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WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY


VOLUME FIVE



FRUIT AND FRUIT DESSERTS

CANNING AND DRYING

JELLY MAKING, PRESERVING, AND PICKLING

CONFECTIONS

BEVERAGES

THE PLANNING OF MEALS



WOMAN'S INSTITUTE OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES, Inc.




PREFACE

This volume, the fifth of the Woman's Institute Library of Cookery,
deals with the varieties of fruits and the desserts that can be made
from them, the canning and preserving of foods, the making of
confections of every description, beverages and their place in the diet,
and every phase of the planning of meals.

With fruits becoming less seasonal and more a daily food, an
understanding of them is of great value to the housewife. In _Fruit and
Fruit Desserts_, she first learns their place in the diet, their nature,
composition, and food value. Then she proceeds with the preparation and
serving of every variety of fruit. Included in this section also are
fruit cocktails, those refreshing appetizers often used to introduce a
special meal.

To understand how to preserve perishable foods in the seasons of plenty
for the times when they are not obtainable is a valuable part of a
housewife's knowledge. _Canning and Drying_ deals with two ways of
preserving foodstuffs, treating carefully the equipment needed and all
the methods that can be employed and showing by means of excellent
illustrations, one of them in natural colors, every part of the
procedure followed. The fruits and vegetables that permit of canning, as
well as certain meats and fish, are taken up in a systematic manner.

_Jelly Making, Preserving, and Pickling_ continues a discussion of the
home preservation of foods, showing how they can be kept for long
periods of time not by sterilization, but with the aid of preservatives.
Each one of these methods is treated as to its principles, equipment,
and the procedure to be followed. After trying the numerous recipes
given, the housewife will be able to show with pride the results of her
efforts, for nothing adds more to the attractiveness and palatability of
a meal than a choice jelly, conserve, marmalade, or jam.

_Confections_ deals with that very delightful and fascinating part of
cookery--confection making. Not only are home-made confections cheaper
than commercially made ones, but they usually contain more wholesome
materials, so it is to the housewife's advantage to familiarize herself
with the making of this food. Recipes are given for all varieties of
confections, including taffies, caramels, cream candies, and the
confections related to them. Fondant making is treated in detail with
illustrations showing every step and directions for making many
unusual kinds.

Though beverages often receive only slight consideration, they are so
necessary that the body cannot exist very long without them. In
_Beverages_ is discussed the relation of beverages to meals, the classes
of beverages, and the preparation of those required by the human system,
as well as the proper way to serve them. In addition to coffee, tea,
cocoa, chocolate, and cereal beverages, fruit, soft, and nourishing
drinks receive their share of attention.

To be a successful home maker, it is not enough for a housewife to know
how to prepare food; she must also understand how to buy it, how to look
after the household accounts, what constitutes correct diet for each
member of her family, how to plan menus for her regular meals and for
special occasions, and the essentials of good table service. All these
things, and many more, she learns in _The Planning of Meals_, which
completes this volume.



CONTENTS


FRUIT AND FRUIT DESSERTS
  Fruit in the Diet
  Composition of Fruits
  Food Value of Fruits
  Preparing and Serving Fruits
  Blackberries
  Blueberries
  Cranberries
  Raspberries
  Strawberries
  Miscellaneous Berries
  Apples
  Apricots
  Cherries
  Grapes
  Peaches
  Pears
  Plums
  Quinces
  Rhubarb
  Grapefruit
  Lemons
  Oranges
  Miscellaneous Citrus Fruits
  Bananas
  Pineapples
  Miscellaneous Tropical Fruits
  Melons
  Fruit Cocktails
  Dates
  Figs
  Prunes
  Raisins
  Dried Apples, Apricots, and Peaches


CANNING AND DRYING
  Necessity for Preserving Foods
  Principles of Canning
  General Equipment for Canning
  Open-Kettle Method
  Cold-Pack Method
  Procedure in the One-Period Cold-Pack Method
  Procedure in the Fractional-Sterilization Method
  Steam-Pressure Methods
  Canning with Tin Cans
  Oven Method
  Preparation for Canning
  Directions for Canning Vegetables
  Directions for Canning Fruits
  Sirups for Canning Fruits
  Canning Meat and Fish
  Storing and Serving Canned Foods
  Scoring Canned Foods
  Principles of Drying
  Drying Methods
  Directions for Drying Vegetables and Fruits
  Storing and Cooking Dried Foods


JELLY MAKING, PRESERVING, AND PICKLING
  Value of Jellies, Preserves, and Pickles
  Principles of Jelly Making
  Equipment for Jelly Making
  Procedure in Jelly Making
  Scoring Jelly
  Recipes for Jelly
  Principles of Preserving
  Preserves
  Conserves
  Marmalades
  Jams
  Butters
  Principles of Pickling
  Recipes for Pickles
  Recipes for Relishes


CONFECTIONS
  Nature of Confections
  Composition of Confections
  Foundation Materials in Confections
  Flavorings
  Colorings
  Acids
  Food Materials
  Equipment for Confection Making
  Cooking the Mixture
  Pouring and Cooling the Mixture
  Finishing Candies
  Taffies and Similar Candies
  Caramels
  Fudge and Related Candies
  Fondant and Related Creams
  Miscellaneous Confections
  Serving Candy


BEVERAGES
  Nature and Classes of Beverages
  Water in Beverages
  Relation of Beverages to Meals
  Alcoholic Beverages
  Stimulating Beverages
  History and Production of Coffee
  Preparation of Coffee
  Serving Coffee
  History and Production of Tea
  Preparation of Tea
  Serving Tea
  Nature and Selection of Cocoa and Chocolate
  Preparation of Cocoa and Chocolate
  Serving Cocoa and Chocolate
  Cereal Beverages
  Ingredients for Fruit Beverages
  Preparation of Fruit Beverages
  Soft Drinks
  Nourishing Beverages


THE PLANNING OF MEALS
  Necessity for Careful Meal Planning
  Successful Marketing
  Keeping Household Accounts
  Factors Influencing Cost of Foods
  Economical Buying
  Suitability of Food
  Composition of Food
  Balancing the Diet
  Diet for Infants and Children
  Diet for the Family
  Proportion of Food Substances
  General Rules for Menu Making
  Card-File System for Menu Making
  Dinner Menus
  Luncheon Menus
  Breakfast Menus
  Menus for Special Occasions
  Table Service


       *       *       *       *       *

FRUIT AND FRUIT DESSERTS

FRUIT IN THE DIET

1. FRUIT, as is generally understood, is the fleshy, juicy product of
some plant or tree which, when ripe, is suitable for use as food.
Although some fruits are seedless, they generally contain the seeds of
the plants or trees that produce them. Many fruits require cooking to
make them palatable, others are never cooked, and still others may be
cooked or eaten raw, as desired.

Fruits, because they are wholesome, appetizing, and attractive, occupy a
valuable place in the diet. In fact, it is these qualities rather than
their food value that accounts for the popularity of fruits among all
people. In addition to causing fruits to appeal to the esthetic sense,
their attractiveness serves another important purpose. It is said that
Nature made them attractive in color, odor, and flavor in order that
birds might be allured to attack them for food and, by spreading the
seeds, assist in their propagation.

2. Fruits are gradually growing to be less seasonal and more a daily
food, and are thus constantly becoming more prevalent in the diet. This
condition may be attributed to the present rapid means of transportation
and the excellent methods of cold storage that exist. Through these
agencies it is possible to ship more or less perishable fruits long
distances from their native localities and at times of the year other
than the particular season in which they are at their best in the places
where they are grown. Thus, fruits that were formerly considered a
luxury may now be served regularly, even on the tables of persons having
only moderate means.

The fact that fruits are being more extensively used every day is as it
should be, for this food is entitled to an important place in the diet
of all persons. So important is fruit in the diet that it must be looked
on not as one of the things that may be taken or omitted as a person
wishes without making any difference either way, but as a food to
include in one form or another in nearly every meal. The child who is so
young that it cannot take any solid food may have fruit juices included
in its diet to decided advantage; but children who are slightly older
and adults may take the fruits cooked or raw instead of in the form
of juices.

3. As far as the composition of fruits is concerned, it is such that
most fresh fruits are not particularly high in food value. However, they
are characterized by other qualities that make up for what they lack in
this respect; then, too, what they contain in the way of heat-producing
or tissue-building material is easily digestible. Most fruits contain
considerable acid, and this food substance makes them stimulating to the
appetite. Advantage of this fact is taken when fruits are served at the
beginning of a breakfast or when several of them are combined in a fruit
cocktail and served before luncheon or dinner. This acid produces real
stimulation in the stomach, resulting in a flow of gastric juice from
the glands of the stomach walls. In addition, the delightful color, the
fragrant odor, or the pleasant taste of fruit, although a mental effect,
is just as real and just as valuable as the actual stimulation of
the acids.

4. Many fruits are eaten raw, while others are cooked either because
they require cooking to make them appetizing or because it is desired
not to use them in their raw state. The cooking of fruits has a variety
of effects on them, being sometimes advantageous and other times
detrimental. The flavor is always changed by the application of heat,
and in some cases the acid that fruit contains becomes stronger. On the
other hand, the fibrous material, or cellulose, of fruits is softened by
cooking and thus becomes more digestible. Then, too, the sugar that is
usually added to fruits in their cooking increases their food value.
Because of these facts, cooked fruits have considerable value and, like
raw fruits, should have an important place in the diet. Those fruits
which are dried and usually eaten raw, such as figs and dates, supply
much nourishment in an easily digestible form.

5. The medicinal value of fruit has long been considered to be of
importance, but this may be almost entirely disregarded, for, with the
exception of the fact that most fruits are valuable as a laxative, there
is nothing to consider. However, several fruits, such as blackberries
and bananas, have an anti-laxative effect, and large quantities of
these should for the most part be avoided, especially in the feeding
of children.

6. In general, fruits are divided into two classes, namely, food fruits
and flavor fruits. As their names imply, _food fruits_ are valuable as
food, whereas _flavor fruits_ are those distinguished by a
characteristic flavor. It should be remembered that the flavors, as well
as the odors, of fruits, are due chiefly to what is known as their
volatile, or ethereal, oils. Fruits in which these oils are very strong
are often irritating to certain persons and cause distress of some sort
after eating.

7. In this Section, it is the purpose to acquaint the housewife with the
relative value and uses of the various kinds of fruit, to teach her the
best methods of preparation, and to supply her with recipes that will
encourage her to make greater use of this valuable food in her family's
diet. In this discussion, however, the general classification of fruits
is not followed. Instead, the various fruits are arranged alphabetically
under the headings Berries, Non-Tropical Fruits, Citrus Fruits, Tropical
Fruits, Melons, and Dried Fruits, in order to simplify matters. While it
is hardly possible to use fruits too extensively, they must not be
allowed to take the place of other more nourishing foods that are
required by the body. Therefore, in order to make proper use of them,
their value in the diet should not be overlooked.

       *       *       *       *       *

NATURE OF FRUITS

ADVANCE IN FRUIT CULTIVATION

8. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between vegetables and
fruits. For instance, the tomato is in reality a fruit, but it is
commonly used as a vegetable, and rhubarb is more of a vegetable than a
fruit, but it is always used as a fruit. It can therefore be seen that
the line between vegetables and fruits is not clearly drawn. It is well
to remember that fruit is usually the edible pulpy mass covering the
seeds of various plants and trees, and that it is generally cooked or
eaten raw with sugar, whereas vegetables are seldom sweetened
in cooking.

9. Great strides have been made in the cultivation of fruit. Many
varieties that formerly grew wild are now commonly cultivated. Most of
the cultivated fruits are superior to the same kind in the wild state,
at least in size and appearance, but often there seems to be a loss of
flavor. Through cultivation, some fruits that were almost inedible in
their wild state on account of containing so many seeds have been made
seedless. Also, through cross-cultivation, varieties of fruit different
from what formerly existed have been obtained. An example of such fruit
is the loganberry which is a cross between a red raspberry and a
blackberry and retains many of the qualities of each. However, some
small fruits, such as blueberries, or huckleberries, are still grown
wild and marketed only from their wild source.

10. While fruit is usually improved by cultivation, there has been a
tendency through this means to produce fruits that will stand up for
long periods of time, so that they may be marketed at great distances
from the place where they are grown. For instance, apples, especially
those found in the market in the spring, and other fruits, which look
very fine, will many times be found to have a tough skin and to be
almost tasteless.

In general, fruits of delicate flavor and texture cannot be kept very
long after they have ripened. To stand shipping, they must be picked in
their green stage; then if they are kept in the right temperature they
will ripen after picking. Bananas that are to be shipped a long distance
are picked when perfectly green, but by the time the consumer buys them
they are usually well ripened. In addition to bananas, a few other
tropical fruits are shipped out of their native climates in small
numbers and are sold at very high prices. However, many tropical fruits
cannot be shipped to the Northern States because of their
perishable nature.

       *       *       *       *       *

COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF FRUITS

COMPOSITION OF FRUITS

11. The composition of fruits is a matter of considerable importance,
for on it the food value of the fruits depends. To a certain extent, the
composition of all fruits is the same, but the varieties of this food
differ in their food values almost as greatly as do vegetables. Many of
them are extremely low in this respect, while a few of them are rather
high. In order to determine the place that fruit should have in a meal,
it is necessary to obtain a definite idea of the composition as well as
the food value of the different varieties.

12. PROTEIN AND FAT IN FRUITS.--Such small quantities of protein and fat
are contained in fruits that very little attention need be given to
these substances. Exceptions are found in avocados, or alligator pears,
and in ripe olives, both of which are high in fat. Then, too, there is a
small amount of protein in grapes and some other fruits, but it is not
sufficient to merit consideration.

13. CARBOHYDRATE IN FRUIT.--Whatever food value fruits may have, whether
it be high or low, is due to the carbohydrate they contain. Some green
fruits and bananas contain a very small amount of starch, but on the
whole the carbohydrate of fruits is in the form of sugar and is in
solution in the fruit juices. The chief form of this carbohydrate is
known as _levulose_, or _fruit sugar_. However, _glucose_, another form
of sugar, is also found in nearly all fruits, grapes and dried fruits,
such as figs, raisins, etc., containing an unusually large amount. In
addition, _cane sugar_ is contained in the majority of fruits. _Pectin_
is also a carbohydrate that is found in large quantities in some fruits,
while in other fruits it is lacking. This substance is related to the
gums and to cellulose. Although it is one of the carbohydrates from
which no food value is derived, it is of considerable importance,
because it is responsible for the jelly-making properties of fruits.

14. In fruits that are not fully matured, or, in other words, green
fruits, the sugar has not developed to so great an extent as it has in
perfectly ripe fruits. Consequently, such fruits are not so high in food
value as they are when they become ripe. As is well known, it is the
sugar of fruits that accounts for their sweet taste, for the sweeter the
fruits, the more sugar and the less acid they contain. The quantity of
this substance varies from 1 per cent. in lemons to 20 per cent. in some
other fresh fruits, such as plums. In dried fruits, the amount of sugar
is much higher, reaching as high as 60 per cent. or even more in such
fruits as figs, dates, and raisins.

15. CELLULOSE IN FRUIT.--In fruits, as in vegetables, cellulose is found
in varying quantities. The larger the quantity, the lower will be the
food value of the fruit, except where the water has been evaporated, as
in the case of dried fruits. The digestibility of this cellulose,
however, is not worth considering, for, while it is possible that small
amounts of very young and tender cellulose from fruits may be digested,
on the whole this characteristic may be disregarded. The skins and seeds
of fruits, as well as the coarse material that helps to make up the
pulp, are known as refuse and are treated as such by the human digestive
tract; but it is to this waste material, or cellulose, that the laxative
quality of fruit is largely due.

In cases where there are digestive or intestinal troubles, it is often
necessary to remove the cellulose before the fruit is eaten. The coarse
material may be removed and that which is more tender may be broken up
by pressing the fruit through a sieve or a strainer of some kind. The
cooking of fruits is another means of making the cellulose in them more
easily digested, for it softens, or disintegrates, the various particles
of the indigestible material. When fruit is taken for its laxative
effect and the irritation of the cellulose needs no consideration, the
skins of the fruits may be eaten instead of being rejected. However, to
avoid any trouble, they should be well chewed.

16. Minerals in Fruit.--All fruits contain a certain percentage of
mineral salts. The quantity varies in the different kinds of fruits, but
it averages about 1 per cent. These salts have the opposite effect on
the blood from those found in meats and cereals, but they act in much
the same way as the minerals of vegetables. In other words, they have a
tendency to render the blood more alkaline and less acid. They are
therefore one of the food constituents that help to make fruit valuable
in the diet and should be retained as far as possible in its
preparation. In fact, any method that results in a loss of minerals is
not a good one to adopt in the preparation of fruits.

The minerals commonly found in fruits are iron, lime, sodium, magnesium,
potash, and phosphorus. These are in solution in the fruit juices to a
very great extent, and when the juices are extracted the minerals
remain in them.

17. Acids in Fruit.--Some fruits contain only a small amount of acid,
while others contain larger quantities. It is these acids, together with
the sugar and the volatile oils of fruits, that constitute the entire
flavor of this food. Most ripe fruits contain less acid than unripe
ones, and cooked fruits are often higher in acid than the same
fruits when raw.

Numerous kinds of acid are found in the different varieties of fruits.
For example, lemons, oranges, grapefruit, and a few other fruits
belonging to the class known as citrus fruits contain _citric acid_;
peaches, plums, apricots, and apples, _malic acid_; and grapes and many
other fruits, _tartaric acid_.


TABLE I

COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF FRUITS

                  |     |       |     |       |       |Food Value
Fruit             |Water|Protein| Fat |Carbo- |Mineral|per Pound,
                  |     |       |     |hydrate|Matter |in Calories
------------------+-----+-------+-----+-------+-------+-----------
                  |     |       |     |       |       |
Apples, fresh     |84.6 |   .4  |  .5 |  14.2 |   .3  |       290
Apples, dried     |28.1 |  1.6  | 2.2 |  66.1 |  2.0  |     1,350
Apricots, fresh   |85.0 |  1.1  |  -- |  13.4 |   .5  |       270
Apricots, dried   |29.4 |  4.7  | 1.0 |  62.5 |  2.4  |     1,290
Bananas           |75.3 |  1.3  |  .6 |  22.0 |   .8  |       460
Blackberries      |86.3 |  1.3  | 1.0 |  10.9 |   .5  |       270
Cherries          |80.9 |  1.0  |  .8 |  16.7 |   .6  |       365
Cranberries       |88.9 |   .4  |  .6 |   9.9 |   .2  |       215
Currants          |85.0 |  1.5  | --  |  12.8 |   .7  |       265
Dates             |15.4 |  2.1  | 2.8 |  78.4 |  1.3  |     1,615
Figs, fresh       |79.1 |  1.5  | --  |  18.8 |   .6  |       380
Figs, dried       |18.8 |  4.3  |  .3 |  74.2 |  2.4  |     1,475
Grapefruit        |86.9 |   .8  |  .2 |  11.6 |   .5  |       240
Grapes            |77.4 |  1.3  | 1.6 |  19.2 |   .5  |       450
Huckleberries     |81.9 |   .6  |  .6 |  16.6 |   .3  |       345
Lemons            |89.3 |  1.0  |  .7 |   8.5 |   .5  |       205
Muskmelons        |89.5 |   .6  | --  |   9.3 |   .6  |       185
Nectarines        |82.9 |   .6  | --  |  15.9 |   .6  |       305
Oranges           |86.9 |   .8  |  .2 |  11.6 |   .5  |       240
Peaches           |89.4 |   .7  |  .1 |   9.4 |   .4  |       190
Pears             |84.4 |   .6  |  .5 |  14.1 |   .4  |       295
Persimmons        |66.1 |   .8  |  .7 |  31.5 |   .9  |       630
Pineapple         |89.3 |   .4  |  .3 |   9.7 |   .3  |       200
Plums             |78.4 |  1.0  | --  |  20.1 |   .5  |       395
Pomegranates      |76.8 |  1.5  | 1.6 |  19.5 |   .6  |       460
Prunes, fresh     |79.6 |   .9  | --  |  18.9 |   .6  |       370
Prunes, dried     |22.3 |  2.1  | --  |  73.3 |  2.3  |     1,400
Raisins           |14.6 |  2.6  | 3.3 |  76.1 |  3.4  |     1,605
Raspberries, red  |85.8 |  1.0  | --  |  12.6 |   .6  |       255
Raspberries, black|84.1 |  1.7  | 1.0 |  12.6 |   .6  |       310
Rhubarb           |94.4 |   .6  |  .7 |   3.6 |   .7  |       105
Strawberries      |90.4 |  1.0  |  .6 |   7.4 |   .6  |       180
Watermelon        |92.4 |   .4  |  .2 |   6.7 |   .3  |       140
------------------+-----+-------+-----+-------+-------+-----------

18. The juice of fruits that contain very little sugar and a large
quantity of acid, such as the lemon, may be used for the seasoning of
food in much the same way that vinegar is used. It may also be diluted
with other liquids and used for a beverage. Then, again, various kinds
of fruit juices are subjected to a process of fermentation and, through
the production of another acid, are made into vinegar and wines. When
apples are treated in this way, the fermentation produces _acetic acid_
and, in addition, a certain amount of alcohol. It is on this principle
that the making of wines depends.

19. WATER IN FRUIT.--The water content of fresh fruits is very high,
reaching 94 per cent. in some varieties. Dried fruits, on the other
hand, contain much less water, their content being in some cases as low
as 15 to 20 per cent. It naturally follows that the fruits low in water
are high in food value, while those containing considerable water have
in their composition less of the material that adds food value. The high
percentage of water in fresh fruits, together with the acids they
contain, accounts for the fact that these fruits are so refreshing.
Fruits of this kind, in addition to having this refreshing quality, help
to provide the necessary liquid in the diet.

20. TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF FRUITS.--Just as fruits
vary in their composition, so do they vary in their food value. This
fact is clearly shown in Table I, which gives the percentage of food
substances contained in different fruits and the food value per pound,
in calories, that these fruits contain. As in the table showing the
composition and food value of vegetables given in _Vegetables_, Part 1,
the figures in this table are taken from Atwater's Table of American
Food Materials and refer to the edible part of the material. Reference
to Table I, as progress is made with the study of fruits and their
preparation, will be of much assistance in learning the place that
fruits occupy in the dietary.


FOOD VALUE OF FRUITS

21. EFFECT OF RIPENESS ON FRUITS.--There is a very marked difference
between ripe and green fruits as to their composition, flavor, texture,
palatability, and digestibility. Green fruits, containing more acid than
ripe ones, serve some purposes for which ripe fruits of the same variety
cannot be used so well. For instance, a very much better jelly can be
made from grapes that are not entirely ripe than from those which have
completely ripened. Green fruits contain less sugar than do ripe ones,
and so they are more sour to the taste. In some cases, the carbohydrate
found in green fruits is partly in the form of starch, which in the
process of development is changed to sugar. The cellulose of green
fruits, especially that distributed throughout the pulp of the fruit
itself, is usually tougher and harder than that which is found in the
same fruit after it has ripened.

22. DIGESTIBILITY OF FRUITS.--The ripeness and freshness of fruits
determine their digestibility to a great extent, but the peculiarities
of each person have much to do with this matter. Many times a particular
fruit will agree with almost every one but a few exceptional persons,
and, for no apparent reason except their own peculiarities of digestion,
it disagrees very badly with them. Abnormal conditions of the alimentary
tract, however, cannot be taken into consideration in a general
discussion on the digestibility of foods, for it is a subject that
cannot be treated except from a dietetic standpoint. A safe rule to
follow when a fruit is found to disagree with a person is to omit it
from that person's diet. This need not prove a hardship, for the wide
range, or variety, of fruits makes it possible to find one or more kinds
that will agree with each person.

23. As has been explained, sugar is the food material from which the
nutritive value of fruits is obtained. With the exception of a few
predigested foods, manufactured in such a way that they can be digested
easily, this sugar is probably the most easily digested form of food
that can be obtained. This substance, being held in solution in the
fruit juices, which are encased in a cellulose covering, depends to some
extent for its digestion on the hardness of the cellulose. When this
covering is old and hard or green and tough, as the case may be, it is
difficult for the digestive juices to break through and attack the sugar
contained inside. As this difficulty is not encountered when fruit is
fresh and ripe, its freshness and ripeness become important factors in
digestibility. Cooking is also an important factor because it softens
the cellulose, but there are certain other changes made by cooking that
must be taken into consideration as well.

24. EFFECT OF COOKING ON FRUIT.--Cooking affects fruits in numerous
ways, depending on the condition of the fruit itself, the method used,
and the length of time the heat is applied. When fruits are cooked in
water or in a thin sirup, the cellulose becomes softened. On the other
hand, if they are cooked in a heavy sirup, as, for instance, in the
making of preserves, the cellulose becomes hardened and the fruit,
instead of breaking up, remains whole or nearly so and becomes tough
and hard in texture. The addition of quantities of sugar, as in the
latter case, besides helping to keep the fruit whole, increases its
food value.

25. Another change that usually takes place when fruit is cooked is in
its flavor. This change is due either to an increase in the acid
contained in the fruit or to a decrease in the amount of sugar. Some
authorities believe that cooking increases the amount of acid, while
others hold the view that, when fruit is cooked without removing the
skins and seeds, the acid contained in the seeds and skins and not
noticeable when the fruit is fresh, is released during the cooking. Such
is undoubtedly the case with plums. The change that is brought about in
the sugar by the cooking of fruits consists in changing the cane sugar
into levulose and dextrose, which are not so sweet. This change accounts
for the fact that some cooked fruits are less sweet than others, in
spite of the fact that the acid does not seem to be increased.

26. In addition to producing certain changes in fruit, cooking, if done
thoroughly, renders fruits sterile, as it does other foods; that is, it
kills any bacteria that the fruits may contain. Advantage of this fact
is taken when fruits are canned for future use. Although most persons
prefer raw fruit to that which is cooked, there are some who object to
eating this food raw, but who are not always certain as to the reason
for their objection. Like other raw foods, fruits in their fresh state
contain _vitamines_; that is, a substance that helps to keep the body in
a healthy, normal condition. These are found to some extent in cooked
fruits, but not in the same quantity as in raw ones; consequently, as
much use as possible should be made of raw fruits in the diet.

       *       *       *       *       *

FRUITS AND THEIR PREPARATION AS FOOD

PREPARING AND SERVING

27. REQUIRED SANITARY CONDITIONS.--Since large quantities of fruits are
eaten raw, it is necessary that they be handled in the most sanitary
manner if disease from their use be prevented. However, they are often
in an unsanitary condition when they reach the housewife. For instance,
they become contaminated from the soiled hands of the persons who handle
them, from the dirt deposited on them during their growth, from the
fertilizer that may be used on the soil, from flies and other insects
that may crawl over them, and from being stored, displayed, or sold in
surroundings where they may be exposed to the dirt from streets and
other contaminating sources. Because of the possibility of all these
sources of contamination, it is essential that fruits that are not to be
cooked be thoroughly washed before they are eaten. It is true that a
certain amount of flavor or food material may be lost from the washing,
but this is of little importance compared with the possibility of
preventing disease.

28. WASHING FRUITS.--The manner of washing fruits depends largely on the
nature of the fruit. Fruits that have a sticky surface, such as raisins,
figs, and dates, usually have to be washed in several waters. Hard
fruits, such as pears, apples, plums, etc., should be washed with
running water. Berries and softer fruits require more careful procedure,
it usually being advisable to pour them into a pan containing water and
then, after stirring them around in the water until all dirt is removed,
take them from the water, rather than pour the water from them. In any
event, all fruits eaten raw should be properly washed.

29. SERVING FRUITS.--While the serving of fruits is a simple matter, it
should be done in as dainty a way as possible, so as not to detract from
their natural attractiveness. If the skins are to remain on the fruits
while serving, a knife, preferably a fruit knife, should be served with
them, and nothing smaller than a salad plate should be used. The
carefully washed leaves of the fruit served make an attractive garnish.
For instance, large, perfect strawberries with the stems on, when heaped
on a plate garnished with strawberry leaves and served with a small dish
of powdered sugar, are always attractive. Likewise, a bunch of grapes
served on grape leaves never fails to attract.

A mixture of a number of fruits, such as peaches, pears, and plums, or,
in winter, oranges, bananas, and apples, piled in a large bowl and
passed after salad plates have been distributed, not only makes an
excellent dessert, but permits the persons served to take their choice.

Fresh berries, sliced peaches, bananas, oranges, etc. may be served in
sauce dishes, which should be placed on a service plate. They may be
passed or served from a bowl by the hostess. Canned or stewed fruits may
be served in the same way.

       *       *       *       *       *

BERRIES

NATURE AND CARE

30. BERRIES are among the most perishable fruits and begin to come into
market early in the summer season. In most localities, the berry season
begins with strawberries and ends with blackberries. Because the
numerous varieties are somewhat juicy and soft and therefore extremely
perishable, they will not stand shipping and storage for long periods of
time. The quality of berries depends much on the nature of the season,
as well as on the locality in which the berries are grown. If there is a
good supply of rain, the berries will be very moist, containing a large
amount of pulp in proportion to seeds and skins; but if the season is
very dry, the berries are likely to be less moist and consequently less
palatable. A general use of berries, and to almost every one the most
important, is the making of jams, jellies, and preserves.

In the preparation of berries for the table, they should be handled as
little as possible in order to prevent them from breaking up and losing
their shape. After being purchased, they should be kept where it is cool
until they are to be used. It is advisable not to wash them until just
before serving, as the extra handling usually bruises them and causes
them to spoil.

The different varieties of berries are here taken up in alphabetical
order so as to make the matter easy for reference. Those of which
extensive use is made contain one or more recipes that may be followed
without any hesitation. In a few instances, as in the case of currants,
recipes are not included, as the fruits are limited to only a few uses
and directions for these occur elsewhere.


BLACKBERRIES

31. BLACKBERRIES come late in the summer season. Good varieties of
cultivated blackberries, which are large in size and contain
comparatively few seeds, are the best for use. However, in some
localities, uncultivated blackberries grow in sufficient quantities to
be useful for food. Blackberries are used extensively for jam, as they
make an excellent kind that appeals to most persons. Their juice may be
used for jelly, but if the berries are to be utilized most successfully
in this way they must be picked before they are thoroughly ripe or some
fruit that will supply an additional quantity of pectin may have to be
combined with them. Fresh blackberries may be served for dessert with
sugar and cream. Otherwise, the use of this fruit in desserts is not
very extensive, except where the canned berries are used for pastry or
pie or are eaten for sauce or where the jam is used in making up various
dessert dishes.

Very little preparation is necessary in getting blackberries ready to
serve. They should simply be looked over carefully, so that all
imperfect ones and all foreign matter may be removed, and then washed in
cold water.

32. BLACKBERRY SPONGE.--One of the few desserts made from fresh
blackberries is that explained in the accompanying recipe and known as
blackberry sponge. This is very delicious, for the berries are combined
with cake and the combination then served with whipped cream.

BLACKBERRY SPONGE
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 qt. blackberries
3/4 c. sugar
1 c. water
4 pieces plain loaf or sponge cake
Whipped cream

Heat half of the berries with the sugar and the water until they are
mushy. Then force the whole through a sieve. Cut the cake into cubes and
put them into a bowl. Pour the juice and the blackberry pulp on the
cake. Press the mixture down with a spoon until it is quite solid and
set in the refrigerator or some other cold place to cool. Turn out of
the bowl on a large plate, garnish with the remaining berries, heap with
the whipped cream, and serve.


BLUEBERRIES

33. BLUEBERRIES, which are not cultivated, but grow in the wild state,
are a many-seeded berry, blue or bluish-black in color. _Huckleberries_,
although belonging to a different class, are commonly regarded as
blueberries by many persons. Berries of this kind occur in many
varieties. Some grow on low bushes close to the ground, others are found
on taller bushes, and still others grow on very tall bushes. Again, some
grow in dry ground in a mountainous region, others grow in a level,
sandy soil, and other varieties succeed better on swampy soil. Berries
of this class are not so perishable as most other berries, but in many
localities they cannot be purchased at all, for, as a rule, they are
used only in the immediate vicinity in which they grow.

Blueberries have small seeds and coarse, tough skins. They contain very
little acid, but are excellent for pies and sauce. However, they will
make jelly very well if there are a few partly ripe berries among them,
and their flavor is improved if some fruit containing acid is added to
them. To prepare them for use, whether they are to be served raw or
cooked, look them over carefully in order that all green or spoiled ones
are removed and then wash them well in cold water.

34. PRESSED BLUEBERRY PUDDING.--A delicious pudding can be made by
combining blueberries with slices of bread. The accompanying recipe
gives directions for pudding of this kind.

PRESSED BLUEBERRY PUDDING
(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1 qt. blueberries
1 c. water
1/2 c. sugar
8 slices bread
Whipped cream

Put the blueberries, water, and sugar into a saucepan and boil for a
few minutes. Put four of the slices of bread, which should be cut about
1/2 inch thick, in the bottom of a square pan. Pour one-half of the
blueberries and the juice over the bread, and put the four remaining
slices of bread on top of the berries. Pour the rest of the blueberries
and juice over the bread. Place another square pan over the top and
weight it down so as to press the pudding. Then set the pudding in the
refrigerator until it is cool. Cut into squares, remove from the pan,
and serve with sweetened whipped cream.

35. BLUEBERRY PUDDING.--A baking-powder-biscuit dough baked with
blueberries makes a very appetizing dessert. To serve with a pudding of
this kind, a cream or a hard sauce should be made.

BLUEBERRY PUDDING
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

Baking-powder-biscuit dough
1 qt.  blueberries
1/2 c. sugar

Make a rather thin baking-powder-biscuit mixture. Spread a layer of this
in the bottom of a square pan and cover it with a layer of the
blueberries. Pour 1/4 cupful of the sugar over the berries and then
cover with another layer of the dough. Over this, pour the remainder of
the berries and sprinkle the rest of the sugar over all. Place in the
oven and bake for about 20 minutes. Remove from the oven, cut into
squares, and serve with cream or hard sauce.


CRANBERRIES

36. CRANBERRIES grow wild in many localities, but most persons who use
them buy them in the market as a cultivated fruit. Their season begins
in the fall and lasts until early spring, and during this time they can
usually be obtained in the market. They contain considerable acid and
consequently require a great deal of sugar to make them sufficiently
sweet to be palatable. They are more often served as an accompaniment to
a dinner course, especially with turkey or other poultry, than eaten as
a sauce. At times they are used in the making of muffins, pudding, and
various kinds of pastry.

One of the advantages of cranberries is that they keep very well in the
raw state. However, before they are cooked, they should be looked over
carefully, freed of any stems, foreign material, and spoiled berries,
and then washed thoroughly in cold water.

37. CRANBERRY SAUCE.--One can hardly imagine a turkey dinner without
cranberry sauce as one of the accompaniments; but it may be served when
meats other than turkey are used. In fact, because of its tart flavor,
it forms a most appetizing addition to any meal.

CRANBERRY SAUCE
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1-1/2 c. water
2 c. sugar
4 c. cranberries

Add the water to the cranberries and place over the fire to cook in a
closely covered kettle. As soon as the skins of the berries have
cracked, add the sugar. Cook slowly for a few minutes or until the sugar
is completely dissolved. Remove from the fire and cool before serving.

38. CRANBERRY JELLY.--If the cranberries are preferred without the
skins, cranberry jelly should be tried. When cool, this solidifies and
may be served in attractive ways.

CRANBERRY JELLY
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. water
1 qt. cranberries
2 c. sugar

Pour the water over the cranberries and cook them for 10 or 15 minutes.
Then mash them through a sieve or a colander with a wooden potato
masher. Add the sugar to the mashed cranberries. Return to the heat and
cook for 5 to 8 minutes longer. Turn into a mold and cool.


RASPBERRIES

39. RASPBERRIES come in two general varieties, which are commonly known
as _red_ and _black_. There are many species of each kind, and all of
them are much favored, as they are delicious fruit. As a raw fruit,
raspberries have their most satisfactory use, but they may be made into
several excellent desserts and they are also much used for canning and
preserving. They are a perishable fruit and so do not keep well. Because
of their softness, they have to be washed very carefully to prevent
them from breaking or becoming mushy.

40. RED-RASPBERRY WHIP.--No more dainty dessert can be made than
raspberry whip, which is explained in the accompanying recipe. Cake that
is not very rich, such as ladyfingers or sponge cake, makes a very good
accompaniment for this dessert.

RED-RASPBERRY WHIP
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 qt. raspberries
1 c. powdered sugar
2 egg whites

Put the raspberries, sugar, and egg whites into a bowl. Mash the berries
before starting to whip. Beat the mixture with an egg whip until it is
reduced to a pulpy mass and is stiff and fluffy. Pile lightly into a
bowl, chill, and serve with ladyfingers or sponge cake.

41. RASPBERRY SHORTCAKE.--Either black or red raspberries make a
delicious shortcake when combined with a cake or a biscuit mixture.
Directions for making such a shortcake are given in the
accompanying recipe.

RASPBERRY SHORTCAKE
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 qt. raspberries
1 c. sugar
Biscuit or plain-cake dough

Mash or chop the berries, as preferred, and add the sugar to them. Bake
the biscuit or plain-cake dough in a single, thick layer, and when it
has been removed from the pan split it into halves with a sharp knife.
Spread half the berries between the two pieces of biscuit or cake and
the remaining half on top. Cut into pieces of the desired size and serve
with plain or whipped cream.


STRAWBERRIES

42. STRAWBERRIES are perhaps more popular than any other kind of berry.
They are reddish in color, have a somewhat acid flavor, and range in
size from 1/2 inch to 2 inches in diameter. Strawberries are much used
for jams and preserves; they may also be used for making a delicious
jelly, but as they lack pectin this ingredient must be supplied. These
berries are eaten fresh to a great extent, but are also much used for
pastry making and for various kinds of dessert; in fact, there is
practically no limit to the number of recipes that may be given for
strawberries. Before they are used in any way, they should be washed
thoroughly in cold water and then their hulls should be removed.

[Illustration: FIG. 1]

43. STRAWBERRY SHORTCAKE.--For strawberry shortcake, either a biscuit or
a plain-cake mixture may be used, some persons preferring the one and
other persons the other. This may be made in a large cake, as shown in
Fig. 1, and then cut into pieces, or it may be made into individual
cakes, as Fig. 2 shows. Whichever plan is followed, the cakes are split
in the same way and the crushed berries inserted between the halves.
This dish may be made more attractive in appearance if a few of the
finest berries are saved and used as a garniture.

STRAWBERRY SHORTCAKE
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 qt. strawberries
1 c. sugar
Biscuit or plain cake dough

Mash or chop the berries, add the sugar to them, and let them stand
until the sugar has dissolved. Bake the biscuit or plain-cake dough in a
single thick layer or, if desired, bake it in individual cakes, cutting
the biscuit dough with a cookie cutter and putting the cake mixture in
muffin pans. Remove from the pan, cut in two with a sharp knife, and
spread half of the berries over the lower piece. Set the upper piece on
the berries. In the case of the large cake, sprinkle powdered sugar over
the top and then on this arrange a number of the largest and finest of
the berries, as Fig. 1 shows, as a garniture. Cut in pieces of the
desired size and serve with or without either plain or whipped cream. In
preparing the individual cakes, spread a spoonful or two of the crushed
berries over the top, as Fig. 2 shows, and serve with whipped cream.

44. STRAWBERRY WHIP.--Strawberries may be used instead of raspberries in
the recipe for red-raspberry whip. When prepared in this way and served
with fresh cake, strawberries make a very appetizing dessert.

45. OTHER STRAWBERRY DESSERTS.--If it is desired to serve strawberries
just with sugar, they can be made attractive with very little effort.
Garnish a plate with some of the strawberry leaves and on them place a
few fine large strawberries that have been washed but have not had the
hulls removed. Serve a small dish of powdered sugar with the
strawberries, so that they may be dipped into the sugar and eaten by
holding the hull of the berry in the fingers. Strawberries crushed with
sugar and served with blanc mange or custard also make a very
delicious dessert.

[Illustration: FIG. 2]


MISCELLANEOUS BERRIES

46. CURRANTS come in three varieties--red, white, and black. They are
not often eaten fresh, but are generally utilized for making jellies,
jams, and preserves, or for pastry and pies. When they are to be used
for jelly, it is not necessary to pick them from the stems, as they may
be washed and cooked on their stems. Some varieties of currants are
dried and these are used extensively in the making of cakes, cookies,
etc. The usefulness of this fruit as a food is not so great as many
others. No recipes are given for it because of its little use in the
fresh form.

47. GOOSEBERRIES, like currants, are somewhat limited in their variety
of uses, being seldom used except for jelly, preserves, and pies. Before
gooseberries are ripe they are light green in color and rather sour in
taste, but as they ripen the amount of acid they contain decreases, so
that they become sweet in flavor and change to brownish-purple. Green
gooseberries are often canned for pies, and when in this state or when
partly ripe they are also made up into many kinds of preserves and
jelly. In their preparation for these uses, both the stems and the
blossom ends should be removed. As a rule, berries of this kind keep
very well and stand considerable handling because their outside skin is
very tough.

48. LOGANBERRIES are a fruit produced by crossing a variety of red
raspberries with a species of blackberry. They are not very common, but
are an excellent berry and are well liked by those who can obtain them.
They may be used for any purpose for which either raspberries or
blackberries are used. Therefore, in the recipes given for these two
kinds of berries, loganberries may be substituted whenever they can
be obtained.

       *       *       *       *       *


NON-TROPICAL FRUITS

NATURE AND USE

49. Besides the berries that have just been described, there are a large
number of fruits that are grown in temperate climates and are therefore
regarded as NON-TROPICAL FRUITS. Extensive use is made of these fruits
in the regions in which they are grown or in places that are within easy
shipping distances of the source of supply. All of them have a
protective covering, or skin, and consequently keep for long periods of
time if they are not too ripe when picked. Those which contain the
highest percentage of water are the most perishable.


APPLES

50. APPLES, of which there are at least a thousand varieties, are
probably the best known of the non-tropical fruits. Some apples mature
early in the summer, while others do not ripen until late in the fall.
The late apples can be kept during the entire winter if they are
properly stored, but the summer varieties must generally be used
immediately, as they do not have good keeping qualities. In each
locality in which apples are grown, a few varieties seem to be
especially popular and are used to the exclusion of others. Some apples
are good for one purpose and some for another. For instance, many that
are excellent if eaten raw are not good for cooking purposes, and others
that cook well are not suitable for eating. It is therefore a good idea
for the housewife to become familiar with the varieties of apples raised
in her community and to learn the use to which each kind can be put to
advantage.

Apples of all kinds may be prepared in a large variety of ways. They are
much used for sauce, pie, and numerous desserts, as well as for jelly
and, with various fruit mixtures, for jams and preserves. The juice of
apples, which upon being extracted is known as _cider_, is used in a
number of ways, but its most important use is in the manufacture
of vinegar.

51. APPLE SAUCE.--When apple sauce is to be made, apples that are
somewhat sour and that will cook soft easily should be selected. This is
a dessert that can be made all during the winter when it is often
difficult to obtain other fruits fresh. It is usually served when roast
pork is the main dish of a meal, but is just as appetizing when served
with other foods.

APPLE SAUCE
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

10 medium-sized apples
1/2 c. water
1 c. sugar

Wash the apples, cut them in quarters, remove the cores, and, if
desired, peel them. Put them into a saucepan, add the water, and allow
them to cook until they are very soft. If the apples are inclined to be
dry, a little more water may be necessary. When done, force them through
a colander or a sieve, add the sugar to the pulp, and return to the
stove. Cook until the sugar is completely dissolved and, if necessary,
until the apple sauce is slightly thickened, stirring frequently to
prevent scorching. Remove from the heat, and season with lemon peel cut
fine, cinnamon, or nutmeg.

If there are apples in supply that do not cook well for apple sauce,
they may be peeled, quartered, and cored, and cooked with the sugar and
water. Then, instead of being forced through a sieve, they should be
allowed to remain in pieces in the sirup.

52. PORCUPINE APPLES.--A pleasing change in the way of an apple dessert
may be had by making porcupine apples.

PORCUPINE APPLES
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

6 large apples
1 c. sugar
1 c. water
2 doz. almonds
Currant jelly

Wash, core, and pare the apples. Make a sirup by bringing the sugar and
water to the boiling point. Put the apples into the sirup, cook on one
side for several minutes, and then turn and cook on the other side. Do
not allow the apples to cook completely in the sirup, but when they are
still hard remove them and continue to boil the sirup down. Set the
apples in a shallow pan, stick the almonds, which should be blanched,
into them so that they will project like porcupine quills, sprinkle them
with sugar, and bake in the oven until they are soft and the almonds
slightly brown. Remove from the oven, fill the center of each with
currant jelly, pour the juice over them, and serve.

53. BAKED APPLES.--Nothing is more palatable than baked apples if a
juicy, sour variety can be secured.

BAKED APPLES
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

6 medium-sized sour apples
1/2 c. brown sugar
1/2 tsp. cinnamon
1 Tb. butter
1/2 c. water

Wash and core the apples, place them in a baking dish, and fill the
centers with the brown sugar mixed with the cinnamon. Put a small piece
of butter on top of each apple, pour the water in the bottom of the pan,
set in the oven, and bake until the apples are soft. Baste frequently
with the juice that collects in the bottom of the pan. Serve hot or
cold, as desired.

Apples baked in this way may be improved in flavor by serving grape
juice over them. Heat the grape juice, and then, if the apples are to be
served hot, pour about 2 tablespoonfuls over each apple just before
serving. In case the apples are to be served cold, pour the hot grape
juice over them and then allow them to cool.

54. MAPLE APPLES.--Apples cooked in maple sirup have a very pleasing
flavor. The sirup that remains in the pan is poured over the apples when
they are served.

MAPLE APPLES
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

6 medium-sized apples
1 c. maple sirup

Wash, peel, and core the apples. Bring the maple sirup to the boiling
point in a saucepan. Drop the apples into the hot sirup, cook first on
one side, and then turn and cook on the other. As soon as they become
soft, remove from the sirup, pour the sirup over them, and serve.

55. STEAMED APPLES.--If it is desired to retain the color in apples that
have red skins, they should be steamed instead of baked, for the color
is lost in baking. Prepare apples that are to be steamed by washing them
and removing the cores. Place the apples in a pan with a perforated
bottom, put this over a pan of boiling water, cover closely, and steam
until they are soft. Serve in any desired way. They will be found to be
delicious in flavor and attractive in appearance.


APRICOTS

56. APRICOTS, in appearance, are a cross between peaches and plums. They
are grown extensively in the western part of the United States, but they
can be grown in any climate where peaches and plums are raised. As they
contain considerable acid, they require a large quantity of sugar when
they are cooked with their skins and seeds. They are used most
frequently for canning, but they make excellent marmalades and jams.
They are also dried in large quantities and, in this form, make
delicious desserts.

57. APRICOT SOUFFLÉ.--No more attractive as well as delicious dessert
can be prepared than apricot soufflé, which is illustrated in Fig. 3.
The apricots are just tart enough to give it a very pleasing flavor.

[Illustration: Fig. 3]

APRICOT SOUFFLÉ
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 Tb. butter
4 Tb. flour
1/3 c. sugar
Pinch of salt
1 c. scalded milk
3 eggs
1/2 tsp. vanilla
1 can apricots

Melt the butter, add the flour, sugar, and salt, and stir in the hot
milk. Bring this mixture to the boiling point. Separate the yolks and
whites of the eggs. Beat the yolks until they are thick and
lemon-colored, and then pour the hot mixture over them, stirring
constantly to prevent the eggs from curding. Beat the whites until they
are stiff, fold them into the mixture, and add the vanilla. Place the
apricots without juice in a layer on the bottom of the buttered baking
dish, pour the mixture over them, and bake for 45 to 60 minutes in a hot
oven, when it should be baked through and slightly brown on top and
should appear as in Fig. 3. Remove from the oven and serve with the
sirup from the apricots. Whipped cream may also be added if desired.


CHERRIES

58. CHERRIES come in numerous varieties, some of which are sweet and
others sour. The method of using them in cookery depends largely on the
kind of cherry that is to be used. Any of the varieties may be canned
with varying quantities of sugar and then used for sauce. They also make
excellent preserves, especially the sour varieties. However, they do not
contain pectin in sufficient quantity for jelly, so that when cherry
jelly is desired, other fruit or material containing pectin must be used
with the cherries. When purchased in the market, cherries usually have
their stems on. They should be washed before the stems are removed. The
seeds may be taken out by hand or by means of cherry seeders made
especially for this purpose.

59. CHERRY FRITTERS.--Something different in the way of dessert can be
had by making cherry fritters according to the accompanying recipe.

CHERRY FRITTERS
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. flour
2 tsp. baking powder
1/4 tsp. salt
2 Tb. sugar
1/2 c. milk
1 egg
2 Tb. butter
1/2 c. cherries cut into halves

Mix and sift the dry ingredients, add the milk and egg, and beat all
together well. Add the melted butter and fold in the cherries. Drop by
spoonfuls into hot fat and fry until brown. Remove from the fat,
sprinkle with powdered sugar, and serve.


GRAPES

60. GRAPES are a fruit extensively cultivated both for eating and for
the making of wines and raisins. Although found in many varieties, they
naturally divide themselves into two general classes: those which retain
their skins, such as the Malaga, Tokay, Muscat, Cornichon, Emperor,
etc., and those which slip out of their skins easily, such as the
Concord, Niagara, Delaware, Catawba, etc.

Grapes are much used as a fresh fruit. When they are to be used in this
way, the bunches should be put into a colander and washed thoroughly by
running cold water over them. Then all the imperfect ones should be
removed and the grapes kept cool until they are to be served. Clean
grape leaves make an attractive garnish for the individual plates or the
serving dish on which the grapes are placed. Grapes are also used
extensively for making jelly and grape juice, a beverage that is
well liked.

61. It will be found that through proper care grapes can be kept a long
time in the fall after they are removed from the vines, provided perfect
bunches are obtained and they are picked before they have become too
ripe. To preserve such grapes, dip the ends of the stems into melted
sealing wax in order to prevent the evaporation of moisture through the
stems. Then, in a cool, dry place, lay the bunches out on racks in a
single layer, taking care not to crush nor bruise them.

62. UNFERMENTED GRAPE JUICE WITH WATER.--Grape juice may be made either
with or without water. That in which water is used in the making usually
requires no diluting when it is served as a beverage. Concord grapes are
perhaps used more commonly for the making of grape juice than any other
variety, but other kinds, particularly Catawbas and Niagaras, may be
used as well.

UNFERMENTED GRAPE JUICE WITH WATER

12 qt. grapes
2 qt. water
4 lb. sugar

Wash the grapes and remove them from the stems. Put them with the water
into a preserving kettle, and heat gradually until the skins of the
grapes burst. Dip off as much juice as possible, and put it into a jelly
bag. Continue to heat and dip off the juice in this way until the pulp
is comparatively dry. Then add a little more water to the pulp and put
it in the bag to drip. When all the juice has dripped through the bag,
pour it back into the preserving kettle, add the sugar, and bring to the
boiling point. Stir frequently, so that the sugar will be well
dissolved. Pour into jars or bottles, seal, and sterilize by cooking for
about 5 minutes in hot water that nearly covers the bottles. Any large
receptacle that will hold sufficient water may be used as a sterilizer.

63. UNFERMENTED GRAPE JUICE WITHOUT WATER.--When grape juice is made
without water, it is both thick and rich. Consequently, it should
usually be diluted with water when it is served as a beverage.

UNFERMENTED GRAPE JUICE WITHOUT WATER

12 qt. grapes
3 lb. sugar

Wash the grapes, remove them from the stems, and put them into a
preserving kettle. Heat very slowly and mash with a spoon, so that
enough juice will be pressed out and thus prevent the grapes from
scorching. Remove the juice as it forms and put it into a jelly bag.
When all of it has been taken from the grapes and strained through the
jelly bag, strain the pulp and put all the juice into a preserving
kettle, add the sugar, and bring to the boiling point. Pour into bottles
or jars, seal, and sterilize in a water bath for about 5 minutes.


PEACHES

64. PEACHES may be divided into two general classes: those having a
yellow skin and those having a white skin. In each of these classes are
found both _clingstone_ and _freestone_ peaches; that is, peaches whose
pulp adheres tightly to the seed, or stone, and those in which the pulp
can be separated easily from the stone. When peaches are purchased for
canning or for any use in which it is necessary to remove the seeds,
freestones should be selected. Clingstones may be used when the stones
are allowed to remain in the fruit, as in pickled peaches, and for jams,
preserves, or butters, in which small pieces may be used or the entire
peach mashed. Whether to select yellow or white peaches, however, is
merely a matter of taste, as some persons prefer one kind and some
the other.

65. Peaches are not satisfactory for jelly making, because they do not
contain pectin. However, the juice of peaches makes a very good sirup if
it is sweetened and cooked until it is thick. Such sirup is really just
as delicious as maple sirup with griddle cakes. Peaches are used to a
large extent for canning and are also made into preserves, jams, and
butters. In addition, they are much used without cooking, for they are
favored by most persons. When they are to be served whole, they should
be washed and then wiped with a damp cloth to remove the fuzz. The skins
may be removed by blanching the peaches in boiling water or peeling them
with a sharp knife. If they are then sliced or cut in any desirable way
and served with cream and sugar, they make a delicious dessert.

66. STEWED PEACHES.--Fresh stewed peaches make a very desirable dessert
to serve with simple cake or cookies. Children may very readily eat such
dessert without danger of digestive disturbances. Adding a tablespoonful
of butter to the hot stewed peaches and then serving them over freshly
made toast makes a delightful breakfast dish. The cooked peaches may
also be run through a sieve, reheated with a little flour or corn starch
to thicken them slightly, and then served hot on buttered toast.

STEWED PEACHES
(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1-1/2 qt. peaches
1 lb. sugar
1 c. water

Peel the peaches, cut into halves, and remove the seeds. Put the sugar
and water over the fire to cook in a saucepan and bring to a rapid boil.
Add the peaches and cook until they may be easily pierced with a fork.

67. BAKED PEACHES.--When peaches are to be baked, select large firm
ones. Wash them thoroughly and cut them into halves, removing the
stones. Place the peaches in a shallow pan, fill the cavities with
sugar, and dot the top of each half with butter. Set in the oven and
bake until the peaches become soft. Serve hot or cold, either with or
without cream, as desired.


PEARS

68. PEARS, like apples, come in summer and winter varieties. The summer
varieties must be utilized during the summer and early fall or must be
canned at this time to preserve them for future use. Winter pears,
however, may be stored, for they keep like apples. A number of the small
varieties of pears are much used for pickling. Pears are most valuable
when they are canned and used for sauce. They cannot be used for jelly,
because they do not contain sufficient acid nor pectin. The juice from
canned pears, because of its mild flavor, is often found to be valuable
in the feeding of invalids or persons who have gastric troubles. It is
usually advisable to pick pears before they are entirely ripe, for then
they may be kept for a considerable length of time and will
ripen slowly.

69. BAKED PEARS.--Although pears are rather mild in flavor, they are
delicious when baked if lemon is added. Wash thoroughly pears that are
to be baked, cut them into halves, and remove the cores. Place them in a
shallow pan, fill the holes in the center with sugar, dot with butter,
and place a thin slice of lemon over each piece. Pour a few spoonfuls of
water into the pan, set in the oven, and bake until the pears can be
easily pierced with a fork. Remove from the oven and serve hot or cold.


PLUMS

70. PLUMS are among the very strong acid fruits. Some varieties of them
seem to be more tart after they are cooked than before, but, as already
explained, this condition is due to the fact that the acid contained in
the skin and around the seeds is liberated during the cooking. This
fruit, of which there are numerous varieties, is generally used for
canning, preserving, etc. It does not make jelly successfully in all
cases unless some material containing pectin is added. Very firm plums
may have the skins removed by blanching if it seems advisable to
take them off.

71. STEWED PLUMS.--Because of the many varieties of plums with their
varying degrees of acidity, it is difficult to make a recipe with a
quantity of sugar that will suit all kinds. The recipe given here is
suitable for medium sour plums, such as egg plums and the common red and
yellow varieties. Damsons and green gages will probably require more
sugar, while prune plums may require less.

STEWED PLUMS
(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1-1/2 qt. plums
1 lb. sugar
3/4 c. water

Wash the plums and prick each one two or three times with a fork. Bring
the sugar and water to the boiling point and, when rapidly boiling, add
the plums. Cook until they are tender, remove from the fire, cool,
and serve.


QUINCES

72. QUINCES are one of the non-perishable fruits. They mature late in
the fall and may be kept during the winter in much the same way as
apples. While quinces are not used so extensively as most other fruits,
there are many uses to which they may be put and much can be done with a
small quantity. For instance, various kinds of preserves and marmalades
may be made entirely of quinces or of a combination of quinces and some
other fruit. They also make excellent jelly. As their flavor is very
strong, a small quantity of quince pulp used with apples or some other
fruit will give the typical flavor of quinces. When combined with sweet
apples, they make a very delicious sauce.

The skin of quinces is covered with a thick fuzz, which can be removed
by wiping the fruit with a damp cloth. A point that should be remembered
about quinces is that they are extremely hard and require long cooking
to make them tender and palatable.

73. STEWED QUINCES AND APPLES.--The combination of quinces and apples is
very delicious. Sweet apples, which are difficult to use as a cooked
fruit because of a lack of flavor, may be combined very satisfactorily
with quinces, for the quinces impart a certain amount of their strong
flavor to the bland apples and thus the flavor of both is improved.

STEWED QUINCES AND APPLES
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 qt. sweet apples
1 pt. quinces
1 lb. sugar
1 c. water

Wash, peel, core, and quarter the fruit. Add the sugar to the water and
place over the fire until it conies to a rapid boil. Then add the
quinces and cook until they are partly softened. Add the sweet apples
and continue the cooking until both are tender. Remove from the fire,
cool, and serve.


RHUBARB

74. RHUBARB is in reality not a fruit, but it is always considered as
such because it is cooked with sugar and served as a fruit. It has the
advantage of coming early in the spring before there are many fruits in
the market. As it contains a large quantity of oxalic acid, it is very
sour and must be cooked with considerable sugar to become palatable, the
addition of which makes the food value of cooked rhubarb very high.
Rhubarb is much used for pies and is frequently canned for sauce. It is
also used as a cheap filler with a more expensive fruit in the making of
marmalades, conserves, and jams.

The stems of some varieties of rhubarb are characterized by a great deal
of red color, while others are entirely green. The red rhubarb makes a
more attractive dish when it is cooked and served than the green, but it
has no better flavor. The outside of the stem has a skin that may be
removed by catching hold of it at one end with a knife and stripping it
off the remainder of the stem. It is not necessary to remove the skin
from young and tender rhubarb, but it is often an advantage to remove it
from rhubarb that is old. It should be remembered that the stems of
rhubarb contain considerable water and so require very little liquid in
their cooking.

75. STEWED RHUBARB.--Two methods of stewing rhubarb are in practice, the
one to select depending on the way it is preferred. In one method, which
keeps the pieces whole, the sugar and water are brought to the boiling
point before the rhubarb is added, while in the other, the rhubarb is
cooked with water until it is soft and the sugar then added.

STEWED RHUBARB
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. sugar
1/2 c. water
1 qt. cut rhubarb

Mix the sugar and water in a saucepan and bring to the boiling point.
Wash the stems of the rhubarb and cut into inch lengths. Add the rhubarb
to the sirup and cook until it is tender enough to be pierced with a
fork. If desired, a flavoring of lemon peel may be added. Turn into a
dish, allow to cool, and serve.

If the other method is preferred, cook the rhubarb with the water until
it is soft and then add the sugar.

       *       *       *       *       *

CITRUS FRUITS

CHARACTERISTICS

76. Fruits that contain citric acid are grouped together and are known
as CITRUS FRUITS. All of these are similar in structure, although they
differ in size, as will be observed from Fig. 4. Here the citrus fruits
most commonly used are illustrated, the large one in the center being a
grapefruit; the two to the left, oranges; the two to the right, lemons;
and the two in the front, tangerines.

[Illustration: FIG. 4]

All varieties of these fruits are tropical or semitropical and are
shipped to the North in boxes that contain various numbers, the number
that can be packed in a box depending on the size of the fruit. The
south, southeastern, and western parts of the United States supply
practically all of these fruits that are found in the northern markets.
They stand storage well and keep for long periods of time if they are
packed before they are too ripe. These characteristics, together with
the fact that they are at their prime at different times in different
localities, make it possible to market such fruits during the entire
year, although they are much better at certain seasons than at others.

77. The majority of citrus fruits contain a fair amount of sugar and a
great deal of water; consequently, they are very juicy and refreshing. A
few of them, however, such as lemons and limes, contain very little
sugar and considerable acid and are therefore extremely sour. In the use
of such varieties, sugar must be added to make them palatable.

The greatest use made of citrus fruits is that of serving them raw.
However, they are also used in the making of marmalades, conserves, and
such confections as candied fruits. Then, too, the juice of a number of
them, such as lemons, oranges, and limes, makes very refreshing
beverages, so these varieties are much used for this purpose.


GRAPEFRUIT

78. Grapefruit, also known as _shaddock_, is a large, pale-yellow fruit
belonging to the citrus group. One variety, known as the _pomelo_, is
the kind that is commonly found in the market. It is slightly flattened
on both the blossom and stem ends.

Grapefruit has a typical flavor and a slightly bitter taste and contains
neither a great deal of sugar nor a large amount of acid. Because of its
refreshing, somewhat acid pulp and juice, it is highly prized as a fruit
to be eaten at breakfast or as an appetizer for a fruit cocktail. It is
also much used in the making of fruit salads.

79. SELECTION OF GRAPEFRUIT.--Grapefruit should be selected with care in
order that fruit of good quality may be obtained. Some persons think
that to be good grapefruit should be large, but it should be remembered
that size is not the factor by which to judge the quality. The fruit
should be heavy for its size and the skin should be fine-grained and
even. Coarse-grained skin, as a rule, is thick and indicates that the
pulp is rather pithy and without juice.

[Illustration: FIG. 5]

80. PREPARATION OF GRAPEFRUIT.--Different ways of serving grapefruit are
in practice, and it is well that these be understood. This is generally
considered a rather difficult fruit to eat, but if care is exercised in
its preparation for the table it can be eaten with comfort. For
preparing grapefruit, a narrow, sharp-bladed paring knife may be used.
As is well known, a grapefruit is always cut apart half way between the
stem and the blossom ends and a half served to each person.

[Illustration: FIG. 6]

81. One method of preparing grapefruit consists in cutting the skin in
such a way that the seeds can be taken out and the pulp then easily
removed with a spoon. To prepare it in this way, cut the grapefruit into
halves, and then, with a sharp knife, cut around the pithy core in the
center, cutting off the smallest possible end of each of the sections.
With this done, remove the seeds, which will be found firmly lodged near
the core and which can be readily pushed out with the point of the
knife. Then cut down each side of the skin between the sections so as
to separate the pulp from the skin. Around the edge next to the outside
skin, cut the pulp in each section with a single jab of the knife,
taking care not to cut the skin between the sections. The entire pulp of
each section, which will be found to be loose on both sides and ends if
the cutting is correctly done, can then be readily removed with a spoon.

[Illustration: FIG. 7]

82. In another method of preparing this fruit for the table, all the
skin inside of the fruit is removed and nothing but the pulp is left.
This method, which is illustrated in Figs. 5 to 10, inclusive, requires
a little more time and care than the previous one, but the result
justifies the effort. After cutting the grapefruit into halves, remove
the seeds with a sharp knife, as shown in Fig. 5. Then, with the same
knife, cut the grapefruit from the skin all the way around the edge, as
in Fig. 6; also, cut down each side of the skin between the sections, so
as to separate the pulp from the skin, as in Fig. 7. With the pulp
loosened, insert a pair of scissors along the outside edge, as in Fig.
8, and make a slanting cut toward the core.

[Illustration: FIG. 8]

Then, as in Fig. 9, cut the core loose from the outside skin. Repeat
this operation for each section. If the cutting has been properly done,
the core and skin enclosing the sections may be lifted out of the
grapefruit, and, as shown in Fig. 10, will then be in the form of a
many-pointed star. As only the pulp remains in the outside skin, the
grapefruit can be eaten without difficulty.

[Illustration: FIG. 9]

83. SERVING GRAPEFRUIT.--When grapefruit has been properly ripened, it
is rather sweet, so that many persons prefer it without sugar; but when
sugar is desired, the fruit is very much more delicious if it is
prepared some time before it is to be served, the sugar added to it, and
the fruit placed in a cool place. If this is done in the evening and the
grapefruit is served for breakfast, a large amount of very delicious
juice will have collected through the night. At any rate, grapefruit is
best if it is sweetened long enough before it is served to give the
sugar a chance to penetrate.

[Illustration: FIG. 10]


LEMONS

84. LEMONS are a citrus fruit raised in tropical regions. They are
shipped to other climates in cases that hold from 180 to 540, depending
on the size of the lemons, 300 to the case being a medium and commonly
used size. Their quality is judged like that of grapefruit; that is, by
their weight, the texture of their skin, and their general color
and shape.

Lemons contain very little sugar, but they are characterized by a large
amount of acid. Because of this fact, their juice is used to season
foods in much the same way as vinegar is used. In fact, their chief
uses are in making desserts and in seasoning such foods as custards,
pudding sauces, etc. However, their juice is also much used in the
making of beverages, such as lemonade and fruit punch.


ORANGES

85. ORANGES belong to the group of citrus fruits, but they differ from
both lemons and grapefruit in that they contain more sugar and less
acid. Two kinds of oranges supply the demands for this fruit, Florida
and California oranges. _Florida oranges_ have a skin more the color of
lemons and grapefruit and contain seeds, but they are considered to be
the finest both as to flavor and quality. _California oranges_, which
have a bright-yellow or orange skin, are seedless and are known as
_navel oranges_. As soon as the Florida season ends, the California
season begins; consequently, the market season for this fruit is a
lengthy one. The russet of oranges is caused by the bite of an insect on
the skin. To be shipped, oranges are packed in cases that will contain
from 48 to 400 to the case.

Probably no citrus fruit is used so extensively as oranges. Because of
their refreshing subacid flavor, they are much eaten in their fresh
state, both alone and in combination with other foods in numerous salads
and desserts.

[Illustration: FIG. 11]

86. PREPARATION OF ORANGES.--Several attractive ways of preparing
oranges for the table when they are to be eaten raw are shown in
Fig. 11.

To prepare them in the way shown at the left, cut the orange into two
parts, cutting half way between the stem and blossom ends, and loosen
the pulp in each half in the manner explained in Art. 81 for the
preparation of grapefruit. Then the pulp may be eaten from the orange
with a spoon.

[Illustration: FIG. 12]

If an orange is to be eaten in sections, the skin may be cut from the
stem to the blossom end about six times and then loosened from the one
end and turned in toward the orange in the manner shown in the central
figure of the group. It will then be easy to remove the skin.

[Illustration: FIG. 13]

Sometimes it is desired to serve sliced oranges, as shown at the right.
To prepare oranges in this way, remove the skin from the orange, cut it
in halves lengthwise, and then slice it in thin slices crosswise.
Arrange the slices on a plate and serve as desired.

87. When oranges are to be used for salads, or for any purpose in which
merely the pulp is desired, as, for instance, orange custard, all the
skin between the sections must be removed, as it makes any warm mixture
bitter. To secure the pulp without any of the skin, first peel the
orange, as shown in Fig. 12, in the same way an apple is peeled,
beginning at one end and peeling around and around deeply enough to
remove with the skin all the white pithy material under it. If the knife
is a sharp one and the peeling is carefully done, there will be little
waste of the pulp. When the orange is entirely peeled, cut each section
from the skin by passing the knife as closely as possible between the
pulp and the skin, as shown in Fig. 13. The sections thus obtained may
be used whole or cut into pieces of any desired size.


MISCELLANEOUS CITRUS FRUITS

88. In addition to grapefruit, lemons, and oranges, the three principal
varieties of citrus fruits, this group also includes kumquats, limes,
mandarins, and tangerines. These fruits are not of so much importance in
the diet as the other varieties, but when they are used as foods they
have a food value about equal to that of apples the same in size. They
are not in such common use as the citrus fruits already discussed, but
it is well for every housewife to know what they are and to what use
they can be put.

89. KUMQUATS are an acid fruit resembling oranges in color but being
about the size and shape of small plums. They are used principally for
the making of marmalades and jams, and in this use both the skin and the
pulp are included.

90. LIMES look like small lemons. They are very sour and do not contain
sugar in any quantity. They are valued chiefly for their juice, which is
utilized in the making of drinks, confections, etc.

91. MANDARINS and TANGERINES are really varieties of oranges and are
used in much the same way. They have a very sweet flavor. Their skin
does not cling so closely as the skin of oranges. For this reason they
are known as _glove oranges_ and are very easily peeled.

       *       *       *       *       *

TROPICAL FRUITS

VARIETIES

92. Besides the citrus fruits, which may also be regarded as tropical
fruits because they grow in tropical regions, there are a number of
other fruits that may be conveniently grouped under the heading Tropical
Fruits. The best known of these are bananas and pineapples, but numerous
others, such as avocados, guavas, nectarines, pomegranates, tamarinds,
and mangoes, are also raised in the tropical countries and should be
included in this class. The majority of these fruits stand shipment
well, but if they are to be shipped to far distant places they must be
picked before they become too ripe and must be packed well. As bananas
and pineapples are used more extensively than the other tropical fruits,
they are discussed here in greater detail; however, enough information
is given about the others to enable the housewife to become familiar
with them.


BANANAS

93. BANANAS are a tropical fruit that have become very popular with the
people in the North. As they are usually picked and shipped green and
then ripened by a process of heating when they are ready to be put on
the market, it is possible to obtain them in a very good condition. It
should be remembered, however, that they are not ripe enough to eat
until all the green color has left the skin. The stem of the bunch may
be green, but the bananas themselves should be perfectly yellow. Black
spots, which are sometimes found on the skins, indicate overripeness or
bruises. When the spots come from overripeness, however, they do not
injure the quality of the fruit, unless there are a great many of them;
in fact, many persons consider that bananas are better when the skins
are black than at any other time.

94. Just under the skin of the banana is some pithy material that clings
to the outside of the fruit and that has a pungent, disagreeable taste.
This objectionable taste may be done away with by scraping the surface
of the banana slightly, as shown in Fig. 14, after the skin is removed.

The strong, typical flavor that characterizes bananas is due to the
volatile oil they contain. It is this oil that causes bananas to
disagree with some persons. The common yellow variety has a milder
flavor than red bananas and certain other kinds and, consequently, is
more popular. If the oil of bananas does not prove irritating, much use
should be made of this fruit, because its food value is high, being
about double that of apples and oranges.

[Illustration: FIG. 14]

95. Bananas are eaten raw more often than in any other way, but many
persons find cooked bananas very agreeable. Then, too, it is sometimes
claimed that cooked bananas are more digestible than raw ones because of
the starch that bananas contain. However, this argument may be
discounted, for a well-ripened banana contains such a small quantity of
starch that no consideration need be given to it.

[Illustration: FIG. 15]

96. BAKED BANANAS.--If bananas are to be cooked, they can be made very
appetizing by baking them with a sirup made of vinegar, sugar, and
butter. When prepared in this way, they should be cut in two
lengthwise, and then baked in a shallow pan, as Fig. 15 shows.

BAKED BANANAS
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

6 bananas
2 Tb. butter
1/3 c. sugar
3 Tb. vinegar

Remove the skins from the bananas, scrape the surface as in Fig. 14, and
cut them in half lengthwise. Arrange the halves in a shallow pan. Melt
the butter and mix it with the sugar and the vinegar. Pour a spoonful of
the mixture over each banana and then set the pan in the oven. Bake in a
slow oven for about 20 minutes, basting frequently with the remainder of
the sirup during the baking. Remove from the oven and serve hot.

97. Banana Fritters.--Delicious fritters can be made with bananas as a
foundation. The accompanying recipe, if carefully followed, will result
in a dish that will be appetizing, especially to those who are fond of
this fruit.

BANANA FRITTERS
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

4 bananas
1 Tb. lemon juice
1/2 c. flour
2 Tb. sugar
1/4 tsp. salt
1/3 c. milk
1 egg
1 Tb. butter, melted
Powdered sugar

Remove the skins from the bananas, scrape them, and cut them once
lengthwise and once crosswise. Sprinkle the pieces with the lemon juice.
Make a batter by mixing and sifting the flour, sugar, and salt. Stir in
the milk gradually, and add the yolk of the beaten egg and the melted
butter. Lastly, fold in the beaten egg white. Sprinkle the bananas with
powdered sugar, dip them into the batter, and fry in deep fat until
brown. Sprinkle again with powdered sugar and serve.


PINEAPPLES

98. Pineapples are grown in the southern part of the United States, on
the islands off the southeastern coast, and in Hawaii. They vary in size
according to the age of the plants. It requires from 18 to 20 months for
the fruit to develop, and the plants yield only four or five crops. Much
of this fruit is canned where it is grown, but as it is covered with a
heavy skin it will tolerate shipping long distances very well. It is
shipped to the market in cases that contain from 24 to 48 pineapples to
the case. Usually, for a few weeks during the summer, the price of fresh
pineapples is reasonable enough to warrant canning them.

[Illustration: FIG. 16]

99. The food value of pineapples is slightly lower than that of oranges
and apples. However, pineapples have a great deal of flavor, and for
this reason they are very valuable in the making of desserts, preserves,
marmalades, and beverages of various kinds. It is said that the
combination of pineapple and lemon will flavor a greater amount of food
than any other fruit combined. Another characteristic of pineapples is
that they contain a ferment that acts upon protein material and
therefore is sometimes thought to aid considerably in the digestion of
food. The probabilities are that this ferment really produces very
little action in the stomach, but its effect upon protein material can
readily be observed by attempting to use raw pineapple in the making of
a gelatine dessert. If the pineapple is put in raw, the gelatine will
not solidify; but if the pineapple is heated sufficiently to kill this
ferment, it has no effect whatsoever upon the gelatine.

[Illustration: FIG. 17]

100. SELECTING PINEAPPLES.--When pineapples are to be selected, care
should be exercised to see that they are ripe. The most certain way of
determining this fact is to pull out the center leaves of each pineapple
that is chosen. As shown in Fig. 16, grasp the pineapple with one hand
and then with the other pull out, one at a time, several of the center
leaves of the tuft at the top. If the fruit is ripe a sharp jerk will
usually remove each leaf readily, but the harder the leaves pull, the
greener the pineapple is.

[Illustration: FIG. 18]

An overripe pineapple is just as unsatisfactory as one that is not ripe
enough. When a pineapple becomes too ripe, rotten spots begin to develop
around the base. Such spots can be easily detected by the discoloration
of the skin and such a pineapple should not be selected.

[Illustration: FIG. 19]

101. PREPARATION OF PINEAPPLE.--Some persons consider pineapple a
difficult fruit to prepare, but no trouble will be experienced if the
method illustrated in Figs. 17 to 19 is followed. Place the pineapple on
a hard surface, such as a wooden cutting board, and with a large sharp
knife cut off the tuft of leaves at the top. Then, as shown in Fig. 17,
cut the pineapple into 1/2-inch slices crosswise of the head. When the
entire pineapple has been sliced, peel each slice with a sharp paring
knife, as in Fig. 18. With the peeling removed, it will be observed that
each slice contains a number of eyes. Remove these with the point of a
knife, as Fig. 19 shows. After cutting out the core from the center of
each slice, the slices may be allowed to remain whole or may be cut into
pieces of any desirable size or shape. Pineapple prepared in this way is
ready either for canning or for desserts in which it is used fresh.

102. PINEAPPLE PUDDING.--One of the most satisfactory desserts made from
pineapple is the pudding given here. It is in reality a corn-starch
pudding in which grated pineapple is used for the flavoring.

PINEAPPLE PUDDING
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2-1/2 c. scalded milk
1/3 c. corn starch
1/2 c. sugar
1/4 tsp. salt
1/4 c. cold milk
1-1/2 c. grated pineapple, canned or fresh
2 egg whites

Scald the milk by heating it over the fire in a double boiler. Mix the
corn starch, sugar, and salt, and dissolve in the cold milk. Add to the
scalded milk in the double boiler and cook for about 15 or 20 minutes.
Remove from the fire and add the grated pineapple from which all juice
has been drained. Then fold in the whites of the eggs beaten stiff. Pour
into molds previously dipped in cold water, allow to cool, and serve
with cream.


MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS

103. AVOCADOS.--The avocado, which is also known as the _alligator
pear_, is a large pear-shaped, pulpy fruit raised principally in the
West Indies. It has a purplish-brown skin and contains just one very
large seed in the center. The flesh contains considerable fat, and so
the food value of this fruit is rather high, being fully twice as great
as a like quantity of apples or oranges.

This fruit, which is gaining in popularity in the Northern States, is
very perishable and does not stand shipment well. As a rule, it reaches
the northern market green and is ripened after its arrival. It is an
expensive fruit and is used almost entirely for salads. As its flavor is
somewhat peculiar, a taste for it must usually be cultivated.

104. GUAVAS.--The guava is a tropical fruit that is extensively grown in
the southern part of the United States. Guavas come in two varieties:
_red guava_, which resembles the apple, and _white guava_, which
resembles the pear. The fruit, which has a pleasant acid pulp, is
characterized by a more or less peculiar flavor for which a liking must
be cultivated. It can be canned and preserved in much the same way as
peaches are.

Because guavas are very perishable, they cannot be shipped to northern
markets, but various products are made from them and sent to every
market. Preserved and pickled guavas and confections made from what is
known as guava paste are common, but guava jelly made from the pulp is
probably the best known product.

105. NECTARINES.--The tropical fruit called the nectarine is really a
variety of peach, but it differs from the common peach in that it has a
smooth, waxy skin. Also, the flesh of the nectarine is firmer and has a
stronger flavor than that of the peach. Nectarines are not shipped to
the northern markets to any extent, but they are canned in exactly the
same way as peaches are and can be secured in this form.

106. PERSIMMONS.--The persimmon is a semitropical plum-like fruit,
globular in shape and an orange-red or yellow in color. It comes in many
varieties, but few of them find their way into the northern markets. The
Japanese persimmon, which resembles a tomato in color, is the variety
most frequently purchased. Persimmons are characterized by a great deal
of very pungent acid, which has a puckery effect until the fruit is made
sweet and edible by exposure to the frost. In localities where they are
plentiful, persimmons are extensively used and are preserved for use
during the winter season.

107. POMEGRANATES.--The pomegranate is about as large as a full-sized
apple and has a hard reddish-yellow rind. Most varieties contain many
seeds and a comparatively small amount of red edible pulp. Pomegranates
of various kinds are grown in the southern part of the United States and
in other warm climates. They are used extensively in the localities
where they are grown and are much enjoyed by persons who learn to care
for their flavor. A cooling drink made from their pulp finds much favor.

108. TAMARINDS AND MANGOES.--Although tamarinds and mangoes are
practically unknown outside of tropical countries, they are considered
to be very delicious fruits and are used extensively in their native
localities.

The tamarind consists of a brown-shelled pod that contains a brown acid
pulp and from three to ten seeds. This fruit has various uses in
medicine and cookery and is found very satisfactory for a
cooling beverage.

Mangoes vary greatly in size, shape, flavor, and color. Some varieties
are large, fleshy, and luscious, while others are small and stringy and
have a peculiar flavor.


MELONS

109. CANTALOUPES AND MUSKMELONS.--The variety of melons known as
muskmelons consists of a juicy, edible fruit that is characterized by a
globular shape and a ribbed surface. Cantaloupes are a variety of
muskmelons, but the distinction between them is sometimes difficult to
understand. For the most part, these names are used interchangeably with
reference to melons.

Considerable variation occurs in this fruit. Some cantaloupes and
muskmelons are large and others are small; some have pink or yellow
flesh and others have white or light-green flesh. All the variations of
color and size are found between these two extremes. The flesh of these
fruits contains considerable water; therefore, their food value is not
high, being only a little over half as much as that of apples.

110. If melons suitable for the table are desired, they should be
selected with care. To be just at the right stage, the blossom end of
the melon should be a trifle soft when pressed with the fingers. If it
is very soft, the melon is perhaps too ripe; but if it does not give
with pressure, the melon is too green.

111. Various ways of serving muskmelons and cantaloupes are in practice.
When they are to be served plain as a breakfast food or a luncheon
dessert, cut them crosswise into halves, or, if they are large, divide
them into sections lengthwise. With the melons cut in the desired way,
remove all the seeds and keep the melons on ice until they are to be
served. The pulp of the melon may also be cut from the rind and then
diced and used in the making of fruit salads. Again, the pulp may be
partly scraped out of the melon and the rinds then filled with fruit
mixtures and served with a salad dressing for a salad or with fruit
juices for a cocktail. The pulp that is scraped out may be diced and
used in the fruit mixture, and what is left in the rind may be eaten
after the contents have been eaten.

112. CASABA MELONS.--The variety of melons known as casaba, or honeydew,
melons are a cross between a cucumber and a cantaloupe. They have white
flesh and a rind that is smoother than the rind of cantaloupes. Melons
of this kind are raised in the western part of the United States, but as
they stand shipment very well, they can usually be obtained in the
market in other regions. They are much enjoyed by those who are fond of
this class of fruit. Their particular advantage is that they come later
in the season than cantaloupes and muskmelons, and thus can be obtained
for the table long after these other fruits are out of season. Casaba
melons may be served in the same ways as cantaloupes.

113. WATERMELONS.--A very well-known type of melon is the watermelon. It
is grown principally in warm climates of the Southern States, as the
season in the North is not sufficiently long to allow it to develop.
This is a large fruit, having a smooth green skin that is often mottled
or striped, and a pinkish pulp containing many seeds and having a sweet,
watery juice. The large amount of water contained in this fruit makes
its food value very low, it being lower in this respect than muskmelons
and cantaloupes. The volatile oil it contains, which is responsible for
its flavor, proves irritating to some persons who eat it.

114. Watermelon is delicious when it is served ice cold. Therefore,
before it is served, it should be kept on ice for a sufficient time to
allow it to become thoroughly cold. Then it may be cut in any desirable
way. If it is cut in slices, the slices should be trimmed so that only
the pink pulp that is edible is served, the green rind being discarded.
As an appetizer, watermelon is delicious when cut into pieces and served
in a cocktail glass with fresh mint chopped fine and sprinkled over the
top. Small pieces of watermelon cut with a French vegetable cutter make
a very attractive garnish for fruit salads and other fruit mixtures.


FRUIT COCKTAILS

115. Cocktails made of a combination of fruits are often served as the
first course of a meal, usually a luncheon or a dinner, to precede the
soup course. In warm weather, they are an excellent substitute for heavy
cocktails made of lobster or crab, and they may even be used to replace
the soup course. The fruits used for this purpose should be the more
acid ones, for the acids and flavors are intended to serve as an
appetizer, or the same purpose for which the hot and highly seasoned
soups are taken. Therefore, they are seldom made sweet and are not taken
for their food value. Besides being refreshing appetizers, they afford a
hostess an opportunity to carry out a certain color scheme in a meal.
Many kinds of fruit may be combined into cocktails, but directions for
the cocktails that are usually made are here given. Fruit cocktails
should always be served ice cold.

116. GRAPEFRUIT COCKTAIL.--The cocktail here explained may be served in
stemmed glasses or in the shells of the grapefruit. If the fruit shells
are to be used, the grapefruit should be cut into two parts, half way
between the blossom and the stem ends, the fruit removed, and the edges
of the shell then notched. This plan of serving a cocktail should be
adopted only when small grapefruits are used, for if the shells are
large more fruit will have to be used than is agreeable for a cocktail.

GRAPEFRUIT COCKTAIL
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 grapefruits
2 oranges
1 c. diced pineapple, fresh or canned
Powdered sugar

Remove the pulp from the grapefruits and oranges in the manner
previously explained. However, if the grapefruit shells are to be used
for serving the cocktail, the grapefruit should be cut in half and the
pulp then taken out of the skin with a sharp knife. With the sections of
pulp removed, cut each one into several pieces. Add the diced pineapple
to the other fruits, mix together well and set on ice until thoroughly
chilled. Put in cocktail glasses or grapefruit shells, pour a spoonful
or two of orange juice over each serving, sprinkle with powdered sugar,
garnish with a cherry, and serve ice cold.

117. SUMMER COCKTAIL.--As strawberries and pineapples can be obtained
fresh at the same time during the summer, they are often used together
in a cocktail. When sweetened slightly with powdered sugar and allowed
to become ice cold, these fruits make a delicious combination.

SUMMER COCKTAIL
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. diced fresh pineapple
2 c. sliced strawberries
Powdered sugar

Prepare a fresh pineapple in the manner previously explained, and cut
each slice into small pieces or dice. Wash and hull the strawberries and
slice them into small slices. Mix the two fruits and sprinkle them with
powdered sugar. Place in cocktail glasses and allow to stand on ice a
short time before serving.

118. FRUIT COCKTAIL.--A fruit cocktail proper is made by combining a
number of different kinds of fruit, such as bananas, pineapple, oranges,
and maraschino cherries. As shown in Fig. 20, such a cocktail is served
in a stemmed glass set on a small plate. Nothing more delicious than
this can be prepared for the first course of a dinner or a luncheon that
is to be served daintily. Its advantage is that it can be made at almost
any season of the year with these particular fruits.

[Illustration: FIG. 20]

FRUIT COCKTAIL
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 bananas
1 c. canned pineapple
2 oranges
1 doz. maraschino cherries
Lemon juice
Powdered sugar

Peel the bananas and dice them. Dice the pineapple. Remove the pulp from
the oranges in the manner previously explained, and cut each section
into several pieces. Mix these three fruits. Cut the cherries in half
and add to the mixture. Set on ice until thoroughly chilled. To serve,
put into cocktail glasses as shown in the illustration, and add to each
glass 1 tablespoonful of maraschino juice from the cherries and 1
teaspoonful of lemon juice. Sprinkle with powdered sugar and serve.

       *       *       *       *       *

DRIED FRUITS

VARIETIES OF DRIED FRUITS

119. The fruits that have been discussed up to this point are fresh
fruits; that is, they are placed on the markets, and consequently can be
obtained, in their fresh state. However, there are a number of fruits
that are dried before they are put on the market, and as they can be
obtained during all seasons they may be used when fresh fruits are out
of season or as a substitute for canned fruits when the household supply
is low. The chief varieties of dried fruits are dates, figs, prunes,
which are dried plums, and raisins, which are dried grapes. Apples,
apricots, and peaches are also dried in large quantities and are much
used in place of these fruits when they cannot be obtained in their
fresh form. Discussions of the different varieties of dried fruits are
here given, together with recipes showing how some of them may be used.


DATES

120. DATES, which are the fruit of the date palm, are not only very
nutritious but well liked by most persons. They are oblong in shape and
have a single hard seed that is grooved on one side. As dates contain
very little water and a great deal of sugar, their food value is high,
being more than five times that of apples and oranges. They are also
valuable in the diet because of their slightly laxative effect. When
added to other food, such as cakes, hot breads, etc., they provide a
great deal of nutriment.

121. The finest dates on the market come from Turkey and the Eastern
countries. They are prepared for sale at the places where they grow,
being put up in packages that weigh from 1/2 to 1 pound, as well as in
large boxes from which they can be sold in bulk. It is very important
that all dates, whether bought in packages or in bulk, be thoroughly
washed before they are eaten. While those contained in packages do not
collect dirt after they are packed, they are contaminated to a certain
extent by the hands of the persons who pack them. To be most
satisfactory, dates should first be washed in hot water and then have
cold water run over them. If they are to be stuffed, they should be
thoroughly dried between towels or placed in a single layer on pans to
allow the water to evaporate. While the washing of dates undoubtedly
causes the loss of a small amount of food material, it is, nevertheless,
a wise procedure.

122. Dates can be put to many valuable uses in the diet. They are much
used in cakes, muffins, and hot breads and in fillings for cakes and
cookies. Several kinds of delicious pastry, as well as salads and
sandwiches, are also made with dates. Their use as a confection is
probably the most important one, as they are very appetizing when
stuffed with nuts, candy, and such foods.


FIGS

123. FIGS are a small pear-shaped fruit grown extensively in Eastern
countries and to some extent in the western part of the United States.
The varieties grown in this country are not especially valuable when
they are dried, but they can be canned fresh in the localities where
they are grown. Fresh figs cannot be shipped, as they are too
perishable, but when dried they can be kept an indefinite length of time
and they are highly nutritious, too. In fact, dried figs are nearly as
high in food value as dates, and they are even more laxative.

124. Dried figs are found on the market both as pressed and pulled figs.
_Pressed figs_ are those which are pressed tightly together when they
are packed and are so crushed down in at least one place that they are
more or less sugary from the juice of the fig. _Pulled figs_ are those
which are dried without being pressed and are suitable for such purposes
as stewing and steaming.

125. STEWED FIGS.--If pulled figs can be secured, they may be stewed to
be served as a sauce. When prepared in this way, they will be found to
make a highly nutritious and delightful breakfast fruit or
winter dessert.

STEWED FIGS
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. pulled figs
3 c. water

Wash the figs and remove the stems. Put them into a preserving kettle
with the water and allow them to come slowly to the boiling point.
Simmer gently over the fire until the figs become soft. If they are
desired very sweet, sugar may be added before they are removed from the
heat and the juice then cooked until it is as thick as is desirable.
Serve cold.

126. STEAMED FIGS.--When figs are steamed until they are soft and then
served with plain or whipped cream, they make a delightful dessert. To
prepare them in this way, wash the desired number and remove the stems.
Place them in a steamer over boiling water and steam them until they are
soft. Remove from the stove, allow them to cool, and serve with cream.


PRUNES

127. PRUNES are the dried fruit of any one of several varieties of plum
trees and are raised mostly in Southern Europe and California. In their
fresh state, they are purple in color, but they become darker during
their drying. They are priced and purchased according to size, being
graded with a certain number to the pound, just as lemons and oranges
are graded with a certain number to the case. In food value they are
about equal to dates and figs. They contain very little acid, but are
characterized by a large quantity of easily digested sugar. They also
have a laxative quality that makes them valuable in the diet.

128. STEWED PRUNES.--A simple way in which to prepare prunes is to stew
them and then add sugar to sweeten them. Stewed prunes may be served as
a sauce with cake of some kind or they may be used as a breakfast fruit.

STEWED PRUNES
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 lb. prunes
1 c. sugar

Look the prunes over carefully, wash them thoroughly in hot water, and
soak them in warm water for about 6 hours. Place them on the stove in
the same water in which they were soaked and which should well cover
them. Cook slowly until they can be easily pierced with a fork or until
the seeds separate from the pulp upon being crushed. Add the sugar,
continue to cook until it is completely dissolved, and then remove from
the stove and cool. If desired, more sweetening may be used or a few
slices of lemon or a small amount of lemon peel may be added to give an
agreeable flavor.

129. STUFFED PRUNES.--After prunes have been stewed, they may have the
seeds removed and then be filled with peanut butter. Stuffed in this way
and served with whipped cream, as shown in Fig. 21, or merely the prune
juice, they make an excellent dessert.

[Illustration: FIG. 21, Stewed prunes stuffed with peanut butter.]

Select prunes of good size and stew them according to the directions
just given, but remove them from the fire before they have become very
soft. Cool and then cut a slit in each one and remove the seed. Fill the
cavity with peanut butter and press together again. Serve with some of
the prune juice or with whipped cream.

130. PRUNE WHIP.--A very dainty prune dessert can be made from stewed
prunes by reducing the prunes to a pulp and then adding the whites of
eggs. Directions for this dessert follow:

PRUNE WHIP
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. prune pulp
1/4 c. powdered sugar
2 egg whites
Whipped cream

Make the prune pulp by removing the seeds from stewed prunes and forcing
the prunes through a sieve or a ricer. Mix the powdered sugar with the
pulp. Beat the whites of the eggs until they are stiff and then
carefully fold them into the prune pulp. Chill and serve with
whipped cream.


RAISINS

131. RAISINS are the dried fruit of various kinds of grapes that contain
considerable sugar and are cured in the sun or in an oven. They come
principally from the Mediterranean region and from California. They have
an extensive use in cookery, both as a confection and an ingredient in
cakes, puddings, and pastry. In food value, raisins are very high and
contain sugar in the form of glucose; however, their skins are coarse
cellulose and for this reason are likely to be injurious to children if
taken in too large quantities. They are also valuable as a laxative and
in adding variety to the diet if they are well cooked before they
are served.

Like other dried fruits, raisins should be washed thoroughly before they
are used. They may then be soaked in warm water and stewed in exactly
the same way as prunes. Sugar may or may not be added, as desired.
Sultana raisins, which are the seedless variety, are especially
desirable for stewing, although they may be used for any of the other
purposes for which raisins are used.


DRIED APPLES, APRICOTS, AND PEACHES

132. Apples, apricots, and peaches are fruits that are used extensively
in their dried form. They enable the housewife to supply her family with
fruit during seasons when it is impossible to obtain fresh fruit. They
may also be used to take the place of canned fruit, especially when the
supply is low or has been exhausted. Besides their use as a sauce, they
may be used for pies and various desserts.

133. These fruits, which may all be used in just the same way, should be
soaked before stewing and should be stewed according to the directions
for the preparation and cooking of prunes. Then sufficient sugar to make
them sweet should be added. If they are desired for sauce, they may be
used without any further preparation. However, they may be substituted
for fresh fruit in recipes that call for any of them or for prunes. For
instance, dried apricots, after being stewed, may be passed through a
sieve to make a purée and may then be used to make apricot whip or
soufflé according to the directions given for other similar desserts.
The flavor of apricots is very strong and a small amount of the pulp
will flavor a large quantity of ice cream, sherbet, or water ice.

       *       *       *       *       *

FRUIT AND FRUIT DESSERTS

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) To what are the flavors and odors of fruits chiefly due?

(2) What food substances are found in only very small amounts in fruits?

(3) Mention the kinds of carbohydrate to which the food value of fruits
is chiefly due.

(4) What parts of fruits make up the cellulose they contain?

(5) Discuss the value of minerals in fruits.

(6) Of what value in cookery are fruits containing large quantities of
acid?

(7) What qualities of fruits are affected as they ripen?

(8) Discuss the digestibility of fruits.

(9) What are the effects of cooking on fruit?

(10) What sanitary precautions concerning fruits should be observed?

(11) (_a_) How do weather conditions affect the quality of berries?
(_b_) What is the most important use of berries in cookery?

(12) Name some varieties of apples that can be purchased in your
locality that are best for: (_a_) cookery; (_b_) eating.

(13) How can peach juice be utilized to advantage?

(14) Mention the citrus fruits.

(15) Describe a method of preparing grapefruit for the table.

(16) Describe the preparation of oranges for salads and desserts.

(17) Describe the appearance of bananas in the best condition for
serving.

(18) (_a_) Give a test for the ripeness of pineapples. (_b_) Describe
the most convenient method of preparing pineapples.

(19) Discuss the use of fruit cocktails.

(20) Describe the general preparation of dried fruits that are to be
stewed.

       *       *       *       *       *



CANNING AND DRYING

       *       *       *       *       *

NECESSITY FOR PRESERVING FOODS

1. The various methods of preserving perishable foods in the home for
winter use originated because of necessity. In localities where the
seasons for fruits and vegetables are short, the available supply in
early times was limited to its particular season. Then foods had to be
preserved in some way to provide for the season of scarcity. It was not
possible, as it is now, to obtain foods in all parts of the country from
localities that produce abundantly or have long seasons, because there
were no means of rapid transportation, no cold storage, nor no
commercial canning industries.

2. In the small towns and farming communities, the first preservation
methods for meats, as well as for fruits and vegetables, were pickling,
curing, drying, and preserving. Not until later was canning known. It
was this preserving of foodstuffs in the home that led to the
manufacture and commercial canning of many kinds of edible materials.
These industries, however, are of comparatively recent origin, the first
canning of foods commercially having been done in France about a hundred
years ago. At that time glass jars were utilized, but it was not until
tin cans came into use later in England that commercial canning met with
much favor.

3. Both canning in the home and commercial canning have had many
drawbacks, chief among which was spoiling. It was believed that the
spoiling of canned foods was due to the presence of air in the jars or
cans, and it is only within the last 50 years that the true cause of
spoiling, namely, the presence of bacteria, has been understood. Since
that time methods of canning that are much more successful have been
originated, and the present methods are the result of the study of
bacteria and their functions in nature. It is now definitely known that
on this knowledge depends the success of the various canning methods.

4. Since commercial canning provides nearly every kind of foodstuff, and
since cold storage and rapid transportation make it possible to supply
almost every locality with foods that are out of season, it has not been
deemed so necessary to preserve foods in the home. Nevertheless, the
present day brings forth a new problem and a new attitude toward the
home preservation of foods. There are three distinct reasons why foods
should be preserved in the home. The first is to bring about _economy_.
If fruits, vegetables, and other foods can be procured at a price that
will make it possible to preserve them in the home at a lower cost than
that of the same foods prepared commercially, it will pay from an
economical standpoint. The second is to promote _conservation_; that is,
to prevent the wasting of food. When fruits and vegetables are
plentiful, the supply is often greater than the demand for immediate
consumption. Then, unless the surplus food is preserved in some way for
later use, there will be a serious loss of food material. The third is
to produce _quality_. If the home-canned product can be made superior to
that commercially preserved, then, even at an equal or a slightly higher
cost, it will pay to preserve food in the home.

5. Of the methods of preserving perishable foods, only two, namely,
canning and drying, are considered in this Section. Before satisfactory
methods of canning came into use, drying was a common method of
preserving both fruits and vegetables, and while it has fallen into
disuse to a great extent in the home, much may be said for its value.
Drying consists merely in evaporating the water contained in the food,
and, with the exception of keeping it dry and protected from vermin, no
care need be given to the food in storage. In the preparation of dried
food for the table, it is transformed into its original composition by
the addition of water, in which it is usually soaked and then cooked.

The drying of food is simple, and no elaborate equipment is required for
carrying out the process. Dried food requires less space and care in
storage than food preserved in any other way, and both paper and cloth
containers may be used in storing it. When storage space is limited, or
when there is a very large quantity of some such food as apples or
string beans that cannot be used or canned at once, it is advisable to
dry at least a part of them. When used in combination with canning,
drying offers an excellent means of preserving foods and thus adding to
their variety.

6. Canning has a greater range of possibilities than drying. A larger
number of foods can be preserved in this way, and, besides, the foods
require very little preparation, in some cases none at all, when they
are removed from the cans. Practically every food that may be desired
for use at some future time may be canned and kept if the process is
carried out properly. These include the perishable vegetables and fruits
of the summer season, as well as any winter vegetables that are not
likely to keep in the usual way or that are gathered while they
are immature.

Many ready-to-serve dishes may be made up when the ingredients are the
most plentiful and canned to keep them for the time when they are
difficult or impossible to obtain otherwise. Such foods are very
convenient in any emergency. Often, too, when something is being cooked
for the table, an extra supply may be made with no greater use of fuel
and very little extra labor, and if the excess is canned it will save
labor and fuel for another day. In the same way, left-over foods from
the table may be preserved by reheating and canning them. Many foods and
combinations of foods may be made ready for pies and desserts and then
canned, it being often possible to use fruits that are inferior in
appearance for such purposes.

Soup may be canned. It may be made especially for canning, or it may be
made in larger quantity than is required for a meal and the surplus
canned. For canning, it is an excellent plan to make soup more
concentrated than that which would be served immediately, as such soup
will require fewer jars and will keep better. Water or milk or the
liquid from cooked vegetables or cereals may be added to dilute it when
it is to be served.

Meat and fish also may be canned, and many times it is advisable to do
this, especially in the case of varieties that cannot be preserved to
advantage by such methods as salting, pickling, or curing.

7. The preservation of foods by canning and drying should not be looked
at as an old-fashioned idea; rather, it is a matter in which the
housewife should be vitally interested. In fact, it is the duty of every
housewife to learn all she can about the best methods to employ. Canning
methods have been greatly improved within the last few years, and it is
a wise plan to adopt the newer methods and follow directions closely.
Especially should this be done if foods canned by the older methods have
spoiled or if mold has formed on top of the food in the jars.

In order to preserve foods successfully and with ease, the housewife
should realize the importance of carrying out details with precision and
care. The exactness with which the ingredients are measured, the choice
and care of utensils, the selection and preparation of the food to be
canned--all have a direct bearing on whether her results will be
successful or not.

By observing such points and exercising a little ingenuity, the
economical housewife may provide both a supply and a convenient variety
of practical foods for winter use. For example, one single fruit or
vegetable may be preserved in a number of ways. Thus, if there is a very
large supply of apples that will not keep, some may be canned in large
pieces, some may be put through a sieve, seasoned differently, and
canned as apple sauce, and some may be cut into small pieces and canned
for use in making pies. Apple butter and various kinds of jams and
marmalades may be made of all or part apples, or the apples may be
spiced and used as a relish. Combining fruits of different flavor in
canning also adds variety. In fact, neither quinces nor apples canned
alone are so delicious as the two properly combined and canned together.

In the same way, if the housewife will watch the markets closely and
make good use of materials at hand, she may provide canned foods at
comparatively little cost. Of course, the woman who has a garden of her
own has a decided advantage over the one who must depend on the market
for foods to can. The woman with access to a garden may can foods as
soon as they have been gathered, and for this reason she runs less risk
of losing them after they have been canned. Nevertheless, as has been
pointed out, it is really the duty of every housewife to preserve food
in the home for the use of her family.

       *       *       *       *       *

CANNING

PRINCIPLES OF CANNING

8. CANNING consists in sealing foods in receptacles, such as cans or
jars, in such a way that they will remain sterile for an indefinite
period of time. Several methods of canning are in use, and the one to
adopt will depend considerably on personal preference and the money that
can be expended for the equipment. In any case, successful results in
canning depend on the care that is given to every detail that enters
into the work. This means, then, that from the selection of the food to
be canned to the final operation in canning not one thing that has to do
with good results should be overlooked.

9. SELECTION OF FOOD FOR CANNING.--A careful selection of the food that
is to be canned is of great importance. If it is in good condition at
the time of canning, it is much more likely to remain good when canned
than food that is not. The flavor of the finished product also depends a
great deal on the condition of the food. Fruits have the best flavor
when they are ripe, but they are in the best condition for canning just
before they have completely ripened. Immediately following perfect
ripeness comes the spoiling stage, and if fruits, as well as vegetables,
are canned before they are completely ripe, they are, of course, farther
from the conditions that tend to spoil them. This, however, does not
mean that green fruits or vegetables should be canned.

Whenever possible, any food that is to be canned should be perfectly
fresh. The sooner it is canned after it has been gathered, the more
satisfactory will be the results. For instance, it is better to can it
12 hours after gathering than 24 hours, but to can it 2 hours after is
much better. Fruits, such as berries, that are especially perishable
should not be allowed to stand overnight if this can be prevented; and
it is absolutely necessary to can some vegetables, such as peas, beans,
and corn, within a very few hours after gathering. Unless this is done,
they will develop a bad flavor because of _flat sour_, a condition that
results from the action of certain bacteria. Imperfect fruits should
not be canned, but should be used for making jam, marmalade, or jelly.

10. WHY CANNED FOODS SPOIL.--Canned foods spoil because of the action of
micro-organisms that cause fermentation, putrefaction, and molding. The
reasons for the spoiling of food are thoroughly discussed in _Essentials
of Cookery_, Part 2, and in that discussion canning is mentioned as one
of the means of preserving food or preventing it from spoiling. However,
when canning does not prove effective, it is because undesirable
bacteria are present in the food. Either they have not been destroyed by
the canning process or they have been allowed to enter before the jar
was closed, and have then developed to such an extent as to cause the
food to spoil. Odors, flavors, and gases result from the putrefaction,
fermentation, or molding caused by these bacteria, and these make the
foods offensive or harmful, or perhaps both.

11. PREVENTING CANNED FOODS FROM SPOILING.--From what has just been
said, it will be seen that the success of canning depends entirely on
destroying harmful micro-organisms that are present in the food and
preventing those present in the air from entering the jars in which the
food is placed.

Some foods are more difficult to keep than others, because bacteria act
on them more readily and the foods themselves contain nothing that
prevents their growth. Among such foods are meat, fish, peas, corn,
beans, and meat soups. On the other hand, some foods contain acids that
prevent the growth of bacteria, and these keep easily. Among these are
rhubarb, cranberries, and green gooseberries. However, foods that keep
easily are few, and in most cases extreme care in the process of canning
must be exercised.

12. While warmth is necessary for bacterial growth, very high
temperatures will destroy or retard it. In canning, a temperature as
high as 212 degrees Fahrenheit, or boiling point, retards the growth of
active bacteria, but retarding their growth is not sufficient. They must
be rendered inactive. To do this requires either a higher temperature
than boiling point or long continued cooking at 212 degrees. _Spores_
are a protective form that many kinds of bacteria assume under
unfavorable conditions. They are very difficult to kill, and unless they
are completely destroyed in the canning process, they will develop into
active bacteria when conditions again become favorable. The result of
the spore development is the spoiling of the food.

13. Other things besides the application of heat assist in the keeping
of canned food, as, for example, the acids of the fruits and vegetables
themselves, as has been mentioned. The use of sugar also assists; the
greater the quantity of sugar in solution the easier it will be to keep
the food. This is proved in the case of jams and jellies, which will
keep without being sealed tight or put into jars immediately after
cooking. Salt helps to keep vegetables that are canned, and, in making
butters, conserves, and pickles, the spices and vinegars used help to
protect the foods from bacterial action. However, none of these things
are essential to the keeping of any _sterile food_, by which is meant
food in which all bacteria or sources of bacteria have been rendered
inactive by the application of sufficient heat.

14. CANNING PRESERVATIVES.--Numerous compounds, usually in the form of
powders, are advertised as being useful for keeping canned foods from
spoiling. None of them should be used, however, because they are
unnecessary. If the work of canning is carefully and effectively done,
good foods will keep perfectly without the addition of a preservative.
The pure-food laws of the United States and of many of the states
themselves forbid the use of some preservatives because of their harmful
effect on the human system. For this reason, to say nothing of the extra
expense that would be incurred in their use, such preservatives may well
be left alone.


GENERAL EQUIPMENT FOR CANNING

15. The equipment required for canning depends on two things: the
quantity of food to be canned at one time and, since there are several
canning methods in use, the canning method that is to be employed.

Various kinds of elaborate equipment have been devised to make the work
of canning easy as well as effective. However, it is possible to do
excellent work with simple equipment, and if the matter of expense must
be considered there should be no hesitation about choosing the simplest
and least expensive and doing the work in the best possible way with it.
It is important also that utensils already included in the household
equipment be improvised to meet the needs of the canning season as far
as possible.

16. Whatever the canning method that is to be followed may be, there are
a number of utensils and containers that go to make up the general
equipment that is required. Familiarity with such an equipment is
extremely necessary for correct results in canning, and for this reason
the general equipment is discussed here in detail. The special equipment
needed for each of the canning methods, however, is not taken up until
the method is considered. In giving this general equipment, mention is
made of some utensils that are convenient but not absolutely necessary.
Any unnecessary, but convenient, part of a canning equipment should
therefore be chosen with a view to its labor-saving qualities and its
expense. A device that will make the keeping of canned foods more
certain and prevent loss may be a valuable purchase; still, that which
makes for greater convenience, but not absolute saving, need not be
considered a necessity.

17. VESSELS FOR CANNING.--The pots, kettles, and pans in ordinary use in
the kitchen for cooking purposes are usually satisfactory for the
canning of foods. Those made of tin or iron, however, are not so good as
enameled ones or those made of other metals, such as aluminum.
Especially is this true of utensils used for the canning of acid fruits
or vegetables, because, if such food remains in contact with tin or iron
for more than a few minutes, the acid will corrode the surface
sufficiently to give the food a bad or metallic taste. In addition, such
utensils often give the food a dark color. If enameled kettles are used
for the cooking of foods that are to be canned, it is important that the
surface be perfectly smooth and unbroken. Otherwise, it will be
difficult to prevent burning; besides, chips of the enamel are liable to
get into the food. Kettles for the cooking of fruits with sirup should
be flat and have a broad surface. Fruit is not so likely to crush in
such kettles as in kettles that are deep and have a small surface.

18. KNIVES, SPOONS AND OTHER SMALL UTENSILS.--Many of the small utensils
in a kitchen equipment are practically indispensable for canning
purposes. Thus, for paring fruits and vegetables and cutting out cores,
blossoms, and stem ends or any defective spots, nothing is more
satisfactory than a sharp paring knife with a good point. For paring
acid fruits, though, a plated knife is not so likely to cause
discoloring as a common steel knife. There are, however, other useful
implements for special work, such as the _strawberry huller_, Fig. 1,
for removing the stems of strawberries, and the _peach pitter_, Fig. 2,
for removing the stones from clingstone peaches. For placing the food to
be canned into jars, both forks and large spoons are necessities. A
large spoon with holes or slits in the bowl is convenient for picking
fruits and vegetables out of a kettle when no liquid is desired, as well
as for skimming a kettle of fruit. For packing foods into jars, a
long-handled spoon with a small bowl is convenient. Still another useful
small utensil is a short, wide funnel that may be inserted into the
mouth of a jar and thus permit the food to be dipped or poured into it
without being spilled.

[Illustration: FIG. 1]

19. DEVICES FOR MEASURING.--Accurate measures are necessary in canning;
in fact, some of the work cannot be done satisfactorily without them. A
half-pint measuring cup and a quart measure with the cups marked on it
are very satisfactory for making all measures.

Scales are often convenient, too. For measuring dry materials, they are
always more accurate than measures. Many canning proportions and recipes
call for the measurement of the ingredients by weight rather than by
measure. When this is the case and a pair of scales is not convenient,
it is almost impossible to be certain that the proportions are correct.
For instance, if a recipe calls for a pound of sugar and an equal amount
of fruit, a measuring cup will in no way indicate the correct quantity.

20. COLANDER AND WIRE STRAINER.--For the cleansing of fruits and
vegetables that are to be canned, a colander is of great assistance;
also, if a large wire strainer is purchased, it may be used as a sieve
and for scalding and blanching, steps in canning that are
explained later.

[Illustration: FIG. 2]

21. GLASS JARS.--For household canning, the most acceptable containers
for food are glass jars that may be closed air-tight with jar rubbers
and tops. Use is sometimes made of bottles, jars, and cans of various
kinds that happen to be at hand, but never should they be employed
unless they can be fitted with covers and made positively air-tight.
Like utensils, the glass jars that are a part of the household supply
should be used from year to year, if possible, but not at the loss of
material. Such loss, however, will depend on the proper sealing of the
jars, provided everything up to that point has been correctly done. All
jars should be carefully inspected before they are used, because
imperfect or broken edges are often responsible for the spoiling
of food.

In purchasing glass jars, only what are known as _first quality_ should
be selected. Cheap jars are likely to be seconds and will not prove so
satisfactory. Glass jars may be purchased in sizes that hold from 1/2
pint to 2 quarts. If possible, food should be canned in the size of jar
that best suits the number of persons to be served.

If the family consists of two, pint jars will hold even more than may be
used at one time, while if the family is large the contents of a quart
jar may not be sufficient.

[Illustration: FIG. 3]

22. Numerous types of glass jars are to be had. Some of them are more
convenient than others and may be made air-tight more easily. These two
features are the most important to consider in making a selection. Jars
that close with difficulty, especially if the tops screw on, are not
likely to keep food successfully because the bacteria in the air will
have a chance to enter and thus cause the food to spoil.

Glass jars used for canning foods have improved with canning methods.
The old-style jars had a groove into which the cover fit, and melted
sealing wax or rosin was poured into the space surrounding the cover.
Later came the screw-top jar shown in Fig. 3. This type of jar has been
extensively used with excellent results. Both the mouth of this jar and
the jar top, which is made of metal, usually zinc, lined with glass or
porcelain, have threads that match, and the jar is sealed by placing the
jar rubber over the top, or ridge, of the jar and then screwing the jar
top firmly in place. Such jars, however, are more difficult to make
air-tight than some of the newer types. One of these jars is illustrated
in Fig. 4. It is provided with a glass cover that fits on the ridge of
the jar and a metal clasp that serves to hold the cover in place and to
make the jar air-tight after a rubber is placed in position. Another
convenient and simple type of glass jar, known as the _automatic seal
top_, has a metal cover with a rubber attached.

Another improvement in jars is that the opening has been enlarged so
that large fruits and vegetables, such as peaches, tomatoes, etc., can
be packed into them whole. With such wide-mouthed jars, it is easier to
pack the contents in an orderly manner and thus improve the appearance
of the product. Besides, it is a simpler matter to clean such a jar than
one that has a small opening.

[Illustration: FIG. 4]

23. JAR TOPS AND COVERS.--While the tops, or covers, for glass jars are
made of both metal and glass, as has been stated, the glass tops meet
with most favor. Of course, they are breakable, but they are even more
durable than metal tops, which are usually rendered less effective by
the bending they undergo when they are removed from the jar. Covers made
of zinc are being rapidly abandoned, and it has been proved that the
fewer the grooves and the simpler the cover, the more carefully and
successfully can it be cleaned. For safety, glass tops that have become
chipped or nicked on the edges that fit the jar should be replaced by
perfect ones. The covers for automatic-seal jars must be pierced before
they can be removed, and this necessitates a new supply for each
canning. If there is any question about the first-class condition of jar
covers, whether of metal or glass, tops that are perfect should
be provided.

24. JAR RUBBERS.--Jar rubbers are required with jar tops to seal jars
air-tight. Before they are used, they should be tested in the manner
shown in Fig. 5. Good jar rubbers will return to their original shape
after being stretched. Such rubbers should be rather soft and elastic,
and they should fit the jars perfectly and lie down flat when adjusted.
A new supply of rubbers should be purchased each canning season, because
rubber deteriorates as it grows old. Rubbers of good quality will stand
boiling for 5 hours without being affected, but when they have become
stiff and hard from age it is sometimes impossible to make jars
air-tight. Occasionally, two old rubbers that are comparatively soft may
be used in place of a new one, and sometimes old rubbers are dipped in
paraffin and then used. However, if there is any difficulty in sealing
jars properly with rubbers so treated, they should be discarded and good
ones used.

25. TIN CANS.--For household canning, tin cans are not so convenient as
glass jars, but in spite of this they are coming into extensive use. The
kind that may be used without any special equipment has a tin lid that
fits into a groove and is fastened in place with rosin or sealing wax.
Some cans, however, require that the lids be soldered in place. While
soldering requires special equipment, this method of making the cans
air-tight is the best, and it is employed where considerable canning is
done, as by canning clubs or commercial canners.

[Illustration: FIG. 5]

In the purchase of tin cans, the size of the opening should receive
consideration. If large fruits and vegetables, such as peaches, pears,
and tomatoes, are to be canned, the opening must be a large one;
whereas, if peas, beans, corn, and other small vegetables or fruits are
to be canned, cans having a smaller opening may be chosen. When acid
fruits or vegetables are to be canned, use should be made of cans that
are coated with shellac, as this covering on the inside of the cans
prevents any action of the acid on the tin.

       *       *       *       *       *

CANNING METHODS

GENERAL DISCUSSION

26. The methods employed for the canning of foods include the
_open-kettle method_, the _cold-pack method_, the _steam-pressure
method_, and the _oven method_. Of these, the open-kettle method is
perhaps the oldest household method of canning, and it is still used by
many housewives. The other methods, which are newer, seem troublesome to
the housewife who is familiar with the open-kettle method, yet it will
only be fair to give the new methods a trial before deciding which to
use. The one-period cold-pack method has much to recommend it. Foods
canned in this way undergo less change in form and flavor than those
canned by the open-kettle method; besides, there is less danger of
spoiling. In fact, many foods, such as vegetables and meats, that cannot
be canned satisfactorily by the open-kettle method will keep perfectly
if they are carefully preserved by the one-period cold-pack method. The
steam-pressure method requires the use of special equipment, as is
explained later. While it is a very acceptable canning method, it is not
accessible in many homes. The oven method is liked by many housewives,
but it offers almost the same chance for contamination as does the
open-kettle method.


OPEN-KETTLE METHOD

27. The OPEN-KETTLE METHOD of canning is very simple and requires no
equipment other than that to be found in every kitchen. It consists in
thoroughly cooking the food that is to be canned, transferring it to
containers, and sealing them immediately.

28. UTENSILS REQUIRED.--Not many utensils are required for the
open-kettle canning method. For cooking the food, a large enamel or
metal vessel other than tin or iron should be provided. It should be
broad and shallow, rather than deep, especially for fruit, as this food
retains its shape better if it is cooked in a layer that is not deep.
The other utensils for canning fruits and vegetables by this method are
practically the same as those already discussed--measuring utensils, a
knife, large spoons, pans for sterilizing jars or cans, covers, rubbers,
and jars or cans into which to put the food.

29. PROCEDURE.--The first step in the open-kettle canning method
consists in sterilizing the containers. To do this, first clean the
jars, covers, and rubbers by washing them and then boiling them in clear
water for 15 to 20 minutes.

Next, attention should be given to the food that is to be canned. Look
it over carefully, cut out any decayed portions, and wash it thoroughly.
Sometimes roots, leaves, stems, or seeds are removed before washing, and
sometimes this is not done until after washing. At any rate, all dirt or
foreign material must be washed from foods before they are ready
for canning.

After preparing the food, it must be cooked. If fruit is being canned,
put it into the required sirup, the making of which is explained later,
and cook it until it is well softened, as if preparing it for immediate
table use. If vegetables are being canned, cook them in the same way,
but use salt and water instead of sirup. When the food is cooked,
transfer it to the sterile jars and seal at once with the sterile
rubbers and covers. Then invert each jar to permit the food to cool and
to test for leaks.

30. The danger of not securing good results with the open-kettle method
lies in the possibility of contaminating the contents before the jar is
closed and sealed. In addition to having the jars, rubbers, and covers
sterile, therefore, all spoons and other utensils used to handle the
cooked food must be sterile. Likewise, the jars must be filled to the
top and the covers put on and made as firm and tight as possible at
once, so that as few bacteria as possible will enter. If screw-top cans
are used, the tops should not be twisted or turned after cooling, as
this may affect the sealing. If jars leak upon being turned upside down,
the contents must be removed and reheated and the jar must be fitted
with another cover. Then both jar and cover must be sterilized and the
contents returned and sealed immediately.


COLD-PACK METHOD

31. The COLD-PACK METHOD of canning differs from the open-kettle method
in that the food to be canned is not cooked in a kettle before placing
it in the jars and sealing them. In this method, the food to be canned
is prepared by washing, peeling, scraping, hulling, stemming, seeding,
or cutting, depending on the kind. Then it is _scalded_ or _blanched_
and plunged into cold water quickly and taken out immediately, the
latter operation being called _cold-dipping_. After this it is placed
into hot jars, covered with boiling liquid--boiling water and salt for
vegetables, meats, fish, or soups, and boiling sirup for fruits. Then
the filled jars are covered loosely and placed in a water bath and
_processed_; that is, cooked and sterilized. When food that is being
canned is subjected to processing only once, the method is referred to
as the _one-period cold-pack method_; but when the food in the jars has
not been blanched and cold-dipped and is processed, allowed to stand 24
hours and then processed again, and this operation repeated, it is
called the _fractional-sterilization method_. The equipment required for
the cold-pack canning method and the procedure in performing the work
are taken up in detail, so that every point concerning the work may be
thoroughly understood.

[Illustration: FIG. 6]

32. UTENSILS REQUIRED.--The utensils required for canning by the
cold-pack method are shown assembled in Fig. 6. Chief among them is a
_sterilizer_, or boiler, which consists of a large fiat-bottomed vessel
fitted with a rack and a tight-fitting cover. A number of such devices
are manufactured for canning by the cold-pack method, but it is possible
to improvise one in the home. A wash boiler, a large pail, a large lard
can, or, in fact, any large vessel with a flat bottom into which is
fitted a rack of some kind to keep the jars 3/4 inch above the bottom
can be used. Several layers of wire netting cut to correct size and
fastened at each end to a 3/4-inch strip of wood will do very well for a
rack. In any event, the vessel must be deep enough to allow the water to
cover the jars completely and must have a tight-fitting cover. Besides a
sterilizer, there are needed three large vessels, one for scalding the
food that is to be canned, one for cold-dipping, and one for keeping the
jars hot. To hold the food that is to be dipped, a sieve, a wire
basket, also shown in Fig. 6, or a large square of cheesecloth must also
be provided, and for placing jars in the water bath, a can lifter, a
type of which is shown on the table in Fig. 6, may be needed. The
remainder of the equipment is practically the same as that described
under the heading General Equipment for Canning.


PROCEDURE IN THE ONE-PERIOD COLD-PACK METHOD

33. PREPARING THE CONTAINERS.--The first step in the cold-pack method
consists in preparing the containers for the food. The jars, rubbers,
and covers, however, do not have to be sterilized as in the open-kettle
method. But it is necessary first to test and cleanse the jars and then
to keep them hot, so that later, when they are filled and ready to be
placed in the water bath, they will not crack by coming in contact with
boiling water. The best way in which to keep the jars hot is to let them
stand in hot water.

[Illustration: FIG. 7]

34. PREPARATION OF THE FOOD.--Attention should next be directed to the
preparation of the food to be canned; that is, clean it and have it
ready for the processes that follow. The fruits or vegetables may be
canned whole or in pieces of any desirable size. What to do with them is
explained later, when the directions for canning the different kinds are
discussed. While the food is undergoing preparation, fill the sterilizer
with hot water and allow it to come to the boiling point.

35. SCALDING AND BLANCHING.--When the food is made ready, the next step
is to scald or blanch it. Scalding is done to loosen the skin of such
food as peaches, plums, and tomatoes, so that they may be peeled
easily. To scald such fruits or vegetables, dip them quickly into
boiling water and allow them to remain there just long enough to loosen
the skin. If they are ripe, the scalding must be done quickly; otherwise
they will become soft. They should never be allowed to remain in the
water after the skin begins to loosen. For scalding fruits and
vegetables a wire basket or a square of cheesecloth may be used in the
manner shown in Figs. 7 and 8.

Blanching is done to reduce the bulk of such foods as spinach and other
greens, to render them partly sterilized, and to improve their flavor.
It consists in dipping the food into boiling water or suspending it over
live steam and allowing it to remain there for a longer period of time
than is necessary for scalding. To blanch food, place it in a wire
basket, a sieve, or a piece of clean cheesecloth and lower it into
boiling water or suspend it above the water in a closely covered vessel.
Allow it to remain there long enough to accomplish the purpose intended.

[Illustration: FIG. 8]

36. COLD DIPPING.--After the food to be canned is scalded or blanched,
it is ready for cold-dipping. Cold-dipping is done partly to improve the
color of the food. It stops the softening process at once, makes the
food more firm and thus easier to handle, and helps to loosen the skin
of foods that have been scalded. It also assists in destroying bacteria
by suddenly shocking the spores after the application of heat.
Cold-dipping, in conjunction with blanching or scalding, replaces the
long process of fractional sterilization, and is what makes the
one-period cold-pack method superior to this other process. To cold-dip
food, simply plunge that which has just been scalded or blanched into
cold water, as in Fig. 9, and then take it out at once.

37. PACKING THE JARS.--Packing the jars immediately follows
cold-dipping, and it is work that should be done as rapidly as possible.
Remove the jars from the hot water as they are needed and fill each with
the cold-dipped fruit or vegetable. Pack the jars in an orderly manner
and as solidly as possible with the aid of a spoon, as in Fig. 10. Just
this little attention to detail not only will help to improve the
appearance of the canned fruit, but will make it possible to put more
food in the jars.

[Illustration: FIG. 9]

When a jar is filled, pour into it whatever liquid is to be used, as in
Fig. 11. As has been stated, hot sirup is added for fruits and boiling
water and salt for vegetables. However, when fruit is to be canned
without sugar, only water is added. With tomatoes and some greens, no
liquid need be used, because they contain a sufficient amount in
themselves.

[Illustration: FIG. 10]

38. PREPARATION FOR THE WATER BATH.--As the jars are filled, they must
be prepared for the water bath. Therefore, proceed to place the rubber
and cover on the jar. Adjust the rubber, as shown in Fig. 12, so that it
will be flat in place. Then put the cover, or lid, on as in Fig. 13, but
do not tighten it. The cover must be loose enough to allow steam to
escape during the boiling in the water bath and thus prevent the jar
from bursting. If the cover screws on, as in the jar at the left, do not
screw it down tight; merely turn it lightly until it stops without
pressure being put upon it. If glass covers that fasten in place with
the aid of a clamp are to be used, as in the jar at the right, simply
push the wire over the cover and allow the clamp at the side to remain
up. Jars of food so prepared are ready for processing.

[Illustration: FIG 11]

[Illustration: FIG. 12]

39. PROCESSING.--The purpose of the water bath is to _process_ the food
contained in the jars before they are thoroughly sealed. Therefore, when
the jars are filled, proceed to place them in the water bath. The water,
which was placed in the sterilizer during the preparation of the food,
should be boiling, and there should be enough to come 2 inches over the
tops of the jars when they are placed in this large vessel. In putting
the jars of food into the sterilizer, place them upright and allow them
to rest on the rack in the bottom. If the filled jars have cooled, they
should be warmed before placing them in the sterilizer by putting them
in hot water. On account of the boiling water, the jars should be
handled with a jar lifter, as in Fig. 14. However, if the sterilizer is
provided with a perforated part like that in Fig. 15, all the jars may
be placed in it and then lowered in place.

[Illustration: FIG. 13]

When the jars are in place, put the tight-fitting cover on the
sterilizer and allow the water to boil and thus cook and sterilize the
food in the jars. The length of time for boiling varies with the kind of
food and is given later with the directions for canning different foods.
The boiling time should be counted from the instant the water in the
sterilizer begins to bubble violently. A good plan to follow, provided
an alarm clock is at hand, it to set it at this time, so that it will go
off when the jars are to be removed from the sterilizer.

[Illustration: FIG. 14]

[Illustration: FIG. 15]

40. SEALING THE JARS.--After processing the food in this manner, the
jars must be completely sealed. Therefore, after the boiling has
continued for the required length of time, remove the jars from the
water with the aid of the jar lifter or the tray and seal them at once
by clamping or screwing the covers, or lids, in place, as in Fig. 16.
Sometimes, the food inside the jars shrinks so much in this process that
the jars are not full when they are ready to be sealed. This is
illustrated in Fig. 17. Such shrinkage is usually the result of
insufficient blanching, or poor packing or both. However, it will not
prevent the food from keeping perfectly. Therefore, the covers of such
jars of food must not be removed and the jars refilled; rather, seal the
jars tight immediately, just as if the food entirely filled them. If, in
sealing jars removed from the water bath, it is found that a rubber has
worked loose, shove it back carefully with the point of a clean knife,
but do not remove the cover.

[Illustration: FIG. 15]

As the jars are sealed, place them on their sides or stand them upside
down, as in Fig. 18, to test for leaks, in a place where a draft will
not strike them and cause them to break. If a leak is found in any jar,
a new rubber and cover must be provided and the food then reprocessed
for a few minutes. This may seem to be a great inconvenience, but it is
the only way in which to be certain that the food will not be wasted
by spoiling.

[Illustration: FIG. 17]

[Illustration: FIG. 18]

[Illustration: FIG. 19]

41. WRAPPING AND LABELING.--When the jars of food have stood long
enough to cool, usually overnight, they are ready for wrapping and
labeling. Wrapping is advisable for practically all foods that are
canned, so as to prevent bleaching, and, of course, labeling is
necessary when canned food is wrapped, so as to enable it to be
distinguished readily when it is in storage. To wrap canned foods,
proceed as in Fig. 19. Use ordinary wrapping paper cut to a size that
will be suitable for the jar, and secure it in place with a rubber band,
as shown, or by pasting the label over the free edge.


PROCEDURE IN THE FRACTIONAL-STERILIZATION METHOD

42. In canning food by the FRACTIONAL-STERILIZATION CANNING METHOD, the
procedure is much the same as in the one-period cold-pack method. In
fact, the only difference between the two is that blanching and
cold-dipping are omitted, and in their stead the food in the jars is
subjected to three periods of cooking. When the jars of food are made
ready for processing in the sterilizer, they are put in the water bath,
boiled for a short time, and then allowed to cool. After 24 hours, they
are again boiled for the same length of time and allowed to cool. After
another 24 hours, they are subjected to boiling for a third time. Then
the jars of food are removed and sealed as in the one-period cold-pack
method. By the fractional-sterilization method, the spores of bacteria
contained in the food packed in the jars are given a chance to develop
during the 24-hour periods after the first and second cookings, those
which become active being destroyed by cooking the second and third
times. Although some canners prefer this method to those already
mentioned, the majority look on it with disfavor, owing to the length of
time it requires.


STEAM-PRESSURE METHODS

43. For canning foods by steam pressure, special equipment is necessary.
In one of the steam-pressure methods, what is known as a _water-seal
outfit_ is required, and in the other a device called a _pressure
cooker_ is employed. The work of getting the containers ready, preparing
the food for canning, packing it into the jars, and sealing and testing
the jars is practically the same in the steam pressure methods as in the
cold-pack methods. The difference lies in the cooking and sterilization
of the foods after they are in the jars and partly sealed and in the
rapidity with which it may be done.

44. CANNING WITH A WATER-SEAL OUTFIT.--A water-seal outfit, which may be
purchased in stores that sell canning supplies, consists of a large
metal vessel into which fits a perforated metal basket designed to hold
jars of food. This vessel is also provided with a tight-fitting cover
having an edge that passes down through the water, which is placed in
the bottom of the vessel. When heat is applied to the bottom of the
vessel, the water inside of it is changed into steam. The cover prevents
the steam from passing out, and it collects in and around the metal
basket supporting the jars of food. Enough steam is generated in this
outfit to raise the temperature about 4 to 6 degrees above the boiling
point. Thus, the water-seal outfit will cook the food in the cans in
about one-fourth less time than will the water bath of the one-period
cold-pack canning method.

[Illustration: FIG. 20]

45. CANNING WITH A PRESSURE COOKER.--For canning by steam pressure, a
number of different kinds of pressure cookers are to be had, but in
principle they are all alike and they are always made of heavy material,
so as to withstand the severe steam pressure generated in them. In Fig.
20 is shown one type of pressure cooker. It is provided with a bail, or
handle, for carrying it and with clamps that hold the cover firmly in
place. Attached to the cover is a steam gauge, which indicates the steam
pressure inside the cooker, and a pet-cock, which is used to regulate
the pressure. On some cookers, a thermometer is also attached to the
cover. Also, inside of some, resting on the bottom, is an elevated rack
for supporting the jars of food that are to be sterilized and cooked. In
operating a pressure cooker, water for generating steam is poured in
until it reaches the top of this rack, but it should not be allowed to
cover any part of the jars of food. Steam is generated by applying heat
to the bottom of the cooker, and the longer the heat is applied the
higher the steam pressure will go.

It is possible to secure a steam pressure of 5 to 25 pounds per square
inch in a cooker of this kind. This means that the temperature reached
will vary from a few degrees above boiling to about 275 degrees
Fahrenheit. At a pressure of 20 pounds, the temperature will be about
260 degrees. The heavier the material used for a cooker and the more
solid the construction, the higher may go the steam pressure, and, of
course, the temperature. Some cookers of light construction will not
permit of a pressure greater than 5 pounds, but even such cookers are
very satisfactory. It is the high temperature that may be developed in a
pressure cooker that greatly shortens the time required for cooking jars
of food and making them sterile.


CANNING WITH TIN CANS

46. For canning food in some tin cans, it is necessary to have a
soldering outfit for properly closing them. This consists of a capping
steel, a tipping iron, solder in small strips and in powder form, a
small can of sal ammoniac, and a bottle of flux, which is a fluid that
makes solder stick to tin.

47. Prepare the food that is to be canned in tin cans in the same way as
for canning in jars by the cold-pack method; likewise, pack the cans in
the same way, but allow the liquid and fruit or vegetables to come to
within only 1/4 inch of the top. Then proceed to close the cans. Apply
the flux to the groove in the top of each can where the solder is to be
melted, using for this purpose a small brush or a small stick having a
piece of cloth wrapped around one end. Heat the capping steel, which
should be thoroughly clean, until it is almost red hot, dip it quickly
into a little of the flux, and then put it into a mixture consisting of
equal parts of sal ammoniac and powdered solder until it is covered with
bright solder. Put the cap on the can and apply the hot capping steel
covered with the solder. Hold this device firmly, press it downwards,
and turn it slowly as the solder melts and thus joins the cap to
the can.

48. After the caps are soldered in place, the air inside the cans must
be driven out through the small vent, or opening, usually in the center
of the cap, and the cans made air-tight. Therefore, place the cans into
boiling water to within 1/2 inch of the top and let them remain there
for a few minutes. Usually, 3 minutes in boiling water is sufficient.
Immediately after _exhausting_, as this process is called, apply a
little of the flux as in capping, and, with the tipping iron well heated
and a strip of solder, seal the hole in the caps. After this is done,
test each can for leaks by submerging it in water. If bubbles arise, it
is an indication that the cover is not tight and must be resoldered.

49. The next step consists in processing the cans of food. This may be
done either in a water bath or in a pressure cooker. If the cans are to
be processed in a water bath, keep them in the boiling water just as
long as glass jars of food would be kept there. If a pressure cooker is
to be used, keep the cans in it for 6 to 40 minutes, depending on the
steam pressure employed, the ripeness of the food or the necessity for
cooking it, and the size of the cans employed. For canning meat or fish,
processing in a pressure cooker is the most successful, as the high
temperature reached in it kills bacteria, which are difficult to destroy
at the boiling point.

As soon as the cans of food are removed from the water bath or the
pressure cooker, plunge them into cold water to stop the cooking and
prevent the food from getting soft and mushy. Then label the cans, so
that no mistake will be made as to their contents.

50. In another method, the tin cans may be closed without soldering the
caps on. The caps used in this case are different from those which must
be soldered. They are forced in place by a hand-pressure machine that
may be attached to a table. Otherwise the procedure is the same as that
just given.


OVEN METHOD

51. The OVEN METHOD oven method of canning is thought to be very
satisfactory by many housewives, but, as it is necessary to remove the
covers after cooking the contents of the jars, food canned in this way
is subjected to contamination, just as in the open-kettle method. In
addition, the jars are difficult to handle in the oven, owing to the
extreme heat that is required to cook the food in the jars.

52. In canning by the oven method, proceed by preparing the food as for
the cold-pack canning method; also, fill the jars with fruit or
vegetables and with liquid or sirup as in this method. Put the covers on
the jars loosely, omitting the jar rubbers. Place the jars in a shallow
pan of water, as in Fig. 21, and set the pan containing the jars into a
stove oven, which should be only slightly warm. At the same time place
the jar rubbers in a pan of boiling water, so that they may be
sterilized as the food cooks. When the jars are in the oven, increase
the heat gradually until the food in them boils. Then keep up a
temperature that will allow the food to boil quietly for a period long
enough to cook it soft and sterilize it. Usually, 30 to 45 minutes after
boiling has begun will be sufficient. During the cooking some of the
liquid in the jars evaporates. Therefore, when the jars of food are
ready to be removed from the oven, have boiling water or sirup ready,
remove the cover of each jar in turn, and fill the jar brimful with the
liquid. Then place a sterilized rubber in place and fasten the cover
down tight. The procedure from this point on is the same as in the other
canning methods.

[Illustration: FIG. 21]

       *       *       *       *       *

CANNING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS

PREPARATION FOR CANNING

53. In canning, as in all other tasks related to cookery, the
housewife's aim should be to do the greatest amount of work, and do it
well, with the least effort on her part. The results she gets in
canning, then, will depend considerably on the orderly arrangement of
the utensils and materials with which she is to do the work. But of
greater importance is the preparation she makes to eliminate as much as
she can the possibilities of contamination, for, as has been repeatedly
pointed out, success in canning depends on the absence of
dangerous bacteria.

54. From what has just been mentioned, it is essential that everything
about the person who is to do the work and the place in which the work
is to done should be clean. Clean dresses and aprons should be worn, and
the hands and finger nails should be scrupulously clean. The kitchen
floor should be scrubbed and the furniture dusted with a damp cloth. Any
unnecessary utensils and kitchen equipment should be put out of the way
and those required for canning assembled and made ready for the work.
The jars should be washed and the covers tested by fitting them on
without the rubbers. If a glass cover rocks, it does not fit correctly;
and if a screw cover will not screw down tight, it should be discarded.
Without the rubber, there should be just enough space between the cover
and the jar to permit the thumb nail to be inserted as is shown in Fig.
3. The edge of each jar and each glass cover should be carefully
examined every time it is used, so that none with pieces chipped off
will be used, as these will admit air. This examination is made by
running the finger over the edge of the jar and the cover, as is shown
in Fig. 4. The jars, covers, and rubbers should be put into pans of cold
water, and the water should be brought to the boiling point and allowed
to boil for 15 minutes or more while the fruit or vegetables are being
prepared for canning. They should be kept in the hot water until the
food is ready to be placed in them. In the one-period cold-pack method,
it is not necessary to boil the jars, rubbers, and covers, but this may
be done if desired.

To produce good-looking jars of food, the fruit or vegetables to be
canned should be graded to some extent; that is, the finest of the
fruits or vegetables should be separated and used by themselves, as
should also those of medium quality. Often it is wise to use the poorest
foods for purposes other than canning. The food may then be canned
according to the chosen method, but by no means should methods be mixed.
In handling the product after it has been cooked by the open-kettle
method, any spoon, funnel, or other utensil must be thoroughly
sterilized in the same way as the jars and their covers and rubbers;
indeed, no unsterile utensil should ever be allowed to touch the food
when a jar is being filled.

[Illustration: FIG. 22]

55. It is by the observance of such precautions as these, some of them
seemingly unimportant, that the housewife will be repaid for her efforts
in canning and be able to produce canned fruits and vegetables like
those shown in color in Fig. 22. This illustration shows, with a few
exceptions, such foods canned by the one-period cold-pack method, and
merits close inspection. As will be observed, the jars are full and well
packed and the color of each food is retained. Each can of food
indicates careful work and serves to show the housewife what she may
expect if she performs her work under the right conditions and in the
right way. This illustration likewise serves to demonstrate that any
food may be successfully canned by the one-period cold-pack method, a
claim that cannot be made for the other canning methods. In fact, some
of the foods illustrated, as, for instance, peas and corn, cannot be
canned successfully by any other method.


DIRECTIONS FOR CANNING VEGETABLES

56. CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES.--To simplify the directions here given
for the canning of vegetables, this food is divided into four groups,
as follows:

1. _Greens_, which include all wild and cultivated edible greens, such
as beet greens, collards, cress, dandelion, endive, horseradish greens,
kale, mustard greens, spinach, New Zealand spinach, and Swiss chard.

2. _Pod and related vegetables_, which include asparagus, beans, both
string and wax, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, eggplant, okra,
peppers, both green and ripe, summer squash, and vegetable marrow.

3. _Root and tuber vegetables_, which include beets, carrots, kohlrabi,
parsnips, rutabagas, salsify, sweet potatoes, and turnips.

4. _Special vegetables_, which include beans, both Lima and shell, corn,
mushrooms, peas, pumpkin, sauerkraut, squash, succotash and other
vegetable combinations, and tomatoes.

The convenience of this plan will be readily seen when it is understood
that, with the exception of the special vegetables, the same method of
preparation and the time given for the various steps in the canning
process apply to all vegetables of the same class. Thus, if directions
for a vegetable belonging to a certain class are not definitely stated
in the text, it may be taken for granted that this vegetable may be
canned in the manner given for another vegetable of the same class.

57. GENERAL DIRECTIONS.--The canning of vegetables may be most
successfully done by the one-period cold-pack method. Tomatoes,
however, because of the large quantity of acid they contain, may be
canned and kept with little difficulty by the open-kettle method, but
they will be found to keep their shape better if the cold-pack method
is employed.

The time required for cooking any vegetable after it is packed in jars
depends on the kind and the age. Therefore, if a vegetable is hard or
likely to be tough, it may be necessary to increase the time given in
the directions; whereas, if it is young and tender or very ripe, as in
the case of tomatoes, the time for cooking may perhaps have to be
decreased. Because, in altitudes higher than sea level, the boiling
point of water is lower than 212 degrees Fahrenheit, the length of time
for boiling foods in the water bath must be increased after an altitude
of 500 feet is reached. Therefore, for every additional 500 feet over
the first 500 feet, 10 per cent. should be added to the time given for
the boiling in water. In case a pressure cooker is used, however, this
is not necessary.

The canning directions here given are for 1-quart jars. If pint jars are
to be used, decrease the salt proportionately; also, decrease the time
for cooking in each case one-fifth of the time, or 20 per cent. If
2-quart jars are to be used, double the amount of salt and add to the
length of time for cooking one-fifth, or 20 per cent. For instance, if a
1-quart jar of food requires 90 minutes, a pint jar of the same food
would require 72 minutes and a 2-quart jar, 108 minutes.


GROUP 1--GREENS

58. In canning greens, or vegetables belonging to the first group,
select those which are fresh and tender. Greens that are old and
inclined to be strong and tough may require longer blanching and
cooking. Look the greens over carefully, rejecting all leaves that are
wilted or otherwise spoiled. Cut off the roots and drop the leaves into
a pan of cold water. Wash these thoroughly a number of times, using
fresh water each time, in order to remove all sand and dirt that may be
clinging to them. Then proceed to blanch them for 10 to 15 minutes in
steam, suspending the greens over boiling water in a piece of
cheesecloth, a colander, or the top of a steamer. After blanching, dip
them quickly into cold water. Then pack the greens tightly into jars and
add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful. No water has to be added to
greens, because the leaves themselves contain sufficient water. When the
jars are thus packed, adjust the covers and proceed to sterilize and
cook the greens according to the directions previously given. If the
water bath is to be used, boil them in it for 1-1/2 to 2 hours; but if
the pressure cooker is to be employed for this purpose, cook them at a
5-pound pressure for 60 minutes or at a 10-pound pressure for
40 minutes.


GROUP 2--POD AND RELATED VEGETABLES

59. The best results in canning vegetables belonging to the second group
will be derived when those which are fresh and tender are selected. As
has been mentioned, the sooner vegetables are canned after they are
taken from the garden, the better will be the canned product. Directions
for practically all vegetables included in this group are here given.

60. ASPARAGUS.--Select tender asparagus, and proceed with the canning no
later than 5 hours after it has been taken from the garden. Remove the
hard portions at the ends of the stems, and cut the trimmed stems into
pieces the length of the jars into which they are to be placed. If
preferred, however, the asparagus may be cut into small pieces. Wash the
cut asparagus thoroughly in cold water, and then sort out the uneven
pieces that were cut off in making the stems even in length. These may
be canned separately for soup. Lay the stems of asparagus in an orderly
pile in a colander or a wire basket, cover it, and place it into a large
vessel where it may be kept completely covered with boiling water for 5
minutes. Then cold-dip the asparagus quickly, and pack it neatly into
the jars, keeping the tip ends up. Add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each
jarful and pour boiling water into each jar until it is completely full.
Adjust the covers and proceed to sterilize and cook the jars of food.
Cook for 1-1/2 to 2 hours in the water bath, or, in the pressure cooker,
cook for 60 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 40 minutes at a
pressure of 10 pounds.

61. BRUSSELS SPROUTS, CABBAGE, AND CAULIFLOWER.--In canning Brussels
sprouts, cabbage, or cauliflower, first prepare each vegetable as if it
were to be cooked for the table. When thus made ready, blanch it with
the aid of a square of cheesecloth or a colander in live steam, over
boiling water, for 10 to 15 minutes. Then cold-dip it and pack it
tightly into the jars. Add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful and fill
each jar with boiling water. Proceed next to sterilize and cook it
according to the method selected. Boil for 90 minutes in the water bath;
in the pressure cooker, cook for 60 minutes at a 5-pound pressure or for
40 minutes at a 10-pound pressure.

62. EGGPLANT AND SUMMER SQUASH.--Both eggplant and summer squash are
canned in the same way, because the consistency of these vegetables is
much alike. Select firm vegetables with no decayed spots. Blanch for 3
to 8 minutes in boiling water; cold-dip quickly; remove the skins; cut
into pieces of a size that will fit into the jars; pack into the jars;
and add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful. Next, adjust the jar lids
and proceed according to the directions given for the method selected.
In the water bath, boil for 1-1/2 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook
for 60 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 40 minutes at a pressure
of 10 pounds. Eggplant or summer squash so canned may be rolled in egg
and crumbs and sautéd or fried, the same as fresh vegetables of
this kind.

63. OKRA AND GREEN PEPPERS.--Both okra and green peppers may also be
canned in the same way. Prepare these vegetables for canning by washing
fresh, tender pods of either vegetable thoroughly. Blanch for 5 to 15
minutes in boiling water and cold-dip quickly. Pack the pods into the
jars, add a teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, and fill the jars with
boiling water. Adjust the lids and proceed according to directions for
the method selected. In the water bath, boil for 1-1/2 to 2 hours; in
the pressure cooker, cook for 60 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or
for 40 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.

64. STRING BEANS.--String beans of any variety should be canned as soon
as they are gathered. If the beans to be canned are not of the
stringless variety, prepare them by stringing them, following the
directions given in _Vegetables_, Part 1. Stringless beans should be
selected if possible, to avoid this part of the work. Cut out any rusted
portions, cut each end from the beans, and, if preferred, cut the beans
into inch lengths. When thus prepared, blanch them for 10 to 15 minutes
in live steam, cold-dip quickly, and pack tightly into the jars. Add a
teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, fill the jars with boiling water,
adjust the lids, and cook according to the method preferred. In the
water bath, boil for 1-1/2 to 2 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook for
60 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 40 minutes at a pressure of
10 pounds.


GROUP 3--ROOT AND TUBER VEGETABLES

65. Only the small, young, and tender vegetables included in the third
group lend themselves readily to canning. As a rule, such vegetables are
allowed to mature, when they can be stored for winter use without
canning them. However, many housewives like to can some of them for the
variety they offer in the preparation and planning of meals.

66. BEETS.--For canning, select small, young beets. Prepare them by
cutting off the tops, which may be cooked as greens or canned
separately, and all but about an inch of the stems and an inch of the
roots. Scrub the trimmed beets well, and then blanch them in boiling
water for 5 to 15 minutes or until the skins may be easily scraped off
with a knife. Plunge them quickly into cold water and draw them out
again. Then scrape off the skins and remove the roots and stems. The
roots and stems are left on during the blanching and cold-dipping to
prevent them from bleeding, or losing color. When thus prepared, pack
the beets into jars, add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, and fill
the jars with boiling water. Then adjust the jar tops and proceed to
sterilize and cook the jars of beets according to the directions for any
preferred method. In the water bath, cook them for 1-1/2 hours; in the
pressure cooker, cook them for 1 hour at a pressure of 5 pounds or for
40 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.

67. CARROTS, PARSNIPS, AND TURNIPS.--Young parsnips and turnips are
canned in exactly the same way as young carrots. Therefore, directions
for the canning of carrots will suffice for all three of these
vegetables. Prepare the carrots for canning by cutting off the tops and
the roots and scrubbing them well. Blanch them for 10 to 15 minutes in
boiling water, so that the skins may be easily removed, and cold-dip
them. Then remove the skins by scraping, pack the carrots into the jars,
add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, and fill the jars with boiling
water. Adjust the jar tops next, and proceed to sterilize and cook the
jars of carrots according to the method selected. In the water bath,
cook for 1-1/2 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook for 1 hour at a
pressure of 5 pounds or for 40 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.


GROUP 4--SPECIAL VEGETABLES

68. Vegetables of the fourth group, which include those which cannot
well be classified in the other groups, lend themselves readily to
combinations, such as succotash, that make for variety in food. As is
true of the other vegetables, special vegetables must be fresh and sound
if good results in canning are expected.

69. LIMA AND OTHER SHELLED BEANS.--For canning, only tender beans,
whether Lima or some other variety, should be chosen. Prepare them for
immediate canning by shelling them--that is, taking them from the
pods--blanching them for 5 to 10 minutes in boiling water, and then
cold-dipping them quickly. Pack the jars to within 1/2 inch of the top,
add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jar, and fill the jars with boiling
water. Adjust the covers and proceed to sterilize and cook them. In the
water bath, boil for 2-1/2 to 3 hours; in the pressure cooker, cook for
1-1/2 hours at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 1 hour at a pressure of
10 pounds.

70. GREEN CORN.--For canning purposes, only corn that is young and milky
should be selected. Get it ready for canning by husking it and removing
the silk. Then blanch it for 3 to 5 minutes in boiling water and
cold-dip it quickly. Cut the kernels half way down to the cob and scrape
out what remains after cutting. For best results in this operation, hold
the ear of corn so that the butt end is up; then cut from the tip toward
the butt, but scrape from the butt toward the tip. Next, pack the jars
tightly with the corn, pressing it into them with a wooden masher.
Unless two persons can work together, however, cut only enough corn for
one jar and fill and partly seal it before cutting more. As corn swells
in the cooking, fill each jar to within 1/2 inch of the top. The milk in
the corn should fill all spaces between the kernels, provided there are
any, but if it does not, boiling water may be poured in. Add 1
teaspoonful of salt to each jarful of corn and adjust the jar lids. Boil
for 3 hours in the water bath; but, if the pressure cooker is to be
used, cook for 1-1/2 hours at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 1 hour at a
pressure of 10 pounds.

Corn on the cob may be canned in the same way if desired, but as only
three small ears can be put into a quart jar, this would seem to be a
waste of space and labor. If corn on the cob is to be canned, 2-quart
jars will prove more convenient than 1-quart jars.

71. PEAS.--Peas for canning should be well formed and tender, and they
should be canned as soon as possible after coming from the garden.
Proceed by washing the pods and shelling the peas. Blanch the shelled
peas for 5 to 10 minutes in live steam, and cold-dip them quickly. Pack
the peas into the jars, having them come to within 1/2 inch from the
top, add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful, and fill the jars with
boiling water. Then adjust the jar lids and proceed according to
directions for the method selected. In the water bath, boil for 2 or 3
hours; in the pressure cooker, cook for 1-1/2 hours at a pressure of 5
pounds or for 1 hour at a pressure of 10 pounds.

72. PUMPKIN AND SQUASH.--The canning of pumpkin and squash is advisable
when there is any possibility of their not keeping until they can be
used. Prepare either of these vegetables for canning by first peeling it
and cutting the edible part into inch cubes. Blanch these cubes for 10
to 15 minutes in live steam and cold-dip them quickly. Pack the jars as
full as possible, and add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jar, but no
water. After adjusting the jar lids, boil the jars of food for 1-1/2
hours in the water bath, or cook them for 1 hour at a pressure of 5
pounds or for 40 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds in the pressure
cooker. When finished, the jars will be found to be only about half
full, but the contents will keep perfectly.

If desired, pumpkin or squash may first be cooked as if preparing it for
use and then put into the jars for processing.

73. SUCCOTASH.--Of course, succotash is not a vegetable, but the name of
a food that results from combining corn and beans. These vegetables may
be canned together to make for variety in the winter's food supply, or
each may be canned separately and combined later. Clean the ears of corn
in the manner previously directed; then blanch them for 5 minutes and
cold-dip them. Also, remove green Lima beans from the pods, blanch them
for 10 minutes, and cold-dip them. Then cut and scrape the corn off the
cobs and mix it with an equal quantity of the beans. Pack the mixture
into the jars to within 1/2 inch of the top, add a teaspoonful of salt
to each jarful, and fill the jars with boiling water. Adjust the jar
tops and proceed according to the directions for the process to be
employed. In the water bath, boil for 2 hours; in the pressure cooker,
cook for 50 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 35 minutes at a
pressure of 10 pounds.

74. TOMATOES.--As has been stated, tomatoes may be canned successfully
by the open-kettle method. If this method is to be employed, the first
part of the preparation is exactly the same as for the cold-pack method,
except that the jars, jar tops, and jar rubbers must be carefully
sterilized.

For canning, firm tomatoes should be selected if possible, as they will
keep their shape better than those which are very ripe. If some are
soft, they should be sorted out and canned for soup making or made into
catsup. After washing the tomatoes, proceed to blanch them. The length
of time required for blanching depends entirely on the condition of the
tomatoes. They should be blanched for 1 to 3 minutes, or just long
enough to loosen the skin. After blanching, dip them quickly into cold
water and remove the skins. These, it will be found, may be removed
easily and quickly. Pack the tomatoes thus prepared tightly into jars
and fill them with boiling water, boiling tomato juice, or stewed
tomatoes. Add a teaspoonful of salt to each jar. Then adjust the jar
lids and proceed according to the directions given for the method
selected. Boil for 22 minutes in the water bath; in the pressure cooker,
cook for 15 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 10 minutes at a
pressure of 10 pounds.

75. TOMATOES FOR SOUP.--If there are soft tomatoes at hand or if
tomatoes are canned by the open-kettle method, quantities of tomato
juice will be available. Such material as this may be put through a
sieve and boiled down for winter use in the making of soups, bisques,
etc. It may be canned simply by pouring the boiling juice into
sterilized jars and sealing them immediately.

76. TOMATOES AND CORN.--An excellent food combination results from
combining stewed tomatoes with corn. Such a combination may be canned
safely by either the open-kettle or the cold-pack method. The acid of
the tomatoes helps to keep the corn, but the combination requires longer
cooking than just plain tomatoes. Prepare each vegetable as for canning
separately, but, if desired, cut the tomatoes into pieces. Mix the two
foods in any desirable proportion and, for the cold-pack canning method,
put the food into the jars. Add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each jarful,
but no water. Then adjust the jar lids, and proceed to sterilize and
cook the jars of food. In the water bath, cook them 1-1/2 hours; in the
pressure cooker, cook them for 50 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or
for 35 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.


DIRECTIONS FOR CANNING FRUITS

77. The chief difference between the canning of fruits and the canning
of vegetables is that sugar in the form of sirup, instead of salt water,
is used for the liquid. Fruits may be canned without sugar if desired,
but nothing is gained by so doing, for sugar will have to be added
later. Because of the sugar used in canning and the acid contained in
the fruit, canned fruit has better keeping qualities than canned
vegetables. In fact, it is much more likely to keep well even though it
does not receive such careful attention as vegetables. It is for this
reason that canned fruit does not require so much time for sterilization
as vegetables do. Still it should not be inferred that care is not
necessary in the canning of fruits. Indeed, the more care that is taken,
the better are the results likely to be.

78. SIRUPS FOR CANNING.--Before the canning of fruits can be undertaken,
it is necessary to possess a knowledge of the sirups that are needed.
Such sirups consist simply of sugar dissolved in boiling water. The
quantity of sugar and water required for a sirup depends on the acidity
of the fruit and the purpose for which it is to be used. Plain canned
fruits that are to be used for sauces, etc. require less sugar
proportionately than those which are preserved, and fruit canned for pie
making may have less than either. Thus, fruits of the same kind may be
canned with sirups of different proportions. To a great extent, the
quantity of sugar to use with fruit may be regulated by the taste, but
it will be readily seen that such fruits as sour cherries and plums will
require more sugar to make them palatable than pears and blueberries. It
will be well to note, though, that the sugar does not penetrate the
fruit unless the two are cooked together.

79. In order to make sirup for canning, place the desired quantities of
sugar and water in a kettle and proceed to heat them. Stir the liquid
while it is heating, in order to assist in dissolving the sugar. When it
has begun to boil rapidly, remove the sirup from the fire and use it at
once. Do not continue boiling.

In preparing such sirups, it will be well to note that the greater the
proportion of sugar to water or the longer the sugar and water are
allowed to boil, the denser, or heavier, will the sirup become. It is
this _density_ of sirup that regulates its use for the different kinds
of fruit and determines its nature. Thus, a sirup in which the
proportion of sugar to water is so large as to make the sirup thick is
known as a _heavy sirup_; one in which the proportion of water to sugar
is so large as to make the sirup thin is called a _light sirup_; and one
in which the proportion of sugar and water is such as to produce a sirup
that is neither thick nor thin, but stands between the two extremes, is
called a _medium sirup_.


TABLE I

SIRUPS FOR CANNING FRUITS

         Proportions   Degrees
         ------------    With
Sirup    Sugar  Water   Hydro-
 No.     Cups   Cups    meter     Uses
---------------------------------------------------------------
  1       2      4        28      Open-kettle canning, or pie
                                  fruit canned by any method.

  2       2      3        30      Open-kettle canning, or pie
                                  fruit canned by any method.

  3       2      2        40      Open-kettle canning, or sweet
                                  fruits canned by cold-pack
                                  methods.

  4       2      1-1/2    48      Sweet fruits canned by
                                  cold-pack methods.

  5       2      1        54      Sour fruits canned by
                                  cold-pack methods.

  6       2      1/2      68      Very rich fruits canned by
                                  cold-pack methods; preserves
                                  canned by open-kettle method.
---------------------------------------------------------------

80. The density of sirup is also affected by the amount and rapidity of
evaporation that takes place in boiling, and these, in turn, depend on
the amount of surface that is exposed. For instance, if a sirup is
cooked in a large, flat kettle, the evaporation will be greater and more
rapid than if it is cooked in a small, deep vessel. Atmospheric pressure
affects the rapidity of evaporation, too. In a high altitude,
evaporation takes place more slowly than at sea level, because the
boiling point is lower. Thus, in the making of sirups for canning, the
first point to be determined is whether the sirup desired should be
light, medium, or heavy, and in its preparation the points mentioned
must receive consideration.

81. For determining the density of sirup, a _sirup gauge_, or
_hydrometer_, will be found useful. This device consists of a graduated
glass tube attached to a bulb that is weighted with mercury. The
graduations, or marks, on the tube, or top part, of the hydrometer serve
to indicate the percentage of solid matter dissolved in a solution and
register from to 50 degrees. To use such a gauge, partly fill a glass
cylinder--an ordinary drinking glass will do--with the sirup and place
the hydrometer in it. The greater the amount of solid matter dissolved
in the sirup, the higher will be hydrometer float. Then read the number
of degrees registered by observing the mark that is level with the
surface of the sirup.

The number of degrees that the hydrometer should register for sirups of
different densities--that is, for sirups consisting of different
proportions of sugar and water--are given in Table I. This table, in
addition, gives the uses that should be made of such sirups, and each
one is numbered so that it may be referred to readily later in the
recipes for canning fruits.

82. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS.--For the sake of convenience in canning,
fruits, too, are here divided into groups. These groups, three in
number, together with the fruits included in each, are:

1. _Soft Fruits_, which are subdivided into three kinds, namely, sweet,
sour, and very sour. The _sweet soft fruits_ include blackberries,
blueberries or huckleberries, sweet cherries, elderberries, ripe
gooseberries, mulberries, and black and red raspberries; the _sour soft
fruits_, apricots, currants, grapes, peaches, and strawberries; and the
_very sour soft fruits_, sour cherries, cranberries, green gooseberries,
plums, and rhubarb.

2. _Hard Fruits_, which include apples, quinces, and pears.

3. _Special Fruits_, which include ripe figs, kumquats, loquats,
nectarines, persimmons, and pineapples.

The advantage of this classification, as in the case of the vegetable
classification, is that, as a rule, all fruits belonging to a group or a
subdivision of a group may be canned in the same way and with sirup of
practically the same density.

83. CANNING METHODS FOR FRUITS.--The canning of fruits may be done by
the several methods previously discussed, but the Cold-pack and
open-kettle methods seem to meet with most favor. On account of the
sirup used in canning fruit and the acid in the fruit, the open-kettle
method is usually fairly successful, whereas, in the canning of
vegetables, with the exception of tomatoes, it is not so reliable. The
housewife, by experiment, can determine which method will suit her needs
best, but by no means should methods be mixed. If a certain method is
decided on, it should be adhered to in every detail and carried through
without any substitution. For all methods, as has been mentioned, the
fruit should be selected when it is fresh and in good condition, as such
fruit has less chance to spoil than fruit that is overripe or has
decayed spots. After it is graded for size and condition, the fruit
should be washed, stemmed, hulled, seeded, peeled, or halved, quartered,
or sliced, depending on the kind. Then the work may be proceeded with
according to the canning method that is to be followed.

84. If fruits are to be canned by the open-kettle method, certain
precautions must be observed in order to insure success. The
sterilization of the product cannot be perfect in this method no matter
how carefully the canning is done; and this means that the sugar and the
fruit acids must be greatly relied on to assist in preservation. Still,
the jars, jar covers, jar rubbers, and any utensils used for filling the
jars must be sterilized and kept in boiling water until the fruit is
ready to be canned. Another thing to guard against is the discoloring of
the fruit. Any fruit that is likely to become discolored after it is
prepared for canning should be kept in salt water until it is ready to
be cooked. A solution consisting of 1 teaspoonful of salt to each quart
of water will answer for this purpose.

After the fruit has been prepared and while the containers, etc. are
being sterilized, it is necessary to prepare the sirup that is to be
used. For the sweet fruits of Group 1, No. 1 or 2 sirup should be made;
for the sour fruits of this group, No. 2 or 3 sirup; and for the very
sour fruits, No. 4 or 5 sirup. The hard fruits may be canned by this
method with No. 1, 2, or 3 sirup, while the special fruits require No. 4
or 5 sirup. If the fruit is to be canned for pie, it will be advisable
to use thin sirup and then use more sweetening when pies are made.

When the sirup is made by mixing the sugar and water and bringing it to
a boil, the prepared fruit should be dropped into it and cooked. The
fruit should be cooked in the sirup until it may be easily pierced with
a fork or until it is soft. Berries have to be cooked only a few
minutes, while the hard fruits may require from 10 to 15 minutes. The
jars should be placed upright in a pan of hot water while the boiling
fruit from the kettle is poured into them, and as each jar is filled the
rubber should be put in place and the cover adjusted and secured. It is
important to close one jar before filling another, because the longer a
jar remains open the more bacteria will be permitted to enter. Even by
working as rapidly as possible and taking the greatest precaution, a
certain number of bacteria are bound to enter in this method of canning.
After the jars are filled and sealed, they should be placed upside down
or on the side to cool and test for leaks.

85. If the cold-pack method is employed in canning fruit, it is possible
to obtain a sterilized product that is dependent for preservation on
neither the sirup used nor the acid of the fruit. In this method, the
jars, jar tops, covers, and utensils for handling the fruit do not have
to be sterilized beforehand. They may simply be washed clean and kept
hot in clean water until they are needed. After the fruits are prepared,
some are blanched or scalded and cold-dipped, while others are not. They
are then packed into jars and boiling sirup is poured over them. Then
the rubbers are adjusted, the covers placed on, but not made tight, and
the jars are placed under water in the water bath or on the racks in the
pressure cooker, which should contain a small amount of water, as has
been explained. After cooking the required length of time, the jars of
fruit are removed from the cooking utensil, sealed, and allowed to cool.

The sirup used in the cold-pack canning method may be heavier in each
case than that mentioned for the open-kettle method, because there is no
evaporation, as is the case where fruits are boiled in the sirup before
they are placed in the cans, but less will be required if the packing is
well done.


GROUP 1--SOFT FRUITS

86. SWEET SOFT FRUITS.--The sweet fruits included in Group 1
--blackberries, huckleberries, elderberries, ripe gooseberries,
mulberries, raspberries, and sweet cherries-may be canned in exactly the
same way, so that the same general directions will apply to all. Prepare
the different kinds of berries, which should be as fresh as possible, by
looking them over carefully and removing the poor ones, and then
washing them. To wash them, pour them into a colander and dip it up and
down in a large pan of clean, cold water. The less handling such fruits
receive, the more perfect will they remain for canning. Prepare sweet
cherries, which should be procured with the stems on if possible, by
first washing them and then stemming them. They may be pitted, or
seeded, or they may be left whole, depending on personal preference.
Cherries that are not pitted will keep their shape and have a good
appearance, but they are not so convenient for eating as those which
have been pitted.

87. After the fruit has been prepared in the manner just explained, pack
it closely into the hot, clean jars, using a spoon for this purpose and
turning each jar as the fruit is poured into it. Press the berries or
the cherries down carefully, so that 2 quarts of them will fill a
1-quart jar. Then proceed to make the sirup. As these fruits are the
sweetest, they require less sugar than any other. If such fruit after it
is canned is to be used for pie making, sirup No. 1 or 2 will be
suitable, but if it is to be used for sauce, No. 3 sirup may be used.
When the mixed sugar and water is boiling rapidly, pour it over the
fruit packed into the jars. Then place the rubbers, adjust the jar tops,
and proceed to sterilize and cook the cans of fruit. Boil these in the
water bath for 15 minutes, or cook them in the pressure cooker for 8
minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 4 minutes at a pressure of
10 pounds.

88. SOUR SOFT FRUITS.--Of the sour fruits, STRAWBERRIES, GRAPES, and
CURRANTS require about the same quantity of sugar, that contained in
sirup No. 3, 4, or 5 usually being sufficient. Otherwise, the canning
process, including the length of time for processing, does not differ
materially from that just given for sweet soft fruits.

In the case of strawberries, those which are of medium size and rather
dark in color are best for canning; in fact, very large, light-colored
strawberries will shrink more than any other kind. The berries are
washed in the same way as other berries, but they should not be allowed
to stand in water for any length of time, because this will tend to make
them soft and mushy. Strawberries must be stemmed after they are washed,
and for this purpose a strawberry huller should be utilized. Such a
device, which is shown in Fig. 1, permits the stems to be removed
without crushing the berries and soiling the fingers.

In preparing currants for canning, the procedure is the same as for the
fruits already mentioned; and the same thing is true of grapes that are
not to be seeded. If the seeds are to be removed, however, the procedure
up to getting the cans of fruit ready for processing is different, as is
here pointed out. After washing the grapes, squeeze the pulp from the
skins and then cook it in a kettle for a sufficient length of time to
make it soft. Remove the seeds by forcing the pulp through a sieve. Then
add as much sugar as would be used for making the required sirup, and
cook until the sugar is dissolved. With this done, add the sweetened,
seedless pulp to the grape skins and fill the jars with this mixture.
Then continue the canning process as for the other fruits of this group.

89. The procedure in canning APRICOTS and PEACHES, the other two sour
soft fruits, differs slightly from that required for strawberries,
grapes, and currants. So that the skins of both of these fruits may be
easily removed, they must be scalded, which is an operation that
corresponds to blanching in vegetable canning.

For canning purposes, only firm, fresh apricots and peaches that are not
overripe should be selected. Also, in the case of peaches, care should
be taken to see that they are of the _freestone_ variety, as such
peaches may be split easily. _Clingstone peaches_ should not be chosen
unless the fruit is to be canned whole or unless an implement for
removing the seeds, or stones like that shown in Fig. 2, is at hand.
Proceed with the canning of either apricots or peaches by first scalding
them. To do this, put the fruit in boiling water for 1 to 3 minutes,
depending on its ripeness. Next, cold-dip it quickly, remove the skins,
and, if desired, cut each one in half and remove the seed, or stone.
When thus prepared, pack the fruit into hot jars as tightly as possible,
pour sirup No. 3, 4, or 5 over them, filling each jar, adjust the rubber
and jar top, and proceed as directed for the cold-pack method. In the
water bath, boil the cans of fruit for 15 minutes; in the pressure
cooker, cook them for 10 minutes at a 5-pound pressure or for 6 minutes
at a 10-pound pressure.

90. VERY SOUR SOFT FRUITS.--Some of the fruits of the third subdivision
of Group 1, namely, SOUR CHERRIES, CRANBERRIES, and GREEN GOOSEBERRIES,
may be prepared and canned in the same way as those included in the
first subdivision. The cherries may be left whole or they may be seeded,
as preferred, and all the fruit must, of course, be fresh. For these
very sour fruits, sirups Nos. 4, 5, and 6 are required, and the
processing time is 15 minutes in the water bath and 10 minutes at a
5-pound pressure or 5 minutes at a 10-pound pressure in the
pressure cooker.

91. PLUMS for canning should be fresh and firm, but not overripe. This
fruit may be canned with the skins on, but some varieties permit the
skins to be removed after scalding, and this may be done if desired.
Prepare the plums for canning by washing them, and, if the skins are to
be left on, by piercing each one in several places with a fork to
prevent the skins from cracking. Then scald the plums for about 1-1/2
minutes, cold-dip them quickly, and pack them closely into the hot jars.
Pour sirup No. 4, 5, or 6 over the fruit in the jars, using sirup No. 6
if they are very sour, adjust the rubbers and the covers, and proceed
according to the canning method selected. In the water bath, cook for 15
minutes; in the pressure cooker, cook for 10 minutes at a pressure of 5
pounds or for 6 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.

92. RHUBARB for canning should be selected when it is most tender. The
variety having red stems is the most attractive after it is canned. Only
the heavy stems, which should be cut from the leaves, may be canned. Cut
these stems into inch lengths, blanch them 1 to 3 minutes in boiling
water, and cold-dip them quickly. Then pack these pieces into the jars.
If the rhubarb is being canned for sauce, fill each jar with sirup No. 5
or 6; if it is being canned for pie, use sirup No. 1, 2, or 3. Next,
adjust the rubbers and covers and proceed with the processing. In the
water bath, cook for 15 minutes; in the pressure cooker, cook for 10
minutes at a 5-pound pressure or for 6 minutes at a 10-pound pressure.


GROUP 2--HARD FRUITS

93. APPLES.--The canning of apples should be done when there is a large
supply of summer apples that cannot be stored for winter use or used at
once. Canning is also a good means of utilizing windfall apples. This
fruit may be canned in quarters for sauce, in slices for pie, or in any
other desirable shape or condition.

After apples for canning are selected, wash them, scald, or blanch, them
for 1 to 5 minutes in boiling water, and cold-dip them quickly. Next,
peel and core them, and cut each one into pieces of any desirable size.
As these pieces are cut, drop them into salt water--1 teaspoonful of
salt to each quart of water--to prevent them from discoloring. Then pack
the fruit into the jars and fill the jars with boiling sirup. If the
apples are intended for pie, use sirup No. 1, 2, or 3; if they are for
sauce, use sirup No. 3, 4, or 5. When the jars are filled, adjust the
rubbers and covers and proceed with the processing. If the pieces are
large, cook them in the water bath for 20 minutes; if they are medium in
size, cook them for 15 minutes; and if they are in the form of slices,
cook them for 10 minutes. If they are to be processed in the pressure
cooker, cook them for 8 to 12 minutes at a pressure of 5 pounds or for 6
to 8 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.

If the apples to be canned are first baked or made into a sauce, simply
pack them into jars and process them for a few minutes.

94. QUINCES.--Quinces may be canned alone, but they may be combined with
apples to good advantage. If canned alone, they may require a heavier
sirup than if apples are used with them. Prepare the quinces in the same
way as apples. If apples are to be canned with them, cut the pieces of
apples twice the size of the pieces of quinces. This should be done
because more time is required for cooking the quinces soft. After
packing the jars and pouring in the sirup, proceed with the processing.
If quinces alone are in the jars, cook them in the water bath for 30
minutes; but if quinces and apples are combined, cook them for 20
minutes. In the pressure cooker, cook the jars of fruit for 12 to 15
minutes at a 5-pound pressure or for 10 to 12 minutes at a
10-pound pressure.

95. PEARS.--Pears for canning should be firm, but not hard. After
sorting and washing them, blanch them for 1 to 3 minutes and cold-dip
them quickly. Then pare, halve, and core them. Pack them immediately
into the jars and pour sirup No. 3 or 4 over them. Next, adjust the
rubbers and covers and proceed with the processing. In the water bath,
cook them for 20 minutes; in the pressure cooker, cook them for 8
minutes at a 5-pound pressure or 6 minutes at a 10-pound pressure.


GROUP 3--SPECIAL FRUITS

96. FIGS.--Although figs are not a common fruit, there are parts of this
country, particularly on the western coast, in which they are abundant.
For canning, ripe figs should be selected. To prepare them, blanch them
for 2 minutes in boiling water and cold-dip them. Then pack them into
the jars and fill the jars by pouring sirup No. 4, 5, or 6 over the
figs. Proceed with the remainder of the process as in canning peaches.

97. KUMQUATS AND LOQUATS.--Kumquats and loquats are small acid fruits
resembling oranges in color and plums in size and shape. Such fruits are
not very common, but they may be obtained in some markets. To can either
of these fruits, wash them, blanch for 5 minutes, cold-dip, pack into
jars, and fill the jars with sirup No. 5 or 6. In the water bath, cook
them for 15 minutes. In the pressure cooker, cook them for 10 minutes at
a 5-pound pressure or for 5 minutes at a 10-pound pressure.

98. NECTARINES.--Nectarines are a smooth-skinned variety of peach. Ripe
nectarines may be canned in the same way as peaches, but they do not
require so much sugar, sirup No. 2 or 3 usually being about right.

99. PERSIMMONS.--Persimmons are a seedy, plum-like fruit common to the
southern and southwestern parts of the United States. This fruit is very
astringent when unripe, but is sweet and delicious when ripe or touched
by frost. Well-frosted persimmons should be selected for canning. Blanch
them so that the skin may be removed easily and cold-dip them quickly.
Then peel them and pack them into hot jars. Fill the jars with sirup No.
6 and process them in the same way as peaches.

100. PINEAPPLES.--Pineapples are better known than any of the other
special fruits. For canning, those ripe enough to permit the center
leaves to pull out easily should be selected; also, they should be free
from soft or rotten spots, which are most likely to appear first near
the bottom. Pineapples are graded in size by the number that may be
packed in a case. These sizes are 24, 30, 36, and 42, size 24 being the
largest and size 42 the smallest. Sizes 30 and 36 are best for canning.

In canning pineapples, first place each in boiling water for 10 minutes
and dip it quickly into cold water. Then prepare it for the cans. This
may be done by removing the peeling with a sharp knife, digging out the
eyes, and then slicing or dicing; by slicing first and then peeling and
taking out the eyes; or by peeling, taking out the eyes, and then
shredding it with the aid of a fork. When it is prepared, pack the fruit
into the jars, fill each jar with sirup No. 4 or 5, adjust the rubbers
and covers, and proceed to process it. In the water bath, cook for 30
minutes; in the pressure cooker, cook for 12 minutes at a pressure of 5
pounds or for 10 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds.


CANNING MEAT AND FISH

101. Both fish and meat, including that from fowl and game, may be
canned at times that seem convenient and then used when an emergency
arises or at a time when the same food will cost more to prepare. Fowl,
game, and fish may be canned to special advantage during the season when
each is plentiful. The best process for canning such foods is the
one-period cold-pack method.

102. MEAT.--In canning meat, whether from domestic animals, fowl, or
game, first cut it into pieces of a size that would be suitable for
serving at the table. The meat may be left raw or it may be prepared by
any desirable cooking process, such as frying, fricasseeing, braizing,
etc. Careful attention must be given to the drawing of fowl that is to
be canned, because the entire alimentary tract should be removed without
being broken. The giblets should not be canned with the rest of the
meat, as they will not keep so well. Whether the meat is to be canned
raw or cooked, pack the jars as tightly as possible. If the meat is raw,
add 1 teaspoonful of salt to each quart of food and fill the jars
three-fourths full with boiling water. In case the jar is filled to the
top, fat will rise and injure the rubber. If the meat is cooked, add any
liquid that may have resulted from the cooking, as well as boiling
water, provided more liquid is needed. Then, as in canning vegetables
and fruit, adjust the rubbers and covers and proceed with the
processing. In the case of raw meat, sterilize for 3 hours in the water
bath, or for 1-1/2 hours at a 10-pound pressure in the pressure cooker.
In the case of cooked meat, sterilize for 1-1/2 hours in the water bath,
or for 30 minutes at a 10-pound pressure in the pressure cooker.

103. FISH.--To prepare fish for canning, first clean it by scaling it
and removing the entrails. Wrap the cleaned fish in cheesecloth and
steam for 15 minutes. After steaming, remove the bones, which will come
out easily, and cut the fish into pieces. Pack the pieces into the jars,
and to each quart of the food add 1 teaspoonful of salt. Next, fill each
jar three-fourths full with boiling water and continue with the canning
in the manner directed for meat.


STORING AND SERVING CANNED FOODS

104. After jars of canned food have been cooled and tested for leaks,
carefully wiped with a damp cloth, and then wrapped and labeled, they
are ready to be placed in storage. Such food should be stored in an
orderly manner on shelves that may be covered to keep off dust, or in a
large cupboard provided with doors that may be closed. The temperature
of the room in which the canned foods are kept is of no great
importance, but, in homes provided with cellars, the cellar is the
logical place in which to store them.

Canned foods, no matter how well the canning may have been done, undergo
gradual deterioration. Therefore, those kept for more than a year, will
not be so good as those used during the first year after canning. If
canned foods from a previous year are at hand when new cans are ready to
be stored, the old ones should be placed to the front of the shelves and
the new ones to the back, so that the old ones will be used up first.

105. Canned foods take the place of raw foods, and whether they should
be cooked or not depends on the kind. In the case of vegetables, most of
them may be made ready to serve simply by heating them, although they
may be used in the preparation of many dishes, as is evident from the
recipes throughout the lessons. In the case of fruits, some may be
served just as they come from the can; however, there are many ways of
using canned fruits in the making of desserts, as is pointed out in
_Fruit and Fruit Desserts_. In the case of meats and fish, the food, if
cooked before canning, may be prepared for serving simply by heating it;
whereas, if it is canned raw, some cookery method for meat will have to
be applied.

When foods are boiled, one reason for a change in taste is that oxygen
is driven off by the boiling. Therefore, to improve the taste of canned
foods that are to be served without any further preparation, it is
advisable, when a jar is opened, to pour the contents into an open dish
and thus expose it to the air.

In opening jars of canned fruit, care must be taken not to crack or nick
either the top of the jar or its cover. The cover of any kind of jar
will come off easily if a little air is admitted. Insert a knife blade
between the cover and jar rubber of a glass-covered jar, but do not use
a knife to loosen a metal top, as it may bend the edge in places. Hot
water poured over the jar will assist in opening it.


SCORING CANNED FOODS

106. In order that the housewife may judge the quality of her own canned
products according to standards that have been set by canning
authorities, a score card, together with an explanation of the terms and
the procedure, is here given. The beginner in canning will do well to
score her own foods, so that any fault that may be found can be
corrected when similar foods are canned at another time. In fact, the
chief purpose of scoring any product is to learn of faults that may be
corrected. The scoring should be done as impartially as if a
disinterested person were doing it, and if the cause of any trouble is
not readily apparent, pains should be taken to find it out.

SCORE CARD                         PER CENT.

General appearance                    10

Method of sealing                     10

Proportion of food to liquid          10

Flavor                                35

Texture of food                       20

Color                                 15
                                     ---
  Total                              100

107. As a rule, scoring, or judging, is done at the time the canned food
is to be opened and used.

The _general appearance_ is judged before the jar is opened. If a jar of
food is well and symmetrically packed and has clear liquid and a good
color, it should receive a perfect score of 10.

The _method of sealing_ must also be judged before the can is opened. A
properly filled jar with the rubber and cover in good condition and
tightly sealed should receive a perfect score of 10.

The _proportion of food to liquid_ should score 10. The jars should be
as full of uncrushed food as possible, and the liquid that has been
added should fill all crevices to the very edge of the jar.

The _flavor_ is judged after the can is opened, and if it is perfect, it
is entitled to a score of 35. The flavor of canned fruit is injured by
any kind of spoiling, such as molding, fermentation, etc. Fruits canned
in good condition should retain the characteristic flavor of the fresh
fruits; also, they should contain sufficient sugar to be agreeably
sweet, but no more. Canned vegetables should retain their characteristic
flavors, with no sour, musty, nor disagreeable taste, and be slightly
salty. Canned meats and fish should also possess their characteristic
flavors.

The _texture of food_ is entitled to a score of 20 if it is perfect.
The canned food should be whole; that is, in the original pieces as they
were put into the can. Underripe fruit or insufficiently cooked fruit or
vegetables do not have the proper texture; neither do overripe or
uncooked foods.

The _color_ of canned food merits a score of 15 if it is right. Fruits
and vegetables should have retained their natural color. Fading after
canning may be prevented by wrapping the cans, as has been explained.

       *       *       *       *       *

DRYING

PRINCIPLES OF DRYING

108. DRYING consists in removing the moisture contained in foods by
evaporation and thus rendering them less susceptible to the attacks of
undesirable bacteria. _Dried foods_, as foods so treated are called,
will not replace fresh or canned foods. However, they are valuable in
many cases and possess some advantages over such foods. For example, the
weight of dried foods is very greatly reduced, the storage space
required by them is much less, and they are easy to keep without
spoiling and easy to transport. Likewise, the containers for such foods
are less costly than those required for canned foods and they are easily
procured, since paper boxes or paper bags are satisfactory. In fact, the
housewife, by taking care of the bags and boxes that come into the home,
can easily provide all the containers she will possibly need at
practically no cost.

109. The water in food that is to be dried may be evaporated by applying
heat, by bringing the food in contact with moving air, or by subjecting
it to a combination of both of these methods. The heat for drying may be
obtained from the sun, as in the _sun-drying method_, or from the stove,
as in the _stove-drying method_, while moving air for evaporating
moisture may be obtained from an electric fan, as in the _electric-fan
drying method_.

In the application of any of these drying methods, however, it is
important to note that the more surface of food there is exposed, the
more quickly will evaporation take place. Drying should therefore be
done on devices constructed in such a way that air may pass up through
food, as well as across its surface. In drying foods, the racks should
be turned frequently, so that all parts will be exposed equally to the
heat or the currents of air. Also, the food must be turned over often,
in order that all parts will dry evenly.

110. Any fruit or vegetable may be dried if the method is properly
applied, but there is usually more or less change in both the flavor and
the color of the dried food. The more rapidly the drying can be done,
the more natural will the color and flavor remain; whereas, the longer
the process is continued, the greater will be this change.

Foods should be dried when they are in such quantity that they cannot be
used to advantage in the raw state, when there is no market for them,
when the owner cannot afford to give them away, and when home canning
ceases to be practical and profitable. In other words, if it is not
practical to save foods in another way, they should be dried.


DRYING METHODS

111. DEVICES FOR DRYING.--Many manufactured devices may be had for the
drying of foods. Some are made so that they may be placed on top of a
stove, like that shown in Fig. 23. This device is in the form of a metal
box. It has a tray for holding the food to be dried, and underneath this
is a space for holding water. Water is poured into this space through a
funnel in one corner, and heat for drying is supplied by heating the
water. Other devices are made so that they may be suspended over a
stove, put into a stove oven, or used out of doors. Still others have a
heating device placed inside of them. It is possible, however, to make
drying devices in the home that will answer the purpose just as well as
the devices that may be bought.

[Illustration: FIG. 23]

As has been stated, drying devices should be so made that the air may
pass up through the food and across its surface. A pan, a platter, or a
solid board, as will be readily seen, is not so good for drying as a
wooden frame of convenient size that has small slats or fine,
rustless-wire netting, or screening, attached to the bottom. Such a
device may be covered with cheesecloth to keep out dirt. If it is to be
used in the oven or set in the sun, a nail driven part way into each
corner will provide feet and thus keep it from resting on the oven floor
or any other flat surface.

For suspending food that is to be dried over a stove, a rack like that
shown in Fig. 24 may be easily made in the home. As will be observed, it
consists of three trays fastened together. These trays are suspended by
four strings tied to another string that runs over small pulleys. The
pulleys are attached to a wooden brace that is secured to the kitchen
wall. The pulleys and string permit the rack to be raised or lowered, so
that the food may be easily put into and taken out of the trays.

[Illustration: FIG. 24]

112. SUN-DRYING METHOD.--If food is to be dried in the sun, spread it in
a single layer on each tray, cover the trays so that no dirt will fall
into them, and set them out of doors so that the sun's rays will strike
them. Glass covers will help to increase the heat from the sun. As the
sun changes, change the position of the trays or turn them. Food that is
being dried outdoors should be brought into the house when the sun goes
down and put out again the following morning. This procedure should be
kept up until the food is so dry as to be _leathery_; that is, in a
condition that will permit of bending without cracking.

113. STOVE-DRYING METHOD.--If food is to be dried by the stove-drying
method, it may be placed in the oven, on top of the stove, or suspended
above the stove.

114. If the oven is to be used, a device that fits the oven should be
employed. Spread the food on the trays in single layers, and put the
device into the oven. The temperature of the oven demands attention in
this method. Only a very moderate heat may be applied at first, 110
degrees Fahrenheit being considered the ideal temperature for beginning.
As it is difficult to hold an oven at such a low temperature if a fire
is burning, the oven door should be left open to admit air. The
temperature of the oven of a coal stove in which the fire is banked or
is being allowed to go out is usually ideal for drying foods. If
desired, the heat of an oven may be gradually increased to about 180
degrees as the food dries; but the application of greater heat is liable
to scorch the food and injure its flavor. The food must be turned often
to permit it to dry evenly.

115. If food is to be dried on top of the stove, the device shown in
Fig. 23 will prove satisfactory. The same arrangement may be improvised
by placing a metal tray over a large flat vessel of water. Place the
food to be dried in a single layer on the tray over the water. Let the
water boil and keep it boiling, and turn the food frequently so that the
heat will be applied to all sides. Continue this process until the food
is leathery, when it may be stored.

116. If food is to be dried in a rack suspended above the stove, a rack
like that shown in Fig. 24 should be used. Cover the trays in the rack
with a single layer of food, and dry it to the leathery stage, when it
may be removed and stored. In using this device, only a coal or a wood
stove is practical. When the heat coming from the stove is not great,
the rack may be allowed to come close to it, and when the heat is
intense the rack may be drawn up. Regulating the distance of the rack
from the stove will tend to keep the food at a uniform temperature and
allow it to dry evenly, especially when the food is turned from time
to time.

117. ELECTRIC-FAN DRYING METHOD.--If a house is wired for electricity,
drying foods by means of the air-currents generated by a moving electric
fan is a simple matter. Use devices like those required for the sun and
oven-drying methods. Spread the foods to be dried on the trays in a
single thin layer, and arrange them so that the air from the electric
fan will blow over them. Turn the trays as the food dries, so that one
part does not dry sooner than another; also, turn the food frequently so
as to expose all parts alike. If the fan can be placed so as to blow
across a stove and thus blow heated air on the food, it will dry more
quickly. A very warm kitchen is an excellent place in which to do the
work with an electric fan, as the combination of air and heat does the
work more rapidly than either one used alone.

118. COMBINATION DRYING METHODS.--A combination of any of the drying
methods mentioned may be used effectively. Drying may be started in the
sun and completed in the oven, or it may be started with an electric fan
and completed in the sun or the oven. Any means whereby the time
required for drying may be shortened is advantageous.


DIRECTIONS FOR DRYING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS

119. PREPARATION OF FOODS FOR DRYING.--The correct preparation of the
foods before drying is very important. The thinner and smaller the
pieces to be dried are cut, the more quickly may the process be
completed. Any skins or hulls that would prevent the rapid evaporation
of moisture from the food must be removed or broken, and every raw food
that is to be dried must first be immersed in salt water made in the
proportion of 1 teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water, as this
prevents discoloring to a great extent.

120. STRING BEANS.--Beans for drying should be selected while they are
young and tender. Wash them and remove the strings if this is necessary.
Cut them in half, lengthwise, with a sharp knife. Drop them into salt
water, remove, and spread on the drying trays. Dry by any
method selected.

121. CORN.--Corn that is to be dried should be at the dough stage;
younger corn contains too much water for good results. Prepare the corn
by husking it and removing the silk. Then blanch it in boiling water for
5 minutes, after which cut off the grains close to the cob with a sharp
knife. Spread these on the drying trays and proceed according to the
method desired.

122. GREENS.--Wash the greens thoroughly. Cut across the leaves several
times. Drop them into salt water, remove, and spread on the drying
trays. Dry by any method selected.

123. TUBER AND ROOT VEGETABLES.--Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes,
carrots, parsnips, and even onions may be successfully dried. First peel
or scrape them. Then slice or cut them into small pieces. Drop them into
salt water, remove from the water, and spread them on the drying trays.
Dry them by the method selected.

124. SMALL FRUITS.--Berries, cherries, and other small fruits may be
dried, but since they contain considerable water, the drying is not
accomplished very rapidly. Ripe, firm fruit should be selected and
cleaned. Cherries should have the seeds, or pits, removed. Such fruits
must be dried as quickly as possible, or they will spoil in the process.

125. APPLES, QUINCES, AND PEARS.--In order to dry apples, quinces, and
pears, wash, peel, core, and cut the fruit into eighths. Put the peeled
fruit into the salt water and keep it there until all are peeled and cut
and ready to dry. Then spread the cut pieces in a thin layer on the
drying trays and proceed according to the method desired.

126. PEACHES AND APRICOTS.--Peaches and apricots are most easily dried
with the skin on. Wash them thoroughly and, in the case of peaches, rub
the fuzz off the skins. Cut the fruit into halves, remove the seeds, or
stones, and drop the halves into salt water and keep them there until
they are ready to be placed on the drying trays. Dry by any
process desired.


STORING AND COOKING DRIED FOODS

127. When foods are taken from the various drying devices to be stored,
they still contain a very small quantity of moisture. This moisture,
however, is not distributed evenly, because some of the pieces of food
are larger than others, or some have been exposed more than others to
heat or air in drying. To offset this unequal drying, the containers in
which the foods are to be stored should not be closed permanently as
soon as the food is put into them. Rather, once a day, for about 3 days,
the food should be poured from one container into another and back again
several times. This will mix all the food and distribute the
moisture equally.

128. The object in storing dried foods is to keep them as dry as
possible; that is, not to allow them to absorb moisture from the air.
The best containers in which they may be placed are those coated with
paraffin. Paper bags or boxes may be prepared in the home by dipping
them into paraffin, although heavy paper containers already covered with
paraffin may be bought in supply stores. Heavy paper or cloth bags may
be used, provided they are stored in a dry place where there is no
danger from rats and mice. Containers of any kind should be securely
tied before storing them permanently. Bags and boxes of dried food are
preferably suspended from rafters in an attic, but if this is not
possible a rack or a bin located in a place that is not damp
will answer.

It is well, in storing dried foods, to use containers that will hold
only a small quantity of food, so that when some is taken out to be
cooked a large amount will not be exposed. It is best to store just
enough for a meal or two in each container.

129. Before dried foods are cooked, as much as possible of the water
evaporated in drying should be restored. In order to do this, soaking is
necessary. The dried food should be put into cold salt water made in the
proportion of 1 teaspoonful of salt to 1 quart of water and soaked for
at least 1/2 hour. The salt water seems to help restore the original
color of the food. When dried vegetables are to be cooked, they should
be cooked in the salt water in which they are soaked; when dried fruits
are to be cooked, the salt water should be poured off and fresh water
used. Long, slow cooking at a low temperature is better for all kinds of
dried foods than rapid cooking. The fireless cooker will be found
valuable for cooking dried foods.

       *       *       *       *       *

CANNING AND DRYING

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) Give three reasons for canning food.

(2) What foods may be canned?

(3) (_a_) How may satisfactory canning equipment be provided at little
or no cost? (_b_) What metals are not good for canning or
preserving kettles?

(4) (_a_) What are the requirements for satisfactory types of jars?
(_b_) What are the qualities of good jar rubbers?

(5) What kind of tin cans should be used for canning fruits or
vegetables that contain acid?

(6) (_a_) Why should care be exercised in the selection of foods to be
canned? (_b_) What points must be considered in the selection of foods
for canning?

(7) Why do canned foods spoil?

(8) How may canned foods be prevented from spoiling?

(9) (_a_) What are spores? (_b_) What connection have spores with the
spoiling of canned food?

(10) Mention three things that assist in the keeping of canned foods.

(11) (_a_) How should jar covers and rubbers be treated in the
open-kettle canning method? (_b_) Describe the filling and closing of
jars in this method.

(12) (_a_) Describe the utensil used for processing in the one-period
cold-pack canning method. (_b_) How should jars, covers, and rubbers be
treated in this method?

(13) (_a_) How are foods blanched and scalded, and why are blanching and
scalding done? (_b_) How are foods cold-dipped, and why is
cold-dipping done?

(14) (_a_) How should foods be packed in jars in the cold-pack canning
method? (_b_) How should the rubber and cover be adjusted before
processing? (_c_) When should you begin to count the boiling time for
food that is being processed in the water bath?

(15) (_a_) How and when should jars be closed in the cold-pack method?
(_b_) How should jars of food be cooled?

(16) (_a_) How should jars of food be treated for storage? (_b_) How
should they be stored?

(17) Mention some advantages of dried foods over fresh or canned ones.

(18) What important points should be considered in the process of drying
food?

(19) What are the proportions of salt and water into which foods that
discolor are placed before they are canned or dried?

(20) What precautions should be observed in the storing of dried foods?

       *       *       *       *       *



JELLY MAKING, PRESERVING, AND PICKLING

       *       *       *       *       *

VALUE OF JELLIES, PRESERVES, AND PICKLES

1. Like canning and drying, JELLY MAKING, PRESERVING, and PICKLING are
methods of preparing perishable foods to resist decomposition and
change. When treated by any of these three processes, fruits and
vegetables will keep for long periods of time and will thus be ready for
use during the seasons when they cannot be obtained fresh. The
preservation of food by making it into jellies, preserves, and pickles
does not, as in the case of canning, depend on the sterilization of the
product, but rather on the use of certain ingredients that act as
preservatives. These include sugar, spices, salt, and vinegar, all of
which are considered harmless preservatives in both the home and the
commercial preparation of foods.

2. The making of jelly, preserves, and pickles may seem like an
extravagance in the expenditure of money for materials, as well as of
time and energy on the part of the housewife. Whether this is the case
or not is a matter that must be decided by the housewife herself. If
these foods are not of enough value to her in the preparation of meals
and the feeding of her family to make it worth her while to use her time
and materials in storing them for winter use, then it is not wise for
her to prepare them. But foods so preserved usually have sufficient
merit to warrant the expenditure of the time and the money required in
their making.

3. In the first place, it will often be necessary to throw away material
that would make excellent jelly or jam unless the sugar can be supplied
and the time given to make this material into something that is edible
and at the same time attractive. As is well known, all through the
canning season, there is some material, which may have been intended
for canning, but which, for some reason, cannot be used in that way.
Such material should be utilized in the preparation of these foods. For
instance, some of the berries and other fruits bought for canning may be
found to be too ripe to make a good-looking product, but may be very
satisfactory for the making of jars or jellies. Then, too, if the
open-kettle method of canning is used, there is almost certain to be a
superfluous amount of juice that would be wasted if it were not used in
the making of jelly. Such material need not necessarily be used at the
time, for it may be canned and then made up later at some more
convenient time.

In addition to material of this kind, there is often a surplus of
vegetables and fruits on hand, particularly if one has access to a
garden. Much of this can be canned and dried, but what is not desired
for these purposes might be wasted if it were not made up into
appetizing jellies, preserves, and pickles.

4. Even though it were not necessary to consider the matter of waste and
the utilizing of surplus fruits and vegetables, there would still be
sufficient reason for the making of jellies, preserves, and pickles,
because these foods, when properly prepared, have great value in the
meal. Jellies and preserves, because of the large quantity of sugar used
in them, are foods high in carbohydrate. In view of this fact, they
should be considered as a part of the meal in which they are served,
instead of being used extravagantly or regarded as something extra in an
already sufficiently large menu.

Besides their importance in food value, they should have a place in the
diet because they stimulate the appetite through their attractive colors
and delicious flavors. The familiar fact that a child will refuse to eat
plain bread and butter, but will accept the same piece when it has been
made attractive by the addition of a little jam, argues much for the use
of foods of this sort in children's diet. As it is with children, so it
is to a large extent with adults. During the winter months, when fruits
and fresh vegetables are scarce and expensive, practically every one
finds jellies and preserves appetizing, for these things, in a measure,
take the place of the foods that are difficult to procure.

5. Not so much can be said of the various kinds of pickles, as they are
not so valuable in the diet from the standpoint of food values. They are
made from fruits and vegetables, as are jellies and preserves, but the
preservatives used in their preparation are vinegar and spices. In
addition to having no food value, such ingredients produce
overstimulation and irritation in the alimentary tract, toughen the
cellulose in the foods used, and consequently often cause indigestion
and various gastric disturbances. For these reasons, pickles should not
be included in the diet of children. However, because of the stimulation
they produce in the stomach, foods of this kind, if taken in small
quantities, are properly served as appetizers, and can be eaten by
normal adults without fear of digestive disturbances. Then, too, as
every one who has meals to prepare knows, they are valuable for
relieving monotony in the diet, a point that should not be overlooked.

6. Because the preservation of food in jellies, preserves, and pickles
is accomplished by the use of certain preservatives instead of by the
sterilization of the food, as in canning, these preparations do not mold
or spoil readily. Therefore, containers of a different nature from those
used in canning may be used to store these foods. Jars having tightly
sealed covers are not required, but such containers as wide-necked
bottles, stone jars or crocks, glasses, etc. may be utilized for this
purpose. In fact, containers of almost any description may be used for
jellies, preserves, and pickles. They should, of course, be sealed in
some way to prevent the entrance of bacteria, and various methods of
accomplishing this have been devised. A very satisfactory way consists
in pouring melted paraffin over the top of the food and then covering
the container with a piece of heavy paper and tying this on securely
with cord.

7. Since jellies, preserves, and pickles occupy a place of importance in
the diet and at the same time provide an opportunity to utilize material
that might otherwise be wasted, they are entitled to a certain amount of
attention from the housewife. To equip her with the knowledge she needs
for this work and give her practice in jelly making, preserving, and
pickling, the details of these processes are taken up, step by step, in
this Section.

       *       *       *       *       *

JELLY MAKING

PRINCIPLES OF JELLY MAKING

8. JELLY MAKING consists in cooking fruit juice with sugar until, upon
cooling, it will solidify, or jell. While this is not a difficult nor a
complicated process, there are some housewives who do not have success
with it. Often the result may be very good when a certain fruit is used,
whereas it may be entirely unsatisfactory at another time, even though
the same fruit is used and practically the same procedure is followed.
If the best results are to be assured in jelly making, the principles
that are involved in this process must first be thoroughly understood
and then the correct procedure must be painstakingly followed out.

9. To solidify properly and thus become a desirable jelly, the fruit
juice that is used for this purpose must have the following
characteristics and treatment: (1) it must contain certain jelly-making
properties; (2) it must be extracted properly; (3) it must be combined
with the correct proportion of sugar; and (4) it must be cooked the
proper length of time. There are, of course, numerous degrees of
solidity of jelly, varying from that which will barely retain its shape
to that which is very tough and hard, but neither extreme is desirable.
To be right, the jelly should be firm enough to stand up well, but
should be tender and soft when a spoon is cut into it.

10. Fruit is the principal ingredient in the making of jelly, as it is
the source from which the juice is obtained. Such imperfections in
fruits as poor shape or unattractive appearance do not count in this
matter, since only the juice is used; but they must contain jelly-making
properties in order that jelly can be made from them.

Green or slightly unripe fruits are better for jelly making than fruits
that have become ripe. In fact, when in this immature state, fruits may
be used to make jelly, whereas the same fruits, when perfectly ripe,
often will not make jelly at all, or, if they do, will produce a jelly
that is inferior in quality.

11. The chief requirement of fruits that are to be used for jelly
making is that they contain acid and pectin. _Pectin_ is the real
jelly-making property of fruits. When it is in the presence of acid and
combined with the correct proportion of sugar and the combination is
properly boiled, a desirable jelly is the result. Without pectin,
however, it is impossible to make the juice solidify, or jell. Pectin is
closely related to the carbohydrates, but as it does not yield heat
energy nor build tissue, its food value is not considered. In this
respect, it is like the cellulose of fruits and vegetables.

It is because green fruits contain more pectin than do ripe fruits that
they are more suitable for jelly making. The lack of either acid or
pectin need not, however, prevent the making of jelly from fruits, such
as sweet fruits, that contain other jelly-making properties, for either
or both may be supplied from some other source. In other words, jelly
may be made from any fruit that will yield juice and flavor.


EQUIPMENT FOR JELLY MAKING

[Illustration: FIG. 1]

12. NECESSARY EQUIPMENT.--In the making of jelly, as in the preparation
of many other foods, numerous utensils will be found convenient and may,
if desired, be supplied to make the work easier. However, the necessary
ones are comparatively few in number and, for the most part, are found
in almost every kitchen. In Fig. 1 are shown assembled practically all
the equipment used in the making of jelly, and if a housewife is
provided with these things or substitutes for them, she will be well
equipped for her work.

13. KETTLES.--As will be observed, two kettles are required in jelly
making. The larger one is used for cooking the fruit, and the smaller
one, to cook the juice and the sugar. These should have a perfectly
smooth surface, and may be made of almost any material used for such
utensils, except tin or iron. These two metals are undesirable, as they
are liable to lend to the jelly a disagreeable flavor and in all
probability an unattractive color. The one used to cook the fruit should
generally be a little larger than the other. As about 6 glassfuls of
jelly may be cooked at one time, the kettle in which the juice is boiled
should be of adequate size to cook this amount without danger of its
boiling over. When fruit juice and sugar are boiled together, the
mixture often boils up and runs over if the vessel is not large enough.

14. JELLY BAG.--The jelly bag, which is used for straining the boiled
fruit and thus obtaining the juice, may be a home-made one or, as shown
in the illustration, one that is purchased for the purpose. If the bag
is made at home, a heavy, closely woven material, such as flannel,
should be selected, so as to prevent the tiny particles of fruit from
passing through with the juice. A liquid strained in this manner will be
much clearer and will make better looking jelly than that which has been
run through a coarse material, such as cheesecloth. The juice can be
strained very conveniently if the bag is attached to a wire arrangement,
like the one shown, or to an upright standard that can be fastened to a
chair or a table, for then the bag is held securely over the vessel into
which the juice drips. Sometimes, especially when more than one
extraction of the juice is to be made, the first extraction is made by
means of a strainer or a colander and the juice thus obtained is then
strained through the bag.

15. ADDITIONAL UTENSILS.--As accurate measurements are absolutely
essential in jelly making, a measuring cup should be included in the
equipment. Then, too, a quart measure will be found very convenient,
especially if large quantities of materials are to be cooked at one
time. A large spoon or two for stirring, skimming, and testing should
also be provided. The spoon used for skimming will produce better
results if the bowl contains holes that will permit the juice to drop
back into the vessel, for then none of the juice will be wasted.

16. CONTAINERS FOR JELLY.--Various types of receptacles in which to keep
jelly are in use, some turning out more attractive molds than others.
The shape of the mold, however, is a matter of minor importance. Almost
any wide-mouthed glass receptacle with comparatively smooth sides will
do very well, since the sealing of jelly is not a difficult thing to do.
Therefore, new receptacles should not be purchased if there is a supply
of any suitable kind on hand, for many other containers besides
purchased jelly glasses may be used for this purpose. The most
convenient type, which may be bought in any store selling kitchen
utensils, is that shown in Fig. 1. As will be observed, these are
somewhat broad and not very tall. A mold of jelly turned from a tall,
narrow glass does not stand up so well as that turned from a flat, wide
one. Then, too, a tall glass is much more likely to tip and spill than a
more shallow one.

17. Metal covers that fit the tops of the glasses, like the ones shown,
are the most convenient kind that can be used, but they are not an
absolute necessity. In their place may be used paper caps that fit the
glasses, or the tops of the glasses may be covered with paper and then
tied. Before a cover of any kind is put on a glass, paraffin, several
cakes of which are arranged on a plate in Fig. 1, is melted and poured
in a thin layer over the top of the jelly itself.

To designate the kind of jelly, it is advisable to label the glasses
with neat labels, a box of which is included in the equipment
here shown.

18. Paraffin-covered paper cups have been recommended to take the place
of jelly glasses, and while they do very well in the case of scarcity of
containers they have some disadvantages. In the first place, they can be
used only once, as it is impossible to wash them. In addition, it will
be necessary to wait until the jelly is partly cold before pouring it
into such cups, as hot jelly will melt the paraffin on the surface of
the paper.


PROCEDURE IN JELLY MAKING

19. When the necessary utensils have been conveniently placed and the
desired fruit has been selected, the housewife may proceed at once to
the work of making jelly. Each step is here outlined in the order in
which it should be taken up in doing the actual work. The entire
procedure should be properly followed out in order to insure the best
results, and every part of the work should be carefully done so as to
avoid any waste of material.

[Illustration: FIG. 2]

20. COOKING THE FRUIT.--Prepare the fruit in whatever way is necessary.
The preparation needed will depend, of course, on the kind of fruit
selected for the jelly, but usually not so much preparation is needed as
in the case of canning. For instance, when crab-apple jelly is made, the
stems are removed and the fruit is cut into halves or quarters, but they
need not be peeled nor have the seeds taken out. Specific directions for
the different varieties of fruits are given in the various recipes. The
chief precaution to take in preparing the fruit, no matter what kind is
used, is to see that it is thoroughly cleaned.

With the fruit prepared, put it into a large kettle and add enough water
to start the cooking and prevent scorching. Some fruits will require
more water than others, especially when they must be cooked a long time
in order to soften them sufficiently to extract the juice. Juicy fruits,
like plums, need only the minimum amount of water, while drier fruits,
such as apples, require more. Place the kettle on the stove, as in Fig.
2, and allow the fruit to cook until it is soft or is reduced to a pulp.
The length of time for cooking will also depend entirely on the kind of
fruit that is being used.

21. EXTRACTING JUICE.--When the fruit is thoroughly cooked, pour the
pulp and the juice that has formed into the jelly bag and allow it to
drip into a pan placed directly under the bag, as shown in Fig. 3.
Formerly, it was the custom to let the juice drip until no more remained
in the bag. This method is followed to some extent at present, but it is
falling into disuse, as it is not the most economical way of extracting
the juice from the pulp. More juice can be obtained and more jelly made
from the same amount of fruit if three extractions instead of one are
made. Make the first extraction by pouring the pulp and juice into the
bag and permitting the juice to drip only until it begins to run very
slowly. Then return the pulp to the kettle, add a small quantity of
water, and let it boil again for a few minutes. Pour it the second time
into the jelly bag, and let it drip as before. Cook it the third time in
the same way, and then allow it to drip until all the juice is
extracted. At this point, mix the juice from the three extractions. They
should not be used separately, for they are much different in quality,
the third one being not so good as the second and the second, inferior
to the first. On the other hand, when all three are mixed, an excellent
quality is the result, provided all conditions are correct, and a larger
quantity of juice is obtained for the jelly.

[Illustration: FIG. 3]

22. The quantity of juice that may be extracted depends on the quality
as well as the kind of fruit. If the season is a rainy one, the fruits
will be found to contain more juice than they would in a dry season.
Then, too, if the fruits are picked immediately after a rain, they will
contain more juice than the same fruits before the rain. The amount of
juice the fruit contains determines, of course, the quantity of water
that should be added in the cooking. If only one extraction is intended,
3 to 4 quarts of water may be used for 8 quarts of fruit, depending on
the kind of fruit; but if three extractions are to be made, less water
should be added for each extraction. In case the extracted juice
contains more water than it should have, either because the fruit
contains an excessive amount of water or because too much water was
added to the fruit in its cooking, the superfluous water will be
extracted by boiling the juice with the sugar a little longer as the
jelly is being made.

It is not always necessary to have the fleshy part of fruit for jelly
making, for often the skins, seeds, and cores of fruits may be cooked
with water and the juice then extracted from them. Another point to
remember is that the pulp from which the juice is extracted may
sometimes be used for jam or marmalade. If points like these are taken
into consideration, it will not be necessary to waste any part of
edible fruits.

23. TESTING THE JUICE FOR PECTIN.--When the juice has been extracted
from the fruit, it should be tested for pectin in order to determine
whether or not it will be satisfactory for the making of jelly. A test
that can be applied by the housewife is illustrated in Fig. 4. Into a
tumbler, put a tablespoonful of juice and with this mix a tablespoonful
of alcohol. If, upon adding the alcohol, the fruit juice turns into a
gelatinous, or jelly-like, mass that may be easily gathered up on the
spoon, it may be known that pectin is present. As has already been
stated, the presence of this substance in fruit juice insures the fact
that jelly can be made from the juice.

[Illustration: FIG. 4]

24. USING JUICE LACKING IN PECTIN.--If, in the test for pectin, the
addition of alcohol to the fruit juice does not turn the juice into a
jelly-like mass, pectin is not present. Such juice, or juice that
contains only a small amount of pectin, will prove unsuccessful in jelly
making unless some substance or juice high in pectin is added to it. The
white skin from the inside of orange, lemon, or grapefruit peelings or
the juice from apples, crab apples, currants, green gooseberries, or
other fruit containing a large quantity of pectin may be used for this
purpose. Also, commercial pectin may be purchased and used with fruits
according to the directions that accompany it.

It is always necessary to supply pectin in some way to such fruits as
strawberries, peaches, raspberries, blueberries, cherries, pears, etc.
To the sweet ones, like peaches and raspberries, lemon juice or other
acid fruit juice also must be added if satisfactory jelly is desired.

25. DETERMINING PROPORTION OF SUGAR.--The only other ingredient used in
jelly making, besides the fruit juice, is sugar. After the juice has
been strained from the fruit, the next step is to determine how much
sugar must be used. This is of extreme importance, as the success of the
jelly depends very largely on whether or not the correct proportion is
used. If too much sugar is added to the juice, a greater quantity of
jelly will result, but it will not stand up as it should when it is
turned out of the glass. On the other hand, if too little sugar is used,
a smaller quantity of jelly than the required amount will be made and it
will be tough and sour.

[Illustration: FIG. 5]

26. It is difficult to give the exact proportion of sugar to use with
every kind of fruit, for some fruits require more than others. However,
in general, 3/4 cupful of sugar to each cupful of juice, as shown in
Fig. 5, will be sufficient. This is especially true if the season has
been a dry one and the fruits are neither very sour nor very juicy.
After a wet season or with very sour or very juicy fruits, it will
usually be necessary to use 1 cupful of sugar to each cupful of juice.

27. Much waste of sugar and spoiling of jelly can be avoided by the use
of the test for pectin, which has just been described. After the juice
and the alcohol have been mixed, pour the mixture slowly from the glass,
noting how the pectin is precipitated. If it is precipitated as one
lump, a cupful of sugar may be used for each cupful of juice; if in
several lumps, the proportion of sugar must be reduced to approximately
three-fourths the amount of juice. If the pectin is not in lumps, but is
merely precipitated, the sugar should be one-half or less of the amount
of the juice.

[Illustration: FIG. 6]

28. To assist in determining the correct proportion of sugar to use in
the making of jelly, the hydrometer, or sirup gauge, which is explained
in _Canning and Drying_, will be found helpful. After the juice has been
extracted, mix with a small amount of it the proportion of sugar that is
to be used when the jelly is cooked. Allow the sugar to dissolve
completely, pour a little of the mixture into a glass or a graduate, and
insert the hydrometer, as shown in Fig. 6. Regardless of the kind of
juice, the hydrometer should register 25 degrees for perfect jelly. If
it registers less than 25 degrees, more sugar should be added. Then if
it is necessary to add either sugar or juice, the additional ingredient
should be carefully measured in order that the proportions may be
correct for the making of jelly. It must not be understood that a
hydrometer is an actual necessity in the making of jelly, for very good
jelly can be made without measuring the ingredients in this manner.
However, if a hydrometer is not used, it will be necessary to apply the
best judgment possible to the rules given for the proportion of
ingredients used in jelly making.

29. COMBINING THE JUICE AND SUGAR.--The mixing of the juice and the
sugar may seem like a trivial matter, but in reality much is involved in
combining these ingredients properly. It may be done in three different
ways. In the first method, which is called _long boiling_, the sugar and
the juice are mixed cold and are then allowed to come to the boiling
point together. The second, which is known as _mean boiling_, consists
in putting the cold juice on the stove, allowing it to boil about half
the required time, and then adding the sugar, which has also been
heated. In the third, which is known as the _short-boiling method_, the
juice is boiled without the sugar almost the full length of time
required for making the jelly, and the sugar, which has been heated, is
added just before the boiling is completed.

30. Experience in the use of these three methods has shown their
advantages and disadvantages. The first one, or the long-boiling
process, has the disadvantage of losing sugar through the skimming that
is always necessary in the making of jelly. In addition, the long
boiling often causes the sugar to crystallize and thus produces a jelly
that would not score very high. The short boiling is not entirely
satisfactory, because of the difficulty in determining just when to add
the sugar to the juice. The process of mean boiling, having neither of
these drawbacks and usually resulting in jelly of excellent quality, is
the most satisfactory and the one that is recommended.

[Illustration: FIG. 7]

To carry out this method, place the sugar in a pan in a warm oven or
other place where it will gradually become heated without either melting
or scorching. Put the juice over the fire in a saucepan and let it boil
for 5 to 8 minutes. Then, as shown in Fig. 7, slowly add the correct
proportion of hot sugar to the boiling juice, stirring constantly so
that the sugar will dissolve as quickly as possible.

31. BOILING THE JUICE AND SUGAR.--The boiling of the juice, both before
and after the sugar is added, should be done rapidly. During this
process, it will be found that a scum will form over the top of the
juice. This should be skimmed off as it forms, for it is a detriment to
the jelly. As shown in Fig. 8, draw a large spoon over the top of the
boiling juice from time to time and skim off the scum that rises,
placing it into any small dish that is handy. It is usually advisable
to do as much skimming as possible before the sugar is added, so that
only a minimum amount of sugar will be lost.

The length of time required to boil the juice after the sugar is added
depends very largely on the way in which the boiling is carried on. If
the mixture is boiled rapidly, less time will, of course, be needed than
if it is boiled slowly. Therefore, no definite time can be set for the
cooking. However, several tests may be resorted to in order to determine
whether the sugar and juice have boiled long enough to jell when the
mixture is cold.

[Illustration: FIG. 8]

32. TESTING THE JELLY MIXTURE.--The testing of the mixture can be done
in various ways, the one to select depending on the success the
housewife has in using them. A means very often resorted to consists in
dipping a spoonful or two of the mixture out of the kettle and pouring
it on the flat surface of a cold dish. If it is cooked sufficiently, it
will solidify when it is cold and will appear just like jelly. The
disadvantage of this test lies in the fact that the jelly on the stove
continues to boil while the test is being made, and as this takes
several minutes, the jelly is likely to overboil to a considerable
extent. Tests that can be performed more quickly are therefore more
satisfactory.

33. A test that invariably proves successful consists in dipping up a
spoonful of the juice and allowing it to run slowly from the spoon back
into the pan. If, as shown in Fig. 9, a double row of drops forms on the
spoon with the last of the jelly that remains, it may be known that the
cooking is finished.

34. Another very satisfactory test is called _sheeting_. In the
performing of this test, a spoonful of the jelly is dipped from the pan
and then poured from the spoon into the pan again. If it is cooked to
the proper consistency, large drops will form at the edge of the spoon
and break off quickly.

[Illustration: FIG. 9]

35. FILLING THE GLASSES.--As soon as it has been determined that the
jelly is sufficiently cooked, it should be removed from the stove. The
glasses may then be filled at once. These, together with the covers,
must be thoroughly cleansed before being used, and this can be done
while the jelly is cooking. After being thoroughly washed, submerge them
in a pan of hot water and allow them to remain there until they are to
be used. Keeping them hot in this way will prevent them from cracking
when the hot jelly is poured into them. Take out one glass at a time,
place it on a small plate or any small dish, and, as shown in Fig. 10,
pour the hot jelly into it from the pan to within 1/4 inch of the top.
Fill the remaining glasses in the same way, and then set them somewhere
out of a draft to cool. If, as the jelly cools, it seems to be a little
bit thin, place it somewhere in the sunshine and the heat of the sun
will help to thicken it.

[Illustration: FIG. 10]

36. CLOSING AND STORING THE JELLY GLASSES.--The jelly should be allowed
to cool completely and should then be closed for storing. The best
results are obtained by putting a thin layer of paraffin over the top of
the jelly in each glass before applying the cover. To do this, put into
a small saucepan as much paraffin as you think will be needed to cover
the jelly you have made and set this on the stove to melt. When it has
melted, pour a layer about 1/8 inch thick over the surface of the jelly,
as shown in Fig. 11. As soon as it cools, it will harden and thus form a
protective covering for the jelly. When it is hard, cover the glass in
the desired way. Covers of tin are perhaps the most satisfactory, but if
these cannot be secured, heavy paper covers that fit into the glasses
snugly will answer the purpose very well. In the event of not having
covers of either of these kinds, cover the tops of the glasses with
paper--any good wrapping paper will do--and then tie this paper
securely. Just before putting the jelly away, label each glass with a
neat label on which is written the name of the jelly. Then no difficulty
will be experienced in selecting at once the kind of jelly desired when
one is taking a glass from the place where it is stored.

[Illustration: FIG. 11]


SCORING JELLY

37. With jelly, as with canned fruit, it is a splendid idea for every
housewife to score each kind she makes, so that she can determine how it
measures up in its various characteristics. If it falls below the
standard, this fact should be known, so that the fault can be remedied
the next time. On the other hand, extreme satisfaction is felt if it is
found to score high. To assist in scoring jelly, a score card is here
given, and following it each one of the characteristics is discussed.

SCORE CARD FOR JELLY
                        Per Cent.
Color                      20
Solidity                   25
Flavor                     25
Sugar Content              25
Method of Sealing           5
                          ---
    Total                 100

_Color_.-For jelly having the proper color, 20 per cent. is given. The
fruit used in the making of jelly determines to a great extent the color
of the finished product, but it is possible to have a very wide
difference in the colors of jelly made from the same fruit. To be right,
jelly should be clear, bright, and not too dark. If the juice is boiled
too long, the jelly will be darker than it should be. If pulp has been
allowed to pass through the jelly bag in straining out the juice, either
through squeezing the bag or using a bag that is too thin, the jelly
will be found to have a cloudy appearance.

_Solidity_.--When jelly is turned from the glass, it should be firm
enough to stand alone. If it has not been boiled long enough, it will
crush down and perhaps run like sirup. If it is boiled too long or the
proportion of juice to sugar is not correct, it may be tough and
leathery. Jelly whose solidity is correct scores 25 per cent. in
this respect.

_Flavor_.--The characteristic flavor of the fruit used in making jelly
should be retained as much as possible, and when this is the case 25 per
cent. is given to the product. The flavor of the jelly is therefore
dependent on the flavor of the fruit. In addition, the flavor depends on
the amount of sugar used, the amount of acid in the fruit, and the
length of time consumed by the boiling. Jellies boiled too long will be
strong in flavor.

_Sugar Content_.--The sugar content of jelly should be determined by the
amount of acid that must be sweetened. An insufficient amount of sugar
will result in tough, sour jelly, while too large a quantity will make
the jelly taffy-like. The correct amount of sugar, which produces the
right degree of sweetness, receives a score of 25 per cent.

_Method of Sealing_.--The method of sealing may seem like a matter of
little importance, but if jelly is not sealed properly, it will not be
in good condition when it is to be served. To score in this respect, for
which 5 per cent. is given, the jelly should be covered with paraffin
and then closed with a cover or with paper in order to exclude the
dust and dirt.

RECIPES FOR JELLY

38. Recipes for the kinds of jelly usually made are here given. If the
directions given in the procedure for jelly making are thoroughly
mastered and then applied to these recipes, the housewife will
experience very little difficulty in making any of these varieties.
Other jellies may, without doubt, be made by combining the proper
fruits. All that has to be done in order to determine whether a certain
fruit juice or combination of fruit juices will make jelly is to apply
the test for pectin already explained. Whatever quantity of jelly is
desired may be made, but usually it can be handled best if not more than
6 glassfuls are made at one time.

39. CRAB-APPLE JELLY.--Crab apples are much used for jelly, as they make
a product of good consistency and excellent flavor. Apples may be used
in the same way as crab apples with equally good results.

Wash the apples thoroughly, remove the stems, and cut into quarters.
Make sure that the apples contain no worms. Put them into a kettle, add
about half as much water as apples, and cook slowly until the apples are
soft. Strain the juice through a jelly bag. Before it stops dripping,
return the pulp to the kettle, add half as much water as pulp, and allow
the fruit to cook again. Make a second extraction, and in the same way
make a third one. Then combine the juice, and strain all of it through a
bag to make it clear. Measure 6 or 8 cupfuls of juice, and pour it into
a preserving kettle. Boil for about 5 minutes, straining off the scum
that rises to the top. To each cupful of juice, add 3/4 to 1 cupful of
sugar that has been heated. Crab apples will require 1 cupful of sugar,
but apples milder in flavor will not need more than 3/4 cupful. Boil
until the test shows that it has boiled long enough. Pour into hot
glasses, cool, and seal. Label and then store for later use.

40. CURRANT JELLY.--If jelly having a tart flavor is desired, currant
jelly should be tried. This kind of jelly is especially good to serve
with the heavy course of a meal.

Wash and stem the currants. Put them into a kettle and add about
one-fourth as much water as currants. Boil until the currants are
reduced to a pulp. Pour into a jelly bag and strain. Make at least one
more extraction, and a third extraction if there is a fairly large
quantity of pulp. When all the juice has been strained from the pulp,
strain it again through the bag or a heavy cloth. Measure 6 or 8 cupfuls
of juice into a kettle, boil for about 5 minutes, and then add from
three-fourths to an equal amount of heated sugar. Remove the scum as it
forms, taking off as much as possible before the sugar is added.
Continue to boil until the tests show that the mixture has cooked
sufficiently. Remove from the heat and pour into hot glasses. Cool,
seal, label, and store.

41. GRAPE JELLY.--Thoroughly ripe grapes may be used for jelly, but they
are not so satisfactory for this purpose as grapes that are only partly
ripe. This is due to the fact that green grapes contain more pectin and,
upon being cooked, produce fewer of the cream-of-tartar crystals usually
found in grape jelly than do ripe ones. The procedure for grape jelly is
the same as that for currant jelly. If ripe grapes are used, 3/4 cupful
of sugar will be needed to each cupful of juice; but if only partly ripe
grapes are used, 1 cupful of sugar will be required for every cupful
of juice.

42. QUINCE JELLY.--Because of its attractive color and delicate flavor,
quince jelly is much favored. The quinces may be used alone, but if a
still more delicate flavor is desired, apples may be added to the
quinces, or the parings and cores of the quinces may be used with apples
or crab apples. To make quince jelly, proceed in the same way as for
apple jelly, using 3/4 cupful of sugar to 1 cupful of juice.

43. RASPBERRY JELLY.--Either black or red raspberries may be used for
jelly making. To give jelly made from these fruits a better consistency,
a small quantity of green grape, crab-apple, or currant juice should be
added. The procedure in this case is the same as for currant jelly.

44. STRAWBERRY JELLY.--Unripe strawberries contain a small amount of
pectin, but thoroughly ripe ones are almost lacking in this respect. For
this reason, strawberries cannot be used alone for making jelly. They
make a delicious jelly, however, if currants are combined with them. For
each 5 or 6 quarts of strawberries, 1 quart of currants will be
sufficient to make a jelly of good consistency. Wash and hull the
strawberries and then proceed as for currant jelly.

45. PLUM JELLY.--Plums make a jelly that many persons like. If it is
desired to use plums alone, those which are not thoroughly ripe should
be selected. Ripe plums do not contain enough pectin for jelly;
therefore, a fruit high in pectin, such as crab apples, must be added.
The procedure for currant jelly should be followed for plum jelly.

46. PEACH JELLY.--Peaches contain so little pectin that it is almost
impossible to make jelly of them unless some other fruit is added in
rather large quantities. Currants, crab apples, or green grapes may be
used with peaches, and whichever one is selected will be needed in the
proportion of about 50 per cent.; that is, half as much additional fruit
as peaches is needed. In the making of peach jelly, proceed as for
currant jelly.

47. CANNING FRUIT JUICES FOR JELLY.--During the canning season, when a
great deal of such work is being done, the housewife often feels that
making jelly and preserves is an extravagant use of sugar. Still, fruit
juices left over from canning and large quantities of fruit, such as
crab apples and currants, that are not suitable for other purposes, will
be wasted unless they are used for jelly. If it is not convenient to use
the fruit at the time it is obtained, a good plan is to extract the
juice as for jelly making and then can it. In case this is done, jelly
may be made from the juice during the seasons of the year when less
sugar is required for other things.

48. To can fruit juice, extract it from the fruit as for jelly making
and then bring it to the boiling point. Select bottles or jars that may
be tightly closed, sterilize them, fill them with the boiling juice, and
seal them. Bottles may be used for this purpose if they are well corked
and then dipped into melted sealing wax or paraffin. When properly
sealed, fruit juices will probably keep without any further effort to
preserve them, but to make positively certain that they will not spoil,
it is a wise precaution to process the filled bottles or jars in boiling
water for about 6 or 8 minutes in the same way in which canned fruit is
processed. When treated in this way, fruit juices will keep perfectly
and may be made into jelly at any time during the winter.

       *       *       *       *       *


PRESERVING

PRINCIPLES OF PRESERVING

49. PRESERVING consists in preparing fruits in perfect condition to
resist decomposition or change by cooking them in heavy sirup. The
cooking is done so slightly that the original form, flavor, and color of
the fruit are retained as far as possible. This process is similar to
that of canning by the open-kettle method; that is, the fruit and sugar
are combined and cooked to the proper consistency in the preserving
kettle. Sugar is used in such quantity in the preparation of preserves
that it acts as a preservative and prevents bacteria from attacking the
foods in which it is used. If preserves of any kind ferment, it may be
known that not enough sugar was used in their preparation. The
sterilization of the product and the air-tight sealing of the
containers, which are necessary in the canning of fruits and vegetables,
need not be resorted to in the case of preserves.

50. SELECTION OF FRUIT.--When fruit is to be made into preserves, much
attention should be paid to its selection, for, as a rule, only the
finest fruits are used for preserving. This is especially true of the
smaller fruits, such as berries and cherries, for they are preserved
whole. Therefore, in order that they may have a good appearance when
preserved, it is necessary that they be as perfect as possible to begin
with. In addition, the fruit should be thoroughly ripe, but not mushy
nor overripe. As the cooking of the fruits in sirup hardens them to a
certain extent, fruits that are not sufficiently ripe cannot be used,
for they would be too hard when done. If care is used in selecting
fruits that are to be preserved, a good-appearing product will be the
result, since this process is carried on in such a way as not to impair
their shape.

51. METHODS OF PRESERVING.--Several methods of preserving fruit are in
practice, but in general the same principles characterise each one.
Probably the most successful method consists in bringing a certain
proportion of sugar and water to the boiling point, dropping the fruit
into the sirup thus formed, and cooking it for a definite length of
time. Boiling fruits in heavy sirup has a tendency to make them firm and
solid, rather than to cook them to pieces, as would be the case with
water or a thin sirup. Even very soft berries, when used for preserves,
will retain almost their original size and shape if they are properly
cooked. Except for the fact that a heavier sirup is used, the process of
preserving fruit is exactly like that of canning fruit by the
open-kettle method. The chief precaution to take in this method is that
as little water as possible be used, so that the sirup may be very thick
when the fruit is added.

Another method that may be recommended because it helps to keep the
fruit in good condition consists in cooking it in its own juice. In this
method, equal quantities of fruit and sugar are put together and allowed
to stand until enough juice is formed, preferably overnight, so that the
fruit may be cooked without the addition of any water. Strawberries are
excellent when preserved in this way.

Whichever method is followed, better results will be obtained if only a
few quarts of fruit are cooked at a time. When a large quantity of
berries, for instance, is added to the boiling sirup, they will form
such a thick layer that they will have to remain over the fire a long
time before they come to the boiling point. They will therefore be much
more likely to crush and give the finished product a mushy appearance
than if a smaller quantity, which will form a thinner layer, is cooked
each time.

52. UTENSILS FOR PRESERVING.--The equipment necessary in the making of
preserves is similar to that used for making jelly, with the exception
of the dripping bag and the hydrometer. A good-sized preserving kettle
is, of course, required for the cooking of the fruit and sirup; a
measuring cup and a quart measure are needed for the measuring of the
ingredients; and a long-handled wooden spoon or paddle is the most
convenient utensil with which to stir all foods of this class.
Containers similar to those used for jelly will be satisfactory
receptacles in which to put preserves, but as preserved fruits are not
turned out in a mold, almost any kind of wide-mouthed bottle or jar may
be used for this purpose. Paraffin should also be provided, as this
should always be used for the first covering to prevent the formation of
molds, which are likely to grow on moist sweet substances exposed to the
air. Before using paraffin for preserves, they should be allowed to
stand until the surface has become absolutely dry. It is well to label
preserves, too; so labels should be kept on hand for this purpose.

       *       *       *       *       *


RECIPES FOR PRESERVED FRUITS

VARIETIES OF PRESERVED FRUITS

53. The several methods of preserving fruits result in considerable
variety in the finished product. _Preserves proper_ are those cooked in
a heavy sirup, either whole or cut into pieces. In addition to being
prepared in this way, fruit may be made into _conserve, marmalade, jam_,
and _butter_. Specific directions for the preparation of each one of
these varieties are here given, together with a number of recipes
showing the kinds of fruit most suitable for the different varieties. No
housewife need deprive her family of any of these delicious preparations
if she will familiarize herself with the methods explained and will
follow out minutely the directions given. In the making of the various
kinds of preserves, just as much care must be exercised as in canning
and jelly making if the best results are desired.


PRESERVES

54. STRAWBERRY PRESERVE.--Strawberries selected for preserves should be
of the dark, solid variety, if possible, since these shrink less and
retain their shape and size better than do the lighter varieties. This
fruit is made into preserves probably more often than any other kind,
and this is not strange, for it makes a most delicious preserve.

STRAWBERRY PRESERVE

2 qt.  strawberries
1/2 c. hot water
1 lb.  sugar

Clean the strawberries by placing them in a colander and raising and
lowering them into a large pan of water. Remove the hulls and make sure
that all the water is carefully drained from the berries. Add the water
to the sugar and place over the fire in a preserving kettle that has a
smooth surface. Stir until the sugar is dissolved, and allow the mixture
to come to a rapid boil. To the rapidly boiling sirup, add the
strawberries by dropping them carefully into it. Allow the fruit to
come to the boiling point in the sirup, and continue to boil for 10 or
12 minutes. If the berries seem to contain an unusual amount of water,
boiling for 15 minutes may be necessary. Remove from the fire and fill
into hot sterilized glasses at once, or set aside to cool. It has been
found that if the preserves are allowed to stand in the kettle
overnight, they will improve in flavor and, because of the absorption of
oxygen, which they lose in boiling, they will increase in size. If the
preserves are treated in this way, it will be necessary to pour them
cold into the sterilized glasses. When the preserves in the glasses are
cold, pour melted paraffin over them. Cover them with metal or paper
covers, label, and store for future use.

55. CHERRY PRESERVE.--If sour cherries can be secured, an excellent
preserve can be made of them. Cherries should, of courser be seeded, or
pitted, when they are prepared in this way.

CHERRY PRESERVE

2 qt. seeded sour cherries
1 c. hot water
1-1/2 lb. sugar

Drain off the superfluous juice from the cherries. Add the hot water to
the sugar in a preserving kettle, and allow the mixture to come to a
boil. Add the cherries and boil for 10 or 12 minutes. Have hot
sterilized jelly glasses ready and fill with the hot preserves. Allow
the preserves to cool, cover first with paraffin and then with metal or
paper covers, and label.

56. RASPBERRY PRESERVE.--Although red raspberries are a rather soft
fruit, they can be used very well for preserves if care is taken not to
break them into pieces by too long cooking or too rapid boiling.


RASPBERRY PRESERVE

2 qt. red raspberries
3/4 c. hot water
1 lb. sugar

Wash the raspberries by placing them in a colander and raising and
lowering them in a large pan of cold water. Mix the hot water with the
sugar in a preserving kettle, place the mixture over the fire and bring
to the boiling point. Add the raspberries to the boiling sirup, and when
they have come to the boiling point, cook for 8 to 10 minutes. Remove
the hot preserves from the fire and pour into hot sterilized jars. Allow
them to cool, seal with paraffin and metal or paper covers, and label.

57. PLUM PRESERVE.--A very rich, tart preserve can be made by cooking
plums in a thick sirup. Those who care for the flavor of plums will find
preserves of this kind very much to their taste.

PLUM PRESERVE

2 qt.     plums
1 c.      hot water
1-1/2 lb. sugar

Select any variety of plums desired for preserves, and wash them in cold
water. Cut them in half and remove the seeds. Place the hot water and
the sugar in a preserving kettle, and bring to a rapid boil. Add the
plums and boil slowly for 15 minutes. Remove from the fire, pour into
hot sterilized jelly glasses. Allow them to cool and cover first with
paraffin and then with metal or paper covers. Before storing, label each
glass neatly.

58. QUINCE PRESERVE.--Quinces combined with apples make a preserve that
finds favor with many. As shown in the accompanying recipe, about
one-third as many apples as quinces make the required proportion.

QUINCE PRESERVE

3 qt.    quinces, peeled and quartered
1 qt.    apples, peeled and quartered
1-1/2 c. hot water
3 lb.    sugar

Select well-ripened quinces. Rub the fuzz from the skin with a cloth,
and then wash, peel, quarter, and core. If desired, they may be sliced,
but they are very nice when preserved in quarters. Select firm apples,
wash, peel, quarter, and core them, and cut them the same size as the
quinces. Add the water to the sugar, place the mixture over the fire in
a preserving kettle, and let it come to a boil. Add the quinces, cook
until tender, and remove from the sirup. Then cook the apples in the
sirup in the same way, and when tender remove from the sirup. Place the
fruits in alternate layers in hot jars. Unless the sirup is very thick,
boil it until it becomes heavy; then fill each jarful of fruit with this
sirup. Seal with paraffin, cover with metal or paper covers, and label.

59. PEACH PRESERVE.--Although somewhat bland in flavor, peaches make an
excellent preserve. Some persons prefer them cut into very small slices,
while others like them preserved in large slices.

PEACH PRESERVE

4 qt.    peaches
1-1/2 c. hot water
3 lb.    sugar

Select firm peaches. Wash, pare, and cut into slices of any desirable
size. Add the water to the sugar in a preserving kettle, place over the
fire, and allow the mixture to come to a rapid boil. Drop the sliced
peaches into the sirup and cook until tender. Have hot sterilized jars
ready, fill with the hot preserves, and seal with paraffin. Cover in the
desired way and label.


CONSERVES

60. CONSERVES do not differ materially from preserves in their
preparation, but they usually consist of a mixture of two or more
fruits, whereas preserves are made from a single fruit. All rules that
govern the making of preserves apply equally well to the making of
conserves.

There are certain fruits that combine very well as far as flavor, color,
etc. are concerned, and these are generally used together in the
preparation of this food. However, almost any combination of fruits may
be made into conserves. This is therefore a very good way in which to
utilize small quantities of left-over fruits. Then, too, a cheap
material may be combined with a more expensive one to make a larger
quantity of a moderately priced product, as, for instance, rhubarb and
pineapple. Again, the pulp from which juice has been extracted for jelly
may be used to make conserve. In fact, a little ingenuity on the part of
the housewife and familiarity with general preserving methods will
enable her to make many kinds of excellent conserves, even though she
may not have a definite rule or recipe to cover the use of the
particular material that happens to be on hand.

61. STRAWBERRY-AND-PINEAPPLE CONSERVE.--The combination of strawberries
and pineapple is an excellent one. The accompanying recipe shows how to
combine these fruits to make a most appetizing conserve.

STRAWBERRY-AND-PINEAPPLE CONSERVE

2 qt. strawberries
1 large pineapple
1 c. hot water
2-1/2 lb. sugar

Prepare the strawberries as for canning. Peel and slice the pineapple,
remove the eyes, and cut into small pieces. Add the water to the sugar
in a preserving kettle, and allow it to come to a boil. Drop the pieces
of pineapple into the sirup and cook them until they are tender. To this
add the strawberries and cook for 5 or 10 minutes longer. The conserve
should then be sufficiently cooked to put into the jars. If the juice
seems too thin, fill the jars, which should be hot sterilized ones,
about three-fourths full of the fruit, and then return the sirup to the
heat and boil it until it is the right consistency. Remove the boiling
sirup from the stove, and pour it over the fruit in the jars until they
are full. Allow the conserve to cool, and then seal, first with paraffin
and then with metal or paper covers. Label each glass and set away for
future use.

62. STRAWBERRY-AND-RHUBARB CONSERVE.--Rhubarb combines very well with
either strawberries or pineapple. The accompanying recipe is for
strawberries and rhubarb, but if pineapple is desired, it may be
substituted for the strawberries in the same quantity.

STRAWBERRY-AND-RHUBARB CONSERVE

2 qt. strawberries
1-1/2 qt. rhubarb
1-1/2 c. hot water
3 lb. sugar

Prepare the strawberries as for canning. Cut the rhubarb, which should
be very tender, into cubes without removing the skin. Add the water to
the sugar, and bring to a rapid boil in a preserving kettle. Put the
rhubarb and strawberries into this sirup, and cook for at least 15
minutes. Pour into hot sterilized glasses, and when cool seal in the
usual way. Label and store.

63. PINEAPPLE-AND-APRICOT CONSERVE.--No more delicious conserve can be
made than pineapple-and-apricot conserve. The tartness of the apricots
gives a flavor that is pleasing to most persons.

PINEAPPLE-AND-APRICOT CONSERVE

2 qt. apricots
1 large pineapple
1 c. hot water
2-1/2 lb. sugar

Wash the apricots, plunge them into boiling water to remove the skins,
and then cut into quarters. Peel and slice the pineapple, remove the
eyes, and cut into cubes. Add the water to the sugar in a preserving
kettle, and bring to the boiling point. Add the pineapple to the sirup,
and cook until tender. Then drop in the apricots and boil several
minutes longer. Have hot sterilized glasses ready, fill them with the
conserve, and when cool seal in the usual way. Before putting the
glasses away, label each one neatly.

64. CRAB-APPLE-AND-ORANGE CONSERVE.--It is a good idea to make
crab-apple-and-orange conserve at the same time that crab-apple jelly is
made, for the pulp that remains after extracting the juice may be
utilized for the conserve. However, if it is desired to make it at some
other time, fresh pulp can be prepared for the purpose.

CRAB-APPLE-AND-ORANGE CONSERVE

1 qt. crab-apple pulp
3 lb. sugar
8 oranges

To the crab-apple pulp, add the sugar, and place over the fire to boil.
Peel the oranges, scoop out the white portion from the peelings, cut the
peelings into thin strips, and add to the crab-apple pulp. Remove the
pulp of the orange from the skins and from between the sections, cut it
into small pieces, and add to the boiling mixture a few minutes before
it is removed from the stove. When it has cooked thick, pour into hot
sterilized glasses. Cool and then seal and label.

65. PLUM CONSERVE.--A rather unusual conserve is made by combining
raisins and English walnut meats with plums. The accompanying recipe
gives directions for the preparation of this conserve.

PLUM CONSERVE

4 qt. plums
1 c. hot water
2 lb. sugar
1 lb. raisins
2 c. English walnut meats

Wash the plums, cut them in half, and remove the seeds. Add the water to
the sugar, place over the fire in a preserving kettle, and stir until
the mixture comes to a rapid boil. Wash the raisins, which should be
seeded, add them with the plums to the sirup, and cook until the mixture
is the consistency of jelly. Just before removing from the stove, add
the nut meats. Pour the mixture into hot sterilized glasses, cool, seal,
and label. If very sour plums are used, increase the amount of sugar.

66. CHERRY-AND-PINEAPPLE CONSERVE.--Cherries combine very well with
pineapple in a conserve. Sweet cherries should, if possible, be used for
this purpose.

CHERRY-AND-PINEAPPLE CONSERVE

2 qt. sweet cherries
1 pineapple
2 lb. sugar
1 c. hot water

Wash, stem, and seed the cherries. Slice and peel the pineapple and
remove the eyes. Put the sugar and water over the fire in a preserving
kettle, and stir until the sirup comes to the boiling point. To this
sirup add the pineapple and the cherries and cook until the juice is
very thick. Pour into hot sterilized glasses, cool, seal, and label.

67. RED-RASPBERRY-AND-CURRANT CONSERVE.--A conserve having a very
attractive color and a most appetizing flavor is made by combining red
raspberries with red currants.

RED-RASPBERRY-AND-CURRANT CONSERVE

3 qt. red raspberries
1 qt. red currants
1 c. hot water
2-1/2 lb. sugar

Look the raspberries over carefully, and remove any that show signs of
spoiling. Wash the currants and stem them. Add the water to the sugar
and put the mixture over the fire to boil. Add the currants to this, and
stir until the mixture comes to the boiling point. Boil for several
minutes, or until the mixture begins to thicken, and then add the red
raspberries. Continue to boil for 2 or 3 minutes longer. Pour into hot
sterilized glasses, cool, seal, and label.

68. CARROT CONSERVE.--Conserve made from carrots will be found to be
surprisingly delicious, and it has the added advantage of being
inexpensive.

CARROT CONSERVE

1-1/2 qt. cooked cut carrots
Rind of 2 lemons
5 c. sugar
2 c. hot water
Juice of 3 lemons

Boil the carrots until tender and chop or put through a grinder with the
lemon rind. Then mix with the sugar, water, and lemon juice, and boil
for about 1/2 hour or until thick. Put into hot sterilized glasses,
cool, seal, and label.


MARMALADES

69. MARMALADES are a form of preserves that differ from the other
varieties more in the nature of the fruit used than in any other
respect. For marmalades, large fruits are generally used, and, as a
rule, the fruits are left in sections or in comparatively large pieces.
The preparation of this food, however, differs in no way from preserves
proper and conserves, the processes of cooking, sealing, storing, etc.
being practically the same.

70. ORANGE MARMALADE.--Oranges combined with half as many lemons make a
marmalade that most persons like. In fact, orange marmalade is probably
made more often than any other kind.

ORANGE MARMALADE

12        oranges
6         lemons
1-1/2 qt. hot water
5 lb.     sugar

Peel the oranges and the lemons in the same way an apple would be
peeled, inserting the knife deep enough to cut through the skin covering
the sections. Remove the contents of the sections and squeeze out any
juice that may remain in the thin skin. Remove the white material from
the inside of the peeling, and cut the yellow portion that remains into
thin strips. Add the water to the skins and simmer slowly for 1 hour. At
the end of this time, add the sugar and the orange and the lemon pulp,
and boil until the mixture is thick. Pour into hot, sterilized glasses,
cool, and then seal and label.

71. ORANGE-AND-RHUBARB MARMALADE.--If a somewhat different flavor is
desired in a marmalade, rhubarb instead of lemons may be used with
oranges, as shown in the accompanying recipe.

ORANGE-AND-RHUBARB MARMALADE

8 oranges
1 qt. hot water
4 lb. sugar
3 qt. rhubarb cut into pieces

Prepare the oranges as for orange marmalade. Slowly cook the yellow part
of the skin in 1 quart of water for 1/2 hour. To this add the sugar and
the rhubarb, and cook slowly until it is quite thick. Stir in the orange
pulp and cook until the mixture is again thick. Pour into hot sterilized
glasses, cool, seal, and label.

72. QUINCE MARMALADE.--Quinces cut into quarters, cooked, and then
forced through a sieve make an exceptionally good marmalade, so far as
both flavor and color are concerned. No other fruit need be used with
the quinces, as they have enough flavor in themselves.

QUINCE MARMALADE

4 qt. quartered quinces
1 qt. hot water
4 lb. sugar

Wipe the fuzz from the quinces, wash, quarter, and remove the cores, but
do not peel. Put over the fire in a preserving kettle with the water.
Cook until the quinces are soft, remove from the fire, and mash through
a sieve. Add the sugar to the quince pulp, replace on the fire, and
cook until the mixture is thick, stirring constantly to prevent burning.
Pour into hot sterilized glasses, cool, seal, and label.

73. GRAPE MARMALADE.--The pulp and skins of grapes are especially
satisfactory for marmalade. In fact, most persons who are fond of grapes
find marmalade of this kind very appetizing.

GRAPE MARMALADE

4 qt. stemmed grapes
2 c. hot water
3 lb. sugar

Separate the pulp of the grapes from the skins, put it into a preserving
kettle with the water, and heat to the boiling point. Cook slowly until
the seeds can be separated from the pulp, and then remove the seeds by
pressing the pulp through a sieve. Return to the preserving kettle with
the grape skins. Add the sugar, and cook the mixture slowly until it is
thick, stirring constantly to prevent scorching. Care must be taken not
to cook it too long, as the marmalade becomes quite stiff. Pour into
hot, sterilized glasses, cool, seal, and label.

74. ORANGE-AND-PINEAPPLE MARMALADE.--No better combination can be
secured than oranges and pineapple. To make marmalade, both fruits are
cut into small pieces and then cooked in a thick sirup.

ORANGE-AND-PINEAPPLE MARMALADE

8 oranges
2 c. hot water
2 pineapples
4 lb. sugar

Wash the oranges, cut skins and all into small pieces, remove the seeds,
and boil slowly in the water until the skins are soft. Prepare the
pineapples by peeling them, removing the eyes, and then shredding or
cutting into very small pieces. Add the pineapple to the orange, stir in
sugar, and continue to boil until the juice is at the jelly stage. Pour
into hot sterilized glasses, cool, seal, and label.


JAMS

75. JAM is similar to preserves, except that the fruit used is made into
a pulp before it is cooked with the sugar or after a part of the cooking
is done. As a rule, only whole small fruits are used for jams, but the
larger fruits can be utilized for this purpose by being cut fine and
made into a pulp. When small fruits are used, part or all of the seeds
are sometimes removed, but generally the seeds are allowed to remain if
they are not too large. Jam is made thick by long boiling, and when done
is usually quite smooth. A precaution, however, that should always be
taken is not to cook it too long, for jam is very unappetizing if it is
too thick.

Fruit may be purchased purposely for jam, but for the most part, this
form of preserve is made of imperfect or very ripe fruits that are not
suitable for canning, preserves, and other processes that require almost
perfect fruit. If this point is kept in mind, it will be possible,
during the canning season, to make into a delicious jam fruit that would
otherwise be wasted.

76. STRAWBERRY JAM.--As strawberries have very small seeds, this fruit
makes an excellent jam.

STRAWBERRY JAM

4 qt. strawberries
2 lb. sugar

Wash and hull the strawberries. Then mash them in a preserving kettle
and add the sugar to them. Place over the fire, and boil slowly until
the mixture becomes thick, stirring frequently to prevent the jam from
sticking to the kettle and scorching. When the jam is cooked to the
proper consistency, the juice should test as for jelly. Pour the mixture
into hot sterilized glasses, cool, and then seal and label.

77. RASPBERRY JAM.--Both red and black raspberries are much used for
jam. Some persons like to remove the seeds from raspberry jam, but as
very little pulp remains after the seeds are taken out, this plan is not
recommended.

RASPBERRY JAM

4 qt. raspberries
2 lb. sugar

Look over the raspberries carefully and then wash. Put them into a
preserving kettle with the sugar. Heat to the boiling point, and cook
slowly for a few minutes. Then mash the berries to a pulp, and continue
to cook until the mixture thickens and the juice tests as for jelly.
Pour into hot sterilized jars, cool, seal, and label.

78. GREEN-GAGE JAM.--Green gages make a smooth, tart jam that appeals to
most persons. The seeds of the plums are, of course, removed, but the
skins are allowed to remain in the jam.

GREEN-GAGE JAM

4 qt. green-gage plums
4 lb. sugar
1-1/2 c. hot water

Wash the plums, cut them in half, and remove the seeds, but not the
skins. Dissolve the sugar in the water over the fire, and when it comes
to the boiling point, add the plums. Cook slowly until the plums are
mushy and the entire mixture is thick. Pour into sterilized glasses,
cool, seal, and label. If sweet plums are used, decrease the quantity
of sugar.

79. GOOSEBERRY JAM.--When gooseberries are well ripened, they make very
good jam. As this fruit is rather tart, considerable sugar must be used
if a sweet jam is desired.

GOOSEBERRY JAM

4 qt. gooseberries
3 lb. sugar

Remove the stems and blossom ends from the gooseberries and wash
thoroughly. Add the sugar to the berries in a preserving kettle. Bring
to a rapid boil, cook for a few minutes, and then mash the berries to a
pulp. Cook until the mixture thickens and tests as for jelly. Pour into
hot sterilized glasses, cool, seal, and label.

80. BLACKBERRY JAM.--Probably no jam is so well liked as that made from
blackberries. Some varieties of these are large in size and contain
considerable pulp in proportion to seeds. These are especially
suitable for jam.

BLACKBERRY JAM

4 qt. blackberries
1/2 c. hot water
2 lb. sugar

Wash the berries thoroughly, and put them over the fire with the water.
Bring to the boiling point, and boil slowly for a few minutes. Then mash
the berries, add the sugar, and cook the mixture until, when tested, it
is of a jelly-like consistency. Pour into hot, sterilized glasses, cool,
and label.


BUTTERS

81. FRUIT BUTTERS are a form of preserves similar to jams, and are used
in the place of preserves, jams, conserves, or marmalades. The fruit
used for this purpose, which may be either large or small, is usually
very ripe and somewhat soft. Therefore, as in the case of jams,
imperfect fruits that are not suitable for other purposes can be used
very well for butters.

Butters made from fruits differ from jams in that both the skins and
seeds are always removed. The completed mixture is smooth and thick,
having been made thick by long boiling and evaporation, rather than by
the addition of large quantities of sugar. In fact, less sugar is used
for butters proportionately than for any other preserved fruit. Spices
are generally used in butters, so that the mixture is very
highly flavored.

To prevent butters from scorching, they should be stirred constantly for
a long period of time. This stirring becomes very tiresome, but it
should not be stopped or the mixture is certain to scorch. If they are
properly cooked, butters keep well with very little care in storage.
Crocks are generally used for the storage of butters, but glasses or
jars may be substituted.

82. APPLE BUTTER.--Apples are very often made into butter, but for this
purpose sour apples that will cook soft should be selected. If the
procedure explained in the accompanying recipe is followed, very good
results may be expected.

APPLE BUTTER

4 qt. apples
8 qt. cider
1 lb. sugar
3 tsp. cinnamon
1 tsp. cloves
1 tsp. allspice

Peel the apples and quarter them. Boil the cider until it is reduced
half. Add the apples to the cider, and cook slowly for about 3 hours, or
until they are mushy, stirring constantly with a wooden spoon to prevent
the apples from sticking to the bottom of the kettle. At the end of this
time, the mixture should be thick and smooth and dark in color. If it
gets too thick, more cider can be added. About 1 hour before the cooking
is completed, add the sugar and the spices. Even greater care must be
exercised from this time on to prevent scorching. If, after cooking 3
hours, the mixture is not sufficiently thick, continue to cook until
more of the moisture is evaporated. Have hot sterilized glasses or
crocks ready, fill them with the butter, cool, and seal.

83. PEACH BUTTER.--Peaches are especially satisfactory when made into
butter. This fruit does not require such long cooking as apples, as will
be seen in the accompanying recipe.

PEACH BUTTER

4 qt. peaches
1 c. hot water
1 lb. sugar
1 tsp. cinnamon
1/2 tsp. cloves

Wash the peaches, rub them to remove the fuzz, cut them in half, and
take out the seeds. Measure the peaches and put them with the water
into the preserving kettle, bring them to a boil, and cook until they
are thoroughly softened. Then press them through a sieve or a colander,
return the pulp to the preserving kettle, and add the sugar and the
spices. Cook slowly for 1 or 2 hours, or until it has become a rich
dark, clear color. Pour the butter into hot sterilized glasses or
crocks, cool, and seal.

84. PEAR BUTTER.--An appetizing fruit butter can be made from pears in
the same way that peach butter is made.

PEAR BUTTER

4 qt. pears, quartered
2 c. hot water
1 lb. sugar
2 tsp. cinnamon
1 tsp. cloves

Wash, cut, and core the pears, but do not peel them. Cut them into
quarters, and put the quarters into a preserving kettle with the water.
Bring to the boiling point, and boil until soft or mushy. Remove from
the kettle and force through a sieve or a colander. To the pulp, add the
sugar and spices, return to the kettle, and cook slowly for about 2
hours, stirring constantly to prevent scorching. If 2 hours is not
sufficient to cook the mixture dry, cook a little longer. Pour into hot
sterilized glasses or jars, cool, and seal.

85. PLUM BUTTER.--Another very good way in which to preserve plums for
future use is to make butter of them. The accompanying recipe explains
the correct procedure for butter of this kind.

PLUM BUTTER

4 qt. plums
1 c. hot water
3 lb. sugar
2 tsp. cinnamon
1/2 tsp. cloves

Wash the plums, cut them in half, and remove the seeds. Put the plums
with the water into a preserving kettle, and boil until they are soft.
Press them through a sieve or a colander, return to the preserving
kettle, and add the sugar and spices. Boil until the mixture is thick
and jelly-like, stirring constantly to prevent scorching. Pour into hot
sterilized crocks or glasses, cool, and seal. If very sour plums are
used, increase the amount of sugar.

       *       *       *       *       *


PICKLING

PRINCIPLES OF PICKLING

86. PICKLING consists in preserving fruits and vegetables in vinegar or
brine. Each of these liquids acts as a preservative, so that the
receptacles, or containers, for the food do not have to be sealed
air-tight, nor does the preserved food require much care in order to
have it keep perfectly.

The effect of the pickling liquids on both fruits and vegetables is very
similar. The salt in the brine or the vinegar hardens the cellulose of
the foods to such an extent that they are impervious to the action of
bacteria. While this permits the foods to keep well, it also makes them
difficult to digest, a fact that must be remembered when pickled foods
are included in the diet.

87. The procedure in pickling is simple. After the fruit or vegetable is
cleaned and prepared in the way desired, it is merely a matter of
placing the food in sterilized jars or crocks, pouring the hot
preserving liquid over it, allowing it to cool, and then storing it. In
some cases the food is cooked, and in others it is not. As a rule,
spices of some kind or other are added, both to aid in preserving and to
impart flavor.

88. Practically all large fruits and many vegetables are pickled, as is
shown in the recipes that follow. Foods preserved by pickling are known
as either _pickles_ or _relishes_. While both products are similar in
many respects, relishes are distinguished from pickles in that, as a
rule, they are made up from more than one kind of fruit or vegetable and
usually the pieces are cut or chopped and not put up whole. Often the
foods in relishes are chopped or cut so fine as to make it almost
impossible to tell what the fruit or vegetable was originally.

The food value of both these products is not extremely high, unless a
great quantity of sugar is used in the pickling. This is sometimes the
case with pickled peaches or pears, but seldom if ever with pickled
vegetables.

       *       *       *       *       *


RECIPES FOR PICKLING

PICKLES

89. SMALL CUCUMBER PICKLES.--Perhaps the most common pickles are small
cucumbers pickled according to the accompanying recipe. Such pickles
meet with favor and serve very well as appetizers. The cucumbers
selected should be small, so that they will be solid all the
way through.

SMALL CUCUMBER PICKLES

1 gal. water
4 c. coarse salt
200 small cucumbers
1/2 gal. vinegar
1-1/2 tsp. celery seed
1 lb. light-brown sugar
1/2 tsp. mustard seed
1 tsp. salt
1 oz. stick cinnamon
1 tsp. whole cloves

Make a brine of the water and the coarse salt, pour it over the
cucumbers, and allow them to stand for 24 hours. At the end of this
time, pour off the brine, wash the pickles in cold water, and place them
into crocks. Heat the vinegar, add the celery seed, sugar, mustard seed,
salt, cinnamon, and cloves, and bring the mixture to the boiling point.
Pour this over the pickles in the crocks, cover closely while hot, and
place in storage. If the pickles are desired sweet, add more brown sugar
to the mixture.

90. SLICED-CUCUMBER PICKLES.--Large cucumbers cut into slices may be
pickled in practically the same way as small cucumbers. At times, when
small cucumbers are hard to get, large cucumbers will take their place
very well. In fact, some housewives prefer sliced cucumber pickles to
the small ones.

SLICED-CUCUMBER PICKLES

1 gal. sliced cucumbers
1 c. coarse salt
1-1/2 qt. vinegar
1 pt. water
1 tsp. pepper
3 tsp. mustard
1 tsp. cinnamon
1 tsp. cloves
4 onions, chopped
1 c. brown sugar
1 Tb. salt

Select rather large cucumbers. Wash and peel them and cut into 1/4-inch
slices. Sprinkle well with salt, and mix the salt among the layers of
cucumbers. Allow this to stand for 24 hours; then drain and wash in
clear cold water. To the vinegar and water add the spices, onion,
sugar, and salt. Heat this to the boiling point, pour over the sliced
cucumbers, and pack them into jars or crocks. Seal while hot and store.

91. CUCUMBERS IN BRINE.--Cucumbers may also be preserved in brine,
stored, and pickled in vinegar later in any quantity, as desired.

Pour 1 gallon of boiling water over 4 cupfuls of coarse salt. This
should make brine that is heavy enough to support an egg. Wash cucumbers
of any desired size, put them into a sterilized crock, in layers, and
pour the brine, which has been allowed to cool, over the cucumbers until
they are entirely covered. Cover the top of the crock well and store.
Cucumbers preserved in this way may be taken from the brine at any time
and pickled. To do this, soak them in fresh water to remove the salty
taste. The fresh water may have to be poured off and replaced several
times. After they have been freshened sufficiently, pickle them in
vinegar and season them in any desirable way.

92. PICKLED BEANS.--String beans that are pickled make a good relish to
serve with meals. Unlike cucumbers that are pickled, the beans are
cooked before the preserving liquid is added. The accompanying recipe is
for either wax or green beans.

PICKLED BEANS

4 qt. beans
1-1/2 qt. vinegar
1 c. brown sugar
1 tsp. salt
1/2 tsp. pepper
1 tsp. allspice
1 tsp. cinnamon
1 tsp. cloves

Select large, firm, tender wax or green beans. Cover them with water to
which has been added 1 level teaspoonful of salt to each quart and put
them over the fire to cook. Boil the beans until they can be pierced
with a fork, remove from the fire, drain, and pack into jars or crocks.
To the vinegar add the sugar, salt, and spices. Bring this mixture to
the boiling point, and pour it over the beans in the jars or crocks,
filling them completely or covering the beans well. Close tight
and store.

93. PICKLED BEETS.--Pickled beets meet with much favor as a relish. Like
pickled beans, they must be cooked before they can be pickled; also,
unless they are very small, they should be sliced before pickling as the
recipe points out.

PICKLED BEETS

4 qt. red beets
2 qt. vinegar
2 c. brown sugar
1 tsp. salt
1/2 tsp. pepper
1 tsp. cinnamon
1 tsp. cloves
1 tsp. allspice

Cut the tops from the red beets, leaving 1 inch of the stems and the
roots attached. Scrub well with a vegetable brush, and put to cook in
boiling water. Cook until the beets are tender enough to be pierced with
a fork. Pour off the hot water and run cold water over them. Remove the
roots and stems, and cut into slices of any desired thickness or into
dice, if preferred. Pack into jars or crocks. Then bring the vinegar to
a boil, and to it add the sugar, salt, and spices. Pour this hot mixture
over the beets. Seal the beets while hot, cool, and store.

94. PICKLED CAULIFLOWER.--Cauliflower is another vegetable that lends
itself well to pickling. This food must be cooked, too, before pickling;
and to have it just right for packing into the containers, it requires
particular attention in cooking.

PICKLED CAULIFLOWER

4 qt. cauliflower broken into pieces
2 c. brown sugar
1 Tb. salt
1/2 tsp. pepper
1 qt. vinegar
1 pt. water

Select firm heads of cauliflower and break them into sections or
flowerets. Immerse these in cold water to which has been added 1
teaspoonful of salt to the quart. Allow the cauliflower to stand for 1
hour in the salt water. Remove from the water, and put over the fire to
cook in salt water of the same proportion as that used for soaking. Cook
until the cauliflower is quite tender, but not so tender as it would be
cooked to serve at the table. If this is done, the cauliflower will
darken and break into pieces. It should be firm enough not to crush or
break easily when it is packed into the jars. When properly cooked, pack
closely into jars, add the sugar, salt, and pepper to the vinegar and
water, heat to the boiling point, and pour this liquid over the
cauliflower, completely covering it. Seal while hot, allow to cool,
and store.

95. PICKLED ONIONS.--Pickled onions are well liked by many. For pickling
purposes, medium small onions of uniform size are most suitable. Owing
to their nature, onions cannot be pickled so quickly as some of the
vegetables mentioned, but, otherwise, the work is done in practically
the same way.

PICKLED ONIONS

4 qt. onions
2 qt. spiced vinegar

Select onions that are as nearly the same size as possible. Peel them
and let them stand in fresh water for 24 hours. Pour off this water, and
over the onions pour a brine made by adding 2 cupfuls of salt to each
gallon of water. Allow them to stand in this brine for 3 days, changing
the brine once during this time. Remove the onions from the brine, and
freshen in cold water for 2 hours. Drain the onions and cook them in the
spiced vinegar for 1/2 hour. Any of the spiced vinegars given for the
other vegetables may be used. After cooking, pack the onions with the
liquid into jars, seal, cool, and store.

96. PICKLED PEACHES.--Among the fruits that may be pickled, peaches seem
to meet with great favor. They, as well as pickled pears and pickled
crab apples, make a relish that adds variety to the foods that are
served in the home from day to day. The pickling process does not differ
materially from that applied to vegetables, as the accompanying
recipe shows.

PICKLED PEACHES

2 lb. brown sugar
1 qt. vinegar
1 oz. stick cinnamon
4 qt. peaches
2 Tb. cloves

Boil the sugar, vinegar, and cinnamon together until they begin to look
sirupy. Wash the peaches and rub off the fuzz. Stick one or two cloves
into each peach, and drop the peaches into the sirup. Cook them until
they may be easily pierced with a fork. Put them into jars, pour the
sirup over them, filling each jar, and seal while hot. Allow the jars to
cool and store. The peaches may be peeled if desired. It may also be
more convenient to cook only part of the peaches in the sirup at one
time, cooking the remainder after these have been taken out and put
into jars.

97. PICKLED PEARS.--Pears also lend themselves readily to pickling.
Specific directions are not given here, because they are pickled in
exactly the same way as peaches. The pears may be peeled or not,
as desired.

98. PICKLED CRAB APPLES.--Crab apples that are to be pickled should
preferably be of a large variety. The directions given for pickling
peaches apply also to this fruit. The crab apples should be examined
carefully to make certain that they contain no worms. Also, the stems
should be left on, and they should be washed thoroughly with the blossom
ends cut out.


RELISHES

99. MUSTARD PICKLES.--Among the relishes, mustard pickles are very
popular. This relish is made up of a large number of vegetables, namely,
cucumbers, string beans, green peppers, red sweet peppers, onions, green
tomatoes, cauliflower, and green Lima beans.

MUSTARD PICKLES

1 pt. small cucumbers
1 qt. string beans
4 green peppers
4 red sweet peppers
1 pt. small onions
1 pt. green tomatoes
1 pt. cauliflower
1 c. green Lima beans
3/4 c. flour
2 c. sugar
4 Tb. powdered mustard
2 tsp. tumeric
1 Tb. celery seed
1 Tb. salt
1/2 tsp. pepper
1 qt. vinegar
1 pt. water

Wash all the vegetables and prepare them by cutting them into the
desired sizes. The onions and cucumbers should be of a size that will
not require cutting. Put all the vegetables together, cover them with
salt water made by adding 1 cupful of salt to each 2 quarts of water,
and allow them to stand in this for 24 hours. At the end of this time,
drain off the brine and freshen the vegetables in clear water for about
2 hours. Mix the dry ingredients together, heat the vinegar and water,
and pour it over all. Bring this mixture to the boiling point, and pour
it over the vegetables. Fill the jars with the hot mixture, seal, cool,
and store.

100. SPANISH RELISH.--Another satisfactory relish made up of a large
number of vegetables and spices is Spanish relish. In its preparation,
however, the vegetables are not chopped very fine.

SPANISH RELISH

12 green sweet peppers
12 red sweet peppers
12 medium-sized onions
12 green tomatoes
2 medium-sized heads of cabbage
1 tsp. salt
1 lb. brown sugar
1/2 tsp. black pepper
1/4 tsp. Cayenne pepper
1 Tb. mustard seed
1 tsp. celery seed
1-1/2 qt. vinegar

Wash the vegetables and chop them into coarse pieces. Cover them with
salt water made by adding 1 cupful of salt to a gallon of water and
allow them to stand in this brine for 6 to 8 hours. At the end of this
time, drain off the salt water and wash with clear water. Add the salt,
sugar, and spices to the vinegar, and bring this mixture to the boiling
point. Then pour it over the mixture of vegetables, pack all into
sterilized crocks or jars, seal, cool, and store.

101. CHOW CHOW.--Still another relish in which a variety of vegetables
is used is chow chow. This relish is well and favorably known to
housewives for the zest it imparts to meals.

CHOW CHOW

2 qt. small green tomatoes
6 green peppers
6 red peppers
1 small head of cabbage
2 bunches celery
1 pt. small onions
1 qt. small cucumbers
3 qt. vinegar
1 Tb. salt
2 c. brown sugar
1/2 tsp. black pepper
2 Tb. mustard seed
2 Tb. tumeric
2 Tb. allspice
1 Tb. cloves
1 Tb. cinnamon

Wash the vegetables and cut them into very small pieces. Cover them with
salt water made by adding 1 cupful of salt to a gallon of water, and let
them stand in this for 6 to 8 hours. Drain at the end of this time, and
wash with cold water. Heat the vinegar, and to it add the salt, sugar,
and spices. Add this to the vegetables and cook until they are soft.
Pack into sterilized jars, seal while hot, cool, and store.

102. BEET RELISH.--A relish in which cooked beets are the principal
ingredient may be made up from the accompanying recipe. As pickled beets
in any form are usually well liked, this relish may be put up for the
variety it offers.

BEET RELISH

1 qt. cooked beets, chopped
1 c. horseradish root, grated
1 c. vinegar
1 Tb. salt
1/2 c. sugar
1 tsp. cinnamon
1 tsp. cloves

Cook the beets in the usual way. When they are tender, remove the skins
and chop quite fine. Add the grated horseradish to the beets. To the
vinegar, add the salt, sugar, and spices and heat to the boiling point.
Pour this mixture over the vegetable mixture, pack all into hot
sterilized jars, seal, cool, and store.

103. CHILLI SAUCE.--Chilli sauce is a well-known relish in which ripe
tomatoes, red or green peppers, and onions are combined with spices and
vinegar. Although not so many vegetables are used in this relish as in
those which precede, it merits a place among the canned foods prepared
for future use.

CHILLI SAUCE

2 qt. medium-sized ripe tomatoes
2 red or green peppers, finely chopped
2 onions, finely chopped
2 c. vinegar
1/2 c. sugar
1 Tb. salt
1 tsp. ground cloves
2 tsp. ground cinnamon
2 tsp. celery salt

Blanch the tomatoes in boiling water until the skins loosen. Then remove
the skins and stem ends, chop the tomatoes, and put them into a
preserving kettle with the chopped peppers and chopped onions. Heat
gradually to the boiling point, add the vinegar, sugar, salt, and
spices, and cook slowly until the mixture is quite thick. This will
require from 2 to 3 hours. Then put the hot sauce into sterilized
bottles or jars, seal, allow them to cool, and store.

104. GREEN-TOMATO PICKLE.--A pleasing relish may be made from green
tomatoes after the frost has come in the fall and tomatoes on the vines
will not mature.

GREEN-TOMATO PICKLE

3 qt. green tomatoes, sliced
2 qt. onions, sliced
1 qt. vinegar
1 pt. water
1 Tb. salt
1-1/2 lb. brown sugar
2 Tb. cinnamon
2 tsp. cloves
2 tsp. allspice
3 Tb. celery salt
1 Tb. mustard seed

Select firm green tomatoes, wash them, and slice them. Peel the onions,
and slice them into slices of the same thickness as the tomatoes, about
1/4 inch being perhaps the most desirable. Mix the tomatoes and onions,
sprinkle them generously with salt, and allow them to stand for 24
hours. At the end of this time, pour off any excess liquid; then pour a
small quantity of fresh water over them, and drain this off, also. To
the vinegar and water, add the salt, sugar, and spices. Heat this
mixture to the boiling point, pour it over the mixture of tomatoes and
onions, and put into jars. Seal the jars while hot, allow them to cool,
and then store.

105. RIPE-TOMATO PICKLE.--Ripe tomatoes form the basis of another relish
known as ripe-tomato pickle. Like other relishes in which tomatoes are
used, this relish is very satisfactory for meals in which pickles or
relishes may be served.

RIPE-TOMATO PICKLE

2 qt. ripe tomatoes
2 bunches celery
3 red sweet peppers
3 medium-sized onions
1 qt. vinegar
1 Tb. salt
1 c. sugar
1 Tb. mustard seed
1 Tb. ground cloves
1 Tb. ground cinnamon

Blanch the tomatoes until the skins loosen, and then peel them. Remove
the stem ends, and cut the tomatoes into quite large pieces. Chop the
celery, peppers, and onions coarsely. Cook together until they are
almost tender. Pour off the water. Mix all the vegetables together, and
pack them into a sterilized stone jar. To the vinegar, add the salt,
sugar and spices. Boil and pour this mixture over the vegetables in the
stone jar, cover, and allow this to stand at least 2 weeks before using.

106. TOMATO CATSUP.--As a condiment to be served with meats, oysters,
fish, baked beans, and other foods high in protein, catsup finds
considerable use. This relish, which is also called _catchup_ and
_ketchup_, may be made from both vegetables and fruits, but that made
from tomatoes seems to be the most desirable to the majority.

TOMATO CATSUP

1/2 bu. ripe tomatoes
1/2 c. salt
1 lb. brown sugar
2 qt. vinegar
1 Tb. ground cinnamon
1 tsp. Cayenne pepper
2 Tb. celery salt
2 tsp. ground cloves

Remove the skins from the tomatoes by blanching and cut out the stem
ends. Then slice the tomatoes, put them into a preserving kettle over
the fire, cook them until they are soft, and force them through a sieve
to remove the seeds. Return the pulp to the preserving kettle, add the
salt, sugar, vinegar, and spices, and cook the mixture until it is
reduced at least half in quantity. Pour into sterilized bottles, seal,
cool, and store.

107. GRAPE CATSUP.--Perhaps the best-known catsup made from fruit is
grape catsup. Its uses are practically the same as those of tomato
catsup, and it is made in much the same way.

GRAPE CATSUP

4 qt. Concord grapes
3 c. vinegar
1 lb. brown sugar
2 Tb. cinnamon
1 tsp. cloves
1 tsp. allspice

Put the grapes to cook with the vinegar. When they have cooked soft
enough, press through a sieve to remove the seeds and skins. Add the
sugar and spices, and cook until the mixture is rather thick. Stir
constantly to prevent scorching. Pour into sterilized bottles, seal,
cool, and store.

108. PICKLED WATERMELON RIND.--An unusual, though highly satisfactory,
relish may be made from the rind of melons. The accompanying recipe is
for pickled watermelon rind, but if desired muskmelon rind may be
substituted. In either case, only the white part of the rind should
be used.

PICKLED WATERMELON RIND

4 qt. watermelon rind cut into strips or cubes
1 oz. stick cinnamon
1 Tb. cloves
1 c. water
3 lb. sugar
1 qt. vinegar

Prepare the rind by cutting off the green skin and all the pink flesh on
the inside. Cut this rind into strips 1 inch wide and 1 inch thick, and
then into cubes, if desired. Cook in water until the rind may be easily
pierced with a fork. Add the spices, water, and sugar to the vinegar,
and boil until it becomes sirupy. Add to this sirup the cooked
watermelon rind and bring to the boiling point. Then pack into
sterilized jars, seal, cool, and store.

109. CRAB-APPLE RELISH.--Among the fruits, crab apples lend themselves
best to the making of relish. By the addition of oranges, raisins, and
spices, as in this recipe, crab-apple relish is made very desirable and
agreeable to the taste.

CRAB-APPLE RELISH

4 qt. crab apples
3 c. vinegar
4 oranges
4 lb. brown sugar
2 lb. Sultana raisins
1 Tb. powdered cinnamon
1 tsp. cloves
1 tsp. allspice

Wash the crab apples, remove the cores, and cut the apples into small
pieces. Put them into a preserving kettle, add the vinegar, the oranges,
peeled and sliced, the sugar, the raisins, and the spices. Cook all
slowly until the apples are soft. Pour into sterilized jars or glasses,
seal, cool, and store.

       *       *       *       *       *


JELLY MAKING, PRESERVING, AND PICKLING

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) (_a_) Give three reasons why the making and use of jelly has value.
(_b_) When are pickles permissible in the diet?

(2) What is necessary for the making of good jelly?

(3) Mention some important points to consider in selecting fruit for
jelly making.

(4) (_a_) What is pectin? (_b_) Why are ripe fruits not so satisfactory
for jelly making as partly green ones?

(5) Give the test for pectin.

(6) How may jelly be made from fruit juices that do not contain pectin?

(7) Give the best method of extracting fruit juice for jelly.

(8) What material is best for jelly bags? Why?

(9) What is the general proportion of sugar and juice for making: (_a_)
jelly from very sour fruits? (_b_) jelly from slightly sour fruits?

(10) Give the method for making jelly by the mean-boiling method.

(11) What is meant by: (_a_) short boiling? (_b_) long boiling?

(12) Give two tests for determining when jelly has cooked sufficiently.

(13) (_a_) How should glasses be prepared before filling them with
jelly? (_b_) How are glasses closed for storing?

(14) (_a_) What are preserves? (_b_) What kind of fruits should be
selected for preserves?

(15) Describe the best method of making preserves.

(16) How do conserves differ from preserves?

(17) How do marmalades differ from conserves?

(18) Describe jam.

(19) How does fruit butter differ from jams?

(20) What are: (_a_) pickles? (_b_) relishes?

       *       *       *       *       *



CONFECTIONS

       *       *       *       *       *

NATURE AND COMPOSITION

NATURE OF CONFECTIONS

1. CONFECTIONS are such sweetmeats as candy and similar articles, which
have for their foundation sugar, sirup, honey, and the like. As is well
known, the most important variety of confection is candy, and this is
the one that is usually meant when the term confections is mentioned.
Confections, however, are not so limited as might be imagined upon first
thought, for many delicious dishes whose main ingredient is nuts,
fruits, coconut, or pop corn are also placed in this class. To be sure,
most of these contain sweetening material of some sort in greater or
smaller quantities. Therefore, in its broadest sense, confections may be
regarded as preparations having for their chief ingredient sugar or
substances containing it, such as molasses, honey, etc., usually mixed
with other food materials, such as nuts, fruits, chocolate, starches,
and fats, to give them body and consistency, and flavored and colored in
any desired way.

2. The making of confections, and of candy in particular, is both a
useful and a delightful pastime that can be indulged in even by those
who are only slightly skilled. In fact, with a certain amount of
knowledge of the methods used and a little practice, surprising results
can be obtained by the amateur candy maker. Then, too, it is a
comparatively simple matter to copy the confectioner's work. A
considerable variety of candies can often be made from a simple
foundation material if a little originality or ingenuity is applied.

Since it is an easy matter to prepare foods of this kind and since they
can be made at home more cheaply and of more tasty and wholesome
materials, it is a decided advantage to make them rather than buy them,
particularly if they are used extensively in the home. However, not so
much fear need be felt now as formerly with regard to commercially made
candies, for much has been done in recent years to compel the use of
wholesome materials in candies, especially the cheaper ones that
children are apt to buy. The pure-food laws require that no such
adulterants as are not food materials and no harmful flavorings,
colorings, nor alcoholic beverages be used in making confections. As can
well be understood, this is a valuable protection. Consequently, at the
present time, the harm, if any, resulting from eating candy comes from
either the excessive or the wrong use of it.

3. The taste for confections of all kinds is one that is acquired, and
it is often developed to harmful extremes. Therefore, these foods, like
most others, should be indulged in only in moderation. They will then
prove not only valuable, but entirely unharmful. The greatest precaution
that should be observed in their use is in giving them to children. Very
young children should not have candy at all, it being much too
concentrated for digestive organs that are used to handling only diluted
food materials. As they grow older and their diet begins to include more
foods, a small quantity of wholesome sweets will not be harmful if it is
given at meal time. Adults with normal digestion may eat a reasonable
amount of candy and other confections without injury.

4. To assist in the making of confections in the home, the principles of
candy making, as well as those which must be understood for the making
of such other foods as are commonly called confections, are given in
this Section. In addition, there are included explicit directions for
the making of simple candies and confections and of some of the
varieties that are more difficult to make. The various operations are
not hard to perform, and good results may be expected if each step is
carried out as directed. The operations requiring skill and dexterity,
such as the coating of bonbons and chocolates, must be repeated several
times if results that approach those of the professional confectioner
are to be attained. Still, surprisingly good results may be obtained the
first time the work is done if directions are followed explicitly.


COMPOSITION OF CONFECTIONS

5. CARBOHYDRATE IN CONFECTIONS.--So far as their composition is
concerned, confections are largely carbohydrate in the form of sugar.
This food material may be one of several different varieties. As is well
understood, the high percentage of carbohydrate, which in some cases may
be very close to 100 per cent., greatly increases the food value of this
variety of foods. Where the percentage is very high, the candies are
necessarily hard, for all or nearly all the moisture is driven off in
the making. In this case, as in other foods, the more water there is
present, the more reduced is the total food value.

6. FAT IN CONFECTIONS.--To a certain extent, fat is found in these
high-carbohydrate foods. It is supplied largely by the use of milk,
condensed milk, cream, butter or butter substitutes, nuts, and
chocolate. While these materials are usually added to produce a certain
flavor or consistency, they form at the same time an ingredient that
greatly increases the food value of the finished product.

7. PROTEIN IN CONFECTIONS.--Protein is not found extensively in
confections unless nuts, chocolate, milk, or other foods containing it
are used in their preparation. But, even then, sweets are usually eaten
in such small quantities that the protein in them does not figure to any
great extent, so that, at best, confections are not considered as a
source of protein at any time. However, chocolate-coated nuts, as will
readily be seen, are a rather high-protein food.

8. MINERAL SALTS IN CONFECTIONS.--Refined sugar does not contain mineral
salts, so that unless other ingredients containing this food substance
are added, no mineral salts will be present in confections. It is true
that some of the ingredients used, such as milk, fruits, nuts, molasses,
honey, maple sirup, etc., contain certain minerals; but just as
confections are not taken as a source of protein, so they are not
characterized by the minerals in them.

       *       *       *       *       *


CONFECTION MAKING

INGREDIENTS USED IN CONFECTIONS

FOUNDATION MATERIALS

9. SUGAR.--The most important ingredient used in the making of
confections is sugar. It is therefore well that the nature of this
ingredient be thoroughly understood. Its chief commercial varieties are
_cane sugar_ and _beet sugar_, both of which produce the same results in
cookery operations. When sugar is mentioned as an ingredient, plain
granulated sugar is meant unless it is otherwise stated. Whether this is
cane or beet sugar makes no difference. The fineness and the color of
sugar are due to its refinement and the manufacturing processes through
which it is put, and these are indicated by various terms and trade
names, such as _granulated, pulverized_, and _soft_ sugars.

The grading of granulated sugar is based on the size of its crystals,
this sugar coming in three qualities. The coarsest is known as _coarse
granulated_; the next finer, as _standard granulated_; and the finest,
as _fine granulated_. There is also a fourth grade known as _fancy
fine_, or _extra-fine, granulated_, and often called _fruit_, or
_berry, sugar_.

10. So far as candy is concerned, the coarseness of the sugar does not
make a great deal of difference, although the finer sugars are perhaps a
little better because they dissolve more quickly in the liquid and are a
trifle less likely to crystallize after cooking. When sugar is to be
used without cooking, however, its fineness makes a decided difference.
Sugars finer than granulated are known as _pulverized sugars_ and are
made by grinding granulated sugar in a mill that crushes the crystals.
These pulverized sugars are known on the market as _coarse powdered,
standard powdered_, and _XXXX powdered_, the last being the one that
should always be purchased for the making of confectionery where the use
of uncooked sugar is required. One of the chief characteristics of
sugars of this kind is that they lump to a great extent, the finer the
sugar the larger and harder being the lumps. Before sugar that has
become lumpy can be used, it must be reduced to its original condition
by crushing the lumps with a rolling pin and then sifting the sugar
through a fine wire sieve. As explained in _Cakes, Cookies, and
Puddings_, Part 1, sugars of this kind are not suitable for cooking
purposes, such as the preparation of cooked icings, etc. These are made
from granulated or other coarse sugar, while the uncooked ones are made
from XXXX, or _confectioners', sugar_, as it is sometimes called. Then,
too, fine sugars cost more than do the granulated sugars, so it is well
to remember that nothing is gained by their use.

11. The third variety of sugars, which are known as _soft sugars_, are
purchased by the retail dealer by number. There are fifteen grades of
this sugar, ranging from 1 to 15, and the number indicates the color of
the sugar. No. 1 is practically white, while No. 15 is very dark, and
the intervening numbers vary in color between these two shades. The
lightness of the color indicates the amount of refinement the sugars
have had. The dark-brown sugars are stronger in flavor and indicate less
refinement than the light ones. When brown sugar is required for any
purpose, it is usually advisable to use one of the lighter shades,
because they are more agreeable in taste than the very dark ones.

12. MOLASSES.--The liquid that remains after most of the sugar has been
refined out of the cane juice is known as molasses. The juice from beets
does not produce molasses; therefore, all of the molasses found on the
market is the product of cane juice. A molasses known as _sorghum
molasses_ is made by boiling the sap of sorghum, which is a stout cereal
grass, but this variety is seldom found on the general market, it being
used locally where it is manufactured. The dark color and the
characteristic flavor of molasses are due to the foreign materials that
remain in the juice after the removal of the sugar. Molasses is not so
sweet as sugar, but it is much used as an ingredient in the making of
many delicious confections. As in the case of soft sugars, the lighter
the molasses is in color, the more agreeable is the flavor of the
confections made from it.

13. GLUCOSE.--Another substance much used in the making of confections
is glucose. It is usually manufactured from the starch of corn and is
put on the market under various trade names, but generally it is called
_corn sirup_. Many persons have long considered glucose a harmful food,
but this belief has been proved untrue. Glucose has come to be
absolutely necessary in some candy making in order to produce certain
results. The glucose that the confectioners use is a heavier, stickier
substance than the sirups that can be purchased for table use or for
cooking, but these do very well for most candy-making purposes. However,
none of the glucose preparations are so sweet as sugar, maple sirup,
or honey.

14. Glucose will not crystallize nor make a creamy substance; neither
will it permit any substance that contains more than a very little of it
to become creamy. A creamy candy containing a small amount of it will
remain soft longer than that made without it; also, it will cream
without danger of the formation of large crystals. Because of these
characteristics, which are responsible for its use in candy making, a
mixture containing glucose will not "go to sugar." Taffy-like
confections and clear candies contain a large proportion of glucose,
while any that are intended to be creamy, such as bonbons and the
centers for chocolates, have only a small amount, if any, glucose
in them.

15. MAPLE SIRUP AND MAPLE SUGAR.--Maple sirup and maple sugar, because
of their pleasing flavor, are used extensively for candy making. Maple
sirup is, of course, the basis for maple sugar, for by boiling the sirup
to evaporate the water and then stirring it, maple sugar results. When
the sirup is used for candy making, it must be boiled, but it seldom
requires any liquid other than that which it already contains. On the
other hand, maple sugar requires liquid in some form, for it must first
be dissolved in a liquid and then boiled with it.

16. HONEY.--Honey that has been pressed from the comb and is in the form
of a heavy sirup is used in the making of various confections. It
provides a delightful flavor much different from that of sugar, and when
it is cooked it acts in much the same way as glucose.


FLAVORINGS

17. KINDS OF FLAVORINGS.--Flavorings are very important in the making of
confections, for it is on them that much of the appetizing effect of
these foods depends. In fact, unless good flavorings are secured and
then used discreetly, tasty results cannot be expected.

The flavorings used in candy making are in reality divided into two
classes--_natural_ and _artificial_.

18. NATURAL FLAVORINGS.--Under the head of natural flavorings come those
which are made from the fruit or the plant that produces the desired
flavor. They are known as _oils_ and _extracts_.

19. The oils are obtained by pressing out the natural flavoring
substance from the material containing it. They are usually very strong,
so that only a little is needed to flavor a comparatively large quantity
of food. Peppermint, wintergreen, and cinnamon are the oils that are
used the most.

20. EXTRACTS are prepared by using alcohol to extract the flavoring
substances from certain materials. The alcohol acts as a preservative,
so that the finished extract nearly always contains a high percentage of
this material. Vanilla and such flavorings as lemon and orange are
examples of extracts that are usually made in this way. A few companies
manufacture a product in which glycerine instead of alcohol is used as
the preservative. Flavorings so prepared are in the form of a thick,
sirupy substance rather than a liquid and are usually sold in a tube.

21. ARTIFICIAL FLAVORINGS.--Flavorings classified as artificial
flavorings are of two kinds: those having for their basis substances
extracted from coal tar and those prepared by various chemical
combinations. They are also known as _synthetic flavors_. With regard to
both healthfulness and taste, they are not so desirable as the natural
flavorings.

22. ADULTERATION OF FLAVORINGS.--As it is a common practice to
adulterate flavorings, every manufacturer of these materials is obliged
to state on the label of each bottle or tube of flavoring just what its
contents consist of. Therefore, when the purchase is made, the label
should be carefully examined. Without doubt, vanilla is adulterated more
often than any other flavoring, a pure extract of vanilla being seldom
found. The beans from which the flavor is extracted are very expensive,
so the Tonka bean and other cheaper flavoring substances are often
resorted to in the making of this flavoring. However, when large amounts
of such things are used, the price of the extract should be less than
that charged for the pure extract of the vanilla bean. Many chefs and
professional cooks overcome this difficulty by purchasing the vanilla
beans and using them for flavoring purposes by soaking or cooking small
pieces of them in the material that is to be flavored or grinding the
bean in a mortar and using it in the ground form.


COLORINGS

23. COLORINGS are used in the making of confections, candy in
particular, for two purposes: to make them attractive and to indicate
certain flavors. For instance, candies flavored with wintergreen are
usually colored pink, while those containing peppermint are colored pale
green or are left white. Strawberry and rose flavors are also colored
pink; orange and lemon, their respective shades of yellow; violet,
lavender; and pistachio and almond, green.

24. The substances used for coloring confections are of two general
classes: _vegetable_ and _mineral_, or _chemical_. The vegetable
colorings, like the natural flavorings, are considered to be the most
healthful ones. Some of the chemical colorings are derivatives of coal
tar, just as are the coal-tar flavorings. Cochineal, a red color
extracted from the bodies of cochineal insects, is a coloring matter
much used in the preparation of confections. These coloring materials
may be purchased in several forms. The ones most commonly used come in
the form of liquid or paste, but frequently colorings are to be had in
powder or tablet form.

25. Discretion must always be observed in the use of colorings. Because
of their concentration, they must be greatly diluted and used in only
very small amounts. As is well known, pale colors in candies are always
more attractive than deep ones. Then, too, when candies contain much
color, most persons are likely to consider them harmful to eat. To get
the best results, only a little coloring should be added at a time, and
each amount added should be mixed in thoroughly. Then the danger of
getting too much coloring will be avoided. It should be remembered,
however, that if colored candies are kept for any length of time or are
exposed to the light, they will fade to a certain extent; consequently,
these may be colored a little more deeply than those which are to be
used at once.


ACIDS

26. To prevent the creaming or the crystallizing of such candy as taffy,
an acid of some kind is generally used with the cane sugar in the making
of this variety of confection. The acid, upon being boiled with the
sugar, changes a part of the cane sugar to invert sugar, and as this
does not crystallize, the candy will not become sugary. A similar effect
is obtained by adding glucose in sufficient amounts; since it does not
crystallize, the cane sugar is prevented from becoming sugary.

27. The acids most commonly used for this purpose are cream of tartar,
acetic acid, vinegar, which has acetic acid for its basis, and lemon
juice, which has citric acid for its basis. With each pound of sugar, it
will be necessary to use 1/8 teaspoonful of cream of tartar, 1 or 2
drops of acetic acid, or 1 tablespoonful of vinegar or lemon juice in
order to prevent crystallization. Lemon juice and vinegar are much more
likely to flavor the candy than are cream of tartar and acetic acid.
Often, if a fine-grained creamy candy is desired, a small amount of one
of these acids is used. Even in small quantities, they will prevent the
coarse-grained crystallization that is the natural result of the cooking
and stirring of the cane sugar when nothing is done to prevent it.


FOOD MATERIALS

28. In addition to the ingredients already mentioned, there are a number
of materials that may be used in the making of candy to provide food
value and at the same time give variety and improve the flavor and
appearance of the candy. Chief among these materials are coconut, cocoa,
chocolate, nuts, candied and dried fruits, milk, cream, butter, etc.
Their value in candy depends on their use, so it is well to understand
their nature and the methods of using them.

29. COCONUT.--Either shredded or ground coconut is often used in candy
to give it flavor or variety. Coconut for this purpose may be secured in
a number of forms. A coconut itself may be purchased, cracked open to
remove the flesh, and then prepared either by grating it or by grinding
it. This will be found to be very delicious and preferable to any other
kind. However, if it is not desired to prepare the coconut in the home,
this material may be purchased shredded in boxes or in cans. That which
comes in boxes is usually somewhat dry and is often found to be quite
hard. The canned varieties remain soft, since the shredded coconut is
mixed with the milk of the coconut, but these have the disadvantage of
not keeping very well. Any coconut that becomes too dry for use may be
softened by steaming it.

30. COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.--In the making of confections, cocoa and
chocolate are used extensively for both flavoring and coating. Either of
them may be used for flavoring purposes, but chocolate is always
preferable, because it has a richer, deeper flavor than cocoa. Bitter
chocolate should be used in preference to any kind of sweet chocolate.
When it is to be cooked with candy for flavoring, it may be added to the
other ingredients in pieces and allowed to melt during the cooking. It
is often used without cooking, however, as when it is added to material
that is to be used as centers for bonbons or opera creams. In such an
event, it is first melted over steam or hot water and then worked into
the candy.

31. When desired for coating, chocolate that is sweetened is usually
employed, although many persons are fond of creams that have a bitter
coating. Sometimes a bitter-sweet coating, that is, a slightly sweetened
chocolate, is used, and for most purposes a coating of this kind is
preferred. Such chocolate must usually be purchased from a store where
confectioner's supplies are sold or from a candy-making establishment.
Milk chocolate and very sweet coatings may also be purchased for
coating, but the eating chocolate that is sold in bars will not produce
satisfactory results, and so should never be used for coating purposes.

32. CANDIED AND DRIED FRUITS.--Many varieties of candied or crystallized
fruits and flowers find a place in the making of confections. Sometimes
they are used as an ingredient, while other times they are added to
bonbons and chocolates merely for decorative purposes. Again, they are
often used in boxes of fancy candies that are packed to sell at some
special event or to give away. They are somewhat expensive to purchase,
but if they are properly used they add such an appetizing touch and
produce such gratifying and delightful results that the expenditure for
them is well justified. Many of these may be prepared in the home with a
certain degree of satisfaction.

33. The two candied fruits most frequently used are candied pineapple
and candied cherries, but, in addition to these candied apricots,
peaches, pears, limes, lemons, and oranges are often found in the
market. Cherries preserved in maraschino wine and creme de menthe add
attractive touches of color to candies and make delicious confections
when coated with bonbon cream or chocolate.

34. Crystallized violets, rose petals, and mint leaves are used
frequently in the preparation of confections. They are added merely for
decoration and make very attractive candies. They can usually be
purchased in confectionery stores.

35. Several varieties of dried fruits, chief among which are dates,
figs, and raisins, are useful in the making of confections. They have
the advantage of not requiring complicated manipulation, and at the same
time they lend themselves to a number of delicious confections that may
often be eaten by persons who cannot eat anything so rich as candy.
Children can usually partake of confections made of these fruits without
harm when candy would disagree with them.

36. NUTS.--Nuts of various kinds probably have more extensive use in the
making of confections than any other class of foods. In fact, there are
few kinds of candy that cannot be much improved by the addition of nuts.
Halves of such nuts as English walnuts and pecans are frequently used by
being pressed into the outside of bonbons and chocolates. Then, too,
pieces of various kinds of nuts are used with a filling for coated
candies. Such nuts as almonds, filberts, walnuts, and peanuts are often
covered singly or in clusters with the same chocolate coating that is
used to coat creams. Pistachio nuts, which are light green in color, are
either chopped or used in halves on chocolates or bonbons.

37. When nuts are not desired whole for confections, they should never
be put through a food chopper; rather, they should always be broken up
by being cut or chopped with a knife. The simplest way in which to cut
them is to spread the nuts in a single layer on a board and then with a
sharp knife press down on them, having one hand on the back of the knife
near the point and the other on the handle and rocking the knife back
and forth across the nuts until they are as fine as desired. They may
also be chopped in a chopping bowl or cut one at a time with a small,
sharp knife.

38. Salted nuts, while not a confection in the true sense of the word,
are closely related to confections, since they are used for the same
purpose. For this reason, it seems advisable to give the methods of
preparing them in connection with the preparation of confections.

39. POP CORN.--An excellent confection and one that always appeals to
children may be made from pop corn. This variety of Indian corn has
small kernels with or without sharp points. To prepare it for
confections; the kernels, or grains, are removed from the ears and then
exposed to heat in a corn popper or a covered pan. When they become
sufficiently hot, they pop, or explode; that is, they rupture their
yellow coat and turn inside out. The popped kernels may be eaten in this
form by merely being salted or they may be treated with various sugar
preparations in the ways explained later.

40. MILK, CREAM, AND BUTTER.--Milk is extensively used in the making of
candy, both to obtain a certain flavor and to secure a particular
consistency. Skim milk may be used for this purpose, but the richer the
milk, the better will be the flavor of the finished candy. Cream, of
course, makes the most delicious candy, but as it is usually expensive,
it greatly increases the cost of the confection. Butter may be used with
milk to obtain a result similar to that secured by the use of cream. If
skim milk is used, butter should by all means be added, for it greatly
improves the flavor of the candy. In any recipe requiring milk,
condensed or evaporated milk may be substituted with very satisfactory
results. These milks may be diluted as much as is desired.

Besides providing flavor, milk, cream, and butter add food value to the
confections in which they are used. Most of this is in the form of fat,
a food substance that is not supplied by any other ingredients, except
perhaps chocolate and nuts. They are therefore particularly valuable and
should always be used properly in order that the most good may be
derived from them.

41. The chief problem in the use of milk is to keep it from curding and,
if curding takes place, to prevent the curds from settling and burning
during the boiling. When maple sirup, molasses, or other substances that
are liable to curdle milk are to be cooked with the milk, a little soda
should be added or, if possible, the milk should be heated well before
it is put in. When it can be done, the milk should be cooked with the
sugar before the ingredients likely to make it curdle are added.

In case the milk does curdle, the mixture should be treated at once, or
the result will be very unsatisfactory. The best plan consists in
beating the mixture rapidly with a rotary egg beater in order to break
up the curds as fine as possible, and then stirring it frequently during
the boiling to keep the milk from settling and burning. As this stirring
is a disadvantage in the making of candy, every precaution should be
taken to prevent the curding of the milk.


EQUIPMENT FOR CONFECTION MAKING

42. The utensils for candy making are few in number and simple in
nature. As with all of the more elaborate foods, the fancy candies
require slightly more unusual equipment, and even for the more ordinary
kinds it is possible to buy convenient utensils that will make results a
little more certain. But, as illustrated in Fig. 1, which shows the
general equipment for confection making, practically all the utensils
required are to be found in every kitchen.

[Illustration: FIG. 1]

43. To boil the confectionery ingredients, a saucepan or a kettle is
required. This may be made of copper or aluminum or of any of the
various types of enamelware that are used for cooking utensils. One
important requirement is that the surface of the pan be perfectly
smooth. A pan that has become rough from usage or an enamelware pan that
is chipped should not be used for the boiling of candy.

The size of the utensil to use depends on the kind and the amount of the
mixture to be boiled. A sugar-and-water mixture does not require a pan
much larger in size than is necessary to hold the mixture itself, for it
does not expand much in boiling. However, a mixture containing milk,
condensed milk, cream, or butter should be cooked in a pan much larger
than is needed for the same quantity of sugar and water, for such a
mixture expands greatly and is liable to boil over. The necessary size
of the pan to be used should be overestimated rather than
underestimated. In the cooking of candy, just as in the cooking of other
foods, the surface exposed to the heat and the depth of the material to
be cooked affect the rapidity of cooking and evaporation. Consequently,
if rapid evaporation and quick cooking are desired, a pan that is broad
and comparatively shallow should be used, rather than one that is
narrow and deep.

44. Measuring cups and spoons, a spoon for stirring, and a knife are, of
course, essential in making confections. Then, too, it is often
convenient to have a metal spatula and a wooden spoon or spatula. When
these utensils are made of wood, they are light in weight and
consequently excellent for stirring and beating. If egg whites are used
in the preparation of a confection, an egg whip is needed. When candy
must be poured into a pan to harden, any variety of pan may be used, but
generally one having square corners is the most satisfactory. Then if
the candy is cut into squares, none of it will be wasted in the cutting.

45. A thermometer that registers as high as 300 or 400 degrees
Fahrenheit is a valuable asset in candy making when recipes giving the
temperature to which the boiling must be carried are followed. A degree
of accuracy can be obtained in this way by the inexperienced candy maker
that cannot be matched with the usual tests. A small thermometer may be
used, but the larger the thermometer, the easier will it be to determine
the degrees on the mercury column. A new thermometer should always be
tested to determine its accuracy. To do this, stand the thermometer in a
small vessel of warm water, place the vessel over a flame, and allow the
water to boil. If the thermometer does not register 212 degrees at
boiling, the number of degrees more or less must be taken into account
whenever the thermometer is used. For instance, if the thermometer
registers 208 degrees at boiling and a recipe requires candy to be
boiled to 238 degrees, it will be necessary to boil the candy to 234
degrees because the thermometer registers 4 degrees lower than
it should.

46. The double boiler also finds a place in candy making. For melting
chocolate, coating for bonbons, or fondant for reception wafers, a
utensil of this kind is necessary. One that will answer the purpose very
well may be improvised by putting a smaller pan into a larger one
containing water. In using one of this kind, however, an effort should
be made to have the pans exactly suited to each other in size;
otherwise, the water in the lower pan will be liable to splash into the
pan containing the material that is being heated.

For the coating of bonbons, a coating fork, which is merely a thin wire
twisted to make a handle with a loop at one end, is the most convenient
utensil to use. However, this is not satisfactory for coating with
chocolate, a different method being required for this material.

47. A number of candies, such as fondant, bonbon creams, and cream
centers for chocolates, can be made much more satisfactorily if, after
they are boiled, they are poured on a flat surface to cool. Such
treatment permits them to cool as quickly as possible in a comparatively
thin layer and thus helps to prevent crystallization. When only a small
amount of candy is to be made, a large platter, which is the easiest
utensil to procure, produces fairly good results. For larger amounts,
as, for instance, when candy is being made to sell, some more convenient
arrangement must be made. The most satisfactory thing that has been
found for cooling purposes is a marble slab such as is found on an
old-fashioned table or dresser. If one of these is not available, and
the kitchen or pastry table has a vitrolite or other heavy top
resembling porcelain, this will make a very good substitute.

48. To prevent the hot candy from running off after it is poured on a
slab or any similar flat surface, a device of some kind should be
provided. A very satisfactory one consists of four metal bars about 3/4
to 1 inch in width and thickness and as long as desired to fit the slab,
but usually about 18 inches in length. They may be procured from a
factory where steel and iron work is done, or they may be purchased from
firms selling candy-making supplies. These bars are merely placed on top
of the slab or flat surface with the corners carefully fitted and the
candy is then poured in the space between the bars. When it is desired
to pour out fudge, caramels, and similar candies to harden before
cutting, the metal bars may be fitted together and then placed on the
slab in such a way as to be most convenient. Fudge, however, may be
cooled satisfactorily in the pan in which it is cooked if the cooling is
done very rapidly.

49. A satisfactory cooling slab may be improvised by fastening four
pieces of wood together so as to fit the outside edge of the slab and
extend an inch or more above the surface. If such a device is used,
plaster of Paris should be poured around the edge of the slab to fill
any space between the wood and the slab. In using a slab or similar
surface for purposes of this kind, a point that should be remembered is
that a part of it should never be greased, but should be reserved for
the cooling of fondant and certain kinds of center creams, which require
only a moistened surface.

50. Many of the candies that are turned out on a flat surface must be
worked to make them creamy. For this purpose, nothing is quite so
satisfactory as a putty knife or a wallpaper scraper. If a platter is
used, a putty knife is preferable, for it has a narrower blade than a
wallpaper scraper; but where candy is made in quantity and a large slab
is used, the larger scraper does the work better. For use with a
platter, a spoon is perhaps the best utensil when a putty knife is not
in supply.

51. Scales are valuable in candy making because they permit exact
measurements to be made. However, they are not an actual necessity, for
almost all recipes give the ingredients by measure, and even if this is
not done, they may be purchased in the desired weight or transposed into
equivalent measure. Scales, of course, are required if it is desired to
weigh out candy in small amounts or in boxes after it is made.

52. Waxed paper is a valuable addition to candy-making supplies, there
being many occasions for its use. For instance, caramels and certain
other candies must be wrapped and waxed paper is the most suitable kind
for this purpose. Then, too, chocolate-coated candies and bonbons must
be placed on a smooth surface to which they will not stick. Waxed paper
is largely used for this purpose, although candy makers often prefer
white oilcloth, because its surface is ideal and it can be cleansed and
used repeatedly. Often a candy- or cracker-box lining that has been
pressed smooth with a warm iron may be utilized. For such purposes, as
when reception wafers are to be dropped, it is necessary that the
surface of the paper used be absolutely unwrinkled.

       *       *       *       *       *

PROCEDURE IN CONFECTION MAKING

COOKING THE MIXTURE

53. WEATHER CONDITIONS.--If uniformly good results are desired in candy
making, certain points that determine the success or failure of many
candies, although seemingly unimportant, must be observed. Among these,
weather conditions form such a large factor that they cannot be
disregarded. A cool, clear day, when the atmosphere is fairly dry, is
the ideal time for the making of all kinds of candies. Warm weather is
not favorable, because the candy does not cool rapidly enough after
being cooked. Damp weather is very bad for the making of such candies as
the creamy ones that are made with egg white and that are desired to be
as soft as possible and still in condition to handle. In view of these
facts, candy should be made preferably on days when the weather is
favorable if the element of uncertainty, so far as results are
concerned, would be eliminated.

54. COMBINING THE SUGAR AND LIQUID.--The proportion of liquid and sugar
to use in making candy varies to some extent with the kind of
ingredients used and with the quantity of candy being made. In the
making of quantities up to several pounds, the usual proportion is
_one-third as much liquid as sugar_, but with larger amounts of sugar
the quantity of liquid may be slightly decreased.

With the quantities decided on, mix the sugar and liquid and put them
over the fire to boil. Stir at first to prevent the sugar from settling
and burning, continuing the stirring either constantly or at intervals
until the boiling begins. At this point, discontinue the stirring if
possible. Mixtures that do not contain milk usually require no further
stirring, and many times stirring is unnecessary even in those which do
contain milk; but whenever any stirring is required, as little as
possible should be done. The rule that applies in this connection is
that the sugar should be entirely dissolved before the boiling begins
and that all unnecessary agitation should then cease.

55. BOILING THE MIXTURE.--When the mixture begins to boil, wash down the
sides of the kettle with a small cloth wet with clean water. This
treatment should not be omitted if especially nice candy is desired, for
it removes all undissolved sugar and helps to prevent crystallization
later. In case merely sugar and water make up the ingredients, a cover
may be placed on the kettle; then the steam that is retained will keep
any sirup that may splash on the sides from crystallizing. This cannot
be done, however, with mixtures containing milk and butter, for they
will in all probability boil over.

56. The boiling of candy should be carried on quickly, for slow boiling
often proves a disadvantage. A sugar-and-water mixture may, of course,
be boiled more rapidly than any other kind, because there is not the
danger of its boiling over nor of burning before the water is evaporated
that there is with a mixture containing material that may settle and
burn. It should be remembered that candy does not begin to burn until
the water has entirely evaporated.

57. The length of time candy should boil is also a matter to which
attention should be given. This depends somewhat on the kind that is
being made, but largely on the rapidity with which the boiling is
carried on. Thus, to time the boiling of candy is the most uncertain way
of determining when the boiling has continued long enough. The
inaccuracy of measurement, the size and shape of the pan, and the rate
of speed in boiling cause a variation in the time required.
Consequently, it would be rather difficult for the same person to get
identical conditions twice and much more difficult for two persons to
produce the same results.

58. TESTING CANDY.--Since accurate results cannot be obtained by timing
the boiling of candy, other tests must be found that will be reliable.
As has already been stated, a thermometer is perhaps the most accurate
means that can be adopted for this purpose. However, if one is not
available, the testing of a small quantity of the hot mixture by cooling
it in cold water will be found to be fairly accurate. Ice water is not
necessary nor particularly desirable for this kind of testing. In fact,
water just as it comes from the faucet is the best, as it is quickly
obtained and its temperature will not vary greatly except in very hot or
very cold weather. Of course, to make an extremely accurate test of this
kind, it would be necessary always to have the water at the same
temperature, a condition that can be determined only by testing the
temperature, but such accuracy is not usually required.

If the thermometer is used, all that need be done is to insert it into
the candy and allow it to remain there until the temperature is
registered. In case it does not reach the right temperature the first
time, keep the mixture boiling until it registers the temperature that
is decided on as the correct one.

59. To test the mixture by the water method, allow it to boil almost
long enough to be done, and then try it at close intervals when it is
nearing the end of the boiling. Dip a little of the sirup into a spoon
and drop it slowly into a cup containing a little water. Not much sirup
is needed for the test, a few drops being sufficient. Gather the drops
together with the tips of the fingers and judge from the ball that forms
whether the candy has boiled sufficiently or not. If the ball is not of
the right consistency, boil the candy a little longer, and test again.
Be sure, however, to get fresh water for each test. When the candy is
nearing the final test, and it is thought that the mixture has boiled
enough, remove the pan from the heat while the test is being made so
that the boiling will not be continued too long.

60. To assist in making the tests for candy properly, Table I is given.
This table shows both the water test and the corresponding temperature
test for the representative variety of the leading classes of candies.
In each one of these classes there are, of course, a number of varieties
which may cause a slight variation in some of the tests, but on the
whole these tests are uniform and can be relied on for practically
all candies.

TABLE I

TESTS FOR REPRESENTATIVE CLASSES OF CANDY

Classes           Water Test     Temperature Test
                                Degrees Fahrenheit
Center Cream......Soft ball        234 to 236
Fudge.............Firm ball        238 to 240
Caramels..........Hard ball        246 to 248
Taffies..........Brittle ball      256 to 260

When candy is cooked long enough to form a _soft ball_, it can just be
gathered together and held in the fingers. If it is held for any length
of time, the warmth of the fingers softens it greatly and causes it to
lose its form. This test is used for candies, such as soft-center
cream. It will be found that when candy boiled to this degree is
finished, it can scarcely be handled.

The _firm ball_ is the stage just following the soft ball. It will keep
its shape when held in the fingers for some time. This is the test for
fudge, bonbon creams, and similar candies that are creamed and are
expected to be hard and dry enough to handle when they are finished.

To form a _hard ball_, candy must be cooked longer than for the firm
ball. At this stage, the ball that is formed may be rolled in the finger
tips. It is not so hard, however, that an impression cannot be made in
it with the fingers. It is the test for caramels, soft butter scotch,
sea foam, and many other candies.

A _brittle ball_ is the result of any temperature beyond 256 degrees up
to the point where the sugar would begin to burn. It is hard enough to
make a sound when struck against the side of the cup or to crack when an
attempt is made to break it. This is the test that is made for taffy and
other hard candies.


POURING AND COOLING THE MIXTURE

61. After the testing of the mixture proves that it is boiled
sufficiently, there are several procedures that may be followed. The one
to adopt depends on the kind of candy that is being made, but every
candy that is cooked should be cooled by one of the following methods.

62. The first treatment consists in pouring the mixture at once from the
pan to be finished without cooling, as, for instance, caramels and
butter scotch, which are poured at once into a buttered pan to be cooled
and cut; or, the hot sirup may be poured upon beaten egg whites, as in
the case of sea foam or penuchie. In the making of either of these
kinds, the sirup may be allowed to drip as completely as possible from
the pan without injury to the finished product.

63. The second method by which the mixture is cooled calls for cooling
the sirup in the pan in which it was cooked, as, for instance, in the
case of fudge. When this is done, the pan should be carried from the
stove to the place where the mixture is to be cooled with as little
agitation as possible. Also, during the cooling, it should not be
disturbed in any way. Stirring it even a little is apt to start
crystallization and the candy will then be grainy instead of creamy.

64. In the third form of treatment, the sirup is poured out and then
cooled before it is stirred to make it creamy, as in opera creams or
bonbon creams. To accomplish this, the pan should be tipped quickly and
all its contents turned out at once. It should not be allowed to drip
even a few drops, for this dripping starts the crystallization. Candies
that contain milk or butter, or sticky materials, such as taffies,
should always be poured on a buttered surface. Those which are cooked
with water but are to be creamed should be poured on a surface moistened
with cold water.

65. When candy mixtures are cooled before being completed, the cooling
should be carried to the point where no heat is felt when the candy is
touched. To test it, the backs of the fingers should be laid lightly on
the surface of the candy, as they will not be so likely to stick as the
moist tips on the palm side. It should be remembered that the surface
must not be disturbed in the testing, as this is also apt to bring about
crystallization.

Every precaution should be taken to prevent even the smallest amount of
crystallization. Any crystals that may have formed can be easily
detected when the stirring is begun by the scraping that can be felt by
the spoon or paddle used. If a little crystallization has taken place
before the candy has cooled completely, it being easily seen in the
clear sirup, the mixture should be cooled still further, for nothing is
gained by stirring it at once.

A point that should always be kept in mind in the cooling of candy is
that it should be cooled as quickly as possible. However, a refrigerator
should not be used for cooling, for the warm mixture raises the
temperature of the refrigerator and wastes the ice and at the same time
the moist atmosphere does not bring about the best results. As has
already been learned, a platter or a slab is very satisfactory. If
either of these is used, it should be as cold as possible when the sirup
is poured on it. Cold weather, of course, simplifies this matter
greatly, but if no better way is afforded, the utensil used should be
cooled with cold water.


FINISHING CANDIES

66. The treatment through which candy mixtures are put after being
cooled varies with the kind of candy being made. Some mixtures, as
fudge, are beaten until creamy in the pan in which they are cooked.
Others are worked on a platter or a slab with the proper kind of
utensil. These are usually treated in a rather elaborate way, being
often coated with bonbon cream or with chocolate. Still others, such as
taffy, are pulled until light in color and then cut into small pieces
with a pair of scissors. Again, certain candies, after being poured into
a pan, are allowed to become hard and then cut into squares or broken
into pieces. Usually candies made in the home are served without being
wrapped, but when certain varieties are to be packed, it is advisable to
wrap them. Directions for finishing confections in these different ways
are here given.

67. MARKING AND CUTTING CANDIES.--Much of the success of certain candies
depends on their treatment after being cooled. Those which must be
beaten in the pan until they are creamy should be beaten just as long as
possible. Then, if the surface is not smooth when they are poured out,
pat it out with the palm of the hand after the candy has hardened a
little. As soon as it has hardened sufficiently to remain as it is
marked and not run together, mark it in pieces of the desired size,
using for this purpose a thin, sharp knife. Be careful to have the lines
straight and the pieces even in size. Generally, candy that is treated
in this manner is cut into squares, although it may be cut into other
shapes if desired.

68. COATING CANDIES WITH BONBON CREAM.--When especially nice candy is
desired for a special occasion, it is often made into small pieces and
then coated with bonbon cream. A large number of the centers to be
coated should be made up before the coating is begun. In fact, if it is
possible, all the centers should be made first and then the coating can
proceed without interruption. The cream to be used for coating may be
flavored or colored in any desirable way. Any flavoring or coloring that
is to be used, however, should be added while the cream is melting.

69. To coat with bonbon cream, put the cream in a double boiler without
any water and allow it to melt with as little stirring as possible. It
is best to use a small double boiler for this purpose and not to melt
too much of the cream at one time, as it is apt to become grainy if it
is used too long for dipping. When it has melted to the extent that the
coating will not be too thick after it has cooled, the dipping of the
candies may begin. As soon as it is found that no more centers can be
dipped in the cream, melt some fresh cream for the remaining centers,
but do not add it to that which has been used before. Instead, use the
first up as closely as possible and then drop the remainder by spoonfuls
on waxed paper. With all of it used, wash and dry the inner pan of the
double boiler and start again with a fresh lot of the cream.

70. To coat the centers, drop one at a time into the melted cream and
turn over with a coating fork or an ordinary table fork. When the
surface is entirely covered, lift out of the cream with the fork and
allow any superfluous coating to drip off. Then drop the coated bonbons
on waxed paper, to cool. While this work may prove a little difficult at
first, it can be done with dexterity after a little practice. If an
effort is made to have the centers uniform in size and shape, the
finished candies will have the same appearance. While the cream is soft,
tiny pieces of candied fruit or nuts may be pressed into the coating to
decorate the bonbons.

71. COATING WITH CHOCOLATE.--Candies coated with chocolate are always
desirable; so it is well for any one who aspires toward confection
making to become proficient in this phase of the work. The centers
should, of course, be prepared first and put in a convenient place on
the table where the coating is to be done. They may be made in any
desired size and shape.

If it is possible to secure a regular coating chocolate, this should be
obtained, for it produces better results than does a chocolate that can
be prepared. However, unless one lives in a place where confectioner's
supplies are on sale, it is almost impossible to purchase a chocolate of
this kind. In such an event, a substitute that will prove very
satisfactory for candy to be eaten in the home and not to be sold may be
made as follows:

COATING CHOCOLATE

4 oz.   milk chocolate
2 oz.   bitter chocolate
1/2 oz. paraffin

To prepare the chocolate, put all the ingredients in a double boiler and
allow them to melt, being careful that not a single drop of water nor
other foreign substance falls into the mixture. Do not cover the boiler,
for then the steam will condense on the inside of the cover and fall
into the chocolate. As this will spoil the chocolate so that it cannot
be used for coating, the pan in which the chocolate is melted should
always be allowed to remain open. The paraffin used helps to harden the
chocolate after it is put on the centers; this is a particular
advantage at any time, but especially when chocolates are made in
warm weather.

72. When the chocolate HAS COMPLETELY MELTED, dip some of it into a
small bowl or other dish or utensil having a round bottom and keep the
rest over the heat so that it will not harden. With a spoon, beat that
which is put into the bowl until it is cool enough to permit the fingers
being put into it. Then work it with the fingers until all the heat is
out of it and it begins to thicken. It may be tested at this point by
putting one of the centers into it. If it is found to be too thin, it
will run off the candy and make large, flat edges on the bottom. In such
an event, work it and cool it a little more. When it is of the proper
thickness, put the centers in, one at a time, and, as shown in Fig. 2,
cover them completely with the chocolate and place them on waxed paper
or white oilcloth to harden. As they harden, it will be found that they
will gradually grow dull. No attempt whatever should be made to pick up
these candies until they are entirely cold. This process is sometimes
considered objectionable because of the use of the bare hands, but
chocolate coating cannot be so successfully done in any other way as
with the fingers. Therefore, any aversion to this method should be
overcome if good results are desired.

[Illustration: FIG. 2]

73. When the chocolate begins to harden in the bowl and consequently is
difficult to work with, add more of the hot chocolate from the double
boiler to it. It will be necessary, however, to beat the chocolate and
work it with the fingers each time some is added, for otherwise the
coating will not be desirable. So as to overcome the necessity of doing
this often, a fairly large amount may be cooled and worked at one time.
Care should be taken to cover each center completely or its quality will
deteriorate upon standing. With conditions right, the centers of
chocolates and bonbons should soften and improve for a short time after
being made, but chocolate-coated candies will keep longer than bonbons,
as the coating does not deteriorate.

[Illustration: FIG. 3]

[Illustration: FIG. 4]

74. WRAPPING CANDIES.--Such candies as caramels, certain kinds of
taffies, and even chocolates are often wrapped in waxed paper,
especially if they are to be packed in boxes. When this is to be done,
cut the paper into pieces of the proper size and then wrap each piece
separately. The best way to prepare the paper is to fold several sheets
until they are the desired size and then, as in Fig. 3, cut them with a
sharp knife. If a pair of scissors is used for this purpose, they are
apt to slip and cut the paper crooked. The method of wrapping depends on
the candy itself. Caramels are wrapped in square pieces whose ends are
folded in neatly, as in Fig. 4, while taffy in the form of kisses is
rolled in the paper and the ends are twisted to fasten the wrapping.

       *       *       *       *       *

VARIETIES OF CONFECTIONS AND THEIR PREPARATION

TAFFIES AND SIMILAR CANDIES

NATURE OF TAFFIES

75. TAFFY is probably one of the simplest candies that can be made.
Indeed, if candy of this kind is boiled long enough, it is almost
impossible to have unsatisfactory results. Taffies are usually made from
white sugar, but a variety of flavors may be obtained by the use of
different ingredients and flavors. For instance, molasses is used for
some taffies, maple sirup for others, and brown sugar for others, and
all of these offer an opportunity for variety. Then, again, taffy made
from white sugar may be varied by means of many delightful colors and
flavors. Melted chocolate or cocoa also makes a delightful
chocolate-flavored taffy. Recipes for all of these varieties are here
given, together with a number of recipes for closely related
confections, such as butter scotch, glacé nuts and fruits, peanut
brittle, and nut bars.

76. METHODS OF TREATING TAFFY.--Taffy may be poured out in a pan,
allowed to become entirely cold, and then broken into irregular pieces
for serving, or it may be pulled and then cut in small pieces with a
pair of scissors. If it is to be pulled, it should be poured from the
pan in which it is cooked into flat pans or plates and set aside to
cool. As soon as it is cool enough to handle, it may be taken from the
pans and pulled. It will be found that the edges will cool and harden
first. These should be pulled toward the center and folded so that they
will warm against the center and form a new edge. If this is done two or
three times during the cooling, the candy will cool evenly and be ready
to take up into the hands. The pulling may then begin at once. If it has
been cooked enough, it will not stick to the hands during the pulling.
It is usually wise, however, to take the precaution of dusting the hands
with corn starch before starting to pull the candy. Grease should never
be used for this purpose. When taffy is made in quantities, the work of
pulling it is greatly lessened by stretching it over a large hook
fastened securely to a wall.


RECIPES FOR TAFFY

77. VANILLA TAFFY.--The taffy explained in the accompanying recipe is
flavored with vanilla and when pulled is white in color. However, it may
be made in different colors and flavors by merely substituting the
desired flavor for the vanilla and using the coloring preferred. This
recipe may also be used for chocolate taffy by adding melted chocolate
just before the taffy has finished boiling.

VANILLA TAFFY

4 c. sugar
1/4 tsp. cream of tartar
1 Tb. vinegar
1 c. boiling water
2 Tb. butter
1 tsp. vanilla

To the sugar, add the cream of tartar, vinegar, and boiling water. Place
over the fire and boil until it will form a brittle ball when tested in
cold water or will register at least 260 degrees on a thermometer. Just
before the boiling is completed, add the butter. Remove from the fire,
add the vanilla, pour in a shallow layer in a buttered pan or plate.
Cool and pull. When the taffy has been pulled until it is perfectly
white and is hard enough to retain its shape, twist it into a long, thin
rope and cut with a pair of scissors into inch lengths.

78. BUTTER TAFFY.--Another variety of taffy flavored with vanilla is the
one given in the accompanying recipe. It is called butter taffy because
butter is used in a rather large amount for flavoring. It will be noted,
also, that brown sugar and corn sirup are two of the ingredients. These,
with the butter, give the taffy a very delightful flavor.

BUTTER TAFFY

2 c.   light-brown sugar
1 c.   white sugar
1/2 c. corn sirup
1 Tb.  vinegar
3/4 c. boiling water
1/4    butter
1 tsp. vanilla

Mix all the ingredients except the butter and vanilla. Place over the
fire and boil until a brittle ball will form in cold water or a
temperature of 260 degrees is reached. Just before the boiling has been
completed, add the butter. Remove from the fire, add the vanilla, and
pour in a thin layer into greased pans or plates. Cool, pull, and cut.

79. MOLASSES TAFFY.--Of all the taffies, that made with molasses is
nearly always the favorite. A light cane molasses that is not very
strong in flavor is the preferred kind for this candy. When cut into
round flat pieces and wrapped in waxed paper, molasses taffy appeals to
both old and young.

MOLASSES TAFFY

2 c.   light cane molasses
1 c.   sugar
2 Tb.  vinegar
1/2 c. boiling water
2 Tb.  butter

Mix all the ingredients except the butter. Cook until a brittle ball
will form or a temperature of 264 degrees is reached on the thermometer.
Add the butter just before the boiling is completed. Remove from the
fire, pour into greased pans or plates, and allow it to become cool
enough to handle. Then pull and cut.

80. CHEWING TAFFY.--A taffy that is hard enough not to be sticky and
still soft enough to chew easily is often desired. Chewing taffy, which
is explained in the accompanying recipe, is a candy of this kind. After
being pulled, it may be cut as other taffy is cut or it may be piled in
a mass and chopped into pieces.

CHEWING TAFFY

1/2 Tb. unflavored gelatine
2 c. sugar
1-1/2 c. corn sirup
1-1/4 c. milk
2 Tb. butter
Vanilla and lemon

Put the gelatine to soak in a few tablespoonfuls of cold water. Cook the
sugar, sirup, and milk until the mixture will form a hard ball that may
be dented with the fingers or it reaches a temperature of 252 degrees.
Stir the mixture gently to prevent burning. Remove from the fire and add
the butter. Take the gelatine from the water, squeeze it as dry as
possible, and add it to the hot mixture, stirring until it is entirely
dissolved. Pour on a greased surface, cool, and pull until it is a
light-cream color. While pulling, flavor with vanilla and a few drops of
lemon. Stretch into a long thin rope and cut into inch lengths or pile
in a mass and chop into pieces.

81. BUTTER SCOTCH.--Closely related to taffies so far as ingredients are
concerned is candy known as butter scotch. This variety, however, is
not pulled as are the taffies, but is allowed to become cool and then
marked in squares which are broken apart when the candy is
entirely cold.

BUTTER SCOTCH

2 c.     white sugar
2 c.     brown sugar
1/4 c.   corn sirup
1 Tb.    vinegar
1/4 tsp. cream of tartar
1/4 c.   butter
1 tsp.   lemon extract

Mix all the ingredients except the butter and the lemon extract. Boil
until a hard ball will form or 256 degrees register on the thermometer.
Just before the boiling is completed, add the butter, and when the
mixture has been removed from the fire, add the lemon extract. Pour into
a greased pan, and before it has entirely cooled, cut into squares with
a knife. When cold and desired for serving, remove from the pan and
break the squares apart. If desired, candy of this kind may be allowed
to become entirely cold without cutting and then broken into irregular
pieces just before being served.

82. MARSHMALLOWS COATED WITH BUTTER SCOTCH.--A delightful confection may
be made by covering marshmallows with hot butter scotch. To accomplish
this, drop the marshmallows with a coating fork or an ordinary table
fork into hot butter scotch that has just finished cooking. Remove them
quickly, but see that the marshmallows are entirely covered. Drop on a
buttered pan or plate and set aside to cool.

83. GLACÉ NUTS AND FRUITS.--Nuts and fruits covered with a clear, hard
candy are known as glacé nuts and fruits. These are a very delightful
confection, and can easily be made if the accompanying directions are
carefully followed. Nuts of any variety may be used for this purpose,
and such nuts as almonds need not be blanched. Candied cherries, candied
pineapple, pressed figs, dates, and raisins are the fruits that are
usually glacéd. Confections of this kind should be eaten while fresh or
kept in a closed receptacle in a dry place.

GLACÉ NUTS AND FRUITS

Fruits and nuts
2 c. granulated sugar
1/8 tsp. cream of tartar
3/4 c. water
1 tsp. vanilla

Prepare the nuts by shelling them and, if necessary, roasting them, and
the fruits by cutting them into small strips or cubes. Mix the sugar and
cream of tartar and add the water. Cook until it will form a very
brittle ball in water, will spin hair-like threads when drops of it fall
from the spoon, or registers 290 degrees on the thermometer. Remove from
the fire and put in a convenient place for the dipping of the fruit and
nuts. Drop these into the hot sirup, one at a time, with a coating fork
or an ordinary table fork. When entirely covered with the sirup, remove
and drop on greased plates or pans.

84. PEANUT BRITTLE.--Peanuts are often used in confection making and are
very much liked by the majority of persons. They come in two general
varieties, which may be roasted before use or used unroasted, and it is
well for the housewife to understand the difference between them. One
variety is the large, oblong peanut generally sold at peanut stands and
used for the salted peanuts sold in confectionery stores. The other is
the variety known as Spanish peanuts, which are small and round. For
some candies, it is necessary that the peanuts be roasted and the skins
removed, while for others unroasted peanuts with the skins on are
desirable. To remove the skins from unroasted peanuts, they must be
blanched by immersing them in boiling water until the skins will slip
off easily, but in the case of roasted peanuts, the skins may be removed
without blanching.

85. Peanut brittle is one of the candies in which peanuts are used. As
its name implies, it is very thin and brittle and it usually contains a
great many peanuts. Two recipes for candy of this kind are here given,
one requiring peanuts that are roasted and blanched and the other,
peanuts that are unroasted and not blanched.

PEANUT BRITTLE NO. 1

2 c. sugar
1/2 lb. shelled, roasted peanuts

Put the sugar in a saucepan without any water. Place it over a slow fire
and allow it to melt gradually until a clear, reddish-brown liquid is
formed, taking care not to allow it to burn. Have a pan greased and
covered with a thick layer of a large variety of roasted peanuts. Pour
the melted sugar over them and allow it to become hard. Then break into
pieces and serve.

PEANUT BRITTLE NO. 2

3 c. sugar
1 c. corn sirup
1 c. water
1/4 c. butter
1 lb. raw Spanish peanuts
1 tsp. vanilla
1 Tb. soda

Mix the sugar, sirup, and water and place it over the fire. Boil until
a hard ball will form or a temperature of 250 degrees is reached on the
thermometer. Add the butter and the peanuts without removing their brown
skins. Allow to cook, stirring all the time, until the mixture begins to
turn a light brown and the skins of the peanuts pop open, showing that
the peanuts are roasted. Remove from the fire, add the vanilla and the
soda and stir rapidly. Then pour the mixture, which will become thick
upon the addition of the soda, on a flat, greased surface. A slab is
better for this purpose than anything else, but if this cannot be
obtained a metal or other hard table top may be used. When the candy
begins to get stiff, loosen it from the surface on which it was poured,
cut it into two pieces, and turn each over; or, if it can be handled
without cutting, turn the entire piece over. Then stretch the candy
until it is just as thin as possible, beginning around the edge. As it
becomes colder, stretch even thinner. When entirely cool, break into
pieces and serve.

86. NUT BARS.--Another excellent nut candy can be made by pouring a
sirup made of sugar, corn sirup, and water over a thick layer of nuts.
Such fruits as dates and figs or coconut, or a combination of these, may
be used with the nuts, if desired.

NUT BARS

2 c. sugar
3/4 c. corn sirup
1/4 c. water
1-1/2 c. shelled nuts

Put the sugar, sirup, and water over the fire and stir until it boils.
Cover and cook until a hard ball will form or a temperature of 254 or
256 degrees is reached. Spread the nuts on a buttered slab or pan, and
to them add fruit or coconut if it is desired to use either of these.
Pour the hot sirup over this until it is about 1 inch in thickness. When
sufficiently cool, cut in pieces of any desirable size, using a quick,
sliding motion of the knife and pressing down at the same time. Break
into pieces when entirely cold and serve.


CARAMELS

87. NATURE OF CARAMELS.--Caramels are included among the popular
candies, and they may be made in many varieties. To plain vanilla
caramels, which are the simplest kind to make, may be added any
desirable color or flavor at the time they are removed from the fire. To
keep caramels from crystallizing after they are boiled, glucose in some
form must be used, and the most convenient kind to secure is corn sirup.
Then, too, caramels will cut more easily and will have less of a sticky
consistency if a small piece of paraffin is boiled with the mixture. The
addition of this material or any wax that is not a food is contrary to
the pure-food laws, and such candy cannot be sold. However, paraffin is
not harmful, but is merely a substance that is not digested, so that the
small amount taken by eating candy in which it is used cannot possibly
cause any injury.

88. In the making of caramels, it should be remembered that good results
depend on boiling the mixture to just the right point. If they are not
boiled enough, they will be too soft to retain their shape when cut, and
if they are cooked too long, they will be brittle. Neither of these
conditions is the proper consistency for caramels. To be right, they
must be boiled until a temperature of 246 to 248 degrees is reached.
However, chocolate caramels need not be boiled so long, as the chocolate
helps to harden them.

89. PLAIN CARAMELS.--The accompanying recipe for plain caramels may be
made just as it is given, or to it may be added any flavoring or
coloring desired. A pink color and strawberry flavor are very often
found in caramels and are considered to be a delicious combination. As
will be noted, white sugar is called for, but if more of a caramel
flavor is preferred, brown sugar may be used instead of white. Maple
sugar may also be used in candy of this kind. Nuts, fruits, or coconut,
or any mixture of these materials, improves plain caramels wonderfully.
If they are used, they should be stirred into the mixture at the time it
is removed from the fire.

PLAIN CARAMELS

3 c. milk
3 c. sugar
1-1/2 c. corn sirup

The milk used for making caramels should be as rich as possible; in
fact, if cream can be used, the candy will be very much better. Add half
of the milk to the sugar and sirup and put over the fire to cook. Allow
this mixture to boil until a soft ball will form when dropped in water,
stirring when necessary to prevent burning. Then gradually add the
remaining milk without stopping the boiling if possible. Cook again
until a temperature of 248 degrees will register on the thermometer or a
fairly hard ball will form when tried in water. In the water test, the
ball, when thoroughly cold, should have exactly the same consistency as
the finished caramels. Toward the end of the boiling, it is necessary to
stir the mixture almost constantly to prevent it from burning. When
done, pour it out on a buttered slab or some other flat surface and
allow it to become cool. Then cut the candy into squares from 3/4 to 1
inch in size, cutting with a sliding pressure, that is, bearing down and
away from you at the same time.

If the caramels are to be packed or kept for any length of time, it is
well to wrap them in waxed paper. Before attempting to use caramels,
however, they should be allowed to stand overnight in a cool, dry place,
but not in a refrigerator.

90. CHOCOLATE CARAMELS.--When chocolate caramels are made, the chocolate
should be added just before the cooking is finished. The amount of
chocolate to be used may be varied to suit the taste, but 2 squares are
usually considered sufficient for the quantities given in the
accompanying recipe.

CHOCOLATE CARAMELS

1 c. molasses or 1 c. maple sirup
1/2 c. corn sirup
2 c. sugar
1 pt. milk
2 Tb. butter
2 sq. chocolate
Pinch of salt
1 tsp. vanilla

Cook the molasses or maple sirup, the corn sirup, and the sugar with 1
cupful of the milk until the mixture will form a soft ball in cold
water. Then add the remainder of the milk and cook until the mixture is
thick. Add the butter, chocolate, and salt, and cook until a hard ball
will form in cold water or a temperature of 248 degrees is reached,
stirring constantly to prevent burning. Add the vanilla, pour on a
buttered surface, cool, cut, and serve.

       *       *       *       *       *

CREAM CANDIES

NATURES OF CREAM CANDIES

91. There are numerous varieties of cream candies, some of which must be
made with great care while others may be made quickly and easily. For
instance, fudge, penuchie, divinity, and sea foam are examples of cream
candies that do not require long preparation, but these must generally
be used up quickly, as they do not stay soft upon exposure to the air
unless it is very moist. On the other hand, such cream candies as opera
cream, fondant, center cream, and orientals require both care and time
in their preparation. If these are properly looked after, they may be
kept for some time. In fact, it is necessary that some of them stand for
several days before they can be made into the numerous varieties to
which they lend themselves.

The main point to consider in the preparation of all cream candies is
that crystallization of the sugar, which is commonly called _graining_,
must be prevented if a creamy mixture is to be the result. Candies of
this kind are not palatable unless they are soft and creamy. However, no
difficulty will be experienced in preparing delicious cream candies if
the principles of candy making previously given are applied.


FUDGES AND RELATED CANDIES

92. FUDGE NO. 1.--Probably no other candy is so well known and so often
made as fudge. Even persons little experienced in candy making have
success with candy of this kind. Another advantage of fudge is that it
can be made up quickly, very little time being required in its
preparation. Several varieties of fudge may be made, the one given in
the accompanying recipe being a chocolate fudge containing a small
quantity of corn starch.

FUDGE No. 1

3 c. sugar
1-1/4 c. milk
2 Tb. butter
Pinch of salt
2 sq. chocolate
1 Tb. corn starch
3 Tb. water
1 tsp. vanilla

Mix the sugar, milk, butter, and salt and boil until a very soft ball
will form in water. Then add the chocolate and the corn starch, which
has been moistened with the cold water. Boil to a temperature of 236
degrees or until a ball that will hold together well and may be handled
is formed in cold water. Remove from the fire and allow the mixture to
cool until there is practically no heat in it. Add the vanilla, beat
until thick, pour into a buttered pan, cut into squares, and serve.

93. FUDGE NO. 2.--A fudge containing corn sirup is liked by many
persons. It has a slightly different flavor from the other variety of
fudge, but is just as creamy if the directions are carefully followed.

FUDGE No. 2

3/4 c. milk
2 c. sugar
1/4 c. corn sirup
2 Tb. butter
Pinch of salt
2 sq. chocolate
1 tsp. vanilla

Cook the milk, sugar, corn sirup, butter, and salt until the mixture
will form a very soft ball when tried in water. Add the chocolate and
cook again until a soft ball that can be handled will form or the
thermometer registers 236 degrees. Remove from the fire, cool without
stirring until entirely cold, and then add the vanilla. Beat until
creamy, pour into buttered pans, cut into squares, and serve.

94. TWO LAYER FUDGE.--A very attractive as well as delicious fudge can
be had by making it in two layers, one white and one dark. The dark
layer contains chocolate while the white one is the same mixture, with
the exception of the chocolate. The layers may be arranged with either
the white or the dark layer on top, as preferred.

TWO-LAYER FUDGE

4 c. sugar
1-1/2 c. milk
6 Tb. corn sirup
2 Tb. butter
Pinch of salt
2 sq. chocolate
1 tsp. vanilla

Mix the sugar, milk, corn sirup, butter, and salt, and cook until a very
soft ball will form. Transfer half of the mixture to another pan and add
to it the chocolate, which has been melted. Boil each mixture until it
tests 238 degrees with the thermometer or a soft ball that can be
handled well will form in cold water. Upon removing it from the fire,
add the vanilla, putting half into each mixture. Set aside to cool and
when all the heat is gone, beat one of the mixtures until it becomes
creamy and pour it into a buttered pan. Then beat the other one and
pour it over the first. Cut into squares and serve.

95. BROWN-SUGAR FUDGE.--Fudge in which brown sugar is used for the
largest part of the sweetening is explained in the accompanying recipe.
Peanuts are added, but if desired nuts of any other kind may be used.

BROWN-SUGAR FUDGE

2 c. brown sugar
1 c. white sugar
1 c. milk
1 Tb. butter
1 tsp. vanilla
3/4 c. chopped peanuts

Mix the sugar, milk, and butter and boil until a soft ball will form in
cold water or a temperature of 238 degrees is reached on the
thermometer. Remove from the fire, add the vanilla, and cool until the
heat is out of the mixture. Beat, and when the candy begins to grow
creamy, add the chopped nuts. When sufficiently thick, pour into a
buttered pan, cut, and serve.

96. MAPLE PENUCHIE.--Almost any kind of maple candy finds favor with the
majority of persons, but maple penuchie is especially well liked. Nuts
and coconut are used in it, and these improve the flavor very much.

MAPLE PENUCHIE

3 c. maple sirup
1/4 tsp. soda
1 c. milk
Few grains of salt
1 tsp. vanilla
1/2 c. chopped nuts
1/2 c. shredded coconut

Into the maple sirup, stir the soda, and add the milk and salt. Place
over the fire and boil until a soft ball that can be easily handled will
form in cold water or a temperature of 238 degrees is reached on the
thermometer. Remove from the fire, add the vanilla, and allow the
mixture to become entirely cold. Beat, and when it begins to get thick,
add the nuts and coconut. Continue beating until the candy grows stiff
but can be poured out. Pour in a buttered pan, cut, and serve.

97. DIVINITY.--An excellent confection known as divinity can be made
with very little difficulty if the accompanying recipe is carefully
followed. Nuts and raisins are used in this confection, but if desired
they may be omitted. As divinity is dropped from a spoon on oiled paper,
care should be taken not to boil the mixture too long, or it will be
necessary to work very rapidly in order to drop all of it before it
becomes too dry.

DIVINITY

1/3 c. corn sirup
1/2 c. water
2 c. sugar
1 egg white
1 tsp. vanilla
1/4 c. nuts
1/4 c. raisins

Boil the sirup, water, and sugar together until a fairly hard ball will
form in cold water or the mixture registers 240 degrees on the
thermometer, which is a trifle harder than the fudge mixture. Beat the
egg white until it is stiff but not dry. Over this pour the hot mixture
a drop at a time until it can be added faster without cooking the egg
white. Beat rapidly until all the sirup is added, stir in the vanilla,
and when fairly stiff add the nuts and raisins. Continue beating until
the mixture will stand alone, and then drop by spoonfuls on oiled paper
or a buttered surface. When dry enough to handle, divinity may
be served.

98. SEA FOAM.--Another candy in which a cooked sirup is poured over
beaten egg white is known as sea foam. Candies of this kind should be
served at once, for they are apt to become dry and hard if they are
allowed to stand.

SEA FOAM

2 c. light-brown sugar
1/2 c. water
Pinch of salt
1 egg white
1 tsp. vanilla

Boil the sugar, water, and salt until a fairly hard ball will form or
the thermometer registers 240 degrees. Beat the egg white stiff, but not
dry. Pour the hot sirup over the egg white, a drop at a time at first,
and then as fast as possible without cooking the egg white. Add the
vanilla and continue beating the mixture until it will stand alone. Drop
by spoonfuls on a buttered surface or oiled paper. When sufficiently
dry, remove from the surface and serve.


FONDANT AND RELATED CREAMS

99. NATURE OF FONDANT.--Fondant is the foundation cream out of which
bonbons and various other fancy candies are made. It is also used for
stuffing dates, taking the place of the pit. While it is not so
desirable for the centers of chocolate creams as for most of the other
candies for which it is used, it can, of course, be coated with
chocolate if desired. Some persons have an idea that fondant and related
candies are difficult to make, but if directions are followed
carefully this will not be the case.

[Illustration: FIG. 5]

100. In the first place, it should be remembered that the weather is an
important factor in the success of candy of this kind. A clear, cold day
should be selected, for it is difficult to make fondant successfully on
a warm or a damp day. Then, too, it is an excellent plan to make more
than can be used at one time, for no greater labor will be involved in
the making of a large amount than a small amount and better results may
be expected. If the fondant material is cared for properly, small
quantities of it may be made up as desired. Therefore, if convenient
equipment is on hand for making candies of this type, no less than 2-1/2
pounds should be made at one time. Five pounds is a preferable amount,
but, if desired, 10 pounds may be made up at one time, although this
amount is about as much as one person can handle and even this is
somewhat difficult for some to work up.

[Illustration: FIG. 6]

A little ingenuity on the part of the person making up the fondant will
result in many delightful bonbons. Candied fruits, nuts, coconut, and
numerous varieties of flavoring and coloring may be utilized very
successfully with fondant. It should be remembered, however, that
bonbons do not keep fresh for more than a few days or a week at the most
if they are exposed to the air. If it is desired to keep them for any
length of time, they should be packed in a tin box, but when stored in
this way, different colors should not be placed next to each other or
they will mix.

101. FONDANT.--As will be noted, the accompanying recipe for fondant
calls for 5 pounds of sugar. It is not necessary that all of the fondant
be worked up at once. Indeed, it is suggested that this amount be
prepared and then stored so that the fondant may be used as needed. If a
smaller amount should be desired, half of each ingredient may be used.

FONDANT

5 lb. sugar
1 qt. water
6 drops acetic acid or 1/4 tsp. cream tartar

Mix the sugar, water, and acetic acid or cream of tartar. Place over the
fire and, as in Fig. 5, stir until the sugar is dissolved. Just before
the mixture begins to boil, wash down the sides of the kettle with a wet
cloth, as shown in Fig. 6. Then place a lid over the kettle and cook
until almost ready to test. Remove the cover and, as in Fig. 7, insert a
thermometer, which should register 238 degrees. If the fondant is to be
stored for some time, it may be boiled to 240 degrees, but for general
use a mixture that reaches a temperature of 238 degrees will be the most
satisfactory. If the water test is applied, as in Fig. 8, the mixture
should form a firm ball that can be easily held in the fingers. Just
before the boiling is completed, cool a large platter or a slab and
moisten it by wetting it with a damp cloth.

[Illustration: FIG. 7]

No time should intervene between the end of the boiling and the removal
of the sirup from the stove, for every second that the sirup is allowed
to stand over the hot burner before it is poured out will raise the
temperature. Pour quickly on the platter, as in Fig. 9, and do not allow
it to drip. If some sirup is left in the pan, utilize it for something
else, rather than allow it to drop on the surface of the candy in the
platter or slab. It is at this point that crystallization begins, and
the fondant, instead of being creamy, will become grainy. Cool as
quickly as possible, so as to lessen the chances for crystallization to
begin, and do not disturb the sirup in any way during the cooling. The
best way in which to accomplish this is to put the platter in a cool
place and make it perfectly level before the sirup is poured into it.

[Illustration: FIG. 8]

[Illustration: FIG. 9]

When the mixture has cooled to the extent that it no longer retains any
heat, it is ready to be stirred. As already explained, a putty knife or
a wallpaper scraper is the most satisfactory utensil to use for this
purpose, especially if a large batch is being made. However, a small
batch may be stirred very successfully with a case knife. With whatever
utensil is selected, scrape the fondant up into a heap, and then, as in
Fig. 10, start the working. See that all parts are worked alike.
Continue the operation, occasionally scraping off the knife or the
paddle used. The first indication of the creaming stage will be a cloudy
look in the mixture and a slight thinning of it, so that the work will
be easier for a few minutes. It will then gradually begin to harden, and
when the end of the work is reached the hardening will progress rapidly.
At this stage, try to get the mass together, see that no loose fragments
cling to the platter, and pile all into a heap. By the time the working
is completed, the candy will be rather hard and will look as if it can
never be worked into a soft, creamy candy. It will become soft, however,
by the proper treatment.

[Illustration: FIG. 10]

[Illustration: FIG. 11]

Wring a clean towel or napkin out of cold water, and, as in Fig. 11,
place it tightly over the mass of fondant and tuck it in securely around
the edges. Allow the candy to stand for an hour in this way. At the end
of this time it will be sufficiently moist to work in any desired way.
With a knife or a scraper, break it off into pieces of a size that can
be handled well at one time and work each one of these soft by squeezing
it in the manner shown in Fig. 12. When all of the pieces have been
worked soft, pack them into a bowl and continue working until all the
fondant has been worked together and is soft. Over the top of the bowl,
as shown in Fig. 13, place a damp cloth and cover this with a plate or
an earthen cover. Set away in some place where it will remain cool, but
will not become too moist, until it is desired for further use.

[Illustration: FIG. 12]

The four recipes that follow show how fondant can be made up into
attractive as well as delicious confections. They will doubtless give
the housewife other ideas as to ways of preparing candies from this
foundation material.

102. BONBONS.--In a broad sense, bonbons mean candy or confections in
general, but it is also the name of candies made out of colored and
flavored fondant. Sometimes they are made small and dainty and are
decorated with a nut meat or a piece of maraschino or candied cherry or
candied pineapple. Again, centers may be made that contain coconut,
nuts, figs, dates, raisins, etc., and these then dipped in some of the
fondant that has been colored, flavored, and melted.

[Illustration: FIG. 13]

103. When bonbons are to be made, remove fondant in pieces from the
utensil in which it has been stored. Work it with the hands as it was
worked when put away and add the desired coloring and flavoring at this
time. If simple bonbons are to be made, form the colored and flavored
fondant into tiny balls, place them on oiled paper, and press a nut or a
piece of maraschino or candied cherry or candied pineapple on top.

104. To make more elaborate bonbons, form, as in Fig. 14, small round
centers out of the fondant to which have been added such materials as
dates, figs, raisins, nuts, or coconut, or any combination of these.
Only enough fondant should be used to make the other materials stick
together. Then, in a double boiler, color, flavor, and melt some of the
fondant and, with a coating or other fork, drop the centers into this
melted cream. When thoroughly coated, remove, and place on waxed paper.
While warm, a piece of nut or candied fruit may be placed on the top of
each one. If it is desired not to use fondant in the centers, the nuts
or candied fruits themselves may be dipped into the melted bonbon cream
and then placed on waxed paper to harden.

[Illustration: FIG. 14] [Illustration: FIG. 15]

105. RECEPTION WAFERS.--Thin wafers made of fondant are a confection
much used at parties, receptions, and similar social gatherings. One
variety of these is colored pink and flavored with wintergreen, while
another is flavored with peppermint and not colored in any way. Other
colors and flavors may also be made if desired, but the usual kinds are
the pink and white ones.

Divide the mass of fondant to be used into two parts and color one of
these a pale pink. Flavor the pink mass with wintergreen and the white
one with peppermint. Put one of these in a double boiler and allow it to
melt until it is soft enough to pour. Then, as in Fig. 15, with a
dessert spoon or a tablespoon, drop the melted fondant on a smooth
surface in sufficient amounts to make wafers about the size of a
quarter. Drop quickly and as accurately as possible so that the wafers
will be the same size and shape. Allow them to stand until cold and set.

Sometimes it will be found that two wafers can be dropped from the same
spoonful before the material becomes too cold to pour, but usually it is
necessary to dip a fresh spoonful for each wafer. As the fondant hardens
on the back of the spoon it should be scraped off and put back into the
double boiler. A comparatively small amount of fondant should be melted
at one time in order to provide against its becoming sugary, but if it
shows any signs of this condition the double boiler should be emptied
and thoroughly cleaned before more of the fondant is melted in it.

106. RAINBOW DELIGHT.--An especially attractive candy that has fondant
for its foundation is rainbow delight. As may be inferred from its name,
candy of this kind is in several colors.

To make rainbow delight, divide fondant into three parts. Flavor one
with vanilla and to it add chopped nuts. Flavor the second with
strawberry, color it pink, and, if desired, add shredded coconut. To the
third, add melted bitter chocolate until it is as dark as preferred.
Line a small bread pan or a box as smoothly as possible with waxed
paper, place the white fondant in the bottom, and press it down into a
layer. Over this put the chocolate fondant, press this into a layer, and
on top of it place the pink candy. After making the mass smooth and
even, allow it to remain where it will be cold until it is set. Then
remove it from the pan or box by turning it out on a surface that has
been slightly dusted with confectioner's sugar. Have coating chocolate
melted and cover the surface of three sides of the candy with a thick
layer of the chocolate. If, when the chocolate becomes dry and hard, it
seems a little thin, give it a second coating.

When it is entirely cold, turn the candy over and coat the remaining
side. To serve, cut into slices and cut each slice into pieces.

107. TUTTI-FRUTTI ROLLS.--Another very good candy that can be made from
fondant is tutti-frutti roll. Secure nuts, cherries, candied pineapple,
and citron, chop them fine, and to them add shredded coconut. Work these
in any quantity desired into the fondant until all are worked through
evenly and then flavor with vanilla. Shape the mass into a roll and let
it stand until it is well set. Then coat it with coating chocolate. When
it has become cold, turn it over and coat the bottom. To serve
tutti-frutti roll, cut it into slices.

108. OPERA CREAM.--No more delicious cream candy can be made than that
known as opera cream. This may be colored and flavored in many different
ways or made up in various forms. When chocolate is added to it, a
better fudge than the ordinary kinds is the result. Sufficient time
should be allowed for the making of opera cream, for it is necessary
that this candy stand for several hours before it is worked up.

OPERA CREAM

4 c. sugar
1/8 tsp. cream of tartar
2 Tb. corn sirup
1 pt. thin cream
Vanilla

Mix the sugar and the cream of tartar, add the sirup and cream, and cook
over a hot fire. Watch closely to see whether the cream looks as if it
might curd, and if it does, beat rapidly with a rotary beater. Do not
stir after the boiling has begun unless it is necessary to keep the
mixture from sticking to the pan. Boil until a very hard ball will form
in water or until it registers 240 degrees on the thermometer. Moisten a
large, flat platter or a marble slab, pour the mixture on it, and allow
it to remain until it is entirely cool, disturbing it in no way during
this cooling. When cool, work up with a putty knife or a similar utensil
in the same manner as for fondant until it becomes hard and creamy.
Place all in a heap in the center of the slab or platter and cover
closely with a damp cloth, a clean towel being desirable for this
purpose. Allow it to stand for about 2 hours, and then work it with the
hands, being careful to remove any lumps that it might contain.

The cream is now ready to be worked up in any desirable way. Divide it
into small batches, and then flavor and color it or work melted
chocolate into it. Press it into a layer about 1 inch thick in a shallow
box lined with waxed paper or a pan that has been buttered, cut it into
squares, and allow it to stand for a few hours. Then remove and serve.

109. CENTER CREAM.--An excellent cream candy for the centers of
chocolates is given in the accompanying recipe. As molds are necessary
in its preparation, it is more difficult to make than fondant, but
success can be had with this as well as with other candies.

The cream used for these centers may be colored and flavored in any
desirable way. It is somewhat firm while being handled, but will be
found to soften after it has been made up and coated. It can be handled
better if it is made 3 or 4 days before it is desired for use. As will
be noted, the recipe is given in a fairly large quantity, for it is
preferable to make a good-sized amount of the cream at a time; but it
need not all be used up at once.

CENTER CREAM

8 c. sugar
2 c. glucose or corn sirup
3 c. water

Mix the sugar, glucose or corn sirup, and water and proceed in the same
way as for fondant. Boil until the thermometer registers 234 or 236
degrees or a ball that is not quite so firm as for fondant will form in
cold water. Pour on a moistened platter or slab to cool. Then cream in
the same manner as for fondant, but allow more time for this part of the
work, as the glucose does not cream rapidly. Just before it hardens,
pour it into a crock or a bowl, place a damp cloth over the top of the
bowl, and put away for a couple of days.

110. The molds for shaping center creams are formed in a thick layer of
corn starch by means of a device that may be bought from a candy-making
supply house or made at home. This device consists of a long strip with
projections that may be pushed into the corn starch to make neatly
shaped holes, or molds. These projections are spaced about 1 inch apart,
so that the walls between the corn-starch molds will not fall down when
the center-cream mixture is poured into them. A long stick, such as a
ruler or a yardstick, and either corks of different sizes or plaster of
Paris may be employed to make such a device. If corks are to be used,
simply glue them to the stick, spacing them about 1 inch apart. If
plaster of Paris is to be used, fill small receptacles about the size
and shape of chocolate creams with a thin mixture of plaster of Paris
and water and allow it to set. When hard, remove the plaster-of-Paris
shapes and glue them to the stick, spacing them the same distance as
mentioned for the corks. The home-made device will answer the same
purpose as one that is bought, and is much less expensive.

111. When it is desired to make up the creams, sift corn starch into a
pan to form a thick layer, making it perfectly level on top with the
straight edge of a knife. Then make depressions, or molds, in the corn
starch by pressing into it the device just described. Make as many rows
of molds as the space will permit, but do not make them so close
together as to weaken the walls between the molds. Melt some of the
center cream in a double boiler, color and flavor as desired, and pour
into the molds made in the corn starch. Allow the centers to remain
until they become hard in the molds. Then pick them out, blow off the
corn starch, and set aside until ready to coat. Continue making centers
in this way until all the cream is used up, resifting the corn starch
and making new molds each time. Then coat with chocolate in the
usual way.

112. ORIENTALS.--Delicious chocolate creams known as orientals can be
made by the amateur if a little care is exercised. It should be
remembered, however, that these cannot be made successfully on a damp
day and that it is somewhat difficult to make them in warm weather. A
clear, cold day is required for satisfactory results. Unlike fondant,
these creams must be made up at once, so it will be necessary to allow
sufficient time not only for the cooking and creaming processes, but
also for the making and coating as well. After being made up, however,
they should be allowed to stand for 3 or 4 days, as they, like many
other cream candies, improve upon standing.

Since these centers are very sweet, a slightly bitter chocolate is the
best kind with which to coat them. Confectioner's bitter-sweet chocolate
will be found to be the most satisfactory, but if this cannot be
procured, bitter chocolate may be mixed with sweet coating chocolate.

ORIENTALS

5 c. granulated sugar
2 c. water
1 tsp. glycerine
6 drops acetic acid
2 egg whites
Vanilla

Put the sugar, water, and glycerine over the fire and stir until the
sugar is dissolved. Wash down the sides of the kettle with a cloth, and
just as the mixture begins to boil, add the acetic acid. Place a cover
over the pan and allow the mixture to boil until a temperature of 238
degrees is reached on the thermometer or a firm ball that can be easily
held in the fingers will form. Pour out on a slab or a platter to cool,
and when perfectly cool begin to work it as for fondant, but first beat
the egg whites until they are stiff. As soon as the candy is collected
into a mass, pour the egg whites over it, as shown in Fig. 16. Continue
to work the candy until all of the egg white is worked in. Add the
vanilla during this process. If the mixture seems stiff and the eggs do
not work in, continue with a little patience, for they will eventually
combine with the candy. Because of the eggs, oriental cream is whiter
than bonbon cream, and so it is a little difficult to tell just when it
is beginning to get creamy. However, it softens a little as it begins to
set, just as fondant does. At this point work slowly, and as it hardens
get it into a mass in the center of the slab. When completely worked, it
will not be so hard as fondant. Make it up at once into small, round
centers, and as they are made place them on pieces of oiled paper to
become dry. Chopped nuts may be added to the filling if desired before
it is made up. As soon as it is possible to handle the centers, coat
them with chocolate in the usual way. Be careful to cover the entire
surface with chocolate, for otherwise the quality of the center will
deteriorate. A good plan is to wrap candies of this kind in waxed paper,
especially if they are to be packed in boxes, for then they will not be
so likely to crush.

[Illustration: FIG. 16]

113. UNCOOKED FONDANT.--A fairly satisfactory substitute for fondant
can be made by moistening confectioner's sugar with egg white or sweet
cream. A very fine sugar must be secured for this purpose or the candy
will be granular, and even then the result will not be so satisfactory
as in the case of cooked fondant properly made. Uncooked fondant, too,
is more limited in its uses than cooked fondant, for it cannot be melted
and used for bonbons.

UNCOOKED FONDANT

XXXX sugar
Egg white or sweet cream

Roll and sift the sugar if it is lumpy, making it as fine as possible.
Beat the egg white just enough to break it up or pour into a bowl the
desired amount of sweet cream, remembering that very little liquid will
moisten considerable sugar. Add the sugar a little at a time, beating
all the while, until a sufficient amount has been used to make the
mixture dry enough to handle with the fingers. Then flavor and color in
any desired way and make up as if it were fondant.


MISCELLANEOUS CONFECTIONS

114. STUFFED DATES.--Dates from which the seeds have been removed and
which have been filled with nuts or fondant or a combination of both are
a confection that meets with much favor. The uncooked fondant is
entirely satisfactory for this purpose, but if some of the other is on
hand it will make an especially fine confection. Regardless of what is
used for a filling, though, the preparation of such dates is the same.

First wash the dates in warm water and rinse them in cold water. Then,
if there is time, spread them out in a single layer on a cloth and let
them remain until they are entirely dry. Cut a slit in the side of each
one with a knife and remove the seed. If nuts, such as English walnuts,
are to be used for the filling, place half a nut meat in the cavity left
by the seed and press the date together over it. In case fondant and
nuts are to be used, chop the nuts and mix them with the fondant.
Coconut may be used in place of the nuts if desired or the fondant may
be used alone. Shape the fondant into tiny balls, press one tightly into
the cavity left by the seed, and close the date partly over the filling.
When all the dates have been stuffed, roll them in sugar, preferably
granulated, and serve.

115. SALTED NUTS.--Nuts to which salt has been added are an excellent
contrast to the sweet confections that have been described. At social
gatherings, luncheons, dinners, etc., they are often served in
connection with some variety of bonbon and many times they replace the
sweet confection entirely. Peanuts and almonds are the nuts generally
used for salting. If peanuts are to be salted, the unroasted ones should
be purchased and then treated in exactly the same way as almonds. Before
nuts are salted, they must first be browned, and this may be
accomplished in three different ways: on the top of the stove, in the
oven, and in deep fat. Preparing them in deep fat is the most
satisfactory method, for by it all the nuts reach the same degree of
brownness.

116. First blanch the nuts by pouring boiling water over them and
allowing them to remain in the water until the skins can be removed;
then slip off the skins without breaking the nuts apart if possible.
Spread the nuts out on a towel to dry.

If the deep-fat method of browning them is to be followed, have in a
small saucepan or kettle a sufficient quantity of cooking fat or oil.

[Illustration: FIG. 17]

Allow it to become as hot as for frying doughnuts or croquettes, place
the nuts in a sieve, and fry them in the fat until they become a
delicate brown. Pour them out into a pan, sprinkle them with salt, cool,
and serve.

To brown nuts on top of the stove, heat a heavy frying pan over a slow
fire and into it put a small amount of fat. Add the nuts and stir
constantly until they are browned as evenly as possible. This part of
the work requires considerable time, for the more slowly it is done the
less likely are the nuts to have burned spots. Salt the nuts before
removing them from the pan, turn them out into a dish, cool, and serve.

It is more difficult to brown nuts equally by the oven method, but
sometimes it is desired to prepare them in this way. Put the nuts with a
little fat into a pan and set the pan in a hot oven. Stir frequently
until they are well browned, salt, cool, and serve.

117. ORIENTAL DELIGHT.--An excellent confection that can be prepared
without cooking is known as oriental delight. It is composed of fruit,
nuts, and coconut, which are held together with egg white and powdered
sugar. When thoroughly set and cut into squares, oriental delight
appears as in Fig. 17.

ORIENTAL DELIGHT

1/2 lb. dates
1/2 lb. raisins
1/2 lb. pressed figs
1/2 c. shredded coconut
1/2 c. English walnuts
1 egg white
Powdered sugar

Wash all the fruits, put them together, and steam for about 15 minutes.
Then put these with the coconut and nuts through a food chopper or chop
them all in a bowl with a chopping knife. When the whole is reduced to a
pulpy mass, beat the egg white slightly, add sufficient sugar to make a
very soft paste, and mix with the fruit mixture. If it is very sticky,
continue to add powdered sugar and mix well until it is stiff enough to
pack in a layer in a pan. Press down tight and when it is set mark in
squares, remove from the pan, and serve as a confection.

118. MARSHMALLOWS.--To be able to make marshmallows successfully is the
desire of many persons. At first thought, this seems somewhat of a task,
but in reality it is a simple matter if the directions are carefully
followed. Upon being cut into squares, the marshmallows may be served
plain or they may be coated with chocolate or, after standing several
days, dipped into a warm caramel mixture.

MARSHMALLOWS

8 tsp. gelatine
1-1/4 c. water
2 c. sugar
Few grains salt
1 tsp. vanilla
1/2 Tb. corn starch

Soak the gelatine in one-half of the water for 5 minutes. Cook the sugar
and the remaining water until it will spin a thread when dropped from a
spoon. Remove from the fire and add the gelatine. When partly cold, add
the salt and the flavoring. Beat with an egg whip, cooling the mixture
as rapidly as possible, until it is light and fluffy. When the mixture
is thick, add the corn starch slowly, working it in thoroughly. Then
pour out on a flat surface that is well dusted with confectioner's
sugar. Let stand in a cool place until thoroughly chilled. Cut in
squares by pressing the blade of a knife down through the mass, but do
not slide it along when cutting. Remove the pieces, dust on all sides
with powdered sugar, and serve.

119. NOUGAT.--The confection known as nougat consists usually of a paste
filled with chopped nuts. Both corn sirup and honey are used in the
preparation of this candy. Generally it is merely flavored with vanilla,
but if chocolate flavoring is preferred it may be added.

NOUGAT

3 c. sugar
1-1/2 c. corn sirup
1/4 c. strained honey
1 c. water
2 egg whites
1 tsp. vanilla
2 c. nut meats

Put the sugar, corn sirup, honey, and water together and cook until a
temperature of 260 degrees is reached or a brittle ball will form in
water. Beat the egg whites stiff and pour the mass slowly into them,
beating constantly until the mixture grows stiff and waxy. Then add the
vanilla and nut meats. Mix well and pour into a small box or pan lined
with waxed paper. If chocolate is to be used for flavoring, add the
desired amount just before pouring the mixture into the pan. When it has
cooled sufficiently, cut in squares or slices.

120. CANDIED PEEL.--Another favorite confection and one that is much
used in connection with candies for social functions is candied orange,
lemon, and grapefruit peel. After being removed from the fruit, the peel
should be well scraped and then cut into thin strips. In this form, it
is ready to coat with sirup.

CANDIED PEEL

1/2 doz. lemons, oranges, or grapefruit
1/2 c. water
1 c. sugar

Remove the skin in quarters from the fruit, scrape off as much of the
white as possible, and cut each piece of skin into narrow strips. Put
these to cook in cold water, boil them until they may be easily pierced
with a fork, and then drain off the water. Add the water to the sugar
and cook until a thread will form when the sirup is dropped from a
spoon. Add the cooked peel to the sirup and cook for 5 to 10 minutes.
Drain and dredge in granulated sugar. Spread in a single layer to dry.

121. POP-CORN BALLS.--Pop corn in any form is always an attractive
confection, especially to young persons. It is often stuck together with
a sirup mixture and made into balls. In this form, it is an excellent
confection for the holiday season.

To make pop-corn balls, first shell the corn and pop it. Then make a
sirup with half as much water as sugar and cook it until it will spin a
thread. Have the pop corn in a large bowl and pour the sirup over it,
working quickly so that all the sirup can be used up while it is warm.
To form the balls, take up a large double handful and press firmly
together. If the sirup sticks to the hands, dip them into cold water so
as to moisten them somewhat before the next handful is taken up. Work in
this manner until all the corn is made into balls.

122. CRACKER JACK.--Another pop-corn confection that is liked by
practically every one is cracker jack. In this variety, pop corn and
peanuts are combined and a sirup made of molasses and sugar is used to
hold them together.

CRACKER JACK

4 qt. popped corn
1 c. shelled, roasted peanuts
1 c. molasses
1/2 c. sugar

Put the popped corn and the peanuts together in a receptacle large
enough to hold them easily. Cook the molasses and the sugar until the
sirup spins a thread. Then pour this over the popped corn and peanuts
and mix well until it becomes cold and hard.


SERVING CANDY

123. The best time to serve candy is when it will interfere least with
the digestion, and this is immediately after meals. A dish of candy
placed on the table with the dessert adds interest to any meal. It
should be passed immediately after the dessert is eaten.

Various kinds of bonbon dishes in which to serve candies are to be had,
some of them being very attractive. Those having a cover are intended
for candy that is to be left standing for a time, while open dishes
should be used for serving. Fig. 18 shows candy tastefully arranged on a
silver dish having a handle. Dishes made of glass or china answer the
purpose equally as well as silver ones, and if a bonbon dish is not in
supply a small plate will do very well. A paper or a linen doily on the
dish or plate adds to the attractiveness, as does also the manner in
which the candy is arranged.

[Illustration: FIG. 18: candies arranged on silver dish.]

       *       *       *       *       *

CONFECTIONS

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) What are confections?

(2) Discuss the use of confections in the diet of children and adults.

(3) (_a_) What food substance is found in the largest proportion in
candy? (_b_) Are candies high or low in food value?

(4) Discuss briefly the kinds and qualities of sugar and their uses.

(5) What is the value of glucose in candy making?

(6) What kinds of flavorings are the most desirable?

(7) What care should be exercised in the use of colorings in candy?

(8) (_a_) What acids are used in candy making? (_b_) Why are these acids
used?

(9) Of what value are milk, cream, and butter in the making of candy?

(10) What may be said of the selection of a pan for cooking candy?

(11) (_a_) What methods are used for testing candies? (_b_) Which of
these methods is the most accurate?

(12) (_a_) How should the mixture be poured out to cool when a creamy
candy is being made? (_b_) To what point should the sirup be cooled
before the stirring is begun?

(13) (_a_) How should chocolate be melted? (_b_) How should coating with
chocolate be done?

(14) How should waxed paper be cut for wrapping candies?

(15) Discuss the ingredients generally used for taffy.

(16) On what do good results in caramel making depend?

(17) What should be guarded against in the making of all cream candies?

(18) (_a_) What is fondant? (_b_) How may fondant be stored for future
use?

(19) How should dates be prepared for stuffing?

(20) What is the best time for the serving of candy?

       *       *       *       *       *



BEVERAGES

       *       *       *       *       *

BEVERAGES IN THE DIET

NATURE AND CLASSES OF BEVERAGES

1. Throughout the lifetime of every person there is constant need for
solid food to preserve health and prolong life; and, just as such food
is necessary to satisfy the requirements of the body, so, too, is there
need for water. As is well known, the composition of the body is such
that it contains more liquid than solid material, the tissues and the
bones weighing much less than the liquid. A tremendous amount of this
liquid is continually being lost through the kidneys, through each pore
in the skin, and even through every breath that is exhaled, and if
continued good health is to be maintained this loss must be constantly
made up. This loss is greater in very hot weather or in the performance
of strenuous exercise than under ordinary conditions, which accounts for
the fact that more than the usual amount of liquid must be supplied
during such times. So necessary is liquid refreshment that the body
cannot exist without it for any great length of time. In fact, if the
supply were cut off so that no more could be obtained, the body would
begin to use its own fluids and death would soon occur. A person can
live for many days without solid food, but it is not possible to live
for more than a very few days without drink.

2. Nature's way of serving notice that the body is in need of liquid
refreshment is through the sensation of thirst. Satisfying thirst not
only brings relief, but produces a decidedly pleasant sensation;
however, the real pleasure of drinking is not experienced until one has
become actually thirsty.

The various liquids by which thirst may be slaked, or quenched, are
known as _beverages_. The first one of these given to man was water,
and it is still the chief beverage, for it is used both alone and as a
foundation for numerous other beverages that are calculated to be more
tasty, but whose use is liable in some cases to lead to excessive
drinking or to the partaking of substances that are injurious to health.

3. The beverages that are in common use may be placed in three general
classes: _alcoholic_, _stimulating_, and _non-stimulating_. The
alcoholic beverages include such drinks as beer, wine, whisky, etc.,
some of which are used more in one country than in another. In fact,
almost every class of people known has an alcoholic beverage that has
come to be regarded as typical of that class. Alcoholic fermentation is
supposed to have been discovered by accident, and when its effect became
known it was recognized as a popular means of supplying a beverage and
some stimulation besides. Under stimulating beverages come tea, coffee,
and cocoa. These are in common use all over the world, certain ones, of
course, finding greater favor in some countries than in others. With the
exception of cocoa, they provide very little food value. In contrast
with these drinks are the non-stimulating beverages, which include fruit
punches, soft drinks, and all the milk-and-egg concoctions. These are
usually very refreshing, and the majority of them contain sufficient
nourishment to recommend their frequent use.


WATER IN BEVERAGES

4. Many persons restrict the term beverages, contending that it refers
to refreshing or flavored drinks. It should be remembered, however, that
this term has a broader meaning and refers to any drink taken for the
purpose of quenching thirst. Water is the simplest beverage and is in
reality the foundation of nearly all drinks, for it is the water in them
that slakes thirst. Flavors, such as fruit juice, tea, coffee, etc., are
combined with water to make the beverages more tempting, and
occasionally such foods as eggs, cream, and starchy materials are added
to give food value; but the first and foremost purpose of all beverages
is to introduce water into the system and thus satisfy thirst.

5. KINDS OF WATER.--Inasmuch as water is so important an element in the
composition of beverages, every one should endeavor to become familiar
with the nature of each of its varieties.

SOFT WATER is water that contains very little mineral matter. A common
example of soft water is rainwater.

HARD WATER is water that contains a large quantity of lime in solution.
Boiling such water precipitates, or separates, some of the lime and
consequently softens the water. An example of the precipitation of lime
in water is the deposit that can be found in any teakettle that has been
used for some time.

MINERAL WATER is water containing a large quantity of such minerals as
will go in solution in water, namely, sulphur, iron, lime, etc.

DISTILLED WATER is water from which all minerals have been removed. To
accomplish this, the water is converted into steam and then condensed.
This is the purest form of water.

CARBONATED WATER is water that has had carbon-dioxide, or carbonic-acid,
gas forced into it. The soda water used at soda fountains is an example
of this variety. Carbonated water is bottled and sold for
various purposes.

6. NECESSITY FOR PURE WATER.--The extensive use made of water in the
diet makes it imperative that every effort be exerted to have the water
supply as pure as possible. The ordinary city filter and the smaller
household filter can be depended on to remove sand, particles of leaves,
weeds, and such foreign material as is likely to drop into the water
from time to time, but they will not remove disease germs from an
unclean supply. Therefore, if there is any doubt about water being pure
enough to use for drinking purposes, it should be boiled before it is
used. Boiling kills any disease germs that the water may contain, but at
the same time it gives the water a very flat taste because of the loss
of air in boiling. However, as is mentioned in _Essentials of Cookery_,
Part 1, the natural taste may be restored by beating the boiled water
with an egg beater or by partly filling a jar, placing the lid on, and
shaking it vigorously.


RELATION OF BEVERAGES TO MEALS

7. About one-third of all the water required each day is taken in the
form of beverages with the meals. It was formerly thought that liquids
dilute the gastric juice and so should be avoided with meals. However,
it has been learned that beverages, either warm or cold, with the
exception of an occasional case, may be taken with meals without
injury. The chief point to remember is that it is unwise to drink
beverages either too hot or too cold. For the best results, their
temperature should be rather moderate.

8. Foods that may be dissolved in water can be incorporated in a
beverage to make it nutritious. With many persons, as in the case of
small children and invalids, this is often the only means there is of
giving them nourishment. In serving beverages to healthy persons, the
food value of the meal should be taken into consideration. The beverage
accompanying a heavy meal should be one having very little food value;
whereas, in the case of a light meal, the beverage can be such as will
give additional nutrition. For instance, hot chocolate, which is very
nutritious, would not be a good beverage to serve with a meal consisting
of soup, meat, vegetables, salad, and dessert, but it would be an
excellent drink to serve with a lunch that is made up of light
sandwiches, salad, and fruit.


ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES

9. ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES are made by allowing yeast to ferment the starch
or the sugar in a certain kind of food, thus producing acid and alcohol.
Grains and fruits are used oftenest for this purpose. In some cases, the
fermentation is allowed to continue long enough to use up all the starch
or sugar in the material selected, and in this event the resulting
beverages are sour and contain a great deal of alcohol. In others, the
fermentation is stopped before all the sugar or starch is utilized, and
then the beverage is sweet and contains less alcohol. The higher the
percentage of alcohol a beverage contains, the more intoxicating it is
and the more quickly will a state of intoxication be reached by
drinking it.

10. HARMFUL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES.--In years past, alcoholic
beverages were considered to be a necessity for medicinal purposes in
hospitals and in homes, but this use of them has been very greatly
decreased. In fact, it is believed by most authorities that often more
harm than good is done by using alcoholic beverages as a medical
stimulant or as a carrier for some drug. As these drinks are harmful in
this respect, so are they detrimental to health when they are taken
merely as beverages. It is definitely known that alcohol acts as a food
when it enters the body, for it is burned just as a carbohydrate would
be and thus produces heat. That this action takes place very rapidly can
be detected by the warmth that is produced almost immediately when the
drink is taken. Some of it is lost through the breath and the kidneys
without producing heat, and it also acts upon the blood vessels near the
skin in such a way as to lose very quickly the heat that is produced. It
is never conserved and used gradually as the heat from food is used. The
taking of alcohol requires much work on the part of the kidneys, and
this eventually injures them. It also hardens the liver and produces a
disease known as hob-nailed, or gin, liver. In addition, if used
continuously, this improper means of nourishing the body produces an
excessive amount of fat. Because of these harmful effects on the various
organs, its too rapid loss from the body, and the fact that it does not
build tissue, alcohol is at best a very poor food and should be avoided
on all occasions.

11. KINDS OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES.--In spite of the truth that beverages
containing alcohol are found to be harmful, many of them are in common
use. Following are the names of these, together with a short account of
their preparation:

BEER is an alcoholic beverage made from certain grains, usually barley,
by malting the grain, boiling the product with hops, and finally
fermenting it with yeast. The malting of grains, it will be remembered,
is explained in _Cereals_. The hops are used to give the beer a
desirable flavor. This beverage is characterized by a low percentage of
alcohol, containing only 2 to 5 per cent., and consequently is not very
intoxicating.

WINE is a beverage that is usually made from grapes, although berries
and other small fruits are occasionally used. It contains from 7 to 16
per cent. of alcohol and is therefore more intoxicating than beer. The
wines in which all of the sugar is fermented are known as _sour_, or
_dry, wines_, while those in which not all of the sugar has been
fermented are called _sweet wines_. Many classes of wines are made and
put on the market, but those most commonly used are claret, sherry,
hock, port, and Madeira.

BRANDY is an alcoholic liquor distilled from wine. It is very
intoxicating, for it consists of little besides alcohol and water, the
percentage of alcohol varying from 40 to 50 per cent. Upon being
distilled, brandy is colorless, but it is then stored in charred wooden
casks, from which it takes its characteristic color.

GIN is a practically colorless liquor distilled from various grains and
flavored with oil of juniper or some other flavoring substance, such as
anise, orange peel, or fennel. It contains from 30 to 40 per cent. of
alcohol. It is usually stored in glass bottles, which do not impart a
color to it.

RUM is an alcoholic beverage made by fermenting cane sugar, molasses,
cane juice, or the scum and waste from sugar refineries and then
distilling the product. It contains from 45 to 50 per cent. of alcohol,
and has a disagreeable odor when it is distilled. This odor, however, is
removed by storing the rum in wooden receptacles for a long period
of time.

CORDIALS are beverages made by steeping fruits or herbs in brandy.
_Absinthe_, which is barred from the United States because it contains
wormwood, a very injurious substance, is a well-known cordial. Besides
being extremely intoxicating, it overstimulates the heart and the
stomach if taken in even comparatively small quantities.

WHISKY is an alcoholic beverage obtained by distilling fermented grain
several times until it has a strength of 40 to 50 per cent. of alcohol.
Then it is flavored and stored in charred casks to ripen and become
mellow, after which it has a characteristic color. As can readily be
understood, distilled liquors contain the highest percentage of alcohol.

       *       *       *       *       *

STIMULATING BEVERAGES

NATURE OF STIMULATING BEVERAGES

12. STIMULATING BEVERAGES are those which contain a drug that stimulates
the nervous and the circulatory system; that is, one that acts on the
nerves and the circulation in such a way as to make them active and
alert. Common examples of these beverages are coffee, tea, and cocoa or
chocolate. If the nerves are in need of rest, it is dangerous to
stimulate them with such beverages, for, as the nervous system
indirectly affects all the organs of the body, the effects of this
stimulation are far-reaching. The immediate effect of the stimulant in
these beverages is to keep the drinker awake, thus causing
sleeplessness, or temporary insomnia. If tea and coffee are used
habitually and excessively, headaches, dull brains, and many nervous
troubles are liable to result.

13. The stimulant that is found in the leaves of tea is known as
_theine_; that found in coffee beans, _caffeine_; and that found in
cacao beans, from which cocoa and chocolate are made, _theobromine_.
Each of these stimulants is extracted by the hot liquid that is always
used to make the beverage. It is taken up by the liquid so quickly that
the method used to prepare the beverage makes little difference as to
the amount obtained. In other words, tea made by pouring water through
the leaves will contain nearly as much of the stimulant as tea made by
boiling the leaves.

14. In addition to the stimulant, tea and coffee contain _tannin_, or
_tannic acid_, an acid that is also obtained from the bark of certain
trees and used in the tanning of animal hides in the preparation of
leather. Tannin is not taken so quickly from tea and coffee by the hot
liquid used in preparing the beverage as is the stimulant, so that the
longer tea leaves and coffee grounds remain in the liquid, the more
tannic acid will be drawn out. This fact can be detected by the bitter
flavor and the puckery feeling in the mouth after drinking tea that has
been allowed to remain on the leaves or coffee that has stood for some
time on the grounds. Tannic acid has a decidedly bad effect on the
digestion in the stomach, so that if improperly prepared tea or coffee
is indulged in habitually, it may cause stomach disorders.

TABLE I

STIMULANT AND TANNIC ACID PRESENT IN STIMULATING BEVERAGES

-------------------------------------------------------------
                                  Quantity of    Quantity of
Beverage            Stimulant      Stimulant     Tannic Acid
                                    Grains         Grains
-------------------------------------------------------------
Coffee              Caffeine        2 to 3         1 to 2
Tea                 Theine          1 to 2         1 to 4
Cocoa or chocolate  Theobromine     1 to 1-1/2     1/2 to 1
-------------------------------------------------------------

15. The quantity of stimulant and tannic acid contained in an ordinary
cup of tea, coffee, and cocoa or chocolate is given in Table I. As this
table shows, the quantity, which is given in grains, does not vary
considerably in the different beverages and is not present in such
quantity as to be harmful, unless these beverages are indulged in
to excess.

To reduce the quantity of caffeine contained in coffee has been the aim
of many coffee producers. As a result, there are on the market a number
of brands of coffee that have been put through a process that removes
practically all the caffeine. The beverage made from coffee so treated
is less harmful than that made from ordinary coffee, and so far as the
flavor is concerned this loss of caffeine does not change it.

16. Neither tea nor coffee possesses any food value. Unless sugar or
cream is added, these beverages contain nothing except water, flavor,
stimulant, and tannic acid. Chocolate and cocoa, however, are rich in
fat, and as they are usually made with milk and sugar they have the
advantage of conveying food to the system. Because of their nature, tea
and coffee should never be given to children. Cocoa and chocolate
provide enough food value to warrant their use in the diet of young
persons, but they should not be taken in too great quantity because of
the large amount of fat they contain. Any of these beverages used in
excessive amounts produces the same effect as a mild drug habit.
Consequently, when a person feels that it is impossible to get along
without tea or coffee, it is time to stop the use of that beverage.

       *       *       *       *       *

COFFEE

HISTORY AND PRODUCTION

17. COFFEE is the seed of the coffee tree, which in its wild state grows
to a height of 20 feet, but in cultivation is kept down to about 10 or
12 feet for convenience in gathering the fruit. Coffee originated in
Abyssinia, where it has been used as a beverage from time immemorial. At
the beginning of the 15th century, it found its way into Arabia, where
it was used by the religious leaders for preventing drowsiness, so that
they could perform religious ceremonies at night. About 100 years later
it came into favor in Turkey, but it was not until the middle of the
17th century that it was introduced into England. Its use gradually
increased among common people after much controversy as to whether it
was right to drink it or not. It is now extensively grown in India,
Ceylon, Java, the West Indies, Central America, Mexico, and Brazil. The
last-named country, Brazil, furnishes about 75 per cent. of the coffee
used in the United States and about 60 per cent. of the world's supply.

18. Coffee is a universal drink, but it finds more favor in some
countries than others. The hospitality of a Turkish home is never
thought to be complete without the serving of coffee to its guests;
however, the coffee made by the Turks is not pleasant except to those
who are accustomed to drinking it. As prepared in Turkey and the East, a
small amount of boiling water is poured over the coffee, which is
powdered and mixed with sugar, and the resulting beverage, which is very
thick, is served in a small cup without cream. The French make a
concoction known as _café an lait_, which, as explained in _Essentials
of Cookery_, Part 2, is a combination of coffee and milk. These two
ingredients are heated separately in equal proportions and then mixed
before serving. This is a very satisfactory way in which to serve coffee
if cream cannot be obtained.

19. OBTAINING THE COFFEE SEEDS.--The seeds of the coffee tree are
enclosed in pairs, with their flat surfaces toward each other, in dark,
cherry-like berries. The pulp of the berry is softened by fermentation
and then removed, leaving the seeds enclosed in a husk. They are then
separated from the husks by being either sun-dried and rolled or reduced
to a soft mass in water with the aid of a pulping machine. With the
husks removed, the seeds are packed into coarse cloth bags and
distributed.

20. ROASTING THE COFFEE BEANS.--The next step in the preparation of
coffee for use is the roasting of the coffee beans. After being
separated from the husks, the beans have a greenish-yellow color, but
during the roasting process, when they are subjected to high temperature
and must be turned constantly to prevent uneven roasting, they turn to a
dark brown. As the roasting also develops the flavor, it must be done
carefully. Some persons prefer to buy unroasted coffee and roast it at
home in an oven, but it is more economical to purchase coffee already
roasted. In addition, the improved methods of roasting produce coffee of
a better flavor, for they accomplish this by machinery especially
devised for the purpose.

21. GRINDING THE COFFEE BEANS.--During the roasting process there is
developed an aromatic volatile oil, called _caffeol_, to which the
flavor of the coffee is due. This oil is very strong, but upon being
exposed to the air it passes off and thus causes a loss of flavor in the
coffee. For this reason, roasted coffee should be kept in air-tight
cans, boxes, or jars. Before it is used, however, it must be ground.
The grinding of the coffee beans exposes more surface and hence the
flavor is more quickly lost from ground than unground coffee. Because of
this fact and because ground coffee can be adulterated very easily, it
is not wise to buy coffee already ground. If only a small quantity is
bought at a time and it can be used up at once, the grinding may be done
by the grocer, but even in such a case the better plan is to grind it
immediately before using it.

22. The method by which the coffee is to be prepared for drinking will
determine to a large extent the way in which the coffee beans must be
ground. When coffee is to be made by a method in which the grounds are
not left in the water for any length of time, the beans must be ground
very fine, in fact, pulverized, for the flavor must be extracted
quickly. For other purposes, such as when it is to be made in a
percolator, the beans need not be ground quite so fine, and when it is
to be made in an ordinary coffee pot they may be ground very coarse.

23. For use in the home, simple coffee mills that will grind coffee as
coarse or as fine as may be desired are to be had. Fig. 1 shows two of
the common types of home coffee mills.

[Illustration: FIG. 1]

The one shown in (_a_) is fastened to a board so that it can be attached
to the wall. The coffee to be ground is put in the chamber _a_, from
which it is fed to the grinding rolls, and the ground coffee drops into
the chamber _b_. The grinding rolls are adjusted to the desired fineness
by the notched arrangement on the end of the shaft.

The coffee mill shown in (_b_) may be placed on a table top or some
other flat surface, but it operates on the same principle as the other.
The coffee beans are placed in the chamber at the top, and the ground
coffee drops into the drawer _a_ at the bottom. The adjustment of the
grinding rolls is regulated by the notched head at the end of the
vertical shaft.

24. ADULTERATION OF COFFEE.--As in the case of numerous other foods,
attempts are often made to adulterate coffee. Since the Pure Food Laws
have been enforced, there is not so much danger of adulteration in a
product of this kind; still, every housewife should be familiar with the
ways in which this beverage may be reduced in strength or quality, so
that she may be able to tell whether she is getting a good or an
inferior product for her money.

Coffee may be adulterated in a number of ways. Ground coffee is
especially easy to adulterate with bread crumbs, bran, and similar
materials that have been thoroughly browned. Many of the cheaper coffees
are adulterated with chicory, a root that has a flavor similar to that
of coffee and gives the beverages with which it is used a reddish-brown
color. Chicory is not harmful; in fact, its flavor is sought by some
people, particularly the French. The objection to it, as well as to
other adulterants, is that it is much cheaper than coffee and the use of
it therefore increases the profits of the dealer. The presence of
chicory in coffee can be detected by putting a small amount of the
ground coffee in a glass of water. If chicory is present, the water will
become tinged with red and the chicory will settle to the bottom more
quickly than the coffee.


PREPARATION OF COFFEE

25. SELECTION OF COFFEE.--Many varieties of coffee are to be had, but
Mocha, Java, and Rio are the ones most used. A single variety, however,
is seldom sold alone, because a much better flavor can be obtained from
_blend coffee_, by which is meant two or more kinds of coffee
mixed together.

It is usually advisable to buy as good a quality of coffee as can be
afforded. The more expensive coffees have better flavor and greater
strength than the cheaper grades and consequently need not be used in
such great quantity. It is far better to serve this beverage seldom and
to have what is served the very best than to serve it so often that a
cheap grade must be purchased. For instance, some persons think that
they must have coffee for at least two out of three daily meals, but it
is usually sufficient if coffee is served once a day, and then for the
morning or midday meal rather than for the evening meal.

After deciding on the variety of coffee that is desired, it is well to
buy unground beans that are packed in air-tight packages. Upon
receiving the coffee in the home, it should be poured into a jar or a
can and kept tightly covered.

26. NECESSARY UTENSILS.--Very few utensils are required for coffee
making, but they should be of the best material that can be afforded in
order that good results may be had. A coffee pot, a coffee percolator,
and a drip pot, or coffee biggin, are the utensils most frequently used
for the preparation of this beverage.

[Illustration: FIG. 2]

27. If a COFFEE POT is preferred, it should be one made of material that
will withstand the heat of a direct flame. The cheapest coffee pots are
made of tin, but they are the least desirable and should be avoided, for
the tin, upon coming in contact with the tannic acid contained in
coffee, sometimes changes the flavor. Coffee pots made of enamelware are
the next highest in price. Then come nickel-plated ones, and, finally,
the highest-priced ones, which are made of aluminum. The usual form of
plain coffee pot is shown in Fig. 2.

[Illustration: FIG. 3]

28. PERCOLATORS are very desirable for the making of coffee, for they
produce excellent results and at the same time make the preparation of
coffee easy. Those having an electric attachment are especially
convenient. One form of percolator is shown in Fig. 3. In this
percolator, the ground coffee is put in the filter cup _a_ and the water
in the lower part of the pot _b_. The water immediately passes into the
chamber _c_, as shown by the arrows. In this chamber, which is small, it
heats rapidly and then rises through the vertical tube _d_. At the top
_e_, it comes out in the form of a spray, strikes the glass top, and
falls back on a perforated metal plate _f_, called the spreader. It then
passes through this plate into the filter cup containing the grounds,
through which it percolates and drops into the main chamber. The
circulation of the water continues as long as sufficient heat is
applied, and the rate of circulation depends on the degree of heat.

29. The DRIP POT, or _coffee biggin_, as it is sometimes called, one
type of which is shown in Fig. 4, is sometimes preferred for the making
of coffee. This utensil is made of metal or earthenware and operates on
the same principle as a percolator. The ground coffee is suspended above
the liquid in a cloth bag or a perforated receptacle and the water
percolates through it.

[Illustration: FIG. 4]

30. In case a more complicated utensil than any of those mentioned is
used for the making of coffee, the directions that accompany it will
have to be followed. But no matter what kind of utensil is selected for
the preparation of coffee, it should be thoroughly cleaned each time it
is used. To clean it, first empty any coffee it contains and then wash
every part carefully and scald and dry it. If the utensil is not clean,
the flavor of the coffee made in it will be spoiled.

31. METHODS OF MAKING COFFEE.--Several methods are followed in the
making of coffee, the one to select depending on the result desired and
the kind of utensil to be used. The most common of these methods are:
_boiling_, which produces a decoction; _infusion_, or _filtration_,
which consists in pouring boiling water over very finely ground coffee
in order to extract its properties; and _percolating_, in which boiling
water percolates, or passes through, finely ground coffee and extracts
its flavor. For any of these methods, soft water is better than water
that contains a great deal of lime. Many times persons cannot understand
why coffee that is excellent in one locality is poor in another. In the
majority of cases, this variation is due to the difference in the water
and not to the coffee. From 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls of coffee to 1 cupful
of water is the usual proportion followed in making coffee.

32. BOILED COFFEE.--Without doubt, coffee is more often boiled in its
preparation than treated in any other way. Usually, an ordinary coffee
pot is all that is required in this method of preparation. The amount of
ground coffee used may be varied to obtain the desired strength.

BOILED COFFEE
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. cold water
1/2 c. ground coffee
3 c. boiling water

After scalding the coffee pot, put 1/2 cupful of the cold water and the
ground coffee into it. Stir well and then add the boiling water. Allow
it to come to the boiling point and boil for 3 minutes. Pour a little of
the coffee into a cup to clear the spout of grounds, add the remaining
cupful of cold water, and put back on the stove to reheat, but not to
boil. When hot, serve at once. Never allow the liquid to stand on the
grounds for any length of time, for the longer it stands the more tannic
acid will be drawn out.

33. As coffee made by boiling is usually somewhat cloudy, it may be
cleared in one way or another. The last cold water is added for this
purpose, for as it is heavier than the warm liquid it sinks to the
bottom and carries the grounds with it. Coffee may also be cleared by
stirring a small quantity of beaten raw egg, either the white or the
yolk, or both, into the grounds before the cold water is added to them.
One egg will clear two or three potfuls of coffee if care is exercised
in its use. What remains of the egg after the first potful has been
cleared should be placed in a small dish and set away for future use. A
little cold water poured over it will assist in preserving it. If the
egg shells are washed before the egg is broken, they may be crushed and
added to the grounds also, for they will help to clear the coffee. The
explanation of the use of egg for this purpose is that it coagulates as
the coffee heats and carries the particles of coffee down with it as
it sinks.

34. Another very satisfactory way in which to make boiled coffee is to
tie the ground coffee loosely into a piece of cheesecloth, pour the
boiling water over it, and then let it boil for a few minutes longer
than in the method just given. Coffee prepared in this manner will be
found to be clear and therefore need not be treated in any of the ways
mentioned.

35. FILTERED COFFEE.--When it is desired to make coffee by the filtering
process, the coffee must be ground into powder. Then it should be made
in a drip, or French, coffee pot. If one of these is not available,
cheesecloth of several thicknesses may be substituted. The advantage of
making coffee by this method is that the coffee grounds may sometimes be
used a second time.

FILTERED COFFEE
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1/2 c. powdered coffee
1 qt. boiling water

Place the coffee in the top of the drip pot, pour the boiling water over
it, and allow the water to drip through into the vessel below. When all
has run through, remove the water and pour it over the coffee a second
time. If cheesecloth is to be used, put the coffee in it, suspend it
over the coffee pot or other convenient utensil, and proceed as with
the drip pot.

36. PERCOLATED COFFEE.--The coffee used for percolated coffee should be
ground finer than for boiled coffee, but not so fine as for filtered
coffee. This is perhaps the easiest way in which to prepare coffee and
at the same time the surest method of securing good coffee.

PERCOLATED COFFEE
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1/2 c. finely ground coffee
1 qt. cold water

Place the coffee in the perforated compartment in the top of the
percolator and pour the cold water in the lower chamber. As the water
heats, it is forced up through the vertical tube against the top. It
then falls over the coffee and percolates through into the water below.
This process begins before the water boils, but the hotter the water
becomes the more rapidly does it percolate through the coffee. The
process continues as long as the heat is applied, and the liquid becomes
stronger in flavor as it repeatedly passes through the coffee. When the
coffee has obtained the desired strength, serve at once.

37. AFTER-DINNER COFFEE.--After a rather elaborate meal, a small cup of
very strong, black coffee is often served. To prepare after-dinner
coffee, as this kind is called, follow any of the methods already
explained, but make it twice as strong as coffee that is to accompany
the usual meal. Sugar and cream may be added to after-dinner coffee, but
usually this coffee is drunk black and unsweetened.

38. VIENNA COFFEE.--An especially nice way in which to serve coffee is
to combine it with boiled milk and whipped cream. It is then known as
Vienna coffee. The accompanying directions are for just 1 cup, as this
is prepared a cupful at a time.

VIENNA COFFEE
(Sufficient to Serve One)

1/4 c. boiled milk
3 Tb. whipped cream
1/2 c. hot filtered coffee, or coffee prepared by any method

Place the boiled milk in a cup, add the whipped cream, and fill the cup
with the hot coffee.

39. ICED COFFEE.--Persons fond of coffee find iced coffee a most
delicious hot-weather drink. Iced coffee is usually served in a glass,
as shown in Fig. 5, rather than in a cup, and when whipped cream is
added an attractive beverage results.

To prepare iced coffee, make coffee by any desired method, but if the
boiling method is followed be careful to strain the liquid so that it is
entirely free from grounds. Cool the liquid and then pour into glasses
containing cracked ice. Serve with plain cream and sugar or with a
tablespoonful or two of whipped cream. If desired, however, the cream
may be omitted and the coffee served with an equal amount of milk, when
it is known as _iced café au lait_.

40. LEFT-OVER COFFEE.--The aim of the person who prepares coffee should
be to make the exact quantity needed, no more nor no less, and this can
usually be done if directions are carefully followed. However, if any
coffee remains after all are served, it should not be thrown away, as it
can be utilized in several ways. Drain the liquid from the grounds as
soon as possible so that the flavor will not be impaired.

[Illustration: FIG. 5]

If desired, left-over coffee may be added to fresh coffee when it is
prepared for the next meal or, in hot weather, it may be used for iced
coffee. It may also be used to flavor gelatine, which, when sweetened
and served with whipped cream, makes an excellent dessert. Again,
left-over coffee is very satisfactory as a flavoring for cake icing, for
custards, or for whipped cream that is to be served with desserts. When
coffee is desired for flavoring, it should be boiled in order to
evaporate some of the water. Very good cake is made by using left-over
coffee for the liquid and spices for the flavoring.


SERVING COFFEE

41. The serving of coffee may be done in several ways, but, with the
exception of iced coffee, this beverage should always be served as hot
as possible. As can well be imagined, nothing is more insipid than
lukewarm coffee. Therefore, coffee is preferably made immediately before
it is to be served. Sugar and cream usually accompany coffee, but they
may be omitted if they are not desired.

Coffee may be served with the dinner course, with the dessert, or after
the dessert. When it is served with the dinner course or the dessert, a
coffee cup or a tea cup of ordinary size is used; but when it is served
after the dessert, a demi-tasse, or small cup that holds less than half
the amount of the other size, is preferable. Usually, after-dinner
coffee, or _café noir_, as such black coffee is called, rather than
coffee with cream and sugar, is served after the dessert course of a
heavy dinner because it is supposed to be stimulating to the digestion.

The pouring of coffee may be done at the table or in the kitchen. If it
is done at the table, the person serving should ask those to be served
whether or not they desire cream and sugar, and then serve accordingly.
If it is done before the coffee is brought to the table, the cream and
sugar should be passed, so that those served may help themselves to the
desired amount. Care should always be taken in the serving of coffee not
to fill the cup so full that it will run over or that it will be too
full to handle easily when the cream and sugar are added.

       *       *       *       *       *

TEA

HISTORY AND PRODUCTION

42. TEA consists of the prepared leaves or leaf buds of a plant known as
the tea plant and is used as one of the three stimulating beverages.
This plant is grown in China, Japan, India, Ceylon, and the East Indies,
and to a small extent in South Carolina. There are two distinct
varieties of tea, and each one may be used for the preparation of either
green or black tea. The leaves of the tea plant, which are what is used
for making the beverage, are gathered four times a year from the time
the plants are 4 years old until they are 10 or 12 years old. Then the
plants are pulled up and new ones planted. Upon being gathered, the
leaves are put through a series of processes before they are ready for
use. During this treatment, various modifications of flavor are
developed and the leaves are changed in color to black or green,
depending on the process used.

43. It is surprising to most persons to learn that tea was known in
China for many years before people began to make a beverage of it. The
first record of its use as a beverage was probably in the 6th century,
when an infusion of tea leaves was given to a ruler of the Chinese
Empire to cure a headache. A century later, tea had come into common use
as a beverage in that country. As civilization advanced and new
countries were formed, tea was introduced as a beverage, and today there
is scarcely a locality in which it is not commonly used.

44. CLASSIFICATION OF TEA AS TO QUALITY.--The position of the leaf on
the tea plant determines the quality of the tea. The farther from the
top, the coarser are the leaves and the poorer is the quality. On the
other hand, the smaller the leaves and the nearer the top, the better is
the quality. In the very best qualities of tea, the buds of the plant
are included with the tiny top leaves.

45. Tea that is raised in China is graded in a particular way, and it
will be well to understand this grading. The top buds are used entirely
for a variety known as _flowery pekoe_, but this is seldom found in our
markets. The youngest leaves next to the buds are made into a tea called
_orange pekoe_; the next older leaves are used for _pekoe_; the third,
for _souchong first_; the fourth, for _souchong second_; the fifth, for
_congou_; and if there is another leaf, it is made into a tea known as
_bohea_. Sometimes the first three leaves are mixed, and when this is
done the tea is called _pekoe_. If they are mixed with the next two, the
tea is called _souchong pekoe_. The laws controlling the importation of
tea require that each shipment be tested before it passes the custom
house, to determine whether or not it contains what the label claims
for it.

46. VARIETIES OF TEA.--The teas that are put on the market are of two
general varieties, _black tea_ and _green tea_. Any quality of tea or
tea raised in any country may be made into these two kinds, for, as has
been mentioned, it is the method of preparation that is accountable for
the difference. A number of the common brands of tea are blends or
mixtures of green and black tea. These, which are often called _mixed
teas_, are preferred by many persons to the pure tea of either kind.

47. BLACK TEA is made by fermenting the tea leaves before they are
dried. This fermentation turns them black and produces a marked change
in their flavor. The process of preparation also renders some of the
tannin insoluble; that is, not so much of it can be dissolved when the
beverage is made. Some well-known brands of black tea are _China
congou_, or _English breakfast_, _Formosa_, _oolong_, and the various
_pekoes_. The English are especially fond of black tea, and the people
of the United States have followed their custom to the extent that it
has become a favorite in this country.

48. GREEN TEA is made by steaming the leaves and then drying them, a
process that retains the green color. With tea of this kind, all
fermentation of the leaves is carefully avoided. Some familiar kinds of
green tea are _hyson_, _Japan_, and _gunpowder_. The best of these are
the ones that come from Japan.


PREPARATION OF TEA

49. SELECTION OF TEA.--In the course of its preparation, tea is rolled
either into long, slender pieces or into little balls. Knowing this, the
housewife should be able to detect readily the stems and other foreign
material sometimes found in teas, especially the cheaper varieties. Such
teas should be avoided, for they are lacking not only in flavor but also
in strength. If economy must be practiced, the moderately expensive
grades will prove to be the best ones to buy.

50. METHODS OF MAKING TEA.--Upon steeping tea in hot water, a very
pleasant beverage results. If this is properly made, a gentle stimulant
that can be indulged in occasionally by normal adults without harmful
results can be expected. However, the value of tea as a beverage has at
all times been much overestimated. When it is served as afternoon tea,
as is frequently done, its chief value lies in the pleasant hospitality
that is afforded by pouring it. Especially is this the case in England,
where the inhabitants have adopted the pretty custom of serving
afternoon tea and feel that guests have not received the hospitality of
the home until tea has been served. Through their continued use of this
beverage, the English have become expert in tea making.

51. The Russians are also adepts so far as the making of tea is
concerned. They use a very good kind of tea, called _caravan tea_, which
is packed in lead-covered packages and brought to them by caravans. This
method of packing and delivery is supposed to have a ripening effect on
the leaves and to give them an unusually good flavor. For making tea,
the Russians use an equipment called a _samovar_. This is an urn that is
constantly kept filled with boiling water, so that tea can be served to
all visitors or callers that come, no matter what time of day
they arrive.

52. Most persons, however, make tea into a beverage by steeping it in
boiling water or by placing it in a tea ball or some similar utensil and
then allowing it to stand in boiling water for a short time. Whichever
method of preparation is followed, the water must be at the boiling
point and it must be freshly boiled. Water that has been boiled for any
length of time becomes very insipid and flat to the taste and affects
the flavor of the tea. Tea leaves that have been used once should never
be resteeped, for more tannin is extracted than is desirable and the
good tea flavor is lost, producing a very unwholesome beverage. As a
rule, 1 to 1-1/2 teaspoonfuls of tea to 1 cupful of water is the
proportion followed in tea making.

53. STEEPED TEA.--When tea is to be steeped, a teapot is used. That the
best results may be secured, the teapot should always be freshly scalded
and the water freshly boiled.

STEEPED TEA
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 Tb. tea
1 qt. boiling water

Scald the teapot. Put the tea into the teapot and pour the boiling water
over it. Let stand on the back of the stove for 3 minutes, when a
beverage of sufficient strength will be formed. Strain the beverage from
the tea leaves and serve at once.

[Illustration: FIG. 6]

54. AFTERNOON TEA.--When tea is desired for afternoon serving or when it
is to be prepared at the table, a _tea ball_ is the most satisfactory
utensil to use. This is a perforated silver or aluminum ball, such as
shown in Fig. 6, which opens by means of a hinge and into which the tea
is placed. For convenience in use, a chain is attached to the ball and
ends in a ring that is large enough to slip over the finger. Some
teapots contain a ball attached to the inside of the lid and suspended
inside the pot. Utensils of this kind are very convenient, for when the
tea made in them becomes strong enough, the leaves may be removed
without pouring off the tea.

To prepare afternoon tea with a tea ball, put 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls of tea
in the ball, fasten it securely, and place it in a cup. Then pour enough
freshly boiled water over the ball to fill the cup to the desired
height. Allow the ball to remain in the water until the desired strength
is attained and then remove it. If more than 2 or 3 persons are to be
served, it will be necessary to refill the ball.

55. ICED TEA.--Perhaps one of the most refreshing drinks for warm
weather is iced tea. A tea that is especially blended for this purpose
and that is cheaper in price than other tea may be purchased. Slices of
lemon or crushed mint leaves add much to the flavor of the tea and are
often served with it.

Prepare tea by steeping it, but make it double strength. Strain it from
the leaves and allow it to become cool. Then pour it into glasses
containing cracked ice. Serve with sugar and slices of lemon or
mint leaves.

56. LEFT-OVER TEA.--Tea that remains after all persons are served need
not be wasted if it is poured off the leaves at once. Such tea is
satisfactory for iced tea, or it may be combined with certain fruit
juices in the preparation of various cold beverages. However, there are
not many satisfactory uses for left-over tea; so it is best to take
pains not to make more than will be required for one time.


SERVING TEA

[Illustration: FIG. 7]

57. Tea may be served as an accompaniment to meals or with small
sandwiches, dainty cakes, or macaroons as an afternoon ceremony. If it
is served with meals and is poured at the table, the hostess or the one
pouring asks those to be served whether they desire sugar and cream and
then uses these accompaniments accordingly. In the event that it is
brought to the table poured, the sugar and cream are passed and those
served may help themselves to what they desire. Lemon adds much to the
flavor of tea and is liked by most persons. A dish of sliced lemon may
be passed with the cream and sugar or placed where the hostess may add
it to the tea. The Russians, who are inveterate tea drinkers, prepare
this beverage by putting a slice of lemon in the cup and then pouring
the hot tea over it. If this custom is followed, the lemons should be
washed and sliced very thin and the seeds should be removed from the
slices. The flavor may also be improved by sticking a few cloves in each
slice of lemon; or, if the clove flavor is desired, several cloves may
be put in the teapot when the tea is made. Fig. 7 shows slices of lemons
ready to be served with tea. Some of them, as will be observed, have
cloves stuck in them.

Lemon is almost always served with iced tea, for it adds a delightful
flavor. If it is not squeezed into the glass, it should be cut into
quarters or eighths lengthwise and then cut across so that small
triangular pieces are formed. These are much easier to handle than
whole slices.

[Illustration: FIG. 8]

58. In the serving of afternoon tea, the pouring of the tea is the main
thing, and the remainder of the service simply complements this pleasant
ceremony. Tiny sandwiches, small cakes, or macaroons usually accompany
the tea, while such confections as candied orange peel, stuffed dates,
or salted nuts are often served also. When sandwiches are used, they may
be merely bread-and-butter sandwiches or they may contain marmalade or
any desired filling. The principal requirement is that they be made as
small and thin as possible, so that they will be extremely dainty in
appearance.

59. A _tea cozy_ is a convenient device to use when tea is served from
the pot. It consists of a padded cap, or cover, that may be slipped over
the teapot to prevent the heat from escaping after the tea is infused.
It is made of several thicknesses of material in a shape and size that
will slip over the teapot easily and can then be removed when the tea
is to be poured. This can be made very attractive by means of a nicely
embroidered cover.

60. Fig. 8 shows an attractive table that may be used for serving tea.
The top folds over vertically, so that when the table is not in use it
may be disposed of by placing it against the wall of a room. This table
holds nothing except the pot containing the tea, which must be made in
the kitchen and placed in the pot before it is brought to the table, the
sugar and cream, the teacups, and the lemon. Sandwiches, wafers, or
cakes that are to be served with the tea should be passed to the guests.

[Illustration: FIG. 9]

61. Fig. 9 shows a tea wagon and the equipment for making tea, with the
sandwiches and cakes to be served arranged on a muffin stand, or Lazy
Susan. When tea is to be made with an equipment of this kind, the water
is heated in the little kettle by means of the alcohol burner. The can
with the long spout contains an extra supply of alcohol with which to
keep the burner filled. The tea ball, which is in the little glass, is
filled with tea and the boiling water is poured over it into each cup.
The ball is allowed to remain until the tea is of the desired strength,
when it is removed and used for another cup, provided sufficient
strength remains in the tea leaves.

The silver tea caddy at the back of the wagon contains the tea, and
lemon with a fork for serving it is on a small plate near the front of
the wagon. Napkins and plates for the cakes and sandwiches are on the
lower part of the wagon. The napkins and plates are first passed; then
the tea is served with the sandwiches, after which cakes are served.

       *       *       *       *       *

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

NATURE AND SELECTION

[Illustration: FIG. 10]

62. COCOA and CHOCOLATE are made from the fruit of the cacao, or
chocolate, tree. This tree is native to Mexico, where cocoa was first
used as a beverage, but it is also grown in South America and the West
Indies. The fruit of this tree was named _cocoa Theobroma_, which means
"food for the gods," because of its excellent flavor. The original
natives of Mexico and Peru used cocoa in place of money. When the
Spanish invaded these countries, they learned its use and took it back
to Spain, where it is still a popular beverage. In many localities in
Spain it became a fashionable morning drink, but it was also served at
other times.

63. PRODUCTION OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.--The fruit of the cacao tree is
in the form of pods from 6 to 10 inches in length and 3 to 4 inches in
diameter. These pods are filled with a white, pulpy mass in which are
embedded from twenty to forty seeds about twice the size and very much
the shape of kidney beans. Fig. 10 shows the three stages of the
treatment through which the seeds are put before they can be used for a
beverage. After they are removed from the pod, they are fermented and
then dried, when they appear as at _a_. In this form they are packed in
bags and distributed. The beans are then roasted to develop their flavor
and are crushed into small pieces called _cocoa nibs_, as shown at _b_.
The cocoa nibs are then ground fine, when they become almost a liquid
mass because of the very large amount of fat contained in cocoa. To make
the ordinary _bitter chocolate_ used so extensively for cooking
purposes, this mass is run into shallow pans, where it hardens as it
cools. It is often flavored and sweetened and then forms the confection
known as _sweet chocolate_. The application of pressure to bitter
chocolate extracts considerable fat, which is known as _cocoa butter_
and is used largely in creams and toilet preparations. The remaining
material is ground into a powder, as shown at _c_, and becomes the
_commercial cocoa_.

To prevent the formation of a large amount of sediment in the bottom of
the cup, cocoa is treated with various kinds of alkali. Some of these
remain in the cocoa and are supposed to be harmful if it is taken in any
quantity. The cocoas that are treated with alkali are darker in color
than the others. The Dutch cocoas are considered to be the most soluble
and also contain the most alkali.

64. SELECTION OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.--Chocolate is usually pure in the
form in which it is sold, because it does not offer much chance for
adulteration. However, the volume of cocoa can be easily increased by
cheaper materials, such as starch, ground cocoa shells, etc. Cocoa so
adulterated should be avoided if possible. Generally the best brands,
although higher in price than others, are free from adulteration, and
from these a selection should be made. The particular brand of chocolate
or cocoa to buy must be governed by the taste of those to whom it is to
be served.


PREPARATION OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

65. As a beverage, cocoa probably has greater use than chocolate; still
there are some who prefer the flavor of chocolate to that of cocoa.
Directions for preparing beverages from both of these materials are
given, with the intention that the housewife may decide for herself
which one she prefers to use. For either one, any ordinary saucepan or
kettle may be used, but those made of enamel or aluminum are best. Of
these two materials, aluminum is the better, for milk is less liable to
scorch in a vessel of this kind than in one of any other material.

66. When chocolate is to be used for a beverage, the amount required
varies with the strength desired. Recipes for bitter chocolate usually
give the amount in squares, but no difficulty will be experienced in
determining the amount, for the cakes of chocolate are marked in squares
of 1 ounce each. If sweet chocolate is used, less sugar should, of
course, be added to the beverage.

67. In all but the first of the recipes that follow, it will be observed
that milk is used for a part of the liquid. The quantity given makes an
excellent beverage, but more or less may be used if desired. However, if
the quantity of milk is changed, the quantity of water should be changed
accordingly. Condensed or evaporated milk may be utilized very nicely in
the making of these two beverages. Milk of this kind should, of course,
be diluted, a half-pint can requiring 2 to 3 cupfuls of water. If
condensed milk is used, less sugar than the recipe calls for may be
employed. A few drops of vanilla added just before serving always
improves the flavor of cocoa or chocolate.

68. PLAIN COCOA.--The quickest and cheapest method of making cocoa is
explained in the recipe that follows. It may be prepared in a saucepan
and poured into the cups or it may be made in the cups themselves. To
improve the flavor of cocoa made in this way, as well as add to its food
value, cream should be served with it. Salt also is used to improve the
flavor of all cocoa and chocolate beverages.

PLAIN COCOA
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2-1/2 Tb. cocoa
2-1/2 Tb. sugar
Few grains of salt
4 c. boiling water

Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt, form into a paste by stirring in a
little of the water, and then add the remainder of the water. Serve
with cream.

69. BREAKFAST COCOA.--Delicious cocoa can be made by following the
directions given in the accompanying recipe. Here milk and water are
used in equal amounts. When milk is used in the preparation of this
beverage, a scum of albumin is likely to form on the top of the cups
unless care is taken. To prevent this, the cocoa, as soon as it is
prepared, should be beaten with a rotary egg beater until a fine froth
forms on top. This process is known as _milling_, and should always be
applied whenever milk is used in the preparation of these beverages.

BREAKFAST COCOA
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. milk
2 Tb. cocoa
2 Tb. sugar
Few grains of salt
2 c. boiling water

Scald the milk. Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt, form into a paste by
stirring in a little of the boiling water, and then add the scalded milk
and the remainder of the water. Beat with an egg beater until a froth is
formed and serve at once.

70. RICH COCOA.--There are times when it is desired to serve rich cocoa,
as, for instance, with a lunch that is not high in food value or with
wafers at afternoon social affairs. The accompanying recipe explains how
to make cocoa that will be suitable for such occasions.

RICH COCOA
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

4 c. milk
3 Tb. cocoa
1/4 c. sugar
Few grains of salt
1/2 c. boiling water

Scald the milk. Stir the cocoa, sugar, and salt into a smooth paste with
the boiling water and boil for 2 or 3 minutes. Add the scalded milk,
mill, and serve.

71. CREAMY COCOA.--When there is not very much milk on hand and still a
rich, creamy cocoa is desired, the accompanying recipe should be tried.
As will be noted, flour is used in addition to the usual ingredients.
While this is accountable for the creamy consistency of the cocoa, it
should be remembered that the cocoa must be cooked long enough to remove
the raw, starchy flavor of the flour.

CREAMY COCOA
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

4 Tb. cocoa
1 Tb. flour
4 Tb. sugar
Few grains of salt
2 c. boiling water
2 c. milk

Mix the cocoa, flour, sugar, and salt, and stir into a paste with some
of the water. Add the rest of the water, cook for 5 minutes, and then
add the milk, which has been scalded. Mill and serve.

72. HOT CHOCOLATE.--Very good hot chocolate can be made by following
the directions here given. As will be noted, this recipe is similar to
several of those given for cocoa, except that chocolate is substituted
for the cocoa. It may therefore be used on any occasion when cocoa would
be served. It is especially delicious when served with a tablespoonful
or two of whipped cream.

HOT CHOCOLATE

2 c. milk
1-1/2 sq. unsweetened chocolate
1/4 c. sugar
Few grains of salt
2 c. boiling water

Scald the milk. Melt the chocolate over the fire, add the sugar and
salt, and gradually stir in the boiling water. Place over the fire, let
boil for 2 or 3 minutes, and add the scalded milk. Mill and serve plain
or with whipped cream.

73. ICED COCOA OR CHOCOLATE.--An excellent warm-weather beverage
consists of cold cocoa or cold chocolate served either with or without
sweetened whipped cream. Prepare the cocoa or chocolate according to any
of the recipes already given and then allow it to cool. Fill glasses
with cracked ice, pour the cocoa or chocolate over it, and serve either
with or without sweetened whipped cream.

74. LEFT-OVER COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.--As the materials used in the
preparation of cocoa and chocolate are rather expensive, not the
slightest quantity of these beverages that remains after serving should
be wasted. However, a small amount of chocolate usually has to be added
so that it will have a stronger flavor. It may then be thickened with
corn starch for chocolate blanc mange or with gelatine for chocolate
jelly. Either of these served with whipped cream or a sauce of some kind
makes an excellent dessert. Chocolate bread pudding may also be flavored
with these left-over beverages.

It is also a good plan to utilize left-over cocoa or chocolate for
flavoring purposes. However, additional cocoa or chocolate and sugar
should first be added to it, and the mixture should then be boiled to a
sirup. When so prepared it may be used whenever a chocolate flavoring is
desired, such as for flavoring other beverages, cake icings, custards,
sauces for desserts, and ice creams.


SERVING COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

75. When cocoa or chocolate is used to accompany meals, it is served in
the usual sized teacup. However, when either of these beverages is
served at receptions or instead of tea in the afternoon, regular
chocolate cups, which hold only about half as much as teacups, are used.
An attractive chocolate service to use for special occasions is shown in
Fig. 11. The cocoa or chocolate is prepared in the kitchen, but is
served to the guests from a chocolate pot, such as the one shown, in
tall cups that match the chocolate pot in design. If such a service is
not available, the cocoa or chocolate may be poured into the cups in the
kitchen and then brought to the guests on a tray.

[Illustration: FIG. 11]

Besides sugar, which is generally added in the preparation of cocoa and
chocolate, cream usually accompanies these beverages, especially when
they are made without milk or with only a little. If the cream is
whipped and slightly sweetened, a spoonful or two will be sufficient to
render the beverage delightful. In case no cream is on hand,
marshmallows make a very good substitute. One of these should be placed
in the bottom of each cup and the hot beverage poured over it. The
marshmallow softens and rises to the top. When marshmallows are to be
added to cocoa, less sugar should be used in its preparation.

       *       *       *       *       *

NON-STIMULATING BEVERAGES

CEREAL BEVERAGES

76. NON-STIMULATING BEVERAGES are those which contain neither stimulant
nor alcohol. They are the ones usually depended on to carry nutrition
into the body and to provide the necessary refreshment. In this class of
beverages come the various cereal beverages, fruit drinks, soft drinks,
and milk-and-egg drinks. With the exception of the cereal beverages,
these drinks are of a very refreshing nature, for they are served as
cold as possible and they contain materials that make them very pleasing
to the taste. Most of them can be prepared in the home at much less cost
than they can be purchased commercially prepared or at soda fountains;
so it is well for the housewife to be familiar with their nature and
their preparation.

77. CEREAL BEVERAGES, as the name implies, are made from cereals. Of
these, the _cereal coffees_ are perhaps the most common. They contain
nothing that is harmful, and are slightly beneficial in that they assist
in giving the body some of the necessary liquid. However, they have
absolutely no food value and are therefore of no importance in the diet
except to take the place of stimulating beverages that are likely to
injure those who drink them. They are made of cereals to which sugar or
molasses is added, and the whole is then baked until the cereals brown
and the sugar caramelizes, the combination producing a flavor much like
that of coffee. Plain roasted wheat or bran can be used very well as a
substitute in the making of these beverages. In the parts of the country
where rye is extensively grown, it is roasted in the oven until it is an
even brown in color. It is then used almost exclusively by some persons
to make _rye coffee_, a beverage that closely resembles coffee
in flavor.

78. The _instantaneous cereal beverages_ are made by drawing all the
flavor possible out of the material by means of water. The water is then
evaporated and the hard substance that remains is ground until it is
almost a powder. When water is added again, this substance becomes
soluble instantly. _Instantaneous_ coffee is prepared in the same way.
The way in which to use these beverages depends, of course, on the kind
selected, but no difficulty will be experienced in their preparation,
for explicit directions are always found in or on all packages
containing them.

       *       *       *       *       *

FRUIT BEVERAGES

INGREDIENTS FOR FRUIT BEVERAGES

79. FRUIT BEVERAGES are those which contain fruit and fruit juices for
their foundation. As there are many kinds of fruit that can be used for
this purpose, almost endless variety can be obtained in the making of
these beverages. One of the important features is that a great deal of
nourishment can be incorporated into them by the materials used. In
addition, the acids of fruits are slightly antiseptic and are
stimulating to the digestion as well as beneficial to the blood.

80. Lemon juice, when mixed with other fruit juices, seems to intensify
the flavor. Because of this fact, practically all the recipes for fruit
beverages include this juice as one of the ingredients. The combination
of pineapple and lemon yields a greater quantity of flavor for
beverages, ices, etc. than any other two fruit flavors. Juice may be
extracted from all fruits easily. To obtain lemon juice for a fruit
beverage, first soften the fruit by pressing it between the hand and a
hard surface, such as a table top, or merely soften it with the hands.
Then cut it in two, crosswise, and drill the juice out, as shown in Fig.
12, by placing each half over a drill made of glass or aluminum and
turning it around and around until all the juice is extracted. To remove
the seeds and pulp, strain the juice through a wire strainer. The juice
from oranges and grapefruit, if they are not too large, may be extracted
in the same way.

81. It is not always necessary to extract juices from fresh fruit for
fruit beverages; in fact, juice from canned fruit or juice especially
canned for beverage making is the kind most frequently employed. For
instance, in the canning of fruit there is often a large quantity of
juice left over that most persons use for jelly. It is a good plan to
can this juice just as it is and then use it with lemon juice or other
fruit juices for these beverages. Also, juices that remain after all the
fruit has been used from a can may be utilized in the same way, no
matter what the kind or the quantity. In fact, unless otherwise stated
in the recipes that follow, the fruit juices given, with the exception
of orange and lemon juice, are those taken from canned fruit or juices
canned especially for beverage making. These juices also lend themselves
admirably to various other uses, for, as has already been learned, they
are used in ices, gelatine desserts, salad dressing, pudding sauces,
etc. Therefore, no fruit juice should ever be wasted.

[Illustration: FIG. 12]

82. The clear-fruit beverages become more attractive when they are
garnished in some way. A slice of lemon, orange, or pineapple, or a
fresh strawberry put into each glass improves the flavor and makes the
beverage more appetizing. Red, yellow, and green cherries may be bought
in bottles and used for such purposes. As these are usually preserved in
wine and are artificially colored, many persons object to their use. A
good substitute for them is candied cherries. These can be bought from
any confectioner and do very well when a red decoration is desired.


PREPARATION OF FRUIT BEVERAGES

83. LEMONADE.--Next to water, no other drink is so refreshing nor
quenches the thirst to so great an extent as lemonade. Lemonade is
suitable for many occasions, and as lemons can be purchased at any time
of the year it can be made at almost any season. The lemon sirup
prepared for this beverage may be used as desired, for if it is put in a
cool place it will keep for a long time. The more the sirup is boiled
down, the better will it keep. A tablespoonful or two of glucose or corn
sirup added to such mixtures when they are boiled will help to keep them
from crystallizing when they stand.

LEMONADE
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. sugar
1 qt. water
1/2 c. lemon juice

Make a sirup by boiling the sugar and water for a few minutes, and set
aside to cool. Add the lemon juice and then dilute with ice water to
suit the taste. Serve in glasses and garnish each one with a slice of
lemon or a red cherry.

84. ORANGEADE.--While not so acid in flavor as lemonade, orangeade is
also a delightful drink. On warm days, drinks of this kind should take
the place of the hot ones that are generally used during the
cold weather.

ORANGEADE
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

3/4 c. sugar
1 qt.  water
1/2 c. orange juice
3 Tb.  lemon juice

Make a sirup of the sugar and 1 cupful of the water. Allow this to
become cool and then add the fruit juices and the remaining water. Pour
into glasses and garnish each glass with a slice of orange, a red
cherry, or a fresh strawberry.

85. GRAPE LEMONADE.--An excellent combination in the way of a beverage
is lemonade and grape juice. Besides adding flavor to the lemonade, the
grape juice gives it a delightful color.

GRAPE LEMONADE
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 qt. lemonade
1 c.  grape juice

Prepare the lemonade in the manner explained in Art. 83. Add the grape
juice to the lemonade and stir well. Serve ice cold in glasses.

86. PINEAPPLE LEMONADE.--Another variation of lemonade is produced when
pineapple juice is added to it. To garnish this beverage, a slice of
lemon and a spoonful of grated pineapple are generally used. This
pineapple beverage is delightful with wafers or small cakes as
refreshments for informal social affairs during hot weather.

PINEAPPLE LEMONADE
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c.   water
3/4 c. sugar
3 c.   ice water
1 c.   juice from canned pineapple
3      lemons

Make a sirup of the water and sugar, and set aside to cool. Add the ice
water, the pineapple juice, and the juice of the lemons. Stir well,
strain, and serve. Garnish with a slice of lemon and a spoonful of
grated pineapple added to each glass.

87. MINT JULEP.--Mint drinks are not served so often as some of the
other fruit beverages, but those with whom they find favor will
undoubtedly be delighted with mint julep prepared according to the
following recipe:

MINT JULEP
(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

4      sprigs mint
1 c.   sugar
1 qt.  water
1 c.   red cherry juice
1/2 c. pineapple juice
1/2 c. orange juice
1/4 c. lemon juice

Crush the mint with the sugar, using a potato masher or a large spoon.
Add the water and fruit juices and strain. Serve over crushed ice and
garnish the glasses with sprigs of mint. Tall, narrow glasses are
especially attractive for serving this drink.

88. FRUIT NECTAR.--The term nectar was used by the early Greeks to mean
the drink of the gods. Now it is often applied to an especially
delightful beverage. Pineapple combined with lemon is always good, but
when orange juice is also used, an excellent nectar is the result.

FRUIT NECTAR
(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

3/4 c. sugar
2 c. water
1-1/2 c. orange juice
1 c. pineapple juice
1/2 c. lemon juice

Boil the sugar and water for 2 minutes and then cool. Add the fruit
juices, strain, and serve over cracked ice.

89. RED-RASPBERRY NECTAR.--A beverage that is pleasing to the eye, as
well as delightful to the taste, can be made by combining red-raspberry
juice and lemon juice with the required amount of sugar and water. The
juice from canned raspberries may be used for this drink.

RED-RASPBERRY NECTAR
(Sufficient to Serve Six)

1/2 c. sugar
2 c. water
1/2 c. lemon juice
1-1/2 c. red raspberry juice

Boil the sugar and water for 2 minutes and allow the sirup to become
cool. Then add the fruit juices, strain, and serve over cracked ice.

90. SPICE CUP.--Occasionally a spice drink seems to be just what is
desired. When this is the case, the directions given in the accompanying
recipe for spice cup should be followed.

SPICE CUP
(Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1-1/2 c. sugar
1-1/2 pt water
12 cloves
2-in. stick cinnamon
3 lemons
4 oranges
2 drops oil of wintergreen

Boil the sugar, water, and spices together for 5 minutes and allow the
sirup to become cool. Add the juice of the lemons and oranges and the
wintergreen oil and serve in glasses over cracked ice. Garnish each
glass with slices of orange and lemon or a piece of preserved ginger.

91. FRUIT PUNCH.--As fruit beverages are very often served at small
receptions, club meetings, or parties, a recipe that will make a
sufficiently large quantity is often desired. The amounts mentioned in
the following recipe will make enough fruit punch to serve thirty to
forty persons if punch glasses are used, or sixteen to twenty if
ordinary drinking glasses are used.

FRUIT PUNCH

2-1/2 c.  sugar
1 qt.     water
2 c.      fruit juice (raspberry, strawberry, or cherry)
6         oranges
6         lemons
1 pt. can grated pineapple
1 c.      strong black tea (strained)
1 qt.     carbonated water

Boil the sugar and water for 2 minutes and allow the sirup to become
cool. Then add the fruit juice, the juice of the oranges and lemons, the
pineapple, and the tea. Just before serving, add the carbonated water,
which lends a sparkling appearance and a snappy taste to a beverage of
this kind. Pour over cracked ice into sherbet or punch glasses or into
tall narrow ones.

92. GINGER-ALE PUNCH.--As most persons like the flavor of ginger ale,
punch containing ginger ale is always a favorite when a large company of
persons is to be served. The quantity that the accompanying recipe makes
will serve twenty to twenty-five persons if punch glasses are used, or
ten to twelve persons if drinking glasses are used.

GINGER-ALE PUNCH

1-1/2 c. sugar
1 pt. water
2 lemons
3 oranges
1 pt. grape juice
4 sprigs fresh mint (crushed)
1 lemon sliced thin
1 qt. ginger ale

Boil the sugar and water for 2 minutes and allow the sirup to become
cool. Drill the juice from the lemons and oranges and add this with the
grape juice, crushed mint, and sliced lemon to the sirup. Just before
using, add the ginger ale and serve over cracked ice.


SOFT DRINKS

93. A class of very popular non-stimulating beverages are the SOFT
DRINKS sold at the soda fountains. Many of them can also be bought in
bottles and so may be purchased and served at home. These drinks really
consist of carbonated water and a flavoring material that is either
prepared chemically and colored or made of fruit extracts. Sometimes ice
cream is added, and the drink is then called _ice-cream soda_.

94. Soft drinks include phosphates, ginger ale, coca cola, birch beer,
root beer, and various other drinks called mashes, sours, and freezes.
While these are pleasing to the taste and have the advantage of being
ready to drink when prepared, it is advisable not to indulge in them too
frequently, because excessive use of them is liable to affect the
system. Besides, beverages that are just as satisfactory as these so far
as flavor is concerned and that are made of much better material can be
prepared at home at far less cost. With these drinks, as with other
commercially prepared articles of food, the cost of preparation and
service in addition to the cost of materials must be paid for by
the consumer.


NOURISHING BEVERAGES

95. Many times it is necessary or desirable to administer food in the
form of liquid. When this is to be done, as much nourishment as possible
should generally be incorporated into the beverage. To meet such a need,
the following recipes are presented. In each case, the quantities
mentioned make a drink sufficient for only one person, so that if more
than one are to be served the amounts should be multiplied by the number
desired. The food materials used in these drinks are easily digested,
and the beverages are comparatively high in food value.

96. At most soda fountains, these nourishing drinks are offered for
sale, so that if one does not desire the work of preparation, they may
be obtained at such places. However, as practically all the ingredients
are materials used in the home and are therefore nearly always on hand
in most households, drinks of this kind may be prepared at home at much
less cost than when purchased already made. The main thing to remember
in their preparation is that the ingredients should be as cold as
possible and that the beverage should be cold when served.

97. The beverages containing eggs may be made in more than one way. They
may be mixed in a bowl or an enamelware dish with a rounded bottom and
then beaten with a rotary egg beater, or they may be mixed in a metal
shaker designed especially for this purpose and then shaken thoroughly
in that. In drinks of this kind, the point to remember is that the eggs
should be beaten or shaken until they are light and foamy.

98. CHOCOLATE SIRUP.--While chocolate sirup is not a beverage in itself,
it is used to such an extent in beverages, as well as an accompaniment
to numerous desserts, that it is well for the housewife to know how to
prepare it. It may be kept an indefinite length of time if it is put
into a glass jar and sealed. Here, as in the preparation of other
sirups, a tablespoonful or two of corn sirup or glucose will help to
keep the sirup from crystallizing.

CHOCOLATE SIRUP

4 sq. chocolate
1 c. water
3/4 c. sugar

Melt the chocolate in a saucepan, stir in the water, and add the sugar.
Boil until a thick sirup is formed.

99. PLAIN MILK SHAKE.--A pleasant variation for milk is the plain milk
shake here given. Even those who are not fond of milk and find it hard
to take like it when it is prepared in this way.

PLAIN MILK SHAKE

1 c. milk
2 tsp. sugar
Few drops of vanilla
Dash of nutmeg

Beat all the ingredients together with an egg beater or shake well in a
shaker and serve in a glass with cracked ice.

100. EGG MILK SHAKE.--The simplest form of egg drink is the egg milk
shake explained in the accompanying recipe. This is an extremely
nutritious drink and is often served to invalids and persons who must
have liquid nourishment.

EGG MILK SHAKE

3/4 c. milk
1 egg
1 Tb. sugar
Pinch of salt
Few drops of vanilla

Mix all the ingredients and beat the mixture with a rotary beater or
shake it in a shaker. Serve in a glass over cracked ice.

101. EGG CHOCOLATE.--The addition of chocolate to an egg milk shake
improves it very much and makes a drink called egg chocolate.

EGG CHOCOLATE

3/4 c. milk
1 egg
2 Tb. chocolate sirup
Few drops of vanilla
Pinch of salt

Mix all the materials and beat with an egg beater or shake thoroughly in
a shaker. Serve in a glass with cracked ice.

102. CHOCOLATE MALTED MILK.--A preparation that is much used in
nourishing drinks and that furnishes a great deal of nutrition is malted
milk. This is made from cow's milk and is blended by a scientific
process with malted grains. It comes in powder form and may be purchased
in bottles of various sizes. It is well to keep a good brand of malted
milk on hand, as there are various uses to which it can be put.

CHOCOLATE MALTED MILK

3/4 c. milk
1 egg
2 Tb. malted milk
2 Tb. chocolate sirup
Few drops of vanilla
Pinch of salt

Mix and shake in a shaker or beat with a rotary egg beater. Serve in a
glass with cracked ice.

103. ORANGE EGG NOG.--The accompanying recipe for egg nog requires
orange for its flavoring, but any fruit juice may be substituted for the
orange if desired. Pineapple and apricot juices are exceptionally good.

ORANGE EGG NOG

1/4 c. cream
1/4 c. milk
1 egg
1 Tb. sugar
2 oranges

Mix the cream, milk, egg, and sugar, beat well with an egg beater, and
continue beating while adding the juice of the oranges. Serve in a glass
over crushed ice.

104. FOAMY EGG NOG.--An egg nog can be made foamy and light by
separating the eggs and beating the yolks and whites separately. Either
cream or milk may be used for this drink, and it may be flavored with
vanilla or fruit juice, as preferred. A small piece of red jelly beaten
into the egg white makes this drink very attractive; or, jelly may be
used as a flavoring and beaten with the ingredients.

FOAMY EGG NOG

2 eggs
1 Tb. sugar
1/2 c. cream or milk
2 Tb. fruit juice or 1/2 tsp. vanilla

Separate the yolks and whites of the eggs. Mix the yolks with the sugar,
cream or milk, and the fruit juice or vanilla and beat thoroughly. Beat
the whites stiff and fold into the first mixture, retaining a
tablespoonful of the beaten white. Pour into a tall glass, put the
remaining white on top, and serve.

       *       *       *       *       *

BEVERAGES

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) What is a beverage?

(2) What does boiling do to: (_a_) hard water? (_b_) impure water?

(3) What is the value of beverages in the diet?

(4) Mention and define the three classes of beverages.

(5) (_a_) What are caffeine, theine, and theobromine? (_b_) Where is
each found? (_c_) What effect do they have on the human body?

(6) (_a_) Where is tannic acid found? (_b_) What effect does it have on
the human body?

(7) Tell briefly about the preparation of coffee for the market.

(8) How should coffee be bought?

(9) What are the general proportions of coffee and liquid used in the
making of coffee?

(10) What use can be made of left-over coffee?

(11) Tell briefly about the preparation of black and green tea for the
market.

(12) What points should be observed in the selection of tea?

(13) What general proportions of tea and water are used for the making
of tea?

(14) Tell briefly about the preparation of cocoa and chocolate for the
market.

(15) What advantage have cocoa and chocolate over tea and coffee as.
articles of food?

(16) What use can be made of left-over cocoa and chocolate?

(17) (_a_) How are cereal coffees made? (_b_) Of what value are they?

(18) Of what value are fruit beverages?

(19) What uses can be made of left-over fruit juices?

(20) What good use can be made of nourishing beverages?

       *       *       *       *       *



THE PLANNING OF MEALS

       *       *       *       *       *

NECESSITY FOR CAREFUL MEAL PLANNING

1. As every housewife realizes, the feeding of the members of her family
places upon her serious and important responsibilities. While she
deserves and receives credit for their good health, the blame for much
of their ill health falls upon her, too. The reason for this is that
illness is due in a greater measure to wrong food than to any other
single factor; and even if improper diet is not directly responsible for
ill health, it certainly lowers the bodily resistance and thus makes a
person susceptible to disease.

The health of her family is naturally the housewife's first and greatest
consideration, and as this depends so much on correct diet, it should be
the aim of every housewife to plan her meals in the careful, intelligent
way required to supply her household with the food each member needs.

2. As has already been learned, a knowledge of the selection, care, and
preparation of food is absolutely necessary in providing proper diet.
But correct feeding requires more than this. In addition, the housewife
must have a working knowledge of what foods contain and their effect in
the body. She must also learn what her family needs and then make every
effort to supply this need in the most economical way. The result will
be a sufficient amount of food of the right kind at a minimum
expenditure of funds.

She should keep in mind, however, that the cost of diet has no direct
relation to its food value, but that economy and proper feeding are
closely connected. For instance, an inexpensive diet may be just as
satisfactory from a food-value standpoint as an expensive one. But in
order to make the inexpensive one adequate and the expensive one
balanced, the housewife must apply her knowledge of the general
composition of food; that is, she must know whether a food predominates
in carbohydrate, fat, or protein, and whether or not it furnishes
minerals. Equipped with such knowledge, she will be able to purchase the
largest amount of nutritive material for the smallest outlay of money.
The cheapest food is not always the one that sells for the lowest price
per pound, quart, or bushel, but the one that furnishes the most
nutritive material at the lowest cost; also, food that is the wrong kind
to serve is not an economical one to purchase.

3. Many housewives regard it as unnecessary to plan beforehand and
persist in preparing meals without giving any previous thought to them.
But to begin thinking about an hour before meal time what to have for a
meal is neither wise nor economical, for then it is too late to
determine what ought to be served from a diet standpoint and there can
be prepared only those foods which the time will allow. As can well be
understood, this is both a disastrous plan for correct diet and a very
extravagant way in which to feed a family. Quickly broiled steaks and
chops, commercially canned vegetables and fruits, and prepared desserts
should be the occasional treat rather than the daily food. Instead of
using these constantly, time should be allowed for the preparation of
the less expensive meats and vegetables and the home-made desserts.

To prepare such foods successfully requires that meals should be planned
at least 24 hours before they are to be served, and in reality the main
dishes should be decided on 48 hours ahead of time. Then, sometime
between breakfast and luncheon and before the day's marketing is done,
detailed plans should be made for luncheon and dinner of that day and
for breakfast of the next. Nor should the left-overs be disregarded if
economy would be the watchword in the management of the household.
Rather, they should be included in the plans for each day and used up as
fast as possible.

       *       *       *       *       *

PURCHASE OF FOODS

SUCCESSFUL MARKETING

4. The truly economical housewife will find it necessary each day to
determine three things: (1) what is left from yesterday's meals and what
use can be made of it; (2) what is in supply that can be used for that
day; and (3) what must be added to these things to provide satisfactory
meals for the family. Having determined these points, she should make a
list of the articles that she must purchase when she does her marketing.
A pad fastened to the kitchen wall and a pencil on a string attached to
the pad are convenient for this purpose. At the same time, they serve as
a reminder that when all of any article, such as coffee, sugar, baking
powder, etc., has been used, a note should be made of this fact. To her
list of supplies that have become exhausted since her preceding
marketing day should be added the fresh fruits, vegetables, and other
perishable foods needed for the next day or preferably for the next two
days if they can be kept.

5. It is only with proper preparation that the housewife may expect her
marketing trips to be successful. If she starts to market with merely
two or three items in mind and then tries to think of what she needs as
she orders, not only does she waste the grocer's time, but her marketing
trip will be a failure. After she arrives home, she will find that there
are other things she should have purchased, and the grocer will be
forced to make an extra delivery to bring them to her. This is more than
she has a right to expect, for the grocer should not be obliged to pay
for her lack of planning.

6. To purchase economically, it is advisable, when possible, to buy at a
cash grocery and to pay cash for what is bought. When this is done, one
is not helping to pay the grocer for accounts he is unable to collect.
It is a fortunate grocer who is able to collect 80 per cent. of his
bills from his patrons when he conducts his business on the credit plan.
However, if it is desired to deal with a credit grocer, all bills
should be paid at least once a month. No customer has a right to expect
the grocer to wait longer than 30 days for his money.

In many of the cities and large towns, some credit grocers have adopted
what is called the "cash-and-carry plan." All customers, whether they
buy for cash or on credit, must pay the same price for groceries, but
those who wish their goods delivered must pay additional for delivery
and those who buy on credit must pay a certain percentage additional on
each purchase for bookkeeping. It will readily be seen that such a plan
gives the cash customers, especially if they carry their purchases, a
decided advantage over credit customers. Also, the grocer is better able
to sell his wares at a lower price than the credit grocer who makes free
deliveries and no charge for bookkeeping.


KEEPING HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS

7. NECESSITY FOR KEEPING ACCOUNTS.--Practically every family is limited
to a definite sum of money that may be spent for food. The first
consideration, then, while it may not be the most important one, is that
of making each dollar buy all that it possibly can in order that the
income may meet all the demands upon it. Various conditions arise that
affect the proportion of the income to be used for this purpose. For
instance, two women whose husbands have equal incomes would, under the
same conditions, have an equal amount of money to spend for food, but as
a rule there is something to cause this amount to become unequal. One
woman may have two children in her family while the other has none, a
condition that means, of course, that the woman with the children will
have less money to spend for food and with that money she must feed more
persons. Her family must be, if possible, as well nourished as the other
one. In order to accomplish this task, it will be necessary to supply
all the required food material in a form that will cost less than the
food purchased by the woman who has a smaller family to feed and clothe.

An excellent way in which to keep expenses down and consequently to live
within one's income is to keep a simple record of household expenses.
Such a record will enable every housewife to determine just what each
item of household necessities costs and whether or not the proportion of
cost to income is correct. To keep a record of expenditures will not
prove much of a task if it is done systematically, for a few minutes a
day will be sufficient time in which to keep accounts up to date.
However, if account keeping is attempted, it should not be neglected
even for a day, for it will soon assume the proportions of a large task
and will have a tendency to discourage the housewife with this part
of her work.

8. EQUIPMENT FOR HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNT KEEPING.--For convenience in keeping
household accounts, a small desk like the one shown in Fig. 1 should, if
possible, be secured and placed in an unoccupied or convenient corner of
the kitchen. Here can be kept cook books, recipes, suitable books or
cards for account keeping, the marketing pad, a file for bills from the
grocer and the butcher, labels for cans and jars, etc. Here may also be
placed an extension telephone, which, by being so convenient, will save
the housewife many steps. A white desk with a chair to match is the most
attractive kind to select for kitchen use, but a dark one may be used if
preferred. The desk illustrated was a simple wooden one that was
enameled white after it was bought, but it is possible to buy white
desks for this purpose. A small, plain table will, of course, answer
very well if no desk is available and it is desired not to buy one.

[Illustration: FIG. 1]

9. METHODS OF HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNT KEEPING.--If the housewife runs a
credit account with the grocer, she will learn that different grocers
have different ways of recording her purchases.

In some cases, she is provided with a "store book," which she takes to
the grocer each time she makes a purchase and in which he records the
date and the items bought by her. Then at the end of a stated time,
usually the end of the month, when a settlement is to be made, the
amounts for the month are totaled and a new account is started. With
such a plan, the housewife does not have to keep any record for herself.
To be certain that the grocer's account is accurate, she simply has to
check the entries each time they are made in the book by the grocer.

In other cases, the grocer merely makes out a slip, or bill, for each
purchase and at the end of the month presents his statement for the
amount due. In such an event, provided the housewife does not wish to
make entries into a suitable book, she may file the slips as she
receives them in order that she may check the grocer's monthly bill as
to accuracy. A bill file like that shown in Fig. 2 is very convenient
for the filing of bills. However, if she does not wish to save each slip
she receives, she may adopt one of two methods of account keeping,
depending on how much time she has to devote to this matter.

[Illustration: FIG. 2]

10. If she desires to be very systematic and has sufficient time, it
will prove a good plan to record each purchase in a suitable book in the
manner shown in Fig. 3. Books for this purpose can be purchased in any
store where stationery is sold and are not expensive. In this method of
recording, as a page becomes filled with items, the total is carried
forward to each new page until the bill is paid at the end of the month.
Then, for the next month, a new account may be started. This same method
may also be followed in keeping accounts for meats, milk, and such
household expenses as rent, light, heat, and laundry. All these
accounts, together with an account for clothing and one for
miscellaneous expense, make up a complete expense account.


GROCERY ACCOUNT

  With ___John Smith, 420 Fourth Avenue__________

=====================================================
 10/15 | 1 pk. Apples......................|  $ .45
       | 1 doz. Eggs.......................|    .55
       | 1 lb. Butter......................|    .53
       | 2 lb. Sweet Potatoes..............|    .15
       | 2 cans Duff's Molasses............|    .54
       | 1 pt. Vinegar.....................|    .10
 10/17 | 1 cake Yeast......................|    .04
       | 6 lb. Crisco......................|   1.98
       | 1 box Coconut.....................|    .35
       | 1 can Pineapple...................|    .25
       | 1 lb. coffee......................|    .40
       | 2 qt. Carrots.....................|    .10
 10/19 | 1 box Matches.....................|    .10
       | 2 bars Laundry Soap...............|    .12
       | 1 head Lettuce....................|    .08
       | 1 can Corn........................|    .20
       | 1 bu. Potatoes....................|   2.00
       | 1 qt. Maple Sirup.................|    .65
       |                                   |--------
       |                   Forwarded.......|  $8.59
======================================================
                     FIG. 3

11. A somewhat simpler plan and one that requires less time is shown in
Fig. 4. When the slips are received, they should be checked to see
whether they are correct and then added to get the total. Only this
total, together with the date, is placed in the book kept for the
purpose, the slips then being discarded. Such a plan will prove very
satisfactory for the various household expenses if care is used in
checking the items of the slips and in adding them.

Regarding the settlement of her accounts, the housewife who buys on
credit will find it a good plan to pay her bills by check. Then
receipts will not have to be saved, for the returned check is usually
all that is required to prove that a bill has been paid.

12. The housewife who buys for cash does not necessarily have to keep a
detailed record of her purchases, for by simply filing her purchase
slips in the manner shown in Fig. 2 she can determine at any time what
her money has been used for. Still, in every well-regulated household,
it is advisable to keep a daily record of income and expenditure; that
is, to put down every day how much is spent for food, laundry, cleaning,
and, in fact, all expenditures, as well as how much cash is received.
Indeed, if such an account is kept, the tendency of money to "slip away"
will be checked and a saving of money is bound to result.

GROCERY ACCOUNT

  With______John Smith, 420 Fourth Avenue_____
======================================================
 10/2  | Groceries...........................| $ 2.10
 10/3  | Groceries...........................|   2.76
 10/6  | Groceries...........................|    .42
 10/8  | Groceries...........................|   4.12
 10/10 | Groceries...........................|   1.09
 10/13 | Groceries...........................|    .32
 10/15 | Groceries...........................|   2.30
 10/17 | Groceries...........................|   2.13
 10/20 | Groceries...........................|   1.93
 10/22 | Groceries...........................|   3.97
 10/24 | Groceries...........................|   1.69
 10/27 | Groceries...........................|   4.10
 10/29 | Groceries...........................|   1.12
 10/31 | Groceries...........................|   3.35
       |                                     |--------
       |              Forwarded..............| $31.40
======================================================
                        FIG. 4

13. A simple plan for keeping such a record is illustrated in Fig. 5.
For this record it is possible to buy sheets of paper or cards already
ruled at any stationery store, but it is a simple matter to rule sheets
of blank paper that will answer the purpose very well. As will be
observed, there is a space provided for every day of the month and
columns into which may be placed the expenditures for groceries,
including fruits and vegetables, as well as for meats and fish, milk,
laundry and cleaning, and miscellaneous items, such as ice and other
necessities that are not ordinarily classed as groceries. Of course, the
number of columns to be used can be regulated by the person keeping the
account, the illustration simply showing the general procedure. However,
one column should be devoted to the daily expenditure, the figures here
being the amounts of the total money spent for the different items each
day. In the last column should be recorded the various amounts of money
received by the housewife during the month for the settlement of her
bills. At the end of the month, all of the columns should be totaled.
The total of the daily outlay should equal that of the preceding
columns. The difference between this total and that of the money
received will show the housewife just how she stands with regard to
income and expenditure for foods and kitchen supplies. In this case,
there is an excess of expenditure amounting to $10.68, and this sum
should be forwarded to the June account. On the other hand, should the
housewife find that her expenses exceed her allowance, she will know
that it will be necessary for her to curtail her expenditures in
some way.

  Expenditures and Receipts for the Month of ___May___, 19___
================================================================
    |       | Meats |       |Laundry | Miscel-|        |
Date| Groc- |  and  | Milk  |  and   | laneous| Daily  | Money
    | eries | Fish  |       |Cleaning| Expend-| Outlay | Rec'vd
    |       |       |       |        | itures |        |
----------------------------------------------------------------
  1 | $ 2.10| $  .60| $  .28| $ 1.50 |        | $ 4.48 | $ 5.70
  2 |       |    .40|    .28|        |        |    .58 |
  3 |   2.76|   1.90|    .28|        | $  .35 |   5.29 |  15.00
  4 |       |       |    .28|        |        |    .28 |
  5 |       |       |    .28|        |        |    .28 |
  6 |    .42|       |    .28|        |    .35 |   1.05 |
  7 |       |    .36|    .28|        |    .10 |    .74 |
  8 |   4.12|       |    .28|   2.00 |    .40 |   6.80 |
  9 |       |       |    .28|        |        |    .28 |
 10 |   1.09|   1.83|    .28|        |    .38 |   3.60 |  15.00
 11 |       |       |    .28|        |        |    .28 |
 12 |       |       |    .28|        |    .35 |    .63 |
 13 |    .32|    .76|    .28|        |        |   1.36 |
 14 |       |       |    .28|        |    .19 |    .47 |
 15 |   2.30|       |    .28|   1.50 |    .12 |   4.20 |
 16 |       |    .53|    .28|        |        |    .81 |
 17 |   2.13|   1.63|    .28|        |    .60 |   4.64 |  15.00
 18 |       |       |    .28|        |        |    .28 |
 19 |       |       |    .28|        |    .22 |    .50 |
 20 |   1.93|       |    .28|        |    .40 |   2.61 |
 21 |       |    .90|    .28|        |        |   1.18 |
 22 |   3.97|       |    .28|   2.00 |    .40 |   6.65 |
 23 |   2.10|       |    .28|        |        |    .28 |
 24 |   2.10|   2.24|    .28|        |    .80 |   5.01 |  15.00
 25 |       |       |    .28|        |    .10 |    .38 |
 26 |       |       |    .28|   1.50 |        |   1.78 |
 27 |   4.10|       |    .28|        |    .35 |   4.73 |
 28 |       |    .38|    .28|        |        |    .66 |
 29 |   1.12|    .46|    .28|   1.50 |    .40 |   3.76 |
 30 |       |       |    .28|        |        |    .28 |
 31 |   3.35|   1.87|    .28|        |    .55 |   6.05 |  15.00
----------------------------------------------------------------
Total $31.40| $13.88| $ 8.68| $10.00 | $ 6.66 | $70.02 | $80.70
================================================================
                           FIG. 5

Such a method of record keeping could also be followed with good
results for showing the distribution of the entire income of a family.
It would simply mean the planning of suitable columns for the different
items of expenditure.

14. Too much cannot be said of the merit of following some such simple
account-keeping method as the ones here outlined, for, as has been
explained, it will enable the housewife to know with a fair degree of
accuracy what she has spent her money for. In addition to the
satisfaction this will give, it will supply a basis from which she can
apportion, or budget, her yearly income if she so desires. By giving
careful consideration to the various items of expense, she may find it
possible to reduce some of them in order to increase her savings account
or to have money for other items that require a larger expenditure.

       *       *       *       *       *

COST OF FOODS

FACTORS INFLUENCING COST

15. Certain factors that enter into the production of food add so much
to the cost that they must be taken into consideration when food is
purchased. The housewife who disregards these factors fails in the
purchase of food, for she does not know so well what foods to buy nor
how to buy them in a way to keep down the cost as the woman who is
familiar with these matters. It is possible that the cost of a food may
be out of all proportion to its value because of the profits that must
necessarily be paid to each person through whose hands the food passes.
In the first place, the overhead expenses of the food dealer must be
paid by the housewife, who is regarded as the _consumer_. These expenses
include his rent, light, and heat, his hired help, such as clerks,
bookkeepers, delivery men, and the cost of delivery. In addition, the
cost of transportation figures in prominently if the foods have to be
shipped any distance, the manufacturer's profit must often be counted
in, and the cost of advertising must not be overlooked. With all such
matters, the housewife must acquaint herself if she would buy in the
most economical way.

[Illustration: FIG. 6]

16. CHART OF FOOD PROBLEM.--To assist the housewife in her mastery of
the purchasing side of the food problem, a chart, Fig. 6, is presented.
This chart shows the various routes through which foods travel before
they reach the housewife, or consumer. The lines used to connect all
dealers from the producer to the consumer represent transportation or
delivery, and the increase in cost due to overhead expense and profit is
indicated by the black spaces, which increase in size as the number of
dealers increase. The _producer_ may be the manufacturer, but in most
cases he is the farmer, the stockman, the dairyman, or the fruit
grower. The dealers handling the food between the producer and the
consumer are known as _middlemen_. They include the wholesaler, the
jobber, and the retailer. The retailer is the grocer, the butcher, or
the green grocer.

17. So that this chart may be clearly understood, several concrete
examples are given. Thus, the farmer who delivers vegetables directly to
the consumer is an example of plan No. 1. He has very little overhead
expense and consequently can sell cheaper than dealers who have a large
overhead expense. However, when the farmer delivers his vegetables to
the grocer and the grocer sells them to the consumer, an example of plan
No. 2 is afforded. Food bought in this way costs more than that bought
directly from the farmer. In plan No. 3, the farmer, for instance, sells
his vegetables to a wholesaler, who perhaps buys from other farmers and
then sells small quantities of them to the grocer for sale to the
consumer. This plan, as will readily be seen, is more involved than
either No. 1 or No. 2, but a still more roundabout route is that of plan
No. 4. In this case, for instance, the farmer sells his vegetables to a
canning factory, where they are canned and then sold to the grocer, who
sells them in this form to the consumer. Often two wholesalers, the
second one being known as a jobber, are involved in the transaction, as
in plan No. 5. In such an event, the farmer sells to the wholesaler, who
sells to the jobber, who, in turn, sells to the grocer, from whom the
consumer secures the goods. The most complicated route is that shown in
plan No. 6. This illustrates the case of the farmer who sells his cereal
products to a manufacturer, who makes them up into breakfast foods. He
then sells them in large quantities to the wholesaler, who sells them in
50- or 100-case lots to the jobber. From the jobber they go to the
grocer, who delivers them to the consumer.

From a study of this chart, it can be readily seen that the cost of food
may be reduced if the middlemen can be eliminated. For instance, the
housewife will be able to get fruits and vegetables cheaper if she buys
them from a farmer instead of a grocer, for she will not be called on to
pay any of the grocer's overhead expense or profit. Again, if she buys
her staple groceries in a store that is able to eliminate the wholesaler
or the jobber, she will get them at a lower price than if she deals
where these agencies must receive their share of the profits.

18. NATIONALLY ADVERTISED GOODS.--Much is said about the fact that the
consumer, in buying package foods that are nationally advertised, must
pay for the package and the advertising. This statement is absolutely
true; but it must be remembered that where large quantities of foods are
handled, the materials can be bought by the manufacturer or the
wholesaler at a lower price than by one who purchases only a small
amount. Then, too, if great quantities are sold, and this condition is
made possible only through advertising, the profit on each package sold
can be much smaller than that which would have to be made when less is
sold. Often, therefore, in spite of the advertising cost, a widely
advertised food can be sold for less than one that is not advertised at
all because a much greater quantity is sold.

19. CHAIN STORES.--The principle of selling great quantities of food at
a comparatively small profit on each item is put into practice in chain
stores, which are operated by different companies throughout the United
States. Such stores are a boon to the housewife who must practice
economy, for they eliminate a middleman by acting both as wholesaler and
as retailer. Because of this fact, foods that are purchased in large
quantities from the producer or manufacturer can be offered to the
consumer at a lower price than in a retail store not a part of a chain.
Therefore, if foods of the same quality are not lower in price in chain
stores, it must be because the buying is not well done or a greater
profit is made in selling them. In addition, chain stores generally
require cash for all purchases made in them and they do not usually
deliver goods. Consequently, their overhead expense is materially
reduced and they do not need to make such a large profit.


ECONOMICAL BUYING

20. APPORTIONMENT OF INCOME.--When the housewife thoroughly understands
the qualities of foods as well as their comparative food values and is
familiar with the factors that govern food prices, she is well equipped
to do economical buying for her family. Then it remains for her to
purchase the right kind of food and at the same time keep within her
means. A good plan is to apportion the household expenses according to a
_budget_; that is, to prepare a statement of the financial plans for the
year. Then the amount of money that can be used for this part of the
household expenses will be known and the housewife will be able to plan
definitely on what she can buy. If necessary, this amount may be reduced
through the housewife's giving careful attention to the details of
buying, or if she is not obliged to lower her expenses, she may
occasionally purchase more expensive foods, which might be considered
luxuries, to give variety to the diet. The amount of money that may be
spent for food depends, of course, on the income, and the greater the
income, the lower will be the proportion of money required for this item
of the household expense.

21. To throw some light on the proper proportion of the family income to
spend for food, Table I is given. As the basis of this table, a family
of five is taken and the proportion that may be spent for food has been
worked out for incomes ranging from $600 to $2,400 a year. As will be
noted, an income of $600 permits an expenditure of only 19 cents a day
for each person. When food prices are high, it will be a difficult
matter to feed one person for that amount, and still if the income is
only $600 it will be necessary to do this. To increase the food cost
over 39 cents a day per person, which is the amount allotted for an
income of $2,400, would denote extravagance or at least would provide
more luxury than is warranted.


TABLE I

PROPORTION OF FAMILY INCOME FOR FOOD
================================================================
Income  Per Cent. of   Amount Spent   Amount Spent  Amount Spent
  per   Income Spent   per year for   per Day for   per Day per
 Year     for Food        Food        Five Persons     Person
----------------------------------------------------------------
$ 600       60            $360           $ .98         $ .19
  800       55             500            1.36           .27
1,000       50             576            1.57           .31
1,200       48             576            1.57           .31
1,500       44             660            1.80           .36
1,800       39             702            1.92           .38
2,400       30             720            1.97           .39
================================================================


Various conditions greatly affect this proportion. One of these is the
rise and fall of the food cost. Theoretically, the buyer should adjust
this difference in the food cost rather than increase her expenditures.
For instance, if in a certain year, the general cost of food is 20 per
cent. greater than it was in the preceding year, the housewife should
adjust her plan of buying so that for the same amount of money spent in
the previous year she will be able to supply her family with what they
need. Of course, if there is an increase in the income, it will not be
so necessary to work out such an adjustment.

22. ECONOMIES IN PURCHASING FOOD.--Through her study of the preceding
lessons, the student has had an opportunity to learn how to care for
food in order to avoid loss and waste, how to prepare it so that it may
be easily digested and assimilated, and how to make it appetizing and
attractive so that as little as possible is left over and none is
wasted. She should therefore be thoroughly acquainted with the methods
of procedure in regard to all such matters and should have worked out to
her satisfaction the best ways of accomplishing these things to suit her
individual needs. But, in addition to these matters, she must give
strict attention to her food purchases if she would secure for her
family the most wholesome and nourishing foods for the least
expenditure of money.

23. To purchase food that will provide the necessary food value for a
small outlay is possible to a certain extent, but it cannot be done
without the required knowledge. In the first place, it means that fewer
luxuries can be indulged in and that the family dietary will have to be
reduced to necessities. It may also mean that there will probably be a
difference in the quality of the food purchased. For instance, it may be
necessary to practice such economies as buying broken rice at a few
cents a pound less than whole rice or purchasing smaller prunes with a
greater number to the pound at a lower price than the larger, more
desirable ones. The housewife need not hesitate in the least to adopt
such economies as these, for they are undoubtedly the easiest ways in
which to reduce the food expenses without causing detriment to any one.

24. Further economy can be practiced if a little extra attention is
given in the purchase of certain foods. As is well known, the packages
and cans containing food are labeled with the contents and the weight of
the contents. These should be carefully observed, as should also the
number of servings that may be obtained from the package or can. For
instance, the housewife should know the weight per package of the
various kinds of prepared cereals she uses and the number of servings
she is able to procure from each package.

Let it be assumed that she buys two packages of different cereals at
the same time, which, for convenience, may be called package No. 1 and
package No. 2. She finds that No. 1 contains 16 ounces and No. 2, only
12 ounces; so she knows that No. 1 furnishes the greater amount of food
by weight for the money spent. But, on the other hand, No. 2 may go
farther; that is, it may serve a greater number of persons. This, in all
probability, means that the cereals are similar in character, but that
the food value of the servings from No. 2 is greater than that of the
servings from No. 1. No. 2 is therefore the more economical of the two.
Matters of this kind must not be overlooked, especially in the feeding
of children.

Then, too, the housewife should work out carefully which she can use to
greater advantage, prepared or unprepared cereals. If she finds that
unprepared cereals are the more economical and if she can depend on
their food value as being as high as that of the prepared ones, she
should by all means give them the preference. Of course, she may use
prepared cereals for convenience or for varying the diet, but the more
economical ones should be used with greater regularity.

25. Canned goods should be carefully observed. A certain brand of
tomatoes, for instance, may have 16 ounces to the can, whereas another
brand that can be bought for the same price may have 24 ounces. There
may be, however, and there probably is, a great difference in the
quality of the tomatoes. The 24-ounce can may have a much greater
proportion of water than the 16-ounce can, and for this reason will not
serve to the same advantage. As it is with canned tomatoes, so is it
with canned corn, peas, and other canned vegetables, for the price
depends altogether on the quality. Therefore, several brands should be
compared and the one should be purchased which seems to furnish the most
food or the best quality of food for the least money, provided the
quality continues.

26. In the preparation of meat, there is always some waste, and as waste
is a factor that has much to do with the increasing of costs, it should
be taken into consideration each time a piece of meat is purchased. If
there is time for some experimenting, it makes an interesting study to
weigh the meat before and after preparation, for then the amount of
shrinkage in cookery, as well as the waste in bone, skin, and other
inedible material, can be determined.

An actual experiment made with a 4-pound chicken showed that there was
a loss of 2-3/4 pounds; that is, the weight of the edible meat after
deducting the waste was only 1-1/4 pounds. The following shows how this
weight was determined:

                                                        POUNDS
Weight of chicken, including head, feet, and entrails      4
  Weight of head, feet, and entrails                       1-1/4
  Weight of bones after cooking                              7/8
  Weight of skin after cooking                               1/4
  Shrinkage in cooking                                       3/8
                                                           -----
    Total amount of waste                                  2-3/4
                                                           -----
Actual weight of edible meat                               1-1/4

It will readily be seen that chicken at 40 cents a pound would make the
cost per pound of edible meat amount to exactly $1.28, a rather
startling result. It is true, of course, that the busy housewife with a
family can hardly spare the time for the extra labor such experiments
require; still the greater the number of persons to be fed, the more
essential is the need for economy and the greater are the possibilities
for waste and loss.

27. The home production of foods does not belong strictly to economical
buying, still it is a matter that offers so many advantages to the
economical housewife that she cannot afford to overlook it. A small
garden carefully prepared and well cultivated will often produce the
summer's supply of fresh vegetables, with sufficient overproduction to
permit much to be canned for winter. Not only do foods produced in a
home garden keep down the cost of both summer and winter foods, but they
add considerably to the variety of menus.

       *       *       *       *       *


CORRECT DIET

SUITABILITY OF FOOD

28. At the same time the housewife is making a study of economy and
trying to procure as nearly as possible the best quality and the largest
quantity of food for the amount of money she has to spend, she must
consider the suitability of this food for the persons to whom it is to
be served. This matter is undoubtedly of greater importance than
economy, for, regardless of the amount of money that is to be spent,
suitable foods for the nourishment of all the members of the family must
be supplied to them. For instance, a family of two may have $10 a week
to spend for food, whereas one of five may perhaps have no more; but the
larger family must have nourishing food just as the one of two must
have. Therefore, whether the housewife has much or little to spend, her
money must purchase food suited to the needs of her family. Unless she
is able to accomplish this, she fails in the most important part of her
work as a housewife, and as a result, the members of her family are not
properly nourished.

29. It has long been an established fact that correct diet is the
greatest factor in maintaining bodily health. Food is responsible for
the growth and maintenance of the body tissues, as well as for their
repair. In addition, it supplies the body with heat and energy.
Consequently, taking the right food into the body assists in keeping a
person in a healthy condition and makes work and exercise possible.

Because so much depends on the diet, the housewife, while considering
what can be bought with the money she has to spend, must also decide
whether the foods she plans to buy are suitable for the needs of her
family. In fact, she should be so certain of this matter that she will
automatically plan her menus in such a way that they will contain all
that is necessary for each person to be fed. But, as every housewife
knows, the appetites of her family must also be taken into
consideration. Theoretically, she should feed her family what the
various members need, regardless of their likes and dislikes. However,
very few persons are willing to be fed in this way; in truth, it would
be quite useless to serve a dish for which no one in the family cared
and in addition it would be one of the sources of waste.

30. To make the work of the housewife less difficult, children should be
taught as far as possible to eat all kinds of food. Too often this
matter is disregarded, and too often, also, are the kinds of food
presented, to a family regulated by the likes and dislikes of the person
preparing the food. Because she is not fond of certain foods, she never
prepares them; consequently, the children do not learn to like them. On
the other hand, many children develop a habit of complaining about foods
that are served and often refuse to eat what is set before them. Such a
state of affairs should not be permitted. Indeed, every effort should be
made to prevent a spirit of complaint. If the housewife is certain that
she is providing the members of her family with the best that she can
purchase with the money she has to spend and that she is giving them
what they need, complaining on their part should be discouraged.

31. With a little effort, children can be taught to like a large variety
of foods, especially if these foods are given to them while they are
still young. It is a decided advantage for every one to form a liking
for a large number of foods. The person who can say that he cares for
everything in the way of food is indeed fortunate, for he has a great
variety from which to choose and is not so likely to have served to him
a meal in which there are one or more dishes that he cannot eat because
of a distaste for them.

Every mother should therefore train her children during their childhood
to care for all the cereals, vegetables, and fruits. Besides affording
the children a well-balanced diet, these foods, particularly vegetables
and fruits, when served in their season, offer the housewife a means of
planning economical menus, for, as every one knows, their price is then
much lower than at any other time and is less than that of most other
foods. During the winter, turnips, carrots, onions, and other winter
vegetables are more economical foods than summer vegetables that must be
canned or otherwise prepared to preserve them for winter use or the
fresh summer vegetables purchased out of season. However, it is
advisable to vary the diet occasionally with such foods.


COMPOSITION OF FOOD

32. To feed her family properly, the housewife should understand that
the daily food must include the five food substances--protein, fat,
carbohydrate, mineral matter, and water. As these are discussed in
_Essentials of Cookery_, Part 1, they should be clear to the housewife,
but if they are not fully understood, a careful review should be made of
the discussions given there. The ways in which these food principles
contribute to the growth and health of the body, as well as the ordinary
foods that supply them in the greatest number, are tabulated in Table II
for easy reference. This information will assist the housewife
materially in the selection and preparation of food for her family;
consequently, close attention should be given to it and constant
application made of it.

33. As has already been learned and as will be noted here, a food
substance often has more than one use in the body. For instance, protein
builds tissue and also yields energy, but its chief work is that of
building tissue, and so it is classed first as a tissue-building food
substance. The fats and carbohydrates also have a double use in the
body, that of producing heat and energy and of building fatty tissue.
However, as their chief use is to produce heat and energy, they are
known principally as heat-producing foods. Mineral matter not only is
necessary for the building of bone and muscle, but also enters into the
composition of the blood and all the fluids in the body. Growth and
development are not ideal without an adequate supply of the many kinds
of these salts, which go to make up the tissues, nerves, blood, and
other fluids in the body.

34. The body regulators must be included in the food given, for they
assist in all processes carried on in the body. Some are necessary to
aid in the stimulation required to carry on the processes of digestion
and in some cases make up a part of the digestive fluids. Consequently,
vegetables and fruits that supply these body regulators and foods that
supply vitamines should be provided.

Water, the chief body regulator, not only is essential to life itself,
but forms by far a greater proportion of the body than any other single
substance. The largest part of the water required in the body is
supplied as a beverage and the remainder is taken in with the foods that
are eaten.

TABLE II

FOOD SUBSTANCES AND THEIR RELATION TO GROWTH AND HEALTH

I Body-building materials
  Proteins.
    Meat
    Fish and shell fish
    Poultry and game
    Eggs
    Milk and milk products
    Legumes (dried beans, peas, lentils)
    Wheat and wheat products, as corn starch
    Nuts
  Mineral matter, or ash
    Vegetables
    Fruits
    Eggs
    Milk
    Cereals
    Meats
II Heat-producing materials
  Fats
    Animal
      Lard
      Suet
      Tallow
      Butter and cream
    Vegetable
      Olive oil
      Corn oil
      Cottonseed oil
      Coconut oil
      Nut oils
    Mixed oils
      Oleomargarine
      Butterine
      Nut butter
      Crisco, etc.
  Carbohydrates
    Starch
      Cereals and cereal products
      Irish and sweet potatoes
    Sugar
      Cane sugar and molasses
      Beet sugar
      Maple sugar and sirup
      Honey
      Corn sirup and other manufactured sirups
  Proteins
      Same as in I

III Body regulators
  Water
  Mineral matter, or ash
    Same as in I
  Cellulose
    Fruits
    Vegetables
    Covering of cereals and nuts
  Food Acids
    Sour fruits--citric and malic
    Tomatoes--malic
    Spinach--oxalic
    Rhubarb--oxalic
  Vitamines
    Fat soluble A
      Milk
      Butter
      Egg yolk
    Water soluble B
      Green vegetables, as spinach, chard, lettuce, beet greens
      Asparagus and stem vegetables, as celery
      Fruit vegetables, as tomatoes, peppers, okra
      Fruits

The importance of bulk in foods cannot be emphasized too much. The
indigestible cellulose of fruits, vegetables, and cereals is of such
importance in the body that some of these foods should be supplied with
every meal. Therefore, their incorporation into the diet should be
considered as a definite part of the menu-making plan.

The acids of fruits are valuable as stimulants both to the appetite and
to the digestion. Then, too, they give a touch of variety to a menu
otherwise composed of rather bland foods. The stimulation they produce
is much more healthful than that of condiments, drugs, or alcoholic
beverages and should receive the preference.

_Vitamines_ are substances necessary for both growth and health. A child
deprived of the foods containing them is usually not well and does not
grow nor develop normally. These substances are also required in the
diet of adults in order to maintain the body in a healthy condition. The
leafy vegetables and milk are the foods that yield the greatest supply
of vitamines. In fact, it is claimed by those who have experimented most
with this matter that these two sources will supply the required amount
of vitamines under all conditions.

       *       *       *       *       *

BALANCING THE DIET

QUANTITY AND PROPORTION OF FOODS

35. FACTORS INFLUENCING FOOD.--Numerous factors affect the kind and
quantity of food necessary for an individual. Chief among these are age,
size, sex, climate, and work or exercise. In addition to determining the
amount of food that must be taken into the body, these factors regulate
largely the suitability of the foods to be eaten. It is true, of course,
that all the food substances mentioned in Table II must be included in
every person's diet after the first few years of his life, but the
quantity and the proportion of the various substances given vary with
the age, sex, size, and work or exercise of the person and the climate
in which he lives. Merely to provide dishes that supply sufficient food
value is not enough. This food material must be given in forms that can
be properly digested and assimilated and it must be in the right
proportion for the person's needs. The aim should therefore be to
provide a _balanced diet_, by which is meant one that includes the
correct proportion of the various food substances to supply the needs of
the individual.

36. QUANTITY OF FOOD IN CALORIES.--Without doubt, the most intelligent
way in which to feed people is to compute the number of calories
required daily. As will be remembered, the calorie is the unit employed
to measure the amount of work that the food does in the body, either as
a tissue builder or a producer of energy. The composition and food value
of practically all foods are fairly well known, and with this
information it is a simple matter to tell fairly accurately the amount
of food that each person requires.

As has been stated, the number of calories per day required by a person
varies with the age, size, sex, and occupation of the person, as well as
with the climate in which he lives. For the adult, this will vary from
1,800 to 3,000, except in cases of extremely hard labor, when it may be
necessary to have as high as 4,500 calories. The average number of
calories for the adult, without taking into consideration the particular
conditions under which he lives or works, is about 2,500. Still a small
woman who is inactive might be sufficiently fed by taking 1,800 calories
a day, whereas a large man doing heavy, muscular work might require
3,500 to 4,000 daily.

37. IMPORTANCE OF PROPER AMOUNT OF FOOD.--Most authorities agree that it
is advisable for adults and children well past the age of infancy to
take all the food required in three meals. The taking of two meals a day
is sometimes advocated, but the possibility of securing in two meals the
same quantity of food that would ordinarily be taken in three is rather
doubtful, since it is assumed that large amounts of food are not so
easily disposed of as are smaller ones.

On the other hand, to overeat is always a disadvantage in more respects
than one. Taking food that is not required not only is an extravagance
in the matter of food, but overtaxes the digestive organs. In addition,
it supplies the body with material that must be disposed of, so that
extra work on the part of certain organs is required for this activity.
Finally, overeating results in the development of excessive fatty
tissue, which not only makes the body ponderous and inactive, but also
deadens the quickness of the mind and often predisposes a person to
disease or, in extreme cases, is the actual cause of illness.

38. EFFECT OF WEIGHT ON DIET.--An idea of the way in which the weight of
a person affects the amount of food required can be obtained by a study
of Tables III and IV. As will be observed, Table III gives the number
of calories per pound of body weight required each day by adults engaged
in the various normal activities that might be carried on within 24 hours.
It deals only with activity, the various factors that might alter the
amounts given being taken up later. The figures given are for adults
and the factors mentioned are those which affect the intake of food
to the greatest extent.

The lowest food requirement during the entire 24 hours is during the
time of sleep, when there is no activity and food is required for only
the bodily functions that go on during sleep. Sitting requires more food
than sleeping, standing, a still greater amount, and walking, still
more, because of the increase in energy needed for these activities.

In a rough way, the various occupations for both men and women are
classified under three different heads: Light Work, Moderate Work, and
Heavy Work. It is necessary that these be understood in examining
this table.

TABLE III

CALORIES PER POUND FOR 24 HOURS FOR ADULTS
  Occupation                           Calories
Sleeping............................... 12
Sitting................................ 14
Standing............................... 17
Walking................................ 20
Light work............................. 22
Moderate work.......................... 24
Heavy work............................. 27


Those considered as doing light work are persons who sit or stand at
their employment without any great degree of activity. They include
stenographers, dressmakers, milliners, teachers, clerks, shoemakers,
tailors, machine operators, elevator operators, and conductors.

Moderate work involves a little more activity than light work, but not
so much as heavy work. Professional cooks, professional housekeepers,
housekeepers in their own homes, professional chambermaids, waitresses,
masons, drivers, chauffeurs, plumbers, electricians, and machinists come
under this class.

Persons doing heavy work are the most active of all. They include
farmers, laundresses, excavators, lumbermen, miners, metal workers, and
soldiers on forced march.

39. To show the variation in the amount of food required according to
body weight, Table IV is given. The scale here presented has been worked
out for two persons who are normal and whose weight is correct, but
different, one weighing 130 pounds and the other 180 pounds. It is
assumed, however, that they are occupied in 24 hours with activities
that are identical, each one sleeping 8 hours, working at moderate labor
for 8 hours, walking 2 hours, standing 2 hours, and sitting 4 hours.

TABLE IV

DIFFERENCE IN FOOD REQUIREMENTS THROUGH VARIATION IN WEIGHT

Number of Calories for 130 Pounds
 8 hours, sleeping .......  520
 4 hours, sitting ........  303
 2 hours, standing .......  184
 2 hours, walking ........  216
 8 hours, moderate work   1,040
--                        -----
24                        2,263

Number of Calories for 180 Pounds
 8 hours, sleeping .......  720
 4 hours, sitting ........  430
 2 hours, walking ........  300
 2 hours, standing .......  238
 8 hours, moderate work   1,440
--                        -----
24                        3,128


To find the total number of calories required for these activities, the
weight, in pounds, is multiplied by the calories per pound for 24 hours
for a certain activity. Thus, as in Table IV, if a person weighing 130
pounds sleeps for 24 hours, the number of pounds of weight, or 130,
would be multiplied by 12, which is the number of calories required per
pound in 24 hours for sleeping. However, since only 8 hours is occupied
by sleep and 8 is 1/3 of 24, the required number of calories would be
only 1/3 of this number. In this way each item is worked out in the
table, as is clearly shown by the following figures:

For sleeping .............. 130 X 12 X 1/3  =   520
For sitting ............... 130 X 14 X 1/6  =   303
For standing .............. 130 X 17 X 1/12 =   184
For walking ............... 130 X 20 X 1/12 =   216
For moderate work ......... 130 X 24 X 1/3  = 1,040
  Total, as in Table IV ..................... 2,263

40. In this connection, it may be interesting to know the ideal weight
for persons of a given height. Table V shows the various heights for
both men and women, in inches, and then gives, in pounds, the correct
weight for each height. When, from this table, a person determines how
far he is above or below the ideal weight, he can tell whether he should
increase or decrease the number of calories he takes a day. For persons
who are under weight, the calories should be increased over the number
given in Table III for the normal individual if the ideal weight would
be attained. On the other hand, persons who are overweight should
decrease the number of calories until there is sufficient loss of weight
to reach the ideal. Of course, an adjustment of this kind should be
gradual, unless the case is so extreme as to require stringent measures.
In most cases, a slight decrease or increase in the quantity of food
taken each day will bring about the desired increase or decrease
in weight.

TABLE V

CORRECT WEIGHT FOR CERTAIN HEIGHTS

  ===================================
        Men        |       Women
  -----------------+-----------------
   Height | Weight | Height | Weight
   Inches | Pounds | Inches | Pounds
  --------+--------+--------+--------
     61   |  131   |   59   |  119
     62   |  133   |   60   |  122
     63   |  136   |   61   |  124
     64   |  140   |   62   |  127
     65   |  143   |   63   |  131
     66   |  147   |   64   |  134
     67   |  152   |   65   |  139
     68   |  157   |   66   |  143
     69   |  162   |   67   |  147
     70   |  167   |   68   |  151
     71   |  173   |   69   |  155
     72   |  179   |   70   |  159
     73   |  185   |        |
     74   |  192   |        |
     75   |  200   |        |
  ===================================

41. EFFECT OF SEX ON DIET.--The difference in sex does not affect the
diet to any great extent. Authorities claim that persons of opposite sex
but of the same weight and engaged in the same work require equal
quantities of food. But, in most cases, the work of women is lighter
than that of men, and even when this is not the case women seem to
require less food, probably because of a difference in temperament. That
taken by women is usually computed to be about four-fifths of the amount
necessary for a man. The proportion of food substances does not differ,
however, and when individual peculiarities are taken into consideration,
no definite rules can be made concerning it.

In the case of boys and girls up to the age of young manhood and
womanhood, the same amount of food is required, except for the
difference in activity, boys usually being more active than girls.

42. EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON DIET.--The climate in which a person lives has
much to do with the kind of diet he requires. In the extreme North, the
lack of vegetation makes it necessary for the inhabitants to live almost
entirely upon animal food except during the very short warm season.
Consequently, their diet consists largely of protein and fat. Under some
circumstances, a diet of this kind would be very unfavorable, but it
seems to be correct for the people who live in these regions, for
generations of them have accustomed themselves to it and they have
suffered no hardship by doing so. It is true, however, that races of
people who do not live on a well-balanced diet are not physically such
fine specimens as the majority of persons found in countries where it is
possible to obtain a diet that includes a sufficient supply of all the
food substances.

43. In hot countries, the diet consists much more largely of vegetables
than any other class of foods. This means that it is very high in
carbohydrate and comparatively low in protein and fat. As can well be
understood, a diet of this kind is much more ideal for a warm climate
than a diet composed to a great extent of animal foods.

44. In temperate zones, the diet for both summer and winter seasons
varies according to the appetite of the inhabitants themselves. Usually
a light diet consisting of fruits, vegetables, cereals, and a small
amount of meat is found the most desirable for summer weather, while a
similar one with a larger proportion of meat is the usual winter diet.
On the whole, the desire for food, which, to a certain extent, is
regulated by the climate, can be trusted to vary the diet fairly well
for the existing conditions.

45. EFFECT OF AGE ON DIET.--The proper diet for infancy and childhood is
a matter that must be discussed by itself, for it has practically no
connection with other diet. It is also well understood that up to
maturity there is a difference in the diet because of a difference in
the needs of the body. However, from maturity up to 60 years of age, the
diet is altered by the conditions already mentioned, namely weight,
size, sex, climate, and work or exercise. At the age of 60, the amount
of food required begins to decrease, for as a person grows older, the
body and all of its organs become less active. Then, too, there is a
reduced amount of physical exercise, which correspondingly reduces the
necessity for food. At this time, an oversupply of food merely serves to
overwork the organs, which being scarcely able to handle the normal
quantity of food certainly keep in better condition if the amount of
work they are called upon to do is decreased rather than increased.

It has been estimated that persons 60 years of age require 10 per cent.
less food than they formerly did; those 70 years old, 20 per cent. less;
and those 80 years old, 30 per cent. less. Usually the appetite
regulates this decrease in food, for the less active a person is, the
less likely is the appetite to be stimulated. However, the fact that
there is also a great difference in persons must not be lost sight of.
Some men and women at 70 years of age are as young and just as active as
others at 50 years. For such persons, the decrease in quantity of food
should not begin so soon, nor should it be so great as that given for
the more usual cases.

46. As there is a decrease in quantity with advancing years, so should
there be a difference in the quality of the food taken. That which is
easily digested and assimilated is preferable to food that is rich or
highly concentrated. Usually, it is necessary to increase the laxative
food in the diet at this time of life, but this matter is one of the
abnormalities of diet and therefore belongs properly to medical
dietetics rather than to a lesson on normal diet.


DIET FOR INFANTS AND CHILDREN

47. From birth until a child has attained full growth, the food
requirement is high in proportion to the size of the child. This is due
to the fact that energy must be supplied for a great deal of activity,
and at the same time new tissue must be manufactured from the food
taken. It should be remembered, too, that all body processes during
growth are extremely rapid. At birth, the average child weighs about 7
pounds, and for several days after birth there is a normal loss of
weight. In a few days, however, if the diet is correct, the child begins
to increase in weight and should gain about 1/2 pound a week until it is
3 months old. From this time on, its weekly gain should be slightly
less, but it should be constant. If the weight remains the same or there
is a decrease for a number of consecutive days or weeks, it is certain
that the diet is incorrect, that the quantity of food is insufficient,
or that the child is ill. The reason for the loss should be determined
at once and the trouble then corrected.

Normal diet for the infant is the mother's milk, but if this cannot be
supplied, the next best diet is modified cow's milk, which for the young
child must be greatly diluted. If it is found necessary to give
proprietary, or manufactured, foods, raw food of some kind should be
used in addition, the best way to supply this being with a little orange
juice or other fruit juice. At the age of 3 months, this may be given in
small quantity if it is diluted, and then the amount may be gradually
increased as the child grows older.

48. EFFECT OF WEIGHT ON CHILDREN'S DIET.--The food requirement in the
case of children is determined by weight. To decide on the proper
amount, it is necessary to know the normal weight at certain ages. At
birth, as has been stated, the normal weight is 7 pounds; at 6 months,
15 pounds; at 1 year, 21 pounds; at 2 years, 30 pounds. The food
requirement for 24 hours per pound of weight is as follows:

                                             CALORIES
                                             24 HOURS
Children up to 1 year.......................... 45
Children from 1 to 2 years..................... 40
Children from 2 to 5 years..................... 36

From a study of these figures, it will be noted that there is a gradual
decrease in the required number of calories per pound as the child
grows older. The decrease continues until maturity is reached, and then
the scale for adults applies.

49. EFFECT OF AGE ON CHILDREN'S DIET.--A child should not be kept
exclusively on milk for more than 6 or 8 months, and then only in case
it is fed on the mother's milk. Fruit juice, which has already been
mentioned as an additional food, is recommended if the diet requires raw
food or if it is necessary to make the child's food more laxative. When
the child reaches the age of 6 months, it should be taught to take foods
from a spoon or a cup; then when it must be weaned, the task of weaning
will be much easier. At the age of 8 or 9 months, depending on the
condition of the child, small amounts of well-cooked, strained cereals
may be added to the diet, and these may gradually be decreased as the
food is increased in variety. Up to 1-1/2 years of age, a child should
have 8 ounces of milk three times a day, which amounts to 1-1/2 pints.
At this age, half of a soft-cooked egg or a spoonful or two of tender
meat chopped very fine, may be given, and for each such addition 4
ounces of milk should be taken out of the day's feeding. But from 1-1/2
years up to 5 years, at least 1 pint of milk a day should be included
in the diet.

At a little past 1 year of age, a normal child may begin taking a few
well-cooked vegetables, such as a bit of baked potato, a spoonful of
spinach, carrot, celery, green peas, or other vegetables that have been
forced through a sieve or chopped very fine. At 1-1/2 years, the normal
child should be taking each day one vegetable, a cereal, buttered bread
or toast softened with milk, eggs, fruit juice, a little jelly, and
plain custards. However, each of these foods should be added to the diet
with caution and in small amounts, and if it appears to disagree with
the child in any way, it should be discontinued until such time as it
can be tolerated.

In case a child is being raised on a formula of cow's milk and it is a
strong, normal child, it should be taking whole milk at the age of 8 or
10 months. If the child is not strong, the milk may still be diluted
with a small amount of sterile water, but this should be gradually
decreased until the child is able to tolerate whole milk.

50. FEEDING SCALE FOR INFANTS.--It is, of course, a difficult matter to
make definite rules for the feeding of all children, for conditions
arise with many children that call for special plans. However, for
children that are normal, a feeding scale may be followed quite closely,
and so the one given in Table VI is suggested.

TABLE VI

FEEDING SCALE FOR INFANTS

First Three Months

  Milk.

Fourth Month

  Same as for preceding months and orange juice and cereal waters.

Sixth Month

  Same as for preceding months and well-cooked and strained cereal.

Eighth Month

  Same as for preceding months and beef juice, beef broth, and yolk of
  soft-cooked egg.

Tenth Month

  Same as for preceding months and unstrained cereal, half of
  soft-cooked egg, both white and yolk, chopped or strained cooked
  vegetables, such as spinach and other greens, asparagus, carrots,
  celery, and squash, stale bread, crackers, toast and butter.

Eleventh Month

  Same as for preceding months and well-cooked rice, baked potato,
  jelly, plain custard, corn-starch custard, and junket.

Twelfth Month

  Same as for preceding months and whole egg, a tablespoonful of
  tender meat, string beans, peas, turnips, onions, chopped or
  strained applesauce, stewed prunes, and other fruits.

Eighteenth Month

  Same as for preceding months and home-made ice cream, plain sponge
  cake, milk soups, and cereal puddings.

This scale is to be used by adding to the diet for one month the foods
suggested for the next month, giving them at the time the child reaches
the age for which they are mentioned. For instance, a child of 8 months
may have everything included in the first three, four, and six months
and, in addition, beef juice, beef broth, and the yolk of a soft-cooked
egg, which is the diet suggested for the eighth month. Then at the tenth
month it may have all of these things together with those given for
this month.

51. When any of these foods is first added to the diet, much care is
necessary. Each new food should be given cautiously, a teaspoonful or
two at a time being sufficient at first, and its effect should be
carefully observed before more is given. If it is found to disagree, it
should not be repeated. If at any time a child is subject to an attack
of indigestion, its diet should be reduced to simple foods and when it
has recovered, new foods should be added slowly again. In the case of
any of the ordinary illnesses to which children are subject, such as
colds, etc., the diet should be restricted to very simple food, and
preferably to liquids, until the illness has passed. The diet of a baby
still being fed on milk should be reduced to barley water or a very
little skim milk diluted with a large amount of sterile water. When the
illness is over, the child may be gradually brought back to its
normal diet.


DIET FOR THE FAMILY

52. One of the difficulties of every housewife having a family composed
of persons of widely different tastes and ages is the preparation of
meals that will contain sufficient food of the correct kind for all of
them. Children up to 6 years of age usually require something especially
prepared for their meals, except breakfast, but, as a rule, the
selection of the diet for children from 6 years up to 15 or 16 years of
age is merely a matter of taking from the meal prepared for the
remainder of the family the right amount of the various foods. Tea and
coffee should not be included in the diet of growing children, and
should under no circumstances be given to small children. If the proper
method is followed in this matter, no difficulty will result, but where
children expect to eat the food served to the others at the table and
are not content with what is given to them, it is better not to feed
them at the same table with the adults.

53. The most satisfactory way in which to arrange meals that are to be
served to persons of different ages is to include several foods that may
be fed to all members of the family and then to select certain others
proper only for adults and still others suitable for the children. A
sample of such a menu for supper is the one here given. It is assumed
that the children that are to eat this meal are not infants.

SUPPER MENU

ADULTS
Rice Croquettes with Cheese Sauce
Lettuce Salad
Bread, Butter, Jelly
Baked Apples
Plain Cookies
Tea

CHILDREN

Steamed Rice
Bread, Butter, Jelly
Baked Apples
Plain Cookies
Milk

A menu of this kind is not difficult to prepare, and still it meets the
needs of both the children and the adults of the family. The main dish
for each has the same foundation--rice. Enough to serve the entire
family may be steamed. Then some may be retained for the children and
the rest made up into croquettes and served with cheese sauce to the
adults. The remainder of the menu, bread, butter, jelly, baked apples,
and plain cookies, may be eaten by every one. Tea will probably be
preferred by the adults, but milk should be served to the children.
Other suitable menus may be planned without any extra trouble if just a
little thought is given to the matter.


PROPORTION OF FOOD SUBSTANCES

54. The proportion of food substances necessary for building and
repairing the body and for providing it with material necessary for its
various functions is a matter to which much discussion has been given.
Formerly, it was not understood that the protein should be limited to
exactly what the body needed and that its requirements were
comparatively low regardless of conditions or exercise. The standard for
diet very often allowed as much as 25 per cent. in protein. This
percentage has been gradually reduced by the discovery of the actual
body needs, so that now it is believed by the most dependable
authorities that only about 10 per cent. of the entire day's rations for
the adult should be protein. The growing child needs a greater
proportion than this because he is building up muscle tissue. The adult
whose muscles have been entirely constructed requires protein only for
repair, and 10 per cent. of the day's food in protein is sufficient for
this. This means that if the total calories for the day are 2,500, only
250 of them need be protein.

55. The remainder of the calories are largely made up by fat and
carbohydrate. These, however, need not be in such exact proportion as
the protein, for no real danger lies in having either one in a greater
amount than the ideal proportion. This is usually three-tenths fat and
six-tenths carbohydrate or in a diet of 2,500 calories, 750 fat and
1,500 carbohydrate. The carbohydrate is very much in preponderance
because of its easy digestion and assimilation. As may be imagined, it
is not a simple matter to figure a diet as closely and carefully as
this, and it is only in extreme cases where such planning is necessary.

56. The required amount of protein for the ordinary daily diet can be
had with about 3 ounces of meat, together with that which is found in
the bread, vegetables, and cereals taken each day. At any rate, the menu
should be planned so as to supply a protein dish for at least one meal
in the day. The fat is supplied largely by the butter taken and the fat
used in the cooking of foods. The carbohydrate is provided by the starch
found in cereals, bread, and vegetables and by the sugar contained in
fruits, as well as that used in the preparation of various foods and in
the sweetening of beverages, cereals, and fruits.

In addition to providing these food substances, each meal should include
at least one food, and for dinner preferably two foods, that will supply
a large amount of mineral salts, cellulose, and vitamines. As will be
remembered, fruits and vegetables are the foods to be used for
this purpose.

57. This method of menu planning may seem somewhat difficult at first
thought, but in reality it is not different from that which the
intelligent housewife follows who attempts to provide her family with a
variety of foods and who appreciates the value of that variety. If she
plans her menu in this manner, prepares the food so that it will be
wholesome, easily digested, and given in the proper proportion, and at
the same time watches the weights of the members of the family in the
manner suggested, she need have no fear about the general health of her
family, for it will be well maintained.

       *       *       *       *       *


MENU MAKING AND TABLE SERVICE

GENERAL RULES FOR MENU MAKING

58. Perhaps the greatest problem in the planning of menus for a family
is that of securing sufficient variety. A housewife who uses the same
recipes and the same combinations of food repeatedly is apt to get into
a rut and the members of her family will undoubtedly lose interest in
their meals. This condition results even with the dishes of which those
of the family are extremely fond. However, they will not tire so quickly
of the foods they care for if such foods are served to them less often.
Then, too, there is more chance to practice economy when a larger
variety of food is used.

The importance of planning menus systematically should not be
overlooked, either, no matter how simple they may be. Even if breakfast
consists of only two or more dishes, luncheon of three or four, and
dinner of no more than four or five, a certain amount of planning should
be done in order that the meal may be properly balanced. If the
suggestions for meal planning already given are applied to this work,
very little difficulty will be experienced in providing meals that are
both attractive and properly balanced. In addition to these suggestions,
a few general rules for menu making ought to be observed. Most of these
are simple and can be followed with very little effort.

59. Unless the menu is planned for a special occasion, the cost of the
various dishes should be made to balance. For instance, if an expensive
meat is to be served, the vegetables and the salad selected to accompany
it should be of moderate cost. On the other hand, if an expensive salad
is to be served, a dessert of moderate cost, such as a simple rice
pudding, should be used to offset the price of the other dish. Planning
meals in this way is urged for the sake of economy, and if it is
carefully followed, all the meals may be made to average about the
same cost.

60. Another important point in successful meal planning is the avoidance
of two dishes in the same meal made from the same food. For instance,
tomato soup and tomato salad should not be served in the same meal, for
the combination is undesirable. Corn soup contrasts much better with
tomato salad than does the tomato soup, for it has the bland flavor that
is needed to offset the acid salad. Some housewives, it is true, object
to such planning on the ground that it does not give them opportunity to
utilize all the materials they may have on hand at the same time. But in
nearly every instance the materials can be used to excellent advantage
in meals that are to follow and, in addition, the gain in variety is
sufficient to warrant the adoption of such a method.

61. As there should be variety in the materials used to make up the
dishes of a meal, so should there be variety in the flavor of the foods
selected. Rice, macaroni, and potato, for instance, make an undesirable
combination. They are too similar because they are all high in starch;
besides, they resemble one another too closely in consistency and they
are all bland in flavor. If a meal contains one or two bland dishes, a
special effort should be made to supply some highly flavored dish in
order to relieve the monotony. The same thing may be said of acid foods;
that is, an oversupply of these is just as distasteful as too many
bland foods.

62. To have fresh fruit for the daily breakfast would be very
delightful, but such fruit cannot always be secured. When fresh fruit
cannot be had every day, it is better to alternate it with canned fruit
or stewed dried fruit than to have it for several days in succession and
then have to serve the alternative for a number of days. The same is
true of cereals. If use is to be made of both cooked and uncooked
cereals, it is much better to alternate them than to serve the cooked
ones for breakfast for an entire week and then uncooked ones the
next week.

63. When two vegetables are used in the same meal, they should be
different. Sweet potatoes and white potatoes, although often served
together, do not belong in the same meal. In fact, for most seasons of
the year, two vegetables dissimilar in consistency should be supplied.
For instance, if spinach is included in a meal, some contrasting
vegetable, such as carrots, shell beans, etc., should be served with it.
Beets and carrots would not make a good combination, nor should cabbage
be combined with spinach, especially if both vegetables are prepared
with a sour dressing.

64. A bland food or one high in fat, such as roast pork, certain kinds
of fish, etc., is much more palatable if a highly seasoned sauce or
another highly seasoned food or, in fact, a food of an entirely
different flavor is served with it. Apple sauce or baked apples are
usually served with roast pork for this purpose, while sour sauces or
pickles of some description are served with fish to relieve its
blandness.

65. To secure the most successful meals, the main course should be
decided upon first and the additional dishes, such as soup, salad, and
dessert, should be the second consideration. In this method of planning
meals, they can be properly balanced, for if the main course is heavy,
the others can be made light or some of them omitted altogether, while
if the main course is a light one, heavier dishes may be selected to
accompany it.

Whenever it is possible to do so, the heavy meal of the day should be
served at noon and the lighter one in the evening. This plan should
always be followed for children, and it is preferable for adults.
However, having dinner at noon is often very inconvenient and sometimes
impossible, because frequently one or more members of the family are at
business some distance from home and their coming home at noon for
dinner is impractical. In such an event, the evening meal should be the
heavy one, but it should not be made too hearty and overeating should
be avoided.

At all meals, tea and coffee should be used sparingly. Especially should
this rule be followed by persons who are nervous, or high strung, or are
troubled with indigestion and insomnia. At any rate, it is advisable not
to drink either of these beverages at night.

       *       *       *       *       *

METHODS OF SECURING VARIETY IN MEALS

CARD-FILE SYSTEM OF MENU MAKING

66. With the general rules for meal planning in mind, the housewife is
well prepared to arrange menus that will be properly balanced, as well
as varied and attractive. One means of securing variety in menus, and at
the same time supplying oneself with a very convenient piece of kitchen
equipment, consists in placing the recipes used on small cards and
filing them in a card file under the headings to which they belong, as
shown in Figs. 7 and 8. For instance, a heading should be made for
soups, one for potatoes, and so on. These cards may then be rotated in
order to make up menus. When the first card of each group has been used,
it should be placed at the back of the others in that group; then each
one will come in the order in which it was originally placed in the
file. Of course, when the cards are not filed alphabetically, it is a
little more difficult to find the recipes one needs at a particular
time, and so if desired other means of using the cards for menu making
may be easily devised without changing their position.

[Illustration: FIG. 7]

In addition to serving as a basis for menus, this arrangement takes the
place of a cook book. In fact, it is much more convenient, for instead
of a book containing recipes on the table where the work is being done,
a small card, which takes up less space and is much less likely to be in
the way, may be substituted.

[Illustration: FIG. 8]


DINNER MENUS

67. To assist the housewife materially in planning dinners in great
variety, Table VII, which contains suggestions for dinner menus, is
given. As will be noted, it is intended that each dinner shall consist
of a soup, a meat, potatoes in some form, another vegetable, a salad,
and a dessert. It is not necessary, of course, to include all these
dishes when a simpler meal is desired, but a number of suggestions are
given in each group so that there may be a good selection. In order to
use this table to advantage and to secure a large variety of menus,
different combinations of the various foods may be made. Then, too, the
combinations given may be rotated so that frequent repetition of the
same combination will be avoided. This table therefore has the advantage
over meals planned for 14 or even 21 days, for these must be repeated
once in 2 or 3 weeks.

TABLE VII SUGGESTIONS FOR DINNER MENUS

SOUP
1. Tomato Bouillon
2. Rice
3. Cream of Corn
4. Noodle
5. Cream of Pea
6. Julienne
7. Clear Bouillon
8. Oxtail
9. Split-Pea Purée
10. Cream of Tomato
11. Celery
12. Cream of Onion
13. Barley Broth
14. Cream of Asparagus
15. Vegetable
16. Corn Chowder

MEAT
1. Roast Beef
2. Pork Chops
3. Macaroni and Cheese
4. Broiled Hamburg
5. Baked Fish
6. Broiled Steak
7. Kidney-Bean Loaf
8. Roast Pork
9. Lamb Chops
10. Roast Chicken
11. Baked Beans
12. Meat Loaf
13. Liver and Bacon
14. Roast Mutton
15. Broiled Ham
16. Scalloped Salmon
17. Roast Lamb
18. Lima-Bean Loaf
19. Veal Tongue
20. Fried Oysters

POTATOES
1. Boiled Potatoes with Butter and Parsley
2. Scalloped Potatoes
3. Hashed-Brown Potatoes
4. Baked Potatoes
5. Potato Puff
6. French Fried Potatoes
7. Potato Patties
8. Roast Potatoes
9. Candied Sweet Potatoes
10. Mashed Potatoes
11. Creamed Potatoes
12. Stuffed Potatoes
13. Baked Sweet Potatoes
14. Potatoes au Gratin
15. Sautéd Potatoes

VEGETABLES
1. Spinach
2. Green Peas
3. Breaded Tomatoes
4. Squash
5. Red Beets
6. Sweet Corn
7. Buttered Carrots
8. Mashed Turnips
9. Scalloped Eggplant
10. Buttered Cauliflower
11. Hot Slaw
12. Scalloped Tomatoes
13. Carrots and Peas
14. Buttered Kohlrabi
15. Baked Onions
16. Sautéd Eggplant
17. Stuffed Peppers
18. Creamed Turnips
19. Browned Parsnips
20. Sautéd Tomatoes
21. Escalloped Cabbage
22. Creamed Onions
23. String Beans
24. Asparagus
25. Succotash

SALADS
1. Apple and Celery
2. Lettuce
3. Banana
4. Orange and Coconut
5. Cabbage
6. Tomato
7. Peas and Celery
8. Apple, Date, and Orange
9. Asparagus
10. Pineapple and Nut
11. Green Pepper and Cheese
12. String Bean
13. Fruit
14. Combination
15. Cucumber
16. Waldorf
17. Cabbage and Celery
18. Pineapple and Cream Cheese
19. Humpty Dumpty

DESSERTS
1. Chocolate Blanc Mange
2. Brown Betty
3. Raisin Pie
4. Crackers and Cheese
5. Fruit Gelatine
6. Cake and Fruit
7. Apricot Fluff
8. Tapioca Pudding
9. Steamed Pudding
10. Short Cake
11. Prunes in Jelly
12. Rice Pudding
13. Custard Pie
14. Baked Apples
15. Peach Cobbler
16. Chocolate Bread Pudding
17. Pineapple Tapioca
18. Ice Cream
19. Jelly Tarts
20. Gingerbread and Whipped Cream
21. Indian Pudding, with Custard Sauce
22. Floating Island
23. Prune Fluff
24. Nuts and Raisins

68. In the application of Table VII, use should be made of the dishes
numbered 1 in the various groups for the first day's menu. This dinner,
then, will consist of tomato bouillon, roast beef, boiled potatoes with
butter and parsley, spinach, apple-and-celery salad, and chocolate blanc
mange. In this way, the menus should be made by going through the entire
list and combining the dishes whose numbers correspond. Upon coming to
the last of the soups, which is No. 16, and attempting to make up a
menu, it will be discovered that there are only fifteen varieties of
potato dishes. In order to obtain a menu, the rotation must be begun
again, and so No. 1 of the potato dishes is used. This menu would
therefore consist of corn chowder, scalloped salmon, boiled potatoes
with butter and parsley, sautéd eggplant, peach-and-cream-cheese salad,
and chocolate bread pudding.

In planning menus with the aid of this table, the housewife may not be
able to use a certain dish that is suggested because it is out of
season, cannot be procured, or resembles too closely some of the other
dishes in the menu. In such an event, she should select another dish to
take the place of the one that spoils the combination. Likewise, she
should not hesitate to make any change that will result in producing
properly balanced meals.


LUNCHEON MENUS

69. To aid the housewife in the preparation of suitable luncheons, a
large number of luncheon menus are here given. These menus will serve to
give variety in the preparation of meals if they are rotated properly
and changes are made every once in a while in making up combinations of
food for this important and interesting meal.

THE PLANNING OF MEALS

No. 1

Rice Croquettes
Bread and Butter
Fruit Salad
Gingerbread and Cream Cheese

No. 2

Cream-of-Corn Soup
Egg Salad
Whole-Wheat Muffins
Baked Bananas
Tea

No. 3

Creamed Chicken on Toast
Sliced Tomatoes
Rolls
Fruit Cake

No. 4

Scalloped Oysters
Apple-and-Celery Salad
Wafers
Tea

No. 5

Cream-of-Tomato Soup
Hashed-Brown Potatoes
Graham Bread and Butter
Baked Apples
Tea

No. 6

Macaroni and Cheese
Cabbage Salad
Wafers
Sugar Cookies
Coffee

No. 7

Eggs à la Goldenrod
Rice with Raisins
Bread and Jam
Tea

No. 8

Omelet
Toast
Prune Whip
Vanilla Wafers
Tea

No. 9

Consommé
Chicken Salad
Rolls
Warm Gingerbread and Whipped Cream

No. 10

Creamed Dried Beef on Toast
Lettuce Salad
Stewed Fruit
Tea

No. 11
Scalloped Corn
Brown Bread and Butter
Fruit Salad
Cheese Straws
Coffee

No. 12

Cold Ham
Potato Salad
Graham Bread and Butter
Cookies
Tea

No. 13

Oyster Stew
Wafers
Celery
Pineapple
Sponge Cake

No. 14

Cheese Soufflé
Baked Tomato on Toast
Rice Pudding
Tea

No. 15

Meat Pie
Cranberry Jelly
Table Raisins
Coffee


BREAKFAST MENUS

70. WINTER BREAKFAST MENUS.--To assist the housewife in planning
properly balanced breakfast menus for winter, a number of suggestions
are here given. These necessarily differ from breakfast menus for other
seasons because of the difference in the food that can be obtained. They
are usually of a more hearty nature and contain more heat-producing foods.

No. 1

Oranges
Rolled Oats with Cream
Soft-Cooked Eggs
Toast and Butter
Coffee

No. 2

Stewed Prunes
Cream of Wheat with Cream
Broiled Bacon
Muffins and Butter
Coffee

No. 3

Baked Apples
Griddle Cakes with Maple Sirup
Sausage Patties
Coffee

No. 4

Rolls and Butter
Corn Flakes with Hot Milk
Grapefruit
Coffee

No. 5

Vitos with Dates
French Toast and Butter
Jelly
Hot Chocolate

No. 6

Apple Sauce
Fried Cornmeal Mush with Sirup
Broiled Bacon
Coffee

No. 7
Orange Juice
Steamed Rice
Omelet
Cornmeal Muffins and Butter
Coffee

No. 8

California Grapes
Hominy Grits
Waffles and Sirup
Coffee

No. 9

Sliced Bananas
Pearl Barley
Codfish Balls
Marmalade
Toast
Coffee

No. 10

Popovers Filled with Warm Apple Sauce
White Cornmeal Mush
Baked Eggs in Cream
Toast
Coffee

71. SUMMER BREAKFAST MENUS.--During the summer season, fresh fruits of
various kinds can be obtained, and these are generally used as the first
course for breakfast. As the menus here given show, it is well to vary
the fruit course as much as possible, so that there will be no danger of
tiring the persons to be served. An uncooked breakfast food is
preferable to a cooked one for summer and so several varieties of these
are here suggested.

No. 1

Strawberries and Cream
Scrambled Eggs
Toast
Coffee

No. 2

Raspberries
Puffed Rice
Baking-Powder Biscuits and Honey
Coffee

No. 3

Blackberries
Corn Flakes
Creamed Toast
Coffee

No. 4

Blueberries
Grape Nuts and Cream
Jelly
Omelet
Toast
Coffee

No. 5

Sliced Peaches
Puffed Wheat
Clipped Eggs
Toast
Coffee

No. 6

Cantaloupe
Krumbles with Cream
French Toast and Sirup
Coffee


MENUS FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS

72. Special occasions, such as New Year's, Easter, Fourth of July,
Thanksgiving, Christmas, etc., are usually celebrated with a dinner that
is somewhat out of the ordinary. Then, too, on such days as St.
Valentine's, St. Patrick's, Hallowe'en, etc., it is often desired to
invite friends in for a social time of some kind, when dainty,
appetizing refreshments make up a part of the entertainment. To assist
the housewife in planning menus for occasions of this kind, a number of
suggestions are here given. Suitable decorations are also mentioned in
each instance, for much of the attraction of a special dinner or
luncheon depends on the form of decoration used.

It should not be thought that elaborate, costly decorations are
necessary, for often the most effective results can be achieved with
some very simple decoration. Of course, the decorations should be
suitable for the occasion to be celebrated. Favors of various kinds are
generally on sale in confectioners' and stationers' shops, so that, if
desired, favors may be purchased. However, the ingenious housewife can,
with very little trouble, make favors that will be just as attractive as
those she can buy and that will be much less expensive. She may copy
some she sees in the shops or work out any original ideas she may have
on the most suitable decorations for the occasion.

NEW YEAR'S DINNERS

No. 1

DECORATION--Ground Pine

Cream-of-Tomato Soup
Mustard Pickles
Croutons
Baked Ham
Hot Slaw
Candied Sweet Potatoes
String Beans
Orange-and-Pineapple Salad
Maple Parfait
Macaroons
Salted Nuts
Coffee


No. 2

DECORATION--Potted Jerusalem Cherries

Crab-Flake Cocktail
Asparagus Broth
Radishes
Wafers
Roast Goose
Hot Baked Apples
Creamed Turnips
Mashed Potatoes
Peas-and-Celery Salad
Vanilla Ice Cream, Apricot Sauce
Table Raisins
Coffee



EASTER DINNERS

No. 1

DECORATION--Daffodils

Clear Tomato Soup
Mixed Pickles
Croutons
Creamed Mushrooms in Timbale Cases
Roast Spring Chicken
Mint Sauce
Potato Puff
Creamed Peas and Carrots
Grapefruit-and-Celery Salad
Milk Sherbet
Sponge Cake
Coffee

No. 2

DECORATIONS--Chinese Lilies and Iris

Fruit Cocktail
Bouillon with Whipped Cream and Pimiento
Celery  Wafers
Fricassee of Chicken
Riced Potatoes  Scalloped Corn
Tomato Salad
Bavarian Cream  Salted Nuts
Coffee


ST. VALENTINE PARTIES

DINNER MENU

DECORATIONS--Red Hearts and Ribbons, Red Candle Shades

Heart-Shaped Canapes  Olives
Clam Bouillon
Creamed Chicken and Mushrooms in Pattie Shells
Potatoes au Gratin
Grapefruit-and-California-Grape Salad
Vanilla Ice Cream  Heart-Shaped Cakes
Candies

LUNCHEON MENU

DECORATIONS--Red Roses, Heart-Shaped Favors, Cupids

Tuna-Fish Salad
Heart-Shaped Brown Bread and Marmalade Sandwiches
Nut Sandwiches
Ice Cream in Heart-Shaped Cases
Small Decorated Cakes
Candies  Nuts


ST. PATRICK'S DAY PARTIES

DINNER MENU

DECORATIONS--Shamrocks and Green Ribbon

Cream-of-Pea Soup
Olives  Wafers
Roast Pork Loin  Potatoes with Parsley Sauce
Tomatoes au Gratin
Green-Peppers-and-Cheese Salad
Lemon Ice  Cakes
Coffee  Green Mints

LUNCHEON MENU

DECORATIONS--White Narcissus, Green Carnations, Shamrocks

Chicken Salad
Cheese-and-Green-Pepper Sandwiches
Pistachio Ice Cream  Sponge Cake
Mint Punch

FOURTH-OF-JULY LUNCHEONS

No. 1

DECORATIONS--Sweet Peas, Small Flags

Iced Tomato Bouillon
Wafers
Cold Sliced Ham
Swiss Cheese
Creamed Potatoes and Peas
Strawberry-and-Pineapple Salad
Coconut Cream Pie
Iced Tea

No. 2

DECORATIONS--Cornflowers and Daisies

Iced Watermelon with Mint
Creamed Chicken and Mushrooms on Toast
Potato Croquettes
Corn on the Cob
Sliced Cucumbers
Vanilla Ice Cream
Chocolate Sauce
Punch


HALLOWE'EN LUNCHEONS

No. 1

DECORATIONS--Pumpkin Jack o' Lantern, Black-Paper Cats and Witches

Tongue Sandwiches
Swiss-Cheese Sandwiches
Cider
Doughnuts
Pumpkin Pie
Molasses Taffy

No. 2

DECORATIONS--Tiny Paper Jack o' Lanterns

Pink Bunny
Brown-Bread-and-Marmalade Sandwiches
Nut Cookies
Gingerbread
Candies
Cider


THANKSGIVING DINNERS

No. 1

DECORATIONS--Basket of Fruit

Oyster Cocktail
Consommé with Peas
Celery
Wafers
Roast Turkey
Candied Sweet Potatoes
Asparagus with Drawn-Butter Sauce
Cranberry Frappé
Head Lettuce
Thousand-Island Dressing
Pumpkin Pie
Fruit
Coffee

No. 2

DECORATIONS--Baby Chrysanthemums

Grapefruit Cocktail
Celery Soup
Olives
Bread Sticks
Roast Chicken
Cranberry Jelly
Mashed Potatoes
Cottage-Cheese Balls
Baked Onions
Stuffed Dates
Mince Pie
Coffee


CHRISTMAS DINNERS

No. 1

DECORATIONS--Small Christmas Tree

Oyster Broth
Oyster Crackers
Small Pickles
Olives
Chicken Pie
Pickled Peaches
Baked Sweet Potatoes
Creamed Cauliflower
Fruit Salad
Christmas Pudding
Sauce
Bonbons
Salted Nuts
Coffee

No. 2

DECORATIONS--Poinsettias and Holly

Grapefruit with Grape Juice
Cream Chicken Bouillon
Stuffed Celery
Wafers
Roast Duck
Currant Jelly
Mashed Potatoes
Baked Squash
Spiced Punch
Cabbage-and-Green-Pepper Salad
Plum Pudding
Sauce
Mints
Almonds
Coffee


WEDDING BREAKFASTS

No. 1

DECORATIONS--Seasonal Flowers

Iced Fruit
Creamed Chicken on Toast
Stuffed Potato
Asparagus with Butter Sauce
Rolls
Marmalade
Butter
Ice
Cake
Coffee

No. 2

DECORATIONS--Seasonal Flowers

Orange and Grapefruit Juice
Broiled Sweetbreads
Creamed Potatoes
Lima-Bean Soufflé
Hot Biscuits
Honey
Butter
Pineapple Fritters
Milk Sherbet
Cake
Coffee


WEDDING LUNCHEONS

No. 1

DECORATIONS--Seasonal Flowers

Oyster Cocktail
Chicken Soup
Radishes
Olives
Broiled Squab
Browned Potatoes
Fresh String Beans
Fruit Salad
French Ice Cream
Cake
Candies
Coffee

No. 2

DECORATIONS--Seasonal Flowers

Grapefruit Cocktail
Bouillon
Celery
Radishes
Chicken Croquettes
Potato Puff
Stuffed Tomatoes
Bread-and-Butter Sandwiches
Hearts of Lettuce
Mayonnaise
Chocolate Nut Ice Cream
Cake
Mints
Coffee


WEDDING DINNERS

No. 1

DECORATIONS--Seasonal Flowers

Fresh Pineapple
Cream-of-Celery Soup
Ripe Olives
Radishes
Broiled Chicken
Candied Sweet Potatoes
Green Peas in Cream
Corn Fritters
Whole-Wheat Rolls
Butter
Grapefruit Salad
Individual Molds of Ice Cream
Cake
Mints
Coffee

No. 2

DECORATIONS--Seasonal Flowers

Crabflake Cocktail
Consommé Julienne
Celery
Olives
Radishes
Roast Young Duck
Mashed Potatoes
Green Lima Beans
Creamed Cauliflower
Rolls
Butter
Waldorf Salad
Vanilla Ice Cream
Chocolate Sauce
Cake
Candies
Coffee


BIRTHDAY PARTIES FOR CHILDREN

BIRTHDAY DINNER

DECORATIONS--Kewpies with Large Bows of Ribbon To be Used as Favors

Fruit Cocktail in Orange Basket
Creamed Sweetbreads on Toast
Mashed Potatoes
Asparagus Soufflé
Peach-and-Cream-Cheese Salad
Vanilla Ice Cream with Maple Sirup
Birthday Cakes
Candies
Nuts


BIRTHDAY LUNCHEON

DECORATIONS--Pink Sweet Peas, Maiden-Hair Fern, Pink Favors Filled with
Candy

Fruit Salad
Wafers
Punch
Chocolate Ice Cream with Marshmallow
Birthday Cake
Stuffed Dates


BIRTHDAY PARTIES FOR ADULTS

BIRTHDAY DINNER

DECORATIONS--Pink Roses, Pink Candle Shades

Fruit Cocktail
Cream-of-Pea Soup
Radishes
Olives
Wafers
Chicken Croquettes
Stuffed Potatoes
Asparagus Tips
Pineapple-and-Cream-Cheese Salad
Meringue Glacé
Birthday Cake
Coffee

BIRTHDAY LUNCHEON

DECORATIONS--Seasonal Flowers, Candle Shades, and Favors to Match

Lobster Cocktail
Clear Soup
Wafers
Stuffed Olives
Chicken à la King
Julienne Potatoes
Stuffed-Tomato Salad
Chocolate Parfait
Birthday Cake
Candies
Nuts
Coffee


AFTERNOON TEAS

No. 1

Ribbon Sandwiches
Date-and-Nut Sandwiches
Toasted Pound Cake
Salted Nuts
Tea


No. 2

Apricot Sandwiches
Cream-Cheese-and-Peanut Sandwiches
Marguerites
Candied Orange Peel
Tea


SUPPER PARTIES

No. 1

Welsh Rarebit
Tomato Sandwiches
Chocolate Éclairs
Coffee

No. 2

Club Sandwiches
Bisque Ice Cream
Cakes
Coffee


TABLE SERVICE

73. ESSENTIALS OF GOOD TABLE SERVICE.--Too much cannot be said of the
importance of attractive table service. The simplest kind of meal served
attractively never fails to please, while the most elaborate meal served
in an uninviting way will not appeal to the appetite. Therefore, a
housewife should try never to neglect the little points that count so
much in making her meals pleasing and inviting. It is not at all
necessary that she have expensive dishes and linen, nor, in fact,
anything out of the ordinary, in order to serve meals in a dainty,
attractive way. Some points, however, are really essential and should
receive consideration.

74. In the first place, there should be absolute cleanliness in
everything used. To make this possible, the dishes should be properly
washed and dried. The glasses should be polished so that they are not
cloudy nor covered with lint. The silver should be kept polished
brightly. The linen, no matter what kind, should be nicely laundered.
Attention given to these matters forms the basis of good table service.

[Illustration: FIG. 9]

Close in hand with these points comes a well-arranged and neatly set
table. To this may be added some attractive touches in the way of
flowers or other simple decoration. These need cost little or nothing,
especially in the spring and summer seasons, for then the fields and
woods are filled with flowers and foliage that make most artistic table
decorations. Often, too, one's own garden offers a nice selection of
flowers that may be used for table decoration if a little time and
thought are given to their arrangement. In the winter, a small fern or
some other growing plant will answer.

75. BREAKFAST, LUNCHEON, AND DINNER SERVICE.--To give an idea of proper
table service for the three meals, breakfast, luncheon, and dinner,
Figs. 9, 10, and 11 are offered. Attention should be given to the
details of each of these, for they show how to arrange meals that are
intended to be served tastily and invitingly.

76. In Fig. 9 is shown a breakfast cover for one. By a _cover_ is meant
the silver and dishes placed on the table for one person. In a simple
meal, this might consist of a knife, a fork, spoons, a plate, a glass, a
cup and saucer, and a bread-and-butter plate. Here the cover has been
arranged on a breakfast tray for service at a bedside. This meal is not
in the least unusual, but it is very dainty and pleasing. It consists of
strawberries with the stems left on so that they may be dipped into
sugar and eaten, a cereal, a roll with butter, a hot dish of some kind,
such as eggs, and a hot beverage.

[Illustration: FIG. 10]

77. A luncheon table with covers for six is shown in Fig. 10. The first
course consists of a fruit cocktail, which is placed on the table before
the persons to be served are seated. The silver required up to the
dessert course is also laid beforehand. Just before the dessert is
served, the entire table should be cleared and the silver necessary for
this course laid at each place.

A point to be remembered in the placing of silver is that the various
pieces should always be placed on the table in the order in which they
are to be used. Here the first spoon is for the cocktail, which is
already on the table, while the second spoon is for the soup, the next
course. The knife, which is the third piece of silver, with the two
forks on the opposite side will be required for the dinner course, while
the third fork is a fork for the salad course.

As will be noted, doilies have been used in place of a table cloth for
this luncheon. These, which may be as simple or as elaborate as desired,
save laundering and, if they are inexpensive, they are an economy as
well as a convenience. Since they also make a luncheon table very
attractive, they are strongly recommended for meals of this kind. The
luncheon napkin, which is smaller than that used for dinner service,
should always be placed where it is shown here, that is, at the left of
the forks. If only one beverage is to be served, as is usually the case,
the glass is placed at the tip of the knife.

[Illustration: FIG. 11]

78. An example of a correctly set dinner table is shown in Fig. 11. A
table cloth, as will be noted, is used, for a cloth is always preferable
to doilies for dinner. At this meal, the first course is soup. This,
with anything that is to be eaten with the soup, such as the wafers used
here, or a relish, should be placed before the guests are seated. The
bread-and-butter plate, which is placed just at the top of the fork,
should also be on the table. Between each two persons, it is well to
have a set of salt-and-pepper shakers.

       *       *       *       *       *

THE PLANNING OF MEALS

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) What knowledge is necessary for the planning of economical and
well-balanced meals?

(2) Discuss a systematic plan for the purchasing of foods.

(3) Compare the advantages of buying foods at a cash store and a credit
store.

(4) Mention the advantages of keeping an account of household
expenditures.

(5) Tell how economy in the purchase of foods may be practiced.

(6) Discuss the training of a child's appetite.

(7) Why is a variety of food necessary in the diet?

(8) Name the factors that influence the amount and proportion of food
substances required for an adult.

(9) (_a_) Explain the meaning of calorie as applied to food. (_b_) What
is the average number of calories required by the adult?

(10) With the aid of Table V, find out how many pounds you are under
weight or over weight. Then tell how you would proceed to acquire your
correct weight.

(11) Make out menus for breakfast, dinner, and supper for 1 day for a
child 12 months old.

(12) Plan a dinner menu that contains foods suitable for both adults and
a child 4 years old, and from it select the foods you would give
the child.

(13) What does a balanced diet include?

(14) What can be done to balance the cost of foods used in a meal?

(15) Give several points of importance in selecting the dishes for a
meal.

(16) Make out menus for the seventeenth and eighteenth days from Table
VII.

(17) Plan an original menu and decorations for a dinner you can serve
for a special occasion.

(18) What are the advantages of a nicely arranged table?

(19) Give a few general rules for the correct serving of food and
setting of tables.

(20) Why is the following menu undesirable and what changes would you
suggest to make it more nearly correct?

Cream Soup
Potatoes
Roast Pork
Greens
Bread and Butter
Pudding
Hard Sauce

       *       *       *       *       *




INDEX

A

Absinthe,
Accounts, Equipment for keeping household,
  Keeping of household,
  Methods of keeping household,
Acids in confections, Use of,
  in fruit,
Adulteration of coffee,
  of flavorings,
Adults, Birthday parties for,
Advertised goods, Nationally,
After-dinner coffee,
Afternoon tea,
  teas,
Age on children's diet, Effect of,
  on diet, Effect of,
Alcoholic beverages,
  beverages, Harmful effects of,
  beverages, Kinds of,
Alligator pear, or avocado,
Apple butter,
  sauce,
Apples,
  apricots, and peaches, Dried,
  Composition and food value of,
  Drying of,
  Maple,
  Porcupine,
  Steamed,
  Stewed quinces and,
Apportionment of income,
Apricot soufflé,
Apricots,
  Drying of,
  Food value and composition of,
  peaches, and apples, Dried,
Artificial flavorings,
Asparagus, Canning of,
Automatic seal tops,
Avocado, or alligator pear,

B

Baked apples,
  bananas,
  peaches,
  pears,
Balancing the diet,
Banana fritters,
Bananas,
  Baked,
  Food value and composition of,
Beans, Canning of lima and other shelled,
  Canning of string,
  Drying of string,
  Pickled,
  Roasting the coffee,
Beer,
Beet relish,
  sugar,
Beets, Canning of,
  Pickled,
Berries, Miscellaneous,
  Nature and care of,
Berry, or fruit, sugar,
Beverage, Definition of,
Beverages, Alcoholic,
  Cereal,
  Fruit,
  Harmful effects of alcoholic,
  in the diet,
  Ingredients for fruit,
  Instantaneous cereal,
  Kinds of alcoholic,
  Nature and classes of,
  Nature of stimulating,
  Non-stimulating,
  Nourishing,
  Preparation of fruit,
  Stimulating,
  Table showing stimulant and tannic acid in stimulating,
Beverages to meals, Relation of,
  Water in,
Birthday-party menus,
Bitter chocolate,
Black tea,
Blackberries,
  Composition and food value of,
Blackberry jam,
  sponge,
Blanching and scalding foods to be canned,
Blend coffee,
Blueberries,
Blueberry pudding,
  pudding, Pressed,
Bohea tea,
Boiled coffee,
Boiling fruit juice and sugar in jelly making,
  the confection mixture,
Bonbon cream, Coating candies with,
Bonbons,
Brandy,
Breakfast cocoa,
  luncheon and dinner service,
  menus,
  menus, Summer,
  menus, Wedding-,
  menus, Winter,
Brown-sugar fudge,
Brussels sprouts, Canning of,
Budget, Household,
Butter, Apple,
  Cocoa,
  milk, and cream in confections,
  Peach,
  Pear,
  Plum,
  scotch,
  scotch, Marshmallows coated with,
  taffy,
Butters, Fruit,
Buying, Economical,

C

Cabbage, Canning of,
Cafe au lait, Iced,
  noir,
Caffeine,
Caffeol,
California oranges,
Calories, Quantity of foods in,
Candied and dried fruits in confections,
  peel,
Candies, Cream,
  Finishing,
  Marking and cutting,
  Nature of cream,
  with bonbon cream, Coating,
  with chocolate, Coating,
  Wrapping,
Candy, Serving,
  Table showing tests for,
  Testing,
Cane sugar,
Canned food, Flavor of,
  food, General appearance of,
  food, Proportion of food to liquid,
  food, Score card for,
  food, Texture of,
  foods from spoiling, Preventing,
  foods, Method of sealing,
  foods, Scoring,
  foods, Spoiling of,
  Preparation of food to be,
Canning and drying,
  Cold-pack method of,
  Commercial,
  Definition of,
  Equipment for,
  fruit juices for jelly,
  fruits, Directions for,
  fruits, Table of sirups for,
  greens,
  Measuring devices for,
  method, Fractional-sterilization,
  method, Oven,
  methods,
  methods for fruits,
  methods, Steam-pressure,
  of asparagus,
  of beets,
  of Brussels sprouts,
  of cabbage,
  of carrots,
  of cauliflower,
  of eggplant,
  of fish,
  of fruits,
  of green corn,
  of green peppers,
  of lima and other shelled beans,
  of meat,
  of okra,
  of parsnips,
  of peas,
  of pumpkin,
  of root and tuber vegetables,
  of squash,
  of string beans,
  of succotash,
  of summer squash,
  of tomatoes,
  of tomatoes and corn,
  of tomatoes for soup,
  of turnips,
  of vegetables,
Canning, Open-kettle method of,
  Oven method of,
  Preparation of fruits and vegetables for,
  preservatives,
  Principles of,
  Sealing the jars when,
  Selection of food for,
  Sirups for,
  Steam-pressure method of,
  Tin cans for,
  Utensils for,
  Utensils required for open-kettle method of,
  vegetables, Directions for,
  Vessels for,
  with a pressure cooker,
  with the water-seal outfit,
  with tin cans,
Cans for canning, Tin,
Cantaloupes and muskmelons,
  Serving,
Caramels,
  Chocolate,
  Nature of,
  Plain,
Caravan tea,
Carbohydrate in confections,
  in fruit,
Carbonated water,
Card-file system for menu making,
Carrot conserve,
Carrots, Canning of,
Casaba melons,
Cash-and-carry plan of marketing,
Catsup, Grape,
  Tomato,
Cauliflower, Canning of,
  Pickled,
Cellulose in fruit,
Center cream,
Cereal beverages,
  beverages, Instantaneous,
  coffees,
Chain stores,
Chemical or mineral colorings,
Cherries,
  Composition and food value of,
  Sour,
Cherry-and-pineapple conserve,
  fritters,
  preserve,
Chewing taffy,
Children and infants, Diet for,
Children's birthday parties, Menus for,
diet, Effect of age on,
diet, Effect of weight on,
Chilli sauce,
China congou tea,
Chocolate and cocoa,
  and cocoa in confections,
  and cocoa, Left-over,
  and cocoa, Preparation of,
  and cocoa, Production of,
  and cocoa, Selection of,
  and cocoa, Serving,
  and cocoa, Source of,
  Bitter,
  caramels,
  Coating candies with,
  Egg,
  Hot,
  malted milk,
  or cocoa, Iced,
  sirup,
  Sweet,
  Table showing tannic acid and stimulant in,
Chow chow,
Christmas dinners,
Citric acid,
Citrus fruits,
Classification of fruits,
  of tea,
  of vegetables,
Climate on diet, Effect of,
Clingstone peaches,
Closing and storing jelly,
Coarse granulated sugar,
  powdered sugar,
Coating candies with bonbon cream,
  candies with chocolate,
Cocktail, Fruit,
  Grapefruit,
  Summer,
Cocoa and chocolate,
  and chocolate in confections,
  and chocolate, Left-over,
  and chocolate, Preparation of,
  and chocolate, Production of,
  and chocolate, Selection of,
  and chocolate, Serving,
  and chocolate, Source of,
  Breakfast,
  butter,
  Commercial,
  Creamy,
  Milling of,
  nibs,
  Plain,
  or chocolate, Iced,
  Rich,
  Table showing tannic acid and stimulant in,
  Theobroma,
Coconut in confections,
Coffee, Adulteration of,
  After-dinner,
  beans, Grinding,
Coffee beans, Roasting,
  biggin,
  Blend,
  Boiled,
  Filtered,
  History and production of,
  Iced,
  Instantaneous,
  Java,
  Left-over,
  Mocha,
  Percolated,
  percolators,
  pot,
  Preparation of,
  Rio,
  Rye,
  seeds, Obtaining,
  Selection of,
  Serving,
  Table showing stimulant and tannic acid in,
  Vienna,
Coffees, Cereal,
Colander and wire strainer for canning,
Cold-dipping,
  -pack method of canning,
  -pack method, Procedure in one-period,
  -pack method, Utensils for,
Color of jelly,
Colorings for confections,
  Mineral, or chemical,
  Vegetable,
Combination drying methods,
Combining sugar and liquid in confection making,
Commercial canning,
  cocoa,
Composition and food value of bananas,
  and food value of black raspberries,
  and food value of blackberries,
  and food value of cherries,
  and food value of cranberries,
  and food value of currants,
  and food value of dates,
  and food value of dried apples,
  and food value of dried apricots,
  and food value of dried figs,
  and food value of dried prunes,
  and food value of fresh apples,
  and food value of fresh apricots,
  and food value of fresh figs,
  and food value of fresh prunes,
  and food value of fruits,
  and food value of grapefruit,
  and food value of grapes,
Composition and food value of huckleberries,
  and food value of lemons,
  and food value of muskmelon,
  and food value of nectarines,
  and food value of oranges,
  and food value of peaches,
  and food value of pears,
  and food value of persimmons,
  and food value of pineapple,
  and food value of plums,
  and food value of pomegranates,
  and food value of raisins,
  and food value of red raspberries,
  and food value of rhubarb,
  and food value of strawberries,
  and food value of watermelon,
  of confections,
  of food,
  of fruits,
Confection making,
  making, Combining sugar and liquid in,
  making, Effect of weather on,
  making, Equipment for,
  making, Procedure in,
  mixture, Boiling,
  mixture, Pouring and cooling,
Confectioners', or XXXX, sugar,
Confections,
  Candied and dried fruits in,
  Carbohydrate in,
  Chocolate and cocoa in,
  Coconut in,
  Composition of,
  Cooking,
  Definition of,
  Fat in,
  Food materials in,
  Ingredients used in,
  Milk, cream, and butter in,
  Mineral salts in,
  Miscellaneous,
  Nature of,
  Nuts in,
  Pop-corn in,
  Protein in,
  Use of acids in,
  Varieties and preparations of,
Congou tea,
  tea, China,
Conservation of foods,
Conserve, Carrot,
  Cherry-and-pineapple,
  Crab-apple-and-orange,
  Definition of,
  Pineapple-and-apricot,
  Plum,
  Red-raspberry-and-currant,
Conserve, strawberry-and-pineapple
  strawberry-and-rhubarb
Containers for jelly
Cooking and storing of dried foods
  confections
  fruit in jelly-making
  on fruit, effect of
Cooling and pouring the confection mixture
Cordials
Corn, canning of green
Canning of tomatoes and
  Drying of
  sirup
Correct diet
  weights for certain heights, table showing,
Cost of foods
Covers, jar tops, or
Crab-apple-and-orange conserve
  -apple jelly
  -apple relish
  -apples, pickled
Cracker jack
Cranberries
  Composition and food value of
Cranberry jelly
  sauce
Cream candies
  Center
  milk, and butter in confections
  Opera
Creamy cocoa
Cucumber pickles, Sliced
  pickles, small
Cucumbers in brine
Currant jelly
Currants
  Food value and composition of
Cutting and marking candies

D

Dates
  Food value and composition of
  Stuffed
Density of sirup for canning
Desserts, fruit
Devices for canning, measuring
  for drying
Diet, balancing the
  Beverages in the
  Correct
  Effect of age on
  Effect of age on children's
  Effect of climate on
  Effect of sex on
  Effect of weight on
  Effect of weight on children's
  for infants and children
Diet, Fruit in the
  Pickles in the
  Preserves and jellies in the
Digestibility of fruits
Dinner, breakfast, and luncheon service
  menus
  menus, suggestions for
Dinners, Christmas
  Easter
  New Year's
  Thanksgiving
  Wedding
Distilled water
Divinity
Dried and candied fruits in confections
  apples
  apricots
  foods, cooking and storing
  fruits, varieties of
  peaches
Drip pot
Drying and canning
  devices for
  method, electric-fan
  method, stove
  method, sun
  methods, combination
  of apples
  of apricots
  of corn
  of food
  of greens
  of peaches
  of pears
  of quinces
  of small fruits
  of string beans
  of tuber and root vegetables
  preparation of foods for
  vegetables and fruits, directions for

E

Easter dinners
Economical food buying
Economies in purchasing food
Economy of food preservation
  of jelly making and preserving
Egg chocolate
  milk shake
  nog, foamy
  nog, orange
Eggplant and summer squash, canning of,
Electric-fan drying method
English breakfast tea
Equipment for canning
  for confection making
  for household accounts
Equipment for jelly making,
Exhausting in canning, Meaning of,
Extra fine, or fancy fine, granulated sugar,
Extracting fruit juice in jelly making,
Extracts, Flavoring,

F

Factors influencing cost of foods,
  influencing foods,
Family income for food, Table showing proportion of,
Fancy fine, or extra fine, granulated sugar,
Fat in confections,
  in fruits, Protein and,
Feeding scale for infants,
Fermentation of fruit juices,
Figs,;
  Composition and food value of dried,
  Composition and food value of fresh,
  Pressed,
  Pulled,
  Steamed,
  Stewed,
Filtered coffee,
Fine granulated sugar,
Fish and meat, Canning of,
Flat sour in canning,
Flavor fruits,
  of canned food,
  of jelly,
Flavoring extracts,
  oils,
Flavorings, Adulteration of,
  Artificial,
  Natural,
Flavors, Synthetic,
Florida oranges,
Flowery pekoe tea,
Foamy egg nog,
Fondant,
  and related creams,
  Nature of,
  Uncooked,
Food, Composition of,
  cost, Chart of factors in,
  Drying of,
  Economies in purchasing,
  Factors influencing,
  Factors influencing cost of,
  for canning, Selection of,
  fruits,
  Importance of proper amount of,
  in calories, Quantity of,
  materials in confections,
  Preparation of fruits as,
Food preservation, Economy of,
  Principles of drying,
  Sterile,
  substances to growth and health, Relation of,
  Suitability of,
  Table showing proportion of family income for,
  to be canned, Preparation of,
  value and composition of apples,
  value and composition of apricots,
  value and composition of bananas,
  value and composition of black raspberries,
  value and composition of blackberries,
  value and composition of cherries,
  value and composition of cranberries,
  value and composition of currants,
  value and composition of dates,
  value and composition of figs,
  value and composition of fruits,
  value and composition of grapefruit,
  value and composition of grapes,
  value and composition of huckleberries,
  value and composition of lemons,
  value and composition of muskmelon,
  value and composition of nectarines,
  value and composition of oranges,
  value and composition of peaches,
  value and composition of pears,
  value and composition of persimmons,
  value and composition of pineapple,
  value and composition of plums,
  value and composition of pomegranates,
  value and composition of prunes,
  value and composition of raisins,
  value and composition of red raspberries,
  value and composition of rhubarb,
  value and composition of strawberries,
  value and composition of watermelon,
  value of fruits,
Foods, Conservation of,
  Cost of,
  for drying, Preparation of,
  from spoiling, Preventing canned,
  Methods for preserving,
  Necessity for preserving,
  Purchase of,
  Quantity and proportion of,
Foods, Scoring canned
  Spoiling of canned
  Storing and serving canned
Formosa tea
Fourth-of-July luncheons
Fractional-sterilization method of canning
Freestone peaches
Fritters, Banana
  Cherry
Fruit, Acids in
  and fruit desserts
  as food, Preparation of
  beverages
  beverages, Ingredients for
  beverages, Preparation of
  butters
  Carbohydrate in
  Cellulose in
  cocktails
  cultivation, Advance in
  Definition of
  desserts, Fruit and
  Effect of cooking on
  for preserving, Selection of
  in jars, Packing
  in jelly making, Cooking
  in the diet
  juice and sugar in jelly making, Boiling the
  juice and sugar in jelly making, Combining the
  juice for pectin in jelly making, Testing the
  juice lacking in pectin in jelly making
     Using
  Minerals in
  nectar
  or berry, sugar
  Preparing and serving
  punch
  sugar, or levulose
  Water in
Fruits and vegetables, Directions for drying
  and vegetables for canning, Preparation of
  Canning methods for
  Canning vegetables and
  Citrus
  Classification of
  Composition and food value of
  Composition of
  Digestibility of
  Directions for canning
  Dried
  Drying of small
  Effect of ripeness on
  Flavor
  Food
Fruits, Food value of
  Hard
  in confections, Candied and dried
  Miscellaneous citrus
  Miscellaneous tropical
  Nature of
  Non-tropical
  Protein and fat in
  Serving
  Soft
  Sour soft
  Special
  Sweet soft
  Table showing composition and food value of
  Tropical
  Varieties of dried
  Varieties of tropical
  Very sour soft
  Washing
Fudge, Brown-sugar
  recipes
  Two-layer
Fudges and related candies

G

General appearance of canned food
Gin
Ginger-ale punch
Glacé nuts and fruits
Glass jars
Glasses, Closing and storing jelly
  Filling jelly
Glove oranges
Glucose
Goods, Nationally advertised
Gooseberries
  Green
Gooseberry jam
Graining of sugar in candy making
Granulated sugar
  sugar, Coarse
  sugar, Fancy fine, or extra fine
  sugar, Fine
  sugar, Standard
Grape catsup
  jelly
  juice, Unfermented
  lemonade
  marmalade
Grapefruit cocktail
  Composition and food value of
  or shaddock
  Preparation of
  Selection of
  Serving
Grapes
  Food value and composition of
Green corn, Canning of
  -gage jam
Green gooseberries
  peppers, Canning of okra and
  tea
  -tomato pickle
Greens
  Canning
  Drying of
Growth and health, Relation of food substances to
Guavas
  Red
  White
Gunpowder tea

H

Hallowe'en luncheons
Hard fruits
  water
Heavy sirup
Honey
Hot chocolate
Household accounts, Equipment for
  accounts, Keeping of
  accounts, Methods of keeping
  budget
Huckleberries
  Composition and food value of
Hydrometer, or sirup gauge
Hyson tea

I

Ice-cream soda
Iced café au lait
  cocoa or chocolate
  coffee
  tea
Income, Apportionment of
Infants and children, Diet for
  Feeding scale for
Ingredients used in confections
Instantaneous cereal beverages
  coffee

J

Jam
  Blackberry
  Definition of
  Gooseberry
  Green-gage
  Raspberry
  Strawberry
Japan tea
Jar covers or tops
  rubbers
  tops or covers
Jars, Glass
  Wrapping and labeling
Java coffee
Jellies and preserves in the diet
  preserves, and pickles, Value of
Jelly bag
Jelly, Canning fruit juices for
  Color of
  Containers for
  Crab-apple
  Cranberry
  Currant
  Flavor of
  glasses, Closing and storing
  glasses, Filling
  Grape
  making
  making and preserving, Economy of
  making, Cooking fruit in
  making, Extracting fruit juice in
  making, Kettles for
  making, Necessary equipment for
  making, preserving, and pickling
  making, Principles of
  making, Procedure in
  making, Proportion of sugar in
  making, Sheeting in
  making, Utensils for
  Method of sealing
  mixture, Testing the
  Peach
  Plum
  Quince
  Raspberry
  recipes
  Score card for
  Scoring
  Solidity of
  Strawberry
  Sugar content of
Juice in jelly making, Extracting fruit
Juices for jelly, Canning fruit
Julep, Mint

K

Ketchup, Tomato
Kettles for jelly making,
Kumquats
  and loquats

L

Left-over cocoa and chocolate
  -over coffee
  -over tea
Lemonade
  Grape
  Pineapple
Lemons
  Composition and food value of
Levulose, or fruit sugar
Light sirup
Lima and other shelled beans, Canning of
Limes
Liquid and sugar in confection making
Loganberries
Long-boiling process
Loquats and kumquats
Luncheon, breakfast, and dinner service
  menus
  menus, Fourth-of-July
  menus, Hallowe'en
  menus, Suggestions for
  menus, Wedding

M

Malic acid
Malted milk, Chocolate
Mandarins
Mangoes, Tamarinds and
Maple apples
  penuchie
  sirup and maple sugar
Marketing, Cash-and-carry plan of
  Successful
Marking and cutting candies
Marmalade
  Grape
  Orange
  Orange-and-pineapple
  Quince
Marshmallows
  coated with butter scotch
Meals, Planning of
  Relation of beverages to
Mean-boiling process
Measuring devices for canning
Meat and fish, Canning of
Medium sirup
Melons
  Casaba
Menu making and table service
  making, Card-file system of
  making, Rules for
Menus, Breakfast
  Dinner
  for adults' birthday parties
  for afternoon teas
  for children's birthday parties
  for Christmas dinners
  for Easter dinners
  for Fourth-of-July luncheons
  for Hallowe'en luncheons
  for New Year's dinners
  for Saint Patrick's day parties
  for Saint Valentine's day parties
  for special occasions
  for supper parties
  for wedding breakfasts
  for wedding dinners
  for wedding luncheons
Menus, Luncheon
  Summer breakfast
  Winter breakfast
Method of drying foods, Stove
  of drying foods, Sun
  of sealing canned food
  of sealing jelly
Methods of canning
  of keeping household accounts
  of making tea
  of securing variety in meals
Middlemen
Milk, cream, and butter in confections
  shake, Egg
  shake, Plain
Milling of cocoa
Mineral, or chemical, colorings
  salts in confections
  water
Minerals in fruit
Mint julep
Miscellaneous berries
  citrus fruits
  confections
  tropical fruits
Mixed teas
Mocha coffee
Molasses
  Sorghum
  taffy
Muskmelon, Composition and food value of
Muskmelons and cantaloupes
  Serving
Mustard pickles

N

Nationally advertised goods
Natural flavorings
Nature of confections
Navel oranges
Nectar, Fruit
  Red-raspberry
Nectarines
  Composition and food value of
New Year's dinners
Non-stimulating beverages
  -tropical fruits
Nougat
Nourishing beverages
Nut bars
Nuts in confections
  Salted

O

Okra and green peppers, Canning of
One-period cold-pack method of canning
Onions, Pickled
Oolong tea
Open-kettle method of canning
  -kettle method of canning, Procedure in
  -kettle method of canning, Utensils required for
Opera cream
Orange-and-pineapple marmalade
  -and-rhubarb marmalade
  egg nog
  marmalade
  pekoe tea
Orangeade
Oranges
  California
  Composition and food value of
  Florida
  Glove
  Navel
  Preparation of
Oriental delight
Orientals
Oven method of canning

P

Packing fruit or vegetables in jars
Parsnips, Canning of
Parties for adults, Menus for birthday
  for children, Menus for birthday
  Menus for Saint Patrick's day
  Menus for Saint Valentine
  Menus for supper
Peach butter
  jelly
  pitter
  preserve
Peaches
  apples, and apricots, Dried
  Clingstone
  Composition and food value of
  Drying of
  Freestone
  Kinds of
  Pickled
  Stewed
Peanut brittle
Pear butter
Pears
  Baked
  Drying of
  Food value and composition of
  Pickled
Peas, Canning of
Pectin
  Testing fruit juice for
  Using fruit juice lacking in
Pekoe tea
  tea, Flowery
  tea, Orange
Penuchie, Maple
Peppers, Canning of okra and green
Percolated coffee
Persimmons
  Composition and food value of
Pickle, Green-tomato
  Ripe-tomato
Pickled beans
  beets
  cauliflower
  crab apples
  onions
  peaches
  pears
  watermelon rind
Pickles in the diet
  jellies, and preserves, Value of
  Mustard
  Sliced-cucumber
  Small cucumber
Pickling
  Definition of
  Principles of
  recipes
Pineapple-and-apricot conserve
  Food value and composition of
  lemonade
  Preparation of
  pudding
Pineapples
  Selecting
Plain caramels
  cocoa
  milk shake
Planning of meals
Plum butter
  conserve
  jelly
  preserve
Plums
  Composition and food value of
  Stewed
Pod and related vegetables
Pomegranates
  Composition and food value of
Pomelo grapefruit
Pop-corn balls
  corn, Preparing
Porcupine apples
Pouring and cooling the candy mixture
Powdered sugar, Coarse
  sugar, Standard
  sugar, XXXX
Preparation of cocoa and chocolate
  of coffee
  of confections, Varieties and
  of food to be canned
  of fruit as food
Preparation of grapefruit
  of oranges
  of pineapple
Preparing and serving fruit
Preservatives, Canning
Preserve, Cherry
  Peach
  Plum
  Quince
  Raspberry
  Strawberry
Preserved-fruit recipes
  fruits, Varieties of
Preserves and jellies in the diet
  jellies, and pickles, Value of
  proper
Preserving
  foods, Methods for
  foods, Necessity for
  Methods of
  Principles of
  Selection of fruit for
  Utensils for
Pressed blueberry pudding
  figs
Pressure cooker
  cooker, Canning with a
Preventing canned goods from spoiling
Principles of canning
  of drying food
  of preserving
Procedure in confection making
  in one-period cold-pack method
  in open-kettle method of canning
Processing
Proportion of family income for food, Table showing
  of food to liquid in canned food
  of foods in balanced diet, Quantity and
  of sugar in jelly making
Protein and fat in fruits
  in confections
Prune whip
Prunes
  Composition and food value of
  Stewed
  Stuffed
Pudding, Blueberry
  Pineapple
  Pressed blueberry
Pulled figs
Pulverized sugars
Pumpkin and squash, Canning of
Punch, Fruit
  Ginger-ale
Purchase of foods
Purchasing food, Economies in
Pure water, Necessity for

Q

Quality of canned food
Quantity and proportion of foods
  of foods in calories
Quince jelly
  marmalade
  preserve
Quinces
  and apples, Stewed
  Drying of

R

Rainbow delight
Raisins
  Composition and food value of
Raspberries
  Black
  Composition and food value of
  Red
Raspberry-and-currant conserve, Red-,
  jam
  jelly
  nectar, Red-,
  preserve
  shortcake
  whip, Red
Reception wafers
Red-raspberry-and-currant conserve
  -raspberry nectar
  -raspberry whip
Relation of beverages to meals
  of food substances to growth and health
Relish, Beet
  Crab-apple
  Spanish
Relishes
Rhubarb
  Composition and food value of
  Stewed
Rio coffee
Ripe-tomato pickle
Rolls, Tutti-frutti
Root and tuber vegetables
  and tuber vegetables, Canning of
  and tuber vegetables, Drying of
Rubbers, Jar
Rules for menu making
Rum
Rye coffee

S

Saint Patrick's day parties, Menus for
  Valentine parties, Menus for
Salted nuts
Samovar
Sauce, Apple
  Cranberry
Scalding or blanching in canning
Score card for canned food
  card for jelly
Scoring canned foods
  jelly
Sea foam
Seal tops, Automatic
Sealing jars when canning
Selection of coffee
  of food for canning
  of fruit for preserving
  of grapefruit
Service, Essentials of good table
Serving candy
  canned foods, Storing and
  cantaloupes
  cocoa and chocolate
  coffee
  fruit, Preparing and
  grapefruit
  muskmelons
  tea
Sex on diet, Effect of
Shaddock, or grapefruit
Sheeting in jelly making
Short-boiling process
Shortcake, Raspberry
  Strawberry
Sirup, Chocolate
  Corn
  Density of
  gauge, or hydrometer
  Heavy
  Light
  Maple
  Medium
Sirups for canning
  for canning fruits, Table of
Sliced-cucumber pickles
Small cucumber pickles
  fruits, Drying of
Soft drinks
  drinks, Definition of
  fruits
  fruits, Sour
  fruits, Sweet
  fruits, Very sour
  sugars
  water
Solidity of jelly
Sorghum molasses
Souchong first tea
  pekoe tea
  second tea
Soufflé, Apricot
Soup, Canning of tomatoes for
Sour cherries
  soft fruits
  soft fruits, Very
Spanish relish
Special fruits
  vegetables
Spice cup
Spoiling of canned foods
Sponge, Blackberry
Spores
Squash and pumpkin, Canning of
  Canning of eggplant and summer
Standard granulated sugar
  powdered sugar
Steam-pressure methods of canning
Steamed apples
  figs
Steeped tea
Sterile food
Sterilizer
Stewed figs
  peaches
  plums
  prunes
  quinces with apples
  rhubarb
Stimulant and tannic acid in stimulating beverages, Table showing
Stimulating beverages
  beverages, Definitions of
  beverages, Nature of
  beverages, Table showing stimulant and tannic acid in
Stores, Chain
Storing and cooking dried foods
  and serving canned foods
  jelly glasses, Closing and
Stove-drying method
Strainer for canning, Colander and wire
Strawberries
  Composition and food value of
Strawberry-and-pineapple conserve
  -and-rhubarb conserve
  desserts, Miscellaneous
  huller
  jam
  jelly
  preserve
  shortcake
  whip
String beans, Canning of
  beans, Drying of
Stuffed dates
  prunes
Successful marketing
Succotash, Canning of
Sugar and fruit juice in jelly making, Boiling the
  and fruit juice in jelly making, Combining the
  and liquid in confection making
Sugar, Beet
  Cane
  Coarse granulated
  Coarse powdered
  content of jelly
  Fancy fine, or extra fine, granulated
  Fine granulated
  Fruit, or berry
  Graining of
  Granulated
  in jelly making, Proportion of
  Levulose, or fruit
  Maple
  Pulverized
  Soft
  Standard granulated
  Standard powdered
  XXXX, or confectioners'
  XXXX powdered
Suggestions for dinner menus
  for luncheon menus
Suitability of food
Summer breakfast menus
  cocktail
  squash, Canning of eggplant and
Sun-drying method
Supper parties, Menus for
Sweet chocolate
  soft fruits
Synthetic flavors
System of menu making, Card-file

T

Table of sirups for canning fruits
  service
  service and menu making
  service, Essentials of good
  showing composition and food value of fruits
  showing correct weight for certain heights
  showing proportion of family income for food
  showing stimulant and tannic acid in stimulating beverages
  showing tests for candy
Tables showing effect of weight on diet
Taffies and similar candies
  Nature of
Taffy, Butter
  Chewing
  Method of treating
  Molasses
  recipes
  Vanilla
Tamarinds and mangoes
Tangerines
Tannic acid in stimulating beverages
  Table showing stimulant and
  acid, or tannin
Tartaric acid
Tea, Afternoon
  ball
  Black
  Bohea
  Caravan
  China congou
  Classification of
  Congou
  English breakfast
  Flowery pekoe
  Formosa
  Green
  Gunpowder
  History and production of
  Hyson
  Iced
  Japan
  Left-over
  Methods of making
  Mixed
  Oolong
  Orange pekoe
  Pekoe
  Preparation of
  Selection of
  Serving
  Souchong first
  Souchong pekoe
  Souchong second
  Steeped
  Table showing stimulant and tannic acid in
  Varieties of
Teas, Afternoon
Testing candy
  fruit juice for pectin
  the jelly mixture
Tests for candy, Table showing
Texture of canned food
Thanksgiving dinners, Menus for
Theine
Theobromine
Tin cans, Canning with
  cans for canning
Tomato catsup
  ketchup
Tomatoes and corn, Canning of
  Canning of
  for soup, Canning of
Tops, Jar covers or
Tropical fruits
  fruits, Miscellaneous
  fruits, Varieties of
Tuber and root vegetables, Canning of
  vegetables, Root and
Tubers and root vegetables, Drying of
Turnips, Canning of
Tutti-frutti rolls
Two-layer fudge

U

Uncooked fondant
Unfermented grape juice
Utensils for canning
  for coffee making
  for confection making
  for drying
  for jelly making
  for preserving
  for tea making
  required for cold-pack method
  required for open-kettle method of canning

V

Value of jellies, preserves, and pickles
Vanilla taffy
Varieties and preparation of confections
  of tea
  of tropical fruits
Variety in meals, Methods for securing
Vegetable colorings
Vegetables and fruits, Canning
  and fruits, Directions for drying
  Canning of root and tuber
  Classification of
  Direction for canning
  Drying of root and tuber
  for canning, Preparation of fruits and
  Pod and related
Vegetables, Root and tuber
  Special
Very sour soft fruits
Vessels for canning
Vienna coffee
Vitamines

W

Washing fruits
Water bath in canning, Preparing jars for the
  Carbonated
  Distilled
  Hard
  in beverages
  in fruit
  Kinds of
  Mineral
  Necessity for pure
  -seal outfit
  -seal outfit, Canning with a
  Soft
Watermelon, Composition and food value of
  rind, Pickled
Watermelons
Wedding-breakfast menus
  -dinner menus
  -luncheon menus
Weight on children's diet, Effect of
  on diet, Effect of
Whip, Prune
  Red-raspberry
  Strawberry
Whisky
Wine
Winter breakfast menus
Wire strainer, Colander and
Wrapping and labeling jars
   candies