the late form of shield in the
tympanum, shows that such forms lingered late in Dalmatia. The same may
be said of the design of the rose-window, finished in 1531, and of
similar details which occur in undoubted work by Giorgio in Ancona.

The door of the lions in the north aisle is quite Gothic in character,
yet the arms above it are those of Leonardo Vernier (1453-1454), Bishop
George Sisgoreo ([Symbol: cross]1453), and of Bishop Vignacco (elected
1454), apparently fixing its date thirteen years after Massegna had
received his _congé_. If it be contended that these arms are a later
insertion, which the arrangement of the masonry makes possible, the
value of all the coats of arms as fixing the dates of the portions of
the building on which they occur must be discounted. The design of the
lowest portions of the shafts in the right-hand jamb is different and
apparently later than the rest of the work, and the foliage on the
brackets beneath the lions also is very different from the fine caps to
the west of the crossing, so that one scarcely likes to assume that they
are by the same hand. Upon the pier, above one of the capitals
attributed to Giorgio, which has been compared disparagingly with the
caps last named, is the date 1524. This is below the level of the door
of the sacristy, which we know Giorgio built, and one would assume that
the pier must be anterior to the door, as the construction of the
sacristy would scarcely precede the roofing in of the aisle from which
it is entered. Moreover, the baptistery is beneath the apse which
terminates this aisle, and it was certainly completed in 1452, since it
is mentioned in the contract for the sacristy. The mixture of Gothic and
Renaissance forms is characteristic of Giorgio's work throughout; and it
is difficult to agree wholly either with Mgr. Fosco or Mr. T.G. Jackson
in the different conclusions on this subject which they draw from the
same data. The fact of Massegna having been dismissed on the definite
ground of errors made and defects discovered, with the additional
complaint of the throwing away of money upon ornament, suggests that the
earlier portion was not left as we now see it by the first architect, of
whom Mr. Jackson says: "To us there seems no fault in the design of
Antonio." The design of the western pair of caps of the piers at the
crossing is as different from that of the nave caps, which are certainly
Massegna's, as from that of the two eastern piers. Mr. Jackson says,
probably quite rightly, that the torus moulding decorated with the
laurel above the leaf cornice of the nave marks the commencement of
Giorgio's work in that part; the same moulding occurs in the same
relative position in the ambos to which he assigns the date of 1547: and
one does not quite understand why the same detail should not have the
same origin in both places. The only contract of 1547, quoted by Mgr.
Fosco, is one with "Checcus" of Padua for 350 squared paving-stones and
for laying them.

[Illustration: SOUTH-EAST PORTION OF CHOIR, CATHEDRAL, SEBENICO

_To face page 254_]

Whatever part George of Sebenico had in the construction he must be
classed with the great architectural designers. Leo Battista Alberti
commenced the recasing of S. Francesco, Rimini, which is generally
quoted as the earliest Renaissance work in Italy, in 1446, and the stone
for the work was imported from Istria. In that year Giorgio's first
contract was renewed for ten years. The Lombardi were then only
commencing their work. S. Zaccaria at Venice was built by Martino in
1456, and the Scuola di S. Marco in 1485. Pietro was engaged on the
Madonna dei Miracoli in 1483. So that Giorgio's work antedates theirs by
some years. He had numerous pupils, whose names have been recorded; the
other workmen came from Durazzo, Curzola, and Spalato. The best known of
them, Andrea Alexis, the Albanian of Durazzo, was much employed in
Spalato, Arbe, and Traù.

The votive church of S. Salvatore, just inside the Porta Pile, Ragusa,
built in 1522 after the earthquake of 1520, and designed by Bartolommeo
da Mestre, master mason at Sebenico in 1528, bears considerable
resemblance to the cathedral.

The door of Giorgio's house is beyond that of the sacristan, in a
narrow street, the Contrada S. Gregorio. To reach it, one leaves the
piazza by a slope beyond the Loggia, the ancient palace of the council
of the Nobles, a building of 1522, now a social club. The slope affords
a view of the enclosure in which the "vere" of the communal wells still
remain, four circular well-heads, with the symbols of the Evangelists
and coats of arms in roundels upon them, surrounded by cable mouldings,
four on each. Sebenico now has a fine water-supply brought from the
Kerka, twelve miles away, and they are no longer in use. The
aqueduct--the first constructed in Dalmatia in modern times--is named
the Lott-Brunnen, in commemoration of the clever engineer who designed
it.

Near the cathedral is the little church of S. Barbara; the bell-turret
on the wall is used as its campanile. In the north wall is an
ogee-headed window, deeply splayed and with pretty tracery; below it a
little shrine to the Virgin is set most oddly, with an arch projecting
up into the window space. A little higher up the street is the fine
Venetian door illustrated a few pages back, with columns and pinnacles,
and returning wall with elaborately shaped battlements. At the church of
S. Giovanni Battista is a fine external stair of fourteenth-century
Venetian type, a double flight returning on itself, with a landing at
the change of direction. The balustrade is continued round the side of
the church and the tower, but with square unmoulded shafts in place of
the colonnettes. The trefoiled heads are cut in the rail with the carved
spandrils between. There are many pieces of sculpture of the Venetian
period, windows, balconies, &c., in the walls here and there, and
wheel-windows occur with quatrefoils filling the heads of the spaces
next the circumference.

[Illustration: BELFRY OF GREEK CHURCH, SEBENICO

_To face page 257_]

There are also a few pictures to be seen. In the cathedral is an
Andrea Schiavone (who died here in 1582), "The Adoration of the Three
Kings." In S. Domenico alla Marina there are said to be fine Renaissance
altars, and pictures by Lorenzo Lotto, Palma Giovane, and Marco
Vecellio. We did not see them, as, on the occasion of both our visits to
Sebenico, the church was being restored or rebuilt. The interior of S.
Francesco is harmonious. It was in the archives of this convent that
Mgr. Bulić discovered a gradual written on parchment of the ninth or
tenth century, which had been brought from S. Maria di Bribir in 1527.

[Illustration: COSTUME OF SEBENICO]

The Greek church has a very interesting belfry of late Renaissance style
in the gable; two arches with projecting semicircular pierced
balustrades for the ringers, and the bells (which are clappered) hanging
in the free space beneath the arch above. A third bell is in a higher
arch without the balustrading. The Greek Christians celebrate the Church
festivals with processions about the town, treated with great respect by
their Roman Catholic fellow-citizens, of which one held on the
Assumption may be described as typical. Boys and girls with garlands led
the way, followed by women with coloured aprons and voluminous
draperies. Then came a band in gay uniforms and plumed head-gear, then
priests in vestments of cloth of gold, swinging silver censers, or
bearing holy pictures; they were big men of fine appearance, with
religious earnestness in their faces. In the middle, under a silken
canopy with gold fringes, a higher ecclesiastic walked, a venerable
figure, with long silver hair and beard, bearing the most holy object
and looking like a high-priest, surrounded as he was with clouds of
incense. After the priests came a long line of men in country costume,
powerful figures with flashing eyes, and faces full of character. They
held themselves upright like soldiers, and bore large white tapers
fastened four together. The sides of the narrow streets were lined with
Roman Catholics who looked on with sympathetic interest at the religious
ceremonies of their fellow-citizens of a different creed, an example
which might be commended to sects nearer home.

The people are hospitable, and very generous, but proud, and, like the
Spaniards, easily moved both to acts of violence and kindness. There is
no nobility, the patrician families being either extinct or
impoverished, partly owing to a severe epidemic of smallpox which smote
the town in 1872. The men wear a ridiculous small red cap, like that
worn at Zara, but smaller, often requiring an elastic round the back of
the head to keep it on, and waistcoats and coats ornamented with large
silver buttons of filigree work (older examples of which are works of
art, but the modern mere articles of commerce). The collar is curious,
with a facing of red or black worsted, apparently intended to imitate
fur (shown in the drawing of the costume). The trousers are dark blue,
with a slit towards the ankle, laced up with silver wire, and strong
shoes are worn with turned-up toes covered with hide lacings. The women
have a white head-dress, a cloth twisted round and fastened to the hair
in the manner of that worn at Lussin Piccolo. One of the waiters at the
restaurant who came from Spalato, but whose side-whiskers stamped him as
an Austrian, told us he had been in Glasgow and other British towns--a
rather unusual thing with the men of his class, though many of the
sailors are acquainted with British ports. The dustmen reminded one of
the days of one's childhood when in England; they went round ringing a
bell and calling "Dust-ooh!" At the sound all kinds of refuse were
brought out to the cart, which went slowly along the narrow street.

Sebenico was the birthplace of the celebrated Nicolò Tommaseo, to whom a
statue has been erected in the public garden below the piazza, where
Sanmichele's gate stands. He was born in 1802, and was philologist,
philosopher, historian, poet, novelist, critic, psychologist, statist,
politician, and orator, leaving behind him, when he died in 1874, some
two hundred works. In its time of prosperity the city owned several
islands, of which Zlarin is the most populous and the richest.

Sebenico is the usual starting-point for the excursion to the Kerka
falls; and, on the arrival of the boat, tourists make arrangements to
share carriages. It is a drive of about twelve miles, through a barren,
stony land, till one reaches the park-like country along the banks of
the river. The falls can also easily be reached from Scardona, to which
a little steamboat runs in the morning; but there is none back in the
afternoon, so those who are pressed for time generally drive. Scardona
is an ancient city mentioned by Pliny as a principal market-town of
Liburnia. The ruins which remain are late Roman. In the Middle Ages,
Venice, Hungary, and Turkey all coveted it, and it suffered accordingly.
In 1411 it became Venetian, in 1522 was sacked by the Turks, and retaken
by the Venetians in 1537. The fortifications were destroyed, and the
town abandoned and afterwards burnt; but the Turks held it till 1684,
when they finally evacuated it. The falls are about three-quarters of an
hour's walk away up the river, which was the ancient boundary between
Liburnia and Dalmatia. They form its final plunge to sea level, for two
tributaries join it, one on each side of Scardona, where it virtually
becomes an estuary. The water precipitates itself over five terraces
some 300 ft. wide, a magnified artificial cascade with a fall of 150 ft.
The main fall occupies the centre of the stream, and is slightly
horseshoe in shape; to the right and left are numerous smaller cascades
with a little island between. Many partly artificial channels conduct
the water to flour and fulling mills on both sides of the stream, of
which there are some fifty, the sound of the mill-wheels and the
fulling-hammers mingling with the rush of the waters. On the Sebenico
side are a mill for insect-powder made from the pyrethrum, and the
pumping-house for the water-supply of the city, the power for the
electric lighting being also generated here. The mills are not so busy
as they used to be, for the Hungarian and Russian flour is driving the
home product out of the market. The spray from the falls rises high in
the air, and bathes the overhanging trees and reeds, keeping the
neighbouring rocks clothed with ferns.

After dinner we strolled along the quay to the south of Sebenico. There
was no moon, and the stars were not as brilliant as they sometimes are
in these southerly latitudes, making it rather difficult to pick one's
way among the mysterious darknesses, which meant obstacles of one kind
or another. As we rounded a corner a lamp or two flashed in our eyes
from the other side of a little cove, and sparkled in broken lights upon
the uneasy wavelets which splashed and tinkled against the sides of
several coasting-vessels moored near at hand. The semi-silence of the
night was broken by musical sounds, scarcely melody, but an uneven kind
of chant, commencing in unison, and dying away in a prolonged
melancholy, wailing chord, swelling and falling, almost like the notes
produced by an Æolian harp as the wind sweeps over its strings. The
glow of light which showed the door of a wine-shop across the water
marked where the singers were enjoying their melancholy music, which, in
its formlessness and dying cadences, was in strange harmony with the
shapeless undulating dark masses, which by day were rocky islands
sparsely clad with trees, now only relieved by the glimmer of the paler
water, whose lapping formed an undertone to the stronger notes of the
voices.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 2: Mgr. Fosco states that Giorgio submitted a plan of his
proposed work, with cupola, apses, and transepts, with the little
choirs--possibly a model, such as we know he prepared at the time the
contract for the sacristy was signed.]




XX

TRAÙ AND THE RIVIERA DEI SETTE CASTELLI


From Sebenico, Spalato can be reached either by boat or by rail. On our
first visit we chose the train, since it gave us greater choice of times
for making the journey. The railway stations are generally far away from
the piers; we had observed this at Pola and Parenzo, and the same thing
occurs at Sebenico. The hotel porters are not allowed to carry baggage
to and from the steamers or the station; we were told there was a law
against it, which a man sitting by said was just enough, for the odd-job
men must live! The retrospect from the railway is fine. The southern end
of the inlet is in the foreground, with a training-ship upon it; the
city on its hill lies to the right, crowned by Fort S. Anna, and higher
still the Fort S. Giovanni; while to the left is the other portion of
the inlet which stretches towards Scardona and to the entrance, dotted
with islands and terminated by low hills. A bright sun illumined the
whole scene, increasing the lustre of the rocks and buildings, which
contrasted sharply with the colour of the sea, blue as the luminous
over-arching sky it reflected.

The line climbs slowly up the slopes of Monte Dinara, towards
Perkovic-Slivno, the junction for Knin through a rather stony landscape
above rich and well-cultivated valleys. The hills in the middle-distance
look barren, but the foreground is interesting on account of the
variety of broken forms caused by projecting rocks and stones. It is
starred with green humps, and there are trees in places. The humps are
stunted growths of juniper, sloe, bramble, hawthorn, or a trifoliate
plant, with grass growing in the shadow. The trees are hawthorns, ilex,
olive, fig, almond, chestnut, mountain ash, hornbeam, or elm, and I
thought I saw oak, though it is said that it does not grow in Dalmatia.
Colour was added by many flowers, orchids, iris, yellow daisies,
asphodel, and fields of pink pyrethrum; while the dresses of groups of
peasants on their way to or from Mass gave brilliant patches of reds and
blues. Vines grew in pockets of earth among the rocks from which loose
stones had been collected to build rough terrace walls.

At Perkovic-Slivno, the song ol nightingales beguiled the tedium of
waiting, shut within a barrier, for the train from Knin, for one is not
allowed to stray about until the train arrives. After a little further
climbing, the summit of the range was pierced, and the lovely Riviera of
the Castelli lay spread before us far below. The long island of Bua
stretched towards the strait, by which the ancient port of Salona was
approached; a land-locked bay, from the other side of which above the
peninsula of Monte Marjan rose the campanile of the cathedral of
Spalato, swathed in the scaffolding of its long-continuing restoration;
beyond was the sea, with the southern islands in the distance, and the
littoral chain growing pale in aerial perspective. It formed an
enchanting whole, equalling views which have a world-wide reputation,
opalescent in the morning sunlight, with pale purples, blues, and greens
thrown like a veil over the rich soil and the grey limestone of the
mountains. The line descends rapidly, too rapidly for one's desires, and
approaches the shore near the fourth of the castelli, rounds the bay in
which Vranjic lies, passing beneath Salona, and, crossing the Jader,
arrives at the Spalato station through cuttings which prevent one from
seeing anything of the palace wall.

On other occasions we went by boat, reaching Spalato in the evening.
After the Punta Planka, the ancient Promontorium Syrtis is passed, where
the water is often rough, since there is no protecting screen of
islands, the campanili and towers of Traù come into sight, between which
and Bua there is a swing bridge across the channel. Beyond this the boat
passes under the lee of Bua, on the shore of which is a solitary white
monastery; whilst on the opposite shore the buildings of the Castelli
throw long tremulous reflections across the water, and boats with sails
painted in various colours and patterns pass to right and left, flushed
with the rays of the setting sun, and leaving trails of light or dark
behind them according as the water reflects the land or the sky. As the
sun sinks lower, leaving the sea in shadow, the glow upon the hills
becomes more and more roseate, till at last it fades, as the strait is
passed and the harbour opens. The smoke from a cement factory hangs in
the air like evening mists in an English valley; and, as we approach
still nearer, the long line of buildings upon the quays, dominated by
the great campanile and the colonnade of Diocletian's palace, gradually
grows more impressive in the failing light.

[Illustration: THE PORTA MARINA AND CUSTOM HOUSE, TRAÙ

_To face page 265_]

It is distinctly asserted by Strabo that Traù, the ancient Tragurium,
was founded in the fourth century B.C.. by Greek Sicilians from Lissa.
At a later date it was certainly a Roman colony. After the fall of the
Western empire it was subject to the emperors of Byzantium, and for
forty years or so in the ninth century to the Franks, after which
Hungarians, Byzantines, Genoese, and Croats struggled for it, till in
1420 it was taken by Venice. Its first privilege was granted by
Coloman of Hungary in 1108, renewed and amplified by Stephen in 1124,
Geysa III. in 1151, and Bela III. in 1182. Bela IV., with his family,
treasures, and a brilliant following, took refuge here in 1241 from the
Tartar hordes. He was received with due honours, and conceded in return
the confirmation of ancient privileges, &c. The city was mainly Slav
during the Middle Ages, and, on the whole, was happy and peaceful under
Hungarian rule, though sacked by the Saracens in 1123, and by the
Venetians in 1194, under the leadership of Vitale Michiele. Between 1322
and 1358 it belonged to the Venetians.

Under Venetian rule the walls of Dalmatian cities, towards the sea were
weak, and often formed merely by houses and towers belonging to private
persons. Those of Traù are no earlier than the thirteenth century, and
only small portions of that date remain by the tower of the nuns of S.
Nicolò. In 1289 a wall was commenced round the suburbs; and Law XX. of
the first book of the Statutes obliged each count to build ten "canne"
of wall in the suburb each year, as Lucio states. Notwithstanding this
regulation, it was not finished till 1404, and one tower even was not
completed till 1412. The suburb was called Citta Nova, and the dividing
wall was subsequently demolished. In 1290 Stefano d'Ugerio of Ancona,
podestà, was freed from the obligation of paving fifty paces of the
street between the two main gates, which was laid on every podestà, so
one may suppose that the paving was completed. In Venetian times Traù
had seven gates. Of these three remain--a plain pointed arch near S.
Nicolò, the Porta Marina, and the Porta a Terra. This latter is also
known as Porta S. Giovanni from the figure of S. Giovanni Orsino which
crowns it, and before which a lamp continually burns. The gate is
Renaissance, with the S. Mark's lion in an oblong panel above the arch.
From the middle of the base of this panel a little cypress grew, which
remained the same size for generations. The country people believed that
its growth was due to the wonder-working power of the saint, and that
its colour foretold scarcity or a fruitful year. When I was there the
second time, in 1906, the podestà told me it had died. The sea gate is
also Renaissance; from the jambs still hang the ancient doors thickly
studded with iron nails, and behind the door is a S. Mark's lion with
the book closed, though they say it was open till the fall of the
Republic. Above the gate is another lion with an inscription of 1642.
Close by is the custom-house, which groups picturesquely with the
gateway.

The castle at the end of the quay, the Castel del Camerlengho, was built
in 1424. It is very well preserved. The three smaller angle towers have
been altered for cannon. It is now a store-house for sand and such
things, with a small garden and a few almond-trees. In the corner is a
little chapel nearly covered by the sand, and I was told there was a
shallow cistern in the middle. The round tower to the north-west dates
from 1378, when the Dalmatian towns were allied with Genoa against
Venice, and Traù was the _rendezvous_. The walls are battlemented, the
octagonal angle towers have had machicolations (tolerably well preserved
on one of them), and above each of the two entrances is a projecting
defensive work of the same kind.

[Illustration: THE PORTA S. GIOVANNI, TRAÙ

_To face page 266_]

A few discoveries have been made of pre-mediæval things. In 1899, some
half-mile towards Spalato, two terra-cotta urns were found, one of which
had been mended with straps of lead. It contained seven bits of a
statuette of Bacchus, which have been put together, and three bits of a
larger figure. They are now in the museum at Spalato. In 1903, remains
of an early church were excavated on the mainland, close to the
wooden bridge which crosses the isolating arm of the sea, bringing to
light a mosaic pavement, part of the apse, and one column. It was
probably part of a cemetery basilica of the fifth or sixth century, just
outside the ancient wall of Tragurium. Two Christian inscriptions of the
fifth century have been found near, upon one of which are the words
"sancta ecclesia"; and close by was discovered the torso of a prisoner
of war, apparently Roman work. Close to the cistern is the reversed
cover of an antique sarcophagus, and part of the front of another with a
sixth-century cross. A curious custom still existing suggests a
traditional memory of the site of the ancient cemetery. On Holy Thursday
the Confraternity, after visiting the churches in the town, and that of
the cemetery (about half a mile away), returns to the cistern, and,
gathering round it, prays for the dead.

At one time there were twenty-one churches in the city. Those of S.
Nicolò and S. Barbara are early. S. Nicolò (formerly S. Doimo) was
founded in 1064 by Giovanni Orsini for ladies of noble descent, but
little remains to show its age. There is said to be a Greek fragment of
the third century B.C. in the court of the convent. Two early caps in
the entrance portico appear to belong to the period of foundation.

[Illustration: PLAN AND SECTIONS, S. BARBARA, TRAÙ]

S. Barbara was originally dedicated to S. Martin, but the name was
changed when the altar from the church of S. Barbara was brought here
during the Turkish siege of 1537; it is mentioned in 1194. It is the
most ancient church in Traù, and the lintel of the door has an
inscription upon it with diamond-shaped O's, as used in the eighth
century. The ornamental carving also is consistent with that period in
its design, with crosses of interlaced work in the centre and at the
ends, two griffins with tails entwined in a circle, one on each side of
a central feature, with a rosette within a cable moulding, and rough
trefoils filling up gaps. The interior has nave and aisles, with four
stilted arches resting upon columns on each side, and three apses (of
which the central one is larger and longer than the others) with two
niches in the wall, covered by a semi-dome on squinches, the plan being
square. The caps and columns appear to be antique for the most part, and
just outside is a shallow cap of the same pattern as one at Kairouan.
The aisles are very narrow, and are vaulted with cross-vaulting without
ribs, but with strengthening arches thrown across to the wall. The nave
has a barrel vault with pilaster strips running up to the springing of
the strengthening arches, which are all round and unmoulded. A moulding
with three projecting corbels runs round the base of the apse vault. It
is said that there was once a central cupola. The east window still
retains a lattice-pierced slab. The church is now a store-house for odds
and ends, with a floor halfway up over the western part, but the podestà
told me that they hoped to clear it out and make it into a museum.

S. Domenico retains portions of Gothic work. The building was finished
in 1372. A rough relief in the tympanum shows a Virgin and Child, and on
the right a local saint, Augustino Cassioti, canonised by Pope John
XXII. (1313-1334), with mitre and pectoral, and on the left S. Mary
Magdalene. At the feet of the saint kneels the foundress, his sister
Bitcula. A Gothic inscription gives her name, and that of the sculptor,
"Maiste Nicolai de te dito cervo d Venecia fecit hoc opvs." Within are a
picture of the Circumcision by Palma Giovane, with a pretty Virgin, the
marble sarcophagus of the family Sobota, a grandiose Renaissance
production, and six panels of saints on gold ground, rather like the
Gubbio school in style, arranged in threes on the wall of the choir.

The cathedral, however, is the glory of Traù. It replaces an earlier
building, reported to have dated from the sixth century, but destroyed
by the Saracens in 1123. At this time the Traùrines fled to Spalato, and
apparently did not venture back till 1152. The builder of the main part
of the cathedral was Bishop Treguanus, a Florentine who came from
Hungary, and was bishop from 1206 till about 1256. The south door bears
the date 1213, the great west door 1240, but the west gable has the arms
of Bishop Casotti (1362-1371) upon it, and the campanile was not
finished till 1598. The plan shows a nave and aisles five bays in
length, terminating in three apses, while to the west is a broad and
lofty porch, above one end of which the tower rises. This porch is
entered by an arch at the south end, but there is another opposite the
great west door; and at the further end is the fifteenth-century
baptistery. Round it runs a low seat with arcaded panelling, which
serves as base to all the shafts. It is vaulted in three bays, with
twisted colonnettes in the angles of the piers. The vaulting is
quadripartite, with ribs and two arches three feet broad repeating the
divisions of the nave, all the arches being round. The central
compartment rises like a dome upon the surface of the terrace above. In
the aisle walls are two pierced circular windows, Romanesque in design.
In one, two dragons are represented devouring a man; in the other are
two lions rearing against a twisted pillar on which is a cup. The bodies
are broken, and the tails, which remain, encroach upon the wall surface.

[Illustration: PLAN OF THE CATHEDRAL, TRAÙ]

The great west door is the pride of all Dalmatia, and is unsurpassed in
the elaborate richness of its carving. It is dated in the lintel
inscription 1240, and signed Raduanus, a Slav name Radovan latinised.
There are two orders and a tympanum with octagonal shafts in the angles,
those nearest the door apparently having fragments of highly carved work
inserted, since the plain octagonal shaft is visible both above and
below the carving. A flattish gable surmounts it, with a kind of
tabernacle work at each end above the figures of Adam and Eve, and a
cresting of crockets shaped like eighth-century crockets in a similar
situation. In the centre is a little niche with a later figure of S.
Laurence, the patron saint. The tympanum is occupied by the subject of
the Nativity, arranged in two stages. In the centre above is a curtained
recess, with the Virgin in bed, and the Child in a kind of cradle, above
which the heads of the ox and ass appear. Over them are two angels, one
of whom holds a star from which rays stream down on the Child, whilst
the other speaks to the shepherds. Below are Joseph and two women, one
of whom pours water into a tub, while the other washes the Child in it.
Behind Joseph is a shepherd (these two figures are named). On the left
are the shepherds and their flocks; on the right the three kings ride
up. "Guasper" and "Balthssar" are also named. The arches above are
unmoulded, but carved on the face. On the outside order at the top is
the Crucifixion, with the Virgin and S. John and two kneeling figures.
Commencing from the bottom on the left the subjects run: the Flight into
Egypt; the Entry into Jerusalem; the Marriage of Cana, or the Feast at
Simon's House; the Scourging of our Lord; the Watchers at the Grave, or
the Resurrection; the Temptation, or Casting out of Devils; and the
Baptism of Christ. Some of the reliefs are damaged. The inner order has
at the top the Adoration of the Kings (Joseph stands behind Madonna's
throne); at the base the Annunciation (the Virgin spinning on one side,
and Gabriel with a long staff on the other). This and the cupola on the
building behind the Virgin suggest a Byzantine model, as well as the
incorrect monogram, which is ϒΘ. The rest of the arch is filled with
censing angels. The jambs bear four-feet figures of Adam and Eve outside
the orders of the arch, holding fig-leaves in the same manner as the
figures at Sebenico, which they much resemble. Below Eve is a lioness
with two cubs under her, and a lamb in her claws; below Adam a lion with
a dragon in its claws; very decorative in their effect, and standing
upon brackets with channelled supports enriched with balls. The
pilasters are not quite homogeneous, and indeed scarcely agree even with
their fellows on the opposite side. Next to Adam are three figures of
Apostles with nimbi, in panels made by the crossing of foliated stems;
next to Eve are also three figures without nimbi, but smaller, though
the panels are similar; two have small canopies. On the other face are
foliage scrolls with animals within them; on Eve's side an ass, horse,
camel, elephant, hippopotamus, and the Oriental _motif_ of a griffin
stooping over its prey; on Adam's side a woman riding on a horse, a
centaur with a dart, a mermaid, a sea-horse, and at the bottom a griffin
devouring a scroll, with a human head attached. Below the ornament are
semi-nude caryatid figures on one side; on the other they have turbans
and shoes, and one has ankle band-ages. In the angle is an octagonal
shaft of green marble which continues round the arch. The reliefs on
Eve's side in the next order show details of burgher life and
agriculture, probably labours of the months or seasons--pruning leafless
trees, the preparation of leather, a man seated by a fire on which is a
cauldron, whilst a woman fills his cup from a skin over her shoulder,
behind hang sausages. Above is a pig which a man is about to kill. The
other side is similar. Above are shepherds shearing sheep in a wood;
then comes a figure holding a scroll upon which there is no inscription;
below is a warrior with sword, baton, and shield, below him a nude man
with flying hair, both among twining branches. Upon the other face are
spirals of leaf ornament with heads of men and beasts, resembling a
piece of antique carving at Spalato, finished with extraordinary care
and mastery. Caryatid figures support this order also, turbaned and
clothed with tunic and cloak. The carved portions of the inner columns
are of a white limestone, while the octagonal shafts are of green
marble; and this gives some support to the legend that they were brought
from Bihać, a castle of the kings of Croatia and Dalmatia, and later of
the kings of Hungary, a short distance away, of which scarcely a sign
now remains.[3] These shafts have elaborate scrolls of intertwining
branches and leaves, with animals, including some not found in Dalmatia.
The hunter has a greyhound. There are a stag, a bear, a sow, hares
dragged out by peasants, &c.; here there is a female centaur; there a
girl seated on an ox, a wood-devil with two horns, &c. On the other side
are lions and bears, figures fighting, a young man with a falcon, loose
dogs, &C., all most carefully carved. Beneath the lintel two caps with
_amorini_ of the fifteenth or sixteenth century have been inserted.

[Illustration: CARVING ON RIGHT JAMB OF WEST DOOR, CATHEDRAL, TRAÙ

_To face page 272_]

The south door is simpler, but in the same round-arched style. It has
square orders with rolls laid in the reveals, of which the inner one
resembles a cable, and the outer chain mail. In the semicircular
tympanum is a round window enclosing a quatrefoil surrounded by an
inscription with the date 1213 and the name of Bishop Treguanus. The
side walls are divided into five spaces by piers; an arched corbelled
cornice terminating in mouldings runs along them, and returns up the
slope of the east wall. Above it is a curious little loggia with very
squat pillars and brackets imitating the wood forms of Venetian
courtyards, but cut in stone. The alteration in the slope of the east
end shows that it is a later addition. The same kind of cornice finishes
the east gable and the nave walls, and also runs round the apses, but
with richer mouldings above it, especially round the central one. The
curious Dalmatian square-leaf enrichment, channelled in six radiating
striæ, and terminating in a small volute at the top corner occurs here.
There are two shafts to each small apse dividing the wall space, and
one window, but the central apse has four twisted shafts and three
windows, of which the central one is largest. In the gable is a
rose-window. On the roof of the northern aisle the lines of the plan and
elevation of parts of the campanile are cut, working drawings for the
masons. Heads of beasts project beneath the aisle cornice as gargoyles.
Above the ground story the tower is Gothic, and has two Gothic windows
of two lights on the south side, with octagonal shafts and traceried
heads. The other sides have arcading divided into two panels. Here there
is an inscription giving the date of 1422, and the names of the Masters
Mateus and Stefanus, probably the Matteo Goyković who contracted for the
repair of church and campanile with the "operarius" of the church in
1421. The stage above has tall square-headed windows, with reticulated
tracery in the heads of cusped circles or quatrefoils, and two lights
below with central colonnette. The angles have shafts, and there is a
pointed trefoiled cornice with carved mouldings and cornice above. The
third story is Renaissance, finished in 1598 by Trifon Boccanich. Gothic
details still appear as in the shafted two-light windows, with the
pierced quatrefoils above and the twisted shafts at the angles. The
whole finishes with a pyramidal spire, imitating the Venetian campanile.
The gable above the portico has an enormous wheel-window of sixteen
divisions, which had a door beneath it.

The nave is 19 ft. 6 in. broad. Its piers vary in width, and the
round-arched arcade is irregular in its spacing. The north aisle is
broader than the south. The piers and arches are unmoulded; the arches
have two orders, carved imposts, and a very small base. The main arches
of the vault have mouldings at each side of a fiat surface, and are
pointed; the lesser ribs are twisted. The central bay only has a rib
running east and west at the summit of the arch. The aisles are vaulted
in the same manner, but with semicircular section. All the vaults are
domical, and those of the nave spring from corbels carved in the style
of Venetian fifteenth-century work. This agrees with the statement that
the vaulting dates from 1427-31, and was strengthened by chains and iron
anchors in 1440. The central bay has the south door on one side of it,
the chapel of S. Giovanni Orsini to the north; and the pulpit against
the north-eastern pier marks the commencement of the choir, which is
raised two steps above the level of the nave. A stone bench runs round
the apse, but there is no sign of an episcopal seat in the centre. The
ciborium is somewhat of the type used by the Roman marble-workers in the
twelfth century, but the proportions resemble those at S. Nicola, Bari,
more than the other Italian examples. It is of grey marble, and bears
upon the western angles of the square portion figures of the Virgin and
the Angel Gabriel, the latter kneeling, for which the change to
octagonal plan for the upper portion leaves room. The figures are
fifteenth-century in character, and on the bases are the names of the
artist and of the overseer--on that of the Virgin, "Mavrvs me fecit"; on
the angels', "Bitalis qda Martini oprarii," in Lombardic letters. The
"operarii" were generally nobles, and had control of the church works. A
gilded inscription on the front of the architrave gives the angelic
greeting. The columns are of cipollino; the caps, once gilded, are very
like those of the pulpit, which seems to be of the same date. It is
octagonal and surrounded by round-arched arcading, two arches to a side,
with coupled columns on the sides and three at the angles, above single
arches resting upon shafts of precious marbles with elaborate caps which
also at one time were gilded. The design suggests the copying of a metal
original in the treatment of the foliage scrolls and the heads of the
monsters, and contrasts with the pulpit at Spalato, in which a wood
treatment of the capitals is suggested. The column for the book-rest
stands on a little lion bracket; of the eagle which once surmounted it
only the claws remain. Beneath it William, son of Baldwin, emperor of
Constantinople, was buried in 1242. The choir stalls are of the
fourteenth-century Gothic type, like those at Arbe and Zara, touched
with colour and gilding. They cost eighteen ducats of gold each, and
were restored in 1757 and 1852. The carved portions are added, not cut
out of the solid. The chapel of S. Jerome at the west end on the north
was built in 1458. It has a qua trefoil wooden grille, made by cutting
triangles out of the uprights and cross-pieces equal in size to the
angles remaining. On the west wall is a little relief of a Virgin and
Child, S. Jerome, and a saint with halberd, beneath early Renaissance
niches and channelled pilasters. On the nave piers are paintings, most
of them of little value. A S. Jerome and S. John the Baptist show
decorative feeling in the landscape and its combination with the figure;
and on the second pier on each side is a row of nine saints and angels,
small figures as if from a predella, which show a combination of
Peruginesque and Florentine design and colour. Eitelberger says the
paintings above the side altar are ascribed to the younger Palma. The
cross of lamps which hangs in the nave recalls S. Mark's, Venice, as do
the harmonious tone of the interior and the colonnettes of precious
marbles of the pulpit. The great crucifix was brought from Venice in
1508. The organ was made by Frater Urbinus in 1485. Its wings, painted
in 1489 by Giovanni Bellini, are now on the first pier. In 1767 another
organ replaced it. The sacristy, an irregular building of 1444-1452,
cost 4,020 zecchins. It has a pointed barrel vault, and contains a very
fine row of cupboards worked by Gregorio di Vido in 1452, made of
walnut, carved and inlaid, and costing 125 ducats. The treasury was once
the richest in Dalmatia, but now only contains a few objects--arm
reliquaries, ostensory, and a silver-gilt ewer, &c. The most interesting
things are some embroideries and a MS. of the ninth or tenth century,
with very beautiful script. The embroideries are the centre of a cope,
with S. Martin dividing his cloak, in high relief (the horse, drapery,
and crown in seed pearls, the hair in gold, and the canopy ornamented
with gilded discs and seed pearls) of the beginning of the fifteenth
century, and a mitre said to have been Bishop Casotti's, with the Virgin
and Child standing in the centre (at each side Byzantine roundels
painted on gold, the whole set in jewels and with seed pearls).

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE CATHEDRAL, TRAÙ

_To face page 276_]

The chapel of S. Giovanni Orsini and the baptistery remain to be
described. S. Giovanni was the greatest of the bishops who rilled the
see of Traù, and was canonised in 1192. He came to the city with the
legate John of Toledo in the time of the Croatian king Cresimir. The
papacy desired to unify the ritual of the Church, substituting the Latin
language and the Roman use for the national liturgies, as it had done in
Spain, in Milan, and Aquileia. At this time there was no bishop of Traù.
The piety and strict life of S. Giovanni were soon noised abroad, and
the people desired him for their bishop. In this they were supported by
the legate, and he was consecrated in 1064 by Archbishop Laurentius of
Spalato. He dismissed his servants, and went through long night-watches,
lying naked on straw spread on the floor, to mortify the flesh. The fame
of miraculous occurrences accompanied his austerities. His hand on the
wine-press produced abundance of juice; he escaped dry-shod from a wreck
near Sebenico; and destroyed by his words the war-engines of Coloman in
1105, when he was attacking Zara. A white dove which settled on his
head when in conference with the king at Castell, near Sebenico, was
taken as a spiritual symbol. He prophesied his own death and the
destruction of Sebenico, and miracles were performed at his grave. The
body was found in Bua after the Traùrines returned from Spalato in 1152,
though another account says that it was discovered within the area of
the cathedral, near the high-altar where there is now a well. In 1174 he
is reported to have appeared above the building in the form of a shining
star; and after that the commune adopted a comet as the arms of the
city. The chapel stands on the site of the more ancient double chapel of
SS. Doimus and Anastasius. It was begun under Bishop Turlon in 1468, the
architects being Masters Nicolò Fiorentino and Andrea Alexci of Durazzo,
the stipulated price being 3,300 ducats, and the work occupying six
years. The chapel is rectangular, with a barrel vault. Round the walls a
seat runs, the front of which is ornamented with diamond forms filled
with foliage. Above it is a kind of stylobate with pilasters supporting
the columns of the next stage, the spaces between them decorated with
reliefs of torch-bearing _putti_, who are represented as issuing from
partly open double doors, some of which are very pretty. Each side
contains six arches, two of which are pierced with windows, the others
having shell-headed niches divided by channelled pilasters or twisted
columns, and tenanted by statues nearly life-size. Those which are named
are "S. Tomas, S. Ioannes Evangelista, S. Pavlvs, and S. Filippo."
Others recognisable by their attributes are S. John the Evangelist as an
old man, with the eagle at his feet, S. Mark with his lion, Madonna and
S. John the Baptist on the end wall, with our Lord in the centre. Vasari
says that Alessandro Vittoria did four Apostles in the church of Traù,
and it is suggested that the named figures are these four. The
architects carved the first figure, that of S. John the Evangelist, in
1482, at a cost of twenty-five ducats. Between the heads of the niches
little children stand on the capitals, and above the cornice is a space
pierced by oculi between pilasters. The ceiling is coffered with a
cherub's head in each panel, except the central one, which is four times
the area of the others, and contains a half-length of Christ, surrounded
by a wreath, holding an orb, and blessing. On the lunette is the
Coronation of the Virgin. Above the altar is the ancient tomb of the
saint, upon the lid of which is his effigy, with silver-plated mitre,
and crozier, gloves and shoes. It is of red marble, the front being
divided into three panels by twisted colonnettes, once gilt, with
statuettes at the corners, and bears an inscription giving the date
1348. The angels are modern. On the pier opposite the side door an
inscription records the gift of the right femur of "B. Jo. Ursinus" to
Benedict XIII. by the Venetian senate in 1724.

The baptistery is of the same date as the chapel, and was founded by the
same bishop, who belonged to the Anconitan family of Turglonia. The door
externally is square-headed, and has an architrave with sculptured della
Robbia like fruits. Over it is a Baptism of Christ, with God the Father
and the Dove above. Within is a frieze of _putti_ bearing garlands, with
shell-head niches and channelled pilasters below. Above this is a band
of Venetian-Gothic leaves, and in the coffered ceiling are rosettes.
This ceiling is a pointed wagon vault, cut from two great blocks of
marble, which meet in the centre. A round window in the west gable
lights well a life-sized figure of S. Jerome above the altar, the warm
brown tint of a portion of the stone being cunningly used to give the
effect of shadow on the upper part of the figure. A seat runs round the
base of the wall as in the chapel. An inscription gives the name of
Andreas Alexius of Durazzo, and the date 1467. The cost was 4,980
zecchins. The resemblance of this baptistery to portions of the
cathedral at Sebenico is striking.

The Loggia faces the cathedral at the other side of the _piazza_. One of
the shorter ends is open; the other is closed by the clock-tower, and on
this wall is elaborate carved ornamentation, behind the seat of the
judges. The floor is three feet above the piazza, and is approached by
five semicircular steps. Towards the _piazza_, five marble pillars (in
several pieces) support moulded brackets, upon which an architrave beam
rests, and there is one on the shorter side. The caps are of different
dates, and for the most part come from older buildings, one indeed being
antique. Between the columns is an early Renaissance balustrade. Stone
benches run along the walls. Above the judges' seat the wall is
panelled. In the central top panel is a figure of Justice seated upon a
winged globe; right and left of her are half-lengths of winged figures
with inscribed scrolls, laudatory of Justice, emergent from circles.
Below Justice is a great lion of S. Mark, and below the other figures
are S. Giovanni Orsini with a model of Traù, and S. Laurence with his
gridiron. At each side is a long panel with a candelabrum very like
those in panels in the chapel in the cathedral, which make it pretty
certain that the carving is by the same hand, especially as the date
1471 appears in one of the inscriptions. There are other inscriptions
with the dates 1513 and 1606, and later coats of arms. On the corner
shaft are the arms of Pietro Loredano. By the judges' seat is a piece of
iron which marks the place where the criminal was chained when his crime
was announced. The restoration was carried out in 1892 by Professor
Hauser. Right of the steps three standard measures stood till 1843.

It is interesting to note a few of the pains and penalties inflicted.
The statute was revised in 1291 and 1303 by the first Venetian Count, M.
Morosini, who collected the chapters into three volumes. The town
physician was not allowed to leave the town without permission from the
count under a fine of twenty-five lire di piccoli. No one could go about
at night without a light, and a fine of forty soldi was incurred by
gambling anywhere except in the piazza. Spinning was forbidden to the
saleswomen on the loggia--fine, five soldi. A servant who stole from his
lord had his nose cut off, or lost one or both eyes if the value was ten
to twenty-five lire. If the value was greater the thief was hung up till
he died. In Traù there was neither bridge-playing nor company-promoting.

Traù is tolerably rich in the remains of ancient houses, of which the
drawing shows an example. The most celebrated is the Casa Cippico facing
the cathedral, of late Venetian-Gothic verging on Renaissance. The court
inside was built in 1457. In the entrance hall are preserved two wooden
prow ensigns taken from the Venetian galleys during war between Traù and
Spalato; one is in the form of a cock standing on a clenched hand, the
other a fragment of a small figure of a man. Also an inscription flanked
by two shields with rampant lions, which are good. Opposite the Loggia,
on the other side of the street, is a highly decorative lintel, which
appears to have belonged to a palace of the Cippico, with two
contemplative lions and half-length angels in roundels with scrolls. The
caps have the same kind of foliage as is seen at Curzoia and Sebenico.
The Austrian-Lloyd office is on the ground floor of a tower of the
Venetian period, now a nunnery. It has a trefoiled ogee-window and a
great balcony above it, with trellises behind which the nuns can take
the air without being seen, recalling those of Sicilian nunneries. All
the other openings are square-headed.

[Illustration: A DECAYED PALACE, TRAÙ

_To face page 282_]

The ruined church of S. Giovanni, formerly belonging to a Benedictine
nunnery, has exactly the same patterns about it as the cathedral, and
must be of the same date. Along the nave walls, and ramping up the
gables, is a double-arched corbel cornice with pilasters at the angles,
and a bell turret consisting of a prolongation of the nave wall, gabled
and with three pointed arched openings, two below, and one above. In the
tympanum of the door is a pierced roundel with the Agnus Dei.

[Illustration: LATE GOTHIC LINTEL AT TRAÙ]

The Palazzo Comunale has been rebuilt, preserving the portions which
were of special interest, and also pieces of architectural carving from
other parts of the city. Its interest is therefore rather that of a
museum now. I was fortunate enough, on one of my visits, to have the
guidance of the podestà, Commendatore Madirazza, to whom I had been
introduced by Professor Bulić at Spalato. I have to thank him for
showing me several things I should otherwise have missed.

From Bua (Bavo or Boa), an island used by the Romans as a place of
exile, a comprehensive view of Traù may be obtained, with towers and
campanile breaking the line of the houses, with the strait in the
foreground, and with boats drawn up on the shore. In a private garden is
a palm-tree said to be the most northerly specimen in Dalmatia, though
there are several at Lussin Piccolo, which is much farther north.

Our first visit to Traù was made by carriage from Spalato, and occupied
the whole of a most delightful day, for we did not get back till long
after dark. The excellent road is due to the French, but follows the
line of that made by the Romans or before their time, passing quite near
the Castelli, some of which we were able to visit. It was spring: the
vines were making long shoots, and the fields and banks were gemmed with
flowers; on one side, the sapphire sea; on the other, the mountain
slopes, with scented breezes to cool the ardour of the sun. For the most
part the peasants, men and women, were busy in the fields, or washing by
the stream, and appeared well-to-do, though we passed one man half
naked, searching his garments upon a heap of stones. But he, we gathered
from a gendarme near, was considered weak in the head. Long before the
town is approached, the towers of Traù are silhouetted against the
horizon, emphasising the point of land which they terminate, grey walls
and dark trees running together into a mass, but contrasting with each
other on a nearer view. We started on our return a little before sunset,
while the sun's level rays cast long simplifying shadows across the
landscape, and enjoyed the glow upon flowery hillside and purple crag,
from which the houses flashed out like jewels, and the water beneath
changed its colour with the changing sky. The twilight faded while we
were passing Salona, and in the long climb to the crest of the rising
ground above Spalato we had only the light of the carriage lamps,
finally alighting outside the northern wall of the palace (for carriages
cannot enter within the town) weary, but filled with delightful
impressions and recollections. Another time we went by boat, starting at
6 o'clock, and enjoying the early morning freshness of effect. In this
trip also we had the opportunity of visiting some of the Castelli, which
are interesting generally rather for their picturesqueness than for
archæological reasons. In the chapter dealing with Spalato will be found
some details as to remains of the early Croatian period found along the
coast and in the environs. At Castel Vecchio we saw on the wall of the
churchyard a cross with a much damaged antique cap as base, and another
antique base on a larger scale beneath it. It was 6.40 a.m., and along
the shore, a little way off, a procession was passing with a tinkling
bell, two banners, and processional crosses, preceding a figure in a
cope of white and gold beneath a canopy. It was Low Sunday (called
Piccola Pasqua in Dalmatia), and the priest was bearing the Host either
to some sick person or to a neighbouring church. Such sights are
frequent in the country places, where religious observances are more
evident than in the towns.

Whichever way Traù is visited from Spalato (given pleasant weather) the
day may be looked forward to as giving a constant succession of
delightful experiences, of which the central point will be the
mediæval-looking city with its magnificent cathedral and glorious west
door, though the quaintness of the costume of the country people, very
individual and unlike other Morlacchi costumes, will count for
something.

The Castelli were built as defences against Turkish raids. Starting from
Traù the first is Castel Papali; Castelnuovo, Castel Vecchio, Castel
Vitturi, Castel Cambio, and Castel Abbadessa follow, and Castel Sućurac
is the nearest to Spalato and Clissa. These are the Sette Castelli, but
there are several others--Stafileo, Andreis, Cega, Quarco, and Dragazzo.

[Illustration: A QUAINT COSTUME, TRAÙ]

Castel Papali, or Nehaj, is three-quarters of an hour from Traù, and was
built in 1548 by Lodovico and Giovanni Celio. It was then called Celio
or Lodi. In 1680 it passed to the family of Francesco Papali, the Celi
having failed of heirs male. It now belongs to Count Fanfogna-Garagnin
of Traù.

Castel Stafileo was built in 1500 by Stefano Stafileo, of a family
established in Traù coming from Candia. He separated it from the
mainland, and it was entered by a drawbridge; the ditch is now filled
up. The concession is dated 1484.

Castel Dragazzo, or Dracic, founded by Matteo Dragazzo in 1543, on a
concession from the Venetian senate, was never finished, in consequence
of his death. The material of the walls was used to construct the port
of Castelnuovo. The Dragazzi appear in 1389. They were originally
butchers, but for about three centuries gave the country men of
intellect and valour.

[Illustration: THE QUAY, CASTEL VECCHIO

_To face page 287_]

Castel Quarco "in Bile," of which very little is left, was built in 1588
by Giovanni Quarco with a walled courtyard. The site was granted to
Matteo Dragazzo, who ceded it to Quarco.

The church at Castelnuovo inherited with the title of S. Pietro the
rights of S. Pietro di Klobučac, a little inland on the slope of the
hill (where remains of a monastery or palace of the ninth to the
eleventh century have been found). It was demolished in 1420. According
to tradition some of the objects there preserved came from the older
church. The _pala_ of the high-altar, a panel painting on gesso ground,
the Virgin and Child seated, on the right S. Peter with the keys, on the
left S. John the Baptist with scroll "Ecce Agnus Dei," half-length, is
one thing. The inscriptions are in Roman capitals. Also two
Romanesque-looking bronze candlesticks. The Castello has a square tower,
which has lost the balcony which surrounded it at the height of the
first floor. In the piazza is the Loggia, rebuilt in 1795, as an
inscription states. It was burnt in 1523 together with most of the
houses. The _provveditore_ granted materials for rebuilding, but it was
again burnt in 1575. Until recently this Castello belonged to the
Cippico. It was the birthplace of the historian Katalinić, born here in
1779.

Castel Vecchio was founded in 1481 by Coriolanus Cippico, with booty
gained in the war against Mahomet II. in 1471, as is testified by the
inscription over the gate, "Triremis ex manubiis Asiaticis hanc villam
ædificavit," with date 1481. Tradition says that a house on the left of
the eastern gate with a walled courtyard was also his work. He died here
in 1493, leaving it to his sons Alvise, bishop of Famagosta, and Zuanne,
archbishop of Zara. Over a door in the courtyard is the Cippico crest
with the motto "Omnia exalto." Opposite is a chapel dedicated to S.
Joseph and the Virgin, built by Coriolanus's son Lælius, according to
the inscription, with the incredibly late date of 1695. In 1480 Nicolò
Pisani, count of Traù, received a "ducale" from Giovanni Mocenigo, in
which Cippico was promised munitions of war and men-at-arms to preserve
the Castello, and, by the assurance of security, to attract cultivators
to the fertile country "for greater public usefulness." This seems to
support Karaman's statement that the Castello was founded in 1476. An
inscription of 1492 above the arch between the court and main street
records its ruin by fire and restoration by the senate. In 1500 the
Venetian Government completed Cippico's work at a cost of 500 ducats. It
was called Castel Vecchio because it was the first of the Castelli
founded.

Castel Vitturi, built in 1487 by Girolamo and Nicolò Vitturi of Traù, by
concession from Count Carlo di Pesaro, is now without drawbridge or
ditch. The founder of the family, Lampridio, son of Giacomo Vitturi, a
Venetian noble, came to Traù in 1213, and married Bona Cega. The
Castello is square, with two gates, one to the sea, and the other to the
north, apparently entirely rebuilt in 1563, except the north side, which
still has two turrets flanking the gate pierced for musketry, and traces
of the holes through which the chains of the drawbridge passed, also of
a balcony which was probably for defence.

The next one is Castel Rosani (Rušinac), built in 1482 by Michele
Rosani, under a concession from Count Francesco Ferro. The village was
surrounded with walls; but, fearing that they would not be able to beat
off the Turks, the inhabitants dismantled them, and sought refuge in
Castel Vitturi, which was larger and better fortified. It is still in
good preservation, however, with its little church, which contains the
tomb of the unfortunate lovers whose story has been told by Marco di
Casotti.

Castel Cambio (Kambelovac) was built in 1566 by Francesco Cambi of
Spalato. It is still partly preserved. At one time it formed one parish
with the adjacent Castel Abbadessa (Gomilica). It belonged to the
lordship of Sučurac, which embraced nine villages. The nuns in the
sixteenth century erected the Castello on an island, and here the
abbesses were wont to come for the summer; hence the name. The nuns
built the little church at the entrance of the village on the right of
the road; it was dedicated to SS. Cosmo and Damian, and consecrated by
Assalone, archbishop of Spalato, 1159-1160. It is suggested that the
Slav name Gomilica ("masses of masonry") comes from the fact that the
newer houses were built with the ruins of the village of Kozice,
destroyed by the Turks.

Castel Sučurac is the nearest of the Castelli to Spalato, the first to
which the Turks would come, descending from Clissa. The position and the
Roman remains found here are held to prove that it was a suburb of
Salona. It took its name from S. Giorgio, a little chapel upon the hill,
which in Croat is called Sut Juraj, corrupted into Sučuraj. The church
was built by the great zupan Miroslav; and the ruined walls which
surround the present chapel, showing a foot above the soil, are supposed
to be the remains of that church, since there are amongst them a few
pieces of carved stone. The most ancient Croat document existing is a
deed of gift of this place and church to the Archbishop of Spalato,
Pietro III., by the King Trpimir, in 837, in exchange for £11 given by
the archbishop for the construction of the church and monastery of S.
Peter, between the ruins of Salona and the fortress of Klis. In 1076
King Zvonimir confirmed the gift. One of the finest buildings in the
village is the palace of the archbishop, dated 1488 by an inscription
over the door. The Castello and walls round the village were built by
Andrea Gualdo, archbishop in 1392, by concession of Valchio, ban of
Croatia. In 1489 Archbishop Bartolommeo Averoldo of Brescia, built a
second wall. In 1503 it was further strengthened; but two years later
the Turks burnt it. In 1646, after being repulsed from Spalato, they
attacked Sučurac again, but were unsuccessful. The first summer palace
of the archbishops was in Vranjic; it was destroyed by the Venetian
fleet in 1204.

Castel Cega was built by Andrea di Celio Cega in 1487, and rebuilt by
Paolo Andreis. The Celio were an ancient family of Traù, said to date
from Roman times, and had many branches, one of which (extinct in 1511)
was called Celio-Morte, because a member of it had the habit of
threatening opponents with death, and used a skull for his crest.

The following privileges were enjoyed by the nobles of the Castelli, or
founders of the towns. The right to special contributions from the
country people, and the _jus patronato_ of the churches. The sacristan,
without their assent, could not give the third signal of the Mass, nor
of Vespers on festival days, a usage which is still observed at Castel
Cambio and Castel Vitturi. In the church they had their own benches, and
the space they occupied could not be taken by any one else, not even for
the erection of new altars. When the _provveditore_ was present at
solemn functions a bench was placed for him and the "padroni," as well
as for the authorities of the Castelli and the colonel of the district.
They were the first to receive incense after the priest at Mass; and
there were numerous other similar customs. If a child of the "padrone"
died, all the bells rang; if an adult, they were clappered; and all the
confraternities had to be present at the funeral, whether in the
village, at Spalato, or at Traù. The "padrone" was the medium of
communication between the higher authorities and the village headman,
who had to close the gates at night, and take him the key. He received
the tolls paid for living in the village; and there was a kind of
_corvée_ of forced work. Moreover, he had the right to buy the houses of
those who sold them, at a third less than their real value, to sell
again to fresh inhabitants. The oil-mills belonged to him, and a fifth
of the produce was divided between him and the customs. If the olives
were taken elsewhere a tenth of the oil was paid to him all the same.
Wine-presses were also his property; the oven, too, and a proportion of
the wine made and bread baked went to him. Nothing could be bought or
sold without his license. He received all the tongues of oxen killed,
and the heads of pigs. He covered the cistern in time of drought, and
water could only be drawn when he took the cover off. The streets were
ordered to be kept clean, and slops taken to the sea, not thrown out of
the window! At Christmas and Easter the country people still bring
presents to their lords.

The proverb "Wine of the Castelli, honey of Solta, and milk of Bua" is
still justified; and agents for wine merchants, especially French,
bargain for the wines before the grapes are ripe. Enormous hogsheads are
shipped on the boats, and the transhipping them is often a dangerous
business, if we may judge from our own experiences. At Castel Vecchio we
were nearly spectators of a serious accident when a cord slipped, and we
observed that the men crossed themselves each time one was safely
lowered into the hold.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 3: The last king to visit it was Sigismund in 1387.]




XXI

SPALATO


Spalato appears for the first time in the "Tavola Peutingeriana" under
the name Aspalathos, as a station on the shore road which led from the
promontory Ad Dianam (at the end of Monte Marjan) to Epetium (Stobreć)
below Salona, but appears at that time to have been a place of no
importance. It, however, is thus proved to have existed before the end
of the third century, which makes the accepted derivation of the name
from "ad Palatium" plainly erroneous. Its great celebrity is due to the
palace which Diocletian began to build for himself there shortly before
300 A.D. and to which he retired after his abdication in 305. Within its
walls fugitives from Salona, who had returned from the islands to which
they had fled at the time of the destruction of the city in 639, found
shelter, and so the existing city began its mediæval course. The palace
faced the sea to the south, and along this side were the imperial
apartments with the open loggia of fifty arches raised above the water
upon massive substructures. The plan is not quite square, but imitates a
Roman camp, with great square towers at the angles, a gate in the centre
of each of three sides flanked with octagonal towers, and with smaller
square towers between gates and angles. Towards the sea was a water gate
on a lower level. The material is marble from Traù and Brazza
limestone. The sea façade is about 550 ft. long, the north about 530
ft., the east and west some 620 ft. The external walls are double
throughout, of worked stone filled in with concrete, the thickness being
6 ft. 6 in., and the height from 60 to 80 ft. On the three land façades
are double-arched windows 20 ft. from the ground, 6 ft. 6 in. broad, and
a little over 11 ft. high. Only three of the angle towers remain, the
fourth having fallen in 1555. The principal gateway is towards Salona,
and is known as the Porta Aurea. Above the gate itself is an open arch
flanked by niches on each side; above them are brackets which sustained
the columns of a higher row of seven niches, the whole forming a
grandiose architectural composition, of which the illustration shows the
effect. The passage-way is 13 ft. high by 11 ft. 3 in. wide. The other
gates are known as the Porta Ferrea and Porta Argentea. The latter has
practically disappeared; the former is over 14 ft. high, and the same
width as the Porta Aurea, but without its architectural magnificence.
These gates gave entrance to streets which divided the palace into
quarters, that from the Porta Aurea leading to the great peristyle,
around and beyond which were the public buildings and the imperial
apartments, while the women's quarter was probably to the west of this
street, and the officials' rooms to the east, the street at right angles
separating them from the more important parts of the palace.

[Illustration: THE PORTA AUREA, SPALATO

_To face page 293_]

[Illustration: DOOR OF THE "ATRIO ROTONDO," PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN,
SPALATO

_To face page 294_]

The colonnade of the peristyle, which is 114 ft. by 50 ft., consists of
six free-standing columns of red granite on each side and four at the
end. Those at the sides support arches beneath an architrave continued
across the end and rising into an arched form over the central space
beneath the pediment. This portion is raised several steps above the
general level. To the left is the cathedral, an octagonal building which
was the mausoleum of Diocletian, with the campanile standing between it
and the peristyle, through which a flight of steps leads; these will
again form the entrance when the restorations are completed. Towards the
sea steps give entrance to the "atrio rotondo," a circular ante-room,
once decorated with precious statues, paintings, and other costly
ornaments, while the lantern of the roof was covered with purple
hangings. The decoration has vanished, leaving mere construction except
for the fine door of entry. To the right, at the end of a narrow alley,
is the baptistery, formerly probably the emperor's private temple or
chapel, as one may say, which now contains a very interesting font made
up of fragments of ninth-century carving, and the beautiful doors of the
cathedral, stored there temporarily. The base blocks of the cathedral
are nearly 20 ft. high, and there are twenty-two steps in the flight of
approach. The portico which surrounds it has columns of marble and
granite 21 ft. high. Only nineteen remain of the original twenty-four.
The caps are Corinthian, and they sustain the usual architrave, frieze,
and cornice. The octagon within has alternate semicircular and
rectangular niches, except on the side which opens into the late
Renaissance choir; at each angle stands a column of Egyptian granite
with Corinthian cap, and a highly decorated but rather heavy order runs
round the interior. Above this is a second smaller row of columns of
porphyry with a shallower order, reaching to the springing of the dome,
which is built of Dalmatian tiles, arranged in imbrications. Round the
upper frieze are _putti_ hunting, bearing garlands, &c. The height to
the dome is 68 ft., and the internal diameter 42 ft. A couple of niches
in the upper order are so arranged that a word spoken low in one is well
heard in that opposite, an arrangement supposed to have been connected
with oracular responses. Before the restoration there were galleries
on the columns, both below and above.

[Illustration: PLAN OF CATHEDRAL AND CAMPANILE, SPALATO ]

The high-altar stands under the niche which has been opened to give
access to the choir. At each side of it are the altars of S. Ranier and
S. Anastasius, the latter made by George of Sebenico in 1448 to match
the former, made in 1427 by the Milanese Gasparo Bonino, and both
Gothic. To the left is the very beautiful pulpit shown in the
illustration. It bears considerable resemblance to that at Traù, but is
superior to it both in design and execution. The lower capitals are
worked as if in wood, which makes the tradition all the more probable
that Guvina (who made the beautiful doors in 1214) had to do with the
making of it. The very original stalls in the choir, with their curious
combination of Eastern and Western _motifs_, have also been ascribed to
him; brought hither, as is thought, from S. Stefano de Pinis when it was
destroyed.

The treasury contains a good many interesting things, among which the
first place should perhaps be given to a fine Gospel book of the eighth
century, upon which the suffragan bishops used to swear fealty to the
metropolitan, reciting the commencement of the Gospel of S. John in
Greek, which portion is therefore translated from the Latin for that
purpose. Eight formulas used by suffragan bishops from 1059 to 1200 are
inserted in it. Two other MSS. are interesting on account of their
bindings, a Gospel book and a missal, both of the thirteenth century,
reset in the seventeenth. On one is Christ seated on the rainbow in the
attitude of blessing, within a mandorla, with cruciferous nimbus and the
monograms "IC XC," the corners being filled with the symbols and names
of the Evangelists; on the back is the Madonna enthroned with the Child,
and two angels in circles; above is the inscription "Michael, Mater Dñi,
Gabriel." The other binding, which is rather later in style, shows
our Lord in Glory, with the monograms "IHS XPC" in an ornamented
mandorla, and the Evangelists' symbols; and, on the back, the
Crucifixion, with the feet separate. There are eight chalices, all of
the fourteenth or fifteenth century, damaged by an inexpert goldsmith
who had them to repair, with nielli or enamel grounds to the medallions,
and good foliage in relief; two arms of S. Doimus, richly set with gems
and precious stones among filigree; a good late fourteenth-century head
of S. Giovanni Elemosinario; a morse of the same period, with gems and
nielli; a fifteenth-century pax of gilded brass; and several interesting
and very early crosses, probably of the eighth or ninth century, some
even earlier. One of these, bearing a figure of Christ wearing the
colobium, and resembling Coptic work, bears the inscription "HCA HCA,"
while another of rock-crystal has Coptic inscriptions. The treasure is
kept in a cupboard just inside the door of the cathedral; but in the
upper sacristy some larger objects are preserved. Here are a fine silver
monstrance of 1532, a chapel supported by two angels, and a chalice of
silver filigree; also some fine embroidered vestments of the 16th and
17th centuries upon crimson cut velvet.

[Illustration: RELIQUARIES AND CHALICE, TREASURY, SPALATO CATHEDRAL]

[Illustration: MORSE IN THE TREASURY, SPALATO CATHEDRAL]

[Illustration: PANEL FROM GUVINA'S DOORS OF THE CATHEDRAL, SPALATO

_To face page 299_]

The campanile is Romanesque in style, and dates from the early part of
the thirteenth century; it has five stories divided by strings, and was
nearly 170 ft. high before the restoration, which has been going on ever
since 1882. It was largely built of ancient material, and at the sides
were two sphinxes, one of which (headless) has been removed into the
museum, the head being built into a house in the Ulica Ghetto; it bears
an inscription showing that it is of the epoch of Amenhotep III.; the
other, of granite of Syene, is still among the scaffolding which
surrounds the campanile. Lions crouch at each side of the stairs on the
level of the top step; and on the side towards the church are
interesting reliefs by Mag. Otto, probably a Benedictine. They represent
SS. Doimus and Anastasius and S. Peter, and probably formed part of an
altar; above is the Nativity, in two panels, of a later date. A third
relief shows the Annunciation, and round the arch of the façade are
roughly carved struggling figures and animals, and also the Sacrifice of
Abraham. The building is generally believed to have been commenced by
Queen Mary of Naples (1270-1323), but an inscription found in the
cornice of the first story shows that it had reached that height in
1257. The major part is due to the Spalatine Tvrdoj, who signed a
contract in 1416 to construct it, and probably took it up to the third
story. The upper part is much later, and the octagonal pyramid was not
completed till the eighteenth century.

The baptistery is 32 ft. long and 29 ft. broad, with pilasters at the
angles. It was probably prostyle, with a pediment in front which has
gone; under the cornice is a rich frieze with symbols denoting a
dedication to Jupiter. The door is richly ornamented, and is nearly 20
ft. high by a little more than 8ft. broad. The building has a wagon
vault of three courses, carved with cofferings and rosettes above a
magnificent cornice. Resting against the wall are the fine doors of the
cathedral, carved with twenty-eight subjects in panels divided by
scroll-work; amongst the scrolls, animals, birds, and figures appear,
and traces of colour and gilding may be discovered, the design showing
by style the influence of Byzantine models. Here are also several early
sarcophagi--that of Archbishop Giovanni ([Symbol: cross]680), that of
Archbishop Lorenzo ([Symbol: cross]1097), and that of the two daughters
of Bela IV. of Hungary, which used to be over the door of the
cathedral.

The panels of the cruciform font were put together in 1527-1533 by
Archbishop Andrea Cornelio, and probably came from the cathedral. The
archæological society, "Bihać," took it to pieces in March, 1895. It is
made of fourteen slabs, twelve external and two as walls between the
shorter arms and the internal space, all of Greek marble with blue
veins. Six of the external slabs have early mediæval carvings, one has
Roman ornament, a Roman inscription is on the back of another, the rest
are smooth back and front, and several have been sawn. They are nearly
the same height and thickness, but vary in length, and were part of some
chancel enclosure, altar or sarcophagus. The carvings are probably of
the eleventh century, and are extremely curious. It is possible that
they may be work of pupils of Mag. Otto, though the character of the
patterns points rather to the Comacines, who were certainly working a
little higher up the coast. In a passage in the Porta Aurea, above the
gate, is a little chapel made in the eighth or ninth century, and
dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, S. Martin, and S. Gregory the Pope. It
is said to have belonged to the tertiaries of S. Dominic till a century
or so back, and was then used as a store. Mgr. Bulić restored it in
1899. On the lintel of the door of entry is an inscription mentioning a
presbyter Dominicus. There is a "Dominicanus presbyter, capellanus" as
witness in a deed of gift of the ban Trpimir in 852, and the screen of a
chapel of Trpimir at Rižinice, near Salona, is like that of this little
chapel in style. This is the oldest place of worship in Dalmatia, except
the cathedral. It occupies the space between the two niches above the
archway, and the pierced window-slabs of the ninth century still remain
in the little windows. The screen has two octagonal colonnettes with a
cable necking, and rough caps with volutes, but no foliations support an
arch beneath a steep gable; a Latin cross with griffins crouching on
each side fills the space between. Round the arch and along the frieze
runs an inscription. All along are the simple crockets called by the
Italians "caulicoli." The slabs at the bottom are surrounded by a
running pattern bordered by zigzags. A number of remains of this period
have been found in Dalmatia, of which a few may here be noted. The most
ancient inscription of the national dynasty is on the fragments of the
screen already referred to at Rižinice, between Clissa and Salona, where
the ban Trpimir founded a convent of Benedictines in 860, and where the
foundations of church and castle were excavated in 1895-1899.

[Illustration: STALL-BACKS IN CHOIR, CATHEDRAL, SPALATO

_To face page 300_]

The church of S. Maria de Salona, or de Otok, lies on an island in the
Jader joined by a bridge to the Clissa road. It was founded by Queen
Helena, whose sarcophagus was discovered among the foundations in 1898,
and bears the date 976 and the name of Helena, wife of King Mihael and
mother of King Stefanus. The church was a small basilica with nave and
aisles, and an apse in the thickness of the eastern wall, with three
piers and corresponding pilasters in the side walls. It was about 36 ft.
long, with a width of ii ft. 6 in. the nave, and 7 ft. 4 in. the aisles.
There was one west door, a narthex of two bays, and an atrium. Amongst
fragments of ninth and tenth-century carving a pattern closely
resembling Syrian ornament was found. At Knin, when the railway was
being made, stones with ninth-century patterns were also found. This
city was a royal residence and seat of the courts of justice, and in the
middle of the eleventh century the bishop of Knin was made primate of
Croatia and a councillor of the king. All these carvings were probably
executed by Comacines, documentary evidence of whose presence in the
country, brought from Cividale by the Croatian ban, has been found by
Mgr. Bulić. Two sculptors only are known by inscriptions earlier than
the Benedictines, who took a leading part in the development of mediæval
Dalmatian sculpture in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. These are
Mag. Andrea, builder of the little church of S. Lucia, near Besca, in
Veglia, which is earlier than the twelfth century, and Mag. Otto of the
eleventh century. After them the names of Guvina and Raduanus occur, at
Spalato and Traù. There are, however, indications that Mag. Otto may
have himself been a Benedictine; the Order appears to have been
established in Dalmatia before the tenth century, and to them S.
Crisogono, Zara, was due. If so, according to the rule of his Order, he
would have inherited the manual of art which every Benedictine leaving
the mother monastery to found a new one carried with him, together with
the liturgical books.

After the death of Diocletian in 313 Salona inherited the palace. The
imperial apartments were reserved for illustrious guests, and the rest
appears to have been used as a cloth-factory. It is thought that it was
here that the dethroned Emperor Nepos was slain in Odoacer's time.
Towards the end of the fifth century Marcellinus, first king of
Dalmatia, lived here for a short time after his proclamation, when the
province had been taken from the Emperor Leo. The destruction of Salona
in 639 drove the inhabitants to take refuge in the islands where the
Avars could not follow them. When the Croats drove these away Severus
recalled some of them, and they inhabited the palace. The bishopric was
founded in 649 by John of Ravenna, legate of Pope Martin I. He it was
who converted the mausoleum into a cathedral, opening the door on the
south side which has the curious ornament round it, and dedicating it to
the Assumption, and also bringing the relics of S. Anastasitis and S.
Doimus from Salona, and placing them beneath the side altars. The
beginning of the Venetian dominion was brought about by the appeal
for help against Cresimir which the Spalatines made to Venice by advice
of Basil and Constantine, emperors of Byzantium. Pietro Orseolo received
the homage of the citizens in the cathedral, defeated Cresimir, and made
peace at Traù on the understanding that Zara and Spalato were to be
Venetian thenceforth; but the Croat kings assumed the title of King of
Dalmatia and obtained the assent of the Pope to their holding the
dignity till the Hungarian dynasty succeeded them. In 1401 all Dalmatia,
except the Bocche and Ragusa, became Neapolitan; and Ladislas was
crowned by a papal emissary king of Hungary and Dalmatia at Zara. His
viceroy built a palace at Spalato, of which remains exist between the
Marina and the Piazza dell' Erbe; to which the Venetians added the
octagonal tower for the defence of the port, so conspicuous from the
sea. Turkish raids were frequent. In 1570 the garrison of Clissa nearly
took the city; but twenty-six years later the Spalatines retaliated by
surprising and massacring the garrison of Clissa in a night attack, led
by the archdeacon, who, with three canons, was left on the field. Their
leader dead, they were not able to retain possession of the fortress.
Under Venice, Spalato was the principal place for trade with Persia and
the Indies, and many noble Venetian families established themselves
there.

[Illustration: ITALIAN FRUIT AND VEGETABLE BOATS, SPALATO

_To face page 303_]

The costume of the country people shows the influence of Turkish and
Oriental relations, and suggests the possibility of many figures in Old
Italian pictures being painted from Dalmatian models. The men are
generally blonde, and wear great moustaches. They are fond of bright
colours, and wear light-blue tight cloth hose, red-and-green stockings,
the usual shoes, a broad red-leather girdle, which used to have weapons
in it, a red waistcoat, a short brown jacket embroidered with red and
ornamented at the corners with red and white stripes, and on the head a
turban of a red-brown colour. These costumes may be seen in numbers in
the morning in the market, on the way to the station. The women have a
shawl or folded piece of stuff on their heads, and frequently wear
printed calicoes of a startling pattern in the town, but outside have a
modification of the usual Morlacca costume.

Along the quays many Italian boats are moored, bringing cargoes of
fruit, onions, and other kindred produce, which they appear to sell
retail as well as wholesale; and many picturesque subjects may be noted,
to which the masts and rigging, awnings and sails, weather-beaten paint,
baskets of gleaming fruit and other articles, cordage, gangway planks,
&c., in careless arrangement, lend attractiveness and beauty, whether in
the full glare of the midday sun, with its strong contrasts of light and
shade, or in the early morning or late evening, when its level rays tend
to greater simplicity of effect and greater glow of colour. On Sunday
evening the long parapet of the Marina is lined with townsfolk taking
the air, while those who desire to show off their toilettes march up and
down the Piazza dei Signori (which appears to answer to the "Park") for
an hour or so, after which it resumes its usual quiet condition. On the
morning of May 1, the _municipio_ was decorated with flags, and saluted
by a band which played in front of it for a short time and then marched
off, still playing.

At the end of the Marina is the Franciscan convent dedicated to S.
Felice, bishop of Epetium, whose relics are said to be preserved in the
church. It was built by Archbishop Giovanni IV. of Spalato in 1059, but
has been modernised, and little of an early date can be seen. In the
wall towards the cloister are several walled-up windows, with
semicircular heads cut out of a lintel, and in the cloister itself are a
few caps which appear to be eleventh-century, but the bulk of it is
fourteenth-century in style, and that is the date of the three
inscriptions inserted in the walls. It is a pleasant little cloister,
with a school attached to it, and the church is crowded with the poor at
service time.

[Illustration: CLOISTER OF S. FRANCESCO, SPALATO

_To face page 305_]

The situation of the city is very fine, and the harbour accommodation
there and in the immediate neighbourhood led the Austrian admiralty at
one time to think of it as the principal military port. Preference was
given to Pola on account of its connection with the main railway lines,
for which the archæologist and artist may be thankful. The two ranges of
Kozjak and Mosor (Mons Aureus) dip down to the pass which is guarded by
the rock of Clissa. On the slopes of one lie the ruins of Salona; on the
other, those of Epetium; in front is the sea, always peaceful, being
sheltered by the islands of Solta and Brazza; and beyond Marjan the
land-locked Salonitan port.

The museum accommodation is very insufficient, and, though several of
the larger monuments are in the open air (like the second-century
monument of Pomponia Vera near the Porta Argentea), the four museums are
crowded with the objects which excavations have brought to light. There
are an enormous number of inscriptions, a few sculptures comparatively,
a great many architectural fragments, and an infinity of small objects.
Among the sculptures two or three, sarcophagi may be specially noted.
One with the subject of Hippolytus and Phædra, found in the narthex of
the little basilica at Salona in 1859, in a fifth-century stratum, is a
late copy of one in the Louvre. Near it was a colossal sarcophagus of
the first half of the fourth century, with the Good Shepherd upon it,
which is also in the museum. At one end is a door watched by figures at
each side; at the other a genius leaning on a reversed torch stands on a
pedestal beneath the arch of a little gabled building with twisted
columns. The columns in front are also twisted; those at the back
channelled with three flutes. The one with the Hunting of the Caledonian
Boar, which stood outside the baptistery, where its inscription was
copied by Cyriacus of Ancona in 1436, is of the period of the Antonines,
and has been used twice. One of the ends is really fine. A fourth, with
the Passage of the Red Sea on the front, and three panels on the back,
was brought from the Franciscan cloister. One end has two standing
figures with a Latin cross in high relief between them, and a garland
with waving ribands surrounding the _labarum_ above; the other an
imbrication with the spaces in relief. The back has an Orante or Virgin
in the centre, and male figures at the ends, with S-shaped striations
between.

There is also a very beautiful torso of Venus accompanied by Cupid, and
in one of the more distant museums two fine fragments of a relief of
undoubtedly Greek work. There are many striking fragments of
architectural carving, among which one of the most interesting is a
balustrade bearing close resemblance to the carving upon an ambo at S.
Agata, Ravenna, but constructed of many pieces, whereas that is an
adaptation of a portion of a fluted column. There are also a good many
pieces of ninth and tenth-century work, and a large collection of
Christian lamps. The most ancient object in the collection is a
Corinthian vase with cover of the sixth century B.C., found at Salona,
and ornamented with animals and rosettes in black and violet on a yellow
ground. A new museum is to be built near the agricultural college on the
way to the monastery of the Paludi, which lies on the shore on the
Salona side of Marjan, with cypresses in its grassy forecourt, and a
garden beyond the cloister.

This convent is Franciscan, but was founded by Benedictines in the
eleventh century, the Franciscans taking their place in the fifteenth
century. Near the entrance is the inscribed lid of a sarcophagus upside
down, used as a water-trough. The convent was fortified by the
Spalatines in 1540, of which fortification the machicolated tower to the
left of the church remains. The church is early Renaissance in
appearance, and is dedicated to S. Maria delle Grazie. It was a
favourite place of burial for distinguished Spalatine families, and the
floor was covered with fine gravestones in relief, mainly of the
sixteenth century, worked in a hard white Dalmatian limestone. These
have now been taken up (in 1900) and arranged along the wall of the
cloister. Many of them are beautiful in design, with borders of early
Renaissance ornament. Perhaps the most charming is that of Caterina
Cvitic, but the historic interest of that of Tommaso de Nigris of
Scardona and Traù who died in 1527 in Spalato, is greater. There is a
half-length portrait of him in the library by Lorenzo Lotto. Behind the
high-altar in the monks' choir is an important picture by Girolamo da
Santa Croce (1549). It consists of ten panels. In the upper row the
centre is occupied by a Madonna and Child surrounded by child angels,
flanked by SS. Helena and Scolastica, beyond whom are SS. Catherine and
Mary Magdalene. In the centre of the lower row is S. Francis in ecstasy,
with SS. Antonio and Bernardino, flanked by S. Doimo (with the city of
Spalato) and S. Louis of Toulouse, beyond whom are SS. John the Baptist
and Jerome. In the gable of a much restored frame is a dove. On the
right side is a curious lintelled door with dull arabesques emphasised
by lines of drilling and pictures on either side. One is a Carpaccio in
tempera on canvas, a "Madonna auxilium Christianorum," with the Child in
a vesica on her breast, and S. Sebastian and a bishop (S. Doimus), one
on each side. She holds her cloak out to shelter a crowd of kneeling
men on one side, and women on the other, from the darts which God the
Father is showering from above. In the sky are cherub heads; two child
angels hold a crown above the Virgin's head; in the background are
Venetian towers and hills. The frame is architectural, with painted
arabesques. Close by is an inlaid black marble slab, with music, the
words of a psalm, and flowers in colour. On the other side of the door
is a Virgin and Child, with SS. John, Peter, and Scolastica in front,
and two little angels on the steps of the throne, a tempera picture on
panel, rather grey in colour. A ghastly painted crucifix, with a great
deal of blood, stands near the door. On one of the wells in the cloister
is the date 1453; they are decorated with roundels bearing various
devices. The remarkable thing which brings tourists to the Paludi is,
however, the antiphonary of Padre Bonaventura Radmilović, painted with
vegetable colours, and finished after ten years' labour in 1675.

Not far away, among the vineyards, is the ninth-century church of SS.
Trinita, of which the earliest known mention is in the eleventh century.
It consists of six niches surrounding a circle of the same diameter as
the similar buildings already described at Zara. At the springing of the
arches a cornice runs right round the building. The niches terminate in
semi-domes, and two of them are pierced with doors, one of which is of a
later date than the rest of the building. The exterior of each niche has
a rough arcading of three arches. The springing of the dome and
ornamented rosettes in the semi-domes still remain. The courses are
horizontal, and the niches terminate outside in a slightly sloped roof.
The door has been made into a window, and the lintel bears a bit of
antique egg-and-tongue moulding. Three Latin inscriptions of the ninth
century have been found, and various pieces of ornament, which are in
the museum, also quantities of bones, testifying to its long use as a
cemetery chapel. On the way back to Spalato the Casa Katić may be noted,
in the walls of which many antique fragments are encrusted.

There was another early church, that of S. Eufemia, within the military
hospital, which was destroyed in 1877. It had a central elliptical dome
without windows resting on four pillars; two more on each side made the
nave four bays long. The apse and aisle ends were square, and the nave
was vaulted with a wagon vault.

The great excursion from Spalato is to Salona, a city large enough to
quarter the entire army of the Consul L. Cecilius Metellus in 119 B.C.,
and then known as Colonia Martia Julia. The walls extend for a long
distance upon the roads to Traù and to Clissa after crossing the Jader,
and the city also stretched some distance up the mountain slopes, the
débris from which have done so much to hide its remains. Several
burial-places have been discovered, of greater or less extent, an
amphitheatre, basilicas, a baptistery with the buildings appertaining,
city gates, and more than one circuit of walls. Salona may be reached by
rail or road; in the latter case the aqueduct may be observed,
originally constructed by Diocletian for his palace, and restored in
1879 by Dr. Bajamonti for the use of the Spalatines. It is six miles
long, and taps the source of the Jader. The road descends by long curves
to the valley, and enters the village, where the Clissa road diverges,
under the pleasant shade of trees, beyond which is a marshy field, white
in spring with the giant snowdrop. Half-way down the hill is a fountain
which muleteers and pedestrians find most refreshing, especially if they
are pressed for time as we were on one occasion when we had an
appointment in Spalato, and, missing the train, had to return on foot in
the middle of the day. The railway customs are rather curious. On one
visit I asked for return tickets, and, as they were not taken on
leaving the station at Salona, supposed I had them. In the train the
guard told us as we were returning that they were not available, and
that we must therefore pay a fine of a florin! I, of course, protested,
detailed the circumstances, and pleaded the ignorance of a foreigner;
and on arrival at Spalato the matter was referred to a higher official,
who was graciously pleased to refund the fine, and accept the fare for a
single journey. The traveller in Austria must not calculate on paying
his fare on the train, as he would do on the Italian light railways.

Near the station at Salona is a little _osteria_, in and about which a
number of antique fragments are disposed. It was stopping to have some
wine here that caused us to miss our train. There were some eight or ten
children playing beneath the pergola, and I found by experience how
small a sum may suffice to make a human being happy, since the
distribution of three halfpence in heller, the small copper coin which
is the basis of calculation, delighted them all! As we left the station
on arriving we saw a crowd of peasants kneeling at the cross roads, with
three banners, a big crucifix, a chandelier with three candles, and
other objects rising above their bent heads. The priest in the centre
was blessing the fields, sprinkling holy water in all directions, whilst
prayers and responses went up from the kneeling people, the smoke from
the censers which the acolytes were slowly swinging hanging round the
group like a cloud. Afterwards they came down the road in procession.
The priest held a little silver crucifix on a base; near him were the
acolytes bearing their various, utensils, and a choir of male singers.
The men and boys went first, in two rows down the sides of the road,
just as we had often seen in Italy. The women and girls followed.

[Illustration: OSTERIA AT SALONA

_To face page 310_]

The oldest part of the city is towards the Clissa road, for it spread
westwards. The Basilica Urbana is quite close to the wall, and only a
little farther south are the Porta Suburbia and the Porta Cæsarea. Of
the latter the arches no longer exist, but the ruts in the stone show
the carriage-way, flanked by two footways. The Basilica Urbana, with its
accompanying buildings, has been fully excavated. It was used for
religious purposes till its restoration in the ninth century, for Salona
was not entirely abandoned after its destruction in 639. The soil
removed showed evident traces of its destruction by burning. It
consisted of nave and aisles with a western narthex, and buildings both
to the north and to the south. The nave appears to have had twelve
columns on either side, with projecting piers from the narthex and from
the eastern wall. There was one apse with an ambulatory surrounding it,
as in the Lycaonian buildings recently described by Miss Lowthian Bell.
The foundations of the chancel were found, and of an enclosure which
reached to the second column on the right. In the north aisle wall were
two doors, one towards the baptistery, the other to the catechumens'
room, and all along the wall there was a seat. The _prothesis_ is an
irregular space to the north of the apse, entered by a door at the end
of the aisle, with a short column in the middle, probably the central
column of a table. For ritual reasons this arrangement (the _diakonikon_
communicating directly with the presbytery, while the _prothesis_ does
not) is usual in the Greek Church. The nave appears to have been
flagged, but the aisles were covered with a mosaic pavement, now more or
less damaged. Fragments of glass were found, and an inscription of the
fourth or fifth century discovered in the cemetery, "Pasc[asi]o
vitriario," shows that glassmaking was a Salonitan industry. Beneath the
presbytery remains of an earlier building were discovered with a pagan
mosaic of the second or third century, representing the poetess Sappho
and the nine muses. The ambulatory is also floored with mosaic, in which
is this inscription:

  NOVA POST VETERA
  COEPIT SYNFERIUS
  ESYCHIUS CJUS NEPOS
  CUM CLERO ET POPULO FECIT
  HAEC MUNERA
  DOMUS XPE GRATA
  TENE.

The two names here recorded are those of bishops of the end of the
fourth and beginning of the fifth centuries, judging from the
palæography of other inscriptions. Esychius was bishop, 406-426. The
baptistery is accessible by steps both from the basilica and the
narthex. Attached to it is the _consignatorium_, as at Parenzo. This
retains its mosaic pavement, with a design of stags drinking at a vase,
and the text "Sicut cervus," &c. It is kept covered with pebbles to
preserve it. The baptistery itself is octagonal externally and circular
internally, with niches and several doors. It appears to have had six
columns (fragments of three of cipollino remain) and grey stone bases.
The font is somewhat cruciform in shape, about 3 ft. deep, and with a
little step at one end. The slabs at the bottom and the conduit for the
water still remain. North of this is the house of the Director of the
Excavations, with a pergola composed of fragments from the campanile,
&c., among which is a cap the exact counterpart of one in the cathedral
at Veglia.

[Illustration: BASILICA OF THE CHRISTIAN CEMETERY, SALONA

_To face page 312_]

North-west of the house is the Christian cemetery, a bewildering mass of
sarcophagi and foundations of several epochs, from among which many
objects have been taken to the museum. All the sarcophagi had been
broken into and plundered; with a single exception, that of a little
Greek girl who still had the earrings in her ears. Apparently apses were
built round the martyrs' tombs, pointing in all directions, and many
burials took place close to them. When the Goths destroyed the city they
plundered the tombs; and when the Christians returned they levelled the
ground, and built another basilica properly orientated; and here, also,
burials took place. The Avars descended upon this and destroyed it, and
the soil washed down from the hills covered much of it to the depth of
15 ft. Fragments found of the eighth and ninth centuries, however, show
that the place was not abandoned; the theatre was only demolished at the
end of the tenth century to build S. Michele, and the amphitheatre
lasted till the close of the thirteenth. Upon the extinction of the
Croatian dynasty in 1102, Salona rapidly declined, and when the Turks
appeared in the sixteenth century it became a neglected ruin.

At Marusinac, some distance to the north of the station and the
amphitheatre, is another basilica, dedicated to S. Anastasius, and a
Christian cemetery. The children are on the look-out for chance
visitors, and ready to point out the road; and sell copper coins and
tesseræ of mosaic at a price which lowers remarkably as the basilica is
approached. It is to be feared that they come from the great mosaic,
which is necessarily unguarded. The basilica consists of nave and
aisles, separated apparently by six columns on each side, with a single
apse, which seems to have had external buttresses, but there is no trace
of the usual internal bench. The total length approaches 150 ft., the
nave is 39 ft. wide, the left aisle about 14 ft., and the right 17 ft. 6
in. The _prothesis_ and _diakonikon_ are square, and a long _schola
cantorum_ forms a continuation to the presbytery westward, though it is
less in width. The westward angles of the aisles also have rectangular
rooms walled off. The whole surface was covered with mosaic, of which a
great deal is still preserved, consisting of geometrical pattern work
for the most part, without inscriptions, though there is one panel
showing a vase with scrolls issuing from it. A large drawing to scale
has been made of it, which is in the communal palace. It took a full
year's labour to complete. The basilica was built between 425 and 443,
but there was a villa there previously, of which considerable remains
were discovered in 1890, at the same time that the first sarcophagi came
to light.

In the modern chapel of S. Caius, pope and martyr, the side of an
antique sarcophagus serves as altar-frontal. It is sculptured with the
deeds of Hercules. The subjects are the Killing of the Dragon of the
Hesperides (which the peasantry mistake for the Garden of Eden),
Alcestis being brought back from Hades, and the Binding of Cerberus. The
water which filtered into the sarcophagus believed to be the tomb of S.
Caius was credited with the same miraculous powers as the "Manna" of S.
Nicola at Bari.

[Illustration: A MORLACCO FAMILY, BETWEEN SALONA AND CLISSA

_To face page 314_]

A path skirts the wall of Salona to the Porta Andetria upon the Clissa
road, which climbs the hillside in well-graded curves. To the north the
ridge of Kozjak rises to the height of 2,000 ft.; across the gap up
which the Roman Via Gabiniana ran, the course of which the modern road
follows, beyond Clissa, the still higher crests of Mosor frown. The
isolated rock on which the fortress stands appears to have been an
outwork of Salona in Roman times, and some assume that it was Andetrium,
which others place farther off; the Byzantines called it Clausura. It is
the key between Sinj and Spalato, its possession effectually closing the
pass to an enemy. The Avars took it in 640 by stratagem, disguising
themselves as Romans. It was Turkish from 1537 till 1669, except for
a short period, and one of the attempts of the Spalatines to possess
themselves of it has been referred to. The fort has three terraces, and
retains a characteristic building, a mosque of Turkish times, now used
as an ammunition store. Round arches which sustain the dome spring from
stalactite-shaped brackets. There is also a Venetian wall-fountain, but
considerable additions have been made to the buildings in modern times
by the Austrian military authorities, who have held the place since
1813; and permission from the command at Spalato is necessary to enter
the fort. To the south-east are the ruins of the Roman camp.




XXII

THE SOUTHERN GROUP OF ISLANDS


The chain of islands which forms a natural breakwater to the coast of
Dalmatia is broken into two groups by the Punta Planka, the ancient
Promontorium Syrtis, south of Sebenico. To the northern group belong
Veglia, Cherso, Ossero, Arbe, Pago, and a number of smaller and less
important islands, including Ugljan, opposite Zara, and Pasman, a little
farther south. Of these the first four have been described at length,
and the others are mentioned briefly in the chapter dealing with Zara
and its surroundings. The southern group lies south of the harbour of
Spalato, and includes Solta, Brazza, Lesina, Curzola, Meleda, the more
distant Lissa, Busi, and Lagosta, and a few small islands which belonged
to the Republic of Ragusa. The interest of these varies a good deal,
some containing much to delight the traveller, while others are scarcely
worth a visit. Most of them have historical memories reaching from the
dawn of history to times which are within the memory of many now living,
and some of them are remarkable for their geological formation or
luxuriant Southern vegetation. The planning of a tour among them
requires the most careful comparison of the time-tables of the various
shipping companies, and the scheme, once decided on, must be strictly
adhered to under pain of the risk of being stranded in some little
visited place for three or four days without any of the comforts which
the average traveller now expects to find everywhere; for the weather
cannot be relied on for twenty-four hours together in the seasons when
travellers are most numerous, the sea frequently rising under an
unfavourable wind so rapidly as to make escape by a fishing-boat a
doubtful experiment.

The direct boats, on leaving Spalato, steer between Solta and Brazza,
and round the point of Lesina, proceeding by the Canals of Curzola and
Meleda towards Gravosa; and we cannot do better than visit the islands
in much the same order.

Solta is the ancient Olinthia, celebrated for its honey; Olinthian honey
was held to be superior to all other, except that of Hymettus. The bees
are of a special kind, which work hard, and go out in wind and slight
rain; but the excellence of the honey was probably due to the rosemary
blossoms, on which they feed by preference, only visiting other flowers
when these have been completely rifled. Of late years the inhabitants
have cleared a great part of the land in order to cultivate vines or
chrysanthemum, so the yield of honey is much reduced. Remains of mosaic
pavements found here and there show the sites of Roman villas.

Brazza is the largest of the Dalmatian islands, the most populous, and
the richest in wine and oil. The stone for Diocletian's palace came
mainly from this island; and Professor Bulić has found abandoned
fragments partially worked in the quarries, as well as inscriptions. The
greater part of the stone with which Salona was built also came from
Brazza. Its history commences with the destruction of Salona and Epetium
in the seventh century, much of the population taking refuge in the
island, though it is believed that Greeks inhabited it before the
Romans. The legend that S. Helena, the mother of Constantine, was born
here (though most historians regard her as English) probably arose from
the name of Brettanide, which is said to have been the Greek name for
the island, though Brattia is also met with. The most ancient document
preserved is a privilege of 1077, given to the nobles by Demetrius
Zvonimir; but the island belonged by turns to Byzantium, Venice, the
Ostrogoth, Frank, Narentan, and Hungarian, becoming finally Venetian in
1420, except for the disturbed period which closed in 1815; since then
it has been Austrian. In a convent of Dominicans at Bol, on the south
coast, is a Gothic church, with a restored altar-piece representing the
Marriage of S. Catherine, with SS. Mary Magdalene, Paul, and Dominic as
witnesses. An entry in the convent register attests the authorship--"to
Master Jacomo Tintoretto, painter, a further payment of 200 ducats for
the high-altar piece." In the convent is a collection of coins and a
Lombard lintel with ninth-century interlacings; and on the Casa Nisiteo
a knocker resembling that at Curzola--a female figure with an anchor in
the middle, a lion on each side with head turned up, a shell below and a
shield with arms above, charged with a sun and dolphin one above the
other; a crowned lion and an eagle as supporters.

In a hut at Birce, near Serip, Andrea, son of Salomon the exiled king of
Hungary, lived as a shepherd and died.

Lesina was once a Venetian arsenal and station of the fleet. The
vegetation is sub-tropical. Rosemary fills the air with its aromatic
scent, oleanders, lemons, lofty palms, carob and bay trees are
continually met with, and aloes are often used for hedges. It was the
island Pharos of the Greeks, a colony from the Ægean Paros, founded in
385 B.C., and a free republic. Coins which have been found are similar
to the most ancient ones of Greece and Asia Minor, and the remains of
walls appear to be Pelasgic. From 221 B.C. it belonged to the Roman
province of Dalmatia, and shared the fate of its neighbour Brazza. The
Illyrian pirates mastered it, and under their lordship the celebrated
Demetrios was born, who was like a condottiere of the Middle Ages and
Renaissance, and whose treachery led to the destruction of the Greek
city. Many Christian martyrs were buried here, and it became known as
"the Holy." The population is Slav, and the Greek name "Pharia" is
preserved to some extent in the Slav name "Hvar." It is the longest of
the Dalmatian islands, being 70 kilometres long by 10 broad.

[Illustration: PORTA MAGGIORE, LESINA]

The town of Lesina lies on the south-west coast, and still retains a
great part of its crenellated walls. It is decayed, and there are many
ruined palaces of the Venetian period, some of which are fine. The
piazza is the largest in Dalmatia, and beyond it the houses form a
semicircle interspersed with gardens. On the east is the cathedral,
Lombardesque in style; on the south a large building, the so-called
Venetian arsenal. The present ground floor, with broad-arched door
opening on the water, was arranged to house the galleys belonging to the
Republic, and was used till 1776, when the arsenal was transferred to
Curzola. The upper floor, divided into two, was the theatre and communal
hall. The Loggia of Sanmichele is to the north, close to the remains of
the palace of the count. It has seven rather narrow arches on piers with
columns, and a whole order attached in front, a balustrade between the
pedestals and above the frieze, with obelisks supported on balls as
crowning features. The door is in the centre; above it a panel with the
lion of S. Mark replaces the balusters. It is now the hall of a
sanatorium which has been erected behind it, thus destroying two of the
towers of the palace of the count, and spoiling a very picturesque
composition. The "Fondachi" are used for military purposes; other Gothic
palaces remain along the side of the piazza. Above the town is Fort
Spagnuolo, which probably occupies the site of an older castle besieged
by the Hungarians and their allies in 1358; an inscription states that
the present building is due to the Spaniards, and was built in 1551
under Charles V., when he was allied to Venice against the Turks. Higher
still to the east is Fort S. Nicolò, constructed after the Russian
attack in 1807.

The cathedral is not remarkable for its architecture. The façade has a
semicircular termination, quadrants above the aisles, and an early
Renaissance doorway. The stalls are carved and pierced like those at
Arbe and Zara, but have lost the tops and the carved divisions. At each
side is an ambo of stone supported on four columns, but with an
octagonal body above, arcaded, with shafts at the angles. The arches are
all round, but the change in the plan produces a curious pointed
appearance in perspective in the lower arcade. On the high-altar is a
picture by the younger Palma, a Madonna and the Child in the clouds,
with S. Stephen vested as pope below, and SS. Jerome and Carlo Borromeo.
There is also a more ancient picture by Antonio Gradinelli, a dead
Christ supported by angels. Near the west end is a carved reredos of
Venetian-Gothic style; S. Luke in the centre with his ox, and S. John
the Baptist are recognisable among the well-carved figures of saints
beneath pointed arches with shell-heads to the niches. Two Venetian
lions have closed books with the date 1475. The sacristy contains some
fine embroidered vestments and several interesting pieces of
metal-work--a ciborium of the fifteenth century of silver, with a
pyramidal roof, a large silver chalice of Venetian late
fifteenth-century work in _repoussé_, a monstrance with round upper part
and an angel with a scroll and the inscription "O Salutaris," &c.,
decorated with translucent enamel.

There is also a very curious sixteenth-century crozier of gilded copper
enriched with silver bands and rosettes, which repeats and enlarges on
the idea of Bishop Valaresso's crozier at Zara. Inside the crook (which
is a complete circle) is the Coronation of the Virgin, above whose head
is a dove, and beneath her feet the head of the serpent, which
terminates it. She is crowned by a half-figure emerging from a flower,
wearing the kind of high mitre which is frequently given to God the
Father; behind her is a similar half-figure of Moses bearing a scroll,
and with his shoes on the ground before him. On the outside are busts of
Christ and six Apostles, right and left in profile, also springing from
flowers, all with nimbi; lower down are the twelve prophets, holding
labels with their names, and set close one above the other. At the top
of the stem are six figures, four Evangelists, S. John the Baptist, and
Elijah. Below are twelve little busts of patriarchs named on labels. The
knop has twisted colonnettes at the angles, with swags hanging from the
lower parts, and half-length figures above a canopy with one arch and
two half-arches on each face; on the flat surfaces between are
miscellaneous saints; below are three bishops and three other saints,
and below them are representations of the six days of creation; the
words "Opvs· Presbyteri· Pavli· Silvii· Tivnio· lavs· Deo" can be
deciphered. The stem is sheathed with silver plates with stamped
patterns.

The ruined church of S. Marco, now undergoing restoration, has a fine
campanile, rather dilapidated, and sepulchral slabs of members of
patrician families, and the Franciscan convent, S. Maria delle Grazie,
has a similar campanile, both of which were probably rebuilt after the
Turkish raid of 1571 under Uluz-Ali, the Calabrian renegade. The door in
the western façade of this church resembles that of the cathedral at
Ossero, and appears to belong to the original building of 1471. Within
it are three interesting altar-pieces by Francesco da Santa Croce; one
above the high-altar has two rows of panels with figures of the Madonna,
SS. Helena, Lucy, Clara, Elizabeth, Stephen, Peter, Francis, Anthony,
Bernardino of Siena, and Bonaventura; another shows seven prophets; and
a third has the Madonna in the centre, with three little angels below,
and S. Jerome on the left, and S. John on the right. The church also
contains a S. Francis by Jacopo Palma, and a S. Diego and S. Francesco
di Paola by Jacopo Bassano, restored. The principal treasure of the
convent, however, is the great Last Supper by Matteo Rosselli, a very
impressive picture, which fills the end wall of the refectory above the
panelling, and contains his own portrait (1578-1650). The table at which
the Apostles are seated is in the form of a horseshoe, with Judas on the
near side. The story goes that Rosselli went to Ragusa to deliver some
paintings commissioned from him, and on his way back fell ill, and was
obliged to land at Lesina, where the Franciscans took care of him and
nursed him back to health; in gratitude he painted this picture for
them. The great cypress, which spreads almost like an oak, he may have
sat under during his convalescence.

The other towns are Cittavecchia, Verbosca, and Gelsa. The first is the
new Pharos, founded at the end of the third century B.C., and
flourishing during the Roman period. It lies at the bottom of an inlet
six miles long, and is a nourishing modern town with little antiquity
visible. The campanile of S. Stefano, which appears to be of the
fourteenth century, is on ancient foundations, and there are traces of
Cyclopean walls here and there. In Verbosca is a fortified church with
bastions, S. Lorenzo, which contains the fragments of a Titianesque
painting, ascribed to the master on the strength of an entry in the
archives of a payment of 1,000 ducats to the Master Titiano Vecelli. It
is now in three portions, and shows S. Laurence with angels and the
Virgin above, S. Roch, and S. Augustine. In another church, S. Maria, is
a Birth of the Virgin, ascribed to Paolo Veronese. At Gelsa the church
is also fortified, a memorial of the time when protection against
Turkish raids was necessary.

Curzola lies due south of Lesina, separated from the long peninsula of
Sabbioncello on the mainland by quite a narrow channel. It is the
Corcyra Nigra or Melaina of antiquity, so called from its luxuriant pine
forests, little of which now remain. Various origins are attributed to
the settlement; one of them is commemorated in the inscription on the
Porta Marina: "Hic Antenoridæ Corcyræ prima Melanæ fundamenta locant."
The early Greek geographers include it in the territory of Narenta or
Liburnia. From Augustus to Heraclius (642 A.D.) it was Roman or
Byzantine, and from that date till 998 Narentine. From the victory of
Orseolo II. till 1100 it was Venetian, when the Genoese possessed it for
twenty-eight years. In 1128 the Venetians, under Popone Zorzi, took it
again, and it remained Venetian on the whole till 1357; from that time
till 1418 it was sometimes Hungarian, sometimes Genoese, Bosnian, or
Ragusan. Two years later it finally gave itself to Venice, with which it
was connected till the Napoleonic wars. The English occupied it from
1813-1815. It has suffered from raids; and the attack by Uluz-Ali after
he had sacked Lesina is noticeable for the brave conduct of the women.
The commandant of the island and fortress, Antonio Balbi, and a great
many of the well-to-do inhabitants fled without fighting. The women and
boys put on their uniforms and manned the walls, making the Turks think
that the place was well garrisoned and too strong to be taken quickly
with the force at their disposal. In one of the naval battles with the
Genoese off the island, Marco Polo (who has been claimed as a Curzolan)
and Andrea Dandolo were taken prisoners. Dandolo dashed his brains out
against the side of the galley; but Marco Polo occupied his four years
of captivity in writing his travels, and, according to legend, earned
his freedom by the pleasure which his work gave to the Genoese.

The statute is the oldest in Dalmatia (1214), and is noticeable for its
provisions against the slave trade, which are among the earliest in
history. A curious survival of mediæval festivity still exists in the
"Moresca," a kind of Pyrrhic dance, danced on national festas, which is
a reminiscence of the days of Algerian piracy. There are twenty-four
dancers, and the leaders, the standard-bearer, and the "bula," who is
the spouse of the Moorish king. The performers are divided into two
bands, one representing Christians (in Spanish costume), and the other
Moors, from which the name comes. The whites, led by the king of Spain,
conquer in the combat, and the "bula" is taken and freed amid general
rejoicing. At the beginning and end, the Christians declaim a kind of
prologue or introduction in accordance with the object of the festa, and
a salutation and thanks to those assisting at the end. The costumes are
rich, each dancer carries sword and dagger, and the performances (which
are enthusiastically received) take place in the open air upon a raised
platform. In one or two places there are also survivals of mediæval
mystery-plays.

The town is on an oval peninsula on the north-east coast, united to the
mass of the island by a low isthmus. The main street runs along the
ridge from the land gate to the cathedral piazza. From the sea the walls
appear almost perfect, but there is a wide quay all round the town, and
the houses stretch a long way along the shore. There is not a street
within the walls through which a vehicle could pass, all the
thoroughfares (which are mainly alleys and staircases) rising steeply to
the cathedral. The buildings remain much as when the Morosini and
Faliero ruled, but comparatively few of the three hundred or so of
houses within the walls are inhabited; most of the ruined palaces are of
the period of the Ducal Palace, Venice, and some of them have been
architecturally remarkable. The walls and towers are in the main of
1420, but were strengthened by the Venetians. The towers which remain
are the Merlata Barbarigo of 1485, Merlata Tiepolo of about the same
date, Merlata dell' Aspello, erected as a defence against the Turks in
1570, the gate-tower on the Piazzetta of 1649, and the Gothic Torre
Lombardo of 1448, near the land gate. The walls can be walked round in a
quarter of an hour, and are dominated by the Fort S. Biagio, erected by
the English.

[Illustration: WEST DOOR OF THE CATHEDRAL, CURZOLA]

The cathedral has a fine west doorway with twisted and knotted
colonnettes and a pointed arch with tracery in the tympanum, and a
modern figure of a bishop in front of it. Enormous brackets supporting
couchant lions rest upon the knotted columns, with curious figures of
Adam and Eve on their lower faces. A circular hood mould, with ogee
finial, springs from them. In the gable is a traceried rose, above which
is an elaborate cornice with beasts' heads projecting at the angles,
shell niches, and floral finial, and at the meeting-point of the ramps a
bust of an elderly woman in the costume of the fourteenth century, with
hair in curls at each side of the face, a jewelled circlet, pleated gown
with tightly fitting sleeves slashed and embroidered, and a border round
the neck above a laced under-garment. There are two other doors at the
ends of the aisles. The tower appears to have been added above the north
aisle about 1463; it finishes with a shafted parapet and two open
octagons with domical roofs, one above the other. Along the aisle roof a
carved cornice runs, and above the trefoiled pointed clerestory windows
is an arched corbelled cornice. The nave and aisles terminate in
semicircular apses. The nave and choir together are of five bays, with a
pointed arcade on monolithic pillars. The aisles are cross-vaulted
without ribs, but with pointed arches between the bays. The roof of the
nave is of wood. The triforium is of two round arches to each bay, with
short coupled columns, now built up, and with wooden figures of the
Apostles set in each arch. The tower occupies one bay of the north
aisle, and encroaches on the next arch. Four of the caps have the
symbols of the Evangelists; those of the columns of the south aisle bear
flowing late Gothic foliage resembling two at Sebenico, and the doorway
illustrated at Traù; those of the north arcade are of the seventeenth
century. A fourth aisle was added to the north in 1532 as a burial
chapel. The ciborium has three octagonal stages pierced with
quatrefoils, above long architrave blocks, the carving of all the lower
part being Renaissance in style. The interior of the church was sadly
modernised in 1804, but the curious sacristy door still remains. It has
a tympanum with S. Michael weighing souls and trampling on the Devil,
and, below the lintel, two brackets with musicians, the hood mould
running up in ogee-shape to a finial. The high-altar-piece is a
Tintoretto--S. Mark vested as a bishop and blessing, with a lion at his
feet between SS. Bartholomew and Jerome, who are nearer the spectator.
On a side altar is a picture representing the Trinity, by Giacomo da
Ponte (1510-1592). The treasury possesses some good embroideries and two
or three chalices, one of which, with a half-figure of Christ in the
tomb, is set before the baldacchino on Good Friday, to show symbolically
that the Body of Christ is in the Sacrament.

On the way to the church of Ognissanti the Palazzo Arneri is passed; it
has a fine knocker in the manner of John of Bologna--Neptune standing
and controlling two lions, a design of which there are examples in Padua
and elsewhere. The church of All Saints was built in 1303. It has been
modernised, but still retains a ciborium with quatrefoil piercings and
angle pinnacles, bearing much resemblance to that in the cathedral. A
stair leads to a Greek church, in which are several painted wood
crucifixes and Byzantine pictures.

Some forty minutes away, on a small island to the east, is the
Franciscan convent, La Badia, a building of the fifteenth century for
the most part, containing a rather pretty cloister of white marble
erected in 1477. The arches are stilted, pointed, and trefoiled,
arranged in groups of three, with wider slightly segmental openings with
cuspings for entrances. The spandrils are filled with Gothic leafage,
the bases and caps to the columns are early Renaissance, and the frieze
is quite plain, with a dentilled cornice. The church is not interesting
architecturally; the western façade is imitated from the cathedral, but
it contains a crucifix brought from Bosnia by refugees after the battle
of Kossovo.

[Illustration: TRAVELLING AT EASE: AMONG THE ISLANDS

_To face page 329_]

The plague of 1558 smote Curzola very heavily, and as years went by it
sank lower and lower. The convenience of the neighbouring pine-woods,
the two ports between which the town lies, and the existence of Porto
Pedocchio caused the Venetians to move their arsenal hither from Lesina
in 1776; and during the last century it has recovered to some extent,
but the population remains poor.

The island of Lissa lies to the north-east of Curzola, much farther away
from the mainland. The climate is very mild; palms, cactus, aloes, and
myrtle flourish; and a wine known as Opollo is as much sought after as
that made from Lissan grape-juice, praised in antiquity by
Agatharchides. It is cut into by two large bays, to the west the Valle
di Comisa, and to the north-east the harbour of Lissa. There are some
small remains of antiquity. The foundations of the Roman theatre are
partly in the sea, and other Roman ruins are round about the harbour,
though the ancient Issa occupied the site of Gradina, 300 ft. above the
sea. One statue at least which was found here has been taken to Vienna.
Lago says that under the building of the Blessed Virgin "delle
Graticelle" there are caverns said to contain the graves of Diomede and
his companions. Apollonius of Rhodes says that the original colonists
came from Issa in Lesbos, and were Pelasgic Liburnians; but Polybius
tells of a Greek colonisation in 392 B.C. under Dionysios the Elder, of
Syracuse. It is certain, from gems and inscriptions found, that a free
state existed here about 340 B.C. It was through Issa seeking protection
from Rome that the commencement of the conquest of Illyria sprang. Their
being able to help the Romans with twenty ships in their war with Philip
of Macedon, and their founding such cities as Tragurium and Epetium show
their importance in antiquity. The Goths of Ravenna destroyed the town
in 535 A.D., on their way to Salona. It was destroyed a second time by
the Narentans, and a third time, in 1483, by the Aragonese. The great
battle for which Lissa is celebrated took place on March 13, 1811, when
the French were beaten by the English, who destroyed all their ships but
three, the commander Dubourdieu being killed, after which Lissa was made
a kind of Adriatic Malta. The Austrians strengthened the fortifications
of the English, making it an arsenal, and in 1866 Tegethoff beat the
Italian fleet here. Some interest attaches to the fortifications,
monuments, and graveyards of the island, on account of the British
occupation. The monument recording the English victory is in the English
cemetery; in the other is a memorial to those who died in the
Italo-Austrian fight. At Busi, a few miles away, is a blue grotto,
discovered in 1884, claimed to be even more remarkable than the
celebrated grotto at Capri.

Lagosta lies due south of Curzola. It belonged to Ragusa, and the
islanders are still very proud of the connection. Uros I. (the Great)
gave it to Ragusa in the second half of the thirteenth century. In the
cathedral is a Titian signed on the back.

Meleda is east of Lagosta, and south of Sabbioncello. It also belonged
to Ragusa, given to the Republic by a Servian prince in the twelfth
century. It has historical memories of Julius Cæsar, Octavian, Septimius
Severus, and Caracalla, and was used in antiquity as a place of
banishment, like Bua opposite Traù. In the town of Porto Palazzo ruins
of the palace built by the Cilician Agesilaus of Anazarba, governor of
Cilicia under Nero, and sent here by Septimius Severus, still exist. In
the ninth century the island was part of the Narentan dominions. The
building, formerly a convent, traditionally said to have been founded
before 1000 on the little island of S. Maria del Lago, is like a
mediæval castle with battlemented walls and a tower. The cloister is
picturesque with ancient date-palms, and there are several monuments in
the church. The island is prettily situated near the shore of the Lago
Grande, one of two lagoons reached by a pleasant road from Porto
Palazzo.

Nearer to Gravosa is Mezzo, the ancient Delaphodia, which also belonged
to Ragusa. The mother church is away from the town, and is known as S.
Maria del Biscione, a building of the fifteenth century. It contains an
altar-piece with gilt arabesques on a blue ground, and large painted and
gilt wooden figures of Apostles and the subject of the Assumption. A
predella contains carvings of the Last Supper and the Washing of the
Disciples' Feet. It was made in the seventeenth century, though the
style is earlier. There are also two pictures--a Madonna and Saints, of
the earlier Venetian school, and an enthroned Madonna and Child with
four panels of saints at the sides, both restored. In the sacristy are a
Venetian lavabo, some embroideries, and a fine fifteenth-century
processional cross. An iron grille round a side altar bears the Visconti
arms, which are also those of Mezzo. The "biscione" (serpent) in these
arms gives its name to the bay, and so to the church. The church of the
deserted Franciscan convent is now used as the parish church. It is a
building of the latter part of the fifteenth century, and contains some
fine carved stalls of the usual type, and a fine altar-piece by Nicolaus
Raguseus, 9 ft. high, and with an arched top. God the Father is
enthroned above, surrounded by angels with the instruments of the
Passion. The five panels in the upper row show the Angel of the
Annunciation, S. Blaise, Christ with the Cross, and half-figures of S.
Anthony and the Virgin. The centre subject is rather broader. Below it
is a later painted wood carving of the Madonna and Child. The panels at
the sides have figures of SS. Roch and John the Baptist, Francis and
Catherine. The frame is carved and painted blue, and gilded. There is
another picture by the same artist in S. Nicholas, which was the
Dominican church--an Annunciation, dated March 16, 1513, with a predella
of five subjects, a praying Dominican, a Nativity of Christ, a galley in
the harbour of Mezzo, the Adoration of the Magi, and the entrance of the
Dominicans into the cloister. A good campanile still remains, though the
cloister is ruined. There are several chapels in the place, also
roofless and in ruins, and two ruined castles.

A Captain Praćat, who left 200,000 ducats to the Republic of Ragusa, and
who was honoured with a half-length figure set up in the court of the
Rector's Palace in 1638, was a native of Mezzo. A towel given him by the
Emperor Charles V. is preserved at Mezzo, together with some church
plate of unusual design. The chalice is a mixture of late Gothic and
early Renaissance in character, with two little angels, now wingless,
holding to its edge, and treading with one foot on the knop, thus
forming handles. It is so large as to recall the ancient ministerial
chalices. Medallions with the Evangelists' symbols ornament the bowl,
with scroll-work between; the knop is covered with similar ornament, and
on the foot is a full-length figure of S. Blaise. An ostensory has the
same detail of the flying angels, and there is also a large paten with
Christ as the Man of Sorrows on a blue enamel ground.

The island of Lacroma is beyond Ragusa, and can be easily visited from
that place. It is the last Austrian island of any importance, and will
be described in the next chapter.




XXIII

RAGUSA


Ragusa is one of the most charming spots in Dalmatia, and one can quite
understand the action of the inhabitants who refused to leave it
notwithstanding the ruin wrought by the earthquake of 1667, when it was
proposed to move the community to a safer situation. The grey town upon
its rocky seat, lighted by the brilliant sun, contrasts with the blue of
the sea and the green of the luxuriant vegetation (much of it tropical),
amidst which villas nestle picturesquely, and from the cliffs on either
side at morning and evening the glow of the sun's level rays, or the
characteristic silhouettes of town and rock are equally effective,
according to the position of the spectator. But the sea, which is
generally calm and blue, can be lashed to fury when _scirocco_ blows, so
strongly sometimes that it is difficult to keep one's feet, and, though
storms do not usually last many days, the spray has been known to fly
right over Fort S. Lorenzo, situated on an isolated rock 100 ft. above
the water.

Large steamers cannot enter the little harbour, so Gravosa, on the
estuary of the Ombla, a mile or so away, serves as the usual port. It is
sheltered by the rocky island of Daxa, and affords another of those fine
harbours with which Dalmatia is so well provided. On one of our visits
to Ragusa we stayed at the Hotel Petka at Gravosa, and in front of the
windows a flotilla of torpedo-boats lay at anchor with steam up. It was
interesting to see the men doing everything to word of command. In the
morning they got up at a signal; drew up water to a signal, washed
themselves and then the boats, prepared meals, &c., &c., all in public
view, for there was very little deck and apparently no room below at
all. In the hotel we were interested by some tame swallows, which flew
about the hall and came into the restaurant; but a detestable mechanical
piano, operated by an electrical motor on the penny-in-the-slot plan,
which was a source of great pleasure to some Slav visitors, interfered a
good deal with our comfort. I am sorry to say that when I had time to
look over the account for the rooms (for we were hurried in leaving) I
found that we had been charged for a day more than we had been there,
the only instance of such a thing which we experienced in our journeys
up and down the coast. Some of the houses along the road by the water
have delightful gardens, and piles of fruit and vegetables made
fascinating colour compositions by the waterside, whilst the vivid
colour of some of the strange costumes, such as that of the quaint old
Herzegovinian charcoal porter, contrasted well with the more ordinary
clothes of officials and traders. Large numbers of Herzegovinian
emigrants take boat at Gravosa; and I remember one day, when Ragusa was
full of them and their friends and every vehicle crowded between that
place and Gravosa, what a strange sight the pier presented, so thickly
packed with people that one wondered none were pushed off. The variety
of colour and picturesqueness of costume and type among the men and
women was interesting, and it was touching to think of the sundering of
friends and relations, and the grief at parting which many of them
showed in their strongly marked countenances. From Gravosa the source of
the Ombla is easily visited, a strange river springing full-grown
from beneath a cliff but a few miles from the sea. The Greeks called it
Arione, the Latins Umbla, and it is believed to be the same river as the
Trebisnizza, which becomes subterranean some two and a half hours'
journey away in the Herzegovina. Its depth is unknown, as the actual
source at the foot of the Falkenberg cannot be approached, but the weir
which dams up the river creates a pool some 65 ft. across, in which
mulberry-trees, fig-trees, reeds, and bushes are reflected, and
furnishes the power for working two great mills. The river is but three
miles long before it merges in the estuary, and its banks are sprinkled
with villas and villages, the railway station and the admiralty stores
occupying the portion nearest to the harbour.

[Illustration: HERZEGOVINIAN CHARCOAL PORTER, GRAVOSA

_To face page 334_]

From Gravosa the excursion to the plane-trees of Cannosa and to Stagno
may be made. The great plane-trees are 40 ft. in circumference, and
their branches spread over a diameter of some 200 ft. The larger one
takes twelve men with outstretched arms to surround it. The villa of
Count Gozze, close by, has beautiful gardens. Stagno has historical
interest. It is twenty-three miles from Ragusa, and is mentioned in the
"Tavola Peutingeriana" as "Turns Stagni"; the Romans knew it as
"Stagnum." There are traces of ancient walls right across the isthmus,
which is only a kilometre wide, Sabbioncello being thus almost an
island. It was given to Ragusa by Stephen VI. of Servia in 1333, and the
Republic spent 120,000 ducats in fortifying it during the next
twenty-four years. Till 1815 it remained tributary to Ragusa, and was
ruled by a civil and political count. A little way north-west was the
northern slip of territory which Ragusa gave to Turkey to prevent her
territories touching those of Venice, the little peninsula of Klek, with
about two-thirds of a mile of coast and the little port of Neum. On the
south the Sutorina valley fulfilled the same function. Both were handed
over to Turkey in 1699 at the peace of Carlowitz with the assistance of
Spain, and were only incorporated with Austria in 1878.

[Illustration: PORTA PILE, RAGUSA

_To face page 336_]

The road to Ragusa climbs the neck of the peninsula of Lapad, where the
Ragusan merchants had their villas in their days of prosperity, passing
the exercising-ground, up and down which recruits march and manœuvre
notwithstanding the heat. The high walls have masses of flowers hanging
over them and little summer-houses perched upon them here and there
among the verdure. At the bottom of the descent is a tree-planted
promenade, across which the grey walls of the Porta Pile glimmer,
pierced with a low arch above which the patron saint, S. Biagio, looks
forth from an early Renaissance niche, with his hand raised in blessing,
as he does from above the other gates and from the huge bulk of the
Torre Menze, the great tower crowning the line of walls which ramps up
the slope to the left. The situation is magnificent, and from the sea
the view of the town is unique among Dalmatian cities by reason of the
strong sea walls, a sign of freedom from the supremacy of Venice, whose
winged lion only appears in one place, by the convent of S. Maria, on
the gate to the sea, closed in 1358, where the upper border of the panel
may also be seen. Within these walls the streets are mere narrow lanes
in one direction, and in the other mainly flights of steps which climb
the hill. Fine effects of light are produced in consequence, especially
when the street dives beneath houses through dark arches. The only broad
street is the Stradone, which runs from one gate to the other, and was
once an arm of the sea, though one can scarcely believe that it could
have been so sufficiently recently to have allowed of the ships lying
close to the merchants' houses in the time of Ragusan prosperity,
as some say. The houses along this street are all of the same character,
and were, no doubt, built after the great earthquake of 1667. Many of
them have shops beneath an arch, half of which is filled by the counter,
while on the wall outside hang draperies of ravishing colours, or
embroideries or metal-work, sparkling in the sun, or cases containing
jewellery, brightly coloured leather-work, &c. Above the roof-cornices
quaint dormers and strangely fashioned chimneys rise, producing a most
picturesque sky-line.

[Illustration: TORRE MENZE AND FORT S. LORENZO, RAGUSA

_To face page 337_]

The walls are perfect in their whole circuit, and give one a very clear
idea of the complicated arrangements for the defence of a mediæval town,
by the many gateways and tortuous roads by which the town is entered,
while the external appearance remains quite mediæval.

These fortifications date from 1380, when the last Venetian Count had
gone, but there are later additions. At this time the Castel S. Lorenzo
was built, displacing an oratory built on the site of a nunnery
established before the eleventh century. Forte Molo, by the harbour
(formerly Fort S. Giovanni, and now much altered) and the tower of S.
Luca still remain of the earlier fortifications. As the town spread it
was fortified by the addition of the Torre Menze (built in 1464 by
Michelozzo and George of Sebenico, but altered in 1538), the Torre
Leverone (built in 1539 to defend the harbour and the road to Breno),
and Fort S. Margherita (1571). The French built Fort Imperiale on Monte
Sergio and the battery on Lacroma. The cliff-like masses of stone are
stern and forbidding, and one thinks the citizens must have been glad to
escape from them on to the wooded slopes of Monte Sergio (bare and stony
now), though their apparent impregnability must have been comforting in
those days; when the strong hand often over-ruled right and justice.

The origin of the city is given thus. Fugitives from Epidaurus (Ragusa
Vecchia) in 639 took refuge on a rocky hill sheltered by an oak wood
(_dubrava_ in Slav, from which the Slav name Dubrovnik may be derived),
and Salonitans joined them. In 690 or 870 they began to enclose the
place with walls, with the help of the Servian ruler, Paulimir. These
walls only enclosed the southern part, and the Stradone served as ditch
and harbour. It is claimed that the Republic was founded in 663. Three
extensions of the walls are recorded before the twelfth century. There
was a Slavonic colony on Monte Sergio, on the other side of the ditch,
and the name of their patron saint, Sergius, has survived in that name.
The patron saint of the Latin colony on the island was Bacchus, and when
the two colonies amalgamated, as neither would accept the patron saint
of the other, they chose a fresh one, S. Blaise. They put themselves
under Venetian protection in 998, the first count being Ottone Orseolo.
The earliest recorded commercial treaty is with Pisa, made in 1169. From
1205 we find Venice supreme, and she remained so for nearly a hundred
and fifty years, with an interval of Byzantine rule. In 1358 Ragusa was
under the protection of the king of Hungary: the sneer against it of
being "sette bandiere" (seven flagged) suggests that it sought
protection from more than one power at a time. It was the headquarters
of effort for the conversion of the Slavs, which explains the gifts made
to its churches by Servian kings and nobles. From 1358 it was
practically independent, though it paid a tribute of 500 iperperi to
Hungary, and used the Hungarian standard as well as that of S. Biagio.
The fifteenth century was the period of greatest prosperity,
overshadowed by the fear of being eaten up by Venice. To make themselves
secure the Ragusans paid tribute to Constantinople in 1453 of 1,500
ducats, increased afterwards to 10,000; and this tribute appears to
have been continued till 1718. Sigismond Malatesta came to Ragusa in
1464, intending to make it a base of attack on Italy in conjunction with
the Sultan, but stayed there, and became military commander. Ragusa thus
gained the special benevolence of the Pontifical Court, and permission
to traffic with the infidel.

The greatest misfortune which befel Ragusa was the earthquake of April
6, 1667, which is thus described. In the early morning "there came from
below ground a horrible and dreadful earthquake, which in a few moments
destroyed the Rector's palace, the Rector himself being killed, and all
the other palaces, churches, monasteries, and houses in the city,
everything being overthrown, and there was much loss of life; the havoc
was increased by the huge rocks which fell from the mountains; thus the
city became a heap of stones. At the same time, a wind having arisen,
misfortune was heaped upon misfortune, and, in consequence of the fall
of timbers upon the kitchen fires, flames burst forth: the fire lasted
several days, causing much suffering to the few survivors of this
horrible disaster. Not more than 600, besides 25 nobles, escaped, and it
was a sad sight to see these people, most of them injured, wandering
about almost beside themselves with despair, in the ruined streets,
imploring pity and pardon from the Lord God for their sins. Moreover,
the Castle rock was seen to burst open and close again twice, and the
waters of the sea sank back four times. Even the wells dried up
completely. The land fort remained untouched; the sea fort, the dogana,
and the lazaretto were partially damaged, but can be repaired in a short
time. Many, moved by compassion at hearing the lamentable cries of those
buried among the ruins, struggled to remove the rubbish of stones and
timber with which they were covered, and found some still alive,
although they had been three, four, or even five days in that terrible
condition" (from a Venetian book of 1667). A good deal of plundering
went on, the peasants and Morlacchi looking on the catastrophe as a
godsend. Biagio Caboga and Michele Bosdari armed their retainers, and
kept watch over the ruined churches and public buildings: the relics and
remains of the cathedral treasure were removed to a chapel in the
Dominican monastery, and bricked up, with a barred aperture only left;
and the State treasure was taken to Fort Leverone, where a provisional
government was established. The situation appeared so hopeless that it
was proposed to move the town to Gravosa, but the citizens would not
leave the place. Apparently some 5,000 people had been killed, but the
fragments of Venetian architecture on the slopes of Monte Sergio, as
well as the one house pointed out beyond the cathedral, show that a good
many houses survived in part.

In 1796, when the French occupied the Ionian Islands, a French
commissary appeared at Ragusa, and asked for a loan of 1,000,000 francs.
It was granted, but produced a rebellion which brought about a short
occupation by Austrian troops. By the peace of Presburg (1805), Austria
ceded Dalmatia and the Bocche to France. The Bocchesi and Montenegrins
determined rather to give themselves to Russia, and, with the help of a
squadron sent from Corfu, took the Bocche from Austria as far as
Castelnuovo. The French moved towards Ragusa, meaning to occupy Cattaro.
General Lauriston, with 800 men, crossed the Ombla and entered the city
under pretext of resting his soldiers. The news reached Cattaro, and the
Bocchesi, Montenegrins, and Russians invaded the territory of the
Republic, beating the French near Ragusa Vecchia, and besieging them in
Ragusa. On July 6, 1806, Gravosa was burnt, with the shipping and
stores. In 1808 Marmont declared the Republic dead and buried, and the
French retained Ragusa till 1814. In January of that year Count Biagio
Bernardo di Caboga raised the people, and with English and Austrian
troops, freed his country from the French. The flag of Ragusa flew for
the last time between those of Austria and England on January 3. On the
28th the territory was taken possession of by Austria. A short time
before the French occupation Ragusa had 400 sea-going ships.

There is very little remaining from the early period, though there are
records of building being done. Resti, who is an authority for the local
history of Ragusa, says that Stefano, king of Croatia Bianca, vowed to
restore S. Stefano, Ragusa, and remained there two years while it was
being done, spending much money upon it. His wife Margherita, a noble
Roman lady, sent a quantity of silver to ornament the relics of the
saints, of which the church had many and finally the royal couple
visited it, the king being accompanied by several barons, and the queen
by her ladies. The rest of the Court stayed at Breno and Canali, because
the Ragusans said they could not accommodate them all, the city being
but small. The king, in return for the distinguished treatment which was
accorded him, is said to have given to the Republic, Breno, Vergato,
Ombla, Gravosa, the valley of Malfi, and part of Gionchetto, on the
condition of churches dedicated to S. Stephen being built in all the
towns. After his death his queen resolved to retire to Ragusa and become
a nun. She had a small room built for her by the side of S. Stefano, and
also built the little church of S. Margherita, removed in 1570 when the
fort which still bears the same name was constructed, and rebuilt in the
present military hospital, the old Jesuit convent, where it was used as
a mortuary. She also brought to Ragusa two pieces of the wood of the
true Cross, the larger of which is still in the cathedral The cell
which was built for her still existed in the fifteenth century. The
church of S. Stefano was the old cathedral; it was partially destroyed
by the earthquake of 1667, and never rebuilt. The site is now used as a
recreation ground for the cathedral clergy. Above an early Renaissance
door, made when the building was converted into a sacristy for the later
church, is encrusted a piece of ninth-century sculpture, with the usual
arches, crosses, and palmettes, and in the adjoining wall is an oculus
with an ornamented moulding. By the side of the bishop's palace is a
little chapel with a door apparently of the ninth century. It has a
scroll pattern up the jambs and across the lintel, with the
characteristic triple furrowing, and above the lintel a palmette
cornice; on the reveal is a twisted guilloche treated in the same
manner. There are two or three early churches of little interest on the
hill; one at least has been rebuilt. Gelcich says: "Of the Byzantine
epoch, except the bas-reliefs of S. Stefano, nothing remains save a
memory in the name of the mountain above the city, and the worship of
some saint whose name recalls the East."

The present cathedral was rebuilt between 1667 and 1713, and is of the
usual character. It, however, possesses several good pictures and a very
rich treasury. The most interesting of the pictures is a triptych or
portable altar, an old Bruges picture, which the envoys took with them
when they went to Constantinople every three years to pay the tribute.
The subject is the Adoration of the Magi. In the centre the Virgin is
seated with the Child on her lap. He is kneeling, and extending His hand
to the oldest of the three kings, who has placed sceptre and gifts at
the Saviour's feet. Behind him is another king; through arches a
landscape is seen at the back. On the left wing are the third king, a
Moor, with a group of figures and landscape behind. On the right wing is
a bald-headed man in a rich robe, and in the background a castle. The
centre panel is 2 ft. 9 in. high by 1 ft. 9 in. broad. It is in the
style of Memling. There are also several Padovaninos and pictures
ascribed to Titian and others, a Palma Vecchio, and a fine head of
Christ by Pordenone.

[Illustration: RELIQUARY OF THE HEAD OF S. BLAISE, CATHEDRAL TREASURY,
RAGUSA

_To face page 343_]

The formalities for opening the treasure caused us some trouble. We
arrived just as the usual weekly exhibition was over, and I was told
that it was impossible for it to be opened again for seven days. I
explained that I had a special permission from the Government to see
such things, but that I preferred asking Monsignore (and the little
Canon who opened the treasury) to be good enough to give me the
facilities which I desired. He asked to have the _statthalter's_ letter
to show the bishop. I knew, of course, that he wanted to take it to the
_municipio_, to see if it was authentic, and therefore consented, on his
engaging to return it; and so we parted. The next day I was allowed to
enter the treasury, thereby obliging a rich American family, who would
otherwise have found the doors shut, and had a test of my knowledge
applied by being asked the period to which a reliquary belonged of which
the date was known. Having passed my examination satisfactorily, I had
the pleasure of handling any of the objects which I desired to examine,
and, further, of being asked to oblige Monsignore by telling him the
period when certain of the objects were made. Some of the photographs of
the reliquaries were not quite successful, and the next year we returned
to make others, taking with us some copies which we had promised to send
to the bishop. I was rather amused to be greeted effusively as
"Carissimo"; it was such a contrast to our first reception.

[Illustration: HEAD RELIQUARY IN CATHEDRAL, RAGUSA]

The treasury is particularly rich in reliquaries, of which the most
valued contains the head of S. Blaise. It consists of a number of small
Byzantine enamels reset in an elaborate floral pattern of filigree and
enamel by a Venetian goldsmith in 1694--"Franc°° Ferro Venet°," as he
signs himself on the lower edge. The design resembles the later
Hungarian enamel-work very closely. The stalks are simply gold wires,
and the leaves, flowers, &c., are filled in with enamels of different
colours, very delicately varied, leaving the copper ground showing, each
plaque being surrounded with a twist of gold and pinned down to the
capsule of the skull. Legend says that the head was brought to Ragusa in
1026, but even the Byzantine enamels scarcely look as old as that; and
the occurrence of two half-lengths of S. Blaise and two of S. Peter
suggests that it was made up with fragments of several reliquaries, of
which other portions have been used in the arm reliquary of S. Blaise.
The names appear to have been added in the thirteenth century; the
letters are Latin. There are three rows of the enamels. At the top, upon
the curve, are four figures in roundels--"SS. Andreas, Blasivs, Petrvs,"
and the Archangel Michael. The nimbi are blue-green, the figures red.
The second row has eight enamels, alternately round and square; the
round ones are unnamed, and represent three saints (one with a stole,
holding a cross in the right hand) and a badly restored Madonna. The
others are: an Apostle with a roll, "Santvs Petrvs"; a bishop, "Santvs
Blasivs"; "Santvs Matevs" with a book in the left hand; "Santvs Jacobvs"
with a roll. The third row has eight circular enamels, alternately
figures and ornaments. The figures are: Christ enthroned, blessing with
the right hand, and with a roll in the left inscribed "IC XC"; S. John
the Baptist with inscription "S. IO. BAPT."; S. Zenobius, with his name
in full, commencing with a Greek ζ; and S. John the Evangelist, "S.
Johes Eb Agelisa." The arm reliquary is inscribed "Tomaso Paleologo
despota del Peloponeso donato a Giorgio Radovanovich civi Raguseo 1452."
The saints who appear on the enamels are SS. Laurence, Andrew, Nereus,
Achilleus, Lucas, Tomas, Simon, Bartholomew, and Paul. Another reliquary
has remains of enamel plaques of Christ, the Virgin, Simeon, SS. John
the Evangelist, Blaise, and John the Baptist. A hand of S. Blaise is
contained in a beautiful filigree reliquary, and is kept under glass. A
head reliquary has a fine pierced pattern and a punched border of early
Renaissance character, with niello medallions of the Evangelists'
symbols. Another, not quite so good, is dated 1349, and has similar
nielli, with interlacings of oak-sprigs. There are several very curious
thorax reliquaries, and many arms. Two portable altars with inlaid
reliquaries in patriarchal crosses were seen by Eitelberger, with fine
figure subjects; on one the Virgin and S. John in _repoussé_ in
Romanesque style, and Christ on the Cross on the other, with the
monograms added in enamel. These I did not see. A cross with reliefs of
the Virgin and Child, with angels at the top, S. Mary Magdalene below,
and SS. Blaise and Vincent on the arms, encloses what the Canon told us
with pride was the largest piece of the true Cross in existence. A
processional cross of the fourteenth century, set upon an
eighteenth-century stem, bears figures in relief of Christ, and the
Evangelists' symbols, gilt on a silver ground. On the back are the
Madonna and Child, with God the Father above and a cherub beneath, SS.
Biagio and Francis. Most of the objects are either of the fourteenth or
late thirteenth century in style, but may very likely be later, the
goldsmiths still using the patterns of an earlier period. The curious
reliquary supporting the jaw of S. Stephen of Hungary, and with a figure
of the monarch hanging below it, is interesting (as well as unusual) as
being an example of ancient Hungarian silversmith's work. It was brought
to Ragusa for safety during the Turkish period. There are also several
monstrance-like reliquaries, and one fine monstrance of a later period
with something of German style in its foliated ornament; but the objects
which are exhibited with most pride and with evident expectation of the
stupefaction of the tourist are a ewer and dish of silver-gilt, which
are covered with representations of sea creatures and weeds, worked with
the most extraordinary realism and fineness, and proving very
satisfactorily that the copying of nature and the production of a work
of art are not necessarily connected. They are kept in leather cases,
and the tourist generally makes the expected exclamations when they are
disclosed to view. There is an "N" stamped upon the metal, and it is
thought that Nuremberg was responsible for them.

[Illustration: RELIQUARY OF THE JAW OF S. STEPHEN OF HUNGARY]

[Illustration: CLOISTER OF THE DOMINICAN CONVENT, RAGUSA

_To face page 349_]

The church of S. Biagio is quite near, a late Renaissance building,
which replaced the votive church erected in 1349-52 after the plague of
1348, and burnt in 1706. Above the high-altar is the celebrated silver
statue of S. Blaise which was saved from the fire, and is now preserved
under glass. It is made of silver plates, gilded, on a basis of wood,
and shows the front part of an old man with a long beard, in episcopal
robes, holding a model of the city. The back portion has never been
completed. The head is too large, the neck too short, and the arms too
long. The chasuble has an embroidered cross with figures of Christ and
three saints or Apostles, with two little angels censing below the arms,
and a quatrefoil in the centre. Two half-length saints are on the
dalmatic beneath a double arch. The draperies are well treated,
especially the chasuble, upon which is worked an elaborate Burgundian
pattern. The details of the town which the saint holds in his hand prove
that it was made between 1480 and: 1485. It shows the harbour closed by
a chain. The breakwater was built in 1485. The clock-tower also appears
(built in 1480). The cast portions of the figure (of which the town is
one) are of silver of a different colour from that of the beaten parts,
and there is no-doubt, from the variety of style in certain of the
details that it has been restored more than once, probably after the
fires of 1547 and 1706.

[Illustration: PLAN OF THE DOMINICAN CONVENT, RAGUSA]

The Dominican convent is just within the Porta Ploće, and the stair
which leads to it dates back to Roman times, though it now has
Venetian-looking balustrades of the fourteenth century. It led to a gate
of the city. Until the seventeenth century it was the duty of the
Dominicans to defend Porta Ploće; the Franciscans defended Porta Pile;
and the cathedral canons Porta Pescheria. One hundred soldiers were
selected monthly from the various ranks, and were divided into two bands
for alternate nightly police; twenty-seven more were told off to defend
nine selected points against external attack. The lesser towers belonged
to patrician houses who were responsible for their defence, whilst the
greater and more exposed were looked after by the State. The Dominicans
were first established in 1225, in S. Giacomo in Peline, a small,
roughly constructed church high on the hill, which has a
fourteenth-century Madonna over the altar. Tradition says that S.
Dominic himself established the community. The present church was
building in 1297, and was consecrated in 1306. The portions which
survived the earthquake of 1667 are the south door with the apse of the
chapel close to it, the main apse, and the sacristy. This last is the
ancient church of the Assumption, given to the Dominicans in 1253 by the
Palmotta. The convent was built in 1348. The church has a long nave with
a horizontal wooden roof and a polygonal apse. The choir was once
vaulted. There are two side altars in recesses rather behind the
high-altar. Above them are restored pictures by Nicolaus Raguseus. To
the right the centre panel is filled by a figure of S. Nicholas in a
shell-headed niche; on the right are SS. Mary Magdalene and James; on
the left, SS. John the Baptist and Stephen. The panels are round-headed,
and the sky fills the space behind the figures with their gilded nimbi.
On S. Stephen's dalmatic are patterns in gold; S. Nicholas's chasuble is
of gold with patterns on it. In the picture to the left the Madonna is
seated on the crescent moon holding the Child, and surrounded by
cherubs; on her right are S. Biagio holding the city, and S. Paul; on
her left, S. Thomas Aquinas holding a church, and S. Augustine. There is
a good deal of gold used in the draperies, and the ground is gold. Both
these pictures are very decorative. The high-altar-piece is a Venetian
Madonna and Child, with SS. Dominic and Clara. On the north wall is a
picture ascribed to Titian, parts of which may be from his hand, but it
has been restored. It represents S. Biagio with a crozier, holding the
town; S. Mary Magdalene in ecstasy, with long hair and a white dress; at
the right the donor kneeling, and behind him Tobit and the Angel. There
is also a great coloured crucifix with SS. John and Mary, regarded as
miraculous at the time of the plague of 1358. It was placed here by
Pasquale Resti, and is well modelled, with the head cast down. The dark
brown colouring of the hair is not pleasant, and the white drapery cuts
hardly against the dark-hued flesh.

The pulpit is of stone; beneath shell-headed niches on the front stand
figures of SS. Catherine of Siena, Dominic, Thomas Aquinas, and Peter
Martyr. They and their emblems are painted; the nimbi and the ribs of
the shells are gilded. Across the west end of the nave is a fine early
Renaissance triple arch which was once the architectural setting to
three altars on the north side of the church. Among the ornament, traces
of Gothic feeling still linger. In the sacristy are an Early Martyrdom
of S. Laurence and two other pictures in compartments on a gold ground,
which bear a certain resemblance to others produced in the March of
Ancona. The frame of one of them is especially fine, with projecting
hoods to the niches in which the figures stand. In the centre is the
Baptism of Christ, with a landscape background; on the right are SS.
Augustine and Stephen; on the left, SS. Nicholas and Michael. Above are
half-lengths of the Madonna and Child in a vesica starred with cherubs;
on the right, SS. Peter Martyr and Francis; on the left, SS. Peter and
Dominic. Another has the Madonna, SS. Julian, James, Dominic, and
Matthew on a gold ground. These have also been restored. There are also
two good Flemish pictures on panel, a Christ and a veiled woman. Within
a pointed arch is an interesting funerary inscription stating that the
port was the work of "Pasqualis Michaelis Ragusinus," with the date
1485. He was also master of the foundry, and apparently supervised the
fortifications. He was the architect of the bridge of Porta Pile in
1471, and to him the design of the Sponza is ascribed by some. The note
recording the commencing of the construction of the port (February 19,
1481) embodies the fact of the sailors' approval of the design.

The cross of Uros I. (1275-1320) is over an altar in a room within the
sacristy, the door of which is kept double-locked. It is not very
interesting from the point of view of craft. It is a patriarchal cross
with piercings at the crossings, and rosettes at the ends of the arms,
which are probably later additions. The material is silver, parcel-gilt.

[Illustration: PLAN AND ELEVATION OF ONE BAY OF CLOISTER, DOMINICAN
CONVENT, RAGUSA]

The treasury contains reliquaries and chalices, and a Gothic monstrance,
but nothing of great interest. The south door has round arches beneath
an ogee hood, the jambs are ornamented with damaged scrolled leafage,
and in the tympanum is a figure of S. Dominic. The apse of the chapel
close by is Romanesque, and, with the flight of steps to the door and
the foliage of a tree which overhangs them, makes a picturesque
background to the groups of Herzegovinians who pass on their way from
the Porta Ploće to the Stradone. The cloister is, however, the most
picturesque part of the convent. Beneath round arches smaller cusped
round arches with shafts and caps are grouped in threes, the head having
two circles within it, sometimes pierced as quatrefoils, sometimes with
an interlacing pattern with Oriental suggestion, and reminding one of
the patterns in a similar situation in the cloister at Tarragona. The
same mixture of ornamental _motifs_ may be noticed in the richly carved
moulding which terminates the wall beneath the parapet. The well in the
centre is of 1623, but takes its place among the trees, flowers, and
warm-toned stone quite pleasantly. Above towers the campanile containing
two old bells, one cast by Battista of Arbe in 1516, and one by
Bartolommeo of Cremona, in 1363. It was built by a Ragusan, Fra Stefano,
in 1424, and has three stories of two-light windows, with mid-wall
shafts under round arches, and a crowning octagonal stage. The
enlargement of the church and convent was executed by the architect
Pasqualis Michaelis, just referred to.

[Illustration: LAVABO IN SACRISTY OF FRANCISCAN CONVENT, RAGUSA

_To face page 353_]

The Franciscan convent is at the other end of the Stradone, just inside
the Porta Pile. The Order was at first established outside; but the
convent founded in 1235 was destroyed by the Republic to prevent the
Servians from using it as shelter, and in 1315 the monks came within the
walls. It is said that S. Francis himself came to Ragusa in 1220, and
several of the Franciscan convents in Dalmatia claim to have been
founded by him. The church has a late Gothic doorway on the south, with
an ogee tympanum bearing a Pietà, and flanked by pinnacled niches which
have statues of SS. John the Baptist and Jerome; above is a figure of a
bearded saint holding a book. The foliage is well carved, and the
pilasters are panelled in two stages. Behind the church is the first
cloister, surrounded by an arcade resting on coupled octagonal
colonnettes with unmoulded round arches, divided into groups of six by
piers. The wall above is pierced by oculi of different sizes, some of
which have quatrefoil tracery within, and the caps of the columns show
an almost Romanesque variety and vivacity. The wall terminates with a
carved quarter-roll moulding and a balustrade with cusped round arches
above coupled colonnettes. This balustrade, notwithstanding its style,
was only completed in 1629, unless this date refers merely to repairs
done at that time. On the south side is a fifteenth-century fountain,
with a later statue of S. Francis; in front of it is a paved walk
flanked by seats, the backs of which form the enclosure of the raised
garden on each side. It is as pleasant a place as the Dominican
cloister, though quite unlike it. The architect was Mag. Mycha of
Antivari, whose signature may be found on a corner pilaster, with the
date 1363. Higher up the hill is another cloister, long and narrow, with
round arches resting on square piers, and a well under a picturesque
penthouse roof. Here it was that the herbs and simples were grown. By
the side of the steep stair (which goes up still higher) a little rill
of water flows, I suppose, to the lower cloister. The convent cost
28,000 ducats to the public treasury, besides much given by generous
donors, the Ghent merchants especially contributing largely. The top of
the campanile was replaced after the earthquake of 1667. In the sacristy
are some stall-fronts and cupboards ornamented with intarsia of
arabesques and figures of saints of the Order, the latter rather rough
in workmanship. Also a pretty, early Renaissance lavabo in Istrian
stone. The church plate, including a fine monstrance, is kept in a
Gothic cupboard painted with the arms of the Bona family. In the church
is a great crucifix which came from Stagno, painted in tempera, with the
symbols of the Evangelists. The library is rich in literary documents,
and in the convent, upstairs, is a picture which shows Ragusa as it was
before the earthquake.

High on the hill above the Franciscan church is the early nuns' church
of La Sigurata, hidden away in a court. Like several others of the early
churches it shows no sign of its great antiquity.

The Rector's Palace was commenced in 1388 and completed in 1424, at a
cost of 40,000 zecchins. In 1435 it was partially burnt, and was
restored under "Onofrio Giordani de la Cava," who had been five years in
the city.

[Illustration: LOGGIA OF THE RECTOR'S PALACE, RAGUSA

_To face page 354_]

[Illustration: CAPITAL FROM THIS LOGGIA, RECTOR'S PALACE, RAGUSA

_To face page 355_]

The second story, which existed as a kind of tower above each end of the
façade, was thrown down by the great earthquake, and never rebuilt. The
loggia has stone benches against the walls, one to the left, and two,
one above the other, to the right, which were the seats for
senators on great _fête_ days. In 1462 there was another fire, so that
only fragments of Onofrio's work remain--the hall on the ground floor
with the seventeenth-century wooden ceiling, several of the caps of the
loggia, and the courtyard within, the great door and the windows of the
first floor. This is all that appears to have been preserved. The great
council then called in Michelozzo the Florentine and George of Sebenico.
The former was at Ragusa in 1463, looking after the building of the
walls of the city; and on February 11, 1464, it was ordered "that the
palace be rebuilt" after his designs; but, in the following June, George
of Sebenico was appointed, working, no doubt, on the general lines laid
down by Michelozzo. The great hall was burnt during the French siege,
and very little remains inside worthy of note. There are two tolerable
pictures, one an early copy of the Paris Bordone in the National
Gallery, the Venus and Adonis, and the other, a Baptism of Christ, in
the manner of Paduan work of the fifteenth century. Both have been
restored. The courtyard has an arcade of round arches, resting on
cylindrical columns with Renaissance caps, and an upper arcade resting
on twin columns and piers, two arches to each bay, both stories being
vaulted with sustaining arches, but without ribs. The loggia in front
has ribs and bosses at the intersections. A small staircase to the right
contains other remains of Onofrio's building--a bracket, on which is
carved a figure of Justice holding a label, and with a mutilated lion on
each side of her; opposite to it is a capital, on which is carved the
Rector administering justice; neither of them in their original place.
The main doorway is pointed with a richly carved moulding and caps,
which belong to Onofrio's work; above it is S. Biagio in a Renaissance
niche, and between the caps and the arch a shallow frieze is interposed,
on which are carved little figures engaged in combats, a love scene,
and Cupids with an organ and trumpets. The corbels from which the vaults
spring are carved, the subjects being two groups of boys playing, a man
fighting a dragon or basilisk with club and little target, a struggle
between a girl and a bear, &c. The doors at the end, the Porta della
Carità, where distribution of corn used to be made to the poor at a low
price, and that opening on a stair to the hall of the Lesser Council
appear to belong to the earlier building. The ring with the lion's head
on the door is a fine piece of fourteenth-century bronze-work. The
knocker is not so good. A knight with raised arm stands on a lion's head
against a post covered with scales; above and below foliage spreads out.
The caps of the loggia are very fine, though not of equal value. The
three central ones are Renaissance work, and marry admirably with their
heavy, ornamented abaci, which in the others appear over-heavy, and
plainly an addition. In the earlier work the technique of the carving is
better, and the foliage has more spring. The most interesting one is the
Æsculapius subject, which De Diversis saw in the carver's hands in 1435,
planned, as he says, by Nicolò de Lazina, a Cremonese noble, who was
chancellor at the time. It is interesting both from the point of view of
the carving and costume, and as showing the apparatus of an alchemist's
laboratory. Close by it on the wall is the "metrical epitaph," which De
Diversis says the chancellor composed. The columns, which are of Curzola
marble, belong to the earlier building, though the entasis shows that
classical feeling was beginning to affect even architects who worked in
Gothic. Mr. T.G. Jackson's explanation of the addition of the heavy
abaci seems quite reasonable--viz. that the earlier arcade was pointed,
and that, since a good deal of the building survived the fire, it
was necessary to raise the springing of the arches, when they were
made round to match the levels of the ends which were not destroyed. The
carved string-course above and the Gothic windows of the _piano nobile_
are also remains of the earlier building. There was a castle on the site
of the palace from the days of the establishment of the Slav colony on
Monte Sergio, which, together with the marshy inlet which then occupied
the site of the Stradone, afforded sufficient protection to make sudden
attack on the part of the Slavs inadvisable; when the two settlements
were joined together by a common line of defences it became the seat of
government.

[Illustration: ÆSCULAPIUS CAPITAL, RECTOR'S PALACE, RAGUSA

_To face page 356_]

[Illustration: FOUNTAIN OF ONOFRIO DE LA CAVA, RAGUSA

_To face page 357_]

There are two other pieces of Onofrio's work still in existence in
Ragusa, the pretty little fountain between the Rector's Palace and the
Sponza, next door to the Corpo di Guardia, of which an illustration is
given, showing a certain admixture of Renaissance feeling with Gothic
foliage, and the much mutilated fountain just within the Porta Pile. It
had two columns at each angle, of which only the inner one remains, and
a marble cupola surrounded by statues. The aqueduct which supplies it
and the other fountains is eight miles long, and brings the water from
Gionchetto. It was only completed in 1438, after many discouraging
incidents. Opposite to it is the pretty façade of S. Salvatore, built
after the earthquake of 1520, and due to Bartolommeo da Mestre,
"protomagister" of the cathedral of Sebenico, which it resembles a good
deal in the character of its design and mixture of Gothic and
Renaissance forms. It has a nave of three bays with an apse; the
vaulting is Gothic, as are the windows, but the arches rest on classic
pilasters, used also at the angles of the façade, the horizontal lines
of which are varied by the semicircular gable and quadrants which flank
it. A rose-window occupies the central place, and above the door (which
is rather later in style) is a long dedicatory inscription in an
ornamented panel space.

[Illustration: PLAN OF LA SPONZA, RAGUSA]

At the bottom of the piazza, upon which the Rector's Palace, the
cathedral, and S. Biagio face, is the Sponza or Dogana, the ancient
custom-house and mint. The custom-house was on the ground floor, and the
scales for weighing merchandise hung in the wide arch opposite the
entrance. The mint was on the second floor, and the first floor was used
for carnival and social meetings of the nobility. The building is of
several periods dating from the beginning of the fourteenth century to
1520, a date given by an inscription on the second story. The courtyard
has an arcade of round arches, four on each side, and one of a greater
breadth at each end, resting on octagonal piers, the caps and arches
moulded simply. The first floor has an arcade of pointed arches, two to
a bay, with alternate piers and columns, the end having circular
arches above the broader arch below. The second story is lighted by four
little square windows, and above are three quatrefoils to give air to
the roof timbers. On the end wall are two angels in relief, holding
"I.H.S." within a garland. The two arcades are vaulted simply, the caps
on the first floor have good foliage, and the stories are divided by
moulded string-courses. Names of saints are inscribed over the doors of
the warehouses opening from the lower cloister.

[Illustration: LA SPONZA AND ONOFRIO'S FOUNTAIN, RAGUSA

_To face page 359_]

The façade terminates with a fantastic cresting above the roof cornice.
In the centre of the second story is a niche with a figure of S. Blaise,
flanked by two rectangular windows on each side. The _piano nobile_ has
two ogee-headed windows with geometric tracery, flat decorated
archivolt, and slender shafts on the outer and inner surface of the
jamb, and a three-light window in the centre, made up to a square head
with quatrefoils in the fashion of the Ca d'Oro at Venice. On the ground
floor there is a graceful round-arched portico resting on columns with
Renaissance caps; beneath it are the windows and entrance door of the
custom-house. The building is still used for its original purpose, and
Albanian and Herzegovinian porters lounge about it in strange costumes.
The clock-tower was built in 1480, and altered in 1781. There is a bell
in it founded by Battista of Arbe. Opposite is the Roland column.
Affixed to a pilaster is a symbolic statue typifying freedom of
jurisdiction and commerce. It was replaced there in 1878 after a
prolonged sojourn in the Rector's Palace, having been thrown down by a
storm in 1825, when a brass plate was found with an inscription of the
beginning of the fifteenth century, stating that here was the place of
the standard of the Republic. It is not a work of any artistic merit.

A little way outside Porta Pile (thought to be a corruption of the Greek
word πηλη, a gate) is the cemetery church "alle Dancé,"
overlooking a bay beneath the Lapad promontory. It was begun in 1457 for
the poor of the city, and contains a fine picture. The west door is
elaborately carved with somewhat confused ornament, and in the pointed
tympanum is a Madonna and Child flanked by two standing angels, which do
not fit in quite comfortably. By the door is a holy-water niche of still
stranger design, with a shell-head which quite insufficiently supports
the three figures forming the crowning feature. The sacristy was in
possession of several women who were washing clothes on both the
occasions when I visited the church. The picture is by "Nicholavs
Rhagvsinvs," who thus signs it, with the date 1517. It is in the
original frame divided by pillars into three compartments, with a
predella and a lunette above. In the lunette is a Crucifixion with the
Virgin and S. John, two female figures and S. Mary Magdalene, and
cherubs round our Lord; the Virgin's robe is deep blue; the others are
red or green, on a gold ground. In the centre compartment are the Virgin
and Child enthroned, with a little S. John kneeling, surrounded by
little angels. Silver crowns have been added. The Virgin has a red robe
with a cloak of cloth of gold on which is an elaborate pattern in dark
blue; the Child holds fruit and corn; the cherubs have scarlet wings and
gilt nimbi. In the right-hand panel is S. Martin on horseback, dividing
his cloak; he wears a green tunic, over which is a golden coat with a
design in red lines upon it. The cloak is bright scarlet. The beggar is
Christ with cruciferous nimbus, On the left hand is S. Gregory, with his
dove on his shoulder, carrying a crucifix; he wears a richly-embroidered
cope of cloth of gold, with red pattern and a border of saints in
niches. These are both on gold grounds. The predella has also three
compartments. In the centre is S. George and the dragon, with a pale
blue landscape and sea; the princess kneels in the background. On the
right hand is a saint receiving a mitre from two bishops, surrounded by
other bishops, monks, choristers, &c. On the left, a pope in a golden
robe is being crowned by two cardinals, surrounded by cardinals,
bishops, Dominicans, and Franciscans. There is a landscape background.
The whole effect is most decorative, due partly, no doubt, to the fine
frame with golden arabesques on a dark blue ground. Another picture
above the high-altar looks later, though it is in a very architectural
frame. It represents the Madonna and Child on a large scale in the
centre, with God the Father and angels in an oblong panel above. At each
side of the Madonna are two small saints one above the other, probably
SS. Francis, George, Blaise, and Nicholas. The Madonna and Child and God
the Father have crowns of silver or silver-gilt; the Child is nude; the
Madonna draped in metal, with a pattern on the outer robe. The
background and the frieze are entirely covered with little votive silver
plaques.

From the hill which one mounts on the return, the whole of Ragusa lies
spread at one's feet, from the great fort S. Lorenzo, perched upon its
rock, to the Torre Menze, the culminating point of the walls, in front
of which the lower slopes of Monte Sergio are covered with the houses of
the suburb. On a fine evening the view past the fort towards the Bocche
is enchanting, but when _scirocco_ blows, and the foam splashes high up
the rocks, it is not safe to approach the edge. Here a pleasant garden
has been laid out, and aloes grow, though not so luxuriantly as on the
other side of the town.

Above the door of the salt-magazine near Porta Ploče is the oldest
relief of S. Blaise, possibly dating from the beginning of the
thirteenth century. Behind the communal palace is the harbour, Porto
Casson, which recalls the prosperity of the Republic, when it was one of
the richest countries in the world, and when the merchants and privateer
captains who lived in the Via Priko, upon the hill, owned between them
100,000,000 ducats, according to computation.

From here a little steam-launch plies in the afternoon to the island of
Lacroma, on which a cloister was founded in the eleventh century, the
Benedictine rule being transplanted hither in 1023 from the Tremiti
Islands in the person of Fra Pietro the Ragusan, who, with a priest
named Leone, laid the foundations of the monastery on land given them
for that purpose. An inscription mentions the name of Vitalis the
archbishop, son of Dominus Theodore (1023-1047). It was the Ragusan
Westminster Abbey till the Franciscan and Dominican churches were built.
Here it was that Richard Cœur de Lion escaped from shipwreck, and,
according to local tradition, founded the cathedral of Ragusa in
gratitude for his escape, though the entries in the Ragusan archives
prove that it was built by contributions from the nobles. The ill-fated
Maximilian of Mexico owned the island, and restored the convent as a
country residence, in which the unfortunate Crown Prince Rudolf also
lived. We, who had gone there in hopes of seeing something of the
eleventh-century buildings, were disappointed at being taken through
corridors and rooms containing objects which were looked upon as relics,
and finally round some elaborately laid out and luxuriant gardens to one
or two natural curiosities. The building is now occupied by a school,
towards the support of which a landing-tax of one corona per person is
exacted. This did not, however, prevent the man who showed us round
telling us that he was dependent on the charity of visitors! All that
is to be seen in the way of architecture is a cloister of the early
Renaissance period, pretty enough with its garden within; but I should
certainly not recommend the English tourist to spend time and money in
visiting the island.

Beyond the harbour of Ragusa the road leads below the Dominican convent
to the outer Ploče gate, passing two chapels--SS. Annunziata, with a
group of S. John the Baptist and two other saints in the tympanum of the
Gothic doorway, and S. Luke, with Renaissance decoration and tympanum.
Turning sharply beneath two gates, above the outer of which S. Blaise
stands in his usual place, the road passes over a stone bridge which
replaces the original drawbridge, and through the outer gates to the
lazaretto and Turkish bazaar. Here there is a late Renaissance fountain,
at which country people, most of whom are Herzegovinians, may be seen
watering their mules, for the road to Trebinje comes down to this gate.
There is little else to see in the bazaar, the importance of which has
much declined; but from this side of the town charming views of Ragusa
may be obtained, with a foreground of rocks, of aloes, often in bloom,
of rough steps going down to the shore, or a little farther away, where
the height of Lapad can be seen crowning the city, of olives and stony
roads; always with the blue sea stretching from below towards and beyond
the grey town shut so securely within its walls. Beyond is the
romantically, situated deserted convent of S. Giacomo degli Olivi, and
from it paths wander farther among olives and cypresses along the edge
of the cliff, below which, on the level of the water, is the grotto
Spila Betina.

The Republic was a curious mixture of enlightenment and oriental
backwardness. In 1335 the whole town was paved, a great sewer was
constructed, and there were regulations about tiling and other
constructional matters. Traffic in slaves was abolished by act of the
Greater Council on January 26, 1416. In 1432 a foundling hospital was
established, and in 1435 public schools. All who died of the plague in
1430 were burnt, by advice of the Ferrarese physician Giacomo Godwaldo,
who also established the custom of isolating the sick some years before.
Yet, in the state prisons below the small loggia, prisoners were
sometimes walled up alive, and dungeons existed flooded at high tide,
without any precautions being taken to prevent it. The treatment of
women was quite oriental. In 1462 girls above the age of twelve were not
allowed outside the house, and were seen only by their relations and by
ecclesiastics; and, of course, marriages were arranged by the parents.
In the theatre, only noble women and those of the citizen class were
admitted. The sumptuary laws were strict. Nobles and public officials
above eighteen were obliged to wear a large loose robe and black hose.
It is recorded that a certain Tuberone Cerva came into the Senate one
day with a robe longer than the prescribed measure, and it was cut short
then and there, which mortified him so much that he turned monk. At
funerals they had hired mourners, which again suggests oriental
influences.

The _consiglio maggiore_ contained all the nobles above twenty years of
age inscribed in the golden book called "Lo Specchio" (which was
compiled in 1440). The Senate acted as court of appeal in judicial
cases, and was formed of forty-five senators, the "Pregati," who were
over forty years of age. The executive was the Little Council of seven
members. At the head of public administration was a senator who from
1358 was called Prior, then Count, and later Rector. The populace called
him "Knez" (Prince). He was in office for a month only, and, with eleven
councillors, settled the most important affairs of state. He lived in
the palace, and only left it on state business. He wore a red cloak with
a black band on the left side, and red shoes and stockings (in
accordance with a Byzantine tradition). He never went out alone, but was
always accompanied by councillors, secretaries, the chamberlain,
twenty-four red-clad attendants, and a band of music. Besides the Rector
there was a town council of ten, which acted as police superintendents.
The five _provveditori_, elected annually from among the "Pregati,"
looked after the rigorous observance of the statute. No law could be
altered without the vote of seven-eighths of the Greater Council, and no
new law could be made without a three-quarters majority of the same. The
treasurers were elected from the oldest senators. At the head of the
eleven administrative districts were counts or representatives; they
were the only salaried officials.

Under the Venetian supremacy great precautions were taken to prevent
usurpation of the rights of the Republic, while the count was received
with great splendour. On disembarking, he presented himself to the
people, received from the signory the standard of S. Biagio, and, with
this in his hand, swore on the gospels to preserve and observe the
customs and laws of Ragusa. Then he went to the cathedral, receiving at
the door incense and holy water from the chapter, who gave him the
gospels to kiss, upon which he renewed his oath in front of the altar.
After a canon had delivered an oration in praise of him and of the doge,
he returned to the piazza, still bearing the standard, where he received
the homage of the people, "who swore the holy pact with the
Serenissima," the standard of S. Mark being unfurled.

The people were divided into five castes--clergy, nobles, citizens,
workmen (sailors, merchants, &c.), and countrymen. There was a gulf
between nobles and people. The countrymen were like serfs attached to
the land, and spoken of as "tilings" belonging to their masters. Among
the nobles were two orders. Those of ancient lineage were called
"Salamanchesi," from the University of Salamanca, where they had been
educated; the "Sorbonnesi" (from the Sorbonne) were nobles of more
recent date.

After the earthquake of 1667 several citizen families were ennobled. But
between the two ranks of nobles the antipathy was so great that they
never intermarried. The plague of 1526 destroyed 20,000 persons, that of
1348, 11,000, and the earthquake of 1667 some 6,000. It has been
computed that in the times of her prosperity Ragusa counted 40,000
inhabitants. In connection with the visitations of the plague it may be
noted that in 1466 the musicians of the rector were ordered to go every
Saturday to play before the houses of large donors to the votive church
of S. Biagio; but by the request of their descendants this custom was in
1548 replaced by a similar concert in front of the altar of the crucifix
in that church.

In 1805 the first capital sentence for twenty-five years was pronounced.
The city went into mourning, and an executioner had to be brought for
the purpose from Turkey.

The salt monopolies and the customs were the most important parts of the
revenue, but there were also important manufactures. Ragusa made woollen
and silk stuffs after the looms for silk were brought from Tuscany in
1539, and shoes and glass, coral wares and wax, besides salt and other
things were produced and sent into the interior by caravans. Ships went
to India and America, France, Spain, England, and Holland. A document
addressed by Cromwell to the Senate is extant, granting privileges in
all English harbours to Ragusans, and they were as daring sailors as
the Bocchesi, as many as 300 serving as captains in the navies of
Charles V. and his successors.

The earliest law of Ragusa relating to the coinage is one of 1327
imposing penalties for falsification of money. This shows that it had a
mint before that time. At this date the "grosso" is the only silver coin
of the town known, but the fines are all calculated in "iperperi." The
word "zecha" occurs for the first time in a law of 1338. A few years
afterwards all importers of silver had to present themselves at the mint
within three days of their arrival, the tenth part of their silver being
liable to purchase at "14 iperp: and 2 grossi" the pound. If they did
not do so the tenth part was confiscated, half going to the informer. In
1420 the price was half as much again, and in 1161 it was worth 38
iperperi the pound. In 1748 the mint had ceased issuing money, but was
at work again from 1791 till 1806. The iperpero was worth 12 grossi, and
3 of them went to a scudo. The earliest known is of 1683. In Ralph of
Coggeshall's time it was worth 3 sous of silver--that is to say, about
10s. At Ragusa this coin still passes, according to a writer in the
_Bullettino di Storia Dalmata_.

Six miles beyond Ragusa is Ragusa Vecchia, the ancient Epidaurus, which
became a Roman colony in 10 A.D. under the Consul Cornelius Dolabella,
and was destroyed by the Avars. Near here is the grotto of Æsculapius,
on Mount Snienitza, thought to be the Mons Cadmæus of antiquity, entered
by a hole 8 ft. across in the living rock. The cave is in the form of a
cross, 92 ft. long and 164 ft. broad, with stalactites and stalagmites.
In the middle is a pond called "The Nymph's Bath," with slightly
acidulated and intensely cold water. A legend, which goes back to the
tenth century, says that a dragon lived here, going out at night and
slaughtering men and women. The hermit S. Hilarion attacked and burnt
it, calling on the people to thank God, and declaring that it was the
Devil. According to one tradition Æsculapius was born in Epidaurus of a
beautiful Dalmatian, Jupiter being his father. His statue, in the form
of a serpent, was erected there, but was taken to Rome in 393 B.C.,
during a visitation of plague, which then ceased.




XXIV

THE BOCCHE DI CATTARO


The fine harbour known as the "Bocche di Cattaro" is thirteen miles long
from the entrance to Cattaro itself, which lies at the extreme south.
The "bocche," the mouths, lie between the Punta d'Ostro and the Punta
d'Arza, both fortified, and in the channel is the little rock Rondoni,
on which is another fort, Mamola. These defensive works were completed
in 1897. The bay was known to the ancients as "Sinus Rhizonicus,"
Rhizon, from which it was then named, being the modern Risano at the
extremity of the northern arm. The "Tavola Peutingeriana" gives the name
"Resinum." The first mention of the "Rhizinitie" is about B.C. 229, at
the period of the unfortunate wars waged by Teuta, widow of Agron,
against the Romans. Their origin is variously ascribed to Colchis, Troy,
and to Sicilian colonies sent by Dionysius of Syracuse. The Bocchesi
prefer a Sicilian origin; but the Greeks called all this part of the
continent Illyris Barbara. Livy mentions the Rizuniti among the peoples
of the kingdom between the fall of Teuta and the ruin of Genzius. Risano
was Teuta's capital, and there she died in 220 B.C. Her husband Agron
had conquered the country as far as Friuli.

Teuta allowed her subjects to be pirates, with the result that Issa
(Lissa), the only island which had remained independent, complained to
Rome, and the Romans sent an embassy to protest; but the youngest
ambassador offended her majesty, and was beheaded in consequence. This
decided the Romans to destroy her power, and treachery made the task
easy. From 227 B.C. Corfu, Lesina, and Lissa were under Roman
protection; the Illyrians were only allowed two ships, and were not
permitted to pass the Issus. Subsequent intrigues between Demetrius (who
had gained the lordship over the Ardiei by treachery) and Philip III. of
Macedon, wars and revolts, brought about the subjection of Illyria to
the Romans, and its conversion into a province in 168 B.C. The
far-seeing Rizuniti had already put themselves under Roman protection,
and were therefore given privileges, exempting them from all public
burdens.

At Prevlacca, near Punta d'Ostro, are remains of antique walls, thought
to be those of the ancient Epidaurus, by those who maintain that it was
at the gates of the "Sinus Rhizonicus." Most authorities, however, agree
in placing it at Ragusa Vecchia. Objects of the bronze age have been
excavated at Risano, and sepulchral stones and altars of strange and
un-Roman form have been found at Lastua Inferiore and Perzagno.

Cattaro appears as a Roman city under the name of Ascrivium or Acrivium,
and it and Risano are the only two towns known at the fall of the
Illyrian kingdom. The Romans made a road from Aquileia to Durazzo. It
passed by Epidaurus and along the Sutorina Valley to Castelnuovo, where
it turned along the coast to Risano, Perasto, Orohovac, Dobrota, and
Ascrivium. Thence it went to Castel Trinità. This road put the Rizuniti
into communication with the Dalmatians, and with the tribes to the
south. Rizinum was a Roman colony, and inscriptions show that it
belonged to the Sergian tribe and was governed by decurions. It was the
seat of the god Medaurus, of whom all that is known is contained in an
inscription found at Lambessa in Mauritania, set up by a Dalmatian
legate sent to Numidia as consul by Marcus Aurelius (161-180 A.D.). It
records the dedication of a lance to him.

Ascrivium was also a Roman colony. The municipal senate was presided
over by duumvirs, who held office for a year, and had power over the
entire administration of the city and of justice. The greater part of
the ancient Rhizon is now under water, and Cattaro has been many times
destroyed by invaders, so that there are very few antique remains.

At Risano are the remains of a building vaulted in two compartments,
like an ancient tomb, and a few stones. Some thirty sarcophagi found
there in 1870 raised hopes of the discovery of a necropolis, but these
hopes were disappointed. A colossal foot of an ox in bronze and one of
white marble were found in 1868, and a few inscriptions, one of which,
at the entrance to the Greek church, shows that the 7th Legion was
stationed there. It is to a distinguished soldier, who had twice gained
a golden garland of honour, neckchain, and bracelets, which he wore in
the triumph after the Dacian war. At Prevlacca, Cattaro, Scagliari,
Scoglio S. Giorgio, and Perasto are also inscriptions.

After the death of Theodosius the "Sinus Rhizonicus" became subject to
the Western Empire (395 A.D.), and till the days of Diocletian it was
the southern limit of Dalmatia. Justinian took it from the Ostrogoths,
and, considering it as part of Dardania, fortified the castle of
Κατταρος in 532 to defend it from barbarian inroads. Risano, like Salona
and Epidaurus, was destroyed by an inroad of the Huns in 639, after
which Heraclius handed Dalmatia over to the Croats and Serbs, who
divided it between them. He, however, reserved to himself the important
coast-towns. In 867 the Saracens destroyed Budua, and went with
thirty-six ships to attack Porto Rose and Ascrivium, which they burnt.
The inhabitants took refuge in the fort, and after the Saracens had
gone, with the help of some nobles from the Bosniak city of Kotor (as is
said), rebuilt it. The Slav name is still Kotor.

The bishopric of Cattaro is said to date from the fifth or sixth century
as suffragan to Spalato (that is, to Salona, as Spalato only became
metropolitan in 650); but the first certain date occurs in 877, in which
year an act of the Concilium Delmitanum, when the ancient rights of
Salona were divided with Spalato, enacts that Cattaro and Budua shall be
suffragan to Dioclea. Bishops of Risano are mentioned in 141 and 591. In
1033 the metropolitan of Salona called a council, and the bishop of
Cattaro went with those of Dulcigno, Antivari, and Suacia. They were
caught in a storm and wrecked at Bacile near Torcole, twelve miles from
Lesina, and were all drowned. The sailors have never forgotten the
catastrophe. The Cattarines in consequence sent to the Pope, pointing
out the difficulties of communication, and obtained transference to the
arch-diocese of Antivari.

[Illustration: THE RUINED BASTION, CASTELNUOVO, BOCCHE DI CATTARO

_To face page 373_]

The "bocche" consist of several expanses of water, separated by narrow
canals and surrounded by lofty mountains, which often rise so nearly
directly from the water's edge as greatly to increase their
impressiveness. The scenery is exceedingly fine, and indeed the view
from the road to Cettinje is claimed as almost unsurpassed in Europe.
The first of the narrows is between the Kobila range (1470 ft.) and the
west point of the peninsula Lustica. It leads into the Bay of Topla, and
the steamer heads direct for Castelnuovo, leaving on the left the
Sutorina, the lower part of the Canali valley, a portion of the
territory of the Republic of Ragusa ceded to Turkey in 1699 to form a
buffer state between herself and Venice. The Slav name of Castelnuovo is
Erzegnovi, and it was founded in 1373 by the Bosniak king Tvarko I.,
Kotromanovic. In 1483 it was enlarged and raised to the position of
principal place in the dukedom of Herzegovina, founded by Duke Stephan
Sandalj (1435-1466). It lies on the slopes of Monti Dobrastica and
Radostak, piling up most picturesquely above the little harbour, with
great bastions split with wide cracks and deformed by the loss of pieces
which have fallen into the sea, but clothed with ivy which hides much of
the ruin. It has often changed its masters. After the death of Stephen
Sandalj it became Turkish; in 1538 the Turks were driven out by the
Spaniards and Venetians. At that time the Spaniards built the fort which
crowns the hill to the north of the town. It was the only part of
Dalmatia ever held by the Spaniards. Next year the Sardinian renegade,
Hassan Barbarossa, put the whole garrison to the sword, and also
conquered Risano. The Turks retained possession of Castelnuovo till
1687, when, by the assistance of the Knights of Malta, it again became
Venetian. Three Turkish inscriptions still remain; one over the door of
the Spanish fort, which was restored by the Turks, a second of 1660 over
the Porta Terra Ferma, and a third on the well in the piazza.

Towards the east is Kloster Savina, a monastery said to have been
founded in 1030, and now the summer residence of the Servian Orthodox
bishops of Cattaro. There is, however, nothing to be seen authorising so
early a date; the smaller of the two churches may perhaps date from the
thirteenth century, since it has a pointed wagon vault and transverse
ribs without mouldings. In this church the Knights of Malta who died
some two hundred years ago lie buried. The interest of the place lies in
the seventeenth-century silver-work, in which the treasure is rich. It
includes some twenty carved crosses mounted in silver and enamel from
Mount Athos; hanging lamps of pierced silver, in which the design is
much older than the workmanship, with medallions of saints;
silver-mounted book-covers, one of which is decorated with enamels; a
most curious "five-bread platter," with a cup in the centre, and two
little cruets and two little platters on projecting arms, all in pierced
work of archaic design enriched with blue enamel; and some embroidered
vestments of the fifteenth century, all of which are said to have been
brought from Studenitza. Farther on is Meljina, with a lazaretto of the
seventeenth century.

The view from the road between these two places is enchanting. Above the
blue waters of the Bay of Teodo the ground rises to the mountains, which
divide it from the Gulf of Cattaro, while farther still and bluer, the
greater heights of Montenegro cut the sky with their serrated edges. To
reach the Bay of Teodo another of the narrows is passed, the Canal of
Kombor, by the foot of Mount Dvesite. Here is a naval station. The land
is the most fertile in the whole district, and here is grown the famous
Margamino wine. At Bianca, near Teodo, Danilo, Prince of Montenegro,
used to pass the summer. Farther on is the Strait of Le Catene, so
called because in 1381 Lewis of Hungary actually put chains across it to
protect the inner portions. Opposite to the channel is Perasto, to the
left the Valle di Risano, to the right the Gulf of Cattaro. In front of
Perasto are two little islands, with picturesque buildings upon
them--the Scoglio S. Giorgio, and the Madonna del Scarpello, a little
church with a green cupola, containing a picture of the Madonna ascribed
as usual to S. Luke, a Byzantine work decked with gold and silver,
brought hither from Negropont in 1452. For many years the Bocchesi
brought shiploads of stone to increase the size of the island, and
still, on July 22 of each year, a stone-laden boat goes from Perasto to
the rock. There are two festivals celebrated here, of which the more
important is that of the Assumption, August 15. The other, the Birth of
the Virgin, on September 8, is less so. There is a proverb "Entre le due
Madonne cade la pioggia," the greatest rainfall occurring between the
two festivals. On festival days the picture is decked with rings,
chains, &c., kept locked up at Perasto during the rest of the year. The
property of the church is over £30,000. For five hundred years it has
been a centre of interest in the Bocche. According to the legend, a
luminous figure of the Madonna was seen by a sailor on the rock on July
22, 1452, and on that spot a chapel was erected. The present church was
built in 1628. Inside are a good many late seventeenth-century pictures,
and in two rooms close by are votive pictures of the usual kind. There
is a café on the island for the benefit of pilgrims. The island of S.
Giorgio is gradually wasting away. The monastery is said to have been
the most ancient in the district, and a list of the abbots "in
commendam" from 1166 exists, with notices of the church and monastery,
going back to the tenth century. There was a long contest for its
possession between Cattaro and Perasto, ending in the assassination of
the abbot by the Perastines, who took the property by force. Venice gave
the commune of Cattaro an annual subvention as _solatium_. The abbey,
destroyed in 1571, was rebuilt in 1624, and in 1654 was plundered by the
Turks, and then almost ruined by earthquake in 1667. The French erected
a battery upon it, which was abandoned some thirty years ago. The
church-was restored for service on October 27, 1878.

Near Risano, at Sopoti (the rushing), is an intermittent waterfall 45
ft. high, which I was told was 100 ft. wide. As soon as it runs dry the
cave from which it issued can be entered for several hundred yards. The
flow commences after heavy rains, and at the same times a well, or
spring, at Cattaro spirts up with such force as to throw out stones of
several pounds' weight. Above Risano are two strong fortresses, erected
after the insurrection of the Crivoscians in 1881. The revolt of 500 men
against conscription necessitated the mobilisation of a whole _corps
d'armée_ to subjugate them. They lived on the slopes of inaccessible
mountains, and the troops had to make the mountain paths into roads
practicable for artillery. The rebels were taken between troops from
Risano and Orohovac, and others who came from the Herzegovinian
mountains. Part laid down their arms, and part fled into Montenegro. To
prevent a recurrence of the trouble, and perhaps also with an eye to
Montenegro, the forts and a number of blockhouses were built, which one
may see high up the mountains, sometimes against the sky-line.

A white line about 3,000 ft. high marks the military road between
Perasto and Cattaro; the way of access to the blockhouses, in each of
which a detachment of twenty-five men, with two non-commissioned
officers and one lieutenant, is on duty for a year at a time, bearing
great heat in summer (for it is said that an egg laid on the rock in the
sun is hard in eight minutes), while in winter they are often blocked by
the snow for two or three weeks together.

Perasto is now a little place of some 500 inhabitants, but shows in its
ruined palaces and unfinished church that it was once populous and
prosperous. It has had a stormy history, during which the Perastines
have shown themselves sturdy fighters and loyal supporters of their
overlords, and is the one city of the Bocche which remained faithful and
grateful to Venice, even after Campo Formio. When the Austrian troops
came to take possession, the gonfalon, which had been confided to the
Perastines by the Republic, as a reward for their faithful services
almost four centuries before, was buried beneath the altar of S. Nicolò
with a solemn requiem, as if for the burial of a father. It was a red
flag with a yellow border, and the winged lion in the centre, prepared
to defend the cross planted upon a base rising out of the sea. It was
only consigned to the army in maritime and land enterprises in the
Levant. The city was distinguished by Venice with the title of
"fedelissima gonfaloniera." The guards were selected from the twelve
"casate" into which the city was divided, the names being those of the
original feudal families. It is asserted that the Perastines had the
same honour conferred upon them by the Servian kings, the guard
consisting of a company of twelve. Some say that it was their valour in
taking the citadel of Cattaro in 1378 which was the origin of the trust.
After the contests with Cattaro in 1160 it followed the fortunes of that
city till 1365, but in that year Perasto put itself under Venice. The
activity shown in assisting Victor Pisani in 1378 had other results, for
it was attacked shortly afterwards and sacked by the allies of Lewis of
Hungary. Till about 1400 it was subject either to Lewis or Tvartko of
Bosnia. It is now quite a little place, with some 500 inhabitants. The
palaces, with fine stone balconies now falling into ruins, which were
inhabited by the noble families, show how it prospered under Venetian
rule, as do the high campanile and the fragment of a large church on the
model of La Salute at Venice, commenced some hundred and thirty years
ago, but never completed. It is entered from the sacristy of the small
church, the arch and vault of the apse towering above it, and showing
the whole of the vault and the caps of the pilasters over its roof. In
the museum are a banner taken from the Turks in 1654, a sword presented
to the commune by Peter Zrinyi, and the gonfalon already mentioned,
which was buried beneath the altar. A fine processional cross, a
sixteenth-century filigreed chalice, a monstrance, and several
reliquaries are also preserved in the place; and here is also the
mausoleum of Bishop Zmajević of Antivari, who took the Albanians to
Borgo Erizzo near Zara, and was a Perastine by birth. It lies at the
foot of Monte Cassone (about 2,900 ft. high), upon which is Fort S.
Croce. From its base the Bay of Ljuta stretches away south-eastwards
towards Dobrota, with Orohovac at its foot. The two Stolivos beneath the
lofty Vrmac, and Perzagno may be seen on the opposite shore. This
last-named place stands finely on a promontory, with a large domed
church (an unfinished shell with gaping window-openings) crowning the
eminence, whilst many houses, of the same date as those at Perasto, and
with fine angle balconies, are scattered about the road along the shore,
from which there are delightful views. A late Renaissance church has a
rather pretty rose-window with radiating shafts recalling the
Romanesque.

Nearer to Cattaro is Mula, and on the other side Dobrota; along both
roads are red and white oleanders, orange and lemon trees, ancient figs
and chestnuts, locust beans (carob), olives, pomegranates, and main'
flowers, among which may be specially named beautiful pale mauve irises.
The torrent Skurda, or Fiumara, separates the mountains Pestingrad and
Mrajanik from the lofty Lovćen, which towers above Cattaro to the height
of 5,770 ft. It is the holy mountain of Montenegro; on it the great
Wladika Pietro, the singer of the Servian redemption, chose to be
buried, as if from that height his spirit might watch and protect the
land to which he devoted his life. Every year a pilgrimage climbs to the
white-walled little chapel which sparkles on the dark mountain side. The
Servian dream is for the waters of Cattaro to be covered with ships
under the eagle of the Nemagna, for the country folk know well the
story of Uros, the great Stephan Nemagna, and the epic of the wars
against the Turks.

[Illustration: DOBROTA, BOCCHE DI CATTARO

_To face page 378_]

In the city of Cattaro, the ancient Ascrivium or Acrivium, some small
remains of the Roman period are to be seen encrusted in the walls of the
clock-tower, an altar and a memorial to a girl and her teacher. At the
beginning of the ninth century it boasted several fine buildings, to
which a rich man named Andreaccio Saracenis, mentioned as "Certo
zitadino nobile zintilhomo si de generazion come di richeza,"
contributed. Towards the end of the eighth century S. Maria Infunara was
built by him in the rope-makers' district, and here he also founded a
convent to enable his second daughter Theodora to lead the life of
contemplation. He also paid for the first cathedral of S. Trifone, which
Porphyrogenitus says was circular. The body of this martyr of the third
century was being brought to Venice from Asia Minor by certain
merchants, when a storm obliged them to shelter in the Bocche. The
magnates of the city and Andreaccio treated with the pilot for its
purchase, and paid 200 Roman solidi for the shrine, and 100 for a gemmed
crown above it. On January 13, 809, clergy and people went by ship to
Porto Rose to fetch the body. On their return the bishop invited them to
stop on the spot where the church was to be built, and hymns were sung.
February 3, the reputed day of his martyrdom, was accepted as the
festival, and a figure of S. Trifone was put on the standard of the
city. Certain coins which bore his effigy were named after him. The
sarcophagus of Andreaccio, in which his wife was also buried, was found
beneath the street in 1840, between the cathedral and the bishop's
palace. A portion of the ciborium of his church is encrusted in the wall
of the sacristy inscribed: "Andree sci ad honorem sociorvmq
majorem," and other fragments of the same period have been found during
the restoration, which is still going on. That these fragments were part
of an ambo on three columns, to which reference has been found, is
proved by the inscription from the Ash Wednesday service which runs
along it, "Memento te homine," &c. The front had two crosses beneath
semicircular heads, with conventional trees or candlesticks beside them,
and a great piece of circular interfacings, small and large, like the
slabs at S. Maria in Trastevere, Rome. The sides had bands of ornament
dividing the surface into unornamented sunken panels. A capital or two
of the same period were also found, a relief of peacocks drinking from a
vase, and some antique fragments, a piece of a frieze, a column of
cipollino and several of granite, and a few antique caps.

The rock above the town, called Stirovnik, has a chapel upon it, the
Madonna della Salute, now used as an ossuary, which has a piece of
Lombard carving inserted in the tympanum above the door. The present
cathedral was built about the middle of the twelfth century. A great
effort was made, contributions were invited, and a tax of three per
cent, on legacies was imposed. Success crowned the effort, and on June
19, 1166, Bishop Malone consecrated the altars, amid the rejoicings of
the Bocchesi. The head of S. Trifone, stolen in 968, was brought from
Constantinople in 1227 by Matteo Bonascio. At first deposited in S.
Pietro, it was brought to the cathedral on December 20, with great pomp.
In return, he was given the field of S. Theodore, and his family was
exempted from communal taxes in perpetuity.

[Illustration: PLAN OF THE CATHEDRAL, CATTARO]

The plan of the cathedral is that of a Roman basilica with nave and
aisles. The three apses are semicircular, with pilasters externally. The
nave has three quadripartite bays, and a half-bay to the west. The
aisles have seven quadripartite bays, two to each one of the nave,
with columns between the three pairs of piers upon which the vaults
rest. The bay before the apse has been a step higher than the rest. What
the arrangement will eventually be it is difficult to say, judging from
the state of the interior on the two occasions when I was in Cattaro.
The columns of the nave are some of them Byzantine-Roman, and some of
them Corinthian. The aisle windows and the fine east window are Gothic.
The vaults are most of them of the sixteenth century, the towers of the
façade seventeenth or eighteenth, and the great rose-window and the
doorway below, late Gothic with Renaissance details, rebuilt after the
earthquake of 1667. The nave is about 88 ft. long, the aisles within the
towers 81 ft., breadth of nave, 19 ft. 6 in., of the aisles 9 ft. 9 in.
The ciborium is exceedingly interesting. It rests upon four octagonal
columns of the red marble of Lustizza, a place not far away. The altar
was rebuilt and beautified in 1362, and it is probable that the
baldacchino is of that date. On the base on which the pillars rest are
sinkings showing that the altar had a central octagonal pillar, with
four smaller circular ones surrounding it. The caps of the ciborium are
rather richly carved, and the lintel bears on three sides subjects in
relief from the legend of S. Trifone, the back being carved with
ornament. The illustration shows the three stages of trefoiled arches,
the two lower with coupled colonnettes. The lowest has caryatid figures
of a warrior and a civilian in front of the angles to the west. The next
stage has twisted colonnettes at the angles, the third squat single
shafts, and on a little crowning member pierced with four arches stands
a gilded angel, the rest of the canopy being octagonal. The proportions
of the figures are squat, and the carving rather rough. The first time I
saw it I was able to examine it closely, as it was surrounded by
scaffolding, and there were some remains of colour on the figures; but I
should not like to assert that it was original, since I understand that
the reliefs were painted to imitate marble, and the figures gilded about
the middle of the last century. The silver pala is said to be fixed on
the wall of the apse during the completion of the restoration; it
certainly was not there when I visited the cathedral, and I have not
seen it.

[Illustration: CIBORIUM OF S. TRIFONE, CATTARO

_To face page 383_]

The treasury contains a good many rather uninteresting objects, such as
arm and leg reliquaries of the fourteenth century, or later rather,
decorated with nielli and bosses in relief, and a few others shaped like
vases borne on stems; on some of them the date 1483 can be traced. The
reliquary of the body of S. Trifone is of silver, and rather rough
sixteenth-century work, but encloses a wooden coffer, upon which remains
of ninth-century paintings have been discovered. The head reliquary is
of gold and enamel, the stem and an arcade round the upper part of
fourteenth-century work (the upper portion re-made in the seventeenth),
and the foot apparently of an intermediate period, with early
Renaissance details upon a Gothic plan, medallions in relief, and rough
scroll-work. The knop has eight roundels with niello crosses crossleted;
on the stem are saints in niello in vesicas. The arches of the canopied
arcade are filled with figures in relief in couples and enamels in
_basse-taille_, red and blue alternately. The nielli have had a ground
of blue enamel. These two reliquaries and a crystal cross in a very
graceful setting, early Renaissance in style, are kept in a receptacle
lined with cut velvet, upon which are embroideries of half-figures of
saints beneath niches raised in gold; above the niches are domes, and
between them twisted columns, probably originally part of a vestment. A
globe-shaped ciborium, with cresting and knop of the fourteenth century,
is interesting. Upon the globe a pattern with beasts and leaves is
chased; the foot is conical and sexfoil in plan, with little niello
medallions and piercings on the perpendicular parts of two steps. The
knop has pinnacles and pierced gables. A half-length figure of Christ in
silver, upon a seventeenth-century pierced hemispherical base, is well
modelled and designed, and a reliquary cross of wood used by the
Capuchin monk Marcus Avianus, on September 12, 1683, to bless the allied
hosts on the Leopoldsberg before the relief of Vienna from the Turks,
deserves mention. In the treasury is also a great Romanesque crucifix of
painted wood, over life-size, with the feet crossed. According to
tradition it belonged to the church of the Franciscans outside the
walls, built in 1288 by Elena, wife of Orosius I. The church was pulled
down when there was war between Venice and the Turks, and moved within
the Porta Gordicchio, which was therefore called the Porta S. Francesco.
Most of the convents are now used by the military authorities.

[Illustration: RELIQUARY OF THE HEAD OF S. TRIFONE, CATTARO

_To face page 384_]

La Colleggiata is the ancient church of S. Maria Infunara, which
Andreacci Saracenis founded, but was rebuilt in 1221, during the Servian
period. It has a nave two bays in length, the first cross-vaulted, and
the second with a dome enclosed within an octagonal drum, and with a
barrel-vaulted presbytery before the apse. An aisle to the north,
continued to the tower as a sacristy, is later. The apse has shallow
pilasters dividing the exterior surface into three, in the centre of
which is a walled-up east window of two lights, with a cross within a
circle in the tympanum beneath the enclosing arch. The arch of the south
door is perhaps a fragment of the original building, and the west door
also looks early. In the aisle is a Virgin and Child, with painted
faces, and the hands and feet added in relief and painted. The draperies
are silver and silver-gilt, patterned, and each figure has a nimbus
formed of a gilded patterned roll. The background is of silver, with
little angels supporting the Virgin's nimbus, and there is a curious
frame of filigree arabesques of tinsel set in wire and standing free.

[Illustration: S. LUKA, CATTARO

_To face page 385_]

S. Luka, the Greek church, of nearly the same period and plan as the
cathedral, was built in 1195 by Marco di Andrea Casa Franci, and Bona,
daughter of Basilio, prior of Cattaro, The dome is pointed, and rests on
four pointed Romanesque arches with rough pendentives. The apse is
divided by pilaster strips into three portions externally, and in the
central one is a two-light round-headed window with central colonnette.
The roof is continued over the chapel of S. Spiridion to the north
(which has an apse, but no window, except the little rose over the
external door), and this makes the church look square from the
south-east. The west side has one clerestory window beneath a great
unmoulded arch, and a circular-headed door below, the jambs of which are
made of earlier fragments; the late belfry is of three arches, two and
one; beneath is an unusual curved ornamentation, a curious presage of
the "New Art" of a few years ago. The church appears to have been
restored in the fourteenth century, since a consecration by Bishop Doimo
II. is recorded in 1368; but it has been a Greek church since 1689, was
enlarged in 1747, and the structure shows signs of considerable
rebuilding. The iconostasis is of the seventeenth century; the paintings
are covered with silver plates. There is a huge cross with wings at the
base and paintings. Through the central arch the _arca_ and a little
cross are seen. The chapel of S. Spiridion also has its iconostasis. At
Easter time two processional crosses of silver and a Resurrection banner
decorate the church outside the iconostasis. The Cattarine silversmiths
have also executed work away from their own shores. It will be
remembered that Stephen IV. of Servia gave a silver altar to the church
of S. Nicola, Bari, in 1322, the work of Abrado of Cattaro.

There are a few interesting doors and windows in the town, of various
periods. The Palazzo Drago, near the cathedral, has a pretty window of
something the same style as the east window of the cathedral; the great
doorway of the provincial tribunal has some fine heraldry in the
tympanum (a helmeted lion, with another lion for the crest) and angels
in the spandrils, while upon the caps beneath the lintel are other
lions, with shields flying from their necks. These are of the late
Venetian period. The façade of the Nautical School, illustrated,
displays a bold and unusual treatment, and there is a well near the
hotel with elaborate and massive iron-work about the pump connected with
it. The streets and alleys are all of the same width, and badly lighted,
and it is a difficult place to find one's way about after dark. The only
amusement available is usually the large café on the Riva, which appears
to be open at all hours of the day and night--at least, we had coffee
there before leaving by boat at 4.15 a.m. The gates are shut at 9 p.m.,
except the Porta Marina. Over this gate the Venetian lion still appears,
a rather late example, but in refreshing contrast with the griffins
supporting the Austrian arms above, a work of 1814. Outside are gigantic
oleander-trees, and, to the right, the market, where many Montenegrins
may be seen in their striking costumes. Beyond the Porta Gordicchio is
the wood market, and one for horses and forage is outside the Porta
Fiumara, where the barrack for belated Montenegrins stands, for they are
not admitted within the walls.

[Illustration: THE SCUOLA NAUTICA, CATTARO

_To face page 386_]

Just outside the Porta Marina we found a shooting-saloon established on
our second visit, with a number of moving figures, which performed on
the marksman hitting a certain point, the most diverting of which
were an old woman with a kicking donkey, and two fighting goats. Several
soldiers tried their hands, but with very indifferent success. Great
excitement was evoked by an accident while the mails were being unloaded
one afternoon; a post-van fell into the water, many large postal parcels
being damaged, and part of the top of the van ripped off by the measures
adopted for its recovery. This "Riva" was the scene of the murder of
Danilo II. in 1860.

The walls, which are 28 ft. high, were built in 1667, after the older
ones had been thrown down by an earthquake. These must have been strong,
since the city was blockaded in vain by a Venetian fleet in 1378, and
attacked by the Turks equally vainly in 1539, 1569, 1572, and 1657. The
present walls zigzag up the mountain to the Fort S. Giovanni, which
dominates the roads leading into Montenegro. From the fort one looks
down upon the first house beyond the frontier. A little below the fort
is a threatening mass of rock, which has been bound with iron to prevent
it from falling upon the city below. The Montenegrin road climbs the
mountain with no less than sixty-six zigzags.

At a little chapel with an early Renaissance façade some way outside the
town, the Angelus bell hung outside just below the gable termination,
without any visible means of being rung, and we wondered how this was
done, until we happened one day to be within sight at the Angelus hour,
when we saw a man bring out a ladder and ascend to within reach of a
short cord hanging from the clapper, which he seized and agitated!

[Illustration: A CORNER OF THE WALLS, CATTARO]

The military are on the look-out for spies, and our camera occasioned
two or three very searching inquiries. I congratulated myself upon
having obtained authority to photograph from headquarters, without which
we should certainly have been stopped. After taking the group of the
Albanian horsedealers (who crossed with us to Bari with their
merchandise) we wished to have a separate figure of the villain to the
left; but the next man, who was master of the gang, thought time enough
had been lost, and, taking the halter from a horse, twisted it round his
neck by way of explaining that he was his servant, and that he objected
to any further interruption to business. As we were walking between
Perzagino and Mula an old man addressed us, asking if we were English,
and, on our replying that we were, said he had been twenty times in
London, and called our attention to his house, which he said had been
inhabited by Prince Nikita during the troubles at Cattaro.

[Illustration: ALBANIAN HORSE-DEALERS, CATTARO

_To face page 388_]

We saw very few English on our second trip. From the time we passed
Cologne to the time we arrived at Cattaro we did not hear a word of our
own language, though the boat in which we travelled from Spalato to
Cattaro was entirely of English make, with Liberty chintzes in the
cabins, and panels of coloured plaster in the saloon. It had cost
£70,000, the captain said, and was certainly extremely rapid and
comfortable. In the early morning we saw the sardine boats coming in.
They carry on the bow an apparatus with a number of jets connected with
an acetylene plant, producing at night a most vivid light. The Bocchese
is a born seaman, beginning at the age of twelve, and often going on
till he is seventy. In the Bocche scarcely a third of the land is
fruitful, yet 40,000 people lived in the district, mainly, of course, by
the sea. From their childhood the boys have always longed for the day
when they might accompany their fathers into the world beyond the sea.
They were always ready to fight, and expected to have to do so, for,
until the second half of the eighteenth century, it was unusual good
fortune to make a sea or land trip to Albania without being attacked.
The ancient houses, with loopholes and little windows, still look more
like citadels than convenient dwellings. The women had to protect their
children and their own honour when the men were away, and this had its
effect upon their character. In many villages it was the custom for a
bride to go out some morning before she was married into a lonely place
and sing the death-wail, so that she might know it if she became a
widow!

The introduction of the steamboat has reduced the employment of sailing
craft, and the Bocchesi have become poor, but they provided the best
sailors for the Venetian fleet, and their seamanship has not decayed.

There were certain variations among the Bocchesi from the religious
customs of the Morlacchi, which are perhaps worth noting. The great fast
before Easter lasted for fifty days, and during that time even fish was
allowed but twice to the sick, on the Annunciation and on Palm Sunday.
During fasts the people do not sing, a custom observed strictly on the
islands. Three days before Ascension Day the crosses are taken out of
the churches and fastened to poles ten or twelve feet high, with
fluttering banners; these days are therefore called "Cross" days. The
village girls make garlands to hang from the ends of the crosses. They
are then carried in procession round the village and over the fields;
when a spring is reached it is surrounded, the priest reads the gospel,
and blesses the water and the people with the cross. On Ascension Day,
or the day before, a procession with the cross goes through the village,
and every house is blessed. In the coast-strip, on the eve of "Cross
Day," there is a frugal supper; on the day itself, a dinner. Before
both, the master of the house cuts a piece of bread from the "Kreuzlaib"
(a large round loaf with a cross marked in the centre), and sticks in it
a taper which he has lighted with a brand from the hearth. All pray
before it for their dead, cross themselves, and sit down to table. Later
in the meal the master rises with a glass of wine, soaks a bit of bread
in it, and, with the traditional formula, "I to thee, bread and wine;
thou to me, health and joy," extinguishes the taper with the morsel.
Then he drinks to all, and they to him. The great piece of bread, into
which the taper was stuck, is given to the first beggar who comes by.
They provide much more than enough for the guests, as the custom is on
those days to feed the poor in villages and towns. Unless the family is
in mourning, drinking songs are sung suitable to the guests, of whatever
position.

Fires are lighted on the eve of S. Stephen's Day, and also on New Year's
Day and Epiphany, as well as on the morning of S. John the Baptist's
Day, when the people jump over the midsummer fires and cry: "From one S.
Giovanni to another, may aching feet be far from me!" On New Year's Day
the children get an apple or an orange from the mother, and go to the
father, asking him to silver it; he sticks a ten-kreuzer piece or two
into it, and they go on to friends and relations with the same request.

Every village has its church (some have three or even more), every
hilltop has its sanctuary, and each island its holy place. In Cattaro,
till the beginning of the nineteenth century, churches and convents
occupied a third of the area within the walls, and each nobleman had his
private chapel in his villa. The Bocchesi were noted for their
honourable fidelity to their word once given, and this probity is still
recognised in their commercial dealings. The married sons usually live
in the house till the father's death; then the property is divided, and
each takes his own house. If the mother is alive she lives with the
eldest son. The house master divides the food, giving sufficient to each
one, so that he would sometimes go short himself if the girls and
daughters-in-law were not always ready to offer him the best part of
their portions. The country women of Montenegro always kiss the hand of
a male acquaintance in greeting. On the road the man is met on mule-back
smoking, the woman on foot with a load, and they neither of them would
consent to change their position, and put the load on the mule and make
the man walk. The men wear full breeches, a waistcoat and sash round the
waist, and a thick whitish wool coat over it, which is sometimes girded
with the sash, leggings, and the usual raw-hide shoes. On the head is a
black silk cap with a magenta centre embroidered with gold thread. The
women wear a coat of the same shape, but of lighter material, and
sleeveless, over a kind of jacket, and on the head the same shaped cap
with a handkerchief draped over it and hanging down at the back.

[Illustration: MONTENEGRINS IN THE MARKET, CATTARO]

Cattaro has about 2,000 inhabitants, of whom scarcely ten families are
old-established; all the old families are dead, or have emigrated. Part
of the present population are Italian immigrants; part are Albanian and
Montenegrin families (to which nationality many of the country people
also belong), who, either for purposes of trade or craft, have settled
in the town. From many towns in Austria come the sub-alterns, who have
married and now live here. The usual language is Croat, but Italian is
generally understood, and songs with the Venetian accent may be heard.
But all are much interested in the "Marinerezza," the finest festival of
the Bocche, held on February 3. On January 27 the preliminaries
commence. The marine officers arrange themselves on the seat before the
cathedral at midday. As soon as the clock has struck the second stroke
of 12 the "little sea director," a boy of nine or ten, comes out on the
gallery above the door, armed and in national costume, and, in Croat,
delivers a short speech announcing the beginning of the festival, and
calling the citizens to take part in it. At the end he takes off his
cap, waves it, and greets the standard of S. Trifone with three "Slava!"
At this moment the flag is unfurled, the music strikes up, the bells
ring, and the people shout "Slava!" (which means "Glory!"). On the eve
of the day the outside members are met and greeted with music by those
of the town, parading before the cathedral. At 4 p.m. the sea director
meets the bishop, who blesses the "Kolo" before Vespers. The whole
piazza is thronged with people, and in the middle is the body of the
"Marinerezza," with the "Kolo" leader and his company ready. The ancient
costumes, golden knives, silver gypsires, gold pierced purses, &c., show
the ancient riches of the Bocche. The music strikes up, and the
"Marinerezza" begins the ancient "Kolo" dance, after which the bishop
enters the church, where a solemn service begins, lasting late into the
night. The next day the same dance is repeated before Mass, after which
the relics of S. Trifone are carried in procession through the narrow
streets. Then the Society feasts the poor of the town and neighbourhood
in the court of the bishop's palace. In the evening there are fireworks,
and other celebrations take place on the Sunday following.

The standard of S. Trifone bears his figure on a white ground, with the
words "Fides et Honor" on a gold embroidered band.

Cattaro appears to have been a republic till the thirteenth century,
when it came under the protection of Servia, and so continued till the
extinction of the dynasty of the Nemagna. A document of 1351 of Stephen
"per la Dio gratia Imperator de Servia et de Grezia" confirms all its
privileges. It was one of the most important ports of the eastern coast
of the Adriatic in the Middle Ages, and competed with Ragusa for the
inland trade. In 1301 it was attacked by that city, and again in 1361.
After the death of Uros the Strong, in 1368, it sought the protection of
Lewis of Hungary, at that time the most powerful prince in Europe, and
thereby lost the friendship of Venice. In 1378 Victor Pisani ravaged the
Bocche, sacked the city, and took away a foot of S. Trifone in a silver
reliquary, which he placed in S. Fantino, Venice. Twenty years later
Cattaro offered itself to Venice, but was not accepted till twenty more
years had passed. On July 25, 1420, Pietro Loredano, Captain of the
Gulf, came to take formal possession. The ensigns of the commune and the
keys of the city were brought in procession to the representative of the
Republic, and the standard of S. Mark was hoisted on the cathedral. The
oath of loyalty and devotion to the "Serenissima" was taken by Paolo
Bucchia, count, Marius Bisanti and Luca Drago, judges, and the forty
members of the greater council. The territory was then called Albania
Veneta. The Bocchesi enrolled themselves voluntarily as sailors, and
formed the finest portion of the _personnel_ of the Venetian navy.

Under the Byzantines the prior was first in the state, though there is
mention of a Catapan in 1163. The title of the supreme officer was
changed to "Rector," and (in 1159) to "Count." Till 1398 he was elected
annually; after that time he bore office for a month. He was required to
be a native of a friendly Dalmatian city, and was elected by the
"arengo" of the nobles. His payment was partly in coin and partly in
kind. No one could ask him to be godfather, nor could others of his
family contract spiritual affinity with any citizen. Neither he nor his
relations could receive gifts, nor go to banquets in or out of the city,
except for marriages, and with permission of the greater council; nor
could he sleep outside the city. He was always followed by a knight and
six squires, clothed at his own expense; and, notwithstanding his
grandeur and power, one would think must have been glad when his term of
office was completed. The council of the "Pregati" consisted of fifteen
members of the Senate, elected annually on S. George's Day. There were
three judges selected by them from the lesser council, which was
composed of six nobles, also elected annually. Till the tenth century
the bishop was elected by the chapter, from that time till the
thirteenth by the clergy and people, after which period the appointment
was made by the Pope. Thefts were punished by fine up to three times the
value of the object stolen, and by prison, beating, branding, and
maiming, following inability to pay. Similar punishments were enacted
for offences against the person; but homicide of a citizen brought the
criminal to the halter.

From Cattaro it is but a short distance to the southern boundary of the
Austrian Empire on the Adriatic. A stone column between Spizza and
Antivari marks the line. Two telegraphic wires are attached to this
stone, one belonging to Austria, and one to Montenegro. The Bay of
Antivari is said to be the most picturesque place on the Albanian coast,
surrounded as it is by lofty mountains, with trees almost hiding the
minarets of the town, while, to the north, Spizza is perched on red
rocks rising steeply from the water. There is a great waterfall, which
appears to fall sheer into the sea, with a mill just at its foot. Budua,
which is fifteen miles from Cattaro, is something like Arbe in
situation, crowning a projecting peninsula, and with grey mountains
towering above it. It was a Roman fortress, known as Buta, and one of
the keys to the interior. It was sacked by Saracen pirates in the ninth
century, and in 1571 the Turks fell on it and burnt it. In 1687 it was
defended against them by a Cornaro, but contains nothing of sufficient
importance to repay the trouble of a visit.




XXV

THE RECIPROCAL INFLUENCES OF THE TWO SHORES


Between the Eastern and Western shores of the Adriatic there has been
constant communication, either peaceful or bellicose, from the earliest
times, for the sea was a highway traversed with equal ease by the
enterprising merchant or the daring pirate. While the resulting
influence of one coast on the other was considerable, more distant lands
from which the way was open by the same course can be shown to have also
affected the progress of art and craft on either side of the
sea--Byzantium, North Africa, and the countries between being the
strongest factors. The occurrence of Syrian _motifs_ at Ravenna and
Spalato is frequent, both in ornament and construction; peculiar
expedients which were used in Tunis and other parts of North Africa
appear in Lombard or Comacine work, while the influence of Alexandrian
and Antiochene art on the styles which preceded and prepared the genesis
of Romanesque ornament appears incontestable. The close relations
between the two coasts at the period when they were governed from one
centre, either Eastern or Western, make these influences probable.
Ecclesiastical controversies at times affected portions of both, while
their common Christianity necessarily produced community of interests
and sympathy for the woes which one side or the other suffered from the
incursions of heathen and barbarous hordes. Nor must the commercial
relations be forgotten, by which, in the earlier mediæval period,
objects of luxury, which served as models for the local artists, were
spread to all points of the Mediterranean basin, and at the period of
the Renaissance the manufacture of such objects as the plaquettes of
bronze or lead which appear to have been produced in Italy especially,
with the intention of serving as suggestions for craftsmen who were
deficient in imagination or capacity. History records the assistance
rendered by one shore to the other on many occasions, and the
interference of the stronger and more civilised power in the affairs of
the weaker. To those already cited in the body of the work a few may be
added here. The Liburnians helped Octavius Augustus in the naval battle
of Actium; and, when he became emperor, he did much for Dalmatia, in
return for the assistance rendered. Yet the rebellions continued, mainly
owing to the rapacity of the governors sent from Rome, as is proved by
the answer of Batone to Tiberius, reported by Dion Cassius. He asked the
reason for the frequent rebellions in town and country, and the
implacable hatred which appeared to be nourished against the very name
of Roman. Batone replied: "Because you sent neither shepherds nor dogs
to guard your flock, but wolves." A better régime for the Dalmatians
followed the peace which was made, and from that time onward Dalmatia
furnished many distinguished men, who rose to high office in the empire,
several, indeed, wearing the imperial purple. It is suggested that one
of these, Decius the Illyrian, introduced the use of the dalmatic into
Rome (the common dress in Dalmatia), which was frequently used by the
nobles of the court of Valerian. Lampridius notes that Commodus
sometimes wore it at special solemnities. Clergy and laity wore the same
dress at that time, except for a fringe which distinguished the
sacerdotal vestment. S. Cyprian, who succeeded Donatus, bishop of
Carthage, speaks of its use as an ancient thing, from which it may be
concluded that in the second and third centuries it was accepted as the
Eucharistic vestment in North Africa, or worn by bishops outside the
church. S. Eutychian, Pope in 275, ordered the alternative use of the
dalmatic for clothing the bodies of martyrs with the "colobium" (a long
tunic of crimson silk), which had been in use before; an order reversed
by S. Gregory. It was used at first by the celebrant, but, when the
chasuble came into use in the Roman Church, it became the vestment of
the deacons. S. Symmachus conceded to S. Cæsarius, bishop of Orleans, in
508, as a favour, that his deacons might use the dalmatic, and S.
Gregory granted the same privilege to the archdeacon of the Franks. At a
later period the use was granted to kings for their coronation.

The Byzantines used Istria as a base in the final operations against the
Goths till 555, when they were conquered. This was the period when so
many basilicas were built in that country, in gratitude for the securing
of freedom to the province from the yoke of the Arians, and for the
re-establishment of the "Holy Republic," the inaccurate term which the
Istrians used for the Byzantine Government. The exarchs ruled till 752.
During this period the bonds between Istria and Ravenna were close. It
was a military district under a provincial _magister militum_, directly
subordinate to the exarch of Ravenna, and appointed by him. He was also
charged with the civil administration, and lived at Pola, which was the
capital till the ninth century. Istrians rose to high ecclesiastical
honours in Ravenna, Grado, and Torcello. Justinian granted an appeal
from the provincial judge to the bishop, who had also jurisdiction over
secular and regular clergy, except in criminal cases. The archbishop of
Ravenna had the right of revising the decisions of the judges of Pola,
a right which continued till 1331, when Pola gave herself to Venice, and
probably commenced at the time of Maximian, who was appointed archbishop
by Justinian in 546.

He was a native of Vistro, now Porto Vestre, between Rovigno and Pola,
and must have been a man of resource and great personal influence. The
story runs that he found a treasure when cultivating his field. He sewed
together two skins of a goat into the form of boots, and filled them and
the skin of an ox from the treasure, deciding to take the rest to the
emperor at Constantinople, to whom treasure-trove legally belonged. When
he presented this remainder he was asked how much he had kept for
himself. He replied: "As much as a stomach and a pair of boots could
absorb." The Emperor Justinian interpreted this as meaning that he had
taken as much as he required for food and for the journey, and became
attached to him. Ambassadors arriving from Ravenna to announce the death
of Archbishop Vittore (546), and to ask for the pallium for his
successor, gave Justinian the opportunity of advancing Maximian, whom he
sent to Ravenna with many gifts, including much of the "feudo di S.
Apollinare," lands at Pola, and in its vicinity, which belonged to that
church for centuries. Pope Vigilius was at that time an exile in
Bithynia, and therefore the Ravennese at first refused Maximian, but
changed their minds on learning of his many virtues (among which the
imperial gifts no doubt ranked). His architectural works in Istria were
considerable; and in Ravenna he consecrated the two churches of S.
Vitale and S. Apollinare in Classe, built by Julian, the treasurer. In
Istria he founded the monastery of S. Andrea, near Rovigno, and the
church of S. Maria Formosa, or "in Canneto," at Pola (which had property
in the exarchate of Ravenna), a magnificent church, which has been
spoken of in the chapter on Pola. The "feud" consisted of a palace, with
its dependencies, and three towers in the city of Pola, and a quantity
of land in the district. The wood at Vistro where the treasure was found
was also given to S. Apollinare by Maximian. In 1001 Otho II. gave S.
Maria and S. Andrea to the archbishop of Ravenna; afterwards they
belonged to S. Mark's, Venice. A document of 1138 in Ravenna shows Abbot
Paul, of the monastery of Pomposa, asking for himself and his successors
for one hundred years the renting of certain lands from Martin, abbot of
S. Maria in Canneto and of S. Andrea. In 1200 the feud consisted of many
rights of jurisdiction, tithes, and charges, both in the city of Pola,
and in towns in its territory, some of the land having been sold, with
Urban III.'s permission, between 1185 and 1187. There was a chapel of S.
Apollinare and a house with their belongings near the Porta del Duomo,
and three towers, the country possessions being spread over eleven
places. At this time Engelbert III., Count of Görz, stole it, and held
it for some time, notwithstanding an appeal to the Popes Celestine III.
and Innocent III. In 1213 the archbishop granted the feud to a certain
Stefano Segnor, so he must have then regained it. Seven years later
Simeon, archbishop of Ravenna, conceded his lands in Istria to Guido
Michele and his successors, with the obligation to renew the contract
every sixty years, and reserving the right of appeals. The Castropola
bought the feud from the Giroldi about 1300 for 1,800 "lire piccioli."

Aquileia was the most prosperous city of the empire after Rome, having
600,000 inhabitants in the days of its prosperity. The fleet which kept
the capital in communication with the eastern coast of the Adriatic, and
so with Liburnia, Giapidia, Pannonia, and the Levant, had a station
there. Trajan took the division which was called Aquileian or Venetian
from the Pretorian fleet at Ravenna. It had charge of the Upper Adriatic
from Ancona to Zara, and of the shore from the Adige to the Arsa. After
the Greeks lost Ravenna to the Lombards the station of the fleet was
moved to Zara. Shortly before, in 743, the exarchate included the
Dalmatian islands, and also the cities of Zara, Traù, Spalato, and
Ragusa. The Slavs occupied Dalmatia in 640-642. Paulus Diaconus says
that they crossed to Siponto in 649 and sacked several places near. The
annals of Bari (926) speak of the siege and capture of Siponto by a Slav
king, Michael, possibly the husband of Queen Helena, who is named on his
wife's sarcophagus found on the island in the Jader, near Salona, as
described in the chapter on Spalato. In the ninth century the Narentans
helped in driving the Saracens from Monte Gargano.

The bishop of Torcello had possessions in Cittanova and Muggia, which
were confirmed to him in 1177 by Frederick Barbarossa. The see of Grado
had rights and possessions on the islands, and in Istria, at Trieste,
Capodistria, Pirano, Cittanova, Parenzo, Pola, and Castel S. Giorgio,
but the actual power was in the hands of the patriarch of Aquileia, who
several times settled matters with his adversaries by giving them things
which really belonged to Grado. With the increase of the Venetian power
to the point at which the coast-towns were practically forced to yield
themselves to her supremacy, Istria and Dalmatia became pawns in the
political game which was played in Italy, and the reciprocal influences
of the two shores became principally artistic and individual, rather
than corporate or national.

Artists of both shores worked indiscriminately on either side of the
Adriatic, as may be divined from the similarity of style in many of the
buildings and in much of the decorative work, even without the
documentary evidence which is often available. It is to be expected that
between the early basilicas of Ravenna and of Pola there should be a
great resemblance; but at Parenzo, also, there is a likeness to both
those places, and it seems probable that the same school of artists
worked upon the mosaics there and at S. Maria in Cosmedin, Ravenna. The
decoration in _opus sectile_ also has resemblances, but these seem more
probably due to direct Byzantine influence, since, both at S. Sophia,
Constantinople, and S. Demetrius, Salonica, the same form of decoration
occurs; and it is pretty well established that there was a regular
export trade in carved capitals and columns from Constantinople, the
same patterns occurring in many places far apart from each other.
Comacine work is frequently met with all down the eastern coast as far
as Cattaro, as in Lombardy and the Venetian territory. The building at
Ravenna known as the Palace of Theodoric resembles the Porta Aurea,
Spalato, in its decoration of columned niches; and the material of his
mausoleum, Istrian stone, inclines one to look across the sea for the
inspiration of the design (which may possibly be a Gothic imitation of
the mausoleum of Diocletian), though it must be remembered that
Theodoric sent an architect to Rome to study the ancient buildings.

At a later period we have many names of artists who crossed the sea in
one direction or the other. In 1319 Uros II. of Servia sent Abiado di
Dessislavo from Cattaro to make the silver altar at S. Nicola, Bari.
Michelozzo of Florence was at Ragusa in 1463; George of Sebenico was at
Ancona rather earlier; Onofrio de La Cava did work at Ragusa; before his
time, George of Sebenico's friend, Giovanni Dalmatico, was working in
Rome, in the third quarter of the fifteenth century. Bartolommeo da
Mestre was _protomagister_ at Sebenico between 1517 and 1525, and many
artists of different kinds bore the name "Schiavone" in Venice during
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, where the chapel of the Illyrian
colony, S. Giorgio degli Schiavoni, was decorated by Vittore Carpaccio
with subjects from the life of S. Jerome (a Dalmatian by birth), S.
George, patron of Dalmatia, and S. Trifone, venerated at Cattaro.
Sigismond Malatesta is credited with the design of part of the
fortifications of Ragusa, where artists of many nationalities were
employed, one of the bells bearing the names of two Dutchmen, Willem
Corper Cornelis and Jacob Vocor. The building on the eastern shore which
had the most effect upon the western, and indeed upon the whole of the
Occident, is the Palace of Diocletian, in which, for the first time in
Europe, the arch appears springing directly from the capital without the
interposition of the entablature, a building which was almost certainly
constructed by Syro-Greeks, probably brought by the emperor from
Antioch. All the masons' marks are Greek letters, and many of the
combinations of architectural forms are found in the dead cities of
Central Syria, in buildings dating from the end of the second century.
The method of construction of the domes, the great bearing-arches which
relieve the architrave, the exterior niches which decorate the walls,
and the architrave turned into an archivolt over the tympana of the
pediments all occur at about this period. At Laodicea, Baalbek, Palmyra,
and Petra, _motifs_ which were in use till the end of the Byzantine
period appear. Tesseræ of mosaic have been found in one of the vaults at
Spalato, showing that it played a part in the decoration, as might be
expected in so magnificent a building. Dr. Stmygowski says: "What we
have in Spalato grew in that corner of Central Syria which we call
Hittite, and in the hinterland of Asia Minor, which communicated with
the sea by way of Antioch." In Khorsabad a glazed brick frieze has been
found in which the horizontal member became an arch over the door. The
new thing was the putting it on pillars ranged before the façade, which
he thinks was probably done at Seleucia on the Tigris. The plan of the
palace at Spalato, with projecting towers, and the soldiers' quarters
against the walls, is Syrian, of which examples may be cited at
Kasr-el-Abjad and Deir-el-Khaf (which is dated 306). The colonnaded
streets are a well-known Syrian town feature, and the plan resembles
that of Antioch, as described by the rhetorician Libanios, scarcely
fifty years after the death of Diocletian. Dr. Strzygowski concludes
that the emperor had seen the palace at Antioch, which was commenced by
Gallienus, and possibly was completed. He wished it copied, and
therefore brought over Antiochenes to do it.

There are other Eastern characteristics both here and in other places on
the coast, such as the sheet of lead upon which the bases of columns are
set, as in Byzantine work; the free-standing apse, found at Salona in
two places, and in the earlier church at Parenzo; the plan of S. Maria
delle Grazie, Grado, with the apse in the centre, and the two chambers
flanking it, an arrangement found in a temple of 192 A.D., at Is-Sanamên
in the Northern Hauran, by Mr. H.C. Butler, while the former arrangement
was seen by Miss Lowthian Bell in many ruins in Lycaonia, as has been
already noted.

The Egyptian influence also appears to be made out. Upon heathen tomb
monuments of the second and third centuries at Ghirza in Tripoli are
columns supporting arches cut out of a thin slab, not constructional, an
arrangement just like the Lombard ciborium tops. The connection appears
clear. The ciborium was a tomb generally erected over a martyr's grave
or the relics of a saint to whom the altar was dedicated, and the form
of these tombs appears to have thus been perpetuated. That there were
links between North Africa and the Adriatic towns is suggested by
various facts. Coptic objects have been noted in the treasury at
Spalato, and the patriarchal chair once at Grado has been described.

At Agram a stele is preserved, found at Salona, which is of the shape of
Coptic altars. On it is a representation of Jonah being vomited by the
whale, and a head, with a curious kind of form at the bottom like the
plan of an apse with a rail returned across the entrance. Dr.
Strzygowski gives similarly shaped stelai from Alexandria and Cairo,
with incised awkward scrolls, and some of Arab date. He suggests that
the shape originated with the altars in the apses above the relics of
martyrs, and says that the Salona example (which is of the eighth
century) is the most ancient that he knows, and the only Western
example. The ivory chair of Maximian at Ravenna is another case in
point. Maximian, before he was chosen bishop of Ravenna, had made a
journey in the East, and visited Alexandria. Agnellus gives extracts
from his own account of his visit. Apparently he ordered the chair from
the ivory carvers there after his elevation, for the costume in the
Joseph subjects, and the choice of that history, as well as the
admixture of animal forms in the ornament, point to an Egyptian origin.
It seems probable that Ravenna was the centre from which the influence
spread westwards. There were many Orientals in the city, Syrians being
so numerous that they were able to nominate one of their number for the
episcopal dignity. With the taking of the place by the Lombards the way
was made open for the best craftsmen to migrate to the more important
city of Pavia, the Lombard capital, and so to spread the Oriental
influence farther and farther westward, though of course it also
penetrated France by the ordinary trade routes through Narbonne and
Marseilles. It is a curious fact that the plan of the great Rhenish
churches, with the apses and transepts at each end, is found in North
Africa at a much earlier date, which suggests direct intercourse, of
which no record has survived.

The tracing of the various currents which united to form the full
flowing river of that magnificent style known as Romanesque is a
fascinating subject, but not one to be taken up at the end of a book
which has already run to a considerable length. The fusing of antique
Occidental art with Oriental may be said to have been the principal
factor in its production; and, though the shores of the Adriatic were
not the district in which its greatest triumphs were achieved, it was
here that the fruitful union first took place which at various periods
since has rejuvenated the dulled artistic senses of the Western peoples
with the exciting stimulus of mysticism, of the unfamiliar, of that
charm of colour and gorgeousness of effect, which are characteristic of
the products of the Oriental imagination.

[Illustration: Map]




INDEX


  A

  Adriatic, Boundaries, 2
  "  Mountains of the eastern coast, 2
  "  Physical data, 1-4

  Alp, or Mora, 17

  Andreaccio Saracenis, 379, 384

  Antiquities found at Aquileia, 37, 39;
    Cattaro, 379;
    Grado, 46;
    Ossero, 185;
    Pola, 157;
    Risano, 371;
    Salona and Spalato, 305, 306;
    Traù, 266;
    Trieste, 62, 64, 66;
    Zara, 215, 216

  Aquileia, 23
  "  Antique remains, 25, 36-39
  "  Baptistery, 36
  "  Campanile, 35
  "  Carved work of ninth century in the cathedral, 27, 29
  "  Carved work of fourteenth century in the cathedral, 31, 32, 33
  "  Cathedral, 25, 26-34
  "  Chiesa dei Pagani, 36
  "  Choir of the cathedral, 33
  "  Crypt of the cathedral, 31
  "  Early Renaissance work in the cathedral, 33, 34
  "  Frescoes of eleventh century in the cathedral, 30
  "  History, 24, 25, 32
  "  Mosaics found below pavement in the cathedral, 26, 27
  "  Museum, 36-39
  "  Narthex, 35
  "  Objects from the treasury at Görz, 34, 35
  "  The patriarchate, 24, 25, 39, 40

  Arbe, 192
  "     Campanile of cathedral, 198
  "     Cathedral, 194-198
  "     Chapel of the Campo Santo, 199
  "     Church of S. Andrea, 198
  "     Church of S. Giovanni Battista, 199
  "     Convent of S. Eufemia, 199
  "     History, 193, 194
  "     Mediæval houses, 193
  "     Reliquaries in the cathedral, 195-198
  "     S. Pietro in Valle, 200

  Arca of S. Marcella, Nona, 242
  "       S. Simeone, Zara, 235

  Artistic resemblances in buildings on both shores, 402

  Ascrivium (Cattaro), 370

  Avar inroads, 189


  B

  Besca Nova, 176
  "      Drive to Veglia, 177

  Besca Valle, Glagolitic inscription in S. Lucia, 178

  Bocche di Cattaro, 369, 372-378
  "           History, 369-372

  Bora, 4

  Borgo Erizzo, 243

  Brazza, 317, 318
  "       Knocker on Casa Nisiteo, Bol, 318
  "       Tintoretto at Bol, 318

  Brioni Islands, 131

  Bua, 263, 264, 279, 284

  Budua, 395

  Byzantine capitals in cathedrals: Arbe, 194;
    Grado, 44;
    Parenzo, 113;
    Veglia, 172

  Byzantine capitals in S. Maria delle Grazie, Grado, 52

  Byzantine civil casket at Capodistria, 92

  Byzantine civil casket found at Pirano, 97


  C

  Canal di Leme, 127, 131, 135

  Canal of Fasana, 131

  Cannosa, 335

  Capodistria, Baptistery, 90
  "     Byzantine casket, 92
  "     Castel Leone and wails, 87
  "     Cathedral, 88
  "     Cathedral treasury, 91, 92
  "     Church of S. Anna, 90
  "     Door-handles of Casa del Bello and Casa Borisi, 91
  "     Good Friday and other ceremonials, 92, 93
  "     History, 86
  "     Knocker on Palazzo Tacco, 91
  "     Loggia, 91
  "     Palazzo Comunale, 87, 88
  "     Piazza da Ponte, 92
  "     Pictures in the cathedral, 89

  Capodistrian craftsmen, 90

  Captain of the Pasenatico, 135

  Captain's opinion of Morlacchi, 202

  Carpaccio, Benedetto's house at Capodistria, 90
    "       Pictures at Capodistria, 89

  Carpaccio, Vittore. _See_ "Craftsmen" and "Pictures"

  Carved picture-frames:
    Cathedral, Aquileia, by Giovanni Pietro di Udine, 33
    Church "alle Dancé," Ragusa, 360, 361
    Parish Church, Mezzo, 332
    Sacristy of Cathedral, Parenzo, 117
    Sacristy of S. Domenico, Ragusa, 350
    Sacristy of S. Francesco, Zara, 237
    S. Anna, Capodistria, by Vittore da Feltre, 90
    S. Maria del Biscione, Mezzo, 331

  Castel Abbadessa (Gomilica), 289
  "      Cambio, 288
  "      Cega, 290
  "      Dragazzo, 286
  "      Nuovo, near Spalato, 287
  "      Nuovo, in the Bocche, 373
  "      Papali, 286
  "      Quarco, 286
  "      Rosani or Rusinac, 288
  "      Stafileo, 286
  "      Sucurac, 289
  "       "      Early church, 289
  "     Vecchio, 285, 287
  "     Vitturi, 288

  Castropola, destruction of the family, 159

  Cattaro, 371, 372, 379-388
  "     Cathedral of S. Trifone, 379-384
  "     Church of S. Luka, 385
  "     Fortifications, 387, 388
  "     La Colleggiata, 384
  "     Mediæval history and government, 394, 395
  "     Riva and Porta Marina, 386
  "     Secular architecture, 386
  "     Treasury in the cathedral, 383-384

  Ceremonial of blessing the fields, Salona, 310

  Cherso, 186

  Choir-stalls, Cathedral, Arbe, 195
  "                 "      Parenzo, 116
  "                 "      Spalato, 296
  "                 "      Trail, 277
  "                 "      Zara,                         222
  "             S. Francesco, Zara, 236

  Church of S. Maria de Salona, or de Otok, 301

  Cissa, 127

  Cittanova, Baptistery, 106
  "    Church, 105
  "    Early carvings found in the crypt, 105

  Climate of Dalmatia, 4

  Clissa, 303, 305, 314

  Comacine carvings at Aquileia, 27, 29;
    Cattaro, 379, 380;
    Cittanova, 105;
    Grado, 46, 51;
    Knin and Rižinice, 301;
    Parenzo, 120;
    Pola, 149, 152, 158;
    Ragusa, 341
    Spalato, 300, 306;
    Valle, 141;
    Zara, 215, 216

  Communes, their organisation, 76, 77

  Coptic crosses in Cathedral, Spalato, 298

  Costume at S. Lorenzo in Pasenatico, 133
  "     San Vincenti, 140, 141
  "     of country people at Fiume, 166
  "     country people of Spalato, 303
  "     country people at Zara, 211
  "     Lussin Grande and Piccolo, 182
  "     the Montenegrins, 392
  "     the Morlacchi, 10, 11
  "     the peasants at Rovigno, 128
  "     the people of Sebenico, 258

  Costume and type of peasants, Pisino, 138

  Customs of the Bocchesi, 389-391

  Craftsmen:
    Abrado or Abiado di Dessislavo, of Cattaro, 386, 404
    Adalpert, 118
    Alberti, Leo Battista, 255
    Alexci or Alexis, Andrea, of Durazzo, 255, 279, 280
    Antonio da Murano, 117
    Bartolommeo da Mestre, 255, 357, 404
    Bartolommeo of Cremona, 352
    Bassano, Jacopo, 322
    Battista of Arbe, 352, 359
    Bellini, Giovanni, 277
    Bernardo of Parenzo, 126
    Boccanich, Trifon, 275
    Bonino, Gaspare, of Milan, 249, 296
    Carpaccio, Benedetto, 89, 99
    "       Vittore, 89, 98, 222, 236, 307, 404
    Cima da Conegliano, 90
    Cleriginus di Justinopoli, 90
    Cornelis, Willem Corper, 404
    Del Vescovo, Antonio and Lorenzo, 132
    "Donado Macalorso da Vinesia," 49
    Donato of Parenzo, 132
    Ezechiel, monk of the Monastery of Laura, 118
    Francesco da Santa Croce, 322
    Fra Sebastiano da Rovigno, 132
    Fra Stefano of Ragusa, 352
    Frater Urbinus, 277
    George of Sebenico, 184, 247-255, 296, 355, 404
    Giacomo, son of Matteo da Mestre, 252
    Giorgio Dalmatico, 404
    Giottino, Tommaso, 64
    Giovanni Pietro, di Udine, 33
    Girolamo da Santa Croce, 101, 137, 175, 183, 307
    Goyković, Matteo, 275
    Gradinelli, Antonio, 321
    Gregorio di Vido, 278
    Guvina, 296, 302
    Lombardi of Venice, 255
    Lotto, Lorenzo, 257, 307
    Maestro Giovanni quondam Giacomo di Borgo S. Sepolero, 236
    Magister Andrea, 302
    Mag. Beloa Viccentius, 237
    Mag. Domenico di Capodistria, 90
    Mag. Johannes de Pari, Tergestinus, and his son Lazarus, 123
    Mag. Mycha of Antivari, 353
    Magister Otto, 299, 300, 302
    "Maiste Nicolai de te dito cervo d Venecia," 269
    Massegna, Pietro Paolo, 247
    Master Stefanus, 275
    Masticevich, Giovanni, 252
    "Mavrvs of Traù," 276
    Michelozzo, 355, 404
    Nicolaus Raguseus, 331, 332, 349, 360
    Nicolò Fiorentino, 279
    Onofrio Giordano de la Cava, 354, 357, 404
    Padre Bonaventura Radmilovic, 308
    Palma the younger, 222, 257, 321
    Palma Vecchio, 232, 343
    Paolo Veronese, 323
    Pasqualis Michaelis Ragusinus, 351, 353
    Paulus Silvius Tinnius, presbyter, 322
    Pellegrino di S. Daniele, 33
    Pietro della Vacchia, 182
    Pordenone, 343
    Raduanus, 270, 302
    Rosselli, Matteo, 322
    San Michele, 207, 245, 320
    Sansovino, 91
    Schiavone, Andrea, 140, 222
    Sebastiani, Lazzaro, 90
    Taddeo da Rovigno, 132
    Tartini, 99
    Tintoretto, Jacomo, 318
    Titian, 323, 330, 350
    Tvrdoj, Nicolò, 299
    Vecellio, Marco, 257
    Vincenti, Giorgio, 90
    Vittore da Feltre, 90
    Vittoria, Alessandro, 279
    Vivarini, Alvise, 186
    Vivarini, Bartolommeo, 177, 182, 199
    Vocor, Jacob, 404

  Crivoscian insurrection, 376

  Croats, or Morlacchi, 7, 9-21

  Croats and Serbs, 189

  Curzola, 323-328
    Cathedral, 326-328
    Church of Ognissanti, 328
    Knocker on Palazzo Arneri, 328
    La Badia, the Franciscan convent, 328
    Walls and towers, 325


  D

  Dalmatia, Climate, 4
    Flora, 4
    History, 187-191
    Races inhabiting the country, 6

  Decay of Aquileia, 32

  De Dominis, Archbishop, and Dean of Windsor, 193

  Dinaric Alps, or Velebits, 2, 3

  Diocletian's Palace at Spalato, 292-295, 299, 404

  Dobrota, 378

  Drive to Ossero, 183

  Due Castelli, 135, 136

  Duino, Castle of, 55


  E

  Early carvings in Spalato, 300;
    in other parts of Dalmatia, 300-302, 318

  Early Cilician churches, Plans compared with Grado, 52

  Earthquake of 1667, 339

  Education in Istrian coast towns, 93

  Embroideries:
    Chasuble in church at Dignano, 142
    Mitre and portion of cope in Cathedral, Traù, 278
    Painted vestments in S. Simeone, Zara, 235
    Treasury, S. Trifone, Cattaro, 383
    Vestments in Cathedral, Curzola, 328
    Vestments in Cathedral, Lesina, 321
    Vestments in Cathedral, Spalato, 298
    Vestments in S. Maria del Biscione, Mezzo, 331

  Excavations at Aquileia, 25-27, 36


  F

  Festival of the Assumption, Pictures carried in procession over
    the lagoon, 53

  Feud of S. Apollinare, 401

  Fiume, Ancient Tarsatica, 163
    Church of Madonna del Tarsatto, 165
    Costume of the country people, 166
    Roman remains, 163, 164

  Flora of Dalmatia, 4

  Folk-lore of the Morlacchi, 13-16, 17


  G

  Geological formation, 3-4, 54
    of Istria, 159

  Giorgio of Sebenico's house door, Sebenico, 256;
    his part in the cathedral, 253-255;
    works, 249-250

  Glagolitic inscription in S. Lucia, Besca Valle, 178

  Goldsmiths' work:
    Altar frontal at Grado, 49, 50
    Arca of S. Simeone, Zara, 234-235
    Chalice and ostensory at Mezzo, 332
    Chalice in treasury, S. Simeone, Zara, 235
    Chalices in Cathedral, Curzola, 328
    Chalices in S. Francesco, Zara, 237
    Church plate in S. Francesco, Ragusa, 354
    Cross of Uros I., S. Domenico, Ragusa, 351
    Crozier of gilded copper in Cathedral, Lesina, 321, 322
    Greek Benedictional cross, Parenzo, 117
    Greek rhyton of silver in Civic Museum, Trieste, 65
    Monstrance at Ossero, 184
    Monstrance in Colleggiata, Isola, 102
    Monstrance, cross, and chalice in church at Dignano, 142
    Objects from the treasury of Cathedral, Aquileia, at Görz, 34, 35
    Objects in Cathedral, Pisino, 137
    Objects in treasury, Muggia Nuova, 84
    Ostensory, reliquaries, &c., in Cathedral, Traù, 278
    Pala at Veglia, 173, 174
    Pala in Cathedral, Parenzo, 116
    Pastoral staff of Bishop Valaresso, 228
    Processional cross in Cathedral treasury, Trieste, 64
    Processional cross in S. Maria del Biscione, Mezzo, 331
    Reliquaries, early, at Grado, 47, 48
    Reliquaries, early, found at Pola, 153, 154
    Reliquaries, early, in Museo Sacro, Vatican, 48-49
    Reliquaries in Cathedral, Lesina, 321
    Reliquaries, &c., in Cathedral, Ragusa, 344-347
    Reliquaries, &c., in Cathedral, Spalato, 296-298
    Reliquaries in Cathedral treasury, Zara, 225-228
    Reliquaries in S. Anselmo, Nona, 241
    Reliquaries in S. Maria Nuova, Zara, 232-234
    Reliquaries in S. Trifone, Cattaro, 383
    Reliquaries and chalices, &c., in S. Domenico, Ragusa, 351
    Reliquary of S. Christopher, and champlevé panels in Cathedral,
      Arbe, 195-198
    Reredos of _repoussé_ silver in S. Simeone, Zara, 235
    Silver statue of S. Blaise in S. Biagio, Ragusa, 347
    Silver and enamel work in Kloster Savina, 374
    Treasury in Cathedral, Capodistria, 91, 92

  Good Friday ceremonies in Greek church, Zara, 238

  Görz, Objects from the treasury of Aquileia, 34, 35

  Gradese song sung at Trieste, 58

  Grado, 41
  "     Cathedral, 44, 45
  "       "        early pulpit, 45
  "       "        mosaic pavement, 45, 46
  "       "        treasury, 47-50
  "     Church of S. Maria delle Grazie, 51, 52
  "     History, 42, 43
  "     Patriarchate, 43, 44
  "     Patriarch's seat now at Venice, 50, 51
  "     Patriarch's seat and other ninth-century carvings, 46

  Gravosa, 333

  Greek church at Cattaro, 385
  "       "        Curzola, 328
  "       "        Sebenico, 257
  "       "        Zara, 238

  Greek Church procession at Sebenico, 257

  Greek colonies in Dalmatia and the islands, 6, 187

  Greek convent at Castel Nuovo, Kloster Savina, 373

  I

  Island of S. Giorgio, 375

  Islands, 3

  Isola, Colleggiata and treasury, 101, 102
  "      History, 101
  "      Return of contadini, 102
  "      Scuola dei Battuti, 102
  "      Walk from Pirano, 100, 101

  Istria, Barbarian and pirate raids, 75
  "       Destruction of Nesactium, 70
  "       General appearance of coast towns, 161
  "       Geological formation, 160
  "       History, 70-77
  "       Italianising of the country, 71
  "       Original inhabitants, 69
  "       Races inhabiting the country, 6, 7, 69, 71
  "       Schism of the "three chapters," 72, 73


  J

  Julian Alps, 2


  K

  Kaiser Brunnen, near Zara, 244

  Karvarina, or price of blood, 19

  Kerka falls, 260

  Klek, peninsula, 335

  Kloster Savina, 373


  L

  Lacroma, island near Ragusa, 362

  Lagosta, 330

  Le Catene, 374

  Lesina, 318-323
  "      Cathedral, 320-322
  "      Cittavecchia, Verbosca, and Gelsa, 323
  "      Franciscan convent, S. Maria delle Grazie, 322
  "      Loggia, 320
  "      S. Marco, 322
  "      Treasury of the cathedral, 321, 322

  Limoges gemellions at Grado, 49

  Lissa, 329-330

  Loparo, 200, 202

  Lovcén, Servian pilgrimage chapel, 376

  Lussin Grande, 181
  "      "      Pictures in churches, 182

  Lussin Piccolo, 180


  M

  Madonna del Scarpello, 374

  Marinerezza, Festival at Cattaro, 393

  Maximian of Ravenna, 400

  Meleda, 330, 331
  "      Porto Palazzo. 330
  "      S. Maria del Lago, 331

  Metković, 191

  Mezzo, 331-332
  "      Goldsmiths' work, &c., 332
  "      Pictures in other churches, 332
  "      S. Maria del Biscione, 331

  Monfalcone, Railway to Nabresina, 54, 55

  Montenegrin costume and customs, 391, 392

  Moresca, an ancient dance at Curzola, 324

  Morlacchi, 9, 10, 11-21
  "      Costume of, 10, 11
  "      Curious customs among, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19
  "      Marriage customs, 20
  "      Music and singing, 12, 260
  "      Proverbs, 21
  "      Religious customs, 13, 14, 15

  Mosaics:
    Apse and triumphal arch of Cathedral, Parenzp, 114, 115
    Apses of Cathedral, Trieste, 61, 62
    At Cathedral, Pola, 151
    Façade of Cathedral, Parenzo, 119
    From S. Maria del Canneto, Pola, 149
    Opus sectile in apse of Cathedral, Parenzo, 114, 115
   Pavement of Cathedral, Grado, 45, 46
  Mountain chains: Julian Alps, 2;

  Velebits, or Dinaric Alps, 2, 3
  Muggia by boat, 79

  Muggia Nuova, Church, 84
   "     "     "      treasury, 84
   "     "       Fortifications, 83
   "     "       History, 84-85
   "     "       Municipal palace, 84
  Muggia Vecchia, Church, 80-82
   "     "        Earlyambo, 81,82
   "     "        Wall paintings, 82
  Music of the Morlacchi, 260


  N

  Neresine, Franciscan convent, 183
  Nesactium destroyed, 70
  Nona, Area of S. Marcella, 242
   "     Church of S. Anselmo, 240-241
   "      "        S. Croce, 240
   "      "        S. Michele, 242
   "      "        S. Nicolò, 243
   "     History, 239
   "     Treasury of S. Anselmo, 241-242
  North African influences on ornament, 405, 406
  Novaglia, 202, 205


  O

  Ombla, the river Arione, 335
  Oriental influences on construction,
  405
  Ornament in the West influenced
  from the East and from Africa,
  405-407
  Ossero, 184
   "     Ancient bishop's seat from S. Maria, 185
   "     Cathedral, 184
   "     Museum, 185

  P

  Pago, 205
  Parenzo, An Easter Eve ceremonial, 121
   "       Atrium and façade with mosaics, 119
   "       Baptistery and surrounding rooms, 120
   "       Bishop's palace, 121
   "       Chapels of the cathedral, 118
   "       Christian cemetery with commemorative chapels, 119
   "       Ciborium, 116
   "       Excavations below and around the cathedral, 107-113
   "       Greek Benedictional cross in the cathedral, 117, 118
   "       Mediæval fragments and buildings, 122, 123
   "       Modern life, 125-126
   "       Mosaic inscriptions in pavements, 108, 112
   "       Mosaic in the apse, 114
   "        "     upon triumphal arch, 115
   "       Pala of high-altar, 116
   "       Picture by Antonio da Murano in sacristy, 117
   "       Roman remains, 122
   "       Stalls in chapel of the Sacrament, 116
   "       Struggles between bishop and commune, 124, 125
   "       The first basilica, 107-110
   "       The present cathedral, 113-121
   "       The second basilica, 110-113
  Perasto, 374-377
  Perkovic-Slivno, 262, 263
  Pictures:
    Altar-piece of fifteenth century in S. Antonio, Arbe, 199
    Altar-piece of 1430 in sacristy of S. Francesco, Zara, 237
    Antonio da Murano in sacristy of Cathedral, Parenzo, 117
    Bassano Giacomo (da Ponte) in Cathedral, Curzola, 328
    Bassano, Jacopo in Franciscan Convent, Lesina, 322
    Bellini, Giovanni, Organ wings in Cathedral, Traù, 277
    Bruges picture in Cathedral, Ragusa, 342
    Carpaccio, Benedetto, in Cathedral, Trieste, 64
    Carpaccio, Benedetto, in Communal Palace, Capodistria, 89
    Carpaccio, Benedetto, in office of the Salt Works, Pirano, 99
    Carpaccio, Benedetto, in S. Anna, Capodistria, 89
    Carpaccio, Vittore, in Cathedral, Capodistria, 89
    Carpaccio, Vittore, in Church of the Paludi, Spalato, 307
    Carpaccio, Vittore, in Communal Palace, Capodistria, 89
    Carpaccio, Vittore, in S. Francesco, Pirano, 98
    Carpaccio, Vittore, six small pictures in Cathedral, Zara, 222
    Carpaccio, Vittore, in S. Francesco, Zara, 230
    Cima da Conegliano in S. Anna, Capodistria, 90
    Crucifixion, &c., on gold ground with Greek inscriptions, Cathedral,
      Arbe, 195
    Early Madonna and Child, Cathedral, Arbe, 195
    Francesco Santa Croce in Franciscan Convent, Lesina, 322
    Giottino, Tommaso, in sacristy, Cathedral, Trieste, 64
    Girolamo da Santa Croce in Cathedral, Pisino, 137
    Girolamo da Santa Croce in Church of the Paludi, Spalato, 307
    Girolamo da Santa Croce in Colleggiata, Isola, 101
    Girolamo da Santa Croce in Monastery of Val Cassione, Veglia, 175
    Girolamo da Santa Croce in S. Francesco, Neresine, 183
    Gradinelli, Antonio, in Cathedral, Lesina, 321
    Lotto, Lorenzo, in Church of the Paludi, Spalato, 307
    Lotto, Lorenzo, in S. Domenico alia Marina, Sebenico, 257
    Mantegna, or John Bellini, in Cathedral, Cittanova, 106
    Nicolaus Raguseus in "Dancé" Church, Ragusa, 360
    Nicolaus Raguseus in Parish Church, Mezzo, 331
    Nicolaus Raguseus in S. Domenico, Ragusa, 349
    Nicolaus Raguseus in S. Nicolò, Mezzo, 332
    Padovaninos in Cathedral, Ragusa, 343
    Painted crucifix in S. Crisogono, Zara, 231
    Painted crucifix of tenth century in Chapel of S. Carlo, S. Francesco,
      Zara, 236
    Pala from S. Pietro di Klobučac, in church of Castelnuovo, 287
    Palma Giovane in Cathedral, Lesina, 321
    Palma Giovane in Cathedral, Zara, 222
    Palma Giovane in S. Domenico alia Marina, Sebenico, 257
    Palma Giovane in S. Domenico, Traù, 269
    Palma Giovane in S. Francesco, Zara, 236
    Palma, Jacopo, in Franciscan Convent, Lesina, 322
    Palma Vecchio in Cathedral, Ragusa, 343
    Palma Vecchio in S. Maria Nuova, Zara, 232
    Panels of saints on gold ground, S. Domenico, Traù, 269
    Paolo Veronese in S. Maria, Verbosca, 323
    Paris Bordone (copy) in Rector's Palace, Ragusa, 355
    Pellegrino di S. Daniele in Cathedral, Aquileia, 33
    Picture of school of Titian, S. Maria Nuova, Zara, 232
    Pictures of the Venetian school in S. Maria del Biscione, Mezzo, 331
    Pietro della Vacchia in S. Maria degli Angeli, Lussin Grande, 182
    Pordenone in Cathedral, Ragusa, 343
    Pordenone  in  S. Francesco, Veglia, 175
    Rosselli, Matteo, in Franciscan Convent, Lesina, 322
    Schiavone, Andrea, in Cathedral, Sebenico, 257
    Schiavone, Andrea, in Cathedral, Zara, 222
    Schiavone, Andrea, in church, San Vincenti, 140
    Tintoretto, Jacomo, in Dominican Convent, Bol, on Brazza, 318
    Titian in Cathedral, Lagosta, 330
    Titian in S. Domenico, Ragusa, 350
    Titian in S. Lorenzo, Verbosca, 323
    Vecellio, Marco, in S. Domenico alia Marina, Sebenico, 257
    Vivarini, Alvise, in priest's house, Cherso, 186
    Vivarini, Bartolommco, in S. Andrea, Arbe, 199
    Vivarini, Bartolommco, in S. Eufemia, Arbe, 199
    Vivarini, Bartolommeo, in S. Maria degli Angeli, Lussin Grande, 182
    Vivarini in church at Besca Nova, 177

  Pirano, 93
   "     Baptistery, 98
   "     Byzantine casket found in the cathedral, 97
   "     Carved stall in the church of S. George, 99
   "     Church of S. Francesco, 98
   "     Funeral, marriage, and festival customs, 97
   "     History, 94, 95, 96
   "     Picture by Ben. Carpaccio in office of the salt-works, 99
   "     Picture by Vittore Carpaccio in S. Francesco, 98, 99
   "     Tartini, statue of, 99
   "     The statute, 96
   "     The walls, 95

  Pisino, 136
   "     Castle and cathedral, 137
   "     Costume of peasants at cattle-fair, 138
   "     Ravine, 137

  Placito of Risano, 74

  Plague, Its ravages, 77, 78

  Pola, Amphitheatre, 146
  "     Antique marbles sent to Venice, 150
  "     Castle, 155
  "     Cathedral, 151-153
  "     Church of S. Francesco, 154
  "     Church of S. Maria Formosa, 147-150
  "     Communal museum, 157
  "     Communal palace, 155
  "     Early churches, 150, 151
  "     Early reliquaries found near the cathedral, 153, 154
  "     Harbour, 143
  "     History, 158, 159
  "     Medieval walls, and regulations with regard to them, 156, 157
  "     Porta Aurea, 145
  "     Porta Gemina and Porta Ercole, 145
  "     Remains of building of the ninth century, 151, 152
  "     Temple of Augustus, 145, 146
  "     The Roman city, 144

  Poppo's rebuilding of Cathedral, Aquileia, 29

  Privileges of the nobles or founders of the Castelli, 290

  Proverbs of the Morlacchi, 21

  Punta Planka, 264


  Q

  Quarnero, 162, 166, 167

  Quays at Trieste, Shipping and varied costumes, 57


  R

  Race animosity in Dalmatia, 21

  Ragusa, Cathedral, 342-347
   "        "      the treasury, 343-347
   "      Cemetery  church "alle Dancé,"  360
   "      Chapel of S. Luke, 363
   "      Chapel of SS. Annunziata, 363
   "      Church of S. Biagio, 347, 366
   "      Church of S. Salvatore, 357
   "      Dominican church, 349
   "       "        cloister, 351
   "       "        convent, 348-53
   "      Enlightenment in Middle Ages, 364
   "      Fortifications, 336, 337, 361
   "      Fountains by Onofrio de La Cava, 357
   "      Franciscan convent, 353
   "      Government of the Republic, 364
   "      History, 338, 341
   "      La Sigurata, 354
   "      Lazaretto and Turkish bazaar, 363
   "      Oldest relief of S. Blaise, 362
   "      Porta Pile, 336, 351
   "      Porta Ploče, 348, 351, 362, 363
   "      Rector's Palace, 354-357
   "      Revenue and coinage, 366, 367
   "      Roland Column, 359
   "      S. Giacomo degli Olivi, 363
   "      S. Stefano  and  early churches, 341, 342
   "      Situation, 333, 336
   "      Sponza, 358
   "      Strips of territory given to Turkey, 335

  Ragusa Vecchia, 367

  Railway customs at Spalato, 310

  Regulations under the communes, 77

  Relations between the two coasts, 398-404

  Rhizinitæ, 369

  Risano, 370, 371, 376
   "      Intermittent waterfall, 375

  Riviera dei Castelli, from the railway above, 263

  Roman roads in Dalmatia, 188

  Rovignese craftsmen, 132

  Rovigno, 127-131
   "        Colleggiata, Chapel of S. Eufemia, 129
   "        Costume of the peasants, 128
   "        Funeral ceremonies, 128
   "        Oratory of the Trinity, 129
   "        Pirate raids, 131


  S

  Salona, 309-314
   "      Basilica at Marusinac, 313
   "      Salona, Basilica Urbana, 311, 312
   "      Christian cemetery, 312
   "      Sarcophagus in S. Caius, 314

  Salvore, 100

  S. Eufemia, Rovignese legends, 129-131

  S. Giorgio degli Schiavoni, Venice, 404

  S. Giovanni Orsini of Traú, 278

  S. Lorenzo in Pasenatico, 133

  S. Lorenzo in Pasenatico, Church, 134

  S. Lorenzo in Pasenatico, Loggia and gateways, 134

  S. Maria di Barbana, 52

  San Vincenti, Castle, 138, 139
  "     "       Churches, 140
  "     "       Jousts and witch-burning, 138
  "     "       Wedding  customs, 141

  Scardona, 259

  Scoglio Orlandino, 127

  Sebenico, 245
    "       at night, 260
    "       Baptistery, 252
    "       Cathedral, 247-255
    "       Church of S. Barbara, 256
    "       Church of S. Giovanni Battista, 256
    "       City arms, 246
    "       Communal wells, 256
    "       Costume of the people, 258
    "       Door of Giorgio's house, 256
    "       Fort Barone, 245
    "      "     S. Anna, 245, 262
    "      "     S. Giovanni, 245, 262
    "      "     S. Nicolò, 245
    "       Greek Christian procession on Feast of the Assumption, 257
    "       Greek church, 257
    "       History, 246
    "       Loggia, 256
    "       S. Domenico alia Marina, 257
    "       S. Francesco, 257

  Slav immigration, 7

  Slavs described by Procopius, 8

  Smergo--"Dirupo di Smergo," 185

  Solta, 317

  Spalato, Approach to, 263, 264

  Spalato, Baptistery, 299
   "      Campanile, 298
   "      Cathedral, 294-298
   "      Chapel of S. Martin, Porta Aurea, 300
   "      Chapels in the cathedral by Gaspare Bonino of Milan and Giorgio
            of Sebenico, 249
   "      Church and convent of S. Francesco, 304
   "      Church of S. Eufemia, 309
   "      Church of SS. Trinita, 308
   "      Corinthian vase of sixth century B.C., 306
   "      Diocletian's Palace, 292-295, 299
   "      History, 302, 303
   "      Marina, 304
   "      Monastery of the Paludi, 307
   "      Origin, 292
   "      Pictures in the church of the Paludi, 307, 308
   "      Sculptures in the Museums, 305, 306
   "      Treasury in the cathedral, 296-298

  Spizza, 395

  Stagno, 335

  Stormy passage to Arbe, 200-203

  Strzygowski's opinions on palace of Diocletian, 405

  Syrian influences in ornament and construction, 397, 404

  Syro-Greek construction at Spalato, 404


  Τ

  Three chapters, Schism of, 70, 71

  Tommaseo, Nicolò, 259

  Traù, Antiquities, pagan and Christian, 266, 267
   "    Campanile of the cathedral, 275
   "    Casa Cippico and other palaces, 282
   "    Castel del Camerlengho, 266
   "    Cathedral, 269-280
   "     "         baptistery, 280
   "     "         chapel of S. Giovanni Orsini, 276, 278-280
   "     "         exterior, 274
   "     "         interior, 275, 278
   "     "         sacristy, 277
   "     "         tomb of S. Giovanni Orsini, 280
   "     "         west door, 270-274
   "    Church of S. Barbara, 267-269
   "     "        S. Domenico, 269
   "     "        S. Giovanni, 283
   "     "        S. Nicolò, 267
   "    from Spalato, 284, 285
   "    Gates, 265, 266
   "    History, 264
   "    Loggia, 281
   "    Pains and penalties, 282
   "    Palazzo Comunale, 283

  Trieste, 56
   "       Arco di Riccardo, 65
   "       Cathedral, SS. Giusto and Servolo, 59-64
   "        "        mosaics in apses, 61, 62
   "       Civic museum, 65, 66
   "       Classical carvings in cathedral and campanile, 62
   "       Descent from Nabresina, 56
   "       Gradese song, 58
   "       History, 59, 67, 68
   "       Museo Lapidario, 64
   "       Pictures and treasury in the cathedral, 64
   "       Quays,                                                     57
   "       Varied costumes, 57


  U

  Ugljan, 206

  Umago, 104

  Uscocs of Zengg, 167, 168


  V

  Val Cassione, 201, 205

  Valle, Embroidered chasuble and silver-work in the church, 142
  "      Fortifications, 141
  "      Ninth-century carving  in crypt, 141

  Veglia, Castel Muschio, 169
  "       Castle and walls, 171
  "       Cathedral, 172-174
   "      Cathedral, the silver pala, 173
   "      Church of S. Francesco, 175
   "       "        S. Maria, 175
   "       "        S. Quirinus, 174
   "      Defeat of Cæsarian fleet in 49 B.C., 169
   "      Monastery of Val Cassione, 175
   "      The last Count Frangipani, 170, 171
   "      Venetian remains, 171, 175

  Velebits, 2

  Venetian advances, 76

  Vilen, 17


  Z

  Zara, 206
  "     Altar of S. Anastasia, 224
  "     Antique remains, 212, 213, 215
  "     Bo d'Antona, 207
  "     Cathedral, 219-222
  "       "        baptistery and sacristy, 229
  "       "        campanile, 221
  "       "        crypt, 222, 224
  "       "        interior, 221
  "     Church of S. Barbara, now sacristy of the cathedral, 229
  "       "       S. Crisogono, 229-231
  "       "       S. Domenico, 217
  "       "       S. Domenico (S. Michele), 238
  "       "       S. Lorenzo, 216, 217
  "       "       S. Maria Nuova, 231-234
  "       "       S. Maria Nuova, treasury, 232-234
  "       "       S. Pietro Vecchio, 219
  "       "       S. Simeone, 234-236
  "     Church and Convent of S. Francesco, 236-238
  "       "    and Convent of S. Francesco,  Pictures in, 236, 237
  "     Cinque Pozzi, 207
  "     Costume of  the country people, 211
  "     Foundations of chapel on Riva Nuova, 217, 218
  "     Greek church, S. Elia, 238
  "     History, 207-211
  "     Loggia, now Paravia Library, 238
  "     Porta Marina, 206, 207
  "     Porta Terra Ferma, 207
  "     Reliquaries in the cathedral, 225-228
  "     S. Donate, church and museum, 214-216

  Zara Vecchia, 244






End of Project Gutenberg's The Shores of the Adriatic, by F. Hamilton Jackson