Transcriber’s Notes

  Texts between _underscores_, =equal signs= and ~tildes~ in this
  e-text represent texts printed in italics, bold face and sans-serif
  in the source document. Small capitals have been transcribed as ALL
  CAPITALS.

  More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text.




  THE MODERN
  PACKING HOUSE

  A COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION,
  EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION OF MEAT PACKING
  HOUSES, ACCORDING TO PRESENT AMERICAN
  PRACTICE, INCLUDING METHODS OF
  CONVERTING BY-PRODUCTS INTO
  COMMERCIAL ARTICLES.

  New Edition
  Revised, Amplified and Enlarged by
  DAVID I. DAVIS

  First Edition by the Late
  F. W. WILDER
  FOR MANY YEARS GENERAL SUPERINTENDENT SWIFT & CO.

  [Illustration]

  PUBLISHERS
  NICKERSON & COLLINS CO.
  CHICAGO


  COPYRIGHT, 1905 AND 1921,
  BY NICKERSON & COLLINS CO., CHICAGO

  All Rights Reserved

  Press of
  ICE AND REFRIGERATION
  Chicago.




PREFACE.


In the preparation of the revised edition of this work, the first
complete treatise upon the subject of the meat packing house business
published, the original scheme has been followed. First, presenting
in a convenient and simple form, practical suggestions, tables and
formula that are needed in the operation of the packing house business
according to modern practice. Second, describing operations in the
various ramifications of the business, from the unloading of the
animals at the pens to the production of the finished product and the
disposition of it, in the order in which the different operations are
conducted.

The various operations described and subjects treated upon have been
indexed so that any matter upon which it is desired to obtain instant
information may be readily found. The author arranged the chapters in
the order of the various operations in the packing house, together with
descriptions of the machinery and appliances required. The established
packer, as well as the beginner, if he carefully digest the contents
of this work, will find he has valuable information, the knowledge of
which will aid him in conducting his business.

The chapters on proper construction and arrangement contain information
in which the author has given the reader the benefit of his experience
in the construction and operation of packing plants.

A portion of the contents of this work is devoted to tests showing the
value and yields of the various products of a modern packing house,
based on prices and conditions existing at the time they were made, in
which the percentages and comparisons are reliable and are available
to the reader by using the weights and percentage shown, computed on
present commercial prices.

The numerous formulas given for the manufacture and preservation of the
various products of the packing house are those which have been proven
to be the best after years of experience. In every instance they have
been put in the simplest form possible, so that no mistake can be made
in applying them.

In revising this work, it is recognized that the use of some of the
ingredients are now prohibited by regulation in the United States, but
in some instances, it has been seen fit to not change the original
formulas. In some instances, however, the omission of the objectionable
ingredient has been made, though otherwise the formula remains the same
as in the first edition. Many formulas rendered obsolete are omitted on
account of conflicting with pure food laws.

The information furnished in these pages is based upon the author’s
experience, there being very little theorizing upon the possibilities
of what may be accomplished by adopting certain prescribed methods.
For this reason, the book will be found of practical value to those
interested in the meat packing business.

The present necessity of a work on packing house operation is more
evident than when the first edition was published. The original work
has been entirely revised where considered necessary, amplified in
places and much new information added.

The chapters relative to construction, refrigeration and mechanical
operation have been revised to conform to advanced practice.

Acknowledgment is made of the use of engravings, photographs and
original data, and ideas developed and used by the reviser in his
engineering practice. That the volume will be well received and fill
the needs as a hand book and reference work is the hope of the authors
and publishers.

The assimilation of the contents as a foundation, together with power
of observation and application will greatly assist beginners in
packing house work, the methods of which are progressing--although the
fundamentals remain the same.

The reviser hopes assistance will be given in this way, which he in
turn received by oral advice from the two outstanding superintendents
in their day (the days of the business growth), Messrs. F. W. Wilder
and C. O. Young.

  D. I. DAVIS.

Chicago, July 1, 1921.




TABLE OF CONTENTS.


  CHAPTER I.

  MODERN PACKING HOUSES                                                1

  Introduction and Growth -- Concentration -- Early Methods --
  Yankee Ingenuity -- Chicago Yards -- Movement Westward --
  Economic Factors -- Saving By-Products -- Pioneer’s Troubles --
  Using Box Cars -- Using Refrigerator Cars -- Chilling Rooms --
  Mechanical Refrigeration -- Freezing Meats -- Overseas Shipments.


  CHAPTER II.

  LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION                                            9

  Location -- Water Supply -- Sewage -- Odors and Prevailing Winds
  -- Cleanliness -- Designs and Errors -- Character of Business --
  Requirements -- Principles of Design.


  CHAPTER III.

  PLANT DESIGN                                                        14

  Description of Plants -- Plant No. 1 -- Plant No. 2 -- Plant No.
  3 -- Plant No. 4 -- Type of Plant -- Loading Facilities --
  Producing Department -- Abbatoir Building -- Rendering Building
  -- Live Stock -- Icing Department -- Cooler Building -- Pork
  House -- Manufacturing Building -- Salt Spaces -- Power
  Department -- Gravity System -- How to Build -- Fireproof Design
  -- Advantages -- Slow Burning Construction -- Approval of Plans.


  CHAPTER IV.

  REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT                                             29

  Ammonia Machines -- Ammonia -- Compressor -- Condenser --
  Receiver -- Cooler -- Condensing Water -- Unit Basis -- Computing
  from Unit Basis -- How Rated -- Freezer Requirements -- Freezers
  in Small Plants -- Cylinder Arrangement -- Why Brine Circulation
  -- Air Circulating -- Force Draft -- Coil Room Systems -- Brine
  Chilling -- Brine Methods -- Types of Brine Coolers -- Balanced
  Brine System -- Direct Expansion -- Two Stage Compressors.


  CHAPTER V.

  REFRIGERATION REQUIREMENTS                                          45

  Refrigeration -- Necessities -- Ice Plants -- Natural Ice --
  Chilling -- Quantity Refrigeration to Provide -- Space Per Ton
  Machine -- Machinery Per Head -- For Cooled Meats -- Ice
  Computation -- Compressor Capacity -- Chilling Lard -- Summary
  Computations -- Low Temperature Brine System.


  CHAPTER VI.

  POWER PLANT REQUIREMENT                                             52

  Steam Making Equipment -- Uses of Pumps -- Types of Pumps --
  Pumps for Brine -- Water Supply -- Pumps for Wells -- Water
  Distribution Systems -- Pumps for Boiler Feeding -- Heating
  Boiler Feed Water -- Wells -- Cooling Towers -- Economizers --
  Superheaters -- Steam Engines -- Exhaust Steam -- Advice as to
  Exhaust Steam -- Boilers -- Conclusion.


  CHAPTER VII.

  COOLERS                                                             60

  Meat Chilling -- Dividing Beef Coolers -- Regular Temperatures --
  Main Cooler -- Handling Beef -- Fore-Cooler -- Heavy Cattle --
  Domestic Beef -- Trimming of Beef -- Skirt Trimming -- Ribbing
  Beef -- Freezing Beef -- Loading Beef -- Weighing and Tagging --
  Care of Coolers -- Mutton and Veal -- Chilling Hogs -- Cellars --
  Freezing Meat.


  CHAPTER VIII.

  WAREHOUSES                                                          70

  Warehouse Design -- Floor Area -- Fire Proof Buildings -- Floor
  Construction -- Coolers -- Fan and Ventilation -- Spray System --
  Galvanized Sheet Iron Pipes -- Coil Rooms -- Quantity of Pipe --
  Method of Erecting -- Life of Pipe -- Cellar Ceiling Suspension
  -- Ratio of Piping -- Defrosting -- Gardner Curtain System --
  Direct Expansion Piping -- Chill-Room Bunkers -- Low Temperature
  Brine System -- Freezer and Storage Buildings.


  CHAPTER IX.

  SLAUGHTERING CATTLE                                                 92

  Receiving Live Stock -- Watering -- Driving Cattle -- Knocking
  Cattle -- Sticking -- Heading -- Pritch Sticks -- Foot Skinning
  -- Ripping and Leg Breaking -- Flooring Cattle -- Breast Sawing
  -- Fell Cutting -- Rumping -- Beef Spreaders -- Fell Beating --
  Gutting -- Backing -- Tail Sawing -- Splitting -- Splitting
  Cleavers -- Clearing Out and Hide Dropping -- Neck Splitting --
  Bruise Trimming -- Skirt Trimming -- Washing Cattle -- Fountain
  Brushes -- Dressing Cattle -- Conveyors.


  CHAPTER X.

  DRESSING YIELDS AND CATTLE CUTTING                                 106

  Yields of Cattle -- Yield from Twenty-two Native Cattle -- Yield
  from Fifty-nine Texas Cattle -- Yield from Twenty Heavy Cattle --
  Yield from Thirty-four Cattle -- Percentage of Various Cuts --
  Beef Cuts -- Diagram of Cutting -- Grading -- Loins -- Ribs --
  Rounds -- Chucks -- Plates, Shanks and Flanks -- Barreled Beef.


  CHAPTER XI.

  HIDES AND PELTS                                                    126

  Green Hides -- Condition -- Scores -- Prod Pole Damage -- Clean
  Floors -- Leather Yields -- Pattern -- Proper Storage for Hides
  -- Grading -- Grubs in Hides -- Salt to Be Used -- Building of
  Packs of Hides -- Trimming of Green Hides -- Switches --
  Shrinkage of Hides -- Sheep Pelts.


  CHAPTER XII.

  OLEO OIL AND STEARINE                                              136

  Fats -- Origin of Butterine -- Oleo Oil -- Oleo Fats -- Selection
  and Care -- Cleanliness and Collection -- Chilling Fat -- Cooling
  Water -- Melting -- Settling the Oil -- Clarifiers -- Scrap Vat
  -- Seeding or Graining Oil -- Press Room -- Collecting Oil -- Oil
  Receivers -- Temperature of Oil Drawn to Tierce -- Stearine --
  Oil House Yields -- Grading Fats -- Tests on Oil Fats -- Butcher
  Fats -- Mutton Fat -- Oil Selection -- Oil House Operation.


  CHAPTER XIII.

  BONE DEPARTMENT                                                    159

  Bone Department -- Hard Bone -- Glue Bone -- Bone Products --
  Horns -- Manufactured Articles -- Skulls -- Test Yield from
  Skulls and Feet -- Buttocks and Thighs -- Blades and Ribs --
  Drying -- Crushed Bone -- Grinding Bone -- Neats Foot Oil Storage
  -- Neats Foot Oil Purifier -- Yield Tests.


  CHAPTER XIV.

  TANK HOUSE DEPARTMENT                                              170

  Tank House Design -- Isolation and Ventilation -- Separation of
  Press Room -- Digesters -- Rendering Tank -- Surface Box -- Press
  and Pump -- Cooking Killing Stock -- Operating Tank Blow Off --
  Pressing Tankage -- Treatment of Lard and Tallow -- Titer in
  Tallow and Lard -- Steam for Cooking -- Cooking Tests --
  Operating Odorless -- Tests -- Catch Basin.


  CHAPTER XV.

  TANK WATER                                                         189

  Soil Fertility -- Animal Feeding -- Tank Water -- Separation of
  Solids -- Collecting Grease -- Testing Tank Water -- Evaporating
  Tank Water -- Description of Apparatus -- Cleaning Evaporators --
  Table of Boiling Points -- Testing Stick -- Copperas in Water to
  Evaporate -- Solids in Water -- Drying Stick -- Value of Tankage
  -- Quantity of Tank Water -- Cost of Evaporating.


  CHAPTER XVI.

  FERTILIZER                                                         201

  Fertilizer -- Blood -- Receiving Tank -- Cooking -- Pressing --
  Purity -- Storing -- Quick Handling -- Tankage -- Quotations and
  Value -- Grease -- Influence of Stick -- Digester Tankage --
  Slime -- Dryers -- Drying -- Expense for Drying -- Commercial
  Fertilizer -- State Regulations -- Mixing Materials -- Conversion
  Factors.


  CHAPTER XVII.

  CASINGS                                                            208

  Description of Beef Casings -- Round Casings, How Made --
  Selection of Round Casings -- Export Casings -- Domestic Rounds
  -- Beef Middles -- Turning and Sliming -- Inspection and
  Measuring -- Beef Bungs -- Bung Gut Skins -- Beef Bladders --
  Beef Weasands -- Packages -- Salt -- Cleanliness -- Water
  Temperature -- Machines for Casings -- Hog Casings -- Small
  Casings.


  CHAPTER XVIII.

  BEEF MISCELLANY                                                    217

  Beef Miscellaneous -- Livers -- Sweetbreads -- Beef Hearts --
  Tails -- Weasand Meat -- Beef Tongues -- Washing -- Hanging --
  Trimming -- Curing -- Freezing -- Surplus Rounds -- Stripping
  Beef Hams -- Formulas for Curing -- Smoking -- Tests -- Glass Jar
  Beef -- Beef Trimmings -- Barrel Beef -- Tripe -- Cleaning Tripe
  -- Pickling -- Cost of Production.


  CHAPTER XIX.

  SHEEP AND CALVES                                                   229

  Increased Production of Sheep -- Penning -- Dressing by Piece
  Method -- String Gang -- Sheep Ring -- Sheep Dressing -- Legging
  -- Pelting -- Methods of Finishing -- Washing and Its Effect --
  Chilling -- Lamb Tongues -- Pickled Lamb Tongues -- Lamb Tongue
  Tests -- Slaughtering Calves -- Heads and Feet.


  CHAPTER XX.

  HOG SLAUGHTERING                                                   251

  Historical -- Investment -- Hog Yarding -- Hog Dressing --
  Hoisting -- Sticking -- Neck Washing -- Scalding -- Scraping
  Machines -- Hand Scraping -- Cleaning Bodies -- Ham Facing and
  Cutting -- Leaf Lard -- Splitting -- Washing -- Drying -- Care in
  Chill Rooms -- Open Air Hanging -- Chilling Necessities --
  Shrinkage in Chill Room -- Hog By-Products -- Heads -- Plucks --
  Paunches -- Entrail Fat.


  CHAPTER XXI.

  PORK CUTTINGS                                                      266

  Hog Cutting -- Variety and Classes of Hogs -- Cutting Floor --
  Pork Cuts -- Hams -- Side Meats -- Bellies -- Backs -- Loins --
  Shoulders -- Butts and Plates -- Percentage of Yield -- Change
  Cuts One Side -- Test on Five Sides -- Complete Cutting Test.


  CHAPTER XXII.

  CURING MEATS                                                       311

  Curing Cellars -- Hams and Their Treatment -- Wilder Hams --
  Shoulder Meats -- Bellies -- Overhauling Meats -- Fancy Bacon --
  Shipping Ages -- Second Pickle -- Dry Salt Meats -- Curing Dry
  Salt Meats -- Smoking Dry Salt Meats -- Barreled Pork -- Curing
  Barreled Pork -- English Meats -- Pigs Feet -- Pigs Tongues --
  Pigs Snouts.


  CHAPTER XXIII.

  LARD, COMPOUND AND GREASES                                         340

  Historical -- Quantity and Quality -- Neutral Lard -- Kettle
  Rendered Lard -- Prime Steam Lard -- Refined Lard -- Bleaching
  Lard -- Filter Press -- Lard Roll -- Lard Packing -- Compound
  Lard -- Cottonseed Oil -- Refining Crude Oil -- Deodorizing
  Cottonseed Oil -- Pressing Temperatures -- Lard Oil -- Treatment
  for Lard Grease.


  CHAPTER XXIV.

  SMOKE HOUSE                                                        364

  Smoking Meats -- Nomenclature -- Soaking -- Smoking -- Gas
  Smoking -- Temperatures -- Treatment After Smoking -- Trolley
  System -- Canvassed Meats -- Shrinkage -- Wrapping -- White Wash
  -- Dried Beef -- Packages -- Skipper Fly.


  CHAPTER XXV.

  DOMESTIC SAUSAGE                                                   372

  Meats and Handling -- Arrangement of Department -- Curing Meats
  -- Cooler for Ground Meats -- Grinding and Stuffing Room -- Smoke
  House -- Cook Room -- Dry Hanging Room -- Cooler -- Smoking
  Temperature -- Cooking Time -- Shrinkages -- Pickle-Cured
  Products -- Dry-Cured Meats -- Packing -- Casings and Spices --
  Sausage Cereals -- Sausage Formulas -- Bologna Varnish -- Boiled
  Ham.


  CHAPTER XXVI.

  DRIED SAUSAGE                                                      399

  Summer Sausage -- Preservatives -- Cooling Room -- Stuffing --
  Hanging Room -- Smoke House -- Dry Room Treatment -- Dry Room
  Caution -- Shipping Ages -- Storage -- Preparation of Casings --
  Trimming Meats -- Formulas for Sausage.


  CHAPTER XXVII.

  BUTTERINE                                                          420

  Ingredients -- Colors -- Equipment -- Rooms -- Arrangement --
  Testing Milk -- Acidity -- Milk in Butterine -- Reasons for
  Culture -- Cream Ripeness -- Water vs. Brine -- Milk Not
  Pasteurized -- Preparatory Culture -- Starters -- Cultivating the
  Milk -- Low Grade Butterine -- Graining -- Working the Butterine
  -- Butterine Packing -- High-Grade Butterine -- Cleanliness --
  Use of Color -- Formulas -- Costs of Butterine.


  CHAPTER XXVIII.

  BOXES AND COOPERAGE                                                440

  Specifications for Boxes -- Cooperage Specifications --
  Government Specifications for Packages -- Refrigerator Boxes.


  CHAPTER XXIX.

  DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING                                            453

  Departmental Accounting -- Expense Accounts -- Departments --
  Purchases -- Inventories -- Store Accounts -- Labor Charged to
  Departments and Sub-Divisions -- General Principles.

[Illustration: VIEW OF UNION STOCK YARDS, CHICAGO, SHOWING HORSE MARKET
AT LEFT AND EXCHANGE BUILDING AT RIGHT.]

[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF UNION STOCK YARDS, CHICAGO, SHOWING
PACKING HOUSES IN THE DISTANCE.]

[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO THE UNION STOCK YARDS, CHICAGO, U. S. A.]




CHAPTER I.

MODERN PACKING HOUSES.


  INTRODUCTION AND GROWTH -- CONCENTRATION -- EARLY METHODS -- YANKEE
  INGENUITY -- CHICAGO YARDS -- MOVEMENT WESTWARD -- ECONOMIC FACTORS
  -- SAVING BY-PRODUCTS -- PIONEER’S TROUBLES -- USING BOX CARS --
  USING REFRIGERATOR CARS -- CHILLING ROOMS -- MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION
  -- FREEZING MEATS -- OVERSEAS SHIPMENTS.


=Introduction and Growth.=--Few industries in the United States have
shown such rapid growth as has the packing house business. The modern
packing house, as it exists today, may be said to be less than forty
years old since its inception. One naturally inquires the causes
which led to the growth of this industry to its present proportions
in so short a time, ranking practically fifth in importance among
the industries of the United States. The main factor which has
been instrumental in the consummation of this immense growth is
_concentration_--coupled with--_conservation_.


=Concentration.=--Concentration permits the manipulation of
by-products, creating useful and valuable materials saleable in
themselves and tending to reduce the commercial cost of the edible
portion of the animal. Conservation in the saving of all parts of the
animal to their best uses.


=Early Methods.=--Before the modern packing house was established the
method in vogue was to either ship by car or drive live stock to the
point of consumption, where it was slaughtered and put on the market
in a crude and expensive way compared with the methods of to-day. In
the evolution of the business the first step toward making the modern
packing house was the concentration of live stock at a few markets
where it was offered for sale. Prior to that time it would have been
impossible for any one point to obtain sufficient stock to much more
than supply its local demands, and surely not enough to supply a modern
establishment.


=Yankee Ingenuity.=--In the United States during the early days of
the live stock market, buyers purchased their supplies where they
best could, and shipped them alive to the places where the animals
were to be consumed. At this point “Yankee” ingenuity interceded and
devised the opposite plan, viz: that of shipping the live stock to
a few central points and there changing it to dressed meats, which
were shipped to the consuming markets. The development of this plan
inaugurated a new line of business now recognized as one of the most
important of modern industries--central stock yards and packing house
centers.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--LIVE STOCK GOING TO SCALE, UNION STOCK YARDS,
CHICAGO.]


=Chicago Yards.=--One of the first and largest of these central live
stock depots to be established was the Union Stock Yards, Chicago,
Ill., U. S. A., where are located the largest slaughter houses. Views
of these great yards are shown. Fig. 1 shows one of the places where
live stock is passed to the scales and weighed prior to delivery to the
purchaser; Fig. 2, a view of the live stock pens and an alleyway on a
busy day; Fig. 3, a view of a pen containing choice yearling cattle,
and Fig. 4, one containing a bunch of choice Polled-Angus cattle. These
views are typical of many markets now established throughout the United
States and where the business is conducted upon a parallel basis.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--A BUSY ALLEY, UNION STOCK YARDS, CHICAGO.]


=Movement Westward.=--Many factors and conditions contributed to the
possibility of the modern packing plant. The feature of slaughtering
the cattle near to the point of growth lessened the shrinkage and
abuse of the animal and its resulting food product. There are many of
the conditions that might be gone into in detail but which are now of
no consequence. However, among the conditions that made the business
possible was the fact that on the vast plains of the west, innumerable
cattle were being raised at a minimum cost, with but little local
sale, whereas in the thickly settled east, in the manufacturing
districts, a ready market was found for the beef.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--PEN CONTAINING CHOICE YEARLING CATTLE.]


=Economic Factors.=--Economic conditions make the raising of live
stock, in juxtaposition to the production of grain, a fixed fact. And
apparently the nearer to the source of supply the animal is slaughtered
the less deterioration in the product, animal and meat considered
together. The packing business of this country would practically be
impossible in older countries that are thickly settled, as the cost
of raising live stock would be actually about the same in all parts,
and the cost of shipping from one point to another would only add to
the original cost. With the lower cost of raising the animal on low
value land, the eastern farmer with his high priced land was unable
to compete, hence the practice of raising live stock in the west and
consuming it in the east; and the concentration of live stock at the
large markets, with the improved devices, has made the business a
possibility, and the money and energy expended in adopting the best
methods has caused its growth to its present magnitude.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--PEN CONTAINING CHOICE POLLED-ANGUS CATTLE.]


=Saving By-Products.=--Another important feature adding to the growth
of this industry, is the saving effected by utilizing the by-products.
When animals were killed promiscuously throughout the country this
was impossible, for a man killing a few at some local point could not
save the by-products, consequently they were lost. Neither could the
small killer afford the necessary appliances with which to turn the
material out economically and compete with business on a large scale,
any more than the ancient cobbler sitting at his bench, could afford
the labor-saving machines and devices which are seen in modern shoe
factories. The general health of the public has been served by having
their meats properly inspected and delivered in a much better condition
than they could be at the time when the animal was killed and the meat
consumed without it being properly chilled. That the meat is delivered
to the consumer in a more palatable condition than it was formerly
is generally conceded by all. Foreigners who visit this country are
invariably impressed with the superior meats with which they are
served, due to the process in chilling, and the age at the time of
consumption.

The by-products which are saved in modern plants, which, under the
older methods were almost entirely lost, have a good value. Heads and
feet, for example, which were ordinarily thrown away, are to-day made
up into various products, all of which have a value. The blood, fats
and refuse, are turned into commercial commodities, and the saving
of these different parts creates a profit in the business, a profit
heretofore lost. Further details on this subject will be given in the
chapters treating on by-products.


=Pioneer’s Troubles.=--When the pioneers of the business first broached
the idea of killing cattle in Chicago and selling the dressed beef in
the east it was considered wholly impracticable, and the people who
started the business were looked upon as a “little queer.” There were
many bitter experiences, in the way of financial losses before it
was accomplished. Shipping perishable products long distances caused
the loss of many thousands of dollars before the proper methods were
discovered, but the beginners felt they were working along the right
lines. Obstacles were overcome and to-day meats are delivered in
eastern markets in a far better and a more healthful condition than
they were ever offered to the public under the old methods from local
abattoirs.


=Using Box Cars.=--In the early days of the concentrated cattle
markets, fresh meat products were only shipped during the winter months
and in a common or what is now known as a “box” car, as differentiated
from a “refrigerator” car.


=Using Refrigerator Cars.=--The next step was the use of ice in the
car and from this to the “refrigerator” car. This type of car with the
improved dispatch service offered by the railways, made the business of
shipping freshly dressed beef to any part of the country feasible.


=The Chilling Room.=--Notably and most essential was the development of
a chilling department in which the slaughtered animal could be properly
chilled. This is now a matter of such common occurrence that but little
consideration is given the subject. However, in the days when ice was
used, and before the introduction of mechanical refrigeration it was a
matter of large consequence.


=Mechanical Refrigeration.=--Mechanical refrigeration, and this alone,
has made it possible to properly cool meats for shipment to remote
points as fresh meats, or to properly prepare them for curing, and
to preserve them after curing beyond a comparatively limited time.
Mechanical refrigeration made possible the equipping of ships for the
transportation of meats under refrigeration from any point to any
market on the globe.


=Freezing Meats.=--The freezing of meats such as beef and poultry, and
holding them to a desirable season has rapidly become an important
factor in packing house work. Not only beef, poultry, butter and other
food products are accumulated, but pork cuts, such as hams, shoulders,
bellies, etc., are frozen and carried indefinitely or until it appears
desirable to thaw and cure them.


=Overseas Shipments.=--A contributing feature to the development of
the packing house business, was the overseas shipment of meats. In the
early part of the decade 1900-1910 a very large business in fresh beef
was conducted between the United States and England. At the outset it
was considered an impossibility, but by the most careful and detailed
attention and the utilization of modern methods, it was found possible
to kill cattle or sheep in the hottest months of the year at interior
points in the United States, ship the meats in refrigerator cars to
the seaboard, transfer into refrigerated rooms on the steamers and
thence to England, the meat being sometimes four or five weeks en
route from the abattoir where the animal was killed, to the place
where the meat finally reached the consumer. Even though the English
authorities gave it the most critical examination, it was found in
proper state for consumption. In the same manner vast quantities of
meat is finding its way from South America to the European markets,
most of it shipped “chilled,” not frozen. For a time the United States
furnished the largest part of the fresh meat consumed in England. It is
true that for many years we have supplied foreign markets with cured
and canned meats, but the fresh meat trade in England is a business
developed within a comparatively few years and it grew to magnitude.
However, owing to our growth, increasing home demands, and the changed
economic conditions, this business dwindled in the last decade so that
on beef it was practically gone, except that during the European war
owing to prevailing conditions, it was revived for a time at least. The
pre-eminence of the United States pork products, however, is everywhere
recognized and until new corn producing lands are developed and
utilized, the corn and the pig supply for the world will be that part
of the United States west of the Alleghany mountains and east of the
Rocky mountains.




CHAPTER II.

LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION.


  LOCATION -- WATER SUPPLY -- SEWAGE -- ODORS AND PREVAILING WINDS
  -- CLEANLINESS -- DESIGNS AND ERRORS -- CHARACTER OF BUSINESS --
  REQUIREMENTS -- PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN.


=Location.=--Location is a moderate sized word with a vast meaning. It
has two definitions as applied to meat packing houses.


_First._--Location as to a live stock supply. Pioneers in foreign lands
looking for a cheap supply must take into consideration the quantity
immediately available, the probabilities based upon feeding, climate,
natural enemies--beast and bug--and the ambition of the people to
produce as well as their ability to produce.

Sometimes an apparent supply is at hand but a searching investigation
will show that it is an accumulated surplus, soon exhausted, with a
resultant dearth. In the case of cattle, a supply cannot be created in
a day but by persistent effort and in several generations of human life.

Transportation by trooping and by train, or the ability of the cattle
to withstand the first or the ability of the railways to handle for
want of facilities, are at times matters of much consequence.


_Second._--Location as applied to a position for operating,
applicable to domestic or foreign works. There are several items of
prime importance to be considered in selecting a location from this
standpoint. In many instances a plant is established near a locality
producing a sufficient quality of live stock suitable for a certain
purpose, for example pigs suitable for export trade. In some instances
the selection of a location is made for trade reasons, or to be
adjacent to a stock yards; and in instances because property is owned
in a certain locality. Where situation can be of choice, the matters
for most serious consideration are sewage disposal, water supply,
prevailing winds and transportation facilities.


=Water Supply.=--This is of great consequence. The quantity to be
used for condensing purposes, refrigerating machinery operation,
for cleansing, and in the regular course of business, is a very
large amount, and if purchased from water supply corporations or
municipalities, at prevailing rates, become a burdensome item of
expense. The principal use for water can be classified under three
headings:


_Boiler Purposes_--This naturally will be selected from available
sources based upon fitness, irrespective of cost.


_Condensing_--First, for refrigerating machinery ammonia condensing
and for steam engine condensing, in conjunction with the production
of power and operating steam engines on refrigerating equipment.
For this purpose cold water is desirable. If it can be obtained
from wells it is the best practice, owing to such water usually
being of low temperature. However, the cost of production must be
considered, and that calls for engineering knowledge as to relative
conditions. Usually, unless the surface water be in large quantity
and available from a stream, the wells prove economical unless the
water must be raised from great depths involving air lift pumping.
There are instances, however, where turbidity makes water from streams
undesirable and where well water is unobtainable, and in instances of
this kind use of settling basins, reservoirs and cooling towers is
resorted to.


_For Cleaning and Other Purposes_--The water for cleansing purposes,
for food products, fats and premises, should be clean and free from
contamination that render it unfit for potable uses.


=Sewage.=--The question of sewage disposal from a packing house is of
more consequence than the water supply, which is usually determined by
the relative cost. The former is a matter of disposition. No matter
how carefully the refuse from the slaughtered animal is collected for
passing through the rendering department, or how carefully the waters
from cooking are collected for evaporation, quite large quantities
of nitrogenous particles and many substances which are more cheaply
disposed of by the way of the sewers, ultimately reach them. If the
refuse finds its way to a rapidly flowing stream, it is taken care of
by bacterial action, but if discharged into a dry stream or pool, or
to a sewage disposal plant, it becomes a serious burden that sooner or
later reverts to the packer.


=Odors and Prevailing Winds.=--Naturally to minimize the distance of
transport to stations for shipping or delivery to the consumer, or
to be near to a supply of labor, every manufacturer is desirous of
locating his works near to a city or on its outskirts, if not at a
commercial stock yards. Where the latter are of comparatively large
consequence to a community, the odors arising are usually considered a
“necessary evil” and the packing plant as a part of that.

No matter how carefully the plant may be operated, if the full
commercial value is taken out of all products there are some
departments in which it is difficult to abate the smells, and if the
prevailing winds are towards a residence district, it is likely to
cause disturbance. This statement can be qualified, however, because it
is a fact that plants can be designed and can be operated so as to be
kept within proper bounds and be of no more nuisance than the handling
of the live animals, but it will always be well for the prospective
packer to recognize that he would not care to live on the premises,
nor will his neighbor appreciate his works any more than he. A packing
house properly belongs to a district at a reasonable distance from
residence property, and where the prevailing winds are not toward the
residence district.


=Cleanliness.=--The features contributing most to the operation of
a plant so as to avoid it becoming noisome is that of cleanliness,
first, last and always; ample equipment to promptly dispose of all
by-products, and to do it promptly.


=Design and Errors.=--The location disposed of, the design and
construction is a problem that cannot have too careful consideration.
There are two grievous errors that may creep in; overbuilding and under
building. Overbuilding recognizes the construction of a plant too large
for present needs, thereby making the capital investment too large
for the business to be done, and sometimes resulting in the handicap
of insufficient monies for plant operation with all the difficulties
entailed. Under building, failing to recognize the growth that might
occur and failing to so arrange that the growth can be made in a way
that keeps the plant in balance and makes for economical operation.
Either condition may lead to regrets.


=Character of Business.=--At this point comes the consideration of the
character of the business to be conducted and the proportioning of
departments one to another suitably. For instance, in a beef shipping
plant for fresh beef the coolers may have a hanging capacity equal to
at least three times the daily slaughtering capacity, while at some
market points the ratio may be ten times. Whereas, at a freezing plant
it becomes a question of room to accumulate a cargo dependent upon
transport facilities.


=Requirements.=--The requirements in the various localities, as to
arrangement of departments; to comply with sanitary necessities as
to light and ventilation, and the classes of materials required in
construction, are changing from time to time and no set rule can be
made, but these are axiomatic:

(1) Products prepared for food purposes must be quickly and thoroughly
isolated from non-edible products.

(2) All departments should, so far as possible, be maintained in
separate buildings.

(3) Building materials should, so far as possible, be non-absorbent.

(4) Light and air should be arranged for in plenty.

(5) The question of movement of product to minimize labor should be
given proper attention. In the building of a packing house it is only
within the last few years that this matter has been studied from the
standpoint of obtaining the best results at the least expenditure for
operating.

(6) Formerly it was considered proper to build the killing house and
coolers on the ground level, excavating a cellar for the storage of
some of the products; the power house, tank rooms and other buildings
for the disposition of by-products were placed without reference to
economy in operation. Experience has proven that it is economical to
slaughter animals on the upper floor of a building, and instead of
spreading out on the ground and covering a large area as formerly, to
build higher over a smaller area. With a proper incline the animals
will walk to an elevation of 50 or 60 feet without detriment to their
condition, and it is much cheaper to do this than to kill them on the
ground level and elevate the products, or to convey or transport them
to distant buildings on the same level.

(7) The use of gravity is recognized as a proper procedure in all
departments from a low labor cost standpoint. The locating of the
buildings, one to another; to minimize the transferring of products;
and the grouping of products as to convenience in shipping by wagon, by
car or by boat, as the case may require, are also important.

(8) Very important is the question of grouping cold storage departments
so as to minimize the wall space and exposure from radiation; likewise
the concentration of buildings requiring heat to avoid the loss of fuel
by reason of long steam lines, and radiation which can not be prevented.


=Principles of Design.=--The crux of the plant appears to be the
slaughtering department for it is here the work begins and from this
source radiates the various parts for disposal. One well-known and
successful designer works with the idea of beginning at the rendering
department, and establishing the tops of the rendering tanks, or
digestors, on a level with the viscera separating floor, from which
the refuse is readily transported without the use of elevator or lift
service.

The slaughtering floor is naturally above this level, and all other
departments disposed to meet the various needs. Obviously there being
so many controlling factors, no examples can be set out to meet all
conditions. There follows however, a ground plan and sectional view of
several plants of varying sizes with descriptive data.




CHAPTER III.

PLANT DESIGN.


  DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS -- PLANT NO. 1 -- PLANT NO. 2 -- PLANT NO. 3
  -- PLANT NO. 4 -- TYPE OF PLANT -- LOADING FACILITIES -- PRODUCING
  DEPARTMENT -- ABBATOIR BUILDING -- RENDERING BUILDING -- LIVE STOCK
  -- ICING DEPARTMENT -- COOLER BUILDING -- PORK HOUSE -- MANUFACTURING
  BUILDING -- SALT SPACES -- POWER DEPARTMENT -- GRAVITY SYSTEM --
  HOW TO BUILD -- FIREPROOF DESIGN -- ADVANTAGES -- SLOW BURNING
  CONSTRUCTION -- APPROVAL OF PLANS.


=Description of Plants.=--This chapter is devoted to a description of
several types of plants.


=Plant No. 1.=--A moderate sized beef, mutton, and pork producing plant
capable of slaughtering six hundred cattle, fifteen hundred sheep
and fifteen hundred hogs daily, and taking care of the products of
manufacture resulting therefrom. This design was developed upon the
principle of gravity for movement of products with as little use of
elevators as possible; the avoidance of excessive use of mechanical
conveyors and contrivances; the grouping of buildings intended for
hot or cold temperatures; economy of operation, and for minimum car
movement.


_Loading Facilities._--The general arrangement provides for wagon and
dray loading facilities fronting the main thoroughfare. The garage and
office are at the left and right sides of the court. Three tracks are
situated between the two groups of buildings to take care of the car
loading. Usually the refrigerated products are loaded upon the east
track, and non-refrigerated products, such as hides and bones, and the
oleo department products, upon the west track. The intermediate track
is used for the storing of cars. By use of the connecting platform
at the south end either kind of cars can be loaded on either track. A
separate non-interfering railroad spur is provided for unloading coal,
and cotton seed oil, and for loading tallow, while a distinct track is
provided for loading cars of dry salt meats from the pork warehouse.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--PLANT NO. 1, MODERATE SIZE PACKING HOUSE.]


_Producing Department_--The abattoir is made the center of
distribution, with the refrigerated buildings and departments directly
communicative, situated nearby. The rendering and manufacturing
departments--users of steam and power--are grouped near to the abattoir
and to the power plant, while the buildings requiring refrigeration
are grouped together and isolated from the manufacturing buildings.
The stock pens connected with the plant are to the left of the
manufacturing groups, but are not shown on the plan.


_Abattoir Building_--This building, six stories high, is given over to
the following uses: Fourth floor, slaughtering; third floor, treatment,
separation and cooking of by-products and manufacture of casings;
second floor, oleo oil manufacturing; first floor, oleo oil storage,
and shipping purposes; basement and sub-basement, storage of tallow and
curing of hides.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--EXTERIOR VIEW BEEF, SHEEP AND PORK PLANT.]


_Rendering Building_--Divided into two sections and separated by
partitions, one side is used for the refining of cotton seed oil and
the manufacture of edible tallows; the other side for cooking blood
and rendering inedible tallows. The floors are used as follows:
Second floor, level with viscera separating floor in abattoir, from
whence raw stock is trucked to the filling floor without requiring
use of elevators for filling of tanks; first floor, tank bodies and
receptacles for collection of tallow. The skimming vats to which the
tank residue, after drawing off the tallows, is passed, are level with
this floor, enabling the separation and floating of the tallow and
its collection; basement for press room, and sub-basement for drying
tankage. The tank water to be evaporated is collected and passed to a
separate building for treatment and evaporation.


_Live Stock_--The live stock pens are situated to the left of the
rendering department extending north of the oil storage tanks from
which position leads an incline, delivering the live stock into an
elevated storage pen covering the area between the rendering house and
the abattoir, and over the dressing room.


_Icing Department_--Facilities for manufacturing ice for cooling cars
are provided in the space directly north of the abattoir building. The
three railroad tracks between the two groups of buildings are covered
with a protecting shed, and from the bottom member of the trusses are
suspended trolley rails for handling buckets of ice to be dumped into
the tanks of the refrigerator cars.


_Cooler Building_--The dressed beef, mutton and pork is transferred
via bridge with chain conveyors, carrying the carcasses from the
slaughtering house floor to the cooling rooms situated upon the third
floor of the cooler building. From this floor the carcasses are
conveyed for storage purposes to the second and first floor, and from
there they are passed to the cutting room, city sales department, or
cars. The basement and sub-basement are used for curing beef and pork
joints. The fourth floor of this building is set aside for freezing
products which, after being frozen, are shipped for storage to other
premises owned by the same company.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--SECTIONAL VIEW INDICATING LEVELS AND
COMPARATIVE LEVELS OF DEPARTMENT FLOORS.]


_Pork House_--The fourth floor of the pork house is utilized for
chilling hogs; the third for cutting them, and all floors below for
curing purposes. Note, the arrangement whereby the pork house and the
cooler building are each connected with the team-loading platform and
also closely arranged for car loading.


_Manufacturing Building_--A manufacturing building given over to the
production of sausage, smoked meats, lard and the packing and shipping
of same is immediately north of the cooler and pork buildings, and
connected thereto at all floors where necessary. The city shipping
department has its allotted space on the ground floor of the cooler
building and the products finished in the manufacturing building move
south toward the team loading platforms.


_Salt Spaces, etc._--In this instance, but which rarely occurs, the
city’s main sewer system is located at a deep level, which affords
proper drainage and permitted the construction of two cellars. There
are, therefore, two stories practically under ground. This is a decided
advantage from the standpoint of radiation exposure, and it also
affords an opportunity to provide salt storage and cooperage stowing
spaces on two levels adjacent to the railroad tracks. It further
provides a means for securing a connecting tunnel below the track
level, thus providing facilities for a perfect interchange from all
cellar departments. Of equal consequence is the opportunity to pass all
pipes for water, steam and refrigeration, power and lighting wires, as
well as products, from one department to another. This makes for a low
upkeep cost, little exposure, less radiation and greatly reduces the
annual upkeep.


_Power Department_--The boilers were placed on a floor level with the
basement. The coal pocket into which coal is dropped extends to the
sub-basement level, providing a comparatively large coal storage. At
the sub-basement level are the ash collecting bins. From this level are
provided elevators of the continuous bucket type for raising the coal
and ashes to tanks provided for storage, from which the coal and ashes
gravitate to the furnaces and disposal cars respectively.

The engine foundations extend to the sub-basement level, with the main
engine situated upon the basement level. The pumps are located in part
on the lower level. All pipes and wires leading to the operating
department are carried through the sub-basement, permitting the
arrangement of all exhaust and steam piping beneath the engine room
floor.


_Gravity System_--Attention is called to the fact that in the rendering
department, for example, the products in their steps of manufacture
are handled by gravity entirely until the finished dried fertilizer
is produced, which has to be elevated to the ground level for car
shipment, or for wagon delivery. The same features are true of the
abattoir, hides and tallow in casks only, requiring the use of
elevators for shipment.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.--PLANT NO. 2, GROUND PLAN FOR COUNTRY PACKING
HOUSE.]


=Plant No. 2.=--This plant was designed for a country point where the
shipping by local freight cars or the city delivery was quite limited;
where the major part of the product would be shipped by car, and
where provision was made for quite an extensive growth. The capacity
as designed being four hundred hogs and fifty cattle daily, with a
complementary quantity of calves and sheep.


_Loading Facilities_--Again the three railways are provided for
convenience in loading and for facilitating switching and icing.

[Illustration: FIG. 9.--PLANT NO. 2, SECTION THROUGH SLAUGHTERING AND
RENDERING BUILDING.]

[Illustration: FIG. 10.--PLANT NO. 2, SECTION THROUGH MANUFACTURING
BUILDING.]

[Illustration: FIG. 11.--PLANT NO. 2, SECTION THROUGH COOLER BUILDING.]


_Producing Department_--In this plant the slaughter of hogs is the
predominant business. The hog killing department was consequently
designed amply large and for a growth to upwards of fifteen hundred
hogs daily, while the rendering department provides for additional
tanking facilities to be added as required. In this building, near to
the source of production is placed a small air blast type of meat and
leaf lard cooling space.


_Rendering Department_--Owing to abattoir being isolated it was
possible to set aside a portion of the building for the rendering
department, and make the construction comply with the sanitary
requirements as to light, air and ventilation. These features are
illustrated by the sectional views.


_Live Stock_--The live stock receiving pens for cars and wagons are
located on the ground as shown on plans, and a long ramp is arranged
for the slow driving of hogs. Again, all products are passed downward
in the process of manufacture.


_Icing Department_--Facilities are provided for harvesting ice from a
stream situated north of the premises. The railroad tracks extend to
the ice storage houses where facilities are provided for icing cars.


_Pork Building_--Advantage was taken of the relative grouping and the
space available to provide an open air hanging or drying room for
hogs at a level of the killing floor and hog chill rooms. The hogs
pass through this space on their way to the cooler. The pork building
is arranged with chilling rooms on the upper floor and curing rooms
beneath on all floors to and including the basement.


_Manufacturing Building_--Adjacent to the cooler building, space is
provided for the making of sausage, cutting hogs, and trimming of
sausage meat, processing of meats for smoking, packing and shipping.


_Power Department_--This is a minor matter since the electric current
is purchased from a municipal lighting corporation, and the plant being
in a cold climate, advantage is taken of these conditions.

Note that in this plant every department except the killing department,
which was made as large a unit as appeared to be necessary, may be
extended without in any manner disturbing the relative situation of the
departments. The uses of the several floors are shown in the sectional
drawings.


=Plant No. 3.=--Type of plant. The diagram (Fig. 12) is illustrative
of a small local plant situated in a southwestern city, and built
principally for a local mixed business. The plant will properly
take care of one hundred hogs and fifty cattle daily, the necessary
by-products and the manufacturing departments, therefor. An ice
business is operated in conjunction with this plant. The buildings are
chiefly two stories in height. The plan and sectional drawings are
sufficiently explicit to require no description.

[Illustration: FIG. 12.--PLANT NO. 3, GROUND PLAN OF SMALL LOCAL
PACKING HOUSE.]


=Plant No. 4.=--The accompanying vignette and ground plan are
illustrative of an alongside deep water export plant. The photograph
of front view illustrates the loading facilities which show ramps
or inclines upon which conveyors are operated. These endless chains
convey beef in quarter to the wharf at right angles thereto, where it
is picked off the rail by ship’s tackle and lowered into the ship’s
chambers.

Discussing the plant arrangement, note the position of the slaughter
house with relation to the coolers and trace the movement of the
products to the coolers, rendering, wool house. Also the further
movement of the products to shipment. Particular attention is called
to the arrows indicating the direction of growth of every department
without disarranging the first intention as to movement, and minimizing
the labor on the extended plant.

[Illustration: FIG. 13.--PLANT NO. 4, SHOWING DEEP WATER EXPORT PLANT.]

The steam producing department is in close proximity to the steam
using buildings, viz: Power Department, Rendering House, Fertilizer
and Slaughter House. Preference being given over electricity or
refrigeration which can be transmitted longer distances at less loss.


=How to Build.=--The question of design being settled the next
matter of importance is the one involving the materials to be used
in construction. That becomes a matter of investment and permanent
size or location of the buildings. Fireproof buildings are desirable
on account of low cost of upkeep and a lower insurance rate. They
are permanent in every way, but the difficult question is that of
modifying, provided changes become necessary.

[Illustration: FIG. 14.--PLANT NO. 4, GROUND PLAN FOR EXPORT PACKING
HOUSE.]


=Fireproof Design.=--If decision is made for a fireproof building,
re-inforced concrete is the first suggestion owing to its universal
use as a building material, but there are several points to be given
serious consideration before reaching a decision. One of these points
being how to insulate so as to prevent losses. This matter will be
taken up in a subsequent chapter describing a cold storage warehouse of
eminent design. It is one of great importance.


=Advantages of Fireproof Construction.=--The fireproof buildings have
naturally a very great advantage in permanence from a standpoint of
cost of upkeep and insurance charges, and from the greater loss of a
cessation of business incident to destruction by fire. In most plants
there are sufficient departments of such staple character so unlikely
to be changed that it appears judicious to make them fireproof.


=Slow Burning Construction.=--Many people are quite content with
buildings of moderate height of slow burning construction; otherwise,
a modified type of “mill construction” and with the use of sprinkler
systems which minimize the insurance costs.


=Approval of Plans.=--There are many points in building construction
to take care of in the matter of design, to meet the requirements of
the insurance interests and local city building department regulations,
which in the main coincide. Before entering into a contract to
construct, it is well to have the drawings approved by the insurance
boards and the city inspection bureau. It obviates expensive changes
and additions. To build in such a manner as to bring the insurance
rates to a minimum is certainly desirable. It is an advantage, too,
to have the plant divided so that in case of fire the spread of the
flames can be retarded and the fire confined to the building where it
originated, or if some of the buildings are burned the balance can be
saved. Fires invariably represent, to a well managed business, a far
greater loss than is collectible on the insurance policies.




CHAPTER IV

REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT


  AMMONIA MACHINES -- AMMONIA -- COMPRESSOR -- CONDENSER -- RECEIVER --
  COOLER -- CONDENSING WATER -- UNIT BASIS -- COMPUTING FROM UNIT BASIS
  -- HOW RATED -- FREEZER REQUIREMENTS -- FREEZERS IN SMALL PLANTS --
  CYLINDER ARRANGEMENT -- WHY BRINE CIRCULATION -- AIR CIRCULATING
  -- FORCE DRAFT -- COIL ROOM SYSTEMS -- BRINE CHILLING -- BRINE
  METHODS -- TYPES OF BRINE COOLERS -- BALANCED BRINE SYSTEM -- DIRECT
  EXPANSION -- TWO-STAGE COMPRESSORS.


=Mechanical Refrigerating Equipment.=--This agent is of great
consequence in the operation of packing houses, and, therefore, it
is deemed essential to explain the principles briefly; as well as to
describe the uses.


=Ammonia Machines.=--The use of ammonia refrigeration equipment either
absorption or compression has so generally displaced all others for
stationary or land use, and particularly in meat plants and cold
storage houses, that for the present purpose it is unnecessary to
go into a discussion of others. The compression system being so
predominant in its use, a description of same is given.

The diagram indicates a compression system in elementary form
consisting of:

(1) A pump or compressor which withdraws the gas from the cooler or
expansion tank, prepares and passes it to the condenser.

(2) The condenser or liquifier which gives to the water flowing over it
the heat carried to it by the gas from the cooler.

(3) The cooler or expansion tank in which the heat extracted from the
carcasses, the building walls or elsewhere, is passed to the ammonia
gas for conveyance to the condenser.


=Ammonia.=--Leaving for a moment the description of the apparatus to
acquaint the reader with ammonia: In the form used in a compression
refrigerating machine, it bears the name “liquid anhydrous ammonia”
meaning in a “dry liquid” form differentiating from the common
household ammonia which is a water solution containing ammonia gas in
variable quantity. The distinction between these two is that “anhydrous
ammonia” will evaporate to naught; from household ammonia the gas will
evaporate but the water will remain.

[Illustration: FIG. 15.--DIAGRAM SHOWING AMMONIA COMPRESSION SYSTEM.]

Ammonia is a chemical compound made up of one part nitrogen and three
parts hydrogen and is expressed by the chemical symbol NH₃. It has some
peculiar characteristics being analogous to water. It will assume a
solid, liquid and gaseous form, at -115° F. and -28¹⁄₂° F. for solid
and liquid respectively and will modify to a gaseous form at any
temperature above -28¹⁄₂° F. under “atmospheric” or conditions of no
pressure.

Water, as is known, changes from a liquid to a solid at 32° F. and
changes to a vaporous form at 212° F. but here the analogy ceases.

Ammonia has further peculiar advantages for use in refrigerating
production that it becomes a liquid at variable pressures and
temperatures; for example, when the temperature is reduced to 60° F.
under a pressure of 92 pounds, when reduced to 80° under a pressure of
139 pounds and at 100°, under a pressure of 200 pounds; with variables
above, between and below these conditions. Ammonia, as will be seen,
has variable forms and capacities under the conditions imposed upon it.
Substances passing from a liquid to a gaseous form require heat to make
this change and consequently absorb it; the complement to the giving
up of heat when the process is reversed and the substance changed
from a gaseous to a liquid form. The adoption or harnessing of these
principles is the nucleus upon which mechanical refrigerating effect is
built. A pound of water passing to steam will absorb about one thousand
degrees of heat, ammonia has the same characteristic to a different
degree. They both return the heat when the process is reversed.


=Type of Machine Illustrated.=--The diagram illustrates a single acting
pump showing its piston, a liquifier or condenser where the ammonia is
modified in form from a gas as received therein to a liquid; a receiver
to which it flows and a cooler in which it is expanded and where the
heat brought to it by the returning brine is picked up by the ammonia
and carried to the condenser. The arrows indicate the direction of flow.


=Compressor.=--The “Compressor” is a pump, a cylinder fitted with
a piston which withdraws the ammonia from the tank in which it is
expanded. The piston is tightly fitted and when it travels in one
direction, the gas flows in, filling the space, like any ordinary
pump whether it be a water or gas pump. Upon the return stroke, the
gas is compressed in the cylinder until the pressure in the piston is
sufficient to equal or overcome that exerted against it accumulated in
the condenser, when it is discharged thereto. There are spring actuated
valves interposed in the line of gas travel which close and retain in
the condenser that gas which has been discharged, allowing the piston
and compressor to repeat the just described performance many times per
minute.


=Condenser.=--The use of this element is to liquify the ammonia, really
to extract the heat absorbed by the ammonia in the cooler and the heat
generated in the compression. This condensing operation changes the
form of the substance from gaseous to liquid. The most simple style
of condenser is a series of pipes stacked together with ammonia on
the inside of the several pipes, and water flowing over the outside.
The gas on leaving the compressor is hot and at a high temperature,
frequently as high as 250° F. or more, and the pressure from 140 to 220
lbs., depending upon the water supply, its temperature and quantity,
and the area of the surface of the condenser.

The water flowing over the condenser absorbs the heat from within, the
ammonia becoming cooled by contact with the comparatively cool walls
of the pipe while flowing from one end to the other of the condensing
coil, gradually changing from a gaseous to a liquid form.


=Receiver.=--From the condenser the liquid ammonia is collected in the
receiver so as to have a quantity stored for use and in reserve for the
fluctuating requirements.


=Expansion Valve.=--A small but important item in the system is the
expansion valve which is a valve with a controllable opening and
comparatively small. This is interposed in the line between the liquid
receiver and the cooler or expansion tank.


=Cooler or Expansion Tank.=--The next element is the cooler in whatever
form it may exist, whether it be ammonia coils submerged in brine
tank, shell and tube cooler built like a boiler in which the ammonia
surrounds the tube through which the brine solution is pumped, or
ammonia “direct” expansion coils in the air within a room, it matters
not. At this point the heat given off by the substance to be cooled is
absorbed by the ammonia and taken up for discharge to the water flowing
over the condenser.

No substance will change from a liquid to a gaseous form unless heat be
supplied to perform the work of making this change. At the outset it
was stated ammonia will boil or evaporate at 28¹⁄₂° below zero Fahr.
when under no pressure or in the open air. Further, if ammonia be
contained in a vessel and the pressure be reduced below atmosphere,
the boiling point is lowered still further. For example at 10.6 vacuum
gauge pressure the boiling point will be 40° below zero.

Imagine a brine cooler such as a tank with coil submerged and
surrounded by a brine solution: This brine is circulated through
the building and by common knowledge we know it absorbs heat and is
returned warmer than it was sent out. It is supplying the heat for
boiling the ammonia gas.

Reverting to the expansion valves: Assume there is a pressure of 180
pounds in the condenser and a liquid temperature of perhaps 85 to 90
degrees; the same conditions existing in the receiver; also assume
a pressure of 15 pounds on the ammonia coils which will produce a
temperature condition of zero. In the diagram, the coil in the tank
is attached to the expansion valve while on the other end of the coil
is made the connection to the pump or compressor. This by its action
is withdrawing the ammonia gas as rapidly as it is generated, due to
the tightness of the piston, which if it is properly fitted will pump
a vacuum upwards of 22 to 25 inches upon the system attached to it,
unless gas be supplied to fill the space. In operation, the expansion
valve is opened slightly, the liquid is freed into a space where the
pressure is lowered, a condition created for expanding the ammonia to
a gas and the heat contributed by the surrounding brine is absorbed by
the ammonia changing from a liquid to a gaseous form.


=The Cycle.=--The cycle, therefore, is a gas in the expansion tank at
low pressure and temperature, admitted to the pump or compressor under
this condition, compressed to a small volume and increased in pressure,
discharged in this condition to the condenser where it becomes a liquid
and in a condensed form at a lowered temperature and ready to return to
the expansion tank to be used over again.

Ammonia gas is the heat carrier. If it be used in packing house
service, either it absorbs the heat directly from the rooms in which
the animals are suspended or the brine in the tank is circulated
through the rooms to absorb the heat and carry it back to the cooler or
expansion tank.


=Condensing Water.=--In Chapter II reference was made to the condensing
water for refrigerating system. This is important because the lower
its temperature, the less the pressure will be created which means the
less the power must be exerted in the production of the mechanical
refrigerating effect. The water flowing over the condenser carries
the heat to the sewer. Thus the heat from the carcasses, the sun heat
on the walls of the building, the actinic rays through the windows,
the heat from the men employed within, that from the electric lights
within, and that absorbed from the earth upon which the building stands
must all be collected and eventually passed into the sewer.


=Absorption Equipment.=--Absorption refrigeration equipment is used to
some extent in packing house work, but its complexity makes unnecessary
an attempt of its description in this work.


=Unit Basis.=--The unit basis of refrigeration commonly used in
expressing quantity is tons of refrigeration, meaning the tons of
refrigerating duty that can be performed per day of twenty-four hours.
The standard measurement per ton as adopted by the American Society of
Refrigerating Engineers, is a cooling effect equal to 288,000 B.t.u.,
being equivalent to the extraction of this quantity of heat from any
substance.

It has been established by the Bureau of Standards that in freezing one
pound of water at 32° F., to ice at 32° F., 143.5 British thermal units
of heat must be withdrawn from the water. For convenience in practice
the fractional part is ignored, and 144 B.t.u. per pound of water is
accepted as standard in calculations.


=Computing From Unit Basis.=--If 144 B.t.u. are withdrawn from each
pound of water at 32° F. to convert the water into ice at the same
temperature, the melting of the pound of ice at the same temperature
must re-absorb an equal heat in the process of freezing, consequently
the melting of one ton (2,000 pounds) of ice to water at the same
temperature would absorb 2,000 × 144 B.t.u., or 288,000 B.t.u., the
accepted standard for computing the heat absorbed in the performance of
one ton of refrigeration duty. In ice melting this absorption of heat
is _latent_, not sensible to the thermometer, as no change is apparent
by thermometer test in the temperature of the ice and the water,
nevertheless an appreciable _cooling_ of surrounding is measurable
by thermometer wherever ice melting takes place; for example, in an
air-tight room, or in contact with solid substances, or with liquids,
having a higher temperature than 32° F.


=How Rated.=--The rating of refrigerating compressors as usually stated
by manufacturers is expressed in tons. This refers to the tons of duty
that a machine will develop in a period of twenty-four hours continuous
operation under assumed conditions of about fifteen pounds gauge, back
or suction pressure, and 185 pounds head pressure. To perform this
duty the compressor should be of sufficient size to displace or pump
a volume of gas equal to 4¹⁄₄ cubic feet per minute. This rating of
the machine is proper when you are producing temperatures of about
32° F. or over, and presupposes the plant to be properly balanced as
to condensers, and to be properly provided with liquid receivers, oil
extractors and other complementary equipment.


=Freezer-Requirement.=--The growing demand for freezer space in and
about packing houses, however, is so important that special means and
methods must be provided to meet the conditions. It is impossible
to produce freezer temperatures and conditions under the same back
pressure as described above; the back pressures must be lowered and
in doing so the capacity of the compressor is reduced very rapidly.
The same compressor producing one hundred tons refrigeration duty at
fifteen pounds back pressure and 185 pounds head pressure will only
perform half the work when operating under a back pressure of five
pounds, the head pressure remaining the same.

The purchaser must never lose sight of the fact that in cooling freezer
spaces the compressor capacity is reduced practically by half and that
this is applicable to all portions of the system working under these
conditions.


=System to Adopt.=--No hard and fast rule can be adopted regarding
the system of refrigeration to be adopted, whether by use of brine
circulation or direct expansion. The case in hand and the nature of the
business to be done seems to govern. For example, if the plant in which
the business is mixed, wherein hogs, cattle and sheep are killed,
curing performed, and lard made, with a limited amount of freezing,
brine circulation for general use would seem the better. The excellent
results obtained by the use of spray coolers, later described, seem to
point to its use in chilling coolers, with brine circulated through
ceiling or wall coils for cooling storage rooms.


=Freezers in Small Plants.=--If the plant be quite moderate in size
and only sufficient to justify the installation of one compressor the
amount of space required for freezing purposes is thus limited, and if
commercial freezer space is available it is a question as to whether
the operator can afford to deplete his small equipment capacity by
installing freezers.

[Illustration: FIG. 16.--SUCTION CONNECTION FOR DUO-PURPOSE COMPRESSOR.]


=Cylinder Arrangements.=--If the plant be sufficiently large so that
the machine equipment can be afforded in two units then it would be
proper to install freezers. Supposing then that the plant justifies
this arrangement the compressors would be connected to the brine
tank for chilling purposes, and to the closed cooler for circulating
purposes. The gland end of the compressors would be arranged so that
they could be operated independently upon the freezer space at will.


=Why Brine Circulation.=--The chief reason for using brine in the
moderate sized plant is that with a reasonably large brine capacity
there is a reserve cold (so to speak) stored in the brine which will
permit of stopping the compressor, the brine continuing in circulation
by pumping, and there is less likelihood of changes in temperature.
Direct expansion chilling requires an almost constant machine operation.


=Air Circulating.=--The chilling of packing houses and methods involved
are various, each with its advocates. In Europe and where English
methods are followed the system is chiefly forced draft. This system
has been used to some extent in the United States, but the majority of
the coolers are handled with lofts, and circulation therefrom is of
natural sequence. The cellars and freezers are handled by pipes hung in
the rooms.


=Force Draft.=--The force draft or indirect cooling system consists of
forcing chilled air, cooled by passing through batteries of expansion
coils operated dry, or over which brine is passed, through a series
of ducts, and withdrawing it; thence passing it through the coils and
repeating. It is not favored among American packers owing to a belief
that it increases shrinkage, and tends to darken beef; that large
quantities of cold air are lost through open doors; because of the
expense of operating fans, as well as the room taken up by ducts and
the interference occasioned with meat rails.


=Coil Room Systems.=--The overhead bunker system as described under
“_Construction_” in this work details the application of the United
States practice.

Accepting the use of the coil room system and of still storage the
question arises as to the application. A visit of inspection to the
various packing plants throughout America will impress one with the
fact of the existence of a wide variation of opinion and practice with
regard to the methods of applying refrigeration for packing house
purposes. There are two principal applications--direct expansion,
wherein the ammonia gas is circulated through the coils throughout the
premises, and brine circulation, open or closed, where chilled brine is
circulated throughout the works.


=Brine Chilling.=--The two types of brine chilling, open and closed,
produce the same result, except as to the actual brine cooler, of which
there are several, namely:

(1) Brine tank in which are submerged ammonia expansion coils.

(2) Double or triple pipe coolers in which brine and ammonia are
circulated in annular spaces between pipes.

(3) Shell type coolers in which the brine is passed through tubes
within a shell similar to an ordinary flue boiler.

For a close brine system, which is the term applied to a system where
brine is circulated through pipes and not exposed to the atmosphere
so as to absorb moisture, the shell type cooler is a convenient and
economical means of chilling brine. It is so readily applicable to the
use of a balanced system, thereby lessening the power requirement for
pumping.

Double pipe coolers can be used in the same method, but are not quite
so favorably considered owing to the aggregate quantity of joints.

Either the shell type cooler or the double pipe cooler can be safely
used with an open system. The open type brine system is any system used
wherein the cooling effect is produced by bringing the cold brine in
direct contact with the air to be chilled, as in the spray system, the
“Gardner” sheet system, or an open pan system.


=Brine Methods--Recommendation.=--Where it would seem best for other
reasons to use a brine system, and the plant would justify the
expenditure, it would appear well to use a double brine system--open
brine in the hog chill rooms, and a closed system on the freezers, beef
chill rooms, storage rooms.


=Types of Brine Coolers.=--Open tanks with submerged coils are used on
some plants. The investment is greater, but the risk is slightly less
than in the use of closed type brine coolers, commonly called shell and
tube type. Unless the engineering force of the plant is fully qualified
and alert, there is danger of diluted brine and freezing the solution
in shell type coolers, which is likely to split the tubes, causing
leaks and the possibility of brine finding its way to the ammonia
compressors, rendering them liable to damage of a serious nature.
Whereas, with the open type tank and submerged coils, weakened brine
might cause ice to form on the expansion pipes and render them inert,
but no comparable damage could arise. However, we advocate an alert
engineering force and the closed system.

[Illustration: FIG. 17.--DIAGRAM SHOWING BALANCED BRINE SYSTEM.]


=Balanced Brine System.=--The balanced brine system as referred to in
the preceding, is indicated by diagram and has the advantage of keeping
the pipes full at all times, also of reducing the power requirement to
the actual friction through the pipes in the shell type cooler, and a
slight increase for passing through the coils. In practice twenty to
twenty-five pounds friction represents the total head to pump against
in a building nine stories high. The two types of the balanced brine
system are as follows:


_Open System._--Beginning at shell and tube coolers the brine passes
into supply pipes which decrease in size as they approach the ends. The
return line tapers in opposite direction. The pressure carried is only
sufficient to make a sufficiently rapid circulation.

A small pump is inserted in the line so that the pressure can be
increased on that portion through the spray nozzles. This lessens the
power over carrying the entire system at a high pressure.

The balance tank is located at such point as will best serve to collect
the brine from closed coils and the return from the spray coolers. A
vacuum valve is put on the closed line to prevent siphon.

A return connection to the main pumps is made, and also connections to
the concentrator from balance tank so that a portion of the brine can
be concentrated.

This system requires more concentration than the closed system. It has
the advantage that coolers can be used as sharp freezers if insulation
be proper.


_Closed System._--Beginning at shell and tube coolers the discharge
mains and piping are the same as for the open system. Return mains as
indicated. Balance tank is located elevated above upper coils.

A localized defrosting system is installed with individual pump
circulating brine over coils, continuously as required. The collecting
tank is located as near as convenient to lessen pumping head. The brine
flowing over coils in the lofts is concentrated to a strength equal to
circulating brine and introduce into circulation replenishing brine for
defrosting from mains. Concentrator is located where suitable.

In using closed coils the arrangement is different for beef and hogs so
as to assist in the circulation for hog cooler with a view to producing
uniform temperatures.

[Illustration: FIG. 18.--CONCENTRATING ARRANGEMENT, BALANCE BRINE
SYSTEM, CLOSED TYPE.]

In any system using open brine, there is a quite appreciable gain in
the quantity of brine in the system, and a weakening of its strength
lowering the freezing point. This necessitates vigilance as if the
brine weaken too much there is a possibility of it freezing solidly and
insulating submerged coils in an open brine tank rendering them inert
or splitting the pipes in a shell type cooler with disastrous results.
It is consequently necessary to evaporate the brine which can be done
with a concentrator as provided for in Figs. 17 and 18.

The concentrator apparatus consists of a balance or storage tank in
elevated position according to whether the closed or open system is
used; one or more stands of pipe coils; a catch pan for concentrated
brine; a reservoir and a small pump for passing brine into system.
The brine flows from storage tank, entering the bottom pipe of the
coils and passes upward through seventeen pipes, from which point it
is delivered to the trough at the top of the coil and allowed to flow
down over the entire battery of pipes, steam being circulated through
the top six pipes, thus heating the brine and concentrating it by
evaporation. The hot concentrated brine is cooled as it passes over the
lower seventeen pipes through which it originally entered as cold weak
brine.


=Direct Expansion.=--Many plants are equipped completely with direct
expansion systems. This is quite satisfactory provided means are
arranged to dispose of the accumulating ice and snow on the coils.
This is particularly applicable to coils in pipe lofts where moisture
rapidly accumulates, and is accomplished by some arrangement of
defrosting such as circulating a brine over coils by permitting it to
drip over the coils, pumping over and over again.


=Two-Stage Compressors.=--The revising editor brought into prominence
the two-stage compression system by building a successfully operating
plant which functioned with quite astounding results. The system
consists of a large low temperature gas compressor and a smaller second
stage compressor, arranged the reverse to a compound steam engine.

Ammonia gas which at the low temperatures resulting when low
back-pressures are required, becomes highly attenuated (light), it
is necessary to handle a very large volume per ton of refrigeration
developed. To provide for this, the low pressure cylinder is made about
double the volume of the high pressure cylinder.

In the low pressure cylinder the gas is compressed to a pre-determined
pressure and passed at a relatively high pressure, making for a very
high efficiency. The gas is chilled by the introduction of expanded
ammonia to take up the superheat.

The use of this compressor arrangement with its refinement makes an
economical cold producing unit. A record of one year’s run follows:

TWO-STAGE COMPRESSION SYSTEM.

                                           Per      Per
                                          year.    ton.
  Tons received                           60,000
  Cu. ft. space cooled                 2,930,000

  Coal cost                           $17,309.11   .288
  Labor                                15,156.73   .252
  Oil and waste                         1,030.82   .017
  Water and chemicals                   2,103.21   .035
  Repairs and changes                   1,698.38   .028
                                      ----------   ----
      Total cost                      $37,298.25   .62
  Expense per cu. ft. space per year               .013


=Ample Capacity.=--All of the above factors must be considered in the
calculations for refrigerating requirements, and it is best to make
allowances for a considerable factor of safety over and above the
actual maximum, as well as for the economical operation of the plant.
It never pays to crowd a plant to its limit or capacity. Guard against
emergencies and possible abnormal demand for refrigeration by providing
ample equipment. The plant should be constructed as far as possible in
duplicate, not only as regards the machinery but also in the apparatus,
as a safeguard against accidents and total cessation of refrigeration.
With two machines and duplicate apparatus one-half the maximum
refrigeration is always available, and the preservation of the product
in storage is assured, even if it be found necessary to stop killing
for a sufficient period to make the repairs on the broken machinery or
apparatus, while with one machine only available, a breakdown might
result in a very serious loss and considerable damage to the stored
products.

With regard to insulation, it may be said that the best is the
most economical in the long run. There is no such thing as absolute
insulation, some heat leakage must occur through the very best
insulation, and the reduction of this heat leakage to the minimum
should be the chief object or factor for consideration. First-class
insulation costs more in original investment, but it creates a
continuous saving and economy in refrigeration, resulting oftentimes in
a less investment also in refrigerating, pumping and steam equipment.




CHAPTER V.

REFRIGERATION REQUIREMENTS.


  REFRIGERATION -- NECESSITIES -- ICE PLANTS -- NATURAL ICE -- CHILLING
  -- QUANTITY REFRIGERATION TO PROVIDE -- SPACE PER TON MACHINE --
  MACHINERY PER HEAD -- ICE COMPUTATION -- COMPRESSOR CAPACITY --
  SUMMARY COMPUTATIONS -- LOW TEMPERATURE BRINE SYSTEM.


=Refrigeration.=--This word covers the “bugbear” and the “solace” of
the packers. No other one thing is of so much importance. Since the
abolishment of the use of chemicals, such as borax, boracic acid, etc.,
as a preventive or retardant in the propagation of bacilli during
the curing process, the packer’s sole dependence is refrigeration.
Consequently there has been considerable development and importance in
its use.

From the moment the animal is killed until the parts are disposed of,
refrigeration is a necessity. The proportion of freezing space to be
provided or hired at a commercial storage house is growing daily. In
many plants the total volume of freezer space approaches or exceeds,
that given over for moderate temperature storage purposes.


=Necessities.=--In the order of progress the first necessity for
refrigeration is the use of ice for chilling water for fats and meats.
Practically every packing house is now equipped with a small ice making
plant both for its use, and with commercial possibilities of selling
ice.


=Ice Plants.=--Ice plants are of various kinds:

  (1) Common ice made from filtered water without processing.

  (2) Raw water ice made from filtered or treated water, aerated or
  agitated, while freezing.

  (3) Distilled water ice made from condensed steam, reboiled.

  (4) Plate ice, made from raw water in large plates and cut up into
  blocks of convenient size.

In the production of distilled water there are various methods which
will not be treated upon here.

For the icing of cars and for ordinary cooling purposes ice made by
process No. 1 is amply good except, perhaps, if the water from which
the ice is made should not be clear, it may be necessary to use a
portion of the bottom of the cake for car icing purposes only.


=Natural Ice.=--The situation and climate has much to do with the
determination as to whether the packer can afford to harvest natural
ice for general use. For example, if the plant be situated in a
northern climate alongside a suitable stream adjacent to the plant,
the harvesting of ice and its storage can be afforded. However, if the
ice is stored at a remote point and teaming or car shipment of ice
is necessary, then the manufacturing plant will probably be the more
economical.


=Chilling.=--The chilling of the meat immediately after killing is
perhaps the most important function in the whole refrigerating process
and one that cannot have too much attention. In the matter of beef it
is the practice of the best operators to see to it that immediately
after the hide is removed the beef is placed in the coolers. At most it
should not be allowed to stand out in the open air to exceed half an
hour. Sheep and veal should be treated in the same manner. As for hogs
in some climates, such as latitude equal to Chicago or north thereof,
if space is available an open air hanging room is a valuable adjunct
where the animal can be air dried, depending upon seasons, from one
hour to over night. This feature also permits of increased slaughtering
during the winter season. It is a custom that can be abused, however,
by careless handling--resulting in sour meats.


=Quantity of Refrigeration to Provide.=--There are so many factors
which enter into the question of packing house refrigeration, and
so many details of construction and application of refrigerating
apparatus, that it is almost impossible to cover this subject
practically and intelligibly without devoting a volume to refrigeration
alone.

To give a fixed rule for packing house refrigeration, applicable to
all conditions, would be impossible, as much depends upon conditions
and surroundings, and the requirements would vary accordingly. For
instance, atmospheric conditions, quantity of space to be cooled,
temperature to be maintained, time for chilling, etc., these and
many other factors affecting the general results must be taken into
consideration and provided for, and as these vary, so will the
refrigeration requirements vary. A few ideas will be set out to assist
in the computation of the quantity of equipment to provide.

The capacity or size of the refrigerating equipment required for any
given plant is variable but can be reasonably closely computed by
assuming certain conditions.


=Space Per Ton Machine.=--Practice has demonstrated that one ton of
mechanical refrigerating effect duty, as rated by manufacturer used
continuously during a period of twenty-four hours will maintain at a
temperature of 33° to 38° F. from 7,000 to 12,000 cubic feet of storage
space. Conditions of exposure, insulation and outside temperature
affect this.

The minimum for beef storage coolers, the maximum for curing cellars.
The area of room or quantity of space enters into each of these
assumptions. If small rooms are used the unit to be assumed is smaller.
Concrete buildings are easier to control due to the stored cold in the
building mass of floors, columns and girders.


=Machinery Per Head.=--It is customary to figure that in addition
to that needed for cooling the space, one ton of refrigeration for
twenty-four hours would be required for either one of the following
items:

  From fifteen to twenty-two hogs, average weight, 225 pounds.

  From five to six head of cattle, average weight, 700 pounds.

  About forty-five calves, average weight, 80 pounds.

  From fifty to sixty-five sheep, average weight, 60 pounds.


=For Cooled Meats.=--For cold storage rooms, where meats which have
already been chilled or cooled are stored and held for a greater or
lesser period, the refrigeration requirements are not so great as in
chill and cooling rooms. The animal heat has been removed and the
meats cooled down to a low temperature, consequently but little more
refrigeration is required than that necessary to take care of the heat
leakage through the insulation, and possibly the recooling of the meat
through a range of a few degrees, when the meats may have gained a
little in temperature by exposure. Therefore it is estimated that one
ton of refrigerating duty will handle 12,000 cubic feet of curing or
storage space for temperature of 33° to 35° F.


=Freezer Space.=--As will be explained in the chapter relating to
refrigerating machine capacity, the capacity of a compressor very
rapidly decreases when operating under conditions necessary to produce
low freezer temperatures, and owing to the severe conditions imposed
it seems necessary to compute that one ton of refrigerating duty will
handle about 3,000 feet of freezer space.


=Ice Computations.=--Before the application of mechanical refrigeration
to packing house purposes, all artificial refrigeration was
accomplished by means of ice melting alone, and at that time the
packers computed ice melting requirements on a basis of cooling three
pounds of meat from 80° F. to as low as it could be cooled by ice
melting, for each pound of ice melted. While this rule undoubtedly was
the result of practical experience with well constructed coolers, and
was in no wise based upon theoretical or heat unit formulas, yet it
is interesting to note how close this old rule compares with modern
formulas of computing refrigeration. For example, the cooling of 100
head of hogs, averaging 250 pounds dressed, by the packer’s rule, would
require--

  100 × 250
  --------- = 8,333 pounds, or 4.16 tons ice melting.
      3

And on a heat unit basis, cooling the same number and weight of hogs
from 80° to 32° F. would require--

  100 × 250 × (80 - 32)
  --------------------- = 4.166 tons refrigeration.
        288,000

The above comparison shows that theory and practice approach very
closely to a common line, although in the calculation the factor of
specific heat of the meat is ignored, and in practice this may well be
left out, as specific heat of meats at various temperatures has by no
means been accurately established.


=Chilling Lard.=--The chilling of lard is a severe task on
refrigerating equipment owing to the very heavy duty imposed in a short
time. For example, with an eight-foot lard roll turning off 4,000
pounds per hour and changing the temperatures of the lard from 90° to
50° F. requires a very large compressor capacity per hour.


=Summary--Computations.=--Assuming the killing of 100 cattle and
250 hogs per day; making 10,000 pounds of lard, fifteen tons ice;
maintaining a freezer of 100,000 cubic feet and the small work
connected with the establishment:

  For 100 cattle killed daily, and storage of 400 hanging, about 6,500
  square feet area of cooler would be required; the height of this with
  the lofts would be about twenty-two feet or a capacity of 143,000
  cubic feet.

  For 250 hogs daily or 750 total hanging, there would be required
  3,000 square feet of floor area and a height of 18 feet or 54,000 cu.
  ft.

  The above number of hogs daily would also require a storage or cellar
  capacity based upon one hundred pounds meat sent to cellar for a turn
  over in sixty days equal to storing 1,500,000 pounds of product, or
  15,000 to 20,000 square feet of floor area, requiring 200,000 cubic
  feet of building space.

  Ten thousand pounds lard daily in four hours running would require
  the extraction of about two tons of duty, but by reason of the heat
  transmission and the low temperature brine necessary would require
  twelve tons duty while applied.

  Fifteen tons daily ice making capacity requires about 30 tons
  refrigerating duty, allowing for radiation and other losses.

  A freezer capacity of 100,000 cubic feet which would store 1,500,000
  pounds would not appear excessive. From known results this would
  require about one ton refrigerating duty for 3,000 cubic feet of
  space or thirty-five tons machine duty. We have then:

SUMMARY OF REFRIGERATION REQUIRED

                                                          Tons
  143,000 cubic feet beef cooler space ÷ 10,000           14.3

  100 cattle daily 500 pounds = 50,000 pounds
  50,000 pounds meat chilled 70° or 70 B.t.u. per pound
  50,000 × 70 = 3,500,000 ÷ 288,000 B.t.u.                12.2
  54,000 cubic feet hog cooler space ÷ 10,000              5.4

  250 hogs 180 pounds each = 45,000 pounds
  45,000 × 70 ÷ 288,000 =                                 10.9
  200,000 feet cellar space ÷ 12,000                      16.6
  15 tons ice × 2 tons refrigerating duty                 30.0
  10,000 pounds lard cooler                               12.0
  100,000 cubic feet freezer space                        35.0
                                                         -----
  Total tonnage refrigerating effect                     136.4


=Low Temperature Brine System.=--The use of low temperature brine,
cooled by two stage compressors, a new development, is in the writer’s
opinion preferable to direct expansion. (See description of two stage
compression in Chapter IV.) A lineal foot of pipe filled with a liquid
like chilled brine seems to have greater heat absorbing power than the
same pipe filled with a light gas and consequently less piping can be
used.


_Preference Reasons._--Occasion arose to compare for a new large
installation the relative merits of direct expansion versus brine and
the following items suggested themselves:

(1) The direct expansion plant would require 150,000 lbs. ammonia in
excess of brine plant.

(2) There would be approximately 8,000 more joints to prevent leaking.

(3) Unavoidable ammonia leakage through rods, glands, valve stems,
compressor rods and purging would amount to at least $20,000 per year
based on experience with good practice.

(4) The installation by the same manufacturer estimated to cost 15%
more than a brine system.

(5) There would be no stored energy in the ammonia pipes as in brine
pipes should the refrigerating plant suspend operation temporarily.

(6) The compressor hazard from returning liquid and possible machine
wrecking with line breaks, ammonia losses, and danger to life.

(7) In case of extension or modification of piping, the difficulty with
ammonia pipes over brine is marked.

(8) In direct expansion plants the cooling effect is stopped
immediately when the compressor is stopped. It is required to operate
incessantly, or if speed be reduced the current is chiefly wasted in
resistance grids if electrically driven. Whereas in a brine plant the
compressors can be stopped several hours, the brine being circulated
rises in temperature but not sufficiently to vary room temperatures.
This is a great advantage, permitting keeping “off peaks” on commercial
electric lines and consequently earning lower rates.

(9) With an electrically driven compressor, speed control is fixed
within quite limited bounds and if direct expansion system is used
more power is purchased than needed for reasons already mentioned.

(10) The total cost for operating pumps and calcium taken collectively
will be far less than the uncontrollable ammonia leakage. The coil
attendants can be less skilled.

(11) Brine temperature 25 degrees below zero, Fahr., can be carried,
sufficiently low for all purposes. Rooms can not be controlled at as
exact temperatures with direct expansion as with brine, owing to its
sensitiveness.

(12) Lastly and very important, the complicated piping system to
carry several back pressures to produce varying temperatures and the
necessity of operating several compressor “ends” makes a complicated
installation of small units as against a simple system carrying one
temperature brine.

Plants of the character described usually operate on direct expansion,
require three sets of temperatures, three sets of suction pressures
and three sets of suction mains with various cross connections and
intricate pump-out arrangements. This necessitates multiplicity of
machines and connections to various cylinder ends.

Progressive authorities recognize the necessity of freezer storage
in meat plants. In combination pork and beef or pork plants, newer
installations will be made with far less curing space for sweet pickled
meats and far greater space for storing meats frozen either before or
after curing to the end of producing palatable meats, not salt soaked
and of inferior quality. There are slaughtering plants for export
where beef is shipped chilled or frozen, and mutton frozen. Some have
exclusive freezer buildings, others parts set aside for freezers.

One temperature brine is circulated, the temperature in the rooms
being governed by the quantity of pipe in service. In all instances,
sharp freezers, storage rooms and curing rooms are equipped with pipes
therein--and the chilling rooms for beef and pork closed coils or
spray, optional.

Shell and tube coolers have proven so fitting that no hesitancy need be
made about using them, and the possibility of freezing is negligible
with reasonable prudence. Tanks with submerged coils can be used, but
it prevents the saving made by using balanced brine pumping, on high
buildings, a quite material one.




CHAPTER VI

POWER PLANT REQUIREMENT.


  STEAM MAKING EQUIPMENT -- USES OF PUMPS -- TYPES OF PUMPS -- PUMPS
  FOR BRINE -- WATER SUPPLY -- PUMPS FOR WELLS -- WATER DISTRIBUTION
  SYSTEMS -- PUMPS FOR BOILER FEEDING -- HEATING BOILER FEED WATER
  -- WELLS -- COOLING TOWERS -- ECONOMIZERS -- SUPERHEATERS -- STEAM
  ENGINES -- EXHAUST STEAM -- ADVICE AS TO EXHAUST STEAM -- BOILERS --
  CONCLUSION.


=Steam Making Equipment.=--The quantity and type of boilers needed for
a plant is entirely dependent upon the quantity of steam required and
its economical or uneconomical use. The refrigerating and electric
producing apparatus in the average packing house are usually looked
upon as the chief using elements, but they each frequently require less
steam than is used for pumping purposes, and less than is used for
cooking and kindred operations. It would be well to discuss the uses of
steam and return to the boilers.


=Uses of Pumps.=--Pumps are used for water circulating, brine
circulating, boiler feeding and pumping products. These are named in
the order of their steam consuming demand as it usually occurs. They
consume from 40 to 120 pounds of steam per horse power hour based
on the kind of pump used and the skill in its operation. The most
economical are electrically operated centrifugal pumps provided the
current is economically generated, steam turbine centrifugal pumps,
next if in good condition, and reciprocating simplex or duplex pumps
third and fourth.


=Types of Pumps.=--The types chiefly used in packing house work are
simplex and duplex reciprocating, centrifugal single and multi-stage
operated by motor or steam turbine directly attached to the motive
power, also power pumps of triplex type and rotary or impeller pumps
for fats and oils. There are endless varieties of each type.


=Pumps for Brine.=--For brine pumping chiefly reciprocating and direct
connected horizontally set motor driven centrifugal pumps of one or
more stages are used. At times power operated triplex pumps are used
but the most satisfactory are the second named.

Pumping brine for refrigerating purposes is a never ending process
since it must be constantly performed. The common practice of an open
brine tank with submerged coils is being fast superseded by the use
of shell and tube type closed coolers which superseded double pipe
coolers. The use of either the latter two types enables the operator
to take advantage of hydraulic head by installing a balanced system
described in this work which very greatly reduces the power necessary
to exert to pump brine. The friction in an eight to twelve pass brine
cooler is from ten to fifteen pounds, and this with the pipe friction
on a balanced system will total to perhaps thirty pounds on large
systems, but less than the ordinary open system--depending upon the
building height.


=Water Supply.=--The water demand for packing house operation is quite
an important element in relation to steam consumption. The quantity
required for ammonia condensing, steam condensing (if done), and for
plant purposes, washing, etc., is, in the aggregate, quite a large
amount. For example: For ammonia condensing, from 1¹⁄₄ to 1¹⁄₂ gallons
per minute is required per ton of refrigeration developed; for steam
condensing for steam engine from 32 to 40 pounds per pound of steam
condensed; for boiler operation about four gallons per horse power per
hour; for plant purposes from 250 to 3,000 gallons or more per hour,
depending upon the size of plant and its intelligent use. It will be
readily seen that those quantities will mount in power consumption if
the head or pressure pumped against is high.


=Pumps for Wells.=--Water pumped from wells is usually pumped by one of
four methods:

  (1) Suction type reciprocating pumps.

  (2) Deep well heads with low set pumping barrel.

  (3) Submerged centrifugal pumps.

  (4) Compressed air.

For small plants where one or two wells will supply the water, the
first named pump is usually used owing to cheapness of cost for
installing and particularly if the water rises in the well to a height
reachable by a suction type pump, viz: 23 to 25 feet. Power operated
suction pumps are also available for this service. If the water be too
low for the above named type to handle, deep well pumps with steam head
serve pretty well and usually cost less than air pumped wells.

For larger plants, larger wells are installed and submerged centrifugal
pumps or compressed air is used, the latter always as a last resort
from a cost of pumping standpoint, although its simplicity and
reliability appeals to many.

Submerged centrifugal pumps can be operated with steam turbine or motor
set on top of shaft above ground. The motor operated set is the more
economical, particularly if the current be generated at low cost.


=Water Distribution Systems.=--The intelligent laying out of water
systems and the pressure pumped against is a factor worth great
attention. It is far better to have pumps of proper proportions for the
service intended, even though it involves the use of a separated piping
system.

Taking advantage of water once raised to a high level in its return to
service is a power saving. For example: It is usual to locate ammonia
condensers at a point where there is a good circulation of air. This
is done to permit the winds to carry away the moist air from about the
condensers, together with the heat delivered up through it and to the
air by the discharged gas from the ammonia compressors. From the catch
pan beneath the ammonia condenser the water can be diverted through
the steam condenser and if the shell be bought sufficiently strong
in the case of a closed condenser, the water can be delivered to the
suction side of a pump which in turn will deliver it for house use for
cleansing purposes. If a barometric condenser is used, the water is
delivered to a hot well from whence it can be pumped or flow to sewer.


=Pumps For Boiler Feeding.=--Dependent upon the size of plant and the
pressure carried pumps are usually provided as follows:

  Small boiler plant up to 500 H. P. low pressures. Steam 80 to 125
  lbs. simplex or duplex piston packed reciprocating pumps.

  Medium Boiler Plant up to 1,000 to 1,500 H. P. steam 125 to 150
  pounds simplex or duplex outside piston packed reciprocating pumps.

  Over 1,500 H. P. the same or centrifugal type multi-stage pump motor
  or steam driven.


=Heating Boiler Feed Water.=--Every plant, large or small, should be
equipped with boiler water heating devices. These are so common and the
practice so usual that it is scarcely necessary to mention it but the
writer has seen plants where the exhaust steam from pumps and engines
was being thrown to the air and feed water pumped into boilers at low
temperatures. There are two types: closed and open. In the first named
the water is circulated through tubes enclosed in a vessel, the tubes
surrounded by steam. In the open type the steam is brought in direct
contact with the water and performs the heating in this manner. The
closed types are used on the principle that no oil carried in the steam
is passed to the boilers, but the latter type are usually equipped with
an oil separator that eliminates the oil and prevents danger from this
source.


=Wells.=--In most instances wells of various depths from 80 to 2,000
feet will find water. A few localities, however, do not yield water via
wells and this is a poor situation from a packing house standpoint.
The water from surface or shallow wells is, at times, improper for use
on meats owing to contamination, in which case, resort must be made
to other sources. In some localities the neighboring streams yield
suitable waters but in this case sewage contamination must be guarded
against. The quality of boiler supply water is an important factor in
the boiler operation in its bearing to shutdowns for cleaning, blowing
down, repairs, etc., all of which contribute to or impair economy.


=Cooling Towers.=--Where it is necessary to husband water for
condensing ammonia or steam the use of cooling towers comes into play.
These function by the cooling of water by evaporation, the evaporation
abstracting the heat. There are various kinds--sprays over ponds, water
dripping over spatter boards made in various ways, such as brush piled
loosely; a checker work of wood slats; screen wire, etc. These usually
depend upon the circulation of air in a natural way. There are various
patented types, depending upon fans, to pass air through falling water.
The efficiency is dependent upon the fineness of the water and the
quantity of air passing through it, the relative humidity of the air
controlling greatly the cooling effect.


=Economizers.=--Where the utmost economy of fuel is striven for and on
larger plants, these are installed. An economizer is a bank of cast
iron flues placed in a position between the boilers and the smoke
stack. Water is circulated through the tubes and the furnace gases
pass about them. They are usually calculated upon to decrease the
stack temperatures from 100 to 150 degrees--dependent upon its initial
temperature and to heat the feed water one hundred degrees. This is a
saving from a wasted source, since it is impossible to take up this
heat in any boiler yet designed.


=Superheaters.=--In an earlier chapter reference was made to
superheated steam. The office of this apparatus is to heat the steam to
a higher point than it rises to, under ordinary boiler conditions. For
instance, steam as delivered from the nozzle of a boiler is spoken of
as “saturated” steam, but, if before use this is subjected to a further
heating before it is used, it is said to be “superheated.”

Superheaters are of two types. They can be described as follows: A bank
of coils located in the flame pass in the boilers, the steam within the
coils and the flame on the outside; or a bank of coils in a separate
furnace, the flame or heat generated in the furnace passing over the
coils.

Steam superheated beyond 450° F. total sensible temperature requires
especial pipe fittings, type of valves, and engines for reasonable safe
operation, and renders an economy that a small plant cannot afford, due
to the expenditure, to take advantage of.


=Steam Engines.=--Owing to the cheapness of fuel in the United States,
users have been satisfied with equipment at a low initial cost and in
consequence pay bills continually by using uneconomical prime movers,
viz.: ordinary steam engines of the simple Corliss type, using from 26
lbs. to 35 lbs. of steam per horsepower hour, or compound condensing at
15 lbs. to 18 lbs. of steam per horsepower hour or high speed direct
connected slide valve engine generator sets using from 35 to 50 lbs.
steam per horsepower, depending upon load.

European engineers, where fuel costs are double and triple American
fuel costs, have of necessity paid more attention to the subject of
steam economy and have outstripped this country in design and use of
economical steam engines, notably of the so-called “uniflow,” “drop
valve,” “poppet valve,” or “Lentz” type and with the use of superheated
steam, have reached much higher efficiencies. The fast increasing costs
of fuel in this country have necessitated American builders resorting
to high steam pressures with independent or integral superheaters in
conjunction with steam boilers, and as a result American manufacturers
are offering simple uniflow engines for high speed (say 200 r. p. m.)
direct connection to electric generators. Also compound drop valve or
poppet valve or Lentz types for slowly moving engines, viz.: 60 r. p.
m. for connecting to ammonia compressors and in either case with steam
at an initial pressure of 160 lbs. and ordinary superheat of 100°
operating condensing, engines of the above types under the conditions
named can be readily bought under guarantees to produce an indicated
horsepower with the use of 12 lbs. of steam per horsepower hour.

The uniflow engine is now offered by several builders and is adaptable
to most any service, atmospheric exhaust, condensing or against a back
pressure using the exhaust for cooking or heating. There is but little
advantage, however, in a uniflow engine under this circumstance unless
it be the flexibility as to conditions of operation.


=Exhaust Steam.=--The practice of using exhaust steam, that is steam
which has passed through engines, for heating and cooking is considered
economical. It is based upon the theory that the quantity of heat
contained in a pound of steam that has been reduced in pressure from
its initial or high pressure, say 100, to a low one--example 5 lbs.,
and then used for heating, etc., contains almost as many heat units as
it did originally.

There are many places where this low pressure or exhaust steam can be
used advantageously, but if extensively used, the likelihood will be
to have long mains into which certain equipment will pass its exhaust
and from which the demand will be spasmodic for cooking purposes and
intermittent for heating, except during winter seasons, and as a result
there is a considerable quantity of steam passed to the air at most
times.

A careful analysis is necessary for intelligent use of this idea,
since the maintaining of a balance owing to business fluctuations and
changing seasons makes an almost unmatchable combination. During one
season live steam will be used for make up, and at other times there is
a surplus.


=Advice As To Exhaust Steam.=--Aside from heating feed water and drying
where the requirement is constant, a better practice is probably to
limit the extent of exhaust steam systems and use live steam for most
purposes.

The sources of exhaust steam, engines or pumps, are operating usually
twenty-four hours daily and constantly pouring steam into the exhaust
mains, which is constantly radiating, leaking and the accumulated
moisture is being trapped away to a sewer or feed water heater. The
traps are usually just a little out of order, and the little leaks in
multiple mount up fast.

Again the apparatus in almost any department used for cooking and
manufacturing is irregular in its use and an actual record will show
hardly to exceed six hours’ demand or use. Why operate engines and
pumps at a disadvantage all the time for the sake of a supply six or
eight hours daily? The engine and pump requirement increases rapidly
with the exhaust steam pressure and requires larger production from the
boiler.

Any power like that needed for pumping can be transmitted on a wire
with far less loss than as steam through a pipe.

The recommendations then are: Produce electricity as cheaply as
possible; if electricity is made, use high class equipment operating
condensing and take advantage of superheat if possible; produce
refrigeration or compress air with the same intelligence; perform all
pumping with electrically operated pumps; distribute steam for all uses
at high pressure, at high velocity through small pipes, well insulated
and have the heat at the process when needed; fit boilers so they
can arise to a demand when needed with ample stack and draft; install
stokers, if the plant will justify it; insulate the boiler walls and
generate steam as cheaply as possible--and don’t waste it.


=Boilers.=--The common types of boilers in the United States are the
fire tube boiler and the water tube boiler. The first named kind is
that which suggests itself to the reader when a boiler is mentioned
and consists of a shell cylindrical in form with a head in each end
into which tubes are expanded. In operation the water surrounds the
tubes and the fire passes through them. The water tube boiler is the
opposite of this. There are variations of these and boilers that are
built using both principles in part. There are also Cornish, Lancashire
and Yorkshire types used in England which are fire tubes using only
one or two tubes. Where a plant requirement is up to 500 horsepower,
the fire tube is the usual installation owing to its cheaper cost, and
more units which enables more continuous operation, especially if a
unit is out of service for cleaning, 100, 125 or 150 horse-power being
the standard size units. If a plant requires 750 horse-power or more,
installation of the water tube is preferable owing to their requiring
less floor space, higher pressures are usually carried and they are
regarded as more safe under these conditions. They can be forced to
a higher output if demanded, which is an advantage in times of rush
business.


=Conclusion.=--The mounting costs of fuel prompts the writer to say
that the management of a power plant of any packing house demands
intelligence in the selection of equipment and in its operation.
The losses that occur are silently passing on perpetually and are
immeasurable to the proprietor since they are intangible in dollars and
cents. In these days of educated engineers, a mixture of education and
common sense is obtainable and it takes this training or the practical
man who has augmented his practice with ability to use a pencil to
figure out his conditions, and suggest remedies that will stop a leak
of no inconsiderable consequence. It is a usually neglected department
by the proprietary interests.




CHAPTER VII

COOLERS.


  MEAT CHILLING -- DIVIDING BEEF COOLERS -- REGULAR TEMPERATURES --
  MAIN COOLER -- HANDLING BEEF -- FORE-COOLER -- HEAVY CATTLE --
  DOMESTIC BEEF -- TRIMMING OF BEEF -- SKIRT TRIMMING -- RIBBING BEEF
  -- FREEZING BEEF -- LOADING BEEF -- WEIGHING AND TAGGING -- CARE OF
  COOLERS -- MUTTON AND VEAL -- CHILLING HOGS -- CELLARS -- FREEZING
  MEAT.


=Meat Chilling.=--Meat chilling must be done intelligently with
opportunity afforded for gradual chilling without too rapid hardening.
The meat should not be subjected to sudden contracting low temperature
effects, but to a gradual tempering that will carry the meat from blood
heat down to the desired temperature. This effect is readily attained
by properly constructed chill rooms. Air circulation is the great
requisite.

Sufficient attention has not been paid in the past to provide ample
room above the hanging carcass, that is space between the carcass and
the underside of pan loft. Note slope on spray loft in Fig. 17 (Chap.
IV), showing design of Balanced Brine System. Coil lofts should follow
the same principle.


=Dividing Beef Coolers.=--Regarding the subject of dividing beef
coolers to avoid freshly killed animals from being brought into contact
with chilled ones. This is a disputed point, but it would seem that
if space were available it would be a benefit to provide for it. Any
moisture that might be given off from the freshly killed animal would,
upon coming in contact with the chilled one naturally condense, and
moisture is a detriment to the preservation of meats. The nature of
the business being conducted and the length of time it might be desired
to store the meat should be considered.


=Regular Temperature.=--Temperature is the all important feature
in meat preservation. The best practice appears to be, for beef in
domestic meat trade, to reduce the temperature to 34° F. as quickly as
possible and endeavor to maintain it at a uniform temperature.


=Main Cooler.=--When these rooms are being filled from the fore cooler
they should be held to a maximum temperature of 38° F. As soon as the
filling of the cooler is finished the refrigeration should be turned
on full force with a view to bringing the temperature down to 34° F.
in twelve to fifteen hours after the cooler is closed. While it might
be possible to bring it down in much less time it is not advisable;
neither should it be longer than this. At the end of twenty-four hours
for domestic shipment or city sales, the cooler should be held at a
temperature of 34° F.


=Handling Beef.=--When the beef is ready to go into coolers it is
supposedly well dressed and absolutely clean. Such being the case,
care should be taken to see that the carcasses, as they are moved
along the rails, are kept bone to bone, or back to back, for if they
are thrown in promiscuously (as more or less blood will run out of the
kidneys if run together, one front against another back of beef) they
will certainly become discolored. The beef should be handled speedily
and with as little jerking and throwing around as possible, for when
handled roughly veins will purge more or less and the beef, even though
clean, will be highly colored.

The sides of beef should be placed at least a foot apart in the
preliminary or fore-cooler. They should be placed so that under no
condition does one side of meat touch the other, for if it does touch
it will show an unchilled spot on the beef, which disfigures it.

Beef should always, if possible, be hung a foot apart the first
twenty-four hours; later it can be hung closer without detriment,
although it should not be allowed to touch.


=Fore-Cooler.=--When a fore-cooler is used beef should be held in
the fore-cooler, which consists of one-third of the length of the
cooler cut off by a partition or a separate room, a large amount of
the moisture and animal heat that is left in the carcass is here
abstracted. When killing choice cattle it is advisable to have the
temperature of the fore-cooler as near 38° F. as possible, 43° F. is
not detrimental. Sides of heavy cattle should hang at least eighteen
inches apart in order that the air may circulate freely around the
carcasses; lighter cattle may be hung closer.


=Secondary Cooler.=--The room temperature of this secondary cooler can
be safely reduced to 25° F., before filling. The maximum temperature
should not rise above 40° F. It is dependent upon the quantity of
product placed in the cooler, the excellence of the air circulation,
the quantity of cooling surface such as sheets, sprays, brine or
ammonia pipe and the quantity and temperature of ammonia gas or brine
in use. The possibilities can be ascertained by test and practice
established from this. Within twelve hours after killing the beef
should be in storage reduced to 36°, and further to 33 to 34° F. as
quickly as possible and maintained thereat until the beef is disposed
of.

Meat which is intended for freezing purposes should be thoroughly
chilled before being sent to the freezers, as it not only aids in the
freezing of the beef, but it has a much better appearance when it comes
from the freezer if it is properly chilled before being frozen.


=Heavy Cattle.=--These held in the main coolers should be reduced to a
lower temperature. Heavy cattle for domestic trade should be carried
at 32° F. for the first twenty-four hours; after which 34° is not
detrimental.

Export cattle for chilled beef shipment should be reduced to a
temperature of 29° F. as quickly as possible and held there until
loaded in cars or on boat.


=Domestic Beef.=--For domestic beef the coolers should be brought to
a temperature of 34° F. in twelve hours after they are filled, not
allowing the temperature to drop below that point. It is true that in
extremely cold weather it can not always be avoided, and oftentimes in
transit it is lower than that in the cars, but it is not well to permit
beef to reach that temperature if it can be avoided. If coolers are
properly handled and have a good circulation, and beef is put in at
the above temperature and allowed to remain forty-eight to seventy-two
hours, it will be found to be in excellent condition and the chances of
“bone-sour” will be practically eliminated, although it is impossible
to always prevent it.


=Trimming of Beef.=--While this is an item of which little can be said,
it is one which merits consideration where one is doing a large volume
of business. The necks of cattle are trimmed to make them look smooth
and even, cutting off the ragged ends. On large cattle there are two or
three pounds of brisket fat in each animal. When oleo oil is high and
beef is low it is advisable to cut this fat out; when the conditions
are reversed it is profitable to leave it in.


=Skirt Trimming.=--On export beef it is advisable to trim out part of
the skirts as usually the skirt in the beef is the first place where
moisture will accumulate. If the skirt is removed entirely, this
accumulation is prevented, and mould stops.

The hanging tenderloin is supposed to be cut out on export beef, and if
the man cutting it out cuts it from the kidneys, slanting toward the
backbone, on a hundred cattle he can easily leave in quite an amount
of weight which sells at beef price; if cut out it would be worth only
sausage price.


=Ribbing Beef.=--If the beef is ribbed properly it shows to the best
advantage; if improperly ribbed it does not, and the buyer’s opinion
of its value depends largely upon its appearance. Ribbing shows the
quality of the beef to a large extent, hence it is very essential
that it should be done properly. The secret of ribbing is to follow
close, without uncovering, the top part of the lower rib on the
plate, following down gradually between the two ribs to the point in
the backbone where the vertebra is the thinnest, bringing the knife
across perfectly level. Beef should hang in the proper temperature
for forty-eight hours before shipment. It should not be ribbed prior
to that unless absolutely necessary, as it has not sufficiently set,
hence the outer layers of beef will slip and give the cut beef a bad
appearance, the object being to show as much meat as possible when the
beef is ribbed and as little backbone. The exact place to cut probably
does not exceed one-half inch wide, hence it will be seen that it
requires skill to do it rapidly and properly.


=Freezing Beef.=--Beef prepared for freezing should be handled as if
for chilling or export and at the end of thirty-six hours the coolers
should be reduced to as low temperature as consistent, until the beef
is transferred to freezing chambers. If a plant is constructed for
freezing beef it is preferable to set aside and prepare spaces for
freezing independent of the chill rooms. The freezing temperature
should be maintained at zero or below, and if the meat is to be
kept for a long time it should be stored in 12° to 15° above zero
temperature.


=Loading Beef.=--The cars must be properly iced prior to loading and
the temperature in the cars brought down to the right point. It is
generally customary to ice the cars one day before loading, as a car
should never be loaded that is not 38° F. or lower when the doors are
opened. In the loading, if it is a warm day, the temperature will
creep up much higher, but the beef coming out of a temperature of 34°
or 35° F. carries a great deal of cold with it, so to speak, and even
though the cars may be 50° to 60° F. the cold beef, combined with the
refrigeration from the ice compartments of the car, will bring the
temperature down rapidly. Cars, of course, should be thoroughly cleaned
and aired out prior to the icing, so that when they are open they are
perfectly clean as well as of the proper temperature. Beef should be
put into the cars as fast as it comes from the coolers, not being
allowed to hang on the rails and be exposed before being placed in the
refrigerator car. Great care should be used in hanging the beef, that
it is hung perfectly solid and wedged tightly otherwise with the motion
of the car the beef will become chafed and a bone from one quarter of
meat will mangle and tear the meat on the quarter hanging next to it,
often very seriously injuring its appearance. Fig. 19 illustrates a
typical beef loading scene at a large American packing plant.

[Illustration: FIG. 19.--LOADING BEEF INTO REFRIGERATOR CARS.]


=Weighing and Tagging.=--In order to watch the business and to know
exactly what each and every purchase realizes it is necessary to keep
an account of each purchase separately, and this is invariably done
in up-to-date establishments. Cattle are killed in lots in which they
are purchased, whether there be one or 500 in the lot; everything in
a particular purchase is kept absolutely separate, the weight of the
beef, hide and tallow separated, and a record sent to the office as
soon as obtainable. Night clerks usually figure the cost of the beef,
and when the day force comes on in the morning, the actual cost of
all the live stock killed the day previous is before them for their
guidance in the day’s shipments. To do this, as the cattle are dressed,
the beef is weighed before placing in the cooler. Here the weight of
each individual carcass is taken and tagged, showing the lot to which
it belongs for guidance in shipping, the tag also having the grading
of the particular carcass. Any lot of cattle will run unevenly, or in
other words, there are some that are better than others. As they go to
the scale an experienced man looks them over and grades them as No.
1, No. 2 or No. 3, considering only this particular lot of cattle, as
a No. 2 of one lot may be much better than a No. 1 of another lot;
but they are graded by taking into consideration the whole of this
particular bunch of cattle, as purchased. Any cattle that are badly
bruised or damaged or discolored are thrown out and sent to some other
department where they are cut up or treated to the best advantage
possible. As fast as the cattle are graded and tagged they are put into
the cooler, each special grade on a separate rail, irrespective of the
lot to which it belongs, so that when the shipping clerk gives orders
to the loading gang to have the beef taken out of the coolers, he will
order so many No. 1 cattle off such a rail, lot, etc. As all cattle of
that particular grade are on this rail it greatly expedites shipping.

[Illustration: FIG. 20.--VIEW IN BEEF COOLER OF A CHICAGO PACKING
HOUSE.]

A great deal depends, in the expense of loading as well as the speed
at which it is possible to be done, upon having the beef put into the
cooler in such a way that it comes out readily and without a great deal
of handling and overhauling to get odd cattle.


=Care of Coolers.=--It is necessary to keep coolers sweet and clean,
and it is advisable to use a liberal amount of sawdust on the floors,
so that the drippings from the meats may be rapidly absorbed; the
sawdust should be changed bi-weekly or frequently enough to keep the
coolers in a sweet and cleanly condition. Entrance doors should be
washed daily, as they accumulate grease and blood, which if allowed to
remain will soon become sour and disagreeable.

In all packing house plants where a comparatively large volume of
business is done there should be one man whose sole duty it is to look
after the refrigerators. This is a matter which necessarily needs
constant attention and care. When the cooler is filled with warm meat
and the doors are shut it is his duty to increase the refrigeration and
see that the meat is brought down to the required temperature in the
required time. It is apparent that the refrigerators should receive
careful consideration, and be in charge of a man of reliability.

Beef should be placed in the cooler immediately after it is killed and
never allowed to hang outside any longer than necessary. While it may
take a little more refrigeration to handle it this way than to have it
partially chilled by the outside air, the general appearance of the
beef will more than repay for the additional cost of refrigeration.


=Mutton and Veal.=--Mutton and veal follow the same general rule as
beef as to handling. Beef offal of every character should be handled
under conditions described for export beef. In the handling of any warm
product it should all be spaced so as to provide for ample circulation.


=Chilling Hogs.=--During a summer season and where hogs may have been
hung out for say two hours to air dry, the chill rooms should be
reduced to a temperature of 30° F. at the time the hogs are put in and
sufficient refrigeration applied in to prevent the maximum temperature
exceeding 38° F. It should then be forced sufficiently to again reduce
the temperature of the chill rooms to 32° F. within twelve hours after
killing, maintained thus for twenty-four hours additional, then reduced
to 28° F. and maintained at this temperature until hogs are cut out;
forty-eight to seventy-two hours after slaughtering.

[Illustration: FIG. 21.--VIEW IN HOG CHILLING ROOM OF A LARGE PACKING
HOUSE IN CHICAGO.]

The chilling of hogs is handled in a measure the same as cattle, except
that the hog is a much more difficult animal to chill owing to the
character of the animal. The chilling is of such vital importance that
most successful meat curers have a set schedule for operation.

It is better to segregate the day’s killing in sections of coolers
sixteen to thirty-two feet wide; to insulate each cooler section from
the adjacent one; to make a filling limit of 40° F. and to require
sufficient refrigeration capacity and facility to reduce the chamber to
32° F. the morning after killing; and to maintain these temperatures
until cutting, about forty-eight hours after killing.


=Cellars.=--Dry salt cellars should be carried at a temperature of 38°
F.; sweet pickle meat cellars at 35° F., and for almost any kind of
curing. Cellars are occasionally reduced to 32° F. to suspend rapidity
of cure. Dry packed meats carry safely for ninety days in 20° F., and
for longer holding should be reduced to 12° F.


=Freezing Meat.=--The freezing of pork, which has become so important
during the last decade, seems to produce the best results when
performed at low temperatures. Many firms maintain freezers at a
temperature of from 15° to 10° below 0° F. Some insist upon storage
of meats under conditions of 0° F. to 5° F. Unquestionably the prompt
freezing of the product is a benefit, but the storage in these
excessively low temperatures would seem questionable since there is a
very marked “drying” tendency in low temperature rooms owing to the
very low percentage of moisture the air will contain.

It is the practice among some to coat the edges of piles of pork, or
the individual pieces, with water after the style of dipping fish in
fish-freezing. For all practical purposes, however, it would appear
as well to store the meat in rooms at 7° to 13° F., with 10° as a
standard. Canvas covering to prevent air circulation is a benefit.




CHAPTER VIII

WAREHOUSES.


  WAREHOUSE DESIGN -- FLOOR AREA -- FIRE PROOF BUILDINGS -- FLOOR
  CONSTRUCTION -- COOLERS -- FAN AND VENTILATION -- SPRAY SYSTEM --
  GALVANIZED SHEET IRON PIPES -- COIL ROOMS -- QUANTITY OF PIPE --
  METHOD OF ERECTING -- LIFE OF PIPE -- CELLAR CEILING SUSPENSION --
  RATIO OF PIPING -- DEFROSTING -- GARDNER CURTAIN SYSTEM -- DIRECT
  EXPANSION PIPING -- CHILL-ROOM BUNKERS -- LOW TEMPERATURE BRINE
  SYSTEM -- FREEZER AND STORAGE BUILDINGS.


=Warehouse Design.=--Under this heading we will discuss the standard
pork building for curing meats and for chilling hogs.


=Floor Area.=--The warehouse building as usually laid out should
provide 10,000 square feet on each floor, and as many stories in height
as needed and as many units as needed. It is common and usually best
to set posts sixteen feet centers in each direction, making sections
sixteen feet square. This area seems to lend itself best to practical
usage in packing house work.


=Fire-Proof Buildings.=--The permanence of the premises, the value of
the product in storage, and many other points make the advocacy of
fire-proof warehouses commendable. The warehouse, where floors are
likely to be used for storing moist or wet goods, or for curing meats,
should preferably be solid concrete floors, rather than tile, with
concrete joists and concrete topping.


=Floor Construction.=--The ideal packing house floor is as yet to be
discovered. What appears to be the best in a warehouse is a monolithic
floor, treated under the zones where meats are to be piled, and all
trucking thoroughfares paved with brick or tiles, or perhaps an
asphaltum preparation, as the latter can be replaced.


=Coolers.=--In most instances it is best to arrange the coolers on one
or more of the upper floors. Cooler design varies, but late practice
has been drifting back to the old system of open spray brine which is
described elsewhere. The customary practice in the United States is
for some type of natural circulation, as by the use of ducts with air
chilling facilities above the chill rooms. Practice has proven for
fresh meats that the use of this system is far superior to that of
forced draft, sometimes called “indirect” refrigeration.


=Fan and Ventilation.=--In northern climates it is a good practice
to place a window at each end of the pipe or brine loft to admit
a circulation of air during cold weather, locating an exhaust fan
centrally over the coolers with a duct connecting with the fan from
each room, drawing air from either end toward the center via the open
windows in the end of the loft. This induces a circulation through the
hot and cold air ducts which produces quite sufficient circulation and
a uniformity of temperature in the contents in the room below.

In warm climates the use of roof plugs, and airing or venting the
cooler at each filling, is, in our judgment, an expensive method, and
not justified by the results obtained.


=Spray System.=--The “spray system” has been rejuvenated and is very
popular. This system is particularly effective for warm beef and sheep
coolers and for hog coolers. It can well be installed at slaughter
and shipping points, but its use in hanging rooms where beef is aged
and held for sale is questionable, by reason of the probability of
shrinkage owing to the rapid air circulation maintained.


_Width of Rooms._--There are various opinions as to the width and
height required in a bunker room for installation of the spray
system. A room from thirty-two feet to forty-eight feet wide can be
successfully operated. Increased width beyond that means increased
height and this, in turn, means more construction cost.

Rooms twenty-five feet wide with twenty feet pans have been built and
successfully operated, but at less widths the brine is likely to carry
over. The value of the spray system, and the rapidity with which a
room and its contents can be cooled by its use, seems to be due to two
causes, the direct contact of the air with the finely divided brine
spray and the induced air currents created by a mechanical circulation.

[Illustration: FIG. 22.--SECTION OF COLD STORAGE HOUSE EQUIPPED WITH
SPRAY SYSTEM.]


_Types of Construction._--The accompanying diagrams show two types
of construction. One wherein the brine pan is made of cast concrete
and the rails suspended from wood rail beams hung on rods attached
to the ceiling. The other one shows the brine pan made of wood built
up from supported rail beams. In the first instance the brine spray
is collected on what might be termed a composition roof (without the
gravel covering) made from asphalt saturated paper, and asphalt laid
over a cork sub-base spread upon and cemented to the concrete pan.
In the second instance the pan is made from wood, exhibiting a wood
paneled surface on the underside, covered with cork, more wood and then
lined with a galvanized iron pan.


_Arrangement of Piping._--In both instances the brine spray header
was located near the top of the hot air flue partition and the sprays
directed to a line below the horizontal, to insure the brine falling
well within the pan, to prevent splash through the cold air flue.

The brine is collected and returned through a main pipe to the brine
tank in which are placed the submerged coils.


_Salt Brine--Calcium Brine._--One system is operated on salt brine in
which the accumulation is sterilized by boiling, then filtered and used
for curing purposes. The other is operated on calcium brine which is
concentrated by passing over a concentrator. It is then returned to the
brine tank.


_Spray Devices._--There are various spray devices purchasable on the
market, some approaching atomizers. The owner usually selects something
to his taste. A common spigot can be used with a piece of bent tin to
distribute the brine at the outlet, but more efficient devices are
obtainable.

The location of the nozzles at a distance of about four feet apart
seems to be ample for most purposes. The outlet opening should be about
one-half inch, valve controlled to suit. It is well to arrange long
length of pipe so that each cock is supplied with an equal quantity of
brine by use of forked connections on a complete supply circuit.


=Galvanized Sheet Iron Pipes.=--For room cooling, formerly used to a
considerable extent was sheet iron pipes. The three-inch galvanized
iron spiral riveted pipe is recommended, or where this is not readily
obtainable three-inch galvanized iron crimp-joint and soldered seam
pipe may be substituted. While not quite so substantial as the spiral
riveted pipe, it will, with ordinary care and attention last a long
time.

The use of spiral riveted pipe has been found unnecessary, provided
No. 24 gauge metal is used in lock seamed pipe. Open-hearth steel,
galvanized, is preferable to Bessemer. The writer experienced one
failure with the latter.

[Illustration: FIG. 23.--SECTION SHOWING BRINE SALT AND SPRAY SYSTEMS.]

Ten different pieces of this pipe ten feet long were capped on either
end and submitted to a hydrostatic pressure test; the bursting pressure
average of the ten pieces was found to be 146 pounds to the square
inch, while some of the samples stood a pressure of over 180 pounds to
the square inch. In actual practice the pipe used for this purpose is
never subjected to a pressure exceeding forty pounds to the square inch.


=Coil Rooms.=--Fig. 24 shows the end view of the cooler with the detail
of the hangers on which the pipe rests. Fig. 25 shows the end view of
one bay with the pipe located and connected.

[Illustration: FIG. 24.--END VIEW OF COOLER; DETAIL OF PIPE HANGERS.]


=Quantity of Pipe.=--In brine pipe refrigeration for cattle the author
would recommend to each sixteen-foot bay, eight series of three-inch
galvanized spiral riveted pipes with six pipes in each series. These
make a total of forty-eight pipes for the fore-cooler, where the
largest proportion of pipe is needed, and forty pipes per section in
storage beef cooler. For hog coolers forty-eight pipes per section
throughout is recommended.

[Illustration: FIG. 25.--END VIEW OF BAY SHOWING REFRIGERATING PIPE
HUNG TO CEILING.]


=Method of Erecting.=--Adoption of this system where brine circulation
is used can be made for meat storage rooms. (See Fig. 26 for detail
of the end pipes with fittings for the hose connections.) Pipes are
usually furnished in ten-foot lengths, riveted and soldered, and are
slipped together like ordinary stovepipe joint, all of these slip
joints being carefully soldered to be brine tight, a sufficient number
joined together to make runs of the required length to suit the pipe
chamber. At the end of the runs one of the three hose connection
fittings shown in Fig. 26 (feed connection, intermediate connection and
return connection) is put on for the purpose of connecting the runs
together by means of the rubber hose. Chatterton’s compound is put on
the nipple of the fitting connection quite warm, the hose being slipped
over at once and a wire clamp then put around the hose very tightly,
when the connection is complete.

[Illustration: FIG. 26.--DETAIL OF END PIPES, SHOWING DIFFERENT
FITTINGS.]


=Life of Pipe.=--This pipe is recommended for the following reasons:
First, for its economy; second, for its lasting qualities. As proven
by experience, galvanized pipe will last fully twice as long as
the ordinary black iron pipe. This would hardly seem possible when
first considered by anyone not having had the experience, and would
naturally seem contrary to his judgment. There was installed in 1890
over 100,000 lineal feet of this light galvanized pipe in a Chicago
plant, some of which is still in use.

Samples of the galvanized pipe that had been in use for upward of ten
years were found to have a very slight coating or deposit of rust on
the inside of the pipe, less than one-thirty-second of an inch thick,
and adhering very tightly to the surface. By removing this rust with
a sharp instrument it was found that the galvanizing was as clear and
bright as when originally put on.

[Illustration: FIG. 27.--SIMPLE METHOD OF SUPPORTING BRINE PIPES.]


=Cellar Ceiling Suspension.=--In Fig. 27 is shown a very simple,
inexpensive and effective method of supporting brine pipes in cold
storage rooms, or in rooms used as curing cellars, etc. This arranges a
combination whereby a drip pan can be suspended for catching the drip,
the construction being illustrated. It is preferable to line the pans
with galvanized iron so as to preclude possibilities of leakage. The
wooden construction of the ordinary class is usual.


=Ratio of Piping.=--Regarding the quantity of pipe required, this in a
measure depends upon the insulation of the cellars and the temperature
of brine circulated. With brine at a temperature of 10° F., one lineal
foot of pipe will supply radiation sufficient for twenty cubic feet of
cellar.

[Illustration: FIG. 28.--GARDNER’S “CURTAIN” SYSTEM FOR BRINE
CIRCULATION AS INSTALLED IN A CHICAGO PACKING HOUSE.]


=Length of Coil.=--The inlet and outlet pipe should have a 1¹⁄₄-inch
connection, this being ample for a coil about four hundred feet in
length.


=Defrosting.=--To dispose of the accumulation of frost that collects
on the coils within the coil bunkers over the beef and hog coolers, it
is usual to have a warm brine arrangement consisting of an independent
feed header, cross connections to the coils, a tank containing a
heating coil and a small pump.

When the frost collects so as to be detrimental, a supply of brine
in the small storage tank is heated to about 60° F., and it is
continuously pumped through the small auxiliary header, thence into
the coil it is desired to remove the frost from, until the frost is
loosened, when it is lightly tapped and falls to the floor of the
bunker pan. Unless the cellar temperatures are carried low it is
unnecessary to use this system in the curing cellars, as the coils will
drip from natural melting.

The use of this system of brine installation with a proper defrosting
arrangement has much to recommend it as to economy and efficiency,
particularly in use with a balanced brine system.


=Later Practice.=--A better system superseding that just described is
to arrange the coil loft or cooler coils with a brine drip over them
to remove the frost, the drip being collected in the pan, conducted to
a reservoir and re-circulated. Similar to the manner used with direct
expansion piping.


=Gardner Curtain System.=--One of the early types of open brine
chilling was the Gardner curtain system.

For this system a refrigerator or curtain room is provided, directly
above the meat coolers, and of same length and width, in which is fixed
an open pan or brine distributing trough, located over the sheets and
distributing the brine thereon. Fig. 28 shows a photograph of the
curtains in a refrigerator or bunker room.

A plan of installation showing position of curtains is given in Fig.
29, and Fig. 30 shows a cross section of a bunker room with the
arrangement and insulation in a wood constructed building.


=Direct Expansion Piping.=--There is a decided opinion among many
operators that direct expansion ammonia system piping, is preferable
over any brine circulation system, owing to the non-requirement of
pumps for circulating purposes. Caution is necessary in erecting
all direct expansion piping. It must be amply and securely erected,
avoiding the use of coach-screws or lag-bolts, owing to the danger of
rotting and giving away, thus causing perhaps fatal injuries. Room
piping will appear best situated when grouped over alleys and arranged
with drip pans so located as to avoid drip onto meats or packages.
The ratio of piping given for brine pipe will hold as to lineal feet,
substituting foot for foot of two-inch instead of three-inch pipe.

[Illustration: FIG. 29.--PLAN OF GARDNER “CURTAIN” SYSTEM OF
REFRIGERATION.]


=Chill-Room Bunkers.=--In chill-room bunkers there should be a brine
system arranged to drip the brine over the pipes for use during the
early hours of filling, since a double advantage can be gained by so
doing. This is quite effective when intelligently operated.


=Freezer and Storage Buildings.=--The use of freezer buildings have
become of such consequence in larger packing plants for the storage
of meats that it would seem opportune to introduce a description of a
freezer storage building and to discuss the requirements necessary for
it.

[Illustration: FIG. 30.--CROSS SECTION COOLER, BUNKER “CURTAIN” SYSTEM.]


_Growth._--The growth to include as it now does, in most instances,
a produce merchandising business with its seasons of production and
storage together with the necessity of providing low temperature
storage space for storing delicately cured hams and bacon over seasons,
make it almost a necessity to provide low temperature storage or seek
it away from the premises, with the incident expense involved in
transfer and return, storage charges, and the damage resultant from
exposure.


_Location._--A first consideration is the location of the building for
operating advantages, which is a local matter, but involves shipping
facilities by team and by car, convenience to the source of production,
and power plant. Naturally the value of the commodity in storage, which
at present prices, reaches a considerable amount, and the safety of the
product becomes a matter of no small thought.


_Permanence._--The permanence of a building for this purpose once
constructed, and the likelihood of changes due to variation in
business being small, together with the safety of its contents and a
consequent low insurance rate, makes fire-proof cold storage buildings
highly desirable. In these days of increasing insurance rates,
buildings that are rated from twenty to thirty cents per thousand
dollars--non-sprinkled--appeal to us. These rates are not uncommon.
Such can be obtained on properly constructed buildings with adequate
exposure protection.


_Concrete or Steel Frames._--Fire-proof cold storage buildings can be
of various styles of construction. The two types mostly used being,
first, of steel frame with either cast iron or steel columns, girders
and beams with tile or concrete in combination for floors, or secondly,
reinforced concrete frame with concrete and tile in combination, or
monolithic concrete floors.

For moderate heights the walls can be self-sustaining, that is, built
up solidly; but beyond a certain height it becomes economical to use
curtain walls similar to the well known “skyscraper.” In buildings up
to eight stories, reinforced concrete frame with monolithic floors
prove more economical than steel frame with tile or concrete floors.
Reinforced concrete buildings are more lasting, since it is impossible
to closely fit tile around steel columns and girders and exclude air,
moisture, heat and condensation, existing in this class of building,
conditions most contributing to rust. The life of steel framing under
these conditions is an untried experiment. On the other hand, in the
reinforced concrete building the strength is much derived from the
concrete and when well designed and the work well executed the steel
is imbedded and thoroughly concealed in the concrete, remote from the
conditions above stated and contributing to an indefinitely long
life. However, steel columns and girders encased in concrete make them
practically the same.


_Limit for Economic Concrete Columns._--Eight-story warehouses with
basement appear to be ample in height for ordinary conditions. Meeting
the insistent demands of building ordinances in some cities like
Chicago, these can be constructed of reinforced concrete with a maximum
column diameter of twenty-eight inches, with all floors designed for
200 pounds per square foot. This height of building with such loadings
approximates the practical limit of sustaining on footings on the usual
underlying earth, with building panels sixteen feet square, the column
spacing best adapted to storage purposes.


_Types of Construction._--In concrete buildings just referred to, our
preference in style of construction is either of the mushroom type,
that is, flat ceilings without girders; or secondly, with girders
extending in one direction only. An inexperienced engineer in his
efforts to minimize the quantity of steel and concrete requirement will
invariably wish to carry girders from column to column and cross beams
between girders, making the ceiling look like a checkerboard, losing
perhaps twenty inches or more head room on every story and making a
much more expensive building to construct and operate. The same fault
is noticeable in steel frame buildings, since nearly always there are
cross beams between girders. This drops the chilling pipes, curtailing
head room and makes an unsatisfactory arrangement. Whereas with a
mushroom or flat ceiling with girders in one direction, the difficulty
is overcome.


_Space Losses; Beams Two Directions._--In an eight-story building the
additional height above referred to amounts to from ten to fifteen feet
of unnecessary building and adds greatly to the construction cost.


=Exterior Walls.=--As for the exterior surface of the building, this
should be brick, the lighter the color the better, making absorption
of heat less probable. When building reinforced concrete frame with
curtain walls, the design should be such that the brick work entirely
covers the concrete frame, since it is very difficult to obtain tight
joints abutting beams and columns when attempting to build panels of
brick in concrete framing. It is desirable to prevent air and moisture
leakage.

[Illustration: FIG. 31.--GROUND PLAN OF A FREEZER AND STORAGE
BUILDING.]


_Qualities in Brick._--In the selection of brick sufficient attention
is rarely paid to the obtaining of brick burned approximately to
vitrification. The presence of salt, as is frequently noticed on
exterior walls of packing houses adjacent to floor lines, indicates
that brine has been percolating the walls, due to their porosity.
In the same manner water will pass through the opposite direction,
and very far disqualify the insulation materials unless they be
non-absorbing, and even these are lessened in value owing to the
accumulating moisture.


_Wall Construction._--All kinds of tile and plaster or concrete
exteriors should be avoided, since it is impossible to prevent
shrinkage cracks which permit percolation of water, eventually shelling
off plastered surfaces and deteriorating insulation.


_Ventilation._--In northern climates it is desirable to take advantage
of the winter air when it equals or is lower in temperature than
the rooms where product is stored, or when empty to air and cleanse
an apartment. For convenience in this it is advisable to locate
refrigerator windows in the same line to permit ready flow through the
room; these being put on hinges similar to a door.


_Insulation._--When undertaking to construct buildings fire proof,
problems in insulation are encountered. The more dense or heavier the
material used in building, the more cold radiated from all surfaces
unless effectually cut off. In ordinary type of construction the
various floors rest on exterior walls and in no way is it possible to
prevent a very great loss of cold being carried through the floors,
thence to the walls and dissipated thereby. Such matters are not
trivial in their importance. At one wholesale distributing market
deterioration in insulation during six or seven years has necessitated
the doubling of refrigerating machine service and the volume of
business is practically the same. To obviate this the remedy seems
to be to surround the building on all sides and cover the roof with
an encasing of insulation, putting an exterior covering of brick or
impervious material over this to protect the insulation, and to
prevent moisture coming in contact with the insulation. It is just like
dropping a small box within a larger one, the space between the sides
being the insulation.


_Double Posts or Walls._--This is accomplished when building self
sustaining walls by constructing a set of columns adjacent to the walls
with girders from column to column and supporting floor slabs upon
the girders, not permitting either columns, girders or slab to be in
contact with the exterior wall. In a skeleton construction design there
are twin columns, girders and beams, the inner set carrying the floor
loading and the outer the building walls, the insulation lining being
unbroken between them.


_Varying Temperatures._--Commercial demands require a variety of
temperatures, some at zero, some at fifteen degrees and some at
thirty-two or over, in the one building. The maintaining of these
varying temperatures in one building requires most careful designing,
since the concrete everlastingly conveys cold and attempts to cut off a
floor from that above can only be done by comprehensive and extravagant
insulating.

There have been storage houses where with a freezer situated over or
under an egg room a stove was maintained in the egg room to offset the
cold temperature from above or below. A dangerous, costly expedient
as well as the risk of freezing eggs. To encase and isolate a room to
maintain zero to fifteen degrees in it and, say, thirty-two above, it
is necessary to perform the following insulating: Line the ceiling and
beams; cover the floor; cover the columns, so as to really envelop the
cold. When insulation is placed on the floor, naturally the question
of a wearing surface over the insulation is apparent and to maintain
it fire-proof this must be cement or perhaps mastic. This causes an
expenditure for wearing surface over the floor insulation, increased
column quantity and strength, increased deadload of floors, insulation
of floor and ceiling, of columns, and this, conservatively speaking,
amounts to a total of eighty-five to ninety cents per square foot of
area. This over one foot is but a small amount, but on a building one
hundred feet square it becomes eighty-five hundred dollars per story.


_How to Sub-divide._--To meet the variety of temperatures required,
subdividing the premises into sections, but doing it vertically rather
than attempt to divide it horizontally, with a portion set aside for
each division of temperature. If the business is of such volume as to
permit this, make no attempt to insulate one floor from that above,
as there is no practical way to do it and obviate an investment in
insulation from which there is no return. A thorough external wall
and roof insulation is strongly recommended, and the cold radiating
into a room above that may be only partially filled or empty may be
considered as no great loss, provided the outer contacts are eliminated
or minimized.

In fire-proof construction the loss of cold through the ground is
an unsolvable problem. To effectually do so it would be required to
insulate every floor slab, top and bottom, all wall beam and column
surfaces. From the foregoing deduction the cost would be prohibitive.


_Basement Freezers._--It is obvious from this argument that freezers
should not be located in basements. It is far better to locate them
on the upper floors of the buildings and make the cellar a moderately
cold room, permitting the cold that will to radiate from the columns
to chill it, but supplying such additional piping as may be required
to maintain a regular temperature. If a freezer is placed on a first
floor, it requires insulating the basement ceiling, which can be
readily done. The basement columns are not insulated.


_Piping Systems._--With reference to piping for freezing boxed goods
or beef cuts, the shelving system made from coils of pipe upon which
to store the product while freezing is preferable. They are equally
efficacious, whether used in brine circulation or direct expansion
of ammonia. The coils in the freezing rooms are located on ceilings,
making one layer over ceiling for fifteen-degree rooms where conditions
permit, for handiness in removing frost. If the rooms be carried at
thirty-two degrees or over, group the coils in alleys to enable easy
location of pans for collecting drip, when coils are out of service.
Whether one uses direct refrigerating by expansion of ammonia or brine
circulation through pipes hung in rooms or indirect refrigerating by
circulation of chilled air is a matter governed by local conditions and
requirements.

[Illustration: FIG. 32.--LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A FREEZER AND STORAGE
ROOM.]


_Area and Division._--The plant shown in Figs. 31, 32 and 33 has a
large ground area and is a non-sprinkled risk. This building has a
frontage of 230 feet by 130 feet depth. To avoid an insurance area
charge for too large floor areas, and because of a desire to carry
several temperatures, the building was subdivided into three sections,
A, B and C, by putting in fire walls. It was designed to have Section
“C” subdivided into two halves, permitting the maintenance of two
classes of low temperature. Section “B” was set aside primarily for
carrying eggs and apples and thoroughly isolated. Section “A” was
treated in like manner to Section “C,” except that provision was made
for the division wall, which was not put in at time of construction.
Illustrating the design is a general floor plan of the premises
together with a longitudinal section drawing and a cross section
drawing of Section “C.”

[Illustration: FIG. 33.--TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH FREEZER SECTION
“C.”]


_Receiving and Discharging._--Referring to the plan, attention is
drawn to the three sections. Ingress and egress have been provided
by railroad track at one end of Section “A” and double track with
platforms on each side connected at end. Twin elevators with stairs are
located within a continuous vestibule and the center section can be
served from either elevator and stairs in either vestibule. The corner
stairs in Sections “A” and “B” were demanded by the City Building
Department, but not necessary to the operation of the plant.


_Insulation Lines._--Referring to the longitudinal section observe the
twin columns, twin girders on each floor level, the inner carrying the
floor construction and the outer the curtain walls. Notice the inlay
of insulation. The outer walls entirely enclose the concrete skeleton,
making the brick work continuous and sightly.

The transverse drawing of Section “C” shows a partition continuous from
basement to ceiling of sixth floor. This partition is not built from
floor to floor, but continuous through the floors, making either end
virtually an isolated building.


_Warm Storage--One Floor._--It was desirable in this instance to use
the upper floors of the building for warm storage, consequently the
top encasing insulation is placed on the ceiling of the sixth story,
continuing to and meeting the wall insulation, which with the wall
insulation encases the cold storage, as spoken of for the ideal. The
floor construction is of flat ceiling type, there being no girders to
contend with in piling product or installing piping.


_Part Freezers._--Frequently the space required for freezing purposes
will not be sufficient to justify the construction of an independent
building. Sometimes consideration is given to building freezers in a
horizontal belt, horizontally across the building. This is not a proper
construction, since it costs much more to insulate than if the same
volume were arranged vertically with one section above the other. In
other words, if one desires to cover a floor surface of 20,000 square
feet it would be far better to make it four areas of 5,000 feet in a
four-story building than on one or two floors.




CHAPTER IX

SLAUGHTERING CATTLE.


  RECEIVING LIVE STOCK -- WATERING -- DRIVING CATTLE -- KNOCKING CATTLE
  -- STICKING -- HEADING -- PRITCH STICKS -- FOOT SKINNING -- RIPPING
  AND LEG BREAKING -- FLOORING CATTLE -- BREAST SAWING -- FELL CUTTING
  -- RUMPING -- BEEF SPREADERS -- FELL BEATING -- GUTTING -- BACKING --
  TAIL SAWING -- SPLITTING -- SPLITTING CLEAVERS -- CLEARING OUT AND
  HIDE DROPPING -- NECK SPLITTING -- BRUISE TRIMMING -- SKIRT TRIMMING
  -- WASHING CATTLE -- FOUNTAIN BRUSHES -- DRESSING CATTLE -- CONVEYORS.


=Receiving Live Stock.=--The beginning of the packing business relating
to hogs and cattle starts when they are received in the pens. The pens
in most climates should be paved, provided with proper drainage and
ample watering facilities. Before animals are slaughtered the first
essential point is to see they are in condition to be slaughtered,
namely, that they are not excited, fevered, out of condition, under
fed, or, in other words, that they are as near their normal condition
as possible. Cattle should be allowed to rest over night before they
are slaughtered, if they have been driven or transported any distance;
for if the animal is tired or excited it will not bleed properly when
slaughtered, and if killed in this condition the meat has a red, fiery
appearance, and is generally unwholesome. It is a condition which the
practical eye of the tradesman will take cognizance of very readily,
and he will not be slow to use it to his advantage.


=Water and Sprinkling.=--Ample fresh water should be provided for
drinking purposes, and sprinkling hogs and cattle is very desirable
in hot weather. Fig. 34 is a view of suitable resting pens. After
the animals have rested a sufficient length of time to be in normal
condition they should be driven to the killing pens carefully, and
without undue violence, such as striking them across the back with
heavy sticks, or prodding them unnecessarily while in the pens, as
this abuse shows on the meat very readily when the hide is removed.
This damage is invariably done on the loin and rump of the animal, and
as this is the high-priced part of the meat, it will readily be seen
that the loss is quite considerable. With stubborn or wild cattle it
is often necessary to be quite severe, but a practiced handler of live
stock will do it in such a manner as to avoid injuring the carcass.

[Illustration: FIG. 34.--CATTLE RESTING IN PENS BEFORE BEING
SLAUGHTERED.]


=Driving Cattle.=--A wooden knob for the end of a prod pole will
prevent a great deal of bruising and consequent discoloration of
the meat. When penning cattle from overhead, the penner invariably
prods the animal in the loin, oftentimes using his pole as a harpoon.
The force of the blow thus inflicted, covering so small a surface,
invariably makes a bloodshot spot, whereas, if the force of the blow
were distributed over a portion three times as large no ill effect
would be noticed, hence the use of the knobs on these poles will do
away with the bruising of loins in handling and penning cattle. Poles
electrically charged by a wire extending through the pole with a
connection to the lighting system are used by many with good results.

[Illustration: FIG. 35.--VIEW ILLUSTRATING MODERN METHOD OF STUNNING
CATTLE.]


=Knocking or Stunning Cattle.=--This represents really the first act in
the slaughtering of cattle. After they have been driven into the narrow
pens provided for the purpose, as shown in Fig. 35, the knocker follows
and with a four pound hammer strikes the animal a stunning blow in the
middle of the forehead.

In former times cattle were speared, which was accomplished by walking
over the top of the runways and with a long, sharp-pointed spear,
severing the spinal cord. This method of killing, however, is barbarous
and not nearly so efficacious as stunning by knocking, and has been
superseded in all the large abattoirs of the United States by the
method of knocking as shown in the view. It is advisable to use a
hammer of comparatively large face, so as not to indent the skulls.

[Illustration: FIG. 36.--STUNNED CATTLE BEING HOISTED FOR STICKER.]

Immediately after the stunning a sliding door is hoisted and the
stunned animal rolled out to be hoisted for sticking, heading, etc., as
shown in Figs. 36 and 37.


=Sticking.=--In sticking great care should be taken that the throat
is well opened, thereby giving the blood a free flow, also that in
sticking both arteries and veins are severed, otherwise the beef will
purge on the back and look discolored when finished. Care should also
be taken not to stick cattle “through,” for if this is done, when the
bullock is thrown on its back, the blood flows onto the chime bones,
causing a bad discoloration.

[Illustration: FIG. 37.--HEADING AND SKINNING CATTLE.]


=Heading.=--Care should be used to see that all the fat possible is
left on the tongue, leaving it perfectly smooth on the outer surface;
that as little hide as possible is left around the horns. The header,
in cutting around the side of the head, leaves all the fat on the
heads, and keeps as close to the side of the tongue as he can without
injury to same; when this is done, the hide dropper can leave a full
shaped neck, otherwise considerable meat which should be on the
carcass is left on the head, where it is afterward trimmed and only
worth tallow price. In taking the tongue from the head the trimmer
should cut close to the jaw-bone, so that all the meat possible may be
left on the tongue.


=Pritch Sticks.=--For convenience in handling the carcasses on the
beds, a pritch is used (See Fig. 38). This stick is arranged with a
spike in one end and a ferrule on the other; used to hold the animal
when rolled on its back. Pritches were formerly made with spikes at
both ends. A spike should not be used on the end of the pritch coming
in contact with the beef, as the spike often punctures the hide. The
end of the pritch, which is to rest upon the floor should have a spike
inserted. The end which is to support the carcass, should have a
ferrule of 1¹⁄₂-inch pipe, roughened like a saw tooth, which prevents
it from slipping and at the same time does not injure the hide.

[Illustration: FIG. 38.--PRITCH TO SUPPORT ANIMAL WHEN TURNED ON BACK.]


=Foot Skinning.=--Foot skinning is the term applied to taking off the
feet. In doing this, cut around the hoofs closely. Do not open the
hide any higher than necessary to unjoint the feet. If the shank is
uncovered more than necessary, it is likely to become dirty, and it is
impossible to make it clean if the tissue becomes stained. Be careful
to see that none of the cords from the front part of the shin-bone are
left on the hide. The men skinning the front feet usually raise the
gullet. In doing this they should be careful to open the neck straight
from where the sticker left off, and guard against cutting the weasand.
The gullet should not be raised too high with the knife when clearing,
for if this is done, it allows the blood to run back on the ribs,
producing the same effect as if the bullock had been stuck through.


=Ripping and Leg Breaking.=--In this operation care should be exercised
to see that the first cut is made exactly where the sticker left off,
opening the breast and hide in the center the full length of the
animal, in a straight line. Uncover the gam only sufficient to reach
the joint, leaving the hide over balance of shank to protect it. In
this way you get very much better shanks than if skinned too low. Cut
closely to hoofs so all hide possible comes off around the feet, but
that none of the cords are left on the hide.

[Illustration: FIG. 39.--VIEW SHOWING DOUBLE-BED KILLING FLOOR IN A
MODERN SLAUGHTER HOUSE.]


=Flooring Cattle.=--This expression describes rimming over and siding
the bullock. The special object of this operation is to attain a smooth
hide without scores or cuts, smooth work on the bullock, which consists
in saving the fell very carefully, clearing the rose on shoulder fully,
also the saving of the fell back of the elbow and the forward shoulder.
The latter part is a very particular point, as if the fell is not left
it shows black upon chilling.


=Breast Sawing.=--In sawing the breast, it should be done centrally,
holding saw at same angle as that at which the animal is lying,
otherwise the saw works toward one side, and makes a very bad-looking
brisket on one side of the beef. Saw where marked, otherwise it will
become necessary to trim meat from the neck, if the marks have not been
followed.

Caul pulling consists in taking out the caul in a tidy, cleanly
condition, keeping same off the floor, and putting it into a box. Care
should also be taken not to cut or tear the intestines, and if so, that
they are immediately skewered.


=Fell Cutting.=--Fell cutting consists in skinning the hide off the
hind legs when animal is on the first hoist. The points to be carefully
looked after in this work is to see that smooth work is done both on
the hides and on the beef itself.


=Rumping.=--This operation requires very skillful work, and calls for a
great deal of attention. Points to be attained are a smooth hide free
from scores or cuts, and smooth work on the beef. Care must be used
in this work to see that the rumper keeps very close to the hide on
outside of the leg, in order that the fell-beater may do good work. If
the rumper is careless and breaks through the fell, it is impossible
to carry this down smoothly. In working around the tail, care must be
taken not to cut into the lean meat, especially on thin cattle, where
there is comparatively little covering.


=Fell Beating.=--If the floorman and rumper do their work properly,
it is comparatively easy to do a good job at fell beating. The
fell-beaters should then use care to see that they do not tear
through, and, in marking with the chopper, to mark in such a way that
they tear back instead of cutting off.


=Gutting.=--The objects sought for in this particular work are: First,
cleanliness, and next, to save the fat smooth and without tearing
it around the bones. The liver should be taken out without tearing.
Special care should be used in cutting between kidneys, to open in the
center without cutting tenderloin. Also to leave all tenderloin in
the bullock, for, if any comes out with the “pluck” it is wasted. The
workmen should also be careful about cutting intestines or weasands.

[Illustration: FIG. 40.--ORDINARY BEEF SPREADER.]


=Backing.=--The objects to be attained in this particular work, are:
First, smooth hides, free from scores or cuts, at the same time leaving
no fat on the hide, and next, particular care should be taken in the
work required in the dropping of the hide to see that the fat is not
removed from the loins.


=Tail Sawing.=--The point in this work is to see that the saw is
absolutely in the center, and that the first bone is sawed centrally.
Better work can doubtless be done by sawing the tail from the rear,
“popping” it twice.


=Beef Spreaders.=--In slaughtering cattle it was formerly the custom
to use an ordinary spreader as shown in Fig. 40, which spread all
carcasses, large or small, a certain distance and kept them spread
from the time they were hung until finished splitting. The spring beef
spreader illustrated in Fig. 41, is a great improvement over this old
spreader. When the cattle are first hung on this appliance the center
piece is raised up, allowing the hooks to hang in a normal condition
proportionate to the size of the animal which is hung on them. Hanging
in this shape, the rumper is given a chance to do his work better.


=Splitting.=--Great care should be exercised in this particular work,
especially on “hard-bone” cattle. They should split the bone down
centrally, the entire length of the carcass. Great care should be taken
to see that they split the short fin-bone in the neck, thereby giving
the neck-splitter a chance to start centrally with his work.

[Illustration: FIG. 41.--SPRING BEEF SPREADER.]


=Splitting Cleavers.=--Care should be exercised to see that these
are in the very best condition to do the work. They should be ground
as thin as possible, yet not so thin that they will shatter. If the
splitters do not break a chopper occasionally, it is evidence that
these are not ground as thin as they should be, and, unless they are,
it is impossible to do good work in splitting. The workmen should,
however, have choppers ground different thicknesses for different
boned cattle, and never use thin-ground choppers on cows or hard-boned
steers.

[Illustration: FIG. 42.--VIEW SHOWING BEEF CARCASSES BEING SPLIT AND
HUNG ON TROLLEY.]


=Clearing Out and Hide Dropping.=--In clearing the shanks the workmen
should look carefully to see that they do not score the hide, or make
any miscuts in the meat. They should also save the veins in the under
side of forward shoulder, for when these are cut they continue to
purge, making bad-looking shanks. In hide dropping care should be used
to see that the workmen do not score or cut hides, make miscuts in the
neck, or leave any unnecessary fat on the hide. They should also skin
hides as low down as possible on the necks.


=Neck Splitting.=--This should be done carefully, splitting the
neck fairly in the center. The last bone, or “deacon” joint, in the
neck should be broken centrally, in order to give equal weights and
appearance to the beef.


=Bruise Trimming.=--This is a very essential feature in the dressing
of cattle, and one in which good judgment must be exercised. It is,
therefore, very hard to lay down any set rules further than the
following: The object of trimming bruises is to take off all blood
accumulations, and at the same time leave all the fat possible on the
hips, etc., to be bleached out by using hot water and thorough wiping.
The great danger, generally speaking, is that they are trimmed too much
and scrubbed too little. These are points which require very careful
attention.


=Skirt Trimming.=--Skirt trimming consists in cutting off the edge of
the skirts evenly on native cattle without exposing the lean meat. On
western cattle and thin stock, the skirts should be trimmed high enough
so that they will expose the lean meat, which gives a chance for all
moisture which has gathered under the film to escape, making the beef
dryer than if otherwise trimmed.


=Washing Cattle.=--It will be noted that the carcasses are then
separated into two pieces and should be thoroughly washed and scrubbed
with fountain brushes to insure absolute cleanliness in every part. The
washing and wiping should be carefully performed, and incidental to the
washing is the scraping of slime from the back and shoulders previous
to wiping. Many slaughter floors are now equipped with centrifugal
wringers for wringing out boiled cloths and cleanliness is made
paramount in handling beef.

In the washing of beef the work should start at the hind legs, the
step-ladder men being the first to use water on the beef after it is
split. Next, the back washers and wipers; after these, the neck and
rib washers, the policy being to start at the top and clean the beef as
they go along. The washers should be kept close up, handling the beef
promptly, running it into the cooler as fast as it is dressed.


=Fountain Brushes.=--A convenient apparatus for washing carcasses is
the fountain brush. It consists of an ordinary brush with a spray
attachment on the front of it, as shown in Fig. 43. To this is attached
a hose which supplies hot water from the vat above. When the men are
ready to scrub the beef a valve is turned on, the water gravitating
through the hose to the meat. In wetting it continuously the blood or
discoloration which may be gathered on the meat is rapidly taken off,
leaving it in a bright, clean condition. The beef is then wiped with
a cloth made of ten or twelve thicknesses of very coarse cheese cloth
which rapidly absorbs the moisture.

[Illustration: FIG. 43.--THE FOUNTAIN BRUSH.]


=Dressing Cattle.=--The mechanical labor of dressing cattle is about
the same whether slaughtering ten or ten hundred, except in the former
case the work would be performed by one man and in the latter by
probably one hundred and thirty. The facilities for doing the work
vary with the quantity and style of beds. Some beds are burdened
with mechanical appliances where the apparatus more than counteracts
any possible labor saving that can be effected. Common sense in this
instance would indicate simplicity, as conveyors and mechanical
appliances are costly for installation and for upkeep.


=Dressing Conveyors.=--Dressing conveyors to take the animal after
siding would, however, appear advantageous, since it permits of the
concentration of the viscera for inspection and manipulation, and makes
for facilities where the same can be handled to meet the regulations
and avoid the troubles of food products touching the floor on being
trucked. These conveyor systems can be simple or complicated and each
house requires treatment comparable with the quantity of business
performed.

The type of killing beds, where the pens range across the building
with one pen for each two beds, and a waiting pen where the drive can
be moved forward for knocking, is, in the writer’s opinion, the least
costly for standard operation, particularly if an automatic hanging-off
arrangement is provided.




CHAPTER X

DRESSING YIELDS AND CATTLE CUTTINGS.


  YIELDS OF CATTLE -- YIELD FROM TWENTY-TWO NATIVE CATTLE -- YIELD FROM
  FIFTY-NINE TEXAS CATTLE -- YIELD FROM TWENTY HEAVY CATTLE -- YIELD
  FROM THIRTY-FOUR CATTLE -- PERCENTAGE OF VARIOUS CUTS -- BEEF CUTS --
  DIAGRAM OF CUTTING -- GRADING -- LOINS -- RIBS -- ROUNDS -- CHUCKS --
  PLATES, SHANKS AND FLANKS -- BARRELED BEEF.


=Yields of Cattle.=--The following are carefully prepared calculations
made from data obtained in operation, showing yields of different
products on several different lots of cattle. These were choice
cattle in each instance and the average yield of the products is
generally larger than would be the case with the ordinary run of cattle
slaughtered. A perusal of the different tests given in the following
pages will give the reader the average yield in different lines from
the cattle handled, together with the value of the different items at
time tests were made.

The prices were in vogue at the time of the original publication and
while now obsolete are left for comparative purposes. The quantities
and percentages would remain and can be used as a basis for present
computations.


=Yield from Twenty-Two Native Cattle.=--The following tables show the
yield in beef, hides and tallow and value of offal of twenty-two native
cattle, the first in each test showing the weight and percentage of
yield of beef, hides and tallow.

The yield of sweetbreads of twenty-two cattle was twenty-two pieces,
weighing six pounds, valued at 20c per pound, total value $1.20. The
yield in tripe was twenty-two pieces, weighing 420 pounds, valued at
¹⁄₂c per pound, total value $2.10. Total value of sweetbreads and green
tripe, $3.30.

PERCENTAGE OF YIELD OF BEEF, HIDES AND TALLOW.

  ================+======+================+========+======
                  |Weight|                | Weight |  Per
      Product     | lbs. |    Averages    |  lbs.  | Cent
  ----------------+------+----------------+--------+------
  Live weight     |23,700|Average         |1,077.00|  ...
  Dressed weight  |14,239|Average         |  646.00| 60.08
  Shipping weight |14,162|Shrinkage       |   ...  |  0.54
  Hides weight    | 1,755|Average         |   ...  |  7.40
  ----------------+------+----------------+--------+------
  Total fat weight| 1,391|Average per head|   63.25|  5.80
  ----------------+------+----------------+--------+------

TRIMMINGS FROM LOT OF TWENTY-TWO CATTLE.

  ==============+======+================+===+=======
      Product   |Pounds|      Value     |Total Value
  --------------+------+----------------+-----------
  22 tongues    | 149  |$0.55    each   |  $12.10
  22 livers     | 248  |  .35    each   |    7.70
  22 hearts     |  56  |  .07    each   |    1.54
  22 tails      |  40  |  .03¹⁄₂ each   |     .77
  Cheek meat    |  88  |  .03    per lb.|    2.64
  Head meat     |  16  |  .03    per lb.|     .48
  Fine meat     |   7  |  .03    per lb.|     .21
  Head trimmings|  11  |  .03    per lb.|     .33
  --------------+------+----------------+-----------
    Total value | ...  |       ...      |  $25.77
  --------------+------+----------------+-----------

CASINGS FROM LOT OF TWENTY-TWO CATTLE.

  ======================+========+=================+============
                        |Per cent|                 |
          Product       |  used  |      Value      | Total Value
  ----------------------+--------+-----------------+------------
  20 sets round guts    |   91   |$0.14    set     |    $2.80
   8 sets middles       |   36   |  .50    set     |     4.00
  22 pcs. bungs         |  100   |  .11    each    |     2.42
  20 pcs. bung gut skins|   91   |  .01¹⁄₂ each    |      .25
  19 pcs. weasands      |   86   |  .05    per pce.|      .95
   8 pcs. bladders      |   36   |  .30    per doz.|      .22
  14 lbs. weasand meat  |        |  .01    per lb. |      .14
  ----------------------+--------+-----------------+------------
    Total value         |  ...   |       ...       |   $10.78
  ----------------------+--------+-----------------+------------

YIELD FROM HEADS AND FEET OF TWENTY-TWO CATTLE.

  ================+========+=======+==================+======+========
                  |        |Wt. per|                  |      |
                  | Total  | head, |                  |      |  Value
      Product     |Wt. lbs.|  lbs. |      Price       | Am’t |per head
  ----------------+--------+-------+------------------+------+--------
  Skulls          |    88  |  4.00 |$18.00    per ton |$ 0.79|$0.03590
  Jaws            |    43  |  1.95 | 18.00    per ton |   .39|  .01772
  Knuckles        |    63  |  2.86 | 18.00    per ton |   .56|  .02545
  Dark hoofs      |    39  |  1.77 | 22.00    per ton |   .43|  .01954
  No. 1 r’nd shins|    26  |  1.18 | 42.00    per ton |   .54|  .02454
  Flat shins      |    19  |   .86 | 30.00    per ton |   .29|  .01318
  No. 1 tallow    |   145  |  6.59 |   .06³⁄₄ per lb. |  9.78|  .44454
  Neatsfoot oil   |    23  |  1.05 |   .64    per gal.|  1.93|  .08773
  Tankage         |   110  |  5.00 | 16.00    per ton |   .88|  .04000
  ----------------+--------+-------+------------------+------+--------
    Total         |   ...  |   ... |        ...       |$15.59|$0.70860
  ----------------+--------+-------+------------------+------+--------

The product sent to tank room was 1,675 pounds green weight, the
average per head being 76.14 pounds.

In figuring the value of the offal in the different tests the materials
sent to the tank room are not taken into consideration. The blood from
the twenty-two cattle was eight pounds per head of dry blood; total,
176 pounds; value, at the rate of $33.00 per ton, equals $2.90.

The sinews from the twenty-two lot was 1.93 pounds per head; total
weight, 42 pounds; value at the rate of $19.00 per ton, equals 40c.

The fat from the twenty-two native cattle showed the following yield in
oleo stock:

                      { 1,122 lbs. No. 1 stock  =  80.00 per cent.
  1,391 lbs. tallow = {   193 lbs. scrap tallow =  13.88 per cent.
                      {    76 lbs. waste        =   5.46 per cent.
                                                  ------
                                                  100.00 per cent.

The 1,122 pounds of stock showed the following yield in oleo oil and
stearine:

YIELD IN OLEO OIL AND STEARINE.

  =================+======+=======+========+=======
                   |  Per |Weight,| Price  |
       Product     | cent |  lbs. |per lb. | Value
  -----------------+------+-------+--------+------
  No. 1 oil        | 79.77|   895 |$0.10¹⁄₂| $94.37
  No. 1 stearine   | 19.52|   219 |  .13¹⁄₂|  29.56
  Waste in pressing|   .71|     8 |  ...   |  ...
  -----------------+------+-------+--------+-------
    Totals         |100.00| 1,122 |  ...   |$123.93
  -----------------+------+-------+--------+-------

The total value of the offal of the twenty-two native cattle, including
the tallow, was $182.67, an average per head of $8.30.


=Yield from Fifty-Nine Texas Cattle.=--The following table shows the
yield in beef, hides and tallow and the value of offal of fifty-nine
fed Texas cattle:

PERCENTAGE OF YIELD OF BEEF, HIDES AND TALLOW.

  ===============+=======+================+=======+=====
                 |Weight,|                |Weight,|  Per
      Product    | lbs.  |    Averages    | lbs.  | cent
  ---------------+-------+----------------+-------+-----
  Live weight    |64,260 |Average         |1080.  |  ...
  Dressed weight |39,609 |Average         | 671.  |61.64
  Shipping weight|39,365 |Shrinkage       |  ...  |  .62
  Total fat      | 3,896 |Average per head|  66.03| 6.00
  Hides          | 4,946 |Average per head|  83.92| 7.70
  ---------------+-------+----------------+-------+-----

The yield in sweetbreads was 59 pieces, weight 20 pounds, value 20c per
pound; total, $4.00.

The output of tripe was 59 pieces, weighing 1,080 pounds, valued at
¹⁄₂c per pound; total value, $5.40. Total value of sweetbreads and
green tripe, $9.40.

TRIMMINGS FROM FIFTY-NINE TEXAS CATTLE.

  ==============+=======+================+======
                |Weight,|                | Total
      Product   | lbs.  |      Value     | value
  --------------+-------+----------------+------
  59 tongues    |  418  |$0.55    each   |$32.45
  59 livers     |  744  |  .35    each   | 20.65
  59 hearts     |  160  |  .07    each   |  4.13
  59 tails      |   88  |  .03¹⁄₂ each   |  2.06
  Cheek meat    |  227  |  .03    per lb.|  6.81
  Head meat     |   37  |  .03    per lb.|  1.01
  Fine meat     |   18  |  .03    per lb.|   .54
  Head trimmings|   24  |  .03    per lb.|   .72
  --------------+-------+----------------+------
    Total value |  ...  |      ...       |$68.37
  --------------+-------+----------------+------

YIELD IN CASINGS FROM FIFTY-NINE CATTLE.

  =======================+====+===================+======
                         |Per |                   |
                         |cent|                   | Total
          Product        |used|      Value        | value
  -----------------------+----+-------------------+------
  52 sets round guts     |  88|$0.14     per set  |$ 7.28
  20 sets middles        |  34|  .50     per set  | 10.00
  59 pcs. bungs          | 100|  .11     per pce. |  6.49
  46 pcs. bung gut skins |  78|  .01¹⁄₄   per pce.|   .57
  50 pcs. weasands       |  85|  .05     per pce. |  2.50
  43 pcs. bladders       |  73|  .30     per doz. |  1.07
  24 lbs. weasand meat   | ...|  .01     per lb.  |   .24
  -----------------------+----+-------------------+------
    Total value          | ...|       ...         |$28.15
  -----------------------+----+-------------------+------

YIELD IN HEADS AND FEET FROM FIFTY-NINE CATTLE.

  =================+=====+=======+==================+======+=======
                   |Total|Wt. per|                  |      |Value
                   | Wt. |  head |                  |      | per
       Product     | lbs.|  lbs. |       Price      |Amount| head
  -----------------+-----+-------+------------------+------+-------
  Skulls           | 247 |  4.19 |$18.00    per ton |$ 2.22|$0.0377
  Jaws             | 130 |  2.20 | 18.00    per ton |  1.17|  .0198
  Knuckles         | 161 |  2.73 | 18.00    per ton |  1.49|  .0245
  Dark hoofs       | 112 |  1.90 | 22.00    per ton |  1.23|  .0189
  Piths            |  73 |  1.24 | 20.00    per ton |   .73|  .0124
  No. 1 r’nd shins |  61 |  1.04 | 42.00    per ton |  1.28|  .0218
  Flat shins       |  43 |   .73 | 30.00    per ton |   .65|  .0109
  No. 1 tallow     | 527 |  8.93 |   .06³⁄₄ per lb. | 35.56|  .6027
  No. 1 horns      |  57 |   .97 |200.00    per ton |  5.70|  .0970
  Neatsfoot oil    |  55 |   .93 |   .64    per gal.|  4.69|  .0793
  Tankage          | 215 |  3.64 | 16.00    per ton |  1.72|  .0291
  -----------------+-----+-------+------------------+------+-------
    Total amount   | ... |  ...  |       ...        |$56.44|$0.9566
  -----------------+-----+-------+------------------+------+-------

The yield in the tank room of fifty-nine Texas cattle was 4,466 pounds
green weight to tanks, the average per head being 75.70 pounds.

The yield in blood of fifty-nine Texas cattle was eight pounds per head
of dry blood; total, 472 pounds; value, at the rate of $33.00 per ton,
equals $7.78.

The yield in sinews of fifty-nine Texas cattle was 1.87 pounds per
head; total weight, 110 pounds; value, at the rate of $19.00 per ton,
equals $1.04.

The fat from the fifty-nine Texas cattle showed the following yield in
oleo stock:

                      { 3,169 lbs. No. 1 stock =  81.34 per cent.
  3,896 lbs. tallow = { 539 lbs. scrap tallow  =  13.84 per cent.
                      { 188 lbs. waste         =   4.82 per cent.
                                                 ------
                                                 100.00 per cent.

The above 3,169 pounds of stock showed in oleo oil and stearine:

YIELD IN OLEO OIL AND STEARINE.

  =================+======+=======+=========+=======
                   | Per  |Weight,|  Price  |
       Product     | cent | lbs.  | per lb. | Value
  -----------------+------+-------+---------+-------
  No. 1 oil        | 80.75| 2,559 | $0.11   |$281.49
  No. 1 stearine   | 18.49|   586 |   .13¹⁄₂|  79.11
  Waste in pressing|   .76|    24 |   ...   |  ...
  -----------------+------+-------+---------+-------
    Totals         |100.00| 3,169 |   ...   |$360.60
  -----------------+------+-------+---------+-------

The total value of the offal of fifty-nine Texas cattle, including
tallow, was $531.78; average per head, $9.103.


=Yield from Twenty Heavy Cattle.=--The following tables show the yield
in beef, hides and tallow, and the value of offal of twenty cattle,
eight hides, classified as natives and twelve as spreadies.

The yield in sweetbreads from twenty cattle was: 20 pieces weighing
seven pounds, valued at 20c per pound; total value, $1.40. The yield
in tripe was 20 pieces weighing 420 pounds, valued at ¹⁄₂c per pound;
total value, $2.10. Total value of sweetbreads and green tripe, $3.50.

The product sent to tank room was 1,626 pounds green weight to tanks,
the average per head being 81.3 pounds.

PERCENTAGE OF YIELD IN BEEF, HIDES AND TALLOW.

  ===============================+=======+================+=======+=====
                                 |Weight,|                |Weight,| Per
                Product          |  lbs. |    Averages    | lbs.  | cent
  -------------------------------+-------+----------------+-------+-----
  Live weight                    | 24,650|Average         |1,232  | ...
  Dressed weight                 | 15,894|Average         |  758  |61.64
  Shipping weight                | 14,914|Shrinkage       |       | 1.84
  Hides weight (eight natives and|       |                |       |
  twelve spreadies)              |  1,731|      ...       |   86.5| 7.10
  Total fat                      |  1,552|Average per head|   77.6| 6.20
  -------------------------------+-------+----------------+-------+-----

YIELD IN TRIMMINGS FROM TWENTY CATTLE.

  ==============+======+================+======
                |      |                | Total
     Product    |Pounds|      Value     | Value
  --------------+------+----------------+------
  20 tongues    |  173 |$0.55    each   |$11.00
  20 livers     |  261 |  .30    each   |  7.00
  20 hearts     |   64 |  .07    each   |  1.40
  20 tails      |   33 |  .03¹⁄₂ each   |   .70
  Cheek meat    |   95 |  .03    per lb.|  2.85
  Head meat     |   16 |  .03    per lb.|   .48
  Fine meat     |   10 |  .03    per lb.|   .30
  Head trimmings|   15 |  .03    per lb.|   .45
  --------------+------+----------------+------
    Total value |  ... |      ...       |$24.18
  --------------+------+----------------+------

YIELD IN CASINGS FROM TWENTY CATTLE.

  ======================+====+=================+======
                        | Per|                 |
                        |cent|                 |Total
         Product        |used|      Value      |Value
  ----------------------+----+-----------------+------
  19 sets rounds        |  95|$0.14    per set |$2.66
   7 sets middles       |  35|  .50    per set | 3.50
  20 pcs. bungs         | 100|  .11    each    | 2.20
  15 pcs. bung gut skins|  75|  .01¹⁄₄ each    |   .19
   8 pcs. weasands      |  40|  .05    each    |  .40
   9 pcs. bladders      |  45|  .30    per doz.|  .22
  11 lbs. weasand meat  | ...|  .01    per lb. |  .11
  ----------------------+----+-----------------+------
    Total value         | ...|       ...       |$9.28
  ----------------------+----+-----------------+------

The yield in blood from twenty cattle was 8.35 pounds per head of dry
blood; total, 167 pounds; value at the rate of $33.00 per ton, equals
$2.75.

Yield in sinews of twenty cattle was two pounds per head, total weight
40 pounds; value at the rate of $19.00 per ton, equals 38c.

YIELD FROM HEADS AND FEET OF TWENTY CATTLE.

  ================+=====+=====+===================+======+=======
                  |     | Wt. |                   |      |
                  |Total| per |                   |      | Value
                  | wt.,|head,|                   |      |  per
  Product         | lbs.| lbs.|       Price       |Amount|  head
  ----------------+-----+-----+-------------------+------+-------
  Skulls          |  84 | 4.20| $18.00    per ton | $0.75|$0.0375
  Jaws            |  46 | 2.30|  18.00    per ton |   .41|  .0205
  Knuckles        |  69 | 3.45|  18.00    per ton |   .62|  .0310
  Hoofs           |  43 | 2.15|  22.00    per ton |   .47|  .0235
  No. 1 r’nd shins|  25 | 1.25|  42.00    per ton |   .53|  .0245
  Flat shins      |  20 | 1.00|  30.00    per ton |   .30|  .0150
  No. 1 tallow    | 165 | 8.25|    .06³⁄₄ per lb. | 11.13|  .5568
  Neatsfoot oil   |  32 | 1.60|    .64    per gal.|  2.72|  .1360
  Tankage         |  72 | 3.60|  16.00    per ton |   .58|  .0290
  ----------------+-----+-----+-------------------+------+-------
    Totals        | ... | ... |        ...        |$17.52|$0.8760
  ----------------+-----+-----+-------------------+------+-------

The fat from twenty cattle produced a yield in oleo stock of

                   { 1,265 lbs. No. 1 stock  =  81.51 per cent.
  1,552 lbs. fat = {   215 lbs. scrap tallow =  13.85 per cent.
                   {    72 lbs. waste        =   4.64 per cent.
                                               ------
                                               100.00 per cent.

The above 1,265 pounds of stock showed the following yield in oleo oil
and stearine:

YIELD IN OLEO AND STEARINE.

  =================+======+=======+=========+=======
                   |  Per |Weight,|  Price  |
       Product     | cent |  lbs. | per lb. | Value
  -----------------+------+-------+---------+-------
  No. 1 oil        | 79.37| 1,004 | $0.11   |$110.44
  No. 1 stearine   | 20.08|   254 |   .14   |  35.56
  Waste in pressing|   .55|  ...  |  ...    |   ...
  -----------------+------+-------+---------+-------
    Totals         |100.00| 1,258 |  ...    |$146.00
  -----------------+------+-------+---------+-------

The total value of the offal of above twenty cattle, including the
tallow, was $203.61, an average per head of $10.1805.


=Yield from Thirty-Four Cattle.=--The following table shows the yield
in beef, hides and tallow and the value of offal of thirty-four cattle:

PERCENTAGE OF YIELD IN BEEF, HIDES AMD TALLOW.

  ===============+=======+============+=======+=====
                 |Weight,|            |Weight,|  Per
     Product     |  lbs. |  Averages  |  lbs. | cent
  ---------------+-------+------------+-------+-----
  Live weight    | 42,350|Average     |1259   | ...
  Dressed weight | 25,563|Average     | 751   |60.36
  Shipping weight| 25,067|Shrinkage   |  ...  | 1.98
  Hides weight   |  3,027|    ...     |  89.00| 7.10
  Total fat      |  2,666|Fat per head|  78.41| 6.30
  ---------------+-------+------------+-------+-----

YIELD FROM TRIMMINGS OF THIRTY-FOUR CATTLE.

  ==============+=======+================+======
                |Weight,|                |Total
     Product    |  lbs. |     Value      |Value
  --------------+-------+----------------+------
  34 tongues    |  263  |$0.55    each   |$18.70
  34 livers     |  425  |  .35    each   | 11.90
  34 hearts     |  173  |  .07    each   |  2.38
  34 tails      |   49  |  .03¹⁄₂ each   |  1.19
  Cheek meat    |  185  |  .03    per lb.|  5.55
  Head meat     |   32  |  .03    per lb.|   .96
  Fine meat     |   19  |  .03    per lb.|   .57
  Head trimmings|   26  |  .03    per lb.|   .78
  --------------+-------+----------------+------
    Total value |  ...  |       ...      |$42.03
  --------------+-------+----------------+------

YIELD FROM CASINGS OF THIRTY-FOUR CATTLE.

  ======================+====+=================+======
                        | Per|                 |
                        |cent|                 | Total
         Product        |used|      Value      | Value
  ----------------------+----+-----------------+------
  34 sets rounds        | 100|$0.14    set     | $4.76
  13 sets middles       |  38|  .50    set     |  6.50
  34 pcs. bungs         | 100|  .11    each    |  3.74
  32 pcs. bung gut skins|  94|  .01¹⁄₄ each    |   .40
  30 pcs. weasands      |  88|  .05    each    |  1.50
  25 pcs. bladders      |  74|  .30    per doz.|   .63
  10 lbs. weasand meat  |  20|  .01    per lb. |   .20
  ----------------------+----+-----------------+------
    Total value         | ...|      ...        |$17.73
  ----------------------+----+-----------------+------

The yield in sweetbreads of same thirty-four cattle was 29 pieces,
weighing nine pounds, valued at 20c per pound; total value of $1.80.
The yield in tripe was 34 pieces, weighing 710 pounds, valued at ¹⁄₂c
per pound; total value, $5.35.

The yield in tank room of same thirty-four cattle was 2,665 pounds
green weight to tanks, the average per head being 78.38 pounds.

Yield in blood of same thirty-four cattle was as follows: 8.6 pounds
per head of dry blood; total, 292 pounds; value at the rate of $33.00
per ton equals $4.82.

The yield in sinews of thirty-four cattle was 1.44 pounds per head;
total weight, 49 pounds; value at the rate of $19.00 per ton equals 46c.

The fat from the thirty-four cattle showed the following yield in oleo
stock:

                   { 2,189 lbs. No. 1 stock  =  82.11 per cent.
  2,666 lbs. fat = {   383 lbs. scrap tallow =  14.37 per cent.
                   {    94 lbs. waste        =   3.52 per cent.
                                               ------
                                               100.00 per cent.

The above 2,189 pounds of stock showed the following yield in oleo oil
and stearine:

YIELD IN OLEO AND STEARINE.

  =================+======+=======+=====+=======
                   |      |       |Price|
                   |  Per |Weight,| per |
       Product     | cent | pounds| lb. | Value
  -----------------+------+-------+-----+-------
  No. 1 oil        | 78.04| 1,708 |$0.11|$187.88
  No. 1 stearine   | 21.06|   461 |  .14|  64.54
  Waste in pressing|   .90|    20 | ... |   ...
  -----------------+------+-------+-----+-------
    Totals         |100.00| 2,189 | ... |$252.42
  -----------------+------+-------+-----+-------

The total value of the offal of these thirty-four cattle, including the
tallow, was $356.80; an average per head of $10.497.

The foregoing records of tests will show the reader the actual value
of the by-products figured at the time these tests were made. Owing
to changes in the market prices, these figures are not correct for
present conditions, but the percentage of yield and different items
are correct, and the reader can take any one of these tests and by
substituting the market prices of today obtain figures of value.

These tests also give the percentage of the hide and tallow. The
latter, as will be noted, is quite high, as it will be seen that the
tests were made on a fairly fat grade of cattle.


=Percentage of Various Cuts of Beef.=--Nearly every large city has
its special ways and peculiarities of cutting meats, consequently the
percentage of the different cuts varies largely. The following table
is a record of results from a cutting test and shows the percentage of
“Chicago cut” meat with square cut chucks:

                       Per
    Chicago Cuts--    Cent.
  Chucks              28.00
  Rounds              23.00
  Navels               8.00
  Flanks               2.00
  Flank steaks          .50
  Kidney                .25
  Ribs                10.00
  Loins               15.00
  No. 2 suet            .50
  No. 1 suet           3.00
  Shanks               4.00
  Brisket              5.00
  Necks                 .75
                    -------
                     100.00

The following table shows percentage on cattle cut Chicago style, with
the exception of a “Kosher chuck” the latter consisting of five-rib,
four-quarter cut-off from the side of the beef:

                                 Per
    New York Cuts (Natives)--   Cent.
  Ribs                           9.55
  Loins                         15.74
  Flanks                         5.55
  Navels                         8.61
  Suet                           3.62
  Rounds                        23.27
  New York chucks               33.66
                               ------
                               100.00

The following table shows the percentage on cattle cut Philadelphia
style:

                                               Per
    Philadelphia Cuts--                       Cent.
  Rump and round                              34.00
  Rattler (chuck, plate, brisket and shank)   44.00
  Ribs and loins                              22.00
                                             ------
                                             100.00

The following table gives the result of tests and shows in detail
the percentages in cutting canner cattle. As will be understood, for
canning purposes, a light grade of animals is always used; cattle that
are too light or too thin are always used for other purposes. In such
cases the meats are always boned-out and the different cuts of the meat
are here enumerated, showing their percentages:

                              Per
      Packing House Cuts--   Cent.
  Sirloin butts              3.903
  Strips                     4.204
  Tenderloins                2.552
  Boneless chucks           13.813
  Rolls                      2.552
  Plates                    12.162
  Insides                    7.957
  Outsides                   5.555
  Knuckles                   5.555
  Clods                      5.105
  Rump butts                 2.402
  Flank steak                 .600
  Hanging tenderloin          .450
  Front shanks               7.207
  Hind shanks                4.650
  Soft bones                 6.906
  Trimmings                  8.108
  Tallow                     4.519
  Kidneys                     .600
                            ------
                            100.00


=Explanatory.=--Part of the data following and quoted in this chapter
is from an excellent bulletin issued by the University of Illinois
Agricultural Experiment Station, by Louis D. Hall. This is so clearly
expressed and well illustrated that nothing need be added to the
subject. The same is true regarding data shown on mutton and on hogs.


=Beef Cuts.=--“Wholesale fresh beef” trade is about equally divided
between carcass beef and beef cuts. The latter are sold both as
“straight cuts” and as subdivisions thereof. The “straight cuts”
handled in Chicago markets are Loins, Ribs, Rounds, Chucks, Plates,
Flanks and Shanks (Fig. 44). The loin is separated from the round at
the hip joint. The flank is cut from about the middle of the thirteenth
rib to the opposite lower corner of the loin. The shank is sawed off
just below the second knuckle (shoulder joint). The plate is cut off on
a line extending from about the middle of the twelfth rib through the
point at which the shank is removed. The rib and chuck are separated
between the fifth and sixth ribs.

[Illustration: FIG. 44.--CHICAGO BEEF CUTS.

  1, 2, 3.              Round
  4, 5, 6.              Loin
  7.                    Rib
  8.                    Chuck
  9.                    Flank
  10, 11.               Plate
  12.                   Shank
  13.                   Suet
  1.                    Hind shank
  2.                    Round, R. & S. off
  3.                    Rump
  4, 5.                 Loin end
  6.                    Pinbone loin
  5, 6.                 Flatbone loin
  10.                   Navel
  11.                   Brisket
  1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9.  Hind quarter
  7, 8, 10, 11, 12.     Fore quarter
  7, 8.                 Back
  7, 10.                Piece
  8, 11, 12.            Kosher chuck
  8, 10, 11, 12.        Triangle
  a.                    Aitch-bone
  b.                    Rump-bone
  c.                    Crotch
  d.                    Cod
  e.                    Chine-bones
  f.                    “Buttons”
  g.                    Skirt
  h.                    Breast-bone]

The standard grades of straight cuts are No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3. Cuts
that are too deficient in thickness and quality to be used on the
butcher’s block, and which are consequently made into boneless cuts,
barreled beef, sausage, etc., are termed “strippers.”


=Diagram of Cutting.=--The page illustrating a diagram of cutting shows
the “Chicago” method of dividing the animal if cut for sale.


=Grading.=--“Weight affects the grade of a beef cut about the same as
in grading a carcass. No. 1 cuts are principally from choice and prime
800 to 1,000-pound native steer carcasses and choice 750 to 900-pound
native cows; No. 2’s are largely from medium and good 650 to 800-pound
steers and 600 to 750-pound cows; and No. 3’s are made chiefly from 450
to 600-pound common and medium cows, also from Texas and light Western
steers. Stripper cuts are made from canners, medium and common bulls,
Texas and common light Western cattle.

AVERAGE WEIGHTS OF STRAIGHT BEEF CUTS (POUNDS)

  Grade     Loins  Ribs Rounds Chucks Plates Flanks Shanks
  No. 1     50-85 30-50 75-110 75-110  40-80  15-20  10-20
  No. 2     40-60 25-35 60-80  60-80   30-50  10-15   5-10
  No. 3     25-40 20-25 40-60  40-60   20-35   5-10   5-10
  Strippers 20-30 15-20 30-40  30-40   15-20   5-10   5-10


=Loins.=--“The loin is the highest-priced cut of the carcass because
of the tenderness and quality of the lean. The grade of a loin may be
determined by marked excellence or deficiency in either thickness,
covering or quality, or by a uniform degree of development in all
respects. _No. 1’s_ must have a full, well-rounded shape, a complete
covering of white fat, the thickness of which is in proper proportion
to the lean, and bright, firm, fine-grained, well-marbled flesh. _No.
2’s_ are generally less rounded in form, with insufficient, excessive,
or uneven covering and a slight deficiency in grain, marbling or color
of flesh; while _No. 3’s_ are more flat in shape, nearly or entirely
lacking in covering of fat and very deficient in thickness and quality
of flesh, but sufficiently developed to be cut into porterhouse and
sirloin steaks for cheap trade (Fig. 45). Stripper loins have no
outside fat and are usually extremely flat and rough in shape, with
dark-colored, coarse-grained flesh, and hard, white bone.

[Illustration: FIG. 45.--A. FLAT BONE LOINS, NO. 1, NO. 2 AND NO. 3
GRADES. B. REGULAR LOINS, NO. 1, NO. 2 AND NO. 3 GRADES.]

[Illustration: FIG. 46.--RIBS, NO. 1, NO. 2 AND NO. 3 GRADES. A. FRONT.
B. REAR.]

[Illustration: FIG. 47.--ROUNDS, NO. 1, NO. 2 AND NO. 3 GRADES.]

[Illustration: FIG. 48.--CHUCKS, NO. 1, NO. 2 AND NO. 3 GRADES. (ABOVE,
REAR VIEW. BELOW, SIDE VIEW.)]


=Ribs.=--“This cut, which includes the portion between the loin and
chuck, contains the best roasts. The poorer quality of ribs are boned
and make ‘the roll.’ A ‘regular roll’ consists of the lean part of the
rib with backbone removed and shoulder blade fat cut away. ‘Spencer’
rolls are of the same type, except that the covering is left on the
lean, exclusive of that over blade bone, which is removed.


=Rounds.=--“The cut surface of the full round is identical with the
butt end of the corresponding loin. Cuts of various types of rounds are
shown in Fig. 47. An excess of rounds under average conditions makes it
necessary to divide the rounds further into rump butts used for corn
beef; beef hams used for dried beef, and shanks for sausage meat.

“In stripping a bullock for beef hams, it is divided into three parts,
known as a set, viz., inside, outside, and knuckle pieces.


=Chucks.=--“The style of cutting shown in Fig. 48 is known as the
square chuck, and is the style most used in Chicago wholesale markets.
Chucks are sometimes cut ‘knuckle out’ by removing the shank with a
knife at the second knuckle instead of sawing off below the joint. The
lower grades of chucks are often further divided in order to make the
cut more saleable. Such cuts are the shoulder clod and boneless chuck.
The shoulder clod is a wedge-shaped piece cut from the fleshy part of
the chuck just back of the shoulder blade, and extending from the elbow
of the shank nearly or quite to the backbone. It is taken mainly from
_No. 3_ and ‘stripper’ cuts, and to a small extent from _No. 1’s_ and
_2’s_. It is a boneless cut weighing six to fifteen pounds, and sells
from 10 to 20 per cent above chuck quotations.”

A “kosher” chuck consists of the square chuck, shank, brisket and neck
in one piece, the forequarter with rib and navel piece off.


=Plates, Shanks, and Flanks.=--“These are usually boned and the parts
used in sausage department and bonehouse, except in the heavier cuts of
plates and flanks, which are used in mess beef.


=Barreled Beef.=--“The demand for barreled beef is a receding item in
packing house usage. Formerly it was a large item. The quotation gives
the grading and naming:

[Illustration: FIG. 49.--A, BEEF HAMS (LEFT, “INSIDE”; CENTER,
“OUTSIDE”; RIGHT, “KNUCKLE”). B, TENDERLOIN. C, SHOULDER CLOD.]

“_Extra India Mess Beef_ is made from heavy fat _No. 1_ plates weighing
65 to 80 pounds, cut into pieces of about eight pounds average and
packed in tierces or barrels. It is the highest grade of barreled beef
and is sold largely through British markets for army and navy use.
Fulton Market Beef is of the same quality as Extra India, but from 60
to 70 pound plates, and is usually put up in half barrels or tubs for
domestic trade. These and the two following grades of plate beef are
usually packed with the lower side of the brisket piece removed.

“_Extra Plate (Extra Family) Beef_ is cut from moderately fat _No. 1_
plates (50 to 60 pounds), and packed like Extra India. It is exported
principally to various countries in northern Europe.

“_Regular Plate or Family Beef_ consists of _No. 2_ plates (40 to 50
pounds), with a good proportion of fat and lean, cut into pieces of six
to eight pounds and packed the same as Extra India. It is also sold
largely in northern European countries.

“_Packet Beef_ is made from 30 to 40-pound plates (heavy _No. 3’s_ and
light _No. 2’s_) cut the same as other grades of plate beef. It is
used throughout Europe, the West Indies, Central and South America.

“_Common Plate Beef_ is made from _No. 3_ plates, 20 to 30 pounds
average, cut and packed as explained above. It is the lowest grade or
barreled plate beef. This grade, also Prime Mess and Extra Mess Beef,
is sold to the same trade as Packet Beef.

[Illustration: FIG. 50.--SHANKS. NO. 1 GRADE, NO. 2 GRADE, NO. 3 GRADE.
CLOD ON.]

“_Rolled Boneless Beef_ (Rolled Beef or Rollettes) consists of plates
with a portion of the brisket cut off, the remainder of plate being
boned, rolled and wound with twine. It is made from _No. 2_ and _No.
3_ plates of 25 to 40 pounds average. The rolls weigh eight to twelve
pounds and are cured in mild brine.

“_Prime Mess Beef_ consists of about 100 pounds of plates and 100
pounds of chucks, rumps and flanks per barrel cut into pieces of six to
nine pounds. The proportions of the cuts named are varied according to
demands and may contain 100 pounds of chucks with the remainder plates,
flanks and rumps, or as otherwise specified. This grade is made from
heavy _No. 3_ and light _No. 2_ cuts.

“_Extra Mess Beef_ contains the same assortment of cuts as Prime Mess,
but is made only from _No. 3_ cuts.

“_Ramp Butt Beef_ is cut from rumps off the medium and lower grades
of rounds, and is boneless except a small piece of tail-bone. The
pieces average four to six pounds each. It is sold largely in lumbering
districts and to the fisheries trade.”




CHAPTER XI

HIDES AND PELTS.


  GREEN HIDES -- CONDITION -- SCORES -- PROD POLE DAMAGE -- CLEAN
  FLOORS -- LEATHER YIELDS -- PATTERN -- PROPER STORAGE FOR HIDES --
  GRADING -- GRUBS IN HIDES -- SALT TO BE USED -- BUILDING OF PACKS OF
  HIDES -- TRIMMING OF GREEN HIDES -- SWITCHES -- SHRINKAGE OF HIDES --
  SHEEP PELTS.


=Green Hides.=--Next in value to the beef is the hide and the handling,
curing, etc., of this particular part of the animal, until it is ready
to be delivered requires careful attention to obtain the best results.
For convenience in handling green hides a special hide truck, shown in
Fig. 51, is usually employed. The platform of the truck is 3¹⁄₂ × 5¹⁄₂
feet, with a 1¹⁄₄ inch hardwood plank eight inches high on one side and
on front end. The wheels are about eighteen inches in diameter.

[Illustration: FIG. 51.--HIDE TRUCK FOR CARTING BEEF HIDES.]


=Condition.=--The first consideration, of course, is the condition of
the hide. There has been marked improvement in recent years in the
handling of hides. Formerly, where unskilled workmen were killing only
a few cattle daily, or weekly, they did not become proficient in the
removal of hides and the hide was more or less damaged by scores and
cuts. When cattle are killed in large numbers it is necessary to make
a division of labor, and instead of one man doing many parts of the
work, he simply does one part continuously, and hence becomes very
skillful; the “take-off” of the hide, particularly, is improved. That
this condition is appreciated by tanners is evidenced by the difference
in price paid for country and packers hides; the tanners paying from
³⁄₄c to 1c more per pound for packers hides because the hide has been
properly taken off, while a country hide, which is usually taken off
by workmen less skilled has been cut and scored, the scores being
particularly objectionable.


=Scores.=--A score in a hide is made by cutting into it when removing,
far enough to damage the grain of the leather, and when it comes from
the tannery, scores show very plainly and in many cases one-half of
the thickness of the leather is lost by this defect. Hides taken off
properly, should not show these imperfections, in fact, should be as
smooth as though slipped off the animal, were that possible, instead
of by a knife, and with skilled workmanship such is the case. One
man doing one particular operation continuously, the “take-off” of
hides has been so improved that less than ten hides out of a thousand
are found to be “No. 2” quality when taken out of the cellar in a
well-regulated house.

The “take-off” of the hides particularly should be watched by the
killing foreman and the workmen’s attention drawn to the slightest
defects continuously, as much depends upon the reputation a house
may have for its take-off. Many of the small scores which are found
to materially damage the hide when tanned are invisible when the
hide is taken out of the packer’s cellar, as owing to discoloration,
salt, etc., it is impossible to see many of them, but they are all
visible when the leather is turned out. Consequently, if a house has
a reputation for bad “take-off,” buyers usually aim to buy the hides
from a plant with a good take-off. Hence it will be seen that in this
particular department it means a great deal to have a good reputation
for “take-off.”

[Illustration: FIG. 52.--DIAGRAM OF HIDES.]


=Prod Pole Damage--Clean Floors.=--Outside of the “take-off” there are
several other points which should be watched carefully on the killing
floor in the handling of this particular article. The hides should not
be damaged with prod poles by the men handling cattle in the pens. The
floors should be kept as clean as possible, especially where the cattle
are thrown out of the knocking pens, as blood is very objectionable
on the hides. It is liable to cause decomposition when the hide is in
pack, and if it does sufficiently for the hair to slip on the hides,
it becomes a “No. 2.” Another bad feature is that a bloody hide will
discolor the flesh side of the skin next to it in pack, and it is
always advisable to get the hides out as bright and clean as possible,
as buyers prefer them so.

Another reason why they should be kept as dry as possible is that
the hides are weighed as taken off for general record and also for
estimating the cost of the beef. If the hides are allowed to get wet
they will absorb four or five pounds per hide, which if deducted from
the calculations, will represent a false credit of 40c or 50c per
head on the cattle. It is best to keep them as dry as possible, so
that weights used for figuring and record purposes may be accurate.
If the hides go into the packs excessively wet, when shipped, they
will necessarily show an excess shrinkage from green to cured weights,
causing confusion as to actual shrinkage.


=Leather Yields.=--While it is advisable to have hides carry as much
moisture as is acceptable to the buyer, it is not profitable to
have them too wet, as the buyers watch such matters and if a lot of
hides from a certain house do not show the yield in leather which
they should, purchases made after that from such a house are made
proportionate to the yield, hence the additional weight that may be
gained is more than lost in the price realized. There is a happy medium
to be sought in this matter where the seller gets all that he is
entitled to and the buyer is satisfied with the yield he obtains.


=Pattern.=--The diagram, Fig. 52, shows the pattern of a packing house
hide and, as nearly as can be indicated on paper, it shows the part
removed by each workman.


=Proper Storage for Hides.=--This is a point usually not given due
consideration, some packers reasoning that as long as their hides are
in a building, little else is to be considered. The following figures
which are accurate, will give the reader an idea of the loss that lack
of attention in this particular matter may represent. It will be noted
that the test extends over a period of one year, representing a test on
a total of 198,341 hides.

A total of 87,587 hides were cured in house _No. 1_, which consists
of a cellar under refrigerated rooms. While no attempt was made to
refrigerate this room there was a natural radiation to the floor above
which held the temperature at from 55° to 60° F. in hot weather. There
were but two openings in the cellar and naturally little circulation
of air, hence the moisture of the cellar was retained and the hides
show a shrinkage of 14.74 per cent from the green weight on bed to
shipping weight.

SHRINKAGE OF HIDES FOR YEAR ENDING AUG. 1, 1903, IN HOUSE NO. 1.

  =================+======+=========+=========+=========+=======
                   |      |         |         |         |Shrink-
                   |      |         |         | Shrink- |  age,
                   |      |  Green  |  Cured  |   age,  |  per
       Kind        |Number|  weight |  weight |   lbs.  |  cent
  -----------------+------+---------+---------+---------+-------
  Free of brands   |41,870|3,328,133|2,842,542|  485,591| 15.59
  Butt brands      | 6,087|  507,684|  432,722|   74,962| 14.77
  Side brands      |13,190|1,078,959|  927,835|  151,124| 14.06
  Spreadies        | 2,376|  215,676|  190,286|   25,390| 11.79
  Texas            |11,285|  871,573|  731,165|  140,408| 16.11
  H’y native cows  | 8,029|  592,338|  500,935|   91,403| 15.43
  Light native cows| 2,759|  150,995|  127,108|   23,887| 15.82
  Branded cows     | 1,991|  128,269|  107,563|   20,706| 16.14
  -----------------+------+---------+---------+---------+-------
    Totals         |87,587|6,873,627|5,860,156|1,013,471| 14.74
  -----------------+------+---------+---------+---------+-------

SHRINKAGE OF HIDES FOR YEAR ENDING AUG. 1, 1903, IN HOUSE NO. 2.

  ===============+=======+=========+=========+=========+=======
                 |       |         |         |         |Shrink-
                 |       |         |         | Shrink- |  age,
                 |       |  Green  |  Cured  |   age,  |  per
       Kind      | Number|  weight |  weight |   lbs.  |  cent
  ---------------+-------+---------+---------+---------+-------
  Free of brands | 34,192|2,692,615|2,262,426|  430,189| 15.98
  Butt brands    | 14,279|1,174,093|  977,943|  196,150| 16.71
  Side brands    | 17,302|1,451,850|1,198,925|  252,925| 17.42
  Spreadies      |  3,969|  363,233|  307,410|   55,823| 15.37
  Native bulls   |  1,362|  127,910|  103,263|   24,627| 19.27
  Branded bulls  |    252|   25,885|   21,761|    4,124| 15.93
  H’y native cows|  8,222|  576,313|  472,938|  103,375| 17.94
  Texas          |  5,247|  395,620|  324,100|   71,520| 18.08
  L’t native cows| 14,895|  841,481|  709,181|  132,300| 15.72
  Branded cows   | 11,034|  694,503|  574,669|  119,834| 17.25
  ---------------+-------+---------+---------+---------+-------
      Totals     |110,754|8,343,503|6,952,616|1,390,867| 16.67
  ---------------+-------+---------+---------+---------+-------

A total of 110,754 of these hides were cured in house _No. 2_. This
was on the first floor of the building and no refrigeration was used
in any of the departments. There were several openings into this
room, permitting the outside air to circulate through the building
and a great deal of moisture naturally absorbed. It will be noted by
comparing the reports that the shrinkage in this cellar was 16.67 per
cent from the green weight to the shipping weight, showing an excess
of 1.83 per cent, which would show a loss of 154,686 pounds. This,
at an average of 10c per pound, would indicate a loss of $15,468.60
sustained by having this number of hides in this particular cellar, as
against what would have been realized had they shown no more shrinkage
than those in house _No. 1_, so that it will readily be seen that it is
of vital importance to the owner to see that the hides are stored in
suitable storage, that there is as little circulation as possible of
outside air through this department, and that all doors and openings
are kept closed as much as possible. This is paramount, in case hides
are sold, seller’s weights, at works. On long shipments involving many
transfers and exposures, the matter is not of such consequence.


=Grading.=--This is a question which must be governed largely by the
local conditions. Many small killers find it profitable to sell their
hides without selections, rather than to try to make the different
selections with a comparatively limited number to select from, whereas,
where cattle are killed in large numbers it is advisable to make just
as many selections as is profitable, being governed, of course, at all
times by the market quotations and demands. The usual grades of hides
are termed as follows:


_Natives._--Native steer hides are hides from native steers which
are free of brands. Another selection of natives is what is called
“spreadies,” which are hides taken from native cattle free of brands,
cuts, scores, or grubs and must be six feet four inches wide at the
shoulders.


_Texas._--This is the term used to designate all hides taken off
southern cattle where the hide is very thick and heavy. Brands are not
taken into consideration on these selections.


_Butt Brands._--These are either natives or western hides which are
branded on the butts.


_Colorados._--These are hides from the western cattle, which are too
thin for Texas and are branded on the sides.

A distinction is also made in all these hides as to weights, sixty-one
pounds and up being heavy, sixty pounds and below being light and fifty
pounds and below being extra light.

Cow hides are selected as natives and branded cows; bull hides as
natives and branded bulls. While all bull hides are not sold as such,
hides with a thick neck or pate are sold under this term.


=Grubs in Hides.=--There are two cattle “bot-flies” or “warble-flies,”
as they are often termed. One of these (_Hypoderma lineata_) is found
in the United States, being found more frequently in the southern part
of the country. The adult is about the size of a honey bee. The female
deposits her eggs in summer in the region of the heel of the animal,
causing very much discomfort. In licking the irritated spot the eggs
are taken into the mouth of the animal and hatched, the larvae entering
the esophagus or gullet and finally working their way into the cellular
tissue beneath the skin of the back. In early spring they develop,
forming lumps known as “warbles,” and become what are known as “grubs.”
After working their way through the skin they drop to the ground, into
which they burrow and pupate, finally emerging as adult flies. The
damage caused by these insects to the hides amounts to millions of
dollars per year, as in general practice five grub holes constitute a
“No. 2” hide, on which there is a deduction of one cent per pound.

According to the rules of the trade, Texas and branded cows are grubbed
from November 1 to June 1, Colorados are grubbed from December 1 to
June 1, native steers, native bulls and native cows are grubbed from
January 1 to June 1. No allowance is made after June 1 for grubs in
hides taken off after that date.


=Salt To Be Used.=--The kind of salt generally used in large plants
for this purpose is a rock salt, which is a mined product run through
crushers and screens. Large lumps are more or less objectionable and if
allowed to be used will injure the appearance of the hide. Hides in a
pack weigh very heavily per cubic foot and the lower hides are subject
to a considerable pressure, or weight. Large lumps of salt between the
hides in the pack make bad looking indentations, although they do not
necessarily injure the hides for tanning purposes.

Three parts of rock salt and one part of fine salt make a very good
combination. The fine salt quickly forms a moisture which the hides
will absorb, preventing quite a perceptible shrinkage as shown by
careful tests. When a pack of hides is taken up the “second salt” is
saved and by using one-third new with two-thirds of old salt it can be
used over. It will be found that this addition of new salt about makes
up for the loss in salt that is dissolved in the pack during the curing
process.

Salt for the hides should be kept clean. If there is a great deal of
manure and dirt mixed with the salt, it discolors the hides, injuring
their appearance. When the salt is found to be dirty and out of
condition it is advisable to screen it, using a screen same as is
used for screening sand. The salt is thrown against the screen, the
finer salt will sift through and the coarser salt, dirt, etc., will
gather at the bottom of the screen. Salt that has been through the
screen will be found comparatively clean and ready for use; that which
has not passed through should be washed. While this will dissolve a
considerable amount of it, it will, at the same time, wash out most
of the impurities. If handled in the above manner, a careful workman
should be able to salt hides with from thirty-one to thirty-five pounds
of salt per hide.


=Building of Packs of Hides.=--Packing hides is an operation which
should receive close and careful attention. In the building of the
pack, the outer edges should be kept high all the way around, so that
the center of the pack will hold liquid. When the pack is finished it
should be leveled off at the top so that it will be as near even as
possible. The natural moisture in the hides, together with the salt,
will form a liquor which the hides absorb, and if the pack is built
slanting, so as to allow the liquid to pass off, it will be found
that the hides are continuously drawing on the sides, and when they
are taken up the shrinkage from green weights will be considerably in
excess of those from packs properly built.


=Trimming of Green Hides.=--Before the hides are packed they should be
examined for brands, etc., and be distributed to their proper packs,
according to assortment. The switch is cut off from the tail, any
loose ends of the hides are trimmed off and the ears split. Unless
this is done, it makes an uneven pack on account of the thickness of
the ears; furthermore the salt does not have a chance to penetrate the
ears and they are liable to spoil. Any loose pieces of meat that the
butchers may have left on the hide should be taken off, as well as any
excess amount of fat. The hides after being trimmed should be allowed
to lay for three to five hours to cool. If the hides are put into the
pack without doing this, it is likely that, when the pack is taken
up, some hides will be found on which the hair has slipped; these are
necessarily No. 2 hides, and as the uniform rule is 1c per pound less
for No. 2’s than for No. 1’s, it will show a loss of approximately 50c
to 60c per hide. Another bad feature of having “slip-hides” is the fact
that if the buyer finds them at all, he is always suspicious that there
are others in the pack which are out of condition, that he has not
seen, and that they will come out of the tannery with unsatisfactory
results.

When hides are put in the pack, extreme care should be used to see
that _every part_ of the hide is exposed to salt. The legs should
be straightened out flat and the pates thoroughly spread, so that
the salt may reach every part. Hides should lie in pack and salt for
from twenty-five to thirty days before they are fully cured. At the
expiration of this time they are ready for shipment, and are taken out
of salt, inspected and each one rolled into a bundle and tied.


=Switches.=--The switches should be spread out on the floor and given
a thorough chance to cool off, when they are thrown into a pack by
themselves and heavily salted. They should be watched closely, as there
is unavoidably considerable blood and moisture in them, and if any sign
of heating is found they should be overhauled and resalted.


=Shrinkage of Hides.=--No set rule can be made as to how much hides
will actually shrink, but if the foregoing directions are followed
closely and intelligently the shrinkage may be kept at the minimum,
which will usually range from 12 to 15 per cent. This is governed
largely, as before stated, by the amount of water which the hides take
up on the killing floor, which if weighed with the hide will nearly all
seep out when put into the packs and cause an excess shrinkage from the
original green weights. Further the storage has a great deal to do with
it, but if proper care is taken the shrinkage should be kept within the
figures given.


=Sheep Pelts.=--The handling of sheep pelts, especially in hot weather,
requires careful attention. The pelts, as soon as taken off, should
be spread out in a room where it is as cold as possible without being
refrigerated, and allowed to cool off for at least twelve hours before
salting. This is especially necessary when the animal slaughtered has
a very heavy fleece; with shearlings there is little or no necessity
for taking this precaution. Fleece skins, however, hold the heat, so
that when put into a pack and salted, if not properly cooled, they soon
begin to warm and decompose, and as soon as the wool slips, the leather
of the skin is ruined.

After the pelts have been spread out and allowed to thoroughly chill,
as suggested, they should be salted in piles not to exceed thirty
inches high by putting one skin on top of another, flesh side up, and
using a fine solar salt, care being taken that they are thoroughly
salted around the heads and leggings. After they have been in salt
for a week, it is well, especially in warm weather, to overhaul them,
shifting the packs so that when through, the top pelts are on the
bottom and vice versa. After they have lain in salt for two weeks they
are ready for shipment.




CHAPTER XII

OLEO OIL AND STEARINE.


  FATS -- ORIGIN OF BUTTERINE -- OLEO OIL -- OLEO FATS -- SELECTION AND
  CARE -- CLEANLINESS AND COLLECTION -- CHILLING FAT -- COOLING WATER
  -- MELTING -- SETTLING THE OIL -- CLARIFIERS -- SCRAP VAT -- SEEDING
  OR GRAINING OIL -- PRESS ROOM -- COLLECTING OIL -- OIL RECEIVERS --
  TEMPERATURE OF OIL DRAWN TO TIERCE -- STEARINE -- OIL HOUSE YIELDS --
  GRADING FATS -- TESTS ON OIL FATS -- BUTCHER FATS -- MUTTON FAT --
  OIL SELECTION -- OIL HOUSE OPERATION.


=Fats.=--The largest item of value in slaughtered cattle is the beef.
As already stated, the second largest item is hides. The third item in
value is fats. It has been one of the world’s staple articles of trade
for centuries and is made use of in the manufacture of many kinds of
articles for man’s use, from those of comfort to those of destruction,
perhaps only displaced in its multitude of uses by the one raw product,
coal tar.


=Origin of Butterine.=--Prior to the Franco-Prussian war, or in
1871, fats were used almost exclusively for soap making and other
manufacturing purposes, comparatively little of it being used for food
purposes. During the siege of Paris a reward was offered to anyone who
would find a substitute for butter. A French scientist reasoned as
follows: Careful observation teaches that a cow that is fat and in good
health makes better butter and more butter than one of the same quality
that is poor and emaciated, hence it must follow the cream of the milk,
or the “butter-fat,” is in reality nothing more or less than Nature’s
surplus fat in the animal, and that in all cattle that are fed each
day more than the requirements to build up the broken-down tissues a
surplus fat is deposited. This fat, the chemist decided, was as much a
natural butter as though it had been skimmed from milk, and starting on
this theory originated the manufacture of oleomargarine.


=Result of Investigation.=--The creating of this industry has meant
millions of dollars to this country in returns that have been made from
the sale of fats prepared into oil for manufacturing oleomargarine
instead of being melted into tallow for soap making and other purposes.


=Oleo Oil.=--Oleo oil is the name of one of the principal ingredients
used in making oleomargarine, or imitation butter. The fat is put
through a hasher, which thoroughly disintegrates it, cutting the tissue
so that the oil is made free when heated.


=Oleo Fats.=--The fats used for the manufacture of oleo oil are usually
all the fats removed when the animal is slaughtered, including the
“caul” fat or that fat surrounding the “omentum”; the ruffle fat, which
is that fat surrounding the intestines, and to which the “runners” or
round gut is attached; the heart casing, and fats attached.


=Selection and Care.=--It is reasonable to suppose that all of these
fats are of the same quality, but in the handling of this, during the
course of slaughtering and treatment thereof, some of it necessarily
becomes unfit for oleo oil purposes, and is used in tallow. The amount
used for tallow is regulated by the care and intelligence of the men
in charge, and if properly handled a very small percentage of the fat
in the animal should find its way to the tank house, as it nets much
better results when put into oleo oil, as will be noted from the tests
hereafter submitted.


=Cleanliness and Collection.=--The fats, as rapidly as removed from the
animal, should be taken quickly in clean utensils and washed in medium
temperature water to remove any blood present. Thorough chilling of the
fat is a very essential feature in making oleo oil. In order that this
may be done it is necessary that the fat be cut in small pieces, so
that the cold water can get at every part of it. A machine illustrated
in Fig. 53 is used for cutting the fat before passing it into the cold
water. The water is circulated by the use of a pump and distributed
over the fats from a perforated pipe.


=Chilling Fat.=--The fat, while chilling, should be allowed to remain
in cold water for about five hours, or until it has become thoroughly
chilled. Precaution should be taken to see that no fat goes to the
hasher, or melting kettle, until it is thoroughly chilled. Failure
to do this is not particularly noticeable in the oleo oil when made,
but soon afterward results in a deterioration of the oil. It is
never objectionable to hold the fat from twelve to twenty hours, if
necessary, in the cold water, although five hours is sufficient. The
constant submergence of the fat by mechanical means or by hand is of
prime importance.

[Illustration: FIG. 53.--OLEO FAT CUTTER.]

The fats are ladled or forked from the chilling vat and placed on a
table to drain. The dryer the fat the better, but it must not lay
unduly long to drain. From this table they are passed through an
Enterprise steam jacketed hasher for grinding. Steam is kept on the
jacket to assist in rapidity in passing it through the hasher.


=Cooling Water.=--The chilling or cooling of water is accomplished in
two ways, by the introduction of ice or the cooling of the water or by
submerging pipes in the tanks, and circulating chilled brine or ammonia
gas through the pipes, same being a part of the refrigerating system.
In the latter case the pipes should be covered by a removable screen to
prevent fats attaching to the pipes.

[Illustration: FIG. 54.--KETTLE FOR MELTING FATS FOR OLEO OIL.]


=Melting.=--The fat when hashed is passed to an open top water jacketed
kettle of the type shown in the illustration, Fig. 54.

Just previous to beginning to hash the fat into the kettle the stirrer
is placed in motion. The water in the jacket is heated up to a
temperature of about 180° F.

When the kettle is partially filled and as the fat accumulates, it
will collect and hang to the stirring gear. To meet this condition the
stirring gear is arranged to rise vertically on the shaft by lifting
and assistance of the counterweight attached to it. The fat is removed
by the use of a paddle, the stirrer lowered and started in motion. The
fat is mixed with a large paddle so that the melting oil at the sides
and bottom of the kettle is freely intermingled with the partially
melted fat.

The mass gradually assumes a murky yellow appearance as the oil is made
free. The man in charge of melting uses a bath thermometer constantly
and regulates the temperature of the water in the jacket by the
admittance of cold water to chill it or steam to warm it so that the
temperature of the melting oil does not exceed 156° F. It usually takes
1¹⁄₂ hours to properly melt the contents of a full kettle. When the
melting is complete the stirrer is raised out of the oil and allowed to
remain raised while the oil is settled.


=Settling the Oil.=--When the oil comes to rest about twenty pounds of
fine salt is scattered over the surface, thrown in moderate handfuls so
as to sprinkle the entire surface. This salt in settling clears the oil
by carrying down the floating fibre by mechanical as well as chemical
action. The oil usually has a scum on top and this is gently skimmed
off and saved as a bottom for the next kettle. After settling about
fifteen minutes the oil is run off by gently lowering the hinged pipe,
the oil as de-canted is passed to the clarifier.

When the pure oil is run as low as can be conveniently done without
carrying off any scrap of settlings, the oil laying on the surface of
the water and sediment in the bottom is passed to some receptacle and
sent to the pressure tanks. The kettle is well scrubbed, made clean and
the skimmed bottoms deposited ready for filling again with hashed fat.

[Illustration: FIG. 55.--SETTLING KETTLE FOR OLEO OILS.]


=Clarifiers or Settling Kettles.=--Each kettle is provided with two
clarifying or settling kettles. These are cone-shaped tanks in which
the oil from one melting kettle is deposited. The oil is allowed to
stand as long as possible in a quiet state and the sediment or fibre
collects in the bottom of the cone. This is withdrawn at the bottom at
frequent intervals so as to free the oil from sediment and dirt. The
temperature of the oil carried in the clarifiers is 140°, kept uniform
by use of warm water in the jacket.

After settling the oil about two hours it is drawn to the seeding
trucks. Cotton flannel bags are usually put on over the outlet pipe so
as to strain the oil and collect any floating pieces of tissue that
would otherwise pass to the seeding truck.


=Scrap Vat.=--A vessel which requires attention and in which the yield
in the oil house can be very materially increased and improved by
proper handling is the scrap vat. After the vat is melted and the oil
siphoned off, the balance or residue in kettle is drawn out of the
bottom into the scrap vat, which is located directly under the melting
kettle. This kettle should be kept full of hot water at a temperature
of about 130° F., and when the scrap is dropped in the oil will
immediately come to the surface; this should be skimmed off promptly,
for if it is allowed to lie in the scrap vat a bad flavor will result
and it will then have to be sold as an inferior grade of oil; but if
skimmed as stated this strong flavored feature may be avoided.

When through melting for the day, the steam should be turned on the
scrap vats to bring them up to a temperature of 190° to 200° F. This
will release any fat yet remaining in the scrap, which should be
skimmed and used for a lower grade of oil, as it will have a strong
flavor. The balance of the scrap is then sent to the tank house, where
it is cooked under pressure and the remaining oil taken out.


=Seeding or Graining Oil.=--The oil when settled in the clarifiers
is passed to the seeding or graining trucks. The seeding truck plays
a very important part in the handling of oleo oil and is one of the
points where a great deal of trouble can be developed if not properly
watched.

When the oil is drawn into the seeding trucks there should be no signs
of any water. If there is any water left in the oil it naturally
settles to the bottom of the seeding truck. The oil usually being at a
temperature of 120° to 125° F., and it being three and sometimes four
days before it is cooled, the heat held in the oil, together with the
water and sediment that may be in the bottom, causes a decomposition
and the result is “sour bottoms,” which are very offensive. If any
of this sour material has gotten into the press, the stearine will be
spotted and out of conditions. The oil will also show it more or less,
so that it is absolutely necessary that this particular point be given
very close and careful attention.

[Illustration: FIG. 56.--OLEO SEEDING TRUCK.]


_Advantage of Wood Seeding Trucks._--It has for many years been
considered necessary to line the seeding truck with galvanized iron, in
fact many of the large melters today are using this style of truck. The
seeding truck, however, which gives the best results is a wooden truck
(see Fig. 56) without any lining, made of basswood, or whitewood, which
are odorless, and can be readily cleaned and kept sweet. The objections
to a truck lined with galvanized iron might be summarized as follows:

In the first place, considerable salt is used in the material, more
or less of which is left in the oil. When the melted fat is drawn off
into the seeding trucks and is left to stand for three or four days,
this salt attacks the iron, and if not watched very carefully small
pin-holes will be eaten through the iron, the result being that the
galvanized iron pan will leak into the wooden box proper. Again, every
time the seeding trucks are emptied, they are thoroughly washed and
steamed out and more or less of this water for washing finds its way
in between the lining and the wooden box. When the seeding truck is
filled with oil, the weight of the oil causes this water, which is held
between the iron and the wood, to ooze into the oil, causing “sour
bottoms.” This particular point has caused the loss of a great many
thousands of dollars in the manufacture of this product, even though it
is apparently a very unimportant matter.


=Manufacture of Wooden Trucks.=--In using wooden seeding trucks,
attention is called to a very important item to be considered, and if
not carefully looked after the results will be unsatisfactory. The oil
is drawn into seeding trucks at a temperature of about 120° to 125°
F., which will shrink wood very rapidly, therefore the trucks should
be made out of thoroughly kiln-dried lumber, which should be _extra_
kiln-dried. The bottom and sides of the truck are bolted together
with a bolt running through them and one on either end, so that any
shrinkage of the wood can be taken up. The same is true of the sides
of the truck. In each of the joints, after they are perfectly made, a
strand of wicking should be put in between the edges, so that when it
is drawn down it forms a perfect packing. As is well understood, the
shrinkage of wood is mostly crosswise of the grain, there being very
little lengthwise; thus it will be seen that the wood in these trucks,
both at the sides and at the ends, must be put in so that it will
all shrink uniformly. The bottom of the truck will naturally shrink
sidewise and if the bolts are drawn up it stops the opening, while
if the sides of the truck shrink, the bottom bolts can be drawn up,
readily stopping the leak. The ends of the truck must have the grain
running up and down instead of crosswise, for if the bottom of the
truck joins sidewise and the end pieces are running crosswise of this
grain, it will be impossible to draw the bottom up tight, on account of
the lack of shrinkage of the ends where the grain runs lengthwise of
the end.

[Illustration: FIG. 57.--KNUCKLE TYPE OLEO OIL PRESS.]


=Press Room and Pressing Stock.=--The room into which the seeding
trucks with their contents are run should be held at a temperature of
75° to 90° F. The material in the seeding trucks, which is now called
“stock” should be pressed at a temperature of from 78° to 84° F.,
according to its quality, as well as to the percentage of stearine
which it is desirable to make. The lower the temperature at which
the oil is pressed the more stearine will be retained in the cloths.
After the stock is chilled to above temperature it will be found that
a granulation has taken effect and oil will be observed on the top,
whereas the heavier and granulated parts of the fat will be at the
bottom. This should be thoroughly mixed up before it is sent to the
press, either by use of a dipper or mechanically, care being used not
to disturb the bottom of the cooler. If there is any moisture in the
bottom of the truck it would spoil the stock by mixing it. Whereas,
if it is not agitated, when the stock is removed, the bottom can be
examined, and, if it is good, it can be used; otherwise it should be
sent to the tallow tanks. After the stock is thoroughly broken up or
mixed it is ready for the press, it first being wrapped in cloths.

The cloth used in connection with this press is a medium weight piece
of cotton canvas, which is cut in the proper sized pieces, about
eighteen inches square. The cloth is first put on the “former” which is
filled with a dipper full of stock; the attendant wraps it up carefully
and the man filling the press as it comes around in the wheel, takes
the wrapped stock and lays it on the plate, using eight bags of stock
on each plate in the press, generally using sixty steel plates for each
press. When the press is full the power is turned on. The slow speed
should be used almost exclusively after the press is started in order
to give the oil sufficient time to strain through the canvass.

[Illustration: FIG. 58.--OLEO OIL RECEIVER.]


=Collecting Oil.=--The oil from the press should run to a receiving
tank, as many being used as is necessary to keep the different grades
of oil separated. Where oil is being made in large quantities it is
always advisable to have the receiving tank hold sixty tierces, or a
car load of oil, for if smaller receivers are used the oil is likely to
be irregular.

The quality of oil varies, as does the quality of cattle; for instance,
choice native cattle, which are very fat, make a finer, better oil than
western cattle which are not in as good condition, and as the killing
is always liable to run irregular, if the oil is not assembled in large
quantities, it is often perceptible, and a manufacturer soon acquires
the reputation of making irregular oil. When that reputation is once
established buyers scrutinize closely before making purchases.


=Oil Receivers.=--The receivers of the oil should be either jacketed
or have a boat bottom; that is, one vat placed inside of the other
(see Fig. 58), so that the temperature of the oil in the receivers may
be regulated, but under no conditions should steam pipes be submerged
in oleo oil; all heating should be done by contact surfaces with hot
water. In having the vat made with a boat bottom it is simply necessary
to fill up the space with water and turn on steam, holding the water at
the desired temperature.


=Temperature of Oil Drawn to Tierce.=--The oil in the receiver, when
ready to be tierced, should be raised to a temperature of from 116° to
118° F., and then drawn off, the tierces being filled through a side
bung hole. After the tierce is filled it should be rolled away and
left undisturbed in a temperature of 50° F. for at least four days.
The oil thus handled will show a granulation, which is very desirable.
If the oil is not allowed to stand until it has thoroughly granulated,
or “seeded” it will come out smooth or pasty, and pasty oil is very
objectionable to the purchaser. If the oil is not drawn off at this
temperature it will be found difficult to have it seed properly, as it
chills too quickly for a good granulation to take effect. It is not
wise to draw the oil into a temperature lower than 50° F. After the oil
has been seeded it can be kept in any storage that is available below
60° F., but it must be put into the refrigerating temperature for the
first three or four days, and not at any time carried at a temperature
below 45°.


=Stearine.=--Stearine is the product left in the cloths after pressing
the stock. This product is used for many purposes, but largely for the
manufacture of compound lard on account of its hardness. (Ordinary
tallow will run 41¹⁄₂ to 43; oleo oil runs 40 to 42; oleo stearine
should run 50 to 52, titer.)

After the oil is thoroughly pressed out, the press is opened and the
stearine taken out of the cloths. The stearine should be thrown into a
bin where there is an abundant circulation of pure air, in order to
thoroughly cool, for if it is put into the package too warm, a mold
will form which deteriorates it and reduces its value. After it is
thoroughly chilled it is put into packages, compressed by a machine as
shown, which saves labor and puts more material into the package; or
pounding it with a maul as it is deposited in the tierces.

[Illustration: FIG. 59.--STEARINE PACKER.]


_Stearine Storage._--Stearine, after being put in packages, can be
held for thirty days in ordinary storage. If held longer than that, it
should be put into a room kept at a temperature of from 40° to 45° F.
and which is perfectly dry. Stearine, generally speaking, is a very
unsatisfactory article to carry any length of time, for, in pressing,
any moisture which may be in the stock is left in the stearine, and if
carried for some time this moisture produces a discoloration, which
is known to the trade as “spotted stearine.” It also causes a moldy
or musty smell, which injures it for edible purposes, and while it is
often carried for months for an anticipated rise in the market, it
is quite as often regretted that it was not sold when it was in good
condition for the market.


_Packages._--Stearine is always packed in slack packages, the regular
package being 34 inches high, 90 inches in circumference at the bilge
and 23⁵⁄₈ inches across the head with eight patented hoops. Oleo oil is
always put into a special tierce which is 34 inches high, 81 inches in
circumference at bilge and 21 inches across heads, with six iron hoops.


=Oil House Yields.=--The yields of oleo oil and stearine from stock
are regulated largely by the prices of the different articles, as, for
instance, when oil is low and stearine is high it is advisable to press
the stock at a lower temperature, making all the stearine possible.
Reverse the conditions and it is advisable to press the stock at a high
temperature, making all the oil possible, hence the general yield of
oil in stearine is largely regulated by the price of the two.


=Grading Fats.=--As the different kinds of fat have more or less
different flavors, it is wise to make careful selections in order to
get the best results, it being impossible to make a grade of all No.
1 oil, 10 or 15 per cent of the total being No. 2. The balance of the
product, eliminating the 10 or 15 per cent should be strictly No. 1
oil, but if the whole output is made into one grade, it would not be
acceptable as No. 1. Hence it will be seen that it is the better part
of wisdom to make two and sometimes three grades of this product, as
indicated above.

Of all the oleo oil made in this country, 75 to 90 per cent is shipped
to Holland, where it is made into butterine and distributed throughout
the continent and England. The requirements of these consumers seem
to have changed within the last few years, and the melters of oleo oil
strive to get the oils in the condition to best suit the Hollanders’
demands. What they seem to require is, first of all, a very neutral
oil, or in other words an oil with as little flavor and smell as
possible, whereas only a few years ago just the opposite was the case,
and the whole endeavor at that time was to get an oil with as much
flavor as could be made. In grading the fats a neutral or No. 1 oil is
obtained from the following parts:

  Caul fat.
  Ruffle fat.
  Briskets trimmings.
  Crotch trimming from pickings.
  Paunch trimmings.
  Pluck trimmings.
  Reed trimmings.
  Heart casing fats.

For a No. 2, or second grade, which, though it may realize nearly as
high a price as the first oil, is an oil of high flavor, the following
parts are used:

  Small fat.

  Chipped fat, which is taken off of the middles.

  Machine fat, which is fat taken off of rounds by the fatting machines.

  Heart trimmings.

  Pluck trimmings.

  Miscellaneous bed pickings of the second grade.

  Kidney fat.

  Clean trimmings from cattle which are being cut up for canning or
  sausage purposes.

  Skimmings from scrap vat of No. 1 oil.

A third grade of oleo oil, which will be quite inferior to either of
the other two named, but for which at times there is a good demand,
often netting more than the same product would, if made into rendered
tallow, is made from the following trimmings:

  Head fat.

  Fat trimmed from cattle heads when cheeking.

  Plucked sweetbreads trimming.

  Liver trimmings.

  Bladder trimmings.

  Fat from chilled beef tongues, when they are trimmed.

  Miscellaneous fats from other departments.

  The skimmings from the oleo press cloths boiling before soda has been
  used.

  Scrap vat skimmings from the second grade of oil.

If fat is graded as above suggested, and handled properly in the
different departments in the oleo house, satisfactory grades of oil
should be made.


=Tests on Oil Fats.=--The following are tests showing the pounds and
percentages of yield of different kinds of fat when made into oleo oil.
The tables, as will be noted, only show the percentages of fat in oleo
stock, this consisting of the oil and stearine before pressing.

TEST NO. 1.

    _Caul fat run to No. 1 oleo oil:_
  Hot weight from beds (dry)                    1,505 lbs.
  Chilled twenty hours, net weight              1,937 lbs.
                                                ----------
    Gain from hot weight               28.70% =   432 lbs.
  Weight of chilled fat to oil house            1,937 lbs.

  This fat, hashed into melting kettle, cooked one hour and five
  minutes, settled one hour, drawn into receiver, settled two hours,
  and drawn into coolers, gives following:

  Yield of oleo stock  1,238 lbs. = { 82.26% from hot weight
                                    { 63.91% from chilled weight

    _Ruffle fat run to No. 1 oleo oil:_
  Hot weight from beds (dry)                1,518 lbs.
  Chilled twenty hours, net weight          1,735 lbs.
                                            ----------
    Gain from hot weight           14.29% =   217 lbs.
  Weight chilled fat to oil house           1,735 lbs.

  This fat, hashed into melting kettle and cooked one hour then settled
  one hour fifteen minutes, after which drawn into receiver and again
  settled for two hours, and drawn into cooler, gives following:

  Yield of oleo stock 1,018 lbs. = { 67.06% from hot weight
                                   { 58.67% from chilled weight

The second test is similar, except that it is made on the “peck and
reed” fat, which is used in a No. 1 oil.

In the third test chipped fat is used for No. 1 oleo. This is a fat
which is cut off the middle gut, when fatted.

Test No. 4 is made on the gut end fat, which consists of miscellaneous
trimmings from the gut, ends, etc.

No. 5 was a test to determine the value and yield of caul and ruffle
fat from 165 cattle.

TEST NO. 2.

    _Peek and reed fat to oleo oil:_
  Hot weight from trimming bench (dry)                1,082 lbs.
  Through small wash vat to wash (weight from water)  1,211 lbs.
                                                      ----------
    Gain in washing from hot weight          11.92% =   129 lbs.
  Weight to chill vat                                 1,211 lbs.
  Chilled sixteen hours, weight                       1,255 lbs.
                                                      ----------
    Gain from washed weight                              44 lbs.
    Gain in chilling from hot weight         15.90% =   172 lbs.
  Weight chilled fat to oil house                     1,255 lbs.
    Handled in the usual way gives following:
                                  { 67.19% from hot weight
  Yield of oleo stock  727 lbs. = { 60.03% from washed weight
                                  { 57.93% from chilled weight

TEST NO. 3.

    _Chip fat to No. 1 oleo oil:_
  Hot weight from trimming bench (dry)           1,500 lbs.
  Through small vat to wash (weight from water)  1,639 lbs.
                                                 ----------
    Gain in washing from hot weight      9.26% =   139 lbs.
  Weight to chill vat                            1,639 lbs.
  Chilled eighteen hours, weight                 1,760 lbs.
                                                 ----------
    Gain from washed weight              7.38% =   121 lbs.
    Gain in chilling from hot weights   17.33% =   260 lbs.
  Weight chilled fat to oil house                1,760 lbs.
    Handled in the usual way, gives following:
                                  { 65.40% from hot weight
  Yield in oleo stock  981 lbs. = { 59.85% from washed weight
                                  { 55.74% from chilled weight

TEST NO. 4.

    _No. 1 gut end fat to oleo oil:_
  Net weight from trimming bench (dry)           1,347 lbs.
  Through small vat to wash (weight from water)  1,514 lbs.
                                                 ----------
    Gain from hot to washed weight      12.40% =   167 lbs.
  Weight to chill vat                            1,514 lbs.
  Chilled twenty hours, weight                   1,532 lbs.
                                                 ----------
    Gain from washed weight              1.19% =    18 lbs.
    Gain to chilled from hot weight     13.73% =   185 lbs.
  Weight of chilled fat to oil house             1,532 lbs.
    Handled in usual way gives following:
                                  { 61.39% from hot weight
  Yield of oleo stock  827 lbs. = { 54.62% from washed weight
                                  { 53.98% from chilled weight

TEST NO. 5.

    _Test on caul and ruffle fat:_
  Total weight                   5,252 lbs., av. wt. per head, 32 lbs.
  Yield “A” oleo oil    52.38% = 2,751 lbs. at $8.15 per cwt.  $224.21
  Yield No. 1 stearine  22.92% = 1,204 lbs. at  8.65 per cwt.   104.14
  Yield skimmings to
      No. 3 oil          1.71% =    90 lbs. at  6.40 per cwt.     5.76
                        ------
                        77.01%

  Yield scrap to tank            421 lbs.
  Yield tallow          19.24% =  81 lbs., at $ 4.60 per cwt.     3.73
  Yield tankage (dry)    3.80% =  16 lbs., at $17.50 per ton       .14
                                                               -------
                                                               $337.98
  Value per cwt. of fat                                          $6.43
  Value per head of fat                                           2.05

The prices on oil, stearine and skimmings are the market prices at time
test was made, less department expense for 60 cents per 100 pounds.
The price on tallow is market price less 40 cents per 100 pounds,
department expense.

The following is a test of tripe fat made into No. 1 oleo stock:

TEST NO. 6.

    _Tripe fat to oleo oil:_

  Hot weight from trimming bench (dry)           1,639 lbs.
  Through small vat to wash (weight from water)  1,860 lbs.
                                                 ----------
      Gain in washing from hot weight   13.48% =   231 lbs.
  Weight to chill vat                            1,860 lbs.
  Chilled twenty hours, weight                   2,009 lbs.
                                                 ----------
    Gain from washed weight              8.01% =   149 lbs.
    Gain in chilling from hot weight    22.57% =   370 lbs.
  Weight chilled to oil house                    2,009 lbs.
    Handled in the usual way, gives following:
                                     { 65.28% from hot weight
  Yield in oleo stock, 1,070 lbs. =  { 57.53% from washed weight
                                     { 53.45% from chilled weight


=Butcher Fats.=--Kidney fat yields the largest percentage of stock of
any fat in the animal. The fat in this particular part seems to be
richer in oil and in the general handling of same it rarely goes into
the water to absorb additional weight, as it is generally purchased
from the retail butcher after the carcass has been cut up. This in
itself is a large branch of the business, in many places melters making
a practice of collecting from the butchers their bones, tallow and fat.
The following test will give an idea of the yield of the different
products brought from a butcher’s shop, when used in an oleo factory or
tank room. The prices quoted are those that were paid at the time tests
were made. The percentages, however, are accurate.

STOCK YIELD FROM 649 POUNDS OF KIDNEY AND COD FAT.

  Stock    507 lbs., or 78.12%, at 9¹⁄₂c per lb.  = $ 48.16
  Expense              Pkgs., $1.45; labor, $1.27 =    2.72
                                                    -------
    Net value                                        $45.44
  Value per 100 lbs., based on weight of fat, $7.00.

STOCK YIELD FROM 2,004 POUNDS OF PICKINGS.

  Stock    1,124 lbs., or 56%, at 9¹⁄₂c per lb. = $106.78
  Expense            Pkgs., $3.83; labor, $5.01 =    8.84
                                                  -------
    Net value                                     $ 97.94
  Value per 100 lbs., based on weight of fat, $4.89.

TALLOW YIELD FROM 10,787 POUNDS OF BONES.

  No. 1 tallow      1,513 lbs., or 14.02%, at 6¹⁄₂c per lb.  = $ 98.34
  Stock of tankage  1,750 lbs., or 16.22%, at $16 per ton    =   14.00
  Waste             7,524 lbs., or 69.76%.
  Expense, labor                                                  2.25
                                                               -------
    Net value                                                  $110.09
  Value per 100 lbs., based on weight of raw bones, $1.02.

SUMMARY.

                                                         Per
                                                       100 lbs.
  Net value kidney and cod fat                          $7.00
  Net value pickings                                    4.89
  Net value bones                                       1.02
  Net value kidney, cod and pickings combined           5.40
  Net value kidney, cod, pickings and bones combined    1.89

The above is based on green weights. No deductions for steam power and
administrative expenses.

The following is the percentages of products used in above test:

                    Per
                   cent.
  Kidney and cod    4.83
  Pickings         14.91
  Bones            80.26
                  ------
                  100.00


_Test on Oleo Scrap._--The following is a test on the scrap from
foregoing test after all the oil had been extracted, which was put
into a rendering tank and cooked for twelve hours with forty pounds
pressure:

TEST ON OLEO SCRAP.

  ========================+======+=====
                          |      |  Per
  Product                 |Pounds| cent
  ------------------------+------+-----
  Scrap to tank           | 4,246| ...
  Produced tallow         | 1,195|28.14
  Produced pressed tankage|   434|10.22
  ------------------------+------+-----


=Mutton Fat.=--The fat derived in the killing of sheep is often used to
good advantage in making mutton oleo oil. There are times when there is
a ready sale for this oil, in which event it is run in the oil house
by precisely the same rules as those laid down for the melting of beef
tallow. The yields on mutton fat are considerably less, however, than
on beef fat. When it is not advisable to put it into mutton oleo, it
is nearly always advisable to make a mutton tallow, providing there is
sufficient amount of the raw stock on hand to warrant it, as mutton
tallow invariably brings a better price than ordinary commercial
tallow. Mutton tallow runs considerably higher in titer than ordinary
tallow. It is also much whiter and is often used in the manufacture of
cosmetics, etc. When made into oil it should be made from mutton fat
only. Many lard refiners have discovered that where a complaint was
made regarding the quality of their lard it was traceable to their oleo
stearine, in which mutton fat had been used, this fat having a tendency
to turn the lard rancid much earlier than where beef oleo stearine is
used.


=Oil Selection.=--In some establishments where high colored oils
disposing toward a yellow tint are produced, they are selected
separately in the seeding room and the oil segregated on account of its
desirability for domestic butterine.


=Oil House Operation.=--The following instructions if complied with
will result in a satisfactory operation.


_First._--See that the fat is in good condition, properly trimmed, all
pieces of meat, lungs, guts, etc., completely removed, and that the fat
is handled promptly, not allowing it to become stale, and sour before
it is received.


_Second._--When it is received, don’t pile up in the vats; see that the
ice water is in contact with all parts of it and thoroughly chill it.
When caul fat is extra heavy, examine all the largest pieces closely
and see that they are thoroughly chilled through.


_Third._--Arrange to have no ice or cooling pipes in the vat where the
fat is received, it being thrown in here to give it a thorough washing.
The next vat to which it is thrown, however, should have cooling pipes.
The water in the vats into which the fat is washed and chilled must be
changed daily.


_Fourth._--Do not begin hashing until the fat is properly cooled. It
will take from three to five hours to accomplish this, under ordinary
conditions.


_Fifth._--It is wise never to begin hashing until there is fat enough
to either finish the day’s work, or at least to keep the house running
and to hash a kettle full regularly, as it is impracticable to stop in
the middle of the operation of hashing a kettle of fat, for when once
commenced it must be completed.


_Sixth._--Use sufficient steam on the hasher jacket to facilitate the
cutting, having the material come through as cold as possible. If
too much steam is used it partially melts the fat in the hasher and
disintegration is not perfect.


_Seventh._--For melting kettles which hold about 1,400 pounds of hashed
fat about half an hour should be required to do the hashing. While the
capacity of the hasher might be much greater it is well to have the fat
partially melted during the course of hashing, so as not to have too
large a body of unmelted fat in the melters.


_Eighth._--The time for melting, settling and letting down the stock
into the clarifiers from the melting kettles should not exceed two
hours and twenty minutes. As soon as hashing is begun, the agitator
should be started revolving. When through hashing, the man overseeing
the melting, after allowing the agitator to run five or ten minutes,
should lift it out of the kettle and clean it off thoroughly with a
paddle, and then drop it back into the kettle. If this is not done
several times during the course of hashing, unmelted fats will be found
in the bottoms when they are ready to drop to scrap vat.

The steam should be turned on in the jacket of the kettle as soon
as hashing is started. Keep the steam on until the fat shows a
temperature of 140° to 142° F. The steam should then be shut off and
the surplus heat in the kettle will run the fat up to 155° F., which
should be the maximum melting point for No. 1 melting oil. No. 2, or
the flavored oil, may be melted to 158° F. No. 3, or lowest grade of
oil, may be melted at 160° F., and in some instances 165° F.

As soon as it is evident that the fat is thoroughly melted the agitator
should be stopped and pulled out of the oil, and it should stand at
least an hour, the steam being shut off from the jacket, giving it a
chance to settle. On this particular process depends the entire result
of the making of oleo oil, as the fat being so thoroughly disintegrated
in the hasher when it is melted, a great deal of tissue from this fat
is held in suspension in the oil and it must have very careful handling
in order to get it thoroughly settled out. If it is not all removed
from the oil, the latter will turn strong from the decomposition of the
tissues.

After the oil has settled throw in about fifteen to twenty pounds
of fine salt, scattering it thoroughly over the surface of the oil,
the salt having the effect of carrying with it any unsettled tissues
which may still remain in the oil. The top of the oil should then be
carefully skimmed, for there is a scum floating on the top when it is
settled. After this is done the siphon pipe is dropped down into the
oil and the oil is taken off very carefully. It is very essential in
drawing this with the siphon pipe that as little scrap and water as
possible be taken with it. After the oil has been taken off, the bottom
valve of the melting kettle is opened, dropping the contents into the
scrap vat. The kettle should be thoroughly washed and cleaned before it
is used again.


_Ninth._--The oil now in the clarifier should be kept at a temperature
of about 140° F. It should be allowed to remain in the clarifying
kettle about an hour, and during this time should lose about ten
degrees in temperature, perfect settling being possible only by
lowering the temperature of the material. While oil is in the
clarifier, sprinkle about four pounds of salt over it. As soon as it
is settled skim immediately, and again a second time before the oil is
drained into seeding truck.

It should be drawn off into the seeding truck at a temperature of 120°
to 125° F., care being taken at all times in siphoning the oil from
the different kettles to see that no water has gotten into the oil. As
it is impossible to draw the oil all out of the different kettles with
the siphon, the oil that is left in the bottom of the kettle each time
should be taken back and put into the melting kettle and allowed to run
through with the next melting of fat.


_Tenth._--Be particular to have the kettles washed each time after
being emptied and see that they are kept at proper heat to receive each
lot of fat when ready.


_Eleventh._--See that all water, siphon pipes, and drawing-off pipes to
the seeders be thoroughly scalded and steamed out before drawing, as
there is invariably an accumulation in these pipes, which, if allowed
to go uncared for, will turn rancid and injure the quality of the oil.




CHAPTER XIII.

BONE DEPARTMENT.


  BONE DEPARTMENT -- HARD BONE -- GLUE BONE -- BONE PRODUCTS -- HORNS
  -- MANUFACTURED ARTICLES -- SKULLS -- TEST YIELD FROM SKULLS AND FEET
  -- BUTTOCKS AND THIGHS -- BLADES AND RIBS -- DRYING -- CRUSHED BONE
  -- GRINDING BONE -- NEATS FOOT OIL STORAGE -- NEATS FOOT OIL PURIFIER
  -- YIELD TESTS.


=Bone Department.=--The bone department is where the bones are cared
for and prepared for commercial purposes. Nearly all bones that are of
value, to be sold as such, come from cattle, and to this department is
sent the horns, skulls, jaws, feet, shank bones, thigh bones, blade
bones, rib bones and those resulting from cutting and boning cattle.
These yield what is known as manufacturing bone, such as shins,
blades, buttocks and thigh bones. Most of the balance is used for bone
fertilizer, glue and grinding. The bone usually produced in the bone
department is hard bone.


=Hard Bone.=--Hard bones are those not cooked sufficiently to extract
the glue stock, but enough to remove all grease. They are cooked in
open vats. Excessive boiling brings the bones out in what is known to
the trade as a “chalky condition” and injures the quality.


=Glue Bones.=--Bones used for glue stock are green bones just as taken
from the animal, or dried hard bone. In the former case the bone is
crushed green, washed, boiled, and the liquor collected, filtered and
evaporated. The residue is dried and is the article of commerce sold
under the heading of “Steam Bone,” used extensively in fertilizer
manufacturing. Those who slaughter on a moderate scale are usually not
in a position to undertake the manufacture of glue. Consequently they
are most interested in proper methods of manufacturing hard bones.


=Bone Products.=--Small bones are also converted into bone charcoal,
which is largely used for the purpose of bleaching sugar and in
various medicinal preparations. Bones are used for a great variety of
purposes, including the manufacture of bone charcoal for bleaching,
empyreumatic oils; tallow; black pigment for painting, shoe blacking
and filling sheet rubber for overshoes; bone dust for manure; sulphate
of ammonia; cupels; vitrified bone of use in making opal glass, and
in the manufacture of knife-handles, combs, fans, buttons, etc. Bones
also furnish gelatine and glue, and are the starting point for the
manufacture of phosphorus.


=Horns.=--Horns are the most valuable bone products measured by weight.
Owing to the dehorning of cattle as well as the breeding of polled
cattle, the supply of horns has been greatly diminished, and whereas
twenty-five years ago horns were worth $20.00 a ton they are now worth
from $280.00 to $300.00 per ton if they are of the proper selections,
hence it will be seen that intelligent handling is worth while. The
horns severed from the head preferably by sawing and cutting at a point
beyond the meeting point of skull and horn, are thrown into a vat of
water, held at a temperature of from 140° to 150° F. After soaking for
ten or fifteen minutes they are taken out and by hammering the horn
across some solid substance, or by laying it on a block and pounding
it with a weight or mallet, the pith slips out. The piths are dried
and used in the manufacture of glue. The horns should be stored in a
room where there is ample outside air circulation and not too dry.
Artificial heat will cause them to crack. They are never dried on steam
coils. Selections are made for some markets, although they are usually
sold as taken off.


=Manufactured Articles.=--The manufacture of horns into manufactured
articles is a highly specialized work and rarely undertaken by the
packer as a commercial possibility. Horns are used for the manufacture
of combs and various other ornamental articles. In the course of
manufacturing, the tip is sawed off to the hollow part of the horn.
It is then split open, the horn is steamed, softened and flattened by
pressure, usually hydraulic pressure. Any checks or flaws in the horn
damage it for manufacturing purposes. If submitted to excessive heat in
drying or stored in a room that is hot and dry they are sure to become
damaged. When in storage they should be placed in a cellar or room
where there is some moisture, but not enough to cause them to mold.

[Illustration: FIG. 60.--CATTLE HEAD SPLITTERS.]


=Skulls.=--The treatment of skulls in process is as follows: The cheek
meat is removed from the head, the jaws pulled out, the head split and
brain removed, and the skull is ready for the cooking vat. The brain
is an edible product, for which there is a ready sale in most markets,
consequently they should be properly taken out. The illustration, Fig.
60, is of a machine with a hollow knife intended for splitting the
skull but not damaging the brain. With this machine the heads are split
after the jaws are pulled. The head is laid on the table with the teeth
up. The knife is made with a semi-circular space in the sharp edge
which comes down over the brain without touching same as the balance
of the blade is forced through the skull, leaving the brain intact
while separating the skull bones. Where a large number of heads are
handled in this manner it saves a great deal of labor. It is desirable
to remove the brains before cooking the skulls, as the bones become
discolored if the brain is left in the skull.


_Cooking._--After the skulls are placed in a tank they should be kept
covered with cold water until collected in sufficient quantity for
cooking. They should be thoroughly washed, as there is a large amount
of clotted blood usually adhering to the skull, and if not well washed
the grease derived from the cooking is discolored and injured. In
connection with the washing, it is always well, when the vat is filled,
to heat the water to a point about 90° F. and draw this water off. The
vat is then filled with water sufficient to cover the skull and the
steam turned on, the temperature raised to 200° F. The steam should be
graduated so as to hold this temperature eight and one-half or nine
hours, when the heads will be found to be cooked sufficiently. The
steam is then shut off and the oil cooked from the heads is allowed to
collect on the surface, after which it is skimmed and strained, and
allowed to settle. It is then ready for tiercing.


_Cleaning._--The skulls should be kept covered with water until ready
for washing. This is done by passing through a reel screen arranged
with a central hollow axle or a perforated pipe suspended in the top,
used for spraying the revolving bones with a plentiful supply of warm
water for cleansing them.


_Jaw Bones._--Jaw bones should be handled the same as skulls, except
that they should be cooked from nine to ten hours. The jaws are
cracked at right angles to their length in order to open the bone for
extracting all oil.


_Drying._--The bones are now ready for drying. Dryers are mentioned
subsequently.


=Feet.=--The cattle feet are of prime importance owing to the value of
the products resulting. In mentioning feet, we mean comprehensively the
feet from knee to hoof, inclusive.


_Washing Feet._--The feet upon being taken from the animal should be
washed promptly, and all manure and refuse removed preferably through a
revolving washer.


_Cutting Sinews and Sawing Bones._--The sinews are removed from the
feet, and the shin bones sawed out. The sawing of the bone is an
important matter. The bone should be rigidly held and sawed by a sharp
moving blade, the saw carriage moved against the tightly held foot. The
set of saw should be such as to avoid a ragged edge. Saw should have
high speed up to 1,200 r. p. m. and be filed with but little set. In
moving the blade it should be done firmly and regularly--not jerky.

The cutting should be done about midway through the “sponge” formation
at end of bone so that the oil can be cooked clean.

[Illustration: FIG. 61.--BONE SAW WITH IRON FRAME.]


_Raw Shin Bones Cooling._--These bones should be kept in clear cold
running water until the day’s cook is collected.


_Removal of Hoofs._--The removal of hoofs is to be done by putting the
feet in a tank or tub of water. Steam is injected into the water and
the temperature raised to about 180° F., where it is maintained for 20
to 30 minutes, or until the hoofs will slip. Hoofs are pinched off and
feet passed to cook boxes. Hoofs are usually air dried and selected
into white and striped hoofs, the most valuable used and sold for
manufacturing. Black hoofs are ordinarily coil dried and ground for
fertilizer. The oil is the neatsfoot oil of commerce.


_Cooking Shin Bones._--Shin bones should be cooked about eight hours at
a temperature of 160° to 170° F.

[Illustration: FIG. 62.--HAND HOOF PULLER.]

Judgment is to be used in the cooking as the age of the cattle and the
hardness of the bone will have to do with the bone appearing “chalky”
when dry.

[Illustration: FIG. 63.--POWER HOOF PULLER.]


_Cooking Feet._--The foot portion resulting in the small knuckles when
cooked is cooked separately from the shin bones and oil handled in the
same manner.


_Skimming the Oil._--The oil rising to the top of the cook vats should
be carefully skimmed off with as little water as possible. It should
be strained through a fine mesh screen covered with two thicknesses of
scrim, so as to take out all floating fibre or floaters.


_Skimming and Settling._--Upon skimming deposit oil in the oil
receivers, keep the oil under heat at a temperature of 150° F. The
settling or sediment should be daily removed at the drain outlet until
oil begins to show, since the settling and moisture are sure means of
making oil sour.

[Illustration: FIG. 64.--REVOLVING BONE WASHER.]


_Purifying Oil._--The oil is kept in the containers until ready for
purifying. The two receivers are connected together by a common pipe
which terminates in a pipe arranged in the form of a cross with a tee
connection at each end. Over the ends of this cross are suspended
cotton flannel bags of double thickness tied tightly over the tees. The
oil is strained through these into the purifier where it is settled
for two or three hours. Should any moisture appear it is withdrawn
at the drain cock at bottom. Bags should be used once and carefully
washed. The oil is then dried out by heating the same through the steam
jacket on kettle until it reaches a temperature of about 250° F., at
which temperature it is held several hours. The oil is to be stirred
occasionally during the drying period. The steam is closed and the oil
allowed to settle and cool and is then put in casks. Temperature of
oil when drawn into casks, about 80° to 90° F., casks, hard wood, well
hooped and of superior quality to prevent leakage.


_Neatsfoot Oil._--Obtained from cooking round shin, flat shin, small
knuckle bones (being bones from feet) and shin bones.


_Finishing Bones._--After taking the oil and depositing same in the
neatsfoot oil receiver, the shin bones are removed and placed in the
polisher where they are revolved for about one hour or until the bones
are cleaned. Warmed water is passed through the bones during this
process, introduced through hollow shaft in washer. The substance
washed out contains more or less oil which should be trapped and the
clear oil skimmed off, and balance of material sent to the rendering
tanks. The knuckles are similarly treated until cleaned.


_Drying Bones._--When the shin bones are washed and cleaned they should
be spread on racks to dry, in natural temperature (not coil dried) and
out of draft or cold temperatures to avoid checking or splitting. Small
knuckle bones from the feet are to be coil dried for manufacturing bone.


_Sinews._--These are chiefly sold for glue stock. In removing sinews
from the legs, care must be used not to cut too deep in the heel of the
foot, it being preferred to leave some glue stock on the foot rather
than to cut too deep and remove the fat which goes to make up the
neatsfoot oil which is much more valuable than the glue stock. This
part of the product, well drained, should be taken to a cool, although
not necessarily refrigerated room, and thoroughly salted; It is often
found necessary to overhaul it and resalt it in order to keep it from
“sweating.” After it has been cured ten days or two weeks it is ready
for the glue department.


=Test Yield from Skulls and Feet.=--Test on following page shows the
yield from head and feet of 130,470 cattle, same based on the market
prices prevailing at the time the test was made. While prices vary the
percentages given are accurate.


=Buttocks and Thighs.=--These leg bones are treated substantially the
same as the shin bones in cooking and to completion.

AVERAGE YIELD OF HEAD AND FEET ON KILL OF 130,470 CATTLE.

  =============+======+=====================+=======
               |      |    Market price     |
               | Yield+------+-----+--------+ Value
               |  per | per  | per |   per  |  per
     Product   | cent | ton  | gal.|   lb.  |  head
  -------------+------+------+-----+--------+-------
  Skulls       | 4.079|$18.00| ... |  ...   |$0.0367
  Jaws         | 2.289| 18.00| ... |  ...   |  .0206
  Knuckles     | 2.641| 18.00| ... |  ...   |  .0237
  Hoofs        | 1.744| 22.00| ... |  ...   |  .0191
  Hoofs, white |  .147| 50.00| ... |  ...   |  .0036
  Piths        |  .456| 21.00| ... |  ...   |  .0047
  Round shins  | 1.198| 42.00| ... |  ...   |  .0251
  Flat shins   |  .956| 30.00| ... |  ...   |  .0143
  Horns        |  .518|200.00| ... |  ...   |  .0518
  Neatsfoot oil| 1.061|  ... |$0.64|  ...   |  .0905
  Cheeks       | 3.580|  ... | ... |$0.03   |  .1074
  Head meat    |  .698|  ... | ... |  .03   |  .0294
  Fine meat    | 1.072|  ... | ... |  .03   |  .0321
  Sinews       | 1.899| 19.00| ... |  ...   |  .0180
  Tallow       | 1.730|  ... | ... |  .06³⁄₄|  .1167
  Tankage      | 1.160| 16.00| ... |  ...   |  .0092
  Brains       |  .650|  ... | ... |  .02¹⁄₄|  .0146
  Head oil     | 1.068|  ... | ... |  .06³⁄₄|  .0726
  -------------+------+------+-----+--------+-------
    Total value|  ... |  ... | ... |  ...   |$0.6901
  -------------+------+------+-----+--------+-------


=Blades and Ribs.=--Where cutting and shipping cattle is done in
profusion there are many small bones resulting. If hard bone is being
made these bones are cooked in open vat from six to eight hours.
Cellular bones are usually cracked so as to make for free extraction of
oil.


=Drying.=--Two systems of drying are used in the bone department.
The open air system for horns, selected white and striped hoof
for manufacturing, shin bones, buttock bones, and those sold for
manufacturing purposes; the coil, or room, drying principle, for
grinding bone. The latter, crushed bone, is sold to glue makers and
grinders. The usual method of handling the latter style of drying is to
make platform coils or grids of 1¹⁄₄-inch pipe of an area convenient,
as ten by sixteen feet, or units convenient to the space. These are
in multiple and arranged to be accessible from two or more sides for
convenience in filling and removing bones. The grids should be placed
twelve or fifteen inches above the floor to permit cleaning underneath.
The pipes or grids are usually substantially supported to carry the
weight placed upon them. A wire screen of No. 5 screen 1¹⁄₄-inch mesh
is a convenience to prevent bones dropping through. The bones are piled
upon the grids to dry, when they are then transferred to storage rooms.


=Crushed Bone.=--The skulls, jaws and larger bones, are usually crushed
before storing so as to get a greater weight in less space. In this
condition they are ready for grinding into “raw bone meal,” the name
given to ground bone for sale to glue makers for extracting glue.


=Grinding Bone.=--Ground bone is usually ground through an attrition
mill, of which there are several types. The mill delivers the grindings
to a bucket type endless chain elevator, which in turn passes it
through a screen--shaking or revolving--preferably the latter. The
screen is usually about three feet in diameter by twelve feet long and
covered with a screening of No. 16 wire, eight meshes per inch, which
screens it to a size that will readily pass through a grain drill.
The tailings or over sized bone is returned to the mill for further
grinding.


=Neatsfoot Oil Storage Tank.=--This is preferably a jacketed tank, one
tank within the other, and must be made with a jacket to withstand
the pressure that may be applied. Consequently the jacket should be
reinforced with stay bolts so as to prevent distortion when pressure
is applied. Any and all oil settling vats are best made cylindrical in
form with a sharp cone at bottom. The cone is equipped for withdrawing
sediment at the bottom and for withdrawing oil for purification
sufficiently high in the cone to avoid withdrawing any sediment.


=Neatsfoot Oil Purifiers.=--The same type of kettle or tank as
described above is required, the latter being sufficient in size to
accumulate a week’s work.


=Yield Tests.=--The appended tests give the resulting yields from
handling skulls and jaws, feet and shanks:

TEST YIELD FROM SKULLS AND JAWS OF 1,209 CATTLE

  =========================+======+=======+======
                           |      |       |  Per
                           |      |Average|  Cent
                           |      |  per  | Green
        Products           |Weight| head  |Weight
  -------------------------+------+-------+------
  No. 1 Ground Bone        | 1972 |  1.63 |  9.48
  No. 2 Ground Bone        |  282 |   .23 |  1.35
  Bone Meal                | 1381 |  1.14 |  6.64
  Butter Stock Tallow      | 1353 |  1.12 |  6.51
  Bone House Tallow        |  585 |   .48 |  2.81
  Pressed Tankage 50% water| 6512 |  5.37 | 31.32
  =========================+======+=======+======

Total weight of feet from 1,209 cattle, 20,790.11 pounds. Average
weight green feet per cattle, 17.19 pounds.

TEST YIELD FROM FEET OF 1,391 HEAVY CATTLE

  =================+======+=======
                   |      |Average
                   |      |  per
      Products     |Weight|  head
  -----------------+------+-------
  Green Sinews     |  3424|  2.46
  White Hoofs      |   528|   .38
  Striped Hoofs    |  2506|  1.87
  Black Hoofs      |   534|   .38
  Neatsfoot Oil    |  1476|  1.06
  Bone and Grease  |   280|   .20
  Grinding Bone    |  4667|  3.29
  Heavy Round Shins|  1247|   .90
  Light Round Shins|   195|   .14
  Heavy Flat Shins |  1092|   .78
  Light Flat Shins |    73|   .05
  Tankage          |   682|   .49
                   +------+-------
                   | 16704|
  =================+======+=======

Total weight of feet from 1,391 cattle, 24,778 pounds. Average weight
green feet per cattle, 17.8 pounds.

TEST YIELD IN FINISHED PRODUCTS FROM SHANKS

  ================+======+======
                  |      |  Per
                  |      | Cent
                  |Total | Green
      Products    |Weight|Weight
  ----------------+------+------
  Butter Stock    | 1245 | 18.86
  Butter Tallow   |   60 |   .91
  Thigh Bones     |  275 |  4.18
  Blades          |  278 |  4.21
  Buttocks        |  203 |  3.08
  Cannons         |  180 |  2.73
  Knuckles (large)| 1955 | 29.62
  Tankage         |  179 |  2.71
  ================+======+======

Weight 3,300 pounds each, fore and hind shanks, total 6,600 pounds.




CHAPTER XIV.

TANK HOUSE DEPARTMENT.


  TANK HOUSE DESIGN -- ISOLATION AND VENTILATION -- SEPARATION OF PRESS
  ROOM -- DIGESTERS -- RENDERING TANK -- SURFACE BOX -- PRESS AND PUMP
  -- COOKING KILLING STOCK -- OPERATING TANK BLOW OFF -- PRESSING
  TANKAGE -- TREATMENT OF LARD AND TALLOW -- TITER IN TALLOW AND LARD
  -- STEAM FOR COOKING -- COOKING TESTS -- OPERATING ODORLESS -- TESTS
  -- CATCH BASIN.


=Introductory.=--When slaughtering was done promiscuously throughout
the country, sufficient product was not available at any one point to
necessitate a tank house, consequently open kettles were used either
with fire under them, or jacketed for steam, the best of the fat was
thus rendered, and the balance was thrown away. It being impossible to
render offal to advantage under these conditions, the “digester” as it
is called by many, was evolved. It consists of a closed tank in which
cooking is done at forty pounds steam pressure, giving a temperature
of nominally 287° F., this high temperature thoroughly disintegrating
all products in the tank, liberating all the grease. The residue from
cooking in this manner, after being pressed, is dried and sold as
fertilizer. The effectiveness of this process is shown, for instance,
by the fact that if a hundred cattle heads are put into a tank, after
cooking, the bones are entirely disintegrated, except the teeth.


=Tank House Design.=--Almost any arrangement of tank, surface box and
press can be made to serve the purpose of rendering. The method and
arrangement shown herein are those practiced by one of the revisors of
this work and embodies principles as described.

The requisite apparatus for a rendering or tank house consists of but
few articles, viz: the rendering tank or digester, the surface or
skimming box, and a press, but the design and operation is of such
consequence that the same will be described in detail.


=Isolation and Ventilation.=--The rendering building from its character
should be isolated and arranged for ventilation on at least three
sides. The United States sanitary requirements compel the complete
separation of the edible from the inedible section by the use of
separate buildings or a parting wall.

[Illustration: FIG. 65.--SECTION THROUGH TANK HOUSE.]


=Separation of Press Room.=--If the business is large the owner is
fully justified in extending the parting wall through and dividing the
press room. This arrangement requires the double investment in presses,
cloths and all equipment, but gives the advantage that the pressings
can be collected from edible tankage and used for edible purposes,
provided always that the equipment is kept in proper shape. Whereas, if
the parting wall is not extended through the press room, the oils are
considered contaminated and are usable only for inedible purposes.

[Illustration: FIG. 66.--LITTLE NECK RENDERING TANK.]

The section shown indicates that type of house where the press room is
single, and the house above the press floor is divided.

[Illustration: FIG. 67.--TANK HOUSE, SHOWING NESTING OF TANKS.]


=Tank House Hazards.=--The tank house, from the nature of the business
being hazardous, is best to be of fire-proof construction. Tanks
constructed as shown in Fig. 66, with the little neck head can be
nested four in a bay and be made fully accessible on all floors.

The nesting of tanks six feet in diameter in a sixteen-foot square bay
provides sufficient strength to make it possible to suspend the tanks
from the floor beams above, suitably arranged, it further avoids the
necessity of supports near to the tanks, which greatly facilitate
cleanliness.


=Situation of Surface Boxes.=--The grease content in the fertilizer
is a matter of dollars and cents. When the oil is withdrawn from the
tanks it cannot be seen and no matter how closely watched considerable
oil will pass through to the surface box where it can be collected.
Consequently the second story of the tank house is a high story with
the surface boxes placed convenient to the second floor so as to be
readily worked. Further reference to this is made later.


=Press Room.=--The press room is arranged so that the press can be
built directly beneath the surface boxes, from whence the car is passed
to the press for pressing out the moisture.


=Digesters.=--The “digester” indicated, together with its method of
suspension and nesting has been successfully used and was the practice
followed by a well known designer for a number of years. The diameter
and height of the digester ordinarily used is 6 × 16 feet on the tank
body. The writer invariably has specified half-inch thick tank steel
for the reason that the increased thickness is of so little additional
weight, and the labor being such a considerable factor, that it was
thought well to provide this additional thickness to take care of
corrosion and acid attack.


=Little Neck Rendering Tank.=--Lugs can be placed in any position
desirable for support. The little neck for filling needs no comment. It
is provided with a six-point security and by the use of ring-bolts with
male and female flanged closing and gasket, can readily be made steam
tight.


=Tank Gate Valve.=--Tank department foremen are divided in ideas as to
using sliding steam gate valves, in which the gate is operated by lever
for quick opening or the screw type valve. The latter should be the
rising stem type.


=Surface Box.=--The surface box shown is a jacketed type used for
plants where tank water is collected for evaporation. The cost of this
is justified as against being annoyed with coils in the tank.


=Press and Pump.=--Practically all presses now in use are hydraulic.
These are overhead or under types, the latter being mostly used.

[Illustration: FIG. 68.--SECTION OF RENDERING TANK.]

[Illustration: FIG. 69.--DESIGN OF STEAM JACKETED SURFACE BOX.]

The style of pump used is a question of importance. The writer
specifies steam operated hydraulic pumps in preference to power
driven pumps, since the former can be operated from a governor that
automatically keeps full pressure on the pump. With the power pump,
when the motive power is stopped, a leak, the size of a pin point, in a
valve, will cause a leakage that releases the pressure and makes poor
pressing. Be aware of the fact that there is no method of extracting
water from the fertilizer so cheap as pressing and the only limit
should be the strength of the cloths. Fig. 70 shows how a hydraulic
press and pump should be connected.

[Illustration: FIG. 70.--DIAGRAM OF HYDRAULIC PRESS WITH PIPING AND
PUMP.]


=Cooking Killing Stock.=--The tank should be clean; draw in about two
hogsheads of water for a 6 × 16 foot tank, or a proportionate amount
for tanks of other sizes; turn on the steam to boil the water, and then
begin filling the tank. Allow sufficient steam to enter to keep the
tank boiling slowly. When the tank is two-thirds full, shut off the
steam, draw off the water and refill with water; turn on the steam,
bringing the contents to a boil the second time. Do not fill the
tank to exceed three-fourths full, as the cooking is better done if
sufficient room is left. After cooking for a half hour, draw off the
water a second time. It will be found, especially in cooking product
from the killing department, that the water drawn off is dark colored,
from the blood and dirt that has accumulated on the tissue. If this
is not withdrawn it has the effect of darkening the lard or tallow
materially.

After the water has been drawn the second time, put on the tank head
and turn on the steam, the condensation from the steam is sufficient
to cook the material; no more water is needed. See that the blow-off
and escape pipes are shut and the pet-cock is open. Continue cooking in
this manner until a moderate pressure is built up, then admit steam to
full pressure of forty-five pounds, open the escape valve just enough
so that you may know the gas is escaping. At the completion of this
operation the cooking begins. A tank of tallow should cook thoroughly
in from nine to ten hours with forty pounds pressure.


_Cold Spots._--Oftentimes freshly killed material will lie closely
together and a “cold spot” will occur--a spot where the material has
become partially solidified and the steam has not penetrated. In such
case, shut off the steam, draw off the water, and then turn on the
steam, the cold spots will disappear. “Cold spot” has the effect of
souring lard and tallow; in other words before the heat has penetrated
into the solid mass, the heat surrounding it will have caused it to
sour. This point should be watched closely, especially in cooking lard.

Tankmen should try the pet-cock on the tank each half hour to find out
if the tank is “flush.” If the tank is “flush” or foaming, the foam
will come out instead of steam. In this case, shut off the tank ten
minutes, then draw off the water, but see that no grease is drawn off
with it. The cause of the flushing, or foaming, is that the tank is
too full, or that there is too much water in it, consequently it is
necessary that the tankman should try his pet-cock very often during
the operation of cooking to see that the contents are being properly
cooked.


=Cutting Tanks.=--Cuttings and cold products of like character are
usually carried in cold water while filling, and are not parboiled as
described for “killing” tanks.


=Releasing Pressure.=--When the tank is cooked, shut off the steam
and open the pet-cock for about ten minutes, then the escape valve,
being careful not to give it too much escape at first, or the tank will
“roll.” By this is meant that the original heat in the oil contents
will generate steam in the contents beneath which, when the pressure
is relieved, will cause the contents to boil violently, but if the
pressure is reduced slowly, this condition will not arise. When a tank
has “rolled” it takes a great deal more time to settle it, the grease
being thoroughly mixed up with the residue of the tank. As the pressure
decreases the operator can increase the rapidity of release.

[Illustration: FIG. 71.--DETAIL OF PIPING CONNECTIONS. TOP OF RENDERING
TANK.]

The pressure being relieved from the tank, take out the head, use
about a water-pail full of fine salt to settle the tank. This salt is
scattered over the contents in the tank and has the effect of settling
sediment and tissue which may be held in suspension. The tank should
stand about two hours to thoroughly settle before drawing the oil. Draw
the oil from the side valves of the tank into coolers. It is often
necessary, in doing this, to raise the contents of the tank, as there
may be considerable tallow or lard below the lowest draw-off valve.
Such being the case run water into the bottom of the tank sufficient to
raise its contents so that all the rendered oil can be drawn through
the lowest valve.

[Illustration: FIG. 72.--DETAIL OF PIPING CONNECTIONS, BOTTOM OF
RENDERING TANK]


=Operating Tank Blow-Off.=--Descriptive of the connections for
operating rendering tank connections is the following subject matter.
The exhaust connections are illustrated in drawings, Figs. 71 and 72,
and essentially consist of, beginning at tank neck:

(1) Spring pop safety valve set at 45 pound pressure to automatically
release in case of excessive pressure arising and failure of weighted
pop valve to relieve.

(2) Pressure gauge on each riser to indicate pressure on the individual
tank to insure its being under pressure and under heat. The siphon bend
between gauge and pipe is preferably filled with glycerine.

(3) Try cock on bottom of drip line to open occasionally as test for
“gas.”

(4) Globe valve, ³⁄₈ inch, operated slightly open to allow gas to
release from tank and create very small circulation.

(5) Globe valve, 1¹⁄₂ inch; blow down valve to be used when releasing
all pressure from tanks.

(6) Angle type pop safety valve to relieve into the discharge line.

(7) Check valve attached to the line to prevent any foaming or steam
from an adjacent tank discharging into this unit via the exhaust system.

(8) Exhaust header used in conjunction with the system to collect all
gases and steam discharged from the battery of tanks.

(9) Cooking connections: It is preferable to drill the inlet nozzle at
bottom of tank at the lowest point possible and to admit steam on two
sides of nozzle not opposite but on an angle as shown in plan. This
prevents “dancing” tanks.


_Check Valves._--Check valves are placed in the admission valve to
prevent floaters or foreign materials entering lines and stopping the
control valves and steam and water.


_Inlet Header._--For usual purposes steam and water are admitted into
the tank at one point and steam at one, see _Nos. 12-a_ and _12-b_ on
diagram. If tank water is being collected and evaporated, line _12-c_
is introduced and used as follows:

Ordinarily the use of _12-b_ is for admitting water into bottom of
tank in case the oil line after tank contents are cooked and settled
are below the draw cocks.

In the event tank water is being saved to avoid weakening tank water
by introduction of cold clean water, this result is accomplished by
pumping tank water into the tank via the connection _12-c_. If tank
water is not being evaporated, _12-c_ line and connection is omitted.


_Draw Down Pipe._--If the oil is high and water appears at the
draw-cocks _14_ and _15_, then the content is lowered by opening cock
_No. 13_ and lowering the body as much as required.


_Oil Draw Cocks, 14 and 15._--When the tank is cooked, oil settled and
the tank raised or lowered by use of _No. 12_ connections or _No. 13_
cock, the oil belt should be such that the bottom of it is about on a
line with cock _14_, and the main body of oil is drawn through cock
_No. 15_.


=Surface Box Treatment.=--After the oil is drawn out of the tank, the
residue is dumped into the surface box. Anything that has not been
thoroughly cooked will float on top in the vat. These floaters should
all be skimmed off and put back into the tank to be re-cooked. The
contents should be thoroughly agitated with a pole or rake, cooked
fifteen minutes, allowed to settle and the oil carefully skimmed off.
This should be done two or three times on each vat so as to free all
the oil possible.

If tank water is being collected the boiling is done by steam jacket on
the box; if not, by direct application of free live steam. In either
case stir contents freely.


=Pressing Tankage.=--As soon as the operation of the skimming of the
vat has been thoroughly accomplished the contents are in the proper
condition to be pressed and should be handled while still hot. The
water is mostly drained off. In building the cakes, a portable car is
run under the surface box. By the use of a quick opening lever gate the
contents are dropped in quantity desired upon a press cloth; between
each cheese is placed a rack--the process being thus, a rack made of 1
× ¹⁄₄ inch material, usually elm, thoroughly nailed together, is first
laid on the press head; next a frame of the size and depth required to
handle the product is used. This frame should not exceed two inches in
depth. The press cloth is then spread over them and the material drawn
onto the press. Well spread out, the cloth is carefully folded over the
top of it. The form is then lifted off the press, another press rack is
put on top of the cheese already made, and the process repeated. Ten or
twelve plates are usually used to a press.

After the car is filled it is placed in the hydraulic press and
pressure applied. This should be done slowly at first, giving the water
ample time to run out of the press. If the pressure is applied too
rapidly the tendency is for the material to slide out on one side or
the other, but if the water is pressed out slowly the material adheres
better or gets a good “bond,” so that it will not slip.

After the press has run until the cakes are about one-half of their
original thickness spray with hot water, thoroughly washing off the
sides of the press, turn on more pressure until this reaches about
300 tons on a 5 × 5 foot plate. It will be found that it is the last
pressing which brings out the grease.

Where tankage is properly handled it should run from six to eight per
cent of residual grease on a dry basis. Where improperly handled it
will oftentimes run from eighteen to twenty per cent, the excess being
lard or tallow which should have been saved, but worthless if left in
tankage.


=Treatment of Lard and Tallow.=--As the oils are being withdrawn from
the rendering tanks the same should be passed through a small over-flow
type of catch tank arranged so that the oils pass through a straining
system to remove fibre or floaters. From the above basin the oils
should be passed to the receivers or coolers preparatory to settling.

In the judgment of the writer these tanks should preferably be in
a department or room separated from the rendering department, to
avoid possibility of contact and absorbing odors. The receivers or
reservoirs should be circular in form with a coil of heating pipe
arranged, supported from the sides of the kettles. The pipe should be
sufficiently spread to allow perfect cleaning.

The cones on the bottom should be at an angle of 45° so as to collect
the sediment, water or scrap that may deposit in small volume. The
scrap should be settled out and removed daily. Tallow and lard should
be allowed to cool to a tiercing temperature and kept in as large
volume as conditions permit, so as to obtain uniformity in cooler.

In case of lard, killing and cutting lard should be intimately mixed in
equal proportions if possible.


=Titer in Tallow and Lard.=--Titer in tallow, frequently referred to,
is a relative test of hardness. The test was originally devised for
the use of candle makers who wanted an oil containing the largest
percentage of stearic acid. Stearic acid has a hardness of about 55°
Centigrade. The hardness of other substances is relative to this as
follows: commercial oleo stearine, about 50.5° C.; tallow, 41° to 43°
C.; No. 2 tallow or grease, 39° to 43° C.; P. S. lard, 35.5° to 37° C.
Every trimming in the animal has a different hardness; the thinner the
cattle, the harder the tallow. Bone fat or marrow is very soft. Animals
of different feeding show varying hardness, so there is no method of
manufacture that will vary the hardness content of product other than
selection. In a general way, cattle ruffle, caul, or that used usually
in oleo melting is relatively hard. For example, oleo stock will
analyze as hard as 46° C., while the tallow from the same house will
analyze 43° C.

This hardness is determined in the chemical laboratory as follows: The
fat is melted and 25 cubic centimeters are drawn and mixed with 20 C.
C. wood alcohol, 10 C. C. of 50° Baume caustic soda solution and the
contents boiled until completely saponified. The alcohol is evaporated
by drying. The residue is ground and boiled with an excess of diluted
sulphuric acid until all the soap has been changed to fatty acid and
the clear oil floats. The water in the vessel is drawn from below the
fat, and the fatty acids collected in a glass vessel, which are allowed
to stand on steam coils until the oily stratum is clearly defined.
The fatty acids are placed in an observation room and the point of
solidification observed. The result is the titer, which is the degree
Centigrade at which the fatty acid from an oil or stearine solidifies
after being melted.

The other item of consequence in tallow analysis is the rancidity,
known as the free fatty acid. This should be kept low and is usually
variable with the care given the product. No. 1 tallow, for example,
should show under two per cent of low grade greases, and will run as
high as twenty per cent.


=Steam for Cooking.=--A question frequently asked is the quantity of
steam required to cook a tank. An accurate test conducted on a mixed
tank of pork products, killing and cutting stock, under standard
conditions showed thus:

  Weight of Raw Stock                        12,266
  Water filled in Tank                        9,634
                                             ------
                                             21,900
  After Cooking:--
    Lard                              6,040
    Skimmings                           479
    Water Tankage                    19,360
                                             25,879
                                     --------------
  Accumulation-Steam Condensed                3,979
  Steam per 1,000 pounds, Raw Stock             324 lbs.


=Cooking Test and Expense.=--The following test on the cost for cooking
was made on killing and cutting lard--very large digesters--and from
it valuable deductions can be made. Expert opinion has pronounced test
_No. 1_ and test _No. 3_ as producing comparatively the best results in
manufacture.

KILLING AND CUTTING STOCK

        _Product_       No. 1        No. 2        No. 3        No. 4
  Weight raw product  41,572 lbs.  41,236 lbs.  48,491 lbs.  41,322 lbs.
  Under pressure       12¹⁄₄ hrs.       11 hrs.     11 hrs.      11 hrs.
  Yield P. S. lard    32,665 lbs.  32,880 lbs.  24,525 lbs.  21,920 lbs.

        _Boilers_
  Water evaporation
  while cooking       35,460 lbs.  24,420 lbs.  36,800 lbs.  23,990 lbs.
  Reduced to coal on
  6 to 1 evap.         5,910 lbs.   4,070 lbs.   6,134 lbs.   3,986 lbs.
  Boiler pressure
  average               57.6 lbs.    62.8 lbs.    51.6 lbs.      50 lbs.
  Tank pressure
  average               40.2 lbs.    40.5 lbs.    34.5 lbs.    32.5 lbs.

        _Results_
  Cost fuel at $1.36
  per ton              $4.02       $2.77         $4.17        $2.71
  Steam, per 1,000
  lbs. raw product       853 lbs.    593 lbs.      759 lbs.     579 lbs.
  Fuel, per 1,000
  lbs. raw product       142 lbs.     99 lbs.      126 lbs.    98.5 lbs.
  Cost fuel, 1,000
  lbs. raw product     $.097       $.067         $.086        $.065
                       Clear       Snowy         Clear        Clear
  Temperature          32 to 34    34 to 35      22 to 38     13 to 18

  _Remarks on Cooking:_

  No. 1 Test Cooked with three waters, boiled two hours before heading.

  No. 2 Test Cooked with one water, tank filled before heading.

  No. 3 Test Cooked with two waters, boiled two hours before heading.

  No. 4 Test Cooked with one water, tank filled before heading.


=Tests.=--Innumerable tank house tests are made. The following few are
submitted for quick reference, giving an idea as to yields of various
kinds of products:

TEST ON CONDEMNED HOGS--YIELD OF GREASE.

  Condemned hogs to tank  954 lbs.
  Yield of white grease   467 lbs.   48.95%
  Yield pressed tankage   173 lbs.   18.13%
  Yield dry tankage        86 lbs.    9.01%
  On the above the leaf lard was left in and heads off.

COMPARATIVE TEST OF SHEEP HEADS AND JAWS TO TANK AND BONE HOUSE.

  325 sheep heads and jaws (cheeks
  off) to tank                          765 lbs.
  Yield to tallow                        73 lbs. @ $ 0.06 per lb.  $4.38
  Yield dried tankage                   150 lbs. @  19.00 per ton   1.42
    Total value                                                    $5.80
  Value, per head, $0.0178; tallow, 9.54%; dried tankage, 19.47%.

  325 sheep heads and jaws (cheeks
  off) to bone house                    765 lbs.
  Yield to tallow                        51 lbs. @ $ 0.07 per lb.  $3.57
  Yield dried bones                     177 lbs. @  18.00 per ton   1.59
    Total value                                                    $5.16
  Value, per head, $0.0159; tallow, 6.66%; dried bones, 23.14%.

TEST ON TRIPE TRIMMINGS.

  Green weight to tank    1,206 lbs.
  Yield prime tallow        356 lbs.  29.52%
  Yield tankage              53 lbs.   4.39%

TEST ON CONDEMNED LIVERS.

  Green weight to tank    1,010 lbs.
  Yield No. 2 tallow         42 lbs.   4.16%
  Yield pressed tankage     206 lbs.  20.38%
  Yield dry tankage         103 lbs.  10.19%

TEST ON CATTLE PECKS TO TANK.

  Green weight to tank    1,306 lbs.
  Yield No. 2 tallow         16 lbs.   1.22%
  Yield tankage              95 lbs.   7.27%

TEST ON CATTLE PAUNCHES TO TANK.

  Green weight to tank    1,056 lbs.
  Yield prime tallow         94 lbs.   8.90%
  Yield pressed tankage     106 lbs.  10.04%
  Yield finished tankage     53 lbs.   5.02%

TEST ON HOG STOMACHS TO TANK, UNTRIMMED.

Killed, 240 pigs and 836 hogs, a total of 1,076.

  Green weight to tank    2,845 lbs.
  Yield prime steam lard  1,275 lbs.  44.81%
  Yield finished tankage    188 lbs.   6.60%

TEST ON WINDPIPES TO TANK.

  Green weight to tank      880 lbs.
  Yield No. 1 tallow        141 lbs.  16.00%
  Yield tankage              33 lbs.   3.75%

TEST ON SHEEP PAUNCHES AND PLUCKS TO TANK.

(Trimmings from sheep house.)

  Green weight to tank    1,150 lbs.
  Yield No. 1 tallow        105 lbs.   9.13%
  Yield pressed tankage      89 lbs.   7.73%
  Yield dry tankage          45 lbs.   3.86%

TEST ON SHEEP (OFFAL).

  Green weight to tanks  28,680 lbs.
  Yield tallow No. 1      4,538 lbs.  2.28 lbs. per head
  Yield tallow No. 2        730 lbs.   .37 lbs. per head
  Yield tankage           2,893 lbs.  1.46 lbs. per head

TEST ON NECK TRIMMINGS FROM KILLING FLOOR.

  Green weight to tanks     880 lbs.
  Yield No. 1 tallow        397 lbs.  45.11%
  Yield dry tankage          49 lbs.   5.56%

TEST ON SHEEP FEET TO TANK.

  Green weight to tank    1,170 lbs.
  Yield No. 2 tallow         40 lbs.   3.42%
  Yield dry tankage         148 lbs.  12.65%


=Operating Odorless.=--The question is frequently asked if rendering
departments can be operated odorless. They can be operated so as not to
become a nuisance. To do this requires:

(1) Ample tanks with no neglect about promptly rendering all products
and reducing them to lard, tallow or dry fertilizer.

(2) Collecting and evaporating all tank waters.

(3) Drying of tankage done under vacuum or otherwise controlling odors.

(4) Catch basins under cover, skimmed frequently and contents cooked
promptly.

(5) The rendering department kept tightly closed and department
operated with forced draft, all discharged air passed through large
water-wash, and the introduction into the air of gas boiled from tar
oil.

(6) All tank exhaust and vapors connected to a piping system, the steam
condensed by water spray, and the vapor collected and passed under
furnaces of boilers.

(7) Keep everything hot, allow nothing to lay around and sour.


=Catch Basin.=--Every packing house needs an adequate catch basin
system. Local basins established in departments near to points where
products are handled, serve to collect many fats and oils that, by
clean handling, are edible products, and can be used as such.

Where melted fats are produced cold water sprays should be introduced
to coagulate the oils. Wiers for over and under-flow should be put in
to retard flow and submerge particles so they may harden and float. A
large general basin should be introduced so that all outflowing sewers
can be passed to them, to the end that all water flows slowly through
the basin to catch any and all particles of floating fats or meats.

The basins should be placed under the care and jurisdiction of one
person, who should see that they are kept clean and frequently skimmed.
It is to good purpose to place them under roof so they will have
attention at all times.




CHAPTER XV.

TANK WATER.


  SOIL FERTILITY -- ANIMAL FEEDING -- TANK WATER -- SEPARATION OF
  SOLIDS -- COLLECTING GREASE -- TESTING TANK WATER -- EVAPORATING TANK
  WATER -- DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS -- CLEANING EVAPORATORS -- TABLE OF
  BOILING POINTS -- TESTING STICK -- COPPERAS IN WATER TO EVAPORATE --
  SOLIDS IN WATER -- DRYING STICK -- VALUE OF TANKAGE -- QUANTITY OF
  TANK WATER -- COST OF EVAPORATING.


=Soil Fertility.=--The constant drain on the soil by raising of grain;
feeding animals and sending them away for slaughter, and the non-return
of the nitrogen element has made great inroads on the productivity
of soil. Through volume after volume and in every manner possible,
economic writers are impressing this upon the agricultural interests
and advocating the making up of such deficit by rotating crops, turning
under legume and plants that might extract nitrogen from the air by the
processes of nature which daily are becoming more familiar to every
one. Value and demand for the nitrogenous elements for this purpose has
caused the packer to exercise all possible care to produce and conserve
for sale any and all nitrogenous products.


=Animal Feeding.=--Experiment has also shown that nitrogenous products
have a very high value as a nutritive food for growing and fattening
animals, so much so in fact, that in many agricultural districts the
entire output of tankage from local packing houses is now sold in the
immediate neighborhood for stock foods. Under various names evaporated
tank water is an ingredient of these.


=Tank Water.=--Invisible but in considerable quantity, nitrogenous
solids were formerly lost in the various waters from cooking, but
they are now collected and reduced to a semi-solid, or solid form.
These are classified under the one broad name of tank water, but they
include almost any water in which animal matter is cooked unless the
water be of such character that it can be used for edible purposes. The
chief sources of supply are rendering tank water, blood water, bone
house cooking water, ham and tripe boiling water, etc. It is estimated
that any water showing density of ¹⁄₂° Beaume scale is worthy of
concentration.


_Keeping Water Concentrated._--Evidently the more dilute the water,
the more water it is necessary to evaporate, and hence more costly to
concentrate. In raising the tanks so as to flow the oil from the tank
cocks, it is necessary at times to admit fresh water. To avoid this
the water from one tank is usually transferred to another of the same
character by use of a pump.


_Collection of Waters._--After the tankage has been dumped into the
skimming box and all grease skimmed off, the tank water should be drawn
into a separate vat. The “press water,” which is the water from the
pressing of the tankage, should also be collected. The floor drainage
except from the tank filling floor, and practically all water produced
in the tank house, should be collected; in fact, some operators go to
the extreme of not connecting the tank house sewer system to the city
sewer so as to intentionally preclude the wasting of water.


=Preparation of Solids.=--The tank water is collected in large vats for
processing. The solids or sludge is undesirable to handle, consequently
in draining the tank water from the surface vats into the storage,
it is necessary to have the holes of the screens in the surface vats
reduced to about one-quarter of an inch in size in order that all of
the solids will be retained in the surface vats and not be permitted to
go into the tank water catch basins.

The tank water storage vats should be equal to a day’s capacity and
should be filled in rotation in order that agitation will be going on
only in the vat being filled or the vat being emptied, and that the
water in the balance of the storage vats will be permitted to be held
under a settling process in the meantime, which is as follows: Heat
the water to a temperature of 180° to 185° F., and then allow it to
drop down to 170° F., carrying it at this temperature from eight to
twenty-four hours, according to the length of time it is possible to
carry the water for settling purposes, up to 36 hours is an advantage.


=Collecting Grease.=--In the surface boxes spoken of in preceding
chapter, it is very essential to agitate the tankage in the surface
vats and keep it under steam long enough for some of the grease to rise
to the top of the surface boxes and be skimmed off before the tank
water is run into the storage vats. Skim the grease very carefully from
the top of the water in any vat that is to be used for evaporation;
then pump the water to the evaporator supply tank. After the water is
pumped out of the basin, it will be necessary to remove the bottom of
settlings each time after the tank is emptied.


=Settlings in Bottom of Vat.=--Pump the bottoms from the holding tanks
into a surface box from which these settings are passed on to the press
cheeses with pressed tankage, so that the fibrous material will collect
the sludge. It is absolutely necessary that these settlings be taken
out of the storage vats each time the vats are emptied in order to keep
them sweet and to prevent the tank water from souring as it certainly
will, unless cleaned at least twice a week. It is much better to clean
them every time.


=Testing Tank Water.=--Tank water is tested with a standard hydrometer
for liquids heavier than water, and as stated previously, any water
indicating ¹⁄₂° on the Beaume scale, is collected.

A sample of the tank water is cooled to 150° F. Drop a hydrometer
into the water and take reading at a point on a level with the
water; a hydrometer reading from 1 to 20, is used for this purpose.
If hydrometer reads 2.00, the amount of the solids in the water is
estimated at 3.83 per cent as shown on the table for figuring tank
water. If the hydrometer should read 2.50, the estimated solids is
one-half of the difference between solids shown on table at 2° Beaume
and 3° Beaume added to solids at 2° Beaume which is 4.80 per cent.


=Evaporating Tank Water.=--The evaporating of tank water, it is
proposed to do in the most economical manner possible, and advantage
is taken of the fact that as the pressure is lowered the boiling point
is reduced. For example, water at atmospheric pressure and sea level
boils at 212° F., and water under a twenty-eight inch vacuum boils at
100° F. Advantage is taken of these physical facts in the evaporating
of tank water.

There are a number of types of evaporators using the same principle,
although we show one only, that which is most extensively used, the
well-known Swenson machine. This apparatus consists of one, two or
three cells, dependent upon the economy it is wanted to attain.

[Illustration: FIG. 73.--SWENSON EVAPORATOR.]


=Descriptive of the Apparatus.=--The cells are numbered _1_, _2_ and
_3_, beginning at the left. The rectangular box at the bottom of each
cell consists of a cast iron false head or chamber at either end, in
which copper flues are expanded. Steam is introduced into the chamber
of _No. 1_, and the tubes surrounded with tank water. The steam in the
coils causes the water to boil and the steam boiled off is passed to
the steam chamber of the second cell. The tank water in cell _No. 1_
by this boiling is condensed and is passed to cell _No. 2_, where a
further boiling takes place, and the concentrated liquid is passed to
cell _No. 3_ for its last boiling.

The auxiliary pumps shown are for transfer purposes from cell to cell,
and for pumping the condensate from the steam chambers.


_Vacuum._--The large pump at the right hand is the vacuum pump. The
vapor withdrawn from cell _No. 3_ by the withdrawal action of the
pump is condensed by the introduction of cold water in the conical
enlargement shown. This condensation produces a partial vacuum, the
customary gauge measurement showing 23 to 27 inches, dependent upon
the quantity and temperature of the water. This vacuum continues in
a lesser degree to the second cell, thence to the first and where
the vacuum usually maintained is six inches. By reference to the
table of boiling points the comparative temperature in each cell is
ascertainable.


=Cleaning the Evaporators.=--Evaporators to be effective must be clean,
on the same principle as cleaning boilers produce best results. At
regular intervals, say, fortnightly, they should be boiled out with a
solution of 75 lbs. caustic soda in 1500 gallons of water. This will
clean the flues and maintain the machine output.

TABLE OF BOILING POINTS.

  29 inch vacuum   79.07° Fahr.
  28 inch vacuum  101.15  Fahr.
  27 inch vacuum  115.06  Fahr.
  26 inch vacuum  125.38  Fahr.
  25 inch vacuum  133.77  Fahr.
  24 inch vacuum  140.64  Fahr.
  23 inch vacuum  146.78  Fahr.
  22 inch vacuum  152.16  Fahr.
  21 inch vacuum  157.00  Fahr.
  20 inch vacuum  161.42  Fahr.
  19 inch vacuum  165.42  Fahr.
  18 inch vacuum  169.14  Fahr.
  17 inch vacuum  172.63  Fahr.
  16 inch vacuum  175.93  Fahr.
  15 inch vacuum  179.03  Fahr.
  14 inch vacuum  181.92  Fahr.
  13 inch vacuum  184.68  Fahr.
  12 inch vacuum  187.31  Fahr.
  11 inch vacuum  189.83  Fahr.
  10 inch vacuum  192.43  Fahr.
   5 inch vacuum  202.92  Fahr.
   1 inch vacuum  212     Fahr.


=Storing Stick.=--The residue from the evaporators or the “Stick” as it
is now called, should be pumped into a receptacle fitted with closed
steam coils. The tank water vats are similarly fitted.


=Testing Stick.=--Stick is tested the same as tank water, excepting a
hydrometer graduated from 20° to 40° is used. It is usual to evaporate
to a density of 29° Beaume, which is 64.61 per cent dry solid. To
calculate the quantity of concentrated or dry stick containing 4 per
cent moisture produced from 29° Beaume stick, multiply the number of
gallons of stick by 10.27 lbs. to get weight of 29° Beaume stick; then
take 64.61 per cent of this weight, which is weight of dry solids, then
add 4 per cent moisture to this amount by dividing the weight of dry
solids by .96; the result is weight of concentrated tankage containing
4 per cent moisture.


=Copperas.=--This is usually “sulphate of iron” of commerce, although
some institutions make their supply thus: Using a lead-lined vat
holding about 200 gallons; into this put about 160 gallons of 60-degree
sulphuric acid, adding water enough to make the solution about 12°
Beaume. Into this solution place scrap iron of any description and
allow it to stand until the solution will dissolve no more iron.
Pump the solution into a shallow lead-lined vat with lead coils, and
evaporate to about 40° degrees Beaume. It is next drawn off into
barrels of fifty gallons each and to each barrel add forty pounds of
black oxide of manganese and thoroughly mix.


=Copperas in Water to Evaporate.=--An early practice and one which had
the merit of fixing free ammonia before it passes off in a gaseous form
was the introduction of copperas in tank water, while settling, and
before evaporation. The vats of tank water are tested with a Beaume
hydrometer and for every 2,000 gallons of tank water at indicated
degree, Beaume, ordinary commercial copperas should be added as follows:

  Water testing 5°    Baume  166 lbs. dry copperas
  Water testing 4¹⁄₂° Baume  150 lbs. dry copperas
  Water testing 4°    Baume  133 lbs. dry copperas
  Water testing 3¹⁄₂° Baume  117 lbs. dry copperas
  Water testing 3°    Baume  100 lbs. dry copperas

These varying amounts of copperas are put into a barrel of hot water
and thoroughly stirred until dissolved. The solution is then poured
into a vat of tank water, the mass allowed to stand six or eight
hours, and then skimmed off before being pumped to the evaporating
machine.


=Solids in Water.=--The percentage of solids and liquids, as well as
the respective weights in tank water at different degrees Beaume, are
shown in the following table:

TABLE FOR TANK WATER.

  =======+======+=====+======+======
         |      |     |Weight|
         | Per  | Per |  of  |Weight
  Degrees| cent | cent| cubic|  of
   Baume |solids|water| foot |gallon
  -------+------+-----+------+------
     1   |  1.90|98.10| 62.14|  8.30
     2   |  3.83|96.17| 62.46|  8.34
     3   |  5.77|94.23| 62.79|  8.39
     4   |  7.77|92.23| 63.11|  8.43
     5   |  9.85|90.15| 63.43|  8.47
     6   | 11.93|88.07| 63.91|  8.54
     7   | 14.04|85.96| 64.41|  8.60
     8   | 16.19|83.81| 64.89|  8.67
     9   | 18.38|81.62| 65.38|  8.73
    10   | 20.60|79.40| 65.81|  8.80
    11   | 22.71|77.29| 66.39|  8.87
    12   | 24.84|75.16| 66.92|  8.94
    13   | 26.97|73.03| 67.44|  9.01
    14   | 29.11|70.89| 67.97|  9.08
    15   | 31.27|68.73| 68.49|  9.15
    16   | 33.55|66.45| 69.05|  9.23
    17   | 35.88|64.12| 69.61|  9.30
    18   | 38.22|61.78| 70.17|  9.37
    19   | 40.59|59.41| 70.72|  9.45
    20   | 42.98|57.02| 71.28|  9.52
    21   | 45.11|54.89| 71.89|  9.60
    22   | 47.24|52.76| 72.79|  9.68
    23   | 49.37|50.63| 73.09|  9.77
    24   | 51.50|48.50| 73.70|  9.85
    25   | 53.63|46.37| 74.30|  9.93
    26   | 56.31|43.69| 74.95| 10.01
    27   | 59.04|40.96| 75.60| 10.10
    28   | 61.80|38.20| 76.25| 10.19
    29   | 64.61|35.39| 76.90| 10.27
    30   | 67.54|32.46| 77.55| 10.36
    31   | 70.34|29.66| 78.35| 10.46
    32   | 73.27|26.73| 78.94| 10.55
    33   | 76.24|23.76| 79.64| 10.64
    34   | 79.25|20.75| 80.33| 10.73
    35   | 83.21|17.79| 81.00| 10.83
  -------+------+-----+------+------


=Drying 29° Beaume Stick.=--This is done in two ways, by the use of
drying rolls and by mixing with drying tankage in a rotary dryer.
When drying stick over the rolls, evaporate it in the evaporators to
26° Beaume and mix with this 26° Beaume stick, about 17 per cent of
copperas before putting the mixture over the rolls. This has a tendency
to prevent the concentrated tankage from absorbing moisture when in
storage. Many operators dry stick without the use of copperas, but the
copperas prevents in a measure the stick absorbing moisture from the
air.


_Stick Rolls._--Fig. 74 shows a standard twin stick roll. This
equipment is made of two cast iron rolls built when new to sustain
50 lbs. pressure. The stick is deposited in a pan beneath and the
revolving roll collects a film of substance which is dried as the roll
revolves and is sliced from the surface of the roll by a close fitting
scraper, being removed in a powdered form.

[Illustration: FIG. 74.--STANDARD TWIN STICK ROLL.]


_Drying with Tankage._--The practice now generally adopted is the
mixing of the stick with tankage and drying in the standard fertilizer
dryer, using a fifteen foot dryer with stationary shell and revolving
shaft, with arms cylindrical type, usually known as the “Smith” dryer.
The usual charge is 4,000 lbs. pressed tankage and 1,200 lbs. stick,
agitating while the stick is being admitted so as to assist in equal
mixing. The stick should be at a temperature of 190° F., or near
thereto when used. The heated substance seems to produce less tailings,
or small balls requiring milling.


=Value of Tankage.=--To appreciate the value of the substances to be
collected in this manner, we refer to copy of test, made by an expert,
on a plant handling about 5,000 cattle and 5,000 hogs per week, as
follows:

ESTIMATE OF THE PRODUCTION AND VALUE OF TANKAGE MADE BY EVAPORATING
TANK WATER.

TEST FOR AMOUNT OF WATER DRAINED OFF VATS BEFORE PULLING TANKAGE.

  =======+=======================================+=======+=======
         |                                       |       |  Av.
  Tank   |                 Product               |Gallons|gallons
  -------+---------------------------------------+-------+-------
  No.  1 |Prime tallow (cutting room bones, etc.)| 1,445 |
  No.  1 |Prime tallow (cutting room bones, etc.)| 1,734 | 1,589
         |                                       +-------+
  No.  2 |Prime tallow (bed fat, etc.)           | 1,645 |
  No.  2 |Prime tallow (bed fat, etc.)           | 1,365 |
  No.  3 |Prime tallow (bed fat, etc.)           | 1,426 |
  No.  3 |Prime tallow (bed fat, etc.)           | 1,827 | 1,566
         |                                       +-------+
  No.  4 |No. 2 tallow (catch basin stuff)       |   668 |
  No.  6 |Pluck tank                             |   905 |
  No.  9 |Pluck tank                             |   562 |
  No. 10 |Pluck tank                             |   624 |
  No. 10 |Pluck tank                             |   847 |   735
         |                                       +-------+
  No. 11 |Prime steam lard                       | 1,382 |
  No. 11 |Prime steam lard                       | 1,248 | 1,315
         |                                       +-------+
  -------+---------------------------------------+-------+-------

TOTAL NUMBER OF TIMES TANKS FILLED AND COOKED.

                                         No.
          Product.                      Tanks
  Prime tallow with cutting room bones     6
  Prime tallow with bed fat, etc.         10
  No. 2 tallow                             6
  Pluck tanks                             13
  Prime steam lard                         6
                                          --
    Total                                 41

BASIS FOR ESTIMATE OF PRODUCTION.

  ======+========+========+========+======+========+=======
        | Average| Total  | Solids |Total |        | Units
  No. of|contents|contents|per gal.|solids|Per cent|  of
   Tanks|  gals. |  gals. |  lbs.  | lbs. |Ammonia |Ammonia
  ------+--------+--------+--------+------+--------+-------
     6  |  1,589 |  9,534 | 0.88   | 8,390|  16.76 | 1,406
    10  |  1,566 | 15,660 | 1.03   |16,130|  16.89 | 2,724
     6  |    668 |  4,008 |  .399  | 1,599|  14.59 |   233
    13  |    735 |  9,555 |  .763  | 7,290|  16.85 | 1,228
     6  |  1,315 |  7,890 |  .0481 |   380|  16.00 |    61
  ------+--------+--------+--------+------+--------+-------
        |   ...  | 46,647 |  ...   |33,789|  16.73 | 5,652
  ------+--------+--------+--------+------+--------+-------

  Total units of ammonia per tank, 5,652. Average units of ammonia per
  tank, 16.73. 8 per cent of moisture, dry basis.

This production at $1.66 per unit would be worth $27.77 per ton, or the
yearly production would bring $24,396.32.

Figuring the production of tankage to be 66,000 pounds per week and
that with this could be mixed through the dryer 600 pounds or 107.3
gallons of stick, 25° Beaume with each ton of dry tankage--then 33 ×
600 pounds, or 19,800 pounds, would be the limit of production from the
tank water.

The regular tankage runs on an average of 10 per cent ammonia and 16.4
bone phosphate, and as shown above the production from the tank water
with 8 per cent moisture would run 16.73 per cent ammonia. The product
would therefore consist of the following:

  =====================+======+========+=======+=========+=========
                       |Weight|Per cent| Units |Per cent |  Units
       Materials       |pounds|Ammonia |Ammonia|Phosphate|Phosphate
  ---------------------+------+--------+-------+---------+---------
  Regular tankage      |66,000| 10.00  | 6,600 |  16.4   | 10,824
  Evaporated tank water|19,800| 16.73  | 3,312 |   ...   |  ...
  ---------------------+------+--------+-------+---------+---------
    Total production   |85,800|  ...   | 9,912 |   ...   | 10,824
  ---------------------+------+--------+-------+---------+---------
  Analysis, ammonia 11.55%, bone phosphate 12.62%
  Value per ton $19.93, or for the yearly production, $44,459.84.

Should there be added worthless material sufficient to reduce the
percentage of ammonia to 10, the following formula would apply:

  =====================+======+========+=======+=========+=========
                       |Weight|Per cent| Units |Per cent |  Units
       Materials       |pounds|Ammonia |Ammonia|Phosphate|Phosphate
  ---------------------+------+--------+-------+---------+---------
  Regular tankage      |66,000| 10.00  | 6,600 |  16.4   | 10,824
  Evaporated tank water|19,800| 16.73  | 3,312 |   ...   |  ...
  Worthless material   |13,320|  ...   |  ...  |   ...   |  ...
  ---------------------+------+--------+-------+---------+---------
    Total production   |99,120|  ...   | 9,912 |   ...   | 10,824
  ---------------------+------+--------+-------+---------+---------
  Analysis, ammonia 10%; bone phosphate 10.92%.
  Value per ton $17.25¹⁄₂, or for yearly production $44,468.32

RECAPITULATION.

  Value of total production for one year                      $44,468.32
  Value of tankage for one year                   $30,030.00
  6 per cent interest on $10,000 investment           600.00
  15 per cent depreciation on $10,000 investment    1,500.00
  Additional labor, five men, “full time”           2,340.00   34,470.00
                                                  ----------------------
      Net profit on investment                                $ 9,998.32


=Quantity of Tank Water Produced.=--This is variable, depending upon
closeness of saving and density; also quantity of solid substance
measured, and other items, but generally speaking from cattle
slaughtered--ten gallons per head, and from pigs two and one-half
gallons per head are collected.


=Expense of Evaporating Stick.=--The following test shows the cost of
producing stick through evaporators. The cost at the present time would
be 100% higher owing to coal costs:

COST OF EVAPORATING TANK WATER.

                              Duration of Test      9 hours   8¹⁄₂ hours
  Average Steam Pressure--_1st effect_              5.1 lbs.    5.1 lbs.
  Average Vacuum--_1st effect_                     11.4 lbs.   11.9 lbs.
  Average Vacuum--_2nd effect_                     19.0 lbs.   18.6 lbs.
  Average Vacuum--_3rd effect_                     27.7 lbs.   27.4 lbs.
  Density of Tank Water at 150°                     3¹⁄₂° B.   2¹⁄₂° B.
  Average Temperature of Tank Water               203°        199°
  Gallons Tank Water Fed                       11,476       9,625
  Gallons Tank Water Fed Per Hour               1,275       1,132
  Gallons Tank Water Fed Per Hour               1,338       1,220
  Gallons Stick Produced                        1,092.75      907
  Density Stick at 150°                            30° B.      28¹⁄₂° B.
  Pounds Stick Produced (10.205 lbs. and
  10.08 lbs. per gal.)                         11,151       9,142
  Pounds Water Evaporated                      83,066      69,748
  Pounds Steam Used--_1st effect_              17,712      18,509
  Pounds Steam Used--Pumps                     11,210      10,972
                                               ------      ------
  Pounds Steam Used--Total                     28,922      29,481

  Pounds Steam Used per 100 lbs. Stick--_1st
  effect_                                         159         202
  Pounds Steam Used per 100 lbs. Stick--Pumps     100         120
                                                  ---         ---
  Pounds Steam Used per 100 lbs. Stick--Total     259         322

  Cost Steam Used per 100 lbs. Stick--_1st
  effect_ at $.132 per 1,000 lbs.               $.021       $.027
  Cost Steam Used per 100 lbs. Stick--Pumps      .013        .016
                                                 ----       -----
  Cost Steam Used per 100 lbs. Stick--Total      .034        .043

  Pounds Steam Used per 100 lbs. Stick--Water
  evaporated--_1st effect_                       21.3        26.6
  Pounds Steam Used per 100 lbs. Stick--Pumps    13.5        42.3
                                                 ----        ----
  Pounds Steam Used per 100 lbs. Stick--Total    34.8        42.3

  Cost Steam Used per 100 lbs. Stick, Water
  evaporated--_1st effect_                      .0028       .0035
  Cost Steam Used per 100 lbs. Stick, Water
  evaporated--Pumps                             .0018       .0021
                                                -----       -----
  Cost Steam Used per 100 lbs. Stick, Water
  evaporated--Total                             .0046       .0056

  NOTE: The equivalent gallons concentrated from 10% to 70% solids are
  calculated from a table and not from analysis of the tank water and
  stick; therefore, are only approximately correct.

  The steam cost at $0.132 per 1,000 pounds is far below present
  average conditions.


=Quantity Stick Produced.=--The quantity of stick it is possible to
produce is indicated in the following table:

ANNUAL PRODUCTION TANK WATER AND STICK.

  ======================================================
                       Basis for             Approximate
    Killing          Approximation              Head
  ------------------------------------------------------
  Cattle          208,304  1    to 1           208,304
  Calves           36,474  7¹⁄₂ to 1             4,863
  Sheep           416,325  7¹⁄₂ to 1            55,510
  Packer Hogs     496,219  2¹⁄₂ to 1           231,569
  Shipper Hogs     45,094  5    to 1             9,019
                                               -------
    Total approximate killing                  509,265

  Gallons tank water saved                   4,912,484
  Gallons tank water per approximate head         9.64
  Pounds of Stick made                       2,766,648
  Pounds of Stick made per approximate head       5.43

The relative quantity of Stick to dried fertilizer produced is about
40%, but the stick is more valuable due to its higher ammonia content
and the mixture of the stick with the standard fertilizer increases the
value per ton of the fertilizer.




CHAPTER XVI.

FERTILIZER.


  FERTILIZER -- BLOOD -- RECEIVING TANK -- COOKING -- PRESSING --
  PURITY -- STORING -- QUICK HANDLING -- TANKAGE -- QUOTATIONS AND
  VALUE -- GREASE -- INFLUENCE OF STICK -- DIGESTER TANKAGE -- SLIME --
  DRYERS -- DRYING -- EXPENSE FOR DRYING -- COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER --
  STATE REGULATIONS -- MIXING MATERIALS -- CONVERSION FACTORS.


=Fertilizer.=--In this department we discuss the manipulation of the
products after leaving the tanking process in the case of tankage, and
of blood, beginning with its release from the animal.


=Blood.=--The sources of the collection of blood are from animals
slaughtered, viz: cattle, sheep, calves and pigs. In nearly every
instance this is collected at a given point near the sticking rails and
transferred to the fertilizer department for processing.

It is rather difficult to pump blood, although it can be readily
done with a ball valve pump, or a centrifugal pump. The latter is
satisfactory if foreign substances can be kept out, and if the
reservoir can be situated high enough so that the blood can gravitate
to the suction of the pump. Mechanical agitation is a benefit in
the receivers. A very satisfactory way to handle blood is by means
of a blow tank. This is a tight, heavily constructed cylinder with
an admittance valve on the inlet pipe, and a closing valve on the
discharge pipe; the latter preferably a quick opening valve. A means
for admitting air or steam to the blood is arranged. To operate, the
valve on the inlet line as well as the outlet valve is closed, and air
or steam pressure is built up as required for the lift. The outlet
valve is then quickly opened when the contents of the tank is virtually
“shot” to the receiving tanks.


=Receiving Tank.=--This is preferably a closed type of tank with an air
vent to allow displacement of air when blowing blood. It is preferably
situated above the cook tank with an admittance valve between them so
that blood can be lowered to the cooking tank at will.


=Cooking.=--Blood should be “_baked_,” not boiled. By this is meant,
the steam should be admitted slowly and the heat dispersed through the
mass rather than boiled violently, by admitting high pressure steam.
The blood, by this method, seems to coagulate in larger grains, and,
in pressing, a larger proportion is retained in the cloths, while the
serum or white water draining away is of a lighter color, with the net
result that the yield of blood is better.


=Pressing.=--The pressing is performed in the same manner as described
for tankage, except that the material is handled dry. The waters from
cooking, as well as from pressing, are saved for evaporation as tank
water. Blood when pressed properly is “caked.” It should be broken up
before being passed to the dryers.


=Purity.=--Means should be provided and arrangements made to keep
all raw or fluid blood free from water and manure. Frequently cattle
that are hay or grass fed, have a draining from the stomach via the
mouth when hung, and comparatively large quantities of undigested food
are spilled. This should be collected before the animal is stuck and
prevented from mixing with the blood.


=Storing.=--After drying, blood should be cooled and stored in piles on
the floor in dry rooms to be put in bags at the time of shipment. It
is usually unnecessary to grind or screen it. It should be dried to 8%
moisture.


=Quick Handling.=--Blood is so highly susceptible to decay that it
should be handled quickly and with as little contact with air as
possible.


=Tankage.=--This name embodies the dried material from the residue in
the tanks after cooking in digesters, and pressing. It is classified
into several grades. Digester tankage, is usually sold for stock
foods. No. 1 tankage of commerce, has a high nitrogen content and low
percentage of bone, it is usually produced from beef tanks; No. 2
tankage is low in nitrogen or ammonia, as it is known to the lay-mind,
and high in bone. The usual comparative analysis is:

                  Blood    No. 1  No. 2
  Bone Phosphate   ...       10%    28%
  Ammonia         16-17%  10-12%   6-8%


=Quotations and Values.=--Tankage and blood is usually sold on its
value per unit of ammonia. That is to say, if blood be quoted at
$3.00 per unit of ammonia and analyzes sixteen per cent, it sells for
$48.00 per ton. Tankage may contain eleven per cent ammonia and twelve
per cent bone phosphate, quoted at $2.75 per unit, and 10c per unit
respectively, which would make the relative market $31.45 per ton.

By reference to market quotations it will be noted usually that the
lower the ammonia content, the lower the price per unit of ammonia,
consequently it behooves the maker to produce all the No. 1 tankage
possible, and this is accomplished by cooking bone as raw bone and
separately--in preference to tanking it.


=Grease.=--Grease in fertilizers or dried tankage is a positive
detriment. It is useless and valueless, consequently the point to be
striven for is to lower the percentage of grease to the minimum. The
best methods known are described under tanking. Some packers doing
business on a large scale have “degreasing” plants where the grease
is extracted by naphtha process, but, this is a highly specialized
department and not desirable in a small plant. By careful attention the
grease can be lowered to eight per cent on dry basis analysis.


=Influence of Stick.=--The use of stick in tankage drying adds greatly
to the average ammonia content. Dried stick separately analyzed yields
15¹⁄₂ per cent ammonia, greatly increasing the value of the product in
which it is used.


=Digester Tankage.=--This is a general name for the product sold to pig
feeders for providing a nitrogenous element in their feeding. State
Agricultural Departments and packers have been conducting campaigns
for years introducing this as a feed. It is usually a No. 1 tankage
made from freshly killed material and promptly dried. It is supposed to
contain a stated protein content, which is really a multiple or unit
based upon its nitrogen content, 5.137 being the factor. Stick is used
in the digester tankage and with benefit provided it is kept sweet.

In hog producing localities practically the entire output of tankage
can be disposed of to the farmer for stock food purposes.


=Slime.=--The slime scraped from intestines in the casing department
has a high ammonia value and should be collected and cooked in a manner
similar to the method used in cooking blood.


=Drying.=--This operation consists of extracting the moisture from the
tankage by means of air which is used as a vehicle to carry away the
moisture. Various devices are employed for performing this function,
such as barometric condensers, siphon tees, pipe condensers, and fan
with air wash tower. There is some objection to all of these types, and
each operator usually has some home-made device based upon experience.
The fan is the more logical; it sweeps a large volume of air through
the dryer by withdrawing it and passing it to the wash tower. The air
carries away the moisture. To dry cheaply have a positive circulation
of air through the dryer by keeping the inlet open, the fan attached to
the air outlet connection. Single or multiple of dryers can be arranged
on one fan.


=Dryers.=--The principal apparatus in the fertilizer department is the
dryer. Of these there are several types.


_Direct Fire Dryers._--In direct fire dryers, the tankage and flame
produced by the use of oil, coke or coal, are introduced and passed
through a cylindrical rotating machine similar to a cement dryer. The
dried tankage is discharged at the opposite end from the feed, and the
gases and moisture pass through a water spray and chimney to the air.
It is practically impossible to operate a dryer of this type without
producing an offensive odor in the surrounding territory and they are
also considered hazardous from a fire standpoint.


_Smith Type._--This type of dryer is shown in the illustration (Fig.
75) and is of the steam jacketed type. The barrel is stationary with
a revolving shaft and extended arms carrying the tankage upward which
falls back through the air.


_Ord Type._--This dryer is also illustrated, Fig. 76, and is of the
same type, except that the shaft is placed vertical and the revolving
arms at right angle to the shaft device which accomplishes the same
result.

[Illustration: FIG. 75.--ILLUSTRATING THE SMITH TYPE OF DRYER.]

[Illustration: FIG. 76.--SHOWING THE ORD TYPE OF DRYER.]


=Expense for Drying.=--In a charge type of machine where batches are
placed in the machine and unit lots dried, the expense for drying
seems to be per short ton, about as follows: Labor, $1.25 to $2.00;
Dryer repairs, $0.75 to $1.25; Steam, variable. The item of steam is
quite a large factor. In a well handled equipment, properly insulated,
about ³⁄₄ of a pound of moisture can be extracted per pound of steam
condensed in the jacket, when drying tankage, and ⁶⁄₁₀ of a pound
when drying blood. The latter requires about twice as long to dry as
tankage; in other words, the output per hour of dryer operation is
about one-half.


=Commercial Fertilizer.=--Commercial Fertilizer is the name generally
applied to prepared or diluted mixtures thought to be best adapted
for use on ground or for some special crop. The standard tankage as
produced contains an ammonia content of from eight to twelve per
cent and may be short in other ingredients such as potash and acid
phosphate, which are mineral substances, usually converted to a form
readily soluble, or in condition to be assimilated. Also the ammonia
content is reduced to a moderation, the dilution being accomplished by
the use of a filler, such as pulverized dried peaty soil, which has
the advantage of carrying a certain quantity of humus or selected sand
which serves a drill nicely.


=State Regulations.=--Most states have found it desirable to protect
the purchaser by insisting that an analysis of the fertilizer be
supplied with each shipment, indicating the content, the state then
making sporadic analyses to see that it generally qualifies to the
stated contents.


=Mixing Materials.=--The mixing materials used are:

Dried Tankage.

Dried Blood.

Bone Meal.

Steam Bone.

Acid phosphates, which is phosphate rock treated with sulphuric
acid--a more or less complicated process--and which product is usually
purchased by small works.

Muriate of potash, a substance known as kainit usually produced from
mines in Germany, although some potash is being produced from sea weed
in America.


=Conversion Factors.=--The following table will be found handy for
changing the bone quantity into another term, as for example, wishing
to know the per cent of nitrogen if ammonia be expressed:

CONVERSION FACTORS

                                              Multiply by
      A                   B                 A to B    B to A
  Nitrogen            Ammonia               1.2158     .8225
  Nitrogen            Nitrate of Soda       6.0678     .1648
  Nitrogen            Nitrate of Potash     7.2170     .1386
  Nitrogen            Protein               6.2500     .1600
  Ammonia             Nitrate of Soda       4.9906     .2004
  Ammonia             Nitrate of Potash     5.9358     .1685
  Ammonia             Protein               5.1404     .1945
  Ammonia             Sulphate of Ammonia   3.8791     .2578
  Nitrate of Soda     Nitrate of Potash     1.1894     .8408
  Actual Potash       Muriate of Potash     1.5830     .6317
  Actual Potash       Sulfate of Potash     1.8500     .5405
  Actual Potash       Nitrate of Potash     2.1467     .4658
  Actual Potash       Carbonate of Potash   1.4671     .6816
  Muriate of Potash   Sulphate of Potash    1.1687     .8557
  Muriate of Potash   Carbonate of Potash    .9268    1.0790
  Phosphoric Acid     Bone Phos. of Lime    2.1850     .4577
  Carbonic Acid       Carbonate of Lime     2.2748     .4396




CHAPTER XVII.

CASINGS.


  DESCRIPTION OF BEEF CASINGS -- ROUND CASINGS, HOW MADE -- SELECTION
  OF ROUND CASINGS -- EXPORT CASINGS -- DOMESTIC ROUNDS -- BEEF MIDDLES
  -- TURNING AND SLIMING -- INSPECTION AND MEASURING -- BEEF BUNGS --
  BUNG GUT SKINS -- BEEF BLADDERS -- BEEF WEASANDS -- PACKAGES -- SALT
  -- CLEANLINESS -- WATER TEMPERATURE -- MACHINES FOR CASINGS -- HOG
  CASINGS -- SMALL CASINGS.


=Description of Beef Casings.=--Casing is a product made from the
intestines of cattle, sheep and hogs. They are saved when animals are
slaughtered in quantities sufficiently large to warrant the care and
attention required. This was one of the products which was wasted where
animals were slaughtered on a small scale. It is a product worthy of
careful attention to its production in order that it be in a good,
marketable condition.

Casings consist of round or small guts, middle or large intestines,
bungs, weasands and bladders, these being the names of casings obtained
from cattle. In the preparation of casings there are five essential
points to be considered:


_First._--Clear water and plenty of it.


_Second._--That they be handled promptly, otherwise they become
discolored and color in casings has much to do with their value.


_Third._--That too hot water is not used so as to injure them.


_Fourth._--That the pieces are long and the casings are put up free
from tearing or holes.


_Fifth._--Cleanliness and good workmanship.


=Round Casings.=--These are the small intestines and are taken from
the edge of the ruffle by cutting with a knife. The running, as this
work is termed, is skillful work and care has to be exercised to avoid
cutting. They should if possible be removed in two lengths. They are
then stripped free from contents, and the clinging fat removed either
by hand scraping or passing through a machine. It is essential that
_all_ the fat from the casing should be removed, as it is detrimental
if left on. After they have been “fatted” they are put into a vat of
water and “turned,” which process turns them wrong side out, exposing
the internal part of the intestine. They are then put through a
scraping-machine, which removes all the membrane. This operation is
sometimes done by hand. When this work is completed it is only the
muscular portion of the intestine that remains. After they are thus
finished they are inspected either by examination in passing through
the fingers or by air blowing, preferably the latter. The casings are
measured into sets of 108 to 110 feet, green length. A standard set
of rounds is supposed to measure 100 feet, but the larger measure is
allowed as in the salting and curing they shrink so that when measured,
cured, they will not exceed 100 feet. A set of rounds should not have
to exceed five holes, or consist of more than five pieces, the less the
number of either holes or pieces the more desirable.

After they are thus measured they are put in a salting box, where they
are shaken up by hand so as to make all the salt possible adhere to
them. They are then piled on an open truck or rack, so that all the
water possible will drain off. Remaining in this condition for a day
they are resalted and packed into tierces. It is necessary, in order to
get the quantity of casings in a tierce to use pressure and press them
tightly.


=Selection of Round Casings.=--Round casings are classified under
several headings, namely, export, wide, narrow and domestic.


=Export Casings.=--The export rounds are reasonably narrow and
absolutely free of knots. The knots referred to are those on the
intestines chiefly found in the entrails of native cattle, or cattle
that have been highly fed, and are objectionable to the foreign trade.
They are packed 200 sets per tierce.

[Illustration: FIG. 77.--FATTING MACHINE FOR CASINGS.]


=Domestic Rounds.=--These are for domestic trade. They are wider and
heavier than those exported. They are handled in the same manner,
packed from 150 to 170 sets to the tierce, the difference in the number
of the sets indicating that they are wider casings and not as carefully
selected.


=Beef Middles.=--After the ruffle has been pulled off the intestines,
the middles are pulled apart, leaving all the fat that will adhere
to them. The contents are washed by inserting a hose at the larger
end, partially filling the casing and pouring the contents into a
separate pipe leading to the catch basin. The workmen press the casing
rather than strip it, as the latter method strips the fat and causes
a considerable loss on account of fat carried to catch basin. The
contents of the intestine washed out, the gut then goes to the fatter,
who cuts off all the fat with a knife. It is very important to see that
no fat is left on the casing. Any fat which may be left on the casing
will detract from the appearance. It is usual after fatting, to scrape
the casing with a wood scraper so as to remove any clinging tissue and
fat.


=Turning and Sliming.=--The casing is now turned, fatted side in, and
when turned exposes the inner surface. This is hand or machine scraped
and must be perfectly clean, inspection being made to ascertain this
condition exists.


=Inspecting and Measuring.=--It is best to inspect middle casings by
air, at which time they are selected for wide and narrow standards,
especially in the larger works. They are measured 62 feet to the set,
allowance being made for shrinkage in salting, so that after they
have been salted they will measure 57 feet, this being the standard
commercial length per set. These are handled on the salting benches,
etc., the same as rounds. They are selected as follows: They must be
of prime quality, properly cleaned, slimed and salted, closely fatted,
free from holes, good color and smell, no piece to be less than three
feet in length, not more than one such piece in a set, and the thin end
of the gut must be cut off. They should be assorted in accordance with
requirements into--

  Narrows                            Packed 140 sets to the tierce
  Wides                              Packed  95 sets to the tierce
  Regulars (which means the medium
  casings)                           Packed 110 sets to the tierce

The salting and packing process is the same as described for round
casings.


=Beef Bungs.=--These are the larger intestines and have one blind or
closed end. They have an average length of four feet, but vary with
the cattle size. The opening, where the small intestine connects with
the large, should be in the center. The cleaning process is similar to
other casings, except the scraping is done by hand work, or using a
revolving washing machine.

Bungs, handled practically the same as the previously described
casings, to be of good quality, full length, properly cleaned, slimed,
salted and fatted, free from holes, reasonably free from scores and
cuts and of good color. The regular run of these casings should be
packed 400 pieces to the tierce, tied in bundles of five each.


=Bung Gut Skins.=--From the bung gut is often removed the membrane,
known as “bung gut skins.” These are used by gold beaters. They are
handled as follows: The bung gut skins should be started at the cap
end, being careful to remove the skin for about four to six inches from
the end of the cap, then remove same around the bung end, back of the
cap end first, and next take off toward the open end, after the bung is
skinned back as far as possible beyond the small intestine. The skins
are thin and difficult to remove; there is no difficulty experienced,
however, in getting them thirty inches or over in length. After the
skin is removed it is placed in ice water, and, when well chilled, is
salted thoroughly in the cap and outside. The object of putting the
skin in ice water is to facilitate handling.

After they are thoroughly salted they are hung over a bar covered with
a piece of burlap and allowed to hang for one or two days, until they
are thoroughly drained, or dried. When dry each skin is separately
handled, the loose salt shaken off, and examined for holes and fat and
ragged ends. Holes near the edge of the skins can be cut out without
materially injuring them. All fat on the edge and ragged ends should
be cut off. After the skins have passed this inspection they should be
spread full length and width on a table, one over the other, gathered
in bunches of fifty, tied in the center and packed in a tierce. Care
should be taken in handling the skins not to let them come in contact
with any iron as that will discolor them. Many casing men object to
removing the bung gut skins, believing that it injures the casing. If
they are handled carefully, however, the injury will not be more than
five per cent.


=Beef Bladders.=--Bladders should be cut with a long neck and after
they have been fatted should be blown up as large as possible and hung
in a dry room to dry. After they are blown and dried, the necks are cut
off and they are flattened out and packed in bundles of twelve each.
The first grade consists of bladders fourteen inches in length, with
or without necks. The second grade consists of bladders from eleven to
thirteen inches in length with the neck. The third grade consists of
bladders with or without necks, not under nine inches in length.


=Beef Weasands.=--After the meat has been removed from the outside the
weasand is turned wrong side out, washed, both ends tied, and blown
full of air. After they are blown with compressed air they are hung
in a dry room, which should have a temperature of 110° to 120° F.,
and left there until thoroughly dried. They are then taken out, the
ends cut off, the weasands put in bundles of twenty-five each, twenty
bundles tied together into a large bundle, five or ten of these large
bundles constituting a case. Regular weasands must be of prime quality,
properly dried, entirely free from worms, and at least twenty-four
inches long, allowing not over four pieces of shorter (same to be at
least eighteen inches long) to the bundle of twenty-five. Two of such
short ones will be counted as one full weasand.

Narrow weasands are those which, while being dried, have a weight
of about three pounds hung on the end, drawing them out as long as
possible, which has the tendency to make them narrow. These should
not be blown as full of air as those not drawn. After they are dried
they must be at least twenty-six inches long and from two to two and
one-half inches in width when flattened out. Other conditions same as
the regular weasands, except that they must be entirely free from skin
worms and skin-worm marks.


=Packages.=--The packages used for beef casings are usually soft
wood tierces, free from any stain such as occurs in an oak stave.
A second-hand glucose tierce is preferable. They should be cleaned
thoroughly before filling, by scraping free from any char, and then
well washed.


=Salt.=--The salt usually used is the “No. 1 Fine” grade of evaporated
salt. In first and second saltings the casings must be carefully
covered, particularly at the points where the bunch is tied.


=Cleanliness.=--It is difficult to properly describe the care necessary
in every stage to insure clean casings. Water from inland or murky
rivers should be settled of filtered to make clean, bright casings.
Every particle of fat or fibre to which any sediment or stain can
adhere makes a black spot upon the finished salted casings. There is
perhaps no department where such scrupulous care is needed.


=Water Temperature.=--Water used in cleaning casings should be about
90° F., in temperature, and kept uniformly so, until the casing has
been turned and slimed, when it should be submerged and kept in cool
water at a temperature of about 40° F., until passed to the salting
boxes.


=Machines for Casings.=--Beef casing machines equipped with rice-root
brushes are termed “fatting machines,” while those fitted with bristle
brushes are termed “sliming machines.”

To process middle guts by machine, they are passed twice through a
fatting machine, turned and passed three times through the sliming
machine.

To process round guts they are passed through the fatting and sliming
machines twice. To obtain the best results the brushes should run 1550
r. p. m. About three horse-power is required to operate a machine. Salt
in the sliming water is an advantage.


=Hog Casings.=--It is more difficult to describe the saving of hog
casings. The first item is the removing of the bung which should be
pulled carefully, and be as long as possible. The removal of the bung
without scoring, breaking or cutting is a part of the slaughtering work
and requires skillful knife work to accomplish it properly. As soon
as the bung gut is pulled it is stripped and trimmed carefully so as
to not destroy the crown. The clinging fat is removed and the bung is
then turned, after which they are classified and salted over night in
a pickle for the purpose of curing. The following day they are bundled
and packed in second-hand hardwood tierces. The grading is difficult to
describe since the standards vary slightly. They are usually classified
as No. 1, medium primes, and No. 2 quality.

The grading of hog bungs for export and medium primes require that they
shall be full crown, free from cuts and scores, pulled full length, and
when wind tested and blown to about the distention when stuffed, are
measured eighteen inches from the crown:

  Exports       1¹⁵⁄₁₆ inches diameter and over
  Medium Prime  1³⁄₄ inches diameter and over
  No. 2         Less than 1³⁄₄ inches diameter


=Small Casings.=--The small casings are pulled from the set stripped
and soaked over night to allow a fermentation or decay of the slime
and muscle on the tissue. The length of time for the soaking and the
fermentation are controlled by the workman. Soaking too long or too
much heat rots the casing. Too little makes it difficult to properly
clean. Water test each gut. This is an advantage since it washes each
piece and locates all holes. At the same time the casings are selected
for width. After selecting and cleaning in this manner the casings are
put in bundles of equal size measured as to quantity. They are then
well salted and placed upon draining benches to cure. After a period of
from three to five days they are shaken free from salt, rubbed with new
finely ground salt and packed in hardwood barrels. These barrels should
be cloth lined after soaking several days, the water being changed
every forty-eight hours.

The salting process is the trick in the casing business. Casings are
usually sold on a free of salt basis, and are supposed to contain forty
per cent salt, this quantity being allowed. On shaking, at times, they
will show sixty per cent, therefore it behooves the buyer or seller to
be on guard.

Machines are used for passing the casing through for removal of muscle
and slime. In these, rapidly revolving knives or scrapers fitting
closely to a roller, perform the process. The casings after passing
through the machines are handled by hand, each piece being scraped
while on a board and any holes that may appear being cut out, as well
as ragged ends cut square.

The average yield in hog casings is usually one-quarter pound per hog.
It takes close attention to develop this quantity.




CHAPTER XVIII.

BEEF MISCELLANY


  BEEF MISCELLANEOUS -- LIVERS -- SWEETBREADS -- BEEF HEARTS -- TAILS
  -- WEASAND MEAT -- BEEF TONGUES -- WASHING -- HANGING -- TRIMMING
  -- CURING -- FREEZING -- SURPLUS ROUNDS -- STRIPPING BEEF HAMS --
  FORMULAS FOR CURING -- SMOKING -- TESTS -- GLASS JAR BEEF -- BEEF
  TRIMMINGS -- BARREL BEEF -- TRIPE -- CLEANING TRIPE -- PICKLING --
  COST OF PRODUCTION.


=Beef Miscellaneous.=--The rising value of all flesh foods makes it
imperative to carefully conserve all kinds of products and this chapter
is devoted to a description of the care and handling of these products.


=Livers.=--There is no edible part of the animal which becomes stale
as quickly as the liver. The large proportion of water in its makeup
together with the presence of blood and the residual matter from its
function in the body all contribute to this rapid decay, and only by
the most careful attention will they keep a very great length of time
unless they are frozen. The vital point in handling livers successfully
is to promptly send them to a proper cooler.

As soon as they are taken from the animal they should be trimmed, care
being taken that in cutting the gall bag from the liver they are not
contaminated with gall, the trimming consisting of cutting around the
lower lobe so as to permit the blood contained therein to drip out.

The cooler in which they are stored should be of the same character
as a beef cooler with an overhead loft and a positive and good
circulation. The livers should be separated so that warm ones will not
come in contact with cold ones. The temperature of the cooler should
be about 32° F. In hanging, the cooling racks are preferably metal,
frequently cleansed by scalding and should be arranged so that livers
do not drip on those below.

At certain times of the year it is profitable to freeze them for the
winter trade. Where this is done it will be found that if they are
first properly dried and chilled, they freeze in much better condition
than if put into the freezer when they are full of moisture. They
should be frozen at a temperature as near zero Fahr. as possible, for
if frozen quickly they retain their natural color, whereas, if they are
put into a higher temperature and the freezing is delayed, they will
have a dark appearance when thawed.


=Sweetbreads.=--This is a delicate piece of meat and practically the
only one in the packing house that improves by being kept in water.
The sweetbread should be cut out before the animal is stuck, thereby
avoiding their becoming bloody and discolored. After washing and fat is
trimmed off, they should be put in ice water in the coolers and held
over night; the next day they are ready for shipment and should be
packed in cracked ice.

If they are to be frozen they should be allowed to drain properly
before placing them in the freezers. A low temperature is very
essential for the preservation of sweetbreads, in order to obtain the
best possible appearance. When frozen quickly they retain a bright
appearance when thawed. If they are frozen slowly they turn slate
color when thawed and have an undesirable and unwholesome look, which
operates against their being disposed of to advantage.

Western or range cattle, yield a very small proportion of sweetbreads,
they being undeveloped by the animal when living in their natural
state. Cattle which have been fattened in feed lots, however, yield
much larger sweetbreads.


=Beef Hearts.=--This piece of meat is generally used in sausage and
canning, largely in the former. The hearts after being taken from the
animals are trimmed and washed and should be hung in a cooler where
there is a temperature of from 33° to 36° F. After they are thoroughly
chilled they are used for sausage purposes, either fresh or cured.


=Tails.=--There is little to be said on the handling of tails, except
that they should be kept clean, for if handled carelessly and allowed
to become stained it is impossible ever to get them clean afterward,
and it is always preferable not to wash them, as this has a tendency to
discolor them when chilled. If they are to be frozen they should be put
into the freezer under a low temperature in order to have them come out
in desirable condition.

[Illustration: FIG. 78.--MECHANICAL WASHER.]


=Weasand Meat.=--This is a meat taken off the weasands. It is a low
grade of meat and is at times “tanked” rather than saved. When cured
it should be packed in tierces, and to a tierce of 400 pounds sprinkle
through thoroughly a mixture of twenty pounds of salt and one pound of
saltpetre. The goods should be held in storage at from 36° to 38° F.
during the process of curing.


=Beef Tongues.=--The tongue should receive careful attention from the
time it is taken out of the head, until it is cured. In taking the
tongue out of the head it should be left smooth on the bottom, leaving
on all fat. It should be cut close to the jaws, taking off with it all
fat possible, as it is worth much more on the tongue than if left on
the head.


_Washing._--The tongue should be thoroughly washed in warm water, say
at 80° F., as soon as taken from the head. Mechanical washers like that
shown in the accompanying illustration, Fig. 78, are frequently used
to good advantage. Immediately upon washing they should be chilled in
clean, cold water, when they are hung to drip and then sent to the
cooler.


_Hanging._--In hanging, the tongue should be suspended from a hook
at the point where the tongue was attached to the jaw bone and the
tip also fastened upon the same hook. This gives the tongue a compact
appearance, but if it is hung up by the point alone when warm, its own
weight stretches it out of shape, and it never looks as well as when
hung as described. Tongues should be hung in a temperature of from 32°
to 34° F. for forty-eight hours.


_Trimming._--Tongues are selected for trimming into short and long
cuts. In trimming, the side bones should be cut equally and the side
meats cut with a long knife and a draw movement so as to make a smooth
appearing tongue. “Long cut tongue” means that the gullet and about two
joints of the windpipe are left on. In “short cut tongue” the gullet is
entirely cut away. Long cut tongue should average not less than five
pounds in weight. The trimmings are retrimmed, the lean parts being
suitable for sausage and the fat for tank.


_Curing._--They should first be put into a plain pickle, eighty degrees
strong, at a temperature of 38° to 40° F. for twenty-four hours. This
is done to remove all the saliva from the tongue, which has the effect
of making the pickle “strong,” if the tongues are put direct into the
curing pickle.

After treatment with plain pickle they are put into a sweet pickle to
be cured, the sweet pickle consisting of 280 pounds of salt, English
salt being preferable, to which is added ten pounds of saltpetre and
twenty-four pounds of sugar to each 160 gallons of water. This should
be stirred well to insure thorough dissolving of the ingredients. The
tongues are then put into barrels, hogsheads or vats, as the case may
be, and sufficient pickle put on to submerge them. At the end of five
days they should be shifted from one package to another, and at the end
of fifteen days they should be rehandled, this being done to bring
the pickle into thorough contact with the different pieces. Tongues
should be fully cured at the end of thirty days, ready to smoke, or for
shipment. When tongues are packed in barrels, after being fully cured,
they should be packed, 202 pounds to the barrel, filling the package up
with the same pickle in which they were cured. They are then ready for
shipment. Tongues readily become excessively salty if allowed to remain
in cure too long. It is desirable to have them “off cure” about as
wanted.


_Freezing._--As there is an increased demand for tongues in the warm
months over any other part of the year, it is advantageous to hold them
frozen until the demand develops. In freezing it is necessary that
they should be put in a very low temperature and frozen quickly, as if
handled otherwise it has a tendency to give them an undesirable color
when cured. They can be thawed, cured, and smoked as required.


_Test on Freezing Beef Tongues._--The following is a test on tongues
thus handled, showing the percentage of shrinkage, freezing, curing and
smoking:

TEST ON FREEZING BEEF TONGUES.

                                                                    Per
                                                            Lbs.   cent.
  Weight of twenty-five 5¹⁄₂-lb. beef tongues to freezer     140
  In freezer one week--weight                                138
                                                             ---
    Freezing shrinkage                                         2 =  1.43

  Taken from freezer to leacher--weight                      138
  Leached twenty hours in city water--weight                 144
  After leaching, drained twelve hours--weight               142
                                                             ---
    Gain leaching from frozen to drained weight                4 =  2.90
    Gain leaching from green to drained weight                 2 =  1.43

  After leaching--pickled--weight to pickle                  142
  Rubbed in salt and packed in bbls. with seventy-deg.
  pickle to remain for forty-five days; overhauled in forty
  days, and five days later dumped at forty-five days
  weight                                                     141
  Drained eight hours--weight                                139
                                                             ---
    Shrinkage from green to cured--drained weight              1 =  0.71
    Shrinkage from leached to cured--drained weight            3 =  2.11

  Weight from cellar to smoke house                          139
  Smoked fifteen hours--average temperature, 116°
  F.--smoked weight                                          117
                                                             ---
    Shrinkage to smoked from green weight                     23 = 16.43
    Shrinkage to smoked from leached weight                   25 = 17.60
    Shrinkage to smoked from cured weight                     22 = 15.82


=Surplus Beef Rounds.=--Where cattle are cut in large quantities it is
almost impossible to sell the rounds fresh, there being comparatively
small demand for round steak. It is necessary to use this particular
part of the meat in some other product, which is done by making what is
known as “beef hams.” The very light rounds, or rounds out of canning
cattle, are generally used for canning purposes, they being too light
to suit the trade for “beef hams.”


=Stripping Beef Hams.=--In preparing “beef hams” the rounds are cut by
what is known as the “packing house cut,” which leaves a piece of meat
from the rump on the round, as compared to the ordinary cut. This piece
is what is known as the “knuckle” piece of the set. Rounds cut this
way are considered regular. When rounds, cut for market purposes, are
stripped, they are known as short knuckled rounds and are not accepted
as regular.

Before the round is stripped, the fell, or covering, is skinned off,
and the seam of the knuckle followed around by the knife, cutting clear
to the bone. The round is hung on a hook and an incision made just
above the stifle joint and the knuckle piece peeled from the bone. The
round is then turned on the hook and opened to the bone, making what is
known as the “inside-and-outside piece” of the round.

In opening the round, what is known as the “kernel fat” should be
equally divided. These three pieces are what is known as regular beef
hams when packed in sets. When separated they are known as “insides,”
“outsides” and “knuckles.” These hams are cured and smoked and are sold
at retail as dried beef, the largest sale for this kind of meat being
in warm weather. The piece that is left is the shank.


=Curing.=--On the manner in which beef hams are cured depends, to a
great extent, their sale. The object in curing is to have them not too
salty, thoroughly cured through, and of a bright and attractive color
when smoked.

The hams when cut from the cattle should be either spread out or
hung up in a room held at a temperature of from 33° to 35° F., for
twenty-four hours, thereby insuring proper chilling. They are then best
cured in vats holding 1,000 pounds each; many, however, cure them in
tierces or barrels.


=Formulas for Curing Beef Hams.=--Two formulas for the pickle follow:


_First Formula._--To 1,500 gallons of 80-degree strength pickle, add
300 pounds granulated sugar, 105 pounds saltpetre. Where a smaller
amount of pickle is wanted make it proportionately. As the meat is
packed in vats, sprinkle in a little fine salt. The vat should then
be filled with above pickle, and a rack and weight put on to keep the
meat submerged. The hams should be overhauled three times, first in
ten days, again twenty-five days later and again forty days after the
second overhauling. Beef hams should be considered fully cured in from
seventy-five to eighty-five days. If cured in tierces or barrels, they
should be rolled at the same periods as in the case of overhauling in
the vats, giving the pickle a chance to thoroughly reach all parts of
the meat.


_Second Formula._--Another formula used extensively, where beef hams
are packed and cured exclusively in barrels, is as follows: Dissolve
150 pounds of saltpetre in hot, 88-degree pickle, made from Ashton or
dairy salt, a sufficient amount of pickle being used to make fifty-two
gallons when dissolved. It is necessary to heat the pickle in order to
dissolve this amount of salt. Add 450 pounds of granulated sugar and
sufficient cold 88-degree pickle to make 200 gallons of the finished
solution. This is then chilled to a temperature of 40° to 45° F. One
gallon of this solution is put into each barrel before commencing to
pack the meats.

When packing the meat in barrels, use twenty-three pounds of Ashton, or
dairy salt, sprinkling between the layers as they are put in. When the
barrel is needed, water at a temperature of 40° to 45° F., barrels to
be rolled in ten, thirty and fifty days after being packed. They should
be stored in a temperature of from 38° to 40° F. if they are to be used
in ninety days. If they are to be held for five or six months they
should be kept at a temperature of 35° to 39° F. for the first thirty
days and thereafter at a temperature of from 28° to 29° F. until used.
Meats cured with this formula will be found to have a very good color
and flavor and at the same time will not be too salty. In putting the
meat in packages, pack 215 pounds green weight per barrel.


=Smoking.=--The smoking of beef hams is treated in the chapter on the
Smoke House.


=Tests.=--The following are three smoking tests on regular beef hams,
given to illustrate yields in the finished product from a sample lot of
each cut:

REGULAR OUTSIDES FOR SHIPMENT.

                                                             Wt.    Per
                                                Packed      lbs.   cent.
  Twenty-three tcs. dry packed 449 lbs.
  each, marked weight 440 lbs. each           1,127 pcs.  10,327
  Twenty-three tcs. dumped to smoke, actual
  weights                                     1,127 pcs.  10,215
                                                          ------
    Pounds loss while in storage                             112
    Per cent loss while in storage                                .0128

  Culls not smoked                               44 pcs.     235
  Actual weights to smoke                     1,083 pcs.   9,980
  Smoked weights                              1,083 pcs.   7,099
                                                           -----
    Shrinkage in smoking                                   2,881
    Per cent shrinkage in smoking                                 .2887

  Smoked 108 hours, temperature 112° to 128° F.

REGULAR INSIDES FOR SHIPMENT.

                                                            Wt.    Per
                                               Packed      lbs.   cent.
  Sixteen tcs. dry packed, 449 lbs. each,
  marked weight 440 lbs. each                  497 pcs.   7,184
  Sixteen tcs. dumped to smoke, actual
  weights                                      497 pcs.   7,027
                                                          -----
    Pounds loss in storage                                  157
    Per cent loss in storage                                      .02119

  Culls not smoked                               8 pcs.      73
  Actual weights to smoke                      489 pcs.   6,954
  Smoked weights                               489 pcs.   5,351
                                                          -----
    Shrinkage in smoking                                  1,603
    Per cent shrinkage in smoking                                 .2304

  Smoked ninety-six hours, temperature 112° to 124° F.

REGULAR KNUCKLES FOR SHIPMENT.

                                                            Wt.    Per
                                               Packed      lbs.   cent.
  Eight tcs. dry packed 408 lbs. each, marked
  weight 400 lbs. each                         389 pcs.   3,264
  Eight tcs. dumped to smoke, actual weights   389 pcs.   3,190
                                                          -----
    Pounds loss in storage                                   74
    Per cent loss in storage                                      .0227

  Culls not smoked                              1 pc.         4
  Actual weights to smoke                     388 pcs.    3,186
  Smoked weights                              388 pcs.    2,388
                                                          -----
    Shrinkage in smoking                                    798
    Per cent shrinkage in smoking                                 .2505

  Smoked ninety-four hours, temperature 112° to 128° F.


=Glass Jar Beef.=--A great deal of dried beef is put up in glass jars
under a vacuum, as well as in tin cans. Beef handled in this manner
is cured by formulas given, but in smoking it is handled somewhat
differently, being smoked less and dried more, it being necessary to
have all the pickle and moisture evaporated from the meats to insure
keeping.

After the meat has been handled as described it is generally put in
smoke houses equipped with steam coils, the heat brought up to 110°
to 120° F., and left to dry from three to four days. It then shows a
shrinkage anywhere from 35 to 42 per cent. It is necessary to dry beef
in this manner in order to make it keep satisfactorily when put in cans.

The following test will show the shrinkage of this product when smoked
in the manner described above for canning purposes:

SHRINKAGE OF SMOKED DRIED BEEF HAMS.

                                                            Wt.
                                               Packed      lbs.    Pct.
  Thirty-two tcs. beef hams, four months
  old, weight to smoke                       1,461 pcs.  12,542
  Smoked weight                              1,461 pcs.   7,254
                                                         ------
  Shrinkage in smoking                                    5,287
  Per cent shrinkage in smoking                                   42.15
  Smoked eleven hours; temperature 112 degrees F.; hanging in house to
  dry, seventy-two hours.


=Beef Trimmings.=--In the slaughtering of live stock in large numbers
there is an accumulation of trimmings which has to be cured for the
sausage room or canning department, as the case may be. The following
formula will serve for the curing of beef, pork and sheep cheek meat
and hearts, hanging tenderloins and other meats for sausage and canning
purposes:

To 1,100 gallons of seventy-degree pickle dissolve seventy-nine pounds
saltpetre. Use this pickle for the curing of beef cheek meat, pig
snouts, pork cheek meat, sheep cheek meat, ox-lips, beef hearts, etc.
This material is usually cured in vats and should be overhauled in
five, fifteen and thirty days after being packed. If freezer space is
available it is preferable to box it in convenient sizes and to freeze
it, using it as a fresh product, when thawed.


=Barreled Beef.=--Barreled beef, graded as described, in a previous
chapter, is usually packed in barrels, using a plain pickle fully
saturated. It is cured in the packages with a pickle of the following
formula, for plate beef, rump butts, briskets, clods, and all trimmings
of a similar character:

To 1,500 gallons of 100-degree strength pickle add ninety-eight pounds
of saltpetre. It will be found necessary to dissolve the saltpetre
before putting it into the pickle. Store in a cellar at 38° F.
temperature. Repack with capping salt at time of shipment if for long
exposure.


=Tripe.=--Tripe is an article for which there is a large demand in the
eastern states, comparatively little of it being consumed in other
states, while there is not a very great foreign demand. It is made from
the stomachs of cattle and is a very wholesome and nutritious dish. It
is also being used extensively in sausage.


_Cleaning Tripe._--The stomach after being made empty is thoroughly
washed in such a manner or with such devices as to permit of removing
all manure from the inside surface. After it is thoroughly washed, put
into a kettle, or vat, scalded, the temperature of the water being
from 140° to 160° F. After a few minutes immersion the inside lining
of the stomach may be easily removed. When sufficiently scalded it is
scraped, leaving a clean, white surface. After scraping it is put into
a vat and boiled for about three hours, or until it is tender. It is
then put into cold water and chilled, the fat from the seams is removed
and the “finishing process” begins, first scraping off all the loose
fat with a sharp scraper and then removing a membrane on the outside
of the stomach, which, when worked carefully, comes off, leaving the
“tripe” perfectly clean and free of any fat, etc.,--the tripe being the
muscular part of the stomach.


_Pickling._--It should first be put into a 45-grain vinegar pickle for
ten to fifteen hours. After it has been submitted to the first pickling
it is ready to be put into barrels and the vinegar in which it was
first pickled should be strengthened with full-strength vinegar, making
it again 45-grain, when it is packed in barrels and should be held in a
temperature of from 45° to 50° F.

There is a remarkable gain in tripe if properly handled. A barrel of
tripe packed at 135 pounds, at the end of three weeks, will weigh out
200 pounds and sometimes as high as 215 pounds. The tripe absorbs
the vinegar, and it is essential in storing tripe that it be kept at
a temperature so this absorption can take place, if it is kept in
too cool a temperature it will not take up the vinegar as it should,
consequently the gain will not be found when the package is opened.

The following test will show the gain in a barrel of honey-comb and a
barrel of plain tripe, one barrel of each being packed in 45-degree
vinegar and one barrel of each in 60-degree vinegar.

TEST PACKING TRIPE HOT DIRECT FROM FINISHING TABLE.

                                                                    Per
                                                             Lbs.  cent.
  One barrel honey-comb, 45-degree vinegar, 95 pcs. packed
  weight                                                     125
  Held in cellar for two weeks and unpacked, weight          227
                                                             ---
    Gain                                                     102 = 81.60

  Drained over night on racks, weight                        183
    Loss draining from pickled weight                         44 = 19.38
    Gain to drained weight from packed weight                 58 = 46.40
  One barrel honey-comb, 60-degree pickle, ninety-three
  pcs. packed, weight                                        125
  Held in cellar for two weeks and unpacked, weight          227
                                                             ---
    Gain                                                     102 = 81.60

  Drained over night on racks, weight                        194
    Loss draining from pickled weight                         33 = 14.53
    Gain to drained weight from packed weight                 69 = 55.20
  One barrel plain, 45-degree pickle, thirty-nine pcs.
  packed weight                                              125
  Held in cellar for two weeks and unpacked, weight          193
                                                             ---
   Gain                                                       68 = 54.50

  Drained over night on racks, weight                        182
    Loss draining from pickled weight                         11 =  5.70
    Gain to drained weight from packed weight                 57 = 45.60
  One barrel plain, 60-degree pickle, thirty-eight pcs.
  packed weight                                              125
  Held in cellar two weeks and unpacked, weight              201
                                                             ---
    Gain                                                      76 = 60.80

  Drained on racks over night, weight                        184
    Loss draining, from pickled weight                        17 =  8.45
    Gain to drained weight from packed weight                 59 = 47.20

  Temperature all pickle when put on tripe 65° F. Temperature cellar,
  from 50° to 52° F.


=Cost of Production.=--The expense of saving tripe is shown in the
following table illustrating the cost of 100 tripe, including packages
and vinegar:

TEST ON 100 TRIPE FINISHED.

  100 regular bellies  2,053 lbs.  average weight 20.53 lbs.
  Honey-comb             400 lbs.  average weight  4.00 lbs.
  Plain                1,653 lbs.  average weight 16.53 lbs.

    _Debits:_
    5 barrels                   $0.80     each              = $4.00
   75 gallons 45-grain vinegar    .02¹⁄₂  per gallon        =  1.88
  100 bellies                     .1309   each              = 13.09
  Labor and expense              1.08     per cwt. finished =  7.13
                                                             ------
    Total                                                    $26.10

    _Credits:_
  Scrapings to tank         312 lbs.
    Yield tallow             15 lbs. $0.0525 per lb.  $0.79
    Yield dry tankage        75 lbs. 14.00   per ton    .53
  Trimmings to tank         200 lbs.
    Yield tallow              8 lbs.   .0525 per lb.    .42
    Yield dry tankage         5 lbs. 14.00   per ton    .04
  Seam fat--finishing bench  83 lbs.
    Yield oil                25 lbs.   .1035 per lb.   2.59
  Grease from cooking into
      oil                    75 lbs.   .6850 per lb.   5.14  $ 9.51
                                                             ------
    Total cost                                               $16.59

  Cost per barrel, 135 lbs., $3.31 per cwt., fresh, loose, $2.51.

  Green weight, 1,653 pounds; scraped, 1,333 pounds; cooked, 933
  pounds; finished, 660 pounds.




CHAPTER XIX.

SHEEP AND CALVES


  INCREASED PRODUCTION OF SHEEP -- PENNING -- DRESSING BY PIECE METHOD
  -- STRING GANG -- SHEEP RING -- SHEEP DRESSING -- LEGGING -- PELTING
  -- METHODS OF FINISHING -- WASHING AND ITS EFFECT -- CHILLING -- LAMB
  TONGUES -- PICKLED LAMB TONGUES -- LAMB TONGUE TESTS -- SLAUGHTERING
  CALVES -- HEADS AND FEET.


=Increased Production of Sheep.=--The increased consumption of mutton
has been marked in this country in the last twenty-five years. Prior
to that time, while there were many sheep raised, mutton, except in
the large centers, was comparatively little used. The packers being
able to obtain sheep in large quantities at live stock centers, and
with their superior distributing facilities, soon created a demand for
mutton at points where previously there had been little demand. As a
consequence there has been a large increase in the production of sheep
and consumption in this country.

It is a meat for which many must acquire a taste, but it is very
healthful and nutritious. At the central abattoirs, where government
inspection is in force, comparatively few diseases, or few diseased
sheep, are found, this particular kind of live stock proving to be much
healthier than either cattle or hogs.


=Penning.=--Sheep should always be kept in dry pens before killing,
for if their fleece is allowed to become dirty, it is practically
impossible to prevent the meat from becoming stained. Where the sheep
get wet and muddy it is found of great advantage to hold them for a
time in pens with two to four inches of dry sawdust on the floor, this
sawdust having the effect of cleaning and drying the legs and under
part of the body so that after slaughtering, when the pelt is removed,
the meat may be kept much cleaner than otherwise.


=Dressing by Piece Methods.=--The dressing of an individual sheep,
“round dress,” as commonly performed is such a simple process that one
would naturally ask why change.

In the economic use of labor about the modern packing house, probably
no other department can show the benefit of modern methods to greater
advantage than in sheep slaughtering. The effects of this division are
first, economy, and second, better workmanship. It is natural that a
man performing one particular operation day after day becomes more
expert than if he were doing various kinds of work.


=String Gang.=--Formerly sheep were slaughtered largely on a piece-work
basis, one man dressing the sheep throughout. With the modern method
each man does one particular part of the work, becoming very quick and
expert in his line.

In Fig. 79 a string gang at work killing and dressing sheep is shown.
A gang sufficient to handle 300 sheep an hour should have at least
thirty-six to forty sets of hooks, or, in other words, facilities for
working on thirty-six to forty sheep at one time on the dressing rails.


=Sheep Ring.=--An early type of “sheep rings” is shown in the
accompanying drawing, Fig. 80. The principles formerly in use are
now modified to the extent that an endless conveyor is substituted
for the stationary dressing beams, the output being increased. Some
additional beneficial features are added, namely the use of a wheel
hoist which is substituted for the friction hoist. In a space 80 × 32
feet in size, 2,000 sheep per day can be handled readily by means of
the complete ring method. The sheep are hoisted with a double shackle,
two at a time, and the work is continuous from there on until they are
dressed, the sheep never touching the floor again, which means a great
saving of labor over the old way of handling sheep by hand entirely.
This diagram illustrates the different processes in the arrangement,
it also gives height of rails, trucks, spreaders and hooks used on the
different rails. Wherever a volume of thirty sheep per hour or over are
being slaughtered a saving can be effected by adopting this method of
handling.

[Illustration: FIG. 79.--VIEW OF A “STRING GANG” AT WORK KILLING AND
DRESSING SHEEP.--CONVEYORS ARE NOW SUBSTITUTED.]

[Illustration: FIG. 80.--DIAGRAM SHOWING ARRANGEMENT FOR SHEEP KILLING
AND DRESSING WITH “STRING GANG.”]

In Fig. 101 is shown how the hogs are handled by means of a wheel
hoist, two at a time, and hung on the sticking rail. Likewise where
sheep are killed in large numbers, it is advantageous to hoist two at a
time, the shackle being modified. The men shackling become very expert
and can shackle two in practically the same time that they can one, and
if a gang are running on a capacity of five hundred per hour, it will
be seen that considerable time is gained by doing it in this manner.

[Illustration:

  Choice.
  Good.
  Medium.
  Common.

FIG. 81.--WETHERS.]


=Sheep Dressing.=--In the dressing of sheep the following suggestions
will prove advantageous in turning out work with the best results,
whether the sheep are dressed by day work, one man dressing them
throughout, or whether they are handled by a string gang.


_Legging._--This consists in opening up the skin around the legs and
center of the body. In doing this work care should be taken that the
skin be opened up as little around the necks and butts as possible, for
wherever the skin is removed in the legging there is more or less stain
on the meat, which it is impossible to wash off.


_Pelting._--In removing the pelt from the carcass care should be taken
that the “fell” is not broken in any part, for wherever this is broken,
the meat will show the effect of age, and will present a very unsightly
appearance. The removal of the skin over the brisket is important.


_Methods of Finishing._--This is a part of the work which is very hard
to describe, as the dressing at different points varies to such an
extent that there are hardly two large cities where the methods are
alike, especially in the case of lambs. Generally speaking mutton is
“round dressed,” using no back sets and not using the caul. Lambs are
dressed according to localities, some round dressed, same as mutton,
others with double back sets and the caul on, others with single back
sets and the ribs broken and still others with inside sets, in every
instance the caul being left on. The photograph illustrates dressings
for various American markets.


=Washing and its Effect.=--When the mutton is run immediately into a
well-built refrigerator where the proper circulation and temperatures
can be maintained, there is no danger in using an excess amount of
water in the washing. A wash cloth made of ten to fifteen thicknesses
of very loosely woven cheese cloth quilted together, makes an excellent
cloth with which to wash sheep. This, in connection with plenty of hot
water, will give a bright and attractive appearance to the meat.

[Illustration:

  Good.
  Medium.

FIG. 82.--BUCKS.--ROUND DRESSED SHEEP.--INDICATING QUALITY.]

[Illustration:

  A, choice yearlings.
  B, medium yearlings.
  C, choppers.

FIG. 83.--SHOWING ROUND DRESS AND LAMB DRESS.--CAUL ON.]

[Illustration:

  Choice.
  Good.

FIG. 84.--SPRING LAMBS SHOWING QUALITY.--NOTE “BOOTS.”]

Where the dressed mutton is not run into a cooler, and outside air is
depended upon for chilling, very little water should be used, the meat
simply being wiped with a rag, made as heretofore described, dipping in
hot water and wringing dry.

[Illustration: FIG. 85.--“GENUINE” SPRING LAMB.]

[Illustration:

  Medium.
  Common.
  Canner.

FIG. 86.--EWES.]

[Illustration:

  Boston style sheep.
  Boston style lambs.
  Philadelphia style lambs.

FIG. 87.--SHIPPING MUTTON AND LAMBS.]

[Illustration: FIG. 88.--=~A~=, PROVIDENCE STYLE LAMBS; =~B~=,
CONNECTICUT STYLE LAMBS; =~C~=, GOATS.]

[Illustration: FIG. 89.--MUTTON AND LAMB CHOPS.

  1, 2.       Saddle.
  3, 4, 5.    Rack.
  1, 2, 3.    Long saddle.
  2, 3, 4, 5. Body.

  1.    Leg.
  2.    Loin.
  3.    Short rack.
  2, 3. Back.
  4.    Breast.
  5.    Chuck.
  4, 5. Stew.]

[Illustration: FIG. 90.--=~A~=, MUTTON SADDLES. =~B~=, MUTTON RACKS.
(=~Choice.~= =~Good.~= =~Medium.~= =~Common.~=)]

[Illustration: FIG. 91.--VIEW IN SHEEP CHILL ROOM.]

[Illustration: FIG. 92.--=~A~=, CHOICE CALVES. =~B~=, =~C~=, GOOD
CALVES.]

[Illustration: FIG. 93.--VEAL CUTS.

  1, 2. Saddle (or 2 hind quarters). 1. Leg.
                                     2. Loin.
  3, 4. Back (or 2 fore quarters).   3. Ribs.
                                     4. Stew.]


=Chilling.=--As fast as sheep are slaughtered they should be placed
in coolers and hung on racks as shown. If left out, and partially
air-chilled it has the effect of discoloring them about the legs
and thin parts of the carcasses, causing these to look dark and
less attractive than when placed in the cooler immediately after
slaughtering. There is little or no danger of chilling sheep too fast,
as long as the temperature is above 32° F., and the colder the room
into which they are put, as long as it is above freezing point, the
better will be the appearance of the mutton when it comes out of the
cooler. Sheep chilled for twenty-four hours in proper coolers, and
thoroughly dried and hardened, are ready for shipment or the cutting
block. In many places, especially in Australia and South America, they
are frozen. They should be thoroughly chilled in a dry cooler where
there is a good circulation of air, for twenty-four hours, after which
they may be put into the freezers at a temperature as near zero as
possible, so that the freezing will not be delayed. If they are frozen
quickly they retain a clear, bright appearance when thawed.

[Illustration:

  Choice.
  Good.

FIG. 94.--VEAL SADDLES.]


=Lamb Tongues.=--All tongues from sheep come under this head. After
they have been taken out of the heads they should be thrown into ice
water, washed and spread on a table, or in pans, in the cooler at a
temperature of from 34° to 38° F. for twenty-four hours. Following that
they should be trimmed, cutting off the extra pieces of fat and the
gullet. They are then ready for curing. They should be cured in a plain
75-degree strength pickle with six ounces of saltpetre to 1,000 pounds
of meat, holding them in this pickle for a week or ten days. They are
then ready for use, either in sausage or for cooking.

[Illustration:

  Medium.
  Common.

FIG. 95.--VEAL SADDLES.]


=Pickled Lamb Tongues.=--When tongues are pickled they are put up
with a white wine vinegar and are handled as follows: After they are
thoroughly chilled they are scalded sufficiently to take off the
outside film or skin on the tongue. This is then scraped off with
a hand scraper, or knife, and the tongue trimmed, cutting off any
parts that are discolored, or any loose pieces of fat. The tongues are
afterwards cooked until they are soft enough for the bone to pull out
readily. No special time can be fixed upon for this work as the cooking
varies greatly, according to the condition of the animals from which
the tongues were taken, and it is well in cooking them to keep the
sheep and lamb tongues separate.

[Illustration:

  Choice.
  Good.

FIG. 96.--VEAL RACKS.]

After they are cooked and the bones are pulled out at the root of the
tongue, they are ready for pickling. They should first be pickled in
45-degree vinegar for at least twenty-four hours, when they are ready
to be packed in packages for shipment using 40-degree vinegar by adding
full strength fresh vinegar to the pickle they were first put in. In
packing them in small packages especially, they are generally seasoned
with coriander seed, bay leaves and sliced lemon.


=Lamb Tongue Tests.=--The following tests show yields of pickled lamb
tongues at values prevailing at the time they were made:

TEST ON 1,000 PIECES OF 320 POUNDS LAMB TONGUES.

  Cost of 1,000 pieces lamb tongues at ³⁄₄c each         $ 7.50
  Scraping, 10c per 100 pieces                             1.00
  Snouting, cooking, etc., one and a half hours, at 18c     .27
  Trimming at 5c per 100 pieces                             .50
  Pickling, 10c per 100 pieces                             1.00
  Miscellaneous labor                                       .17
  General expense, 42c per cwt. on 143 lbs. produced        .60
                                                          -----   $11.04
    _Produced:_
  Green weight                                320 lbs.
  Cooked weight                               143 lbs.
                                              ---
    Shrinkage                                 177 lbs. or 55%
  Credit 23 lbs. trimmings at 1¹⁄₂c per lb.                        $ .35
                                                                  -----
    Cost of 143 lbs. of lamb tongues                             $10.69
  Cost per pound, $0.0747.


=Slaughtering Calves.=--This item is so simple that it scarcely needs
mentioning. The chief thing is cleanliness of the hide. Where the work
is performed in quantity the calves are knocked, hoisted to a rail;
stuck, bled and passed through a washing tub; soaked and curried so the
hides are made entirely free from manure, and then scraped reasonably
dry. The calf is then gutted and placed in a cooler, if it is to be
sold skinned and it is preferable that it be cold skinned. The color
justifies the labor expense. Some fancy dressed calves with caul spread
are hot skinned but this is a local matter common to but few markets.


=Heads and Feet.=--Heads and feet are scalded in sets, and sold fresh
or frozen. Eastern markets consume these in quite large quantities.




CHAPTER XX

HOG SLAUGHTERING


  HISTORICAL -- INVESTMENT -- HOG YARDING -- HOG DRESSING -- HOISTING
  -- STICKING -- NECK WASHING -- SCALDING -- SCRAPING MACHINES -- HAND
  SCRAPING -- CLEANING BODIES -- HAM FACING AND CUTTING -- LEAF LARD
  -- SPLITTING -- WASHING -- DRYING -- CARE IN CHILL ROOMS -- OPEN AIR
  HANGING -- CHILLING NECESSITIES -- SHRINKAGE IN CHILL ROOMS -- HOG
  BY-PRODUCTS -- HEADS -- PLUCKS -- PAUNCHES -- ENTRAIL FAT.


=Historical.=--In no department of the industry has the progress been
so extensive as in pork packing. Only a few years ago, comparatively,
it was impossible to kill hogs for packing purposes, except during the
winter season, and the various packing plants located throughout the
country worked during the winter months in their crude way, packing as
many hogs as conditions would permit, turning out the cured meat in the
spring, in inferior condition.

Under the conditions then existing there was little of the hog sold
fresh, for being killed as they were, in isolated places, there was
little opportunity to make it available for general consumption,
consequently fresh pork was sold only in the immediate vicinity of the
slaughtering place and it was necessary to cure the balance. Under
present methods, fresh pork product is shipped to England and delivered
in good condition to the consumer.

The important step in the evolution of “all-the-year packing” from
“winter packing” was the introduction of the refrigerating machine,
and in packing houses today little or no regard is paid to the outside
temperature. Another great advantage is the transportation facilities
now available. When killing hogs in large quantities the fresh pork
product is sold fresh and consumed as such, and a much greater revenue
is derived than when salted as formerly, and sold as cured meats. With
the present facilities for distribution the public can buy fresh pork
at any time of the year, while a few years ago it was impossible to
obtain it at any price during warmer seasons, unless in the immediate
neighborhood of the place where the animals were slaughtered.

[Illustration: FIG. 97.--UNLOADING HOGS FROM CAR.]


=Investment.=--The investment capital used in pork packing is
much greater than for beef, for in slaughtering cattle there is
comparatively little left that requires storage, but in slaughtering
hogs fully seventy per cent of the carcass goes into the curing
department, to stay from thirty to ninety days; consequently a much
larger and more expensive set of buildings is required than for
slaughtering cattle. For instance, in the matter of chill room it is
customary to require cooler space for twice or three times the killing
capacity and storage area equal to five times the hog hanging area;
in other words, if a plant was to be built to kill a thousand hogs a
day there should be hanging capacity for 2,500 and five times the floor
area should be sufficient for curing the product, providing it is sold
promptly as cured. If it is to be carried for any length of time a
greater ratio than five to one should be used. This, of course, does
not refer to any of the auxiliary departments of the plant but only to
the cold storage and chill room department.


=Hog Yarding.=--Hogs should be rested in closed covered pens arranged
for summer ventilation, and winter warmth. It is essential that they be
well rested and cooled before they are slaughtered. To rest twenty-four
hours is by no means detrimental. In driving provide the driver with a
flat canvass belt attached to a short wooden handle so that the hogs
are not abused by clubbing. Keep plenty of water in the troughs and
keep pens clean.

More care should be used in handling hogs than any other live stock, as
hogs are more easily injured. Special pens should be provided for their
reception. Hogs should never be killed until they are thoroughly rested
and in normal condition. In the summer weather they should be sprinkled.


=Hog Dressing.=--The principal points for attention in hog slaughtering
are briefly referred to under the following headings.


=Hoisting.=--When passing to the catch pens for hoisting, the pen
floor should be arranged with raised or corrugated surfaces to avoid
the possibility of its becoming slippery and the hogs “spreading” as
a result. The hogs should be headed in such a direction that when the
shackle is attached to the wheel the hind quarter of the hogs are the
first to move upward, without unduly twisting or wrenching the hog.
The transfer to the sticking rail should be done smoothly and without
jerking.

A hoist, shown in Fig. 102, is often used; it is not only a very useful
device but it is also economical from the fact that it does not jar or
injure the hogs when hung up, as is often the case with an ordinary
hand hoist. This particular machine is adapted for small slaughter
houses rather than where business is done on a large scale, in which
case a double machine will be found almost indispensable.

[Illustration: FIG. 98.--DIAGRAM OF COVERED PEN FOR HOGS AND SHEEP WITH
DETAIL OF CONSTRUCTION.]

[Illustration: FIG. 99.--ELEVATION FOR COVERED PEN FOR HOGS AND SHEEP
WITH DETAIL OF FENCE AND GATE.]

[Illustration: FIG. 100.--HOGS RESTING AND COOLING OFF BEFORE BEING
TAKEN TO THE SLAUGHTERING HOIST.]


=Sticking.=--Make a large and free opening. To insert a knife and make
a slit only large enough to admit it is insufficient. The sticker’s
knife should be sharpened on both front and back and when it is
withdrawn, a long smooth opening four or five inches long should
be made. It is far better, as hogs bleed more freely and die much
sooner. Be careful to see that the veins and arteries are cut, and at
the same time do not cut into the shoulder, as in that instance the
blood settles there and it becomes necessary to trim, resulting in
considerable loss. See that sufficient hogs are kept on the rail so
that they may bleed out well before dropping in the tub. The sticker
should keep close to the hanging off--sticking the hogs immediately
upon hanging.

[Illustration: FIG. 101.--HOISTING HOGS ON A HURFORD REVOLVING WHEEL.]


=Neck Washing.=--Where space is available a washing spray of cold water
to drench the forequarters, head and feet, is a great advantage, as
the washing of the blood enables better scalding and makes for cleaner
hands and feet.


=Scalding.=--See that the tub is long enough to permit carrying a
comparatively low temperature and a good soaking of the hogs. This will
assist very materially in the removal of the hair, either by hand or by
machine. The scalding water should be alkaline, by the use of potash
or lime. It should be kept at an even temperature and the hogs put in
systematically.

[Illustration: FIG. 102.--HURFORD SMALL HOG HOIST.]


=Scraping Machines.=--There are a variety of mechanical scrapers on
the market, and the output of goods per hour is perhaps the guide
in selecting a scraper for a large output. All things considered, a
vertical type barrel equipment, with scraping arms, delivering the
hog into a horizontal beater type would appear as the most efficient
and the less expensive for up-keep. The up-keep on a hog scraper is a
matter of no small figure and is worthy of careful consideration in the
selection of the equipment. In small plants, the choice is a matter of
personal preference, the beater types being probably the most popular.


=Hand Scraping.=--Hair should be scraped out when possible in
preference to cutting off by shaving. A bench is provided following the
scraper for the finishing touches in this respect.

[Illustration: FIG. 103--STICKING AND BLEEDING HOGS.]


=Body Cleaning.=--A most important feature in dressing hogs is the
matter of getting the hair off, the skin cleaned and washed before
opening the hog. Inspection requirements as to cleanliness practically
demand this, and it is a proper method of dressing.


=Ham Facing and Cutting.=--In ham facing care should be used to see
that the workmen cut off the fat down to the lean meat, and at the same
time do not cut the striffen. In opening the hog it is requisite that
the opening cut should be a straight line from the stickers cut to the
bung. The breast splitting and opening over breast bone is made so as
to equally divide the sides and avoid trimming when cutting hogs; the
intestines are removed without cutting or breaking.

FIG. 104.--HOG SCALDING.


=Leaf Lard.=--Pulling the leaf lard just before the splitting, should
be done with care in order that the leaves may be pulled clean.

If this operation is performed in an indifferent manner, a considerable
amount of the leaf lard will be left in the carcasses and it is
afterward scraped out. Lard left after pulling the leaf, should be
scraped out, as it is often worth more as lard than if left as meat.
Its presence greatly disfigures the meat.


=Splitting.=--This should be done carefully and accurately through the
backbone. A wide blade chopper is by all means preferable.


=Washing.=--The hog when once cleaned, and after eviscerating and
before splitting or pulling the leaf lard, should not be washed further
unless it be on the neck, since water on split backs is detrimental to
the keeping quality of pork loins.


=Drying.=--Few appreciate the value and importance of “skin drying”
hogs by dry-shaving and dry-scraping the surface. The advantage to
refrigerating more than overcomes the initial cost of the labor
necessary.

[Illustration: FIG. 105.--HOG SCRAPING GANG AT WORK.]


=Care in Chill Room.=--It is in this particular part of the house
that the most careful and minute attention to details is necessary
in order to turn out meats in the best marketable condition, as only
a few degree deviation in temperatures from carefully set rules in
the handling of chill rooms, shows excess per cent of sour meat found
thirty to sixty days afterward, when the meats are brought from the
curing cellar. This, therefore, is a department that should receive
the most careful attention. A wrong start here can never be righted
afterward. The rule for operation is previously given under another
chapter. (See Chapter on Coolers).

[Illustration: FIG. 106.--CLEANING HOG CARCASSES.]


=Open Air Hanging.=--It was formerly considered a necessity to have
an open-air hanging room where hogs could dry after slaughtering,
in many cases allowing them to hang over night; the object being to
save refrigeration. It is the common opinion that the economy thus
obtained is anything but economy. Past experience has proved that there
are certain conditions which must be adhered to closely in the safe
handling and curing of pork products, and proper temperatures are among
the most important of these. It is very rare that these temperatures
prevail in the outside atmosphere, and hogs that are left on hanging
floor over night are either insufficiently chilled or over-chilled.
Many packers feel it advantageous, however, to run hogs into a hanging
room, allowing them to dry out for one or two hours prior to putting
them in the chill room. While this has no deteriorating effect on the
product, the expense of handling them and the cost of labor incurred is
about equal to the saving in refrigeration, if they are put directly
into the chill room.

[Illustration: FIG. 107.--SCRAPING LEAF LARD.]


=Chilling Necessities.=--The essential feature in a chill room is
that it be properly constructed and have sufficient refrigeration so
that the temperatures can be controlled precisely as desired. It is
advisable that the coolers be partitioned into tunnels. Into this the
hogs are run as fast as killed, providing that the temperature is not
run up too high. If the temperature goes above 45° F., the carcasses
should be run into another tunnel and placed in the first one as the
temperature goes down.

When the carcasses are to be cut after being forty-eight hours in
the chill room, the cooler should be brought down gradually to a
temperature of 28° F. If they are to be cut when seventy-two hours old,
which from the author’s experience is preferable, the cooler should
be brought down gradually to a temperature of 30° F. With a cooler
properly equipped, and a careful attendant, these instructions can be
carried out in detail, and when thus followed the safe curing of the
product will be found to be practically assured.

While there are other matters which need careful attention, if the
chilling is not done properly, the rest of the operation will never
save the product. The cooler should at all times be kept dry and clean
with dry sawdust on the floor, to absorb drippings, clots of blood,
etc., from the carcasses; whereas, if the drippings are allowed to
remain on the floor they soon become soured and a menace to the product.


=Shrinkage in Chill Rooms.=--The question is often raised as to how
much hogs shrink in the cooler from dressed warm weight to chilled
weight, and many people figure this shrinkage represents a loss. It
is a variable quantity depending upon conditions such as the dryness
of the hogs, the quantity of the air circulation, its temperature and
other agents. If the hogs be sold whole plant weights it represents a
loss, but no cooler can be controlled to prevent shrinkage if it be
working properly. Aside from this quite a proportion of the hog is
passed to curing rooms for treatment in salt or pickle and the original
inherent moisture is hardly a traceable factor here and also the
shrinkage in that portion rendered into lard is immaterial, while the
portion shipped as fresh pork must be well dried out to arrive in good
condition upon shipment.

The following figures give an idea of the actual shrinkage of hogs
placed directly in the coolers. It will be noted the tests were made
on light hogs used for shipping purposes. The percentage of shrinkage
would not be as great on heavier carcasses:

  =TEST NO. 1 ON SHRINKAGE OF HOGS IN COOLER.=

  =Forty-five hogs weighed in cooler direct from killing floor--Warm
  weight, 6,892 pounds; average, 153 pounds; temperature of cooler, 51°
  to 48° F.=

  =Weight after hanging in cooler forty-eight hours, 6,682 pounds;
  shrinkage of 210 pounds or 3.04 per cent; temperature of cooler, 35°
  to 36° F.=

  =Weight after hanging cooler seventy-two hours, 6,570 pounds;
  shrinkage of 322 pounds or 4.67 per cent; temperature of cooler, 31°
  to 32° F.=

  =Weight after hanging in cooler ninety-four and one-half hours, 6,552
  pounds; shrinkage of 340 pounds or 4.93 per cent; temperature of
  cooler, 32° F.=

  =TEST NO. 2.=

  =Forty-five hogs weighed into cooler direct from killing floor--Warm
  weight, 6,970 pounds; average, 155 pounds; temperature of cooler, 54°
  F.=

  =Weight after hanging in cooler forty-six hours, 6,660 pounds;
  shrinkage of 310 pounds or 4.45 per cent; temperature of cooler, 36°
  F.=

  =Weight after hanging in cooler seventy-two hours, 6,623 pounds;
  shrinkage, 347 pounds or 4.97 per cent; temperature of cooler, 32° F.=

  =Weight after hanging in cooler ninety-four hours, 6,613 pounds;
  shrinkage, 357 pounds or 5.12 per cent; temperature or cooler, 32° F.=


=Hog By-Products.=--These consist of the heads, plucks and entrails,
and so much ingenuity is being used to make commercial products
thereof, that nearly as much labor is expended upon these parts as upon
the dressing of the hog.


=Heads.=--The heads are best made free from hair before severing from
the carcass. If the loose hair is properly removed before the head is
dropped, there is far less likelihood of hair coming in contact with
cheek meat and tongues, from which parts it is difficult to hand pick.

The heads cleaned, they are skinned, the tongue is taken out, cheek
meat cut off, jaws pulled, brains removed from skulls, skull frame cut
into, to separate the teeth section and upper part of skull, cleansed
of lithoids; snouts and ears are separated from face pieces and
prepared for food products.


=Plucks.=--Plucks are separated into livers, lungs and hearts. The
hearts are used as sausage meat. The livers are selected for quality
and many sold at retail. Defective livers are used for meat meal or
digester tankage.


=Hog Paunches.=--Thoroughly clean, strip from fat, remove lining for
sale to pepsin factories. Hog pouches are used for head cheese stuffing
or cleaned like tripe for sheep sausage.


=Entrail Fats.=--All entrail fats are satisfactory for use in prime
steam lard if properly cleaned.




CHAPTER XXI

PORK CUTTINGS


  HOG CUTTING -- VARIETY AND CLASSES OF HOGS -- CUTTING FLOOR -- PORK
  CUTS -- HAMS -- SIDE MEATS -- BELLIES -- BACKS -- LOINS -- SHOULDERS
  -- BUTTS AND PLATES -- PERCENTAGE OF YIELD -- CHANGE CUTS ONE SIDE --
  TEST ON FIVE SIDES -- COMPLETE CUTTING TEST.


=Hog Cutting.=--The division of a carcass into its parts for disposal
of fresh pork and for curing purposes, is a part of the expert work in
the packing house business. The cuts placed in the curing cellar for
shipment six or seven months hence and a prognostication as to what cut
will meet a favorable future market; the sale, etc. are true problems.

There are a number of standard cuts, however, that are usually readily
disposed of. A description of the various cuts, etc. is given herein.
Use is made of much valuable data collected and published in the
Illinois State Agricultural Department Bulletin previously referred to.


=Variety and Classes of Hogs.=--A day’s buying of hogs unless selected
to yield a given quality, is likely to yield the following classes:

                                   Carcass Weights
  Smooth Heavy or Heavy Loin Hogs   240 to 400 lb.
  Butcher or Light Loin Hogs        160 to 240 lb.
  Packing Hogs                      100 to 400 lb.
  Bacon or Marked Hogs               90 to 170 lb.
  Shippers                          100 to 200 lb.
  Pigs                               20 to 100 lb.

Different styles of dressing are characteristic of the different
classes of carcasses except heavy and light loin hogs, and shippers and
pigs. Dressed hogs of all classes are cut open along the underline and
through the aitch-bone and brisket, but the method of splitting and
trimming varies with the class, as follows:

“_Loin Hogs._--These are split down through the center of the back-bone
(‘loin-split’ or ‘center-split’) in order that pork loins may be cut
from the sides. They are dressed “packer style,” i. e., head off, leaf
out and hams faced.

[Illustration:

  Inside.
  Outside.

FIG. 108.--SMOOTH HEAVY HOGS.]

“_Packing Hogs._--Are usually split like loin hogs; sometimes on one
side of the back bone, making a hard and soft side.

“_Bacon Hogs._--Or those used for English meats are usually dressed
‘marked’; that is, a knife is passed down each side of the back bone
and the backbone removed. The hogs are dressed regular unless the ham
is intended for a long cut ham.

[Illustration: FIG. 109.--BUTCHER HOGS. =~A~=, HEAVY. =~B~=, LIGHT.]

“_Smooth Heavy or Heavy Loin Hogs._--The following description is of
the usual commercial selection of hogs: These are prime smooth hogs,
either barrows or good, clear (not seedy) sows, weighing 240 to 400
pounds, with from four to six inches of fat on the back; thick, wide,
level sides without depressions in the back; heavy hams, filled out
even with sides, full at the rump and well rounded down toward hocks,
without flabbiness. As their name indicates such hogs are suitable for
heavy loins. The remainder of the sides are being used for heavy short
clears or fat backs and bellies.

“_Butcher or Light Loin Hogs._--A large proportion of the fresh pork
sold in retail markets is pork loins, which are cut into chops and
roasts; hence light loin or ‘pork loin’ hogs are those from which these
cuts can be obtained to best advantage.

[Illustration: FIG. 110.--PACKING HOGS (SOWS). =~A~=, HEAVY. =~B~=,
MEDIUM.]

“To yield loins of the proper size and quality, a hog carcass should
weigh about 160 to 240 pounds and have the same shape, smoothness and
general quality described for heavy loin hogs. The covering of fat
should be two to four inches thick on the back. This class is composed
of barrows and smooth, clear sows. The weights most preferred for
butcher hogs are 200 to 220 pounds. They are principally cut up by
packers, the loins being sold to retail dealers or jobbers. Besides
loins, fat backs, clear bellies, extra ribs and extra short clears are
commonly made from sides of butcher hogs. The hams are cut short and
the shoulders principally made into picnics, New York-cut shoulders and
Boston butts. In some instances carcasses of this class are sold to
retail markets for fresh trade, in which case they are dressed either
‘head on’ or ‘head off’ as ordered. (See Fig. 109.)

[Illustration: FIG. 111.--CHOICE BACON HOGS.]

[Illustration: FIG. 112.--PORK CUTS.

  English Cuts.

  A, Long cut ham.
  B, Long side or middle.

  Domestic Cuts.

  1. Short cut ham.
  2. Loin.
  3. Belly.
  4. Picnic butt.
  5. Boston butt.
  6. Jowl.
  7. Hock.
  8. Fat back.
  9. Clear plate.
  2, 8. Back.
  2, 3, 8. Side.
  4, 7. Picnic shoulder.
  5, 9. Shoulder butt.
  8, 9. Long fat back.
  4, 5, 7, 9. Rough shoulder.]

“_Quality of Packing Hogs._--This class includes mixed hogs of all
weights which are too coarse in quality, rough in shape or soft and
uneven in finish to be suitable primarily for fresh pork products or
smoked meats and are therefore principally packed in such forms as
barreled pork and dry-salt meats.

“_Heavy Packing Hogs._--These are also known as Rough Heavy or Mess
Pork Hogs, consist of rough and seedy sows, coarse barrows, boars and
stags averaging 240 to 400 pounds. All heavy hogs that are too rough to
be classed as loin hogs are included in this grade. Defects common to
these carcasses are thick, rough and wrinkled skin, dark-colored and
coarse-grained flesh, soft, oil fat, large bones and carcass bruises.
(Fig. 110.) They are more largely cut into short ribs and mess pork,
and less into loins, fat backs and bellies than Heavy Loin Hogs, and
consequently are more frequently ‘marked’ and side-split although at
times a large proportion of them are loin-split and pork loins taken
out. The hams are sweet pickled and shoulders made into picnics and
Boston butts.

“_Marked Hogs._--Light marked hogs are those that are suitable
primarily for sugarcured breakfast-bacon bellies and ‘English’ meats.
Since such meats must be comparatively lean, firm and of good quality,
the leading features of bacon hogs are long, deep, smooth sides with
a light, even covering of fat over the entire carcass and especially
uniform on the back and sides. The hams should be full but lean and
the shoulders light and smooth. The flesh must be firm, the fat solid
and the carcass sufficiently mature to insure proper curing. Hogs
which fulfil these conditions weigh 90 to 170 pounds dressed. The most
desirable weights are 120 to 150 pounds. They consist principally of
barrows, but for most grades of bacon, smooth clear sows that resemble
barrows in general quality and finish are used to some extent. The
products principally made from them are ‘English’ middles, backs and
bellies, domestic breakfast-bacon bellies, long-cut and short-cut hams.
Bacon hogs vary from choice to common in quality, finish and shape,
although no fixed grades are universally recognized among packers. This
grade is used for the manufacture of ‘Wiltshire’ and ‘Staffordshire’
sides, ‘English’ backs and bellies, and fancy breakfast-bacon bellies,
also ‘Cumberland’ sides to some extent. They weigh about 120 to 160
pounds.”


=Cutting Floors.=--The hogs thoroughly chilled are ready for the
cutting room. To be safe, however, the hogs should show a temperature
of from 34° to 36° F. inside of the hams and shoulders. If this
temperature in the meat has been reached by gradual chilling, very
little trouble should be experienced in curing the meats. The proper
cutting of the hog carcass is one of the most important items in
the economical handling of hogs. The great variety of cuts and the
percentage of yield of the various cuts are given on succeeding
pages. For cutting and trimming economically it is essential that
suitable facilities be provided. A cutting floor must be laid out for
the quantity to be handled and for the style of meats to be cut. The
carcass being heavy, the use of slides, conveyor mechanical saws, etc.,
are resorted to.

In hog cutting floors of large capacity the arrangement is usually on
three floors or decks, the parts gravitating in the movement toward
a finished cut. It is preferable to do the cutting in a cooled room
in most climates and where a uniform temperature of 40° to 45° can
be maintained. Lower temperature would be better but it is difficult
to keep working people satisfied, particularly where female help is
employed, for trimming purposes.

Be it said that moisture and heat are not conducive to the keeping
quality of meats and it is to be avoided. The handling of cold meat in
warm rooms brings about this condition, consequently it is far better
to avoid exposure in cutting hogs into the several parts.

The usual method is to remove the ham, preferably by knife and hand
saw; to chop the shoulder, further separated by power saw; to pull the
loin and pass the side on for separation to backs and bellies. The
further finishing of the cuts, either immediately on separation from
the side or in an adjacent room, is a matter of space available.


=Pork Cuts.=--Fresh pork cuts are taken more or less from all classes
of hogs. Since the pork loin is by far the leading fresh cut, light
loin hogs are more extensively used for fresh pork than any other
class. The varying demand for loins determines to a considerable
extent the method of cutting other classes of hogs from time to time.
Tenderloins and spareribs are also primarily fresh cuts. Skinned
shoulders, shoulder butts, hams, bellies, fat backs, and raw leaf fat
are sold fresh to a small extent.

[Illustration:

  Skinned Ham.
  Second Brand.
  First Brand.
  Third Brand.

FIG. 113--SHORT CUT HAMS.]

[Illustration: FIG. 114.--SMOKED SHORT CUT HAMS--FIRST BRAND.]

The grading of pork cuts is complex since it involves their quality,
shape, proportions of fat and lean, and weight. Many of the grade names
refer merely to different methods of cutting and curing; but since they
are applied only to cuts of specified quality, thickness or weight,
the grades are in reality based on the latter factors to a large
extent. The various cuts differ considerably as to methods of grading;
consequently an adequate explanation of the factors involved and their
relative importance can be presented only by describing the grades of
each class.


=Hams.=--Hams are of two general kinds, short-cut and long-cut. The
former are made from comparatively fat, plump hams, trimmed short and
round at the butt, and the shank cut off at the hock joint. They are
sold either as Regular Short-Cut, Skinned, or Boneless Rolled Hams.
Long-cut hams are lean, long hams, with the butt left full and the foot
taken off at the first joint below the hock. The principal grades are
Regular Long-Cut, Stafford Cut, Manchester Cut and Italian Cut Hams.


_Short-Cut or American Cut Hams._--These are cut from the side midway
between the hench-bone and slip-bone,[A] trimmed round at the butt,
cushion[B] faced full, not undercut on the skin side, and shank cut off
in or above the hock joint. Until 1909 the Board of Trade required that
the shank be cut above the hock so as to expose the marrow. Practically
all hams are sold as sweet-pickled or smoked meats. For regular
delivery on the Chicago Board of Trade as sweet-pickled hams, they must
average, in lots, not to exceed 16 pounds, with no ham to weigh less
than 12 pounds and none to weigh over twenty pounds. The short-cut hams
is the leading ham cut and has to a large extent taken the place of the
long-cut ham in export trade.

  [A] The hench-bone is the flat portion of the hip-bone that remains
  attached to the socket joint of the ham when the hog is split. The
  slip bone is the portion of the hip-bone that lies in contact with
  the back-bone near the end of the loin.

  [B] The cushion is the fat butt of the ham where the tail piece is
  cut off.

[Illustration: FIG. 115.--BONELESS ROLLED HAMS.]

Short-cut hams are graded by packers according to the brand of smoked
hams for which they are suitable. For the first brand (known as “extra
selected” or “fancy-cured” hams) they are selected for thickness
and firmness of lean meat, plump, well rounded shape, solid, white
fat or medium thickness (one to two inches on a medium-weight ham),
smooth, soft skin, bright color, small shank and absence of bruises.
The bulk of this grade weigh 10 to 16 pounds, 10 to 12 pounds being
most desirable for family trade, and 14 to 16 pounds for hotels
and restaurants. See Fig. 113. Second brand or second grade hams
(frequently termed No. 1’s) are deficient in one or more of the points
just mentioned, but must be reasonably good in general quality and not
exceedingly deficient in any particular. Many of them are too fat for
the first brand. The third brand (also known as “seconds”), includes
those from which a skin-bruise has been removed, also thin, light hams
and any others which lack the shape and quality required for regular
meat market trade.

[Illustration:

  Regular.
  Manchester.
  Stafford.
  Italian.

FIG. 116.--LONG CUT HAMS.]

[Illustration:

  Short Rib.
  Extra Short Rib.
  Short Clear.
  Extra Short Clear.

FIG. 117.--SIDES.]


_Skinned Hams._--These are cut short as explained above, the skin is
removed down to the shank and the fat trimmed off within one inch of
the lean. Until 1909 the Board of Trade regulation required the fat to
be trimmed off within one-half inch of the lean. They are made from fat
hams of first and second grades, weighing from 12 to 30 pounds, but the
bulk weigh 16 to 22 pounds. Many skin-bruised hams are also skinned in
order to remove bruises.


_Boneless Rolled Hams._--These are made from sweet-pickled short-cut
hams by lifting the skin, removing the surplus fat and the bone, and
pressing or tying in the form of a roll with skin on. They are also
made from skinned hams. 15 to 26-pound hams of first and second brands
are used. These are usually prepared from cured hams.


_Regular Long Cut Hams._--These are lean, long hams with only one-half
to one and one-half inches of outside fat, and are “cut from the
side by separating with a knife the hip-bone from the rump, properly
rounded, foot unjointed at first joint below the hock.” They are not
faced; and the butt end is left full, which gives it a flat, lean
appearance. (Fig. 116.) Average weights are 10 to 20 pounds but usually
above 14 pounds. This cut is made from good and choice bacon hogs.
“Yorkshire” or “York” hams are cut slightly longer at the butt than
regular, but are otherwise as described above. “Smithfield” or Virginia
Style hams are long-cut and very lean, dry salt cured, long smoking,
spiced, and “aged” for several months before using. They weigh 9 to 18
pounds.

“Stafford” Hams are cut about two inches shorter at the butt end than
regular long-cut hams, hench-bone taken out exposing the socket joint,
and foot cut off at the first joint below the hock. They are cut from
good and choice bacon hogs and cured for English trade. This grade is
made principally from 14 to 18-pound hams. See Fig. 116.

“Manchester” Hams are a very lean grade of long-cut hams comparatively
flat in shape, butted like “Staffords,” and averaging 14 to 18 pounds.
See Fig. 116.

“Italian” Hams are very thin, long hams, of 9 to 18-pounds average,
and of common to good quality. The hench-bone is removed as from
“Staffords,” the leg is left extra long, the butt trimmed like American
or short-cut hams, the ham pressed flat, dry-salt cured, smoked dark
and seasoned with pepper. See Fig. 116.

Numerous other styles of grades of hams which were formerly packed in
large quantities, especially for export trade, are no longer made or
used sufficiently to be regarded as standard products.


=Side Meats.=--This class includes various grades and cuts of Short
Ribs, Short Clears and “English” Bacon Sides.


_Short Rib Sides._--Regular Short Ribs are middles of hogs from which
short-cut hams and regular or New York shoulders have been taken off,
with back-bone and tenderloin removed, hench-bone and breast-bone
sawed or cut down smooth and even with face of side, feather of blade
not removed and no incision made in the side. This is a regular Board
of Trade cut and is quoted in provision reports simply as “Ribs.” It
is made from medium to heavy packing hogs, in averages from 25 to 80
pounds, but principally from 45 to 65 pounds. On the Board of Trade
regular ribs averaging not less than 30 nor more than 60 pounds are
deliverable at contract price; those over 60 and not over 70 pounds
average are deliverable at a discount of 20 cents per 100 pounds; those
over 70 and not over 80 pounds are discounted 30 cents, per 100 pounds.
Regular ribs are mainly shipped south either as dry-salt or bacon meat.
Many are afterward converted into other cuts, as extra ribs, extra
clears, backs and bellies, as determined by current prices of the
various cuts.

Jobbing or Rough Short Ribs consist of short ribs with the back-bone
left in, the hog being center-split leaving equal part of the back-bone
on each side. They are sold at a discount of two per cent under regular
ribs and must average not less than 30 nor more than 50 pounds for
Board of Trade delivery.

Hard Short Ribs are made the same as Jobbing Ribs except that the
hog is split so as to leave the back-bone all on one side. The side
containing the back-bone is known as the Hard Side or Hard Short Rib
and the other as the Soft Side, the latter being the same as the
Regular Short Rib. They usually weigh 50 to 70 pounds, are cut from
heavy packing hogs and are sold principally in the South as dry-salt
pork.

Extra Short Ribs or “Extra Ribs” are made from Short Ribs by removing
the loin. They average 35 to 50 pounds. 20 to 30 per cent of the stocks
of sides usually consist of Extra Ribs.

Square Cut or “English” Short Ribs are the middles of hogs from which
square shoulders and long-cut hams have been cut, thus making the side
shorter than a regular rib, square-cut and with the feather of the
blade-bone out. They are selected from the better grades of medium
weight packing hogs, and average 20 to 30 pounds.


_Short Clear Sides._--Regular Short Clears are made from regular short
ribs by removing the ribs and cutting reasonably square at each end.
They are graded and handled in the same manner as short ribs. Short
Clears average 30 to 70 pounds and to grade regular must average not
less than 35 pounds. It is primarily a domestic cut but is exported to
some extent. Square-Cut Short Clears are the same as Square-Cut Short
Ribs except the ribs are taken out.

Extra Short Clear Sides or “Extra Clears” are made the same as short
clears except that the loin is also removed. They may be made from
extra short ribs by cutting out the ribs. The pieces weigh 25 to 60
pounds, and must average not less than 30 nor more than 60 pounds to
grade regular.


_“English” Bacon Sides._--These so-called sides or long middles include
both the side and shoulder, and in one instance (Wiltshires) the ham is
also included. After arrival in Great Britain, they are usually made
into “rolled sides,” which are dried for English trade, but in Scotland
are usually smoked.

“Wiltshire” Sides consist of the side, ham and shoulder left together
in one piece; the blade-bone is taken out, foot cut off, the
shoulder trimmed the same as “Cumberlands,” hip-bone taken out, not
backstrapped, the belly trimmed smooth and even, and leg of the ham
cut off below the hock joint. These sides average 40 to 70 pounds and
are selected especially for thickness of lean meat with a light, even
covering of fat from 1¹⁄₄ to 2 inches thick, not exceeding 1³⁄₄ inches
in the best grades. They are made exclusively from choice lean bacon
hogs, and are the highest grade of English bacon sides.

[Illustration: FIG. 118.--SHORT RIBS. CUT FOR MESS PORK.]

[Illustration:

  Heavy.
  Medium.
  Light.

FIG. 119.--PORK LOINS.]

“Cumberland Sides” have the end from which the ham is taken cut
square; the leg cut off below the knee joint; the shoulder ribs,
neckbone, back-bone and blood vein taken out; breast-bone sawed or
cut down smooth and even with the face of the side; and should not be
back-strapped or flanked. They are made from good and choice bacon hogs
and average 20 to 60 pounds, but the bulk run 25 to 40 pounds. This is
by far the leading export side cut, and being made in various grades
and averages is suitable for converting into other English side cuts,
such as “Yorkshires,” “Birminghams,” “Staffords.”

[Illustration:

  Wiltshire.
  Cumberland.
  Dublin.

  Long clear.
  Yorkshire.
  Staffordshire.

FIG. 120.--LONG SIDES.]

Long Rib Sides are made from the same as Cumberlands except the
shoulder bones are taken out and the leg cut off close to the breast.
The average weight is 18 to 25 pounds.

Long Clear Sides are cut the same as long ribs and in addition have
the ribs taken out. For English trade, they are made from good bacon
hogs weighing 120 to 160 pounds dressed, and the sides weigh 18 to
26 pounds. For regular Board of Trade delivery they must not average
less than 45 pounds. The latter are used in domestic trade and
Continental Europe, and are made from the heaviest bacon hogs and from
comparatively lean butcher hogs. Extra long clears are made like long
clears except that the loin is also removed. They are seldom used.

“Dublin” Middles are thin lean sides cut like “Cumberlands” and in
addition the leg cut off close to the breast. They are made from light,
common bacon hogs and pigs. The sides weigh 12 to 20 pounds. See Fig.
120.


=Bellies.=--The grades of this cut are Dry-Salt, Sweet-Pickle,
Breakfast-Bacon and “English” Bellies.


_Dry Salt Bellies._--These are made from short rib sides of mixed
packing hogs by cutting off the back. For delivery on the Board of
Trade they must be “Well cut and trimmed; no bellies that are coarse,
bruised, soft or unsound shall be accepted.” However, they are not as
closely trimmed as sweet-pickle bellies. They are made in averages from
10 to 45 pounds. They are quoted as Dry-Salt Rib and Dry-Salt Clear
Bellies, the latter having the ribs removed and being made usually from
bellies weighing less than 25 pounds. When smoked they are known as
“Bacon Meats.”


_Sweet-Pickle Bellies._--These are made from butcher bacon and good
packing hogs, being “well cut and trimmed, to average, in lots, not to
exceed 14 pounds.” The edges are squared and trimmed more closely than
Dry-Salt bellies. They are made in 6 to 14 pound averages.


_Breakfast-Bacon Bellies._--These are clear bellies cut from bacon or
light butcher hogs and selected with reference to firmness, color,
proportions of fat and lean, smooth skin and general quality. They
are trimmed still more closely than the regular sweet-pickle bellies.
Selected bellies of this class weighing 4 to 10 pounds are known as
Fancy or Special Breakfast Bacon Bellies and are made into the best
brands of sugar-cured breakfast-bacon. The second brand includes
bellies that are too fat for fancy bacon, or which lack the necessary
firmness of flesh and thin smooth skin. They weigh 4 to 16 pounds.

[Illustration:

  Dry Salt Rib.
  Sweet Pickle Rib.
  English Clear.
  Sweet Pickle Clear.
  Fancy Clear.

FIG. 121.--BELLIES.]

[Illustration:

  English Rib.
  English Clear.
  Short Fat Back.
  Sweet Pickle Clear.

FIG. 122.--BACKS.]


_“English” Bellies._--These are clear bellies weighing 10 to 20
pounds, cut from choice heavy bacon hogs and light butcher barrows,
and selected for firmness and a large proportion of lean. They are cut
square on all edges.

[Illustration: FIG. 123.--SMOKED BREAKFAST BACON BELLIES (FIRST BRAND).]


=Backs.=--The grades of backs are Short Ribs, Short Clear, Short Fat
and Long Fat Backs.


_Short Rib Backs._--These are made from short rib sides by cutting off
the belly; they therefore contain the loin, back fat and back-ribs but
not the back-bone nor tenderloin. It is a dry-salt cut, weighing 25 to
45 pounds and is not commonly made. Hard Backs are made from hard rib
sides, thus containing the back-bone. “English” Rib Backs are made from
Square Short Ribs, and average 12 to 20 pounds.


_Short Clear Backs._--These are “made from the sides of smooth hogs
from which the bellies have been cut, back-bone and ribs taken out and
the lean left on, tail-bone sawed off even with the face of the meat,
and trimmed smooth and square on all edges.” They are cut from medium
and heavy packing hogs. The weights run from 16 to 40 pounds. “English”
Short Clear Backs are lighter than regulars, averaging 10 to 20
pounds, and are shorter at the butt end, being cut off in front of the
hip-bone. Pickled Clear Backs are short clear backs of light weight and
lean quality. They weigh 6 to 10 pounds and are sweet-pickled, smoked,
and sold as “Loin Back Bacon” or “Breakfast Bacon Backs.”


_Short Fat Backs._--These are “made from the sides of heavy,
well-fatted hogs from which the bellies have been cut, back-bone and
ribs taken out and all the lean taken off, to be trimmed smoothly and
properly squared on all the edges.” It is made from packing and loin
hogs when cutting pork loins, and is usually quoted as a dry-salt cut
in 8 to 20 pound averages.

Export Short Fat Backs have the blade-bone taken out, are more closely
trimmed and squared than domestic fat backs and are made principally in
heavy averages, 16 to 40 pounds. Paprika Fat Backs are thin, light fat
backs, weighing 4 to 8 pounds.


_Long Fat Backs._--These consist of “the upper half of the side cut
through the center of the ribs from the ham to and including the
shoulder, with the loin and blade-bone taken out, trimmed smoothly and
squared on all edges.” It is a dry-salt cut, not as commonly made as
formerly and used only for export trade.


=Loins.=--Loins, consisting of the back with the fat trimmed off, are
sold either as Regular Pork Loins or as Loin Rolls.


_Pork Loins._--These are made from sides of loin hogs, with the belly
and back-fat cut off; they contain the back-bone, back-ribs and
tenderloins, and have but a small amount of fat (one-fourth to one-half
inch) on the outside. The weights of regular pork loins are 8 to 18
pounds and the price usually varies inversely with the weight. 14
pounds is the heaviest average generally used for fresh trade. Extra or
Long Pork Loins include, in addition to the regular loin, the top or
lean cut of the shoulder, but this cut is seldom made.

Tenderloins consist of short round muscles lying underneath and on each
side of the back-bone; they are attached to the “slip-bone” and extend
from the loin butt almost to the last rib. They weigh one-fourth to one
pound each, but those weighing three-fourths pound or over are most
extensively used. They are cut from hogs that are too heavy and rough
to yield regular pork loins, and from which short ribs, mess pork and
boneless loins are made.


_Loin Rolls._--These are made from heavy loins (15 to 22 pounds) by
boning them completely.


=Shoulders.=--The standard grades are Rough, Regular, Picnic, New York
Cut, Skinned, Square, New Orleans Cut and Boneless Rolled Shoulders.


_Rough Shoulders._--These are untrimmed shoulders as cut from the hog,
separated from the side between the first and second ribs and with the
jowl cut off square.


_Regular Shoulders._--These are “cut as close as possible to the back
part of the forearm joint without exposing the knuckle, (leaving two
ribs on the shoulder) butted off square on top, the neck-bone and short
ribs taken out, neck squared off, blood vein lifted and cut out, breast
flap cut off on or above the knee joint.” They are made principally
from hogs that are too heavy and rough for New York style shoulders,
and at times when the supply of “picnics” exceeds the demand. Sausage
Shoulders are regular-cut shoulders which are unsuitable for dry-salt
or sweet-pickle because of being trimmed to remove bruises, cut from
“shoulder stuck” hogs, or otherwise deficient, and are used for the
purpose which their name indicates. Bladed Shoulders are cut the same
as Regulars except the shoulder-blade is taken out and the corners
rounded.


_Picnics or Calas._--Formerly termed California hams--These are cut
2¹⁄₂ ribs wide, trimmed and packed as follows: “Shank cut off above the
knee joint, trimmed as full on the face (lean surface) as possible,
butt taken off to the edge of the blade, well rounded at the butt
in the shape of a ham, breast flap taken off, and trimmed close and
smooth, reasonably uniform in size, and to average, in lots, not to
exceed 12 pounds. The lighter averages (4 to 8 pounds) are sometimes
termed Boston Shoulders, and were formerly butted shorter than Calas
and only slightly rounded. Skinned Picnics are made from the fatter
grades of Picnics by removing the skin and trimming the fat off within
one-half inch of the lean. They average 6 to 10 pounds.


_New York Cut Shoulders._--These are cut two ribs wide, butted one inch
from blade-bone, trimmed smooth, neck and breast flap cut off, and
shank cut off between knee and brisket. 8 to 14-pound grades are made
for domestic trade and the bulk weigh 10 to 12 pounds.


_Skinned Shoulders._--These are cut similar to New York Cut Shoulders
and in addition the skin is taken off down to the shank and the fat
trimmed off close to the lean. They weigh 6 to 16 pounds, and are sold
fresh, sweet-pickled and smoked. Skinned shoulders with the shank cut
off close to the breast are termed “Chicago Shoulders,” or “Skinned
Shoulders, hock off.”


_Square or 3-Rib Shoulders._--These are cut three ribs wide, squared on
all sides, neck-bones out, breast flap off, foot cut off at the knee
joint, butted just above blade-bone, and so trimmed as to expose the
lean as much as possible. This is the leading “English” shoulder cut,
and is made in averages from 10 to 20 pounds.


_New Orleans Cut Shoulders._--These are made 1¹⁄₂ ribs wide, smooth and
rounded on neck end, part of shoulder butt left on and neck-bone out.
They are cut principally in 12 to 14 pound averages, but are also made
from 10 to 16 pounds, from shoulders that are too rough and fat to make
New York Cut or Picnic Shoulders.


_Boneless Rolled Picnics._--These are made from heavy picnics by
lifting the skin, removing the surplus fat and the bone, pressing or
rolling and tying with cord in the form of a roll in the same manner as
rolled hams. They are also made from skinned picnics. Boneless rolled
shoulders are made similarly from regular shoulders.


=Butts and Plates.=--Butts are cut from the end or top of the shoulder
and from the jowl. Plates are made from shoulder butts. The various
grades of these cuts are Boston Style, Milwaukee Style, Boneless,
Buffalo Style, New York Style, Picnic, Dry-Salt and Square-Cut Butts;
Regular Plates, Clear Plates and Back Plates.

[Illustration:

  Rough.
  New York.
  Skinned.
  New Orleans.
  Square.

FIG. 124.--SHOULDERS.]

[Illustration:

  Boston Butt.
  Regular Plate.
  Clear Plate.
  Picnic Butt.

  Boneless Butt.
  New York Butt.

FIG. 125.--BUTTS AND PLATES.]

[Illustration:

  Heavy.
  Light.

FIG. 126.--PICNICS.]

[Illustration:

  Spare Ribs (full sheet).
  Spare Ribs (half sheet).

  Dry salt butt (jowl).
  Square cut butt.
  Virginia style jowl.

FIG. 127.]


_Boston Style Butts._--These are the ends or top pieces cut from heavy
shoulders when making picnics; the neck-bone, ribs and surplus fat
being removed and the piece trimmed smooth. They include the end of
the shoulder blade. Average weights are 3 to 7 pounds.


_Milwaukee Style Butts._--These are the same as Boston butts with the
neck-bone and rib left on.


_Boneless Butts or Lean Butts._--Also termed Cala Butts--These consist
of the lean, boneless portion of Boston butts between the blade-bone
and neck-bone.


_Buffalo Style Butts._--These are cut the same as boneless butts except
that the neck-bone is left in. They are used fresh.


_New York Style Butts._--These are shoulder butts cut from picnics of
the thinner and lighter grades. They contain the neck-bone, fat and
lean, and are mainly plain-pickled.


_Picnic Butts._--These are picnics from which the surplus fat and the
skin are removed and the shank cut off close to the breast. They are
not trimmed as closely as regular picnics.


_Dry-Salt Butts._--These are made from the jowl (lower part of the neck
and cheek) with the edges trimmed smooth and the piece pounded flat.
They weigh 3 to 5 pounds.


_Square-Cut Butts._--These are also made from the jowl but are more
closely trimmed and squared. They average 2 to 4 pounds.


_Regular Plates._--These are made from shoulder butts by removing
a boneless butt, thus making a fat piece with a facing of lean,
containing the end of the blade-bone, and weighing 6 to 12 pounds.


=Percentages of Yield.=--The variety of cuts into which a hog can be
divided are many and the tables following indicate the percentages of
yield of the different cuts, based on the live weight of the hogs. The
percentage of yield of lard includes both prime steam lard and leaf. It
should be understood that the total yield of the various cuts mentioned
will vary slightly in different markets, and in the same market at
different seasons of the year, according to the quality of the hog.
These variations will not be more than 2 per cent, probably, on the
total yield.

The percentages here given are about an average, or possibly a little
under the average, and are based on hogs averaging from 240 to 275
pounds live weight. Extra short clears, extra short ribs, pork loins,
fat backs and bellies are made out of mixed packing hogs, averaging
220 to 300 pounds; at some seasons of the year averaging twenty-five to
thirty pounds heavier.

In the percentages given it is estimated that the offal, such as hair,
blood, fertilizer, casings, blade bones, etc., will cover the cost of
killing and cutting and in figuring these tests prices of green meat
should be used.

CUT INTO EXTRA SHORT CLEARS WILL YIELD.

                      Per
                     cent.
  Extra short clears  26
  Loin                 9
  Ham                 12¹⁄₂
  Shoulder             9
  Lard                13
                      -----
    Total             69¹⁄₂

CUT INTO EXTRA SHORT RIBS WILL YIELD.

                     Per
                    cent.
  Extra short ribs   26¹⁄₂
  Loin                9
  Ham                12¹⁄₂
  Shoulder            9
  Lard               13
                     -----
    Total            70

CUT INTO PORK LOINS, BELLY AND SHORT FAT BACKS WILL YIELD.

                     Per
                    cent.
  Loin                9
  Belly              12
  Backs              12
  Shoulders           9
  Hams               12¹⁄₂
  Lard               13
                     -----
    Total            67¹⁄₂

CUT INTO REGULAR SHORT RIBS AND ROUGH RIBS WILL YIELD.

                     Per
                    cent.
  Ribs               37
  Hams               12¹⁄₂
  Shoulders           8
  Lard               14¹⁄₂
                     -----
    Total            72

CUT INTO ROUGH RIBS WILL YIELD.

                     Per
                    cent.
  Rough ribs         37¹⁄₂
  Hams               12¹⁄₂
  Shoulders           8
  Lard               14¹⁄₂
                     -----
    Total            72¹⁄₂

CUT INTO REGULAR SHORT CLEARS WILL YIELD.

                     Per
                    cent.
  Short clears       36
  Hams               12¹⁄₂
  Shoulders           8
  Lard               14¹⁄₂
                     -----
    Total            71

CUT INTO MESS PORK WILL YIELD.

                     Per
                    cent.
  Mess pork          38
  Hams               12¹⁄₂
  Shoulders           8
  Lard               14¹⁄₂
                     -----
    Total            73

CUT INTO CUMBERLANDS WILL YIELD.

120-lb. LIVE HOG.

                     Per
                    cent.
  Cumberlands        37
  American cut hams  14
  Lard               10
                     --
    Total            61

170-lb. LIVE HOG.

                     Per
                    cent.
  Cumberlands        39
  American cut hams  14
  Lard               11¹⁄₂
                     -----
    Total            64

145-lb. LIVE HOG.

                     Per
                    cent.
  Cumberlands        38
  American cut hams  14
  Lard               11
                     --
    Total            63

190-lb. LIVE HOG.

                     Per
                    cent.
  Cumberlands        40
  American cut hams  14
  Lard               12¹⁄₂
                     -----
    Total            66¹⁄₂

CUT INTO ENGLISH LONG CLEARS WILL YIELD.

                     Per
                    cent.
  Long clear         38
  American cut hams  14
  Lard               12¹⁄₂
                     -----
    Total            64¹⁄₂


=Change Cuts One Side.=--The following tests indicate how one side
might be manipulated and changed to various cuts. This side weighed
forty-four pounds, with ham and shoulder removed. The prices were those
current at the time of making the tests and indicates the variable
commercial value of the side by the various manipulations. The same
weight side of meat made into different cuts varies in value from $4.00
to $4.34:

SUMMARY OF TESTS.

      Product                                         Value
  Hard ribs                                          $4.2428
  Standard ribs                                       4.1648
  Short clear                                         4.1724
  Back and dry salt bellies                           4.2790
  Back and dry salt rib bellies                       4.3281
  Back and sweet pickle bellies                       4.1979
  Extra rib                                           4.2743
  Extra short clear                                   4.2739
  Dry salt fat backs and dry salt rib bellies         4.3435
  Dry salt fat backs and dry salt bellies             4.2947
  Dry salt fat backs and sweet pickle clear bellies   4.2635
  Fat back (tank) and dry salt rib bellies            4.0677
  Fat back (tank) and dry salt clear bellies          4.0317
  Fat back (tank) and sweet pickle clear bellies      4.0005

[Illustration: FIG. 128.--HARD SHORT RIBS. (NOT DELIVERABLE, BOARD OF
TRADE.)]

HARD SHORT RIB TEST.

  ===============+=====+========+=======
       Yield     | Lbs.| Per lb.| Value
  ---------------+-----+--------+-------
  Hard short ribs|43   |$0.09675|$4.1603
  Lean trimmings |  ¹⁄₄|   .07  |  .0175
  Fat trimmings  |  ¹⁄₂|   .065 |  .0325
  Tenderloins    |  ¹⁄₄|   .13  |  .0325
  ---------------+-----+--------+-------
    Totals       |44   |  ...   |$4.2428
  ---------------+-----+--------+-------

[Illustration: FIG. 129.--SHORT RIB.]

STANDARD SHORT RIB TEST.

  ===================+=====+=======+=======
       Yield         | Lbs.|Per lb.| Value
  -------------------+-----+-------+-------
  Standard short ribs|41³⁄₄| $0.097|$4.0498
  Lean trimmings     |  ¹⁄₂|   .07 |  .0350
  Fat trimmings      |  ¹⁄₂|   .065|  .0325
  Tenderloins        |  ¹⁄₄|   .13 |  .0325
  Back bone          | 1   |   .015|  .0150
  -------------------+-----+-------+-------
    Totals           |44   |  ...  |$4.1648
  -------------------+-----+-------+-------

[Illustration: FIG. 130.--EXTRA SHORT RIB.]

EXTRA SHORT RIB TEST.

  ===============+=====+========+=======
       Yield     | Lbs.| Per lb.| Value
  ---------------+-----+--------+-------
  Extra short rib|34¹⁄₂|$0.0965 |$3.3293
  Pork loin      | 8¹⁄₂|  .105  |  .9031
  Lean trimmings |  ¹⁄₄|  .06625|  .0175
  Fat trimmings  |  ³⁄₄|  .0965 |  .0244
  ---------------+-----+--------+-------
    Totals       |44   |  ...   |$4.2743
  ---------------+-----+--------+-------

[Illustration: FIG. 131.--SHORT CLEAR (SHORT RIB AND SPARE RIB
REMOVED.)]

SHORT CLEAR TEST (SHORT RIB AND SPARE RIB REMOVED.)

  ==============+=====+========+=======
      Yield     | Lbs.| Per lb.| Value
  --------------+-----+--------+-------
  Short clears  |39³⁄₄|$0.10025|$3.9497
  Lean trimmings|  ¹⁄₂|   .07  |  .0350
  Fat trimmings |  ¹⁄₂|   .065 |  .0325
  Tenderloins   |  ¹⁄₄|   .13  |  .0325
  Back bone     | 1   |   .015 |  .0150
  Spare ribs    | 2   |   .055 |  .1100
  --------------+-----+--------+-------
    Totals      |44   |   ...  |$4.1724
  --------------+-----+--------+-------

[Illustration: FIG. 132.--EXTRA SHORT CLEAR.]

EXTRA SHORT CLEAR TEST.

  ==================+=====+========+=======
       Yield        | Lbs.| Per lb.| Value
  ------------------+-----+--------+-------
  Extra short clears|33¹⁄₂|$0.097  |$3.2495
  Pork loins        | 8¹⁄₂|  .10675|  .9031
  Lean trimmings    |  ¹⁄₄|  .07   |  .0175
  Fat trimmings     |  ³⁄₄|  .065  |  .0488
  Spare ribs        | 1   |  .055  |  .0550
  ------------------+-----+--------+-------
    Totals          |44   |  ...   |$4.2739
  ------------------+-----+--------+-------

[Illustration: FIG. 133.--CLEAR BACK.]

CLEAR BACK.--S. P. BELLY TEST.

  ============================+=====+========+=======
              Yield           | Lbs.| Per lb.| Value
  ----------------------------+-----+--------+-------
  Clear backs                 |21³⁄₄|$0.10075|$2.1903
  Clear bellies (sweet pickle)|15¹⁄₄|  .105  | 1.6013
  Lean trimmings              | 1   |  .07   |  .0700
  Fat trimmings               | 2³⁄₄|  .065  |  .1788
  Tenderloin                  |  ¹⁄₄|  .13   |  .0325
  Back bone                   | 1   |  .015  |  .0150
  Spare ribs                  | 2   |  .055  |  .1100
  ----------------------------+-----+--------+-------
    Totals                    |44   |  ...   |$4.1979
  ----------------------------+-----+--------+-------

CLEAR BACK.--D. S. BELLY TEST.

  ========================+=====+========+=======
           Yield          | Lbs.| Per lb.| Value
  ------------------------+-----+--------+-------
  Clear back              |21³⁄₄|$0.10075|$2.1914
  Clear bellies (dry salt)|17¹⁄₂|  .1045 | 1.8288
  Lean trimmings          |  ³⁄₄|  .07   |  .0525
  Fat trimmings           |  ³⁄₄|  .065  |  .0488
  Tenderloin              |  ¹⁄₄|  .13   |  .0325
  Back bone               | 1   |  .015  |  .0150
  Spare ribs              | 2   |  .055  |  .1100
  ------------------------+-----+--------+-------
    Totals                |44   |  ...   |$4.2790
  ------------------------+-----+--------+-------

CLEAR BACK.--D. S. RIB BELLY TEST.

  ======================+=====+========+=======
           Yield        | Lbs.| Per lb.| Value
  ----------------------+-----+--------+-------
  Clear back            |21³⁄₄|$0.10075|$2.1903
  Rib bellies (dry salt)|19¹⁄₂|  .102  | 1.9890
  Lean trimmings        |  ³⁄₄|  .07   |  .0525
  Fat trimmings         |  ³⁄₄|  .065  |  .0488
  Tenderloin            |  ¹⁄₄|  .13   |  .0325
  Back bone             | 1   |  .015  |  .0150
  ----------------------+-----+--------+-------
    Totals              |44   |  ...   |$4.3281
  ----------------------+-----+--------+-------

LOIN.--S. P. BELLY, D. S. FAT BACK TEST.

  ============================+=====+========+=======
              Yield           | Lbs.| Per lb.| Value
  ----------------------------+-----+--------+-------
  Fat backs (dry salt)        |16¹⁄₂|$0.09525|$1.5716
  Clear bellies (sweet pickle)|14   |  .105  | 1.4700
  Pork loins                  | 8¹⁄₂|  .10675|  .9031
  Lean trimmings              |  ³⁄₄|  .07   |  .0525
  Fat trimmings               | 3¹⁄₄|  .065  |  .2113
  Spare ribs                  | 1   |  .055  |  .0550
  ----------------------------+-----+--------+-------
    Totals                    |44   |  ...   |$4.2635
  ----------------------------+-----+--------+-------

LOIN.--S. P. BELLY, FAT BACK (TANK) TEST.

  ============================+=====+========+=======
              Yield           | Lbs.| Per lb.| Value
  ----------------------------+-----+--------+-------
  Clear bellies (sweet pickle)|14   |$0.105  |$1.4700
  Pork loins                  | 8¹⁄₂|  .10675|  .9031
  Lean trimmings              | 1¹⁄₂|  .07   |  .1050
  Fat trimmings               | 3¹⁄₄|  .065  |  .2113
  Back fat, tank              |15³⁄₄|  .07975| 1.2561
  Spare ribs                  | 1   |  .055  |  .0550
  ----------------------------+-----+--------+-------
    Totals                    |44   |  ...   |$4.0005
  ----------------------------+-----+--------+-------

LOIN.--D. S. BELLY, FAT BACK (TANK) TEST.

  ========================+=====+========+=======
           Yield          | Lbs.| Per lb.| Value
  ------------------------+-----+--------+-------
  Fat backs, tank         |15³⁄₄|$0.07975|$1.2561
  Pork loins              | 8¹⁄₂|  .10675|  .9031
  Lean trimmings          | 1   |  .07   |  .0700
  Fat trimmings           | 2   |  .065  |  .1300
  Clear bellies (dry salt)|15³⁄₄|  .10275| 1.6175
  Spare ribs              | 1   |  .055  |  .0550
  ------------------------+-----+--------+-------
    Totals                |44   |  ...   |$4.0317
  ------------------------+-----+--------+-------

[Illustration: FIG. 134.--RIB BELLY.]

LOIN.--D. S. FAT BACKS. D. S. RIB BELLY TEST.

  ======================+=====+========+=======
           Yield        | Lbs.| Per lb.| Value
  ----------------------+-----+--------+-------
  Rib bellies (dry salt)|16³⁄₄|$0.10275|$1.7203
  Fat backs (dry salt)  |16¹⁄₂|  .09525| 1.5716
  Pork loin             | 8¹⁄₂|  .10675|  .9031
  Lean trimmings        |  ¹⁄₄|  .07   |  .0175
  Fat trimmings         | 2   |  .065  |  .1300
  ----------------------+-----+--------+-------
    Totals              |44   |  ...   |$4.3435
  ----------------------+-----+--------+-------

LOIN.--D. S. FAT BACK.--CLEAR BELLY TEST.

  ========================+=====+========+=======
             Yield        | Lbs.| Per lb.| Value
  ------------------------+-----+--------+-------
  Fat backs (dry salt)    |16¹⁄₂|$0.09525|$1.5716
  Clear bellies (dry salt)|15³⁄₄|  .10275| 1.6175
  Pork loin               | 8¹⁄₂|  .10675|  .9031
  Lean trimmings          |  ¹⁄₄|  .07   |  .0175
  Fat trimmings           | 2   |  .065  |  .1300
  Spare ribs              | 1   |  .055  |  .0550
  ------------------------+-----+--------+-------
    Totals                |44   |  ...   |$4.2947
  ------------------------+-----+--------+-------

LOIN.--D. S. RIB BELLY. FAT BACKS (TANK TEST).

  ======================+=====+=========+=======
           Yield        | Lbs.| Per lb. | Value
  ----------------------+-----+---------+-------
  Fat backs, tank       |15³⁄₄|$0.07975 |$1.2561
  Pork loins            | 8¹⁄₂|  .10675 |  .9031
  Lean trimmings        | 1   |  .07    |  .0700
  Fat trimmings         | 2   |  .065   |  .1300
  Rib bellies (dry salt)|16³⁄₄|  .102   | 1.7085
  ----------------------+-----+---------+-------
    Totals              |44   |  ...    |$4.0677
  ----------------------+-----+---------+-------


=Tests on Five Sides.=--The following tests show the results of cutting
sides in various manner and are useful as showing the percentage yield
in various lots:

RECAPITULATION.

                                                                  Value
                                                                per cwt.
  Five rough ribs, tenderloin in, made into extra short clears   $9.910
  Five rough sides with the tenderloin in, made into extra
  short ribs and pork loins                                       9.946
  Five rough sides made into extra short clears, this cut being
  the same as the previous one, except that the spare rib is
  removed from the side                                           9.880
  Five rough ribs, tenderloin in, made into regular ribs          9.734
  Five rough sides made into pork loins, clear bellies, which
  consist of taking out the spare ribs and fat backs              9.600
  Five rough ribs with tenderloin in, made into rib bellies,
  pork loins and fat backs                                        9.614
  Five rough ribs made into short clear backs by removing spare
  rib on loin and leaving spare ribs in bellies                   9.700
  Five rough ribs made into short clear backs, removing the
  spare rib from the bellies, making them clear bellies           9.700

In the foregoing tests the prices were effective at the time the tests
were made. The percentages are accurate. It will be noted that the
different cuts vary in value from $9.60 to $9.91, a variation of 31c
per hundred pounds. From this will readily be seen the advantage of
cutting hogs according to the market conditions.

FIVE ROUGH RIBS, TENDERLOIN IN, MADE INTO REGULAR RIBS.

  =================+====+======+=======+======
                   |    |  Per |       |
        Yield      |Lbs.| cent.|Per lb.| Value
  -----------------+----+------+-------+------
  Five regular ribs| 350| 95.89|$0.0980|$34.30
  Back bones       |   8|  2.19|  .02  |   .16
  Tenderloins      |   5|  1.37|  .19  |   .95
  Fat              |   2|   .55|  .0625|   .12
  -----------------+----+------+-------+------
    Totals         | 365|100.00|  ...  |$35.53
  -----------------+----+------+-------+------
  Value, $9.734 per 100 pounds.

FIVE ROUGH RIBS CONVERTED TO RIB BELLIES IN SHORT CLEAR BACKS.

  ======================+======+======+=======+======
                        |      |  Per |       |
         Yield          | Lbs. | cent.|Per lb.| Value
  ----------------------+------+------+-------+------
  Five short clear backs|128   | 47.76|$0.0975|$12.48
  Five rib bellies      |112   | 41.79|  .101 | 11.31
  Tenderloins           |  4   |  1.49|  .19  |   .76
  Ribs                  |  6¹⁄₂|  2.42|  .08  |   .52
  Fat trimmings         |  9   |  3.36|  .0625|   .56
  Blade bones           |  3   |  1.12|  .07  |   .21
  Back bones            |  5   |  1.87|  .02  |   .10
  Lean trimmings        |   ¹⁄₂|   .19|  .0775|   .04
  ----------------------+------+------+-------+------
    Totals              |268   |100.00|  ...  |$25.98
  ----------------------+------+------+-------+------
  Value, $9.70 per 100 pounds.

FIVE ROUGH RIBS CONVERTED TO SHORT CLEARS.

  ============+======+======+========+======
              |      |  Per |        |
     Yield    | Lbs. | cent.| Per lb.| Value
  ------------+------+------+--------+------
  Short clears|330¹⁄₂| 90.55|$0.10125|$33.46
  Spare ribs  | 16   |  4.38|  .08   |  1.28
  Tail bones  |  3¹⁄₂|   .96|  .03   |   .10
  Back bones  |  8   |  2.19|  .02   |   .16
  Tenderloins |  5   |  1.37|  .19   |   .95
  Fat         |  2   |   .55|  .0625 |   .12
  ------------+------+------+--------+--------
    Totals    |365   |100.00|  ...   |$36.07
  ------------+------+------+--------+--------
  Value, $9.88 per 100 pounds.

FIVE SIDES CLEAR BACKS.--CLEAR BELLIES.

  ======================+======+======+=======+======
                        |      |  Per |       |
          Yield         | Lbs. | cent.|Per lb.| Value
  ----------------------+------+------+-------+------
  Five short clear backs|128   | 47.76|$0.0975|$12.48
  Five clear bellies    |105   | 39.18|  .1025| 10.76
  Spare ribs            |  7   |  2.61|  .08  |   .56
  Tenderloins           |  4   |  1.49|  .19  |   .76
  Ribs                  |  6¹⁄₂|  2.42|  .08  |   .52
  Fat trimmings         |  9   |  3.36|  .0625|   .56
  Blade bones           |  3   |  1.12|  .07  |   .21
  Back bones            |  5   |  1.87|  .02  |   .10
  Lean trimmings        |   ¹⁄₂|   .19|  .0775|   .04
  ----------------------+------+------+-------+------
    Totals              |268   |100.00|  ...  |$25.99
  ----------------------+------+------+-------+------
  Value, $9.70 per 100 pounds.

FIVE ROUGH SIDES, MADE INTO PORK LOINS, CLEAR BELLIES.

  ==================+======+======+=======+======
                    |      |  Per |       |
        Yield       | Lbs. | cent.|Per lb.| Value
  ------------------+------+------+-------+------
  Five pork loins   | 63¹⁄₂| 22.64|$0.1075|$ 6.82
  Five clear bellies|101   | 36.01|  .1025| 10.35
  Spare ribs        |  8¹⁄₂|  3.03| .08   |   .68
  Five fat backs    | 85   | 30.30|  .09  |  7.65
  Fat trimmings     | 18¹⁄₂|  6.59|  .0625|  1.16
  Lean trimmings    |   ¹⁄₂|   .18|  .0775|   .04
  Blade bones       |  3¹⁄₂|  1.25|  .07  |   .24
  ------------------+------+------+-------+------
    Totals          |280¹⁄₂|100.00|  ...  |$26.94
  ------------------+------+------+-------+------
  Value, $9.60 per 100 pounds.

FIVE ROUGH RIBS, TENDERLOIN IN, CONVERTED TO EXTRA SHORT CLEARS.

  =======================+====+======+========+======
                         |    |  Per |        |
            Yield        |Lbs.| cent.| Per lb.| Value
  -----------------------+----+------+--------+------
  Five extra short clears| 189| 72.69|$0.09875|$18.66
  Spare ribs             |   5|  1.93|  .08   |   .40
  Five pork loins        |  57| 21.92|  .1075 |  6.13
  Fat trimmings          |   8|  3.08|  .0625 |   .50
  Lean trimmings         |   1|   .38|  .0775 |   .08
  -----------------------+----+------+--------+------
    Totals               | 260|100.00|  ...   |$25.77
  -----------------------+----+------+--------+------
  Value, $9.91 per 100 pounds.

FIVE ROUGH RIBS, TENDERLOIN CONVERTED TO RIB BELLIES, PORK LOINS AND
FAT BACKS.

  ================+======+======+=======+======
                  |      |  Per |       |
       Yield      | Lbs. | cent.|Per lb.| Value
  ----------------+------+------+-------+------
  Five pork loins | 63¹⁄₂| 22.64|$0.1075|$ 6.82
  Five rib bellies|109¹⁄₂| 39.04|  .101 | 11.06
  Five fat backs  | 85   | 30.30|  .09  |  7.65
  Fat trimmings   | 18¹⁄₂|  6.59|  .0625|  1.16
  Lean trimmings  |   ¹⁄₂|   .18|  .0775|   .04
  Blade bones     |  3¹⁄₂|  1.25|  .07  |   .24
  ----------------+------+------+-------+------
    Totals        |280¹⁄₂|100.00|  ...  |$26.79
  ----------------+------+------+-------+------
  Value, $9.614 per 100 pounds.

EXTRA SHORT RIBS.

  =====================+====+======+========+======
                       |    |  Per |        |
          Yield        |Lbs.| cent.| Per lb.| Value
  ---------------------+----+------+--------+------
  Five extra short ribs| 194| 74.62|$0.09875|$19.15
  Five pork loins      |  57| 21.92|  .1075 |  6.13
  Fat trimmings        |   8|  3.08|  .0625 |   .50
  Lean trimmings       |   1|   .38|  .0775 |   .08
  ---------------------+----+------+--------+------
    Totals             | 260|100.00|  ...   |$25.86
  ---------------------+----+------+--------+------
  Value, $9.946 per 100 pounds.


=Special Test on 1,265 Mixed Hogs.=--Average Live Weight 245 Pounds. In
all well-managed houses a test is made at least weekly to determine the
actual profit or loss appearing. These tests are of value as a guide
when buying hogs to secure a quality best adapted to make cuts sell to
the best advantage. The following tests on 1,265 live hogs, averaging
245 pounds, shows the method in use. It will be noted that this test is
carried through carefully, taking the market price on the various cuts.
The recapitulation shows the actual results at the time the test was
made. All percentages of cuts of meats shown in the following tables
are figured from the live weight of hogs:

HAMS.

  ========================+============+======+======+========+=========
                          |            |      |Green |Average |
                          | Average Wt.|No. of|Weight| Price  |
         Product          |     Lbs.   |Pieces| Lbs. |Per lb. |  Value
  ------------------------+------------+------+------+--------+---------
  Amer. cut hams          |10 and under|    68|   616|$0.11375|$   70.07
  Amer. cut hams          |11-13       |   143| 1,740|  .0975 |   169.65
  Amer. cut hams          |14-16       |   658| 9,965|  .0925 |   921.76
  Amer. cut hams          |18 and over |   590|11,114|  .0925 | 1,028.04
  Amer. cut hams          |(skinned)   |   415| 7,503|  .1025 |   769.06
  Special hams            |11-13       |   223| 2,892|  .10   |   289.20
  Special hams            |14-16       |   337| 5,187|  .095  |   492.77
  Face and cushion bruised|            |      |      |        |
  hams                    |            |     9|   145|  .085  |    12.33
  No. 2 hams              |14 and under|    63|   933|  .0925 |    86.30
  No. 2 hams              |15 and over |    24|   288|  .0875 |    25.30
  ------------------------+------------+------+------+--------+---------
    Totals                |            | 2,530|40,383|$0.0957 |$3,864.48
  ------------------------+------------+------+------+--------+---------

SHOULDERS.

  ==================+===============+======+======+========+=========
                    |               |      |Green | Average|
                    |  Average Wt.  |No. of|Weight|  Price |
       Product      |      Lbs.     |Pieces| Lbs. | Per lb.|  Value
  ------------------+---------------+------+------+--------+---------
  N. Y. shoulders   |     ...       |    77|   680|$0.0675 |$   45.90
  Rough             |     ...       |     8|   202|  .07375|    14.90
  Skinned           |     ...       |   283| 2,731|  .075  |   204.83
  Three rib         |     ...       |    18|   250|  .08   |    20.00
  California hams   | 5¹⁄₂ and under|   929| 4,705| }      |
  California hams   | 5¹⁄₂ -  7     |   856| 5,838| }.06125|   828.90
  California hams   | 8    - 10     |   324| 2,532| }      |
  California hams   |10    and over |    45|   458| }      |
  Clear plates      |     ...       |      |   890|  .05775|    51.40
  Boneless ham butts|     ...       |      |   382|  .075  |    28.65
  Jowl butts        |     ...       |      |   214|  .0425 |     9.10
  Rough butts       |     ...       |      |   245|  .07675|    18.07
  Boston butts      |     ...       |      | 6,703|  .075  |   502.73
  Barrel pork       |     ...       |      | 1,110|  .06025|    66.88
  ------------------+---------------+------+------+--------+---------
    Totals          |     ...       | 2,530|26,940|$0.0664 |$1,791.36
  ------------------+---------------+------+------+--------+---------

SIDES.

  ===========================+=======+======+=======+========+=========
                             |Average|      | Green | Average|
                             |  Wt.  |No. of| Weight|  Price |
            Product          |  Lbs. |Pieces|  Lbs. | Per lb.|  Value
  ---------------------------+-------+------+-------+--------+---------
  Dry salt fancy bellies     |  4- 6 |    85|    383|$0.11   |$   42.13
  Sweet pickle clear bellies |  6- 8 |    53|    275|  .1075 |    29.56
  Sweet pickle clear bellies |  8-10 |   252|  2,158|  .1025 |   221.19
  Sweet pickle clear bellies | 10-13 |   274|  3,059|  .095  |   288.70
  Sweet pickle clear bellies | 13-15 |    67|    893|  .0875 |    78.13
  Dry salt clear bellies     | 18-20 |   144|  2,803|  .07775|   217.93
  Dry salt clear bellies     | 25-30 |   135|  3,711|  .076  |   282.04
  Regular short ribs         | 60-70 |   116|  7,731|  .072  |   556.63
  Extra short ribs           | 30-40 | 1,404| 52,600|  .069  | 3,629.40
  Fat backs                  | 10-12 |   110|  1,246|  .057  |    71.02
  Fat backs                  | 25-30 |    10|    260|  .065  |    16.90
  Back pork                  |  ...  |  ... |  3,330|  .0585 |   194.80
  Back fat (fifty K. R. lard)|  ...  |  ... |  5,100|  .057  |   290.70
  Brisket pork               |  ...  |  ... |    245|  .08   |    19.60
  Regular loins              |  ...  | 2,414| 27,268|  .1025 | 2,794.97
  ---------------------------+-------+------+-------+--------+---------
    Totals                   |  ...  | 5,064|111,042|$0.0787 |$8,733.70
  ---------------------------+-------+------+-------+--------+---------

LARD.

  ==========================+======+========+=========
                            |Green | Average|
                            |Weight|  Price |
           Product          | Lbs. | Per lb.|  Value
  --------------------------+------+--------+---------
  Prime steam lard (killing)|16,075|   ...  |   ...
  Prime steam lard (cutting)|17,059|   ...  |   ...
  --------------------------+------+--------+---------
    Totals                  |33,134|$0.07125|$2,289.55
  --------------------------+------+--------+---------
  Leaf lard                 | 7,965|$0.07   |$  557.55
  --------------------------+------+--------+---------

MISCELLANEOUS.

  ===========+======+=======+=======
             |Green |Average|
             |Weight| Price |
    Product  | Lbs. |Per lb.| Value
  -----------+------+-------+-------
  Spare ribs | 1,474|$0.04  |$ 58.96
  Tenderloins|    75|  .15  |  11.25
  Tails      |    96|  .02  |   1.92
  Neck bones | 1,012|  .01  |  10.12
  Blade bones|   296|  .04  |  11.84
  Trimmings  | 7,383|  .04  | 295.32
  Feet       | 4,803|  .01  |  48.03
  -----------+------+-------+-------
    Totals   |15,139|$0.0289|$437.44
  -----------+------+-------+-------

OFFAL.

  ===================+======+======+=======+=======
                     |      |Green |Average|
                     |No. of|Weight| Price |
       Product       |Pieces| Lbs. |Per lb.| Value
  -------------------+------+------+-------+-------
  Cheek and head meat|  ... | 1,664| $0.02 |$ 33.28
  Tongues            |  ... |   950|   .055|  52.25
  Hearts             |  ... |   335|   .01 |   3.35
  Kidneys            |  ... |   380|   .01 |   3.80
  Brains             |  ... |    46|   .02 |    .92
  Plucks             |  600 |   ...|   .02 |  12.00
  Heads              |  ... |   102|   .035|   3.57
  Ears               |  ... |    25|   .02 |    .50
  Snouts             |  ... |   985|   .02 |  19.70
  -------------------+------+------+-------+-------
    Totals           |  ... | 4,487|   ... |$129.37
  -------------------+------+------+-------+-------

  Estimated value of blood and casings at 6c per head, $77.10. Added to
  $129.37, the value of the offal, makes a total value of $206.47.

RECAPITULATION.

  =======================+=====+=======+========+==========
                         | Per |       |Average |
                         | cent|  Lbs. | Price  |
         Product         |Yield| Weight| Per lb.|   Value
  -----------------------+-----+-------+--------+----------
  Hams                   |13.04| 40,383|$0.0957 |$ 3,864.38
  Shoulders              | 8.70| 26,940|  .0665 |  1,791.36
  Sides                  |35.86|111,042|  .0787 |  8,733.70
  Prime steam lard       |10.38| 32,134|  .07125|  2,289.55
  Leaf lard              | 2.57|  7,965|  .07   |    557.55
  Miscellaneous          | 4.89| 15,139|  .289  |    437.44
  Offal ($0.167 per head)| ... |   ... |   ...  |    206.47
  No. 1 grease           | ... |  1,281|  .07125|     91.27
  -----------------------+-----+-------+--------+----------
    Total yield          |75.44|234,884|   ...  |$17,971.72
  -----------------------+-----+-------+--------+----------

NET RESULTS

  1,265 hogs--Net live weight 309,925 pounds at average
              $0.0533 per lb.                                 $16,518.90
            --Killing expense                                     642.50
     13 condemned for No. 1 grease, weighing 3,158 lbs. and
              7 condemned for No. 2 grease, weighing 1,908
              lbs., at average, $0.0150 per lb.                    75.99
                                                              ----------
    Total                                                     $17,237.39

  Gain, $733.33, or 58c per hog, or 23c per 100 pounds alive.

Prices on preceding tests are changeable--the percentage yield is
practically the same at present.




CHAPTER XXII.

CURING MEATS


  CURING CELLARS -- HAMS AND THEIR TREATMENT -- WILDER HAMS -- SHOULDER
  MEATS -- BELLIES -- OVERHAULING MEATS -- FANCY BACON -- SHIPPING
  AGES -- SECOND PICKLE -- DRY SALT MEATS -- CURING DRY SALT MEATS --
  SMOKING DRY SALT MEATS -- BARRELED PORK -- CURING BARRELED PORK --
  ENGLISH MEATS -- PIGS FEET -- PIGS TONGUES -- PIGS SNOUTS.


=Curing Cellars.=--Curing Cellars are pretty generally carried at a
temperature of 35° to 36° F., for sweet-pickled meats and 38° to 40°
F. for dry salted meats. At times the temperature in the foregoing is
lowered to 34° F., but not frequently.


_Vessels._--Formerly tierces were used almost entirely, but the trend
has been toward the use of vats or casks, uniform so far as possible
in capacity, since it tends to better standardization. The vats can be
taken out for airing, washing and sunlight, which is a prime requisite.

Dimensions of a standard vat are about as follows: For 1,500 pounds
capacity, 42 inches high, 42 inches in diameter at the head, 48 inches
in diameter at the bilge or center of vat. Thickness of stave one inch.
Heads 1¹⁄₂ inch yellow pine; five galvanized iron hoops, two inches
wide, made from No. 12 iron. Heads to be set flush with the chime, so
that the weight of the contents comes directly on the floor.

Vats of this kind seem to last indefinitely and are much cheaper to
handle than tierces, saving a large expense in coopering, and making
it possible to use the space in the curing houses to better advantage.
Cold storage houses should be sufficiently high under the joists, so
these vats can be double-decked, one setting on top of the other,
leaving about twenty inches of space. When handled in this manner the
space in the cellar is used to much better advantage with vats than
tierces.

Into a vat of the dimensions named, should be put 1,450 pounds of meat.
It will take practically sixty-eight gallons of pickle to fill the
vat on a basis of 21¹⁄₃ pounds of meat to be cured, to each gallon of
pickle.


=Hams and their Treatment.=--In the handling of product there is no
part of the animal that requires as close and skillful attention as
does the ham during the curing process. It is a thick, compact body of
meat and it takes considerable time to chill, it becomes tainted very
soon if not properly chilled. If the heat is removed, and the curing
agent does not reach the interior promptly, decomposition sets in.
As before stated the first chilling of the carcass has everything to
do with the curing of this meat. If hams are properly chilled in the
cooler, the balance of the process is comparatively simple. If they
are only partially chilled from lack of proper attention or because
of improper coolers, no curing agency will bring the hams out in a
satisfactory condition.


_Chilling._--In hog coolers properly operated, on light and medium
weight hogs, where a ham temperature of 33° to 35° F. is obtained,
hams can be packed directly into the vats or tierces. Heavy hams are
sometimes placed in a holding room for twenty-four hours and kept at a
temperature of 33° F. to thoroughly chill. Some curers prefer to shelve
all hams and to pump them before shelving.


_Meat Temperatures._--Each day’s cutting of hams should be tested
internally with a thermometer made especially for this purpose to
find the internal temperature. Light hams averaging from twelve to
fourteen pounds should run from 33° to 34° F., heavy hams from 35° to
37° F. Temperatures higher than those designated are not safe, from
a curing standpoint, and should be reduced to these points before
the hams can be safely cured. What is meant by “safely cured” is the
minimum percentage of sour, which should run less than one ham in 1,000
pieces. If previous directions as to refrigeration, handling, etc., are
followed closely this condition is possible.


_Pumping._--The use of a pump in curing hams is a requisite to
reasonably safe cure. A pump similar to that shown in Fig. 135 is
used, the pickle being inserted around the joint by means of a hollow
nickel needle. The needle is put in where the pickle is wanted, and
with one stroke of the pump the pickle is forced into the inside of the
ham. It is advisable to use a strong pickle, getting as much of the
curative properties as possible into the ham with a minimum amount of
water.

[Illustration: FIG. 135.--HAM PUMP.]

The pump illustrated is designed so that a measured quantity must be
thrown per stroke. It was formerly thought unwise to pump the selected
or fancy hams, but if the work be carefully done, whatever damage might
occur, is justified by the general results. In pumping hams care should
be used not to pump them heavy enough to burst the tissues, and to
get as much as possible of the ingredient pumped in around the stifle
joint, as this is the joint where decomposition sets in.


_Pumping Pickle._--Ham pumping pickle is usually quite a strong
solution. A good recipe is one gallon of 100° brine, to which is added
fifteen ounces of saltpetre (potassium nitrate) and fifteen ounces
sugar; in the same proportion for larger quantities.

The sugar has the effect of toning down the brash salt effect in the
meat, giving it a more palatable flavor, also to a certain extent it
aids in curing. The saltpetre aids in curing the meat, and gives it
a bright, attractive color. Meat which is cured without the use of
saltpetre has a dead appearance, and is very unattractive.


_Pumping Quantities._--Fancy hams should be pumped with one stick of
the needle pushed in from the shank end, delivering along the bone at
the stifle joint, using two strokes of the pump.

Regular hams should be pumped as above with an additional stick in the
stifle and one under the aitch bone, one in the butt of the ham, two
strokes per stick. Heavy hams, eighteen to twenty pounds, use three
strokes for each stick. Picnics or Californias should be pumped with
one stroke. Stick in shank, in blood vessel over blade-bone and under
blade-bone.


_Ham Curing Pickle._--Ham curing pickle varies among different curing
authorities. The use of freezers for storing fully cured meats is now
so general that the curing pickle, even for fancy hams, can be made
somewhat stronger with no serious saltiness resulting, provided the ham
is removed at about the cured age. Fancy hams, owing to the selection
and usually being of lighter weight are put in a medium pickle, with a
pickle of 78-degree density. To one-thousand gallons of 78-degree brine
add 250 pounds of sugar and 50 pounds of saltpetre, using 5 gallons
of solution per 100 pounds net weight of meat. The 78-degree pickle
referred to being the density of salt solution measured by a Salometer
test.

For standard hams use 78-degree pickle with 200 pounds of sugar and 65
pounds of saltpetre.


_Pickle Making._--For sake of uniformity it is best to have as large
vessels as possible for making pickle solutions, so as to minimize
the likelihood of error; storage vats should be provided, with coils,
through which refrigerated brine should be circulated for the purpose
of chilling the pickle to a uniform temperature, usually 35° F.


=Wilder Hams.=--A ham cure method advocated by Mr. Wilder was as
follows:

A very satisfactory method of handling hams, before beginning to pickle
is (providing the hogs have been properly chilled in the cooler for
from sixty to seventy-two hours), as soon as they are inspected and
graded, to spread them on the floor, piling them up carefully, shank
down, about 2¹⁄₂ to 3 feet high, salt each ham slightly with fine salt,
and let them lie packed over night in the cooler at a temperature of
from 36° to 38° F. The next day they are put into process of curing.
When hogs are properly chilled in a dry cooler, they come out more or
less dried, and the surface of the ham, as well as the rind, is not
sufficiently porous and open to absorb the pickle promptly, the meat
being cooler than the curing room. When, however, it comes in contact
with the fine salt, this causes moisture to form on the meat, which
opens up the pores, in which condition the ham readily absorbs the
pickle.


_Formula for Wilder Ham Pickle._--Inasmuch as the hams have been salted
on the floor, the pickle should carry correspondingly less salt in
curing. Otherwise the meat will be too salty. A 75-degree plain pickle
is as strong as should be used for hams thus handled.

To a tank holding 1,680 gallons, filled with 75-degree pickle, there
should be added:

  475 pounds granulated sugar.
   90 pounds saltpetre.

This makes a very safe and effective cure. The hams when being put down
should be pumped as follows:

  Five stitch in the shank;
  One on the shank joint;
  One on the aitch bone;
  One on top of the shank;
  Two in the body;

making a total of ten stitches per ham. The meat should be overhauled
from one vat to another at the end of five days, second overhauling ten
days later, pumping at that time with three stitches:

  One in the shank;
  One in the body;
  One in the aitch bone.

It adds greatly to the certainty of the cure of meats to be thus pumped.


_Wilder Sirup Curing._--The best flavored meats are produced with
sirup, instead of sugar, but meats handled in this way have not the
keeping qualities that meats have when cured with a granulated or light
sugar. The sirup also has a tendency to discolor the meat, making it
look less attractive, and this, coupled with its tendency to cause
fermentation, has made the curing of meat with sirup, in large concerns
at least, undesirable.

A formula for the use of sirup in a 1,500-gallon vat would be as
follows:

  88 gallons sugarhouse sirup.
  75 pounds saltpetre.

This will make a dark-colored pickle. Hams turned out in this manner
are of a very delicate flavor.


=Shoulder Meats Pickle.=--Shoulder meats are quite difficult to cure,
probably owing to the blood content, etc. The chilling is quite as
essential as for ham, and it is customary to use a stronger pickle,
as well as to pump the meat somewhat heavily. The pickle for shoulder
meats is to add to 1,000 gallons of 85-degree brine, 150 pounds of
sugar and 65 pounds of saltpetre.


=Bellies.=--Bellies cured in vats are a comparatively easily cured
product. The process being to simply put the requisite quantity of meat
in the cask and add the pickle. S. P. Bellies can be nicely cured in a
pickle of 70-degree strength with 150 pounds of sugar and 65 pounds of
saltpetre per 1,000 gallons.


=Overhauling Meats.=--Overhauling is the term used in cellars to
describe the process of transferring meat from one cask to another
to insure its being shifted so that all parts of the meat may be
equally exposed to the curing solution. It is a laborious task, but
a necessity, and perhaps one of the first processes to be neglected
in case of labor shortage. In most establishments its importance is
recognized to be of such magnitude that a record is kept of each cask
to see that the transaction is carried out. The following table gives
the periods at which the meats should be changed:

  Fancy hams    5, 15 and 30 days.
  Regular hams  5, 20 and 40 days.
  Picnics           5 and 20 days.
  Bellies           4 and 15 days.


=Fancy Bacon.=--This particular part of the animal is cured either in
dry salt or sweet pickle, according to the requirements of the trade
and the grade or quality of the meat. The highest class bacon used
in this country is generally “dry salt,” being specially handled and
prepared to make the most attractive appearance. A much sought for
point in bacon is to so prepare it that when fried it is of a light
color. The only way to obtain this color is to use less sugar in
curing, as it causes discoloration in cooking; but at the same time it
greatly adds to the flavor, hence curing by the dry salt method adds
to the looks. When it is cured in this way it should be dry packed in
air-tight boxes lined with galvanized iron, or other material, the meat
being put down with a fine salt combination, thoroughly mixed per 100
pounds of meat as follows:

  2.75 pounds English salt.
  1.25 pounds sugar.
  3    ounces saltpetre.

The meat should be held in this cure about twenty days.

The meats are packed with the rind down uniformly, the salt being
spread between the layers, the top layer being put on with the rind up
and the box closed, keeping the air from it as much as possible; meat
must not be overhauled. It should be fully cured in twenty-five days.
Meat handled in this manner, as stated before, when fried cooks white;
it also has a very bright appearance when smoked. This is a delicate
cure and must be handled accordingly.


=Shipping Ages.=--The table on next page gives what is considered the
age, in days, at which different kinds and weights of sweet pickled
hams and sides are cured sufficiently to smoke; also at which different
kinds of barrel pork are cured sufficiently to be sold; also the cuts
which should and should not be pumped.


=Second Pickle.=--A wasteful practice in packing houses, is to throw
away pickle as soon as the meat is cured. A pickle which will show
78-degree strength, to which has been added five to seven degrees
of sugar, saltpetre, etc., making it 83 to 85-degree when used, if
tested after meats have been cured, will show a strength of from 52
to 58-degrees, the meat having absorbed the balance of the curative
ingredients. The remaining ingredients in this pickle are good when
purified--salt and sugar being the same under all conditions--hence
when meats are fully cured the pickle should be pumped into a vat, in
the bottom and sides of which are galvanized iron coils. Steam should
then be turned on these coils heating the pickle by the radiation from
the pipe.

SHIPPING AGES.--TIME REQUIRED FOR CURING.

  ========================+============+=======+=======+======
                          | Average wt.|Days to|Days to|
          Product         |    lbs.    | smoke | ship  |Pumped
  ------------------------+------------+-------+-------+------
  S. P. hams              |10 and under|   30  |   30  |  Yes
  S. P. hams              |10¹⁄₄-14    |   35  |   35  |  Yes
  S. P. hams              |14   -18    |   50  |   50  |  Yes
  S. P. hams              |18   -23    |   70  |   70  |  Yes
  S. P. hams              |24 and over |   80  |   80  |  Yes
  S. P. hams skinned      |14   -16    |   50  |   50  |  Yes
  S. P. hams skinned      |18 and over |   70  |   70  |  Yes
  S. P. hams fancy        |11   -13    |   60  |   60  |   No
  S. P. hams fancy skinned|14   -16    |   65  |   65  |   No
  S. P. hams export       |10   -14    |   30  |   30  |  Yes
  S. P. hams export       |14   -18    |   35  |   35  |  Yes
  S. P. California hams   | 8          |   30  |   30  |  Yes
  S. P. California hams   | 8   -10    |   35  |   35  |  Yes
  S. P. California hams   |10   -14    |   50  |   50  |  Yes
  S. P. N. Y. shoulders   |12 and under|   50  |   50  |  Yes
  S. P. N. Y. shoulders   |13 and over |   55  |   55  |  Yes
  Bellies                 | 6   - 8    |   20  |   20  |   No
  Bellies                 | 8   -10    |   22  |   22  |   No
  Bellies                 |10   -12    |   25  |   25  |   No
  Bellies                 |12   -14    |   30  |   30  |   No
  Bellies                 |14   -16    |   35  |   35  |   No
  Bellies rib             |    ...     |   25  |   20  |   No
  Bacon backs             |    ...     |   30  |   30  |   No
  Belly pork              |    ...     |  ...  |   15  |  ...
  Bean pork               |    ...     |  ...  |   15  |  ...
  Loin pork               |    ...     |  ...  |   15  |  ...
  Fat back pork           |    ...     |  ...  |   15  |  ...
  Short cut pork          |    ...     |  ...  |   15  |  ...
  S. P. pork trimmings    |    ...     |  ...  |   15  |  ...
  Brisket pork            |    ...     |  ...  |   15  |  ...
  ------------------------+------------+-------+-------+------

After the pickle has been thoroughly boiled for an hour or so, it
should be allowed to settle, when the particles of grease, as well as
all the albumin drawn from the meat will rise to the surface in the
form of a thick heavy scum; this should be carefully skimmed off and
the pickle again boiled, when a second skimming is necessary, after
which it should be drawn off, cooled and sufficient fresh ingredients
added to give it its original strength, when it is as useful as new.
For instance, to a vat of 1,500 gallons of old pickle, 50-degree
strength, add:

  200 pounds sugar,
   38 pounds saltpetre.


=Dry Salt Meats.=--These are domestic cuts or those saleable in the
standard trade. They are distinct from English meats, described
subsequently.


_Short Ribs._--This is a regular Board-of-Trade cut and is quoted on
the market daily. The price of same is used as a basis of value for
other cuts of dry salt meats. Short ribs are made from the sides of the
hog between the ham and shoulder, having the loin and ribs in, and the
backbone removed. Graded usually as follows:

  40 to 45 lbs. average.
  45 to 50 lbs. average.
  50 to 55 lbs. average.
  55 to 60 lbs. average.
  60 to 65 lbs. average.

Prices vary according to weight. This cut is known as “regular short
ribs” and is delivered on Board-of-Trade transactions.


_Hard Ribs._--These are the same as regulars, except that the backbone
is removed. This cut cannot be delivered on the Board-of-Trade without
removing of the backbone. This is a cut sold largely in the south and
is made out of the heaviest, roughest hogs.


_Short Clears._--These are the same as short ribs, but have the spare
ribs and backbone removed. They are cut square at each end and graded
as to average weight, same as short ribs.


_Short Clear Backs._--These are made from the backs of hogs with the
loin left in, the ribs and backbone removed. This cut is also known as
“lean backs” and “loin backs.” Values vary according to average weight
as follows:

  14 to 16 lbs. average.
  18 to 20 lbs. average.
  20 to 25 lbs. average.
  25 to 30 lbs. average.


_Extra Short Clears._--These are made from sides of hogs between the
ham and shoulders with the rib and loin taken out. They are sold on an
average from--

  35 to 40 lbs. average.
  40 to 45 lbs. average.
  45 to 50 lbs. average.


_Extra Short Ribs._--These are the same cut as extra short clears, in
every respect, except that the spare ribs are left in the belly.


_Short Fat Backs._--These are made from back pork of prime hogs, being
free from lean and bone, properly squared on the edges. They are
generally quoted as follows:

  10 to 12 lbs. average.
  14 to 16 lbs. average.
  18 to 20 lbs. average.
  20 to 25 lbs. average.
  25 to 30 lbs. average.
  30 to 35 lbs. average.
  35 to 40 lbs. average.

These cuts may be used for the domestic trade and are usually under
twenty-five pounds average in weight. The heavier backs are, however,
in general practice used mainly for the export trade.


_Long Clears._--These are made from the sides, hams being cut off,
backbone and ribs removed, shoulder blade taken out, the leg cut off
close to the brisket; being the entire side of the hog, with the ham
and the bones removed.


_Extra Long Clears._--These are trimmed the same as long clears, except
that the loin is cut out.


_Bellies._--These are cut with the sides squared and well trimmed on
all edges. They are cured in sweet pickle, plain pickle, or dry salt
and graded generally, as follows:

  10 to 12 lbs. average.
  14 to 16 lbs. average.
  18 to 20 lbs. average.
  20 to 25 lbs. average.
  25 to 30 lbs. average.


_Regular Plates._--These are made from the end of the shoulder when
this is cut into California hams, and have half of the blade bone with
a facing of lean left on. The usual weight averages six to eight pounds.


_Clear Plates._--These are the same as regulars except blade bones are
never trimmed out.


_Dry Salt Butts._--This is a cut made from the fat cheek or jowl,
trimmed to average from three to four pounds each and is a uniform cut
of the hog.

[Illustration: FIG. 136.--LONG CLEAR.]


=Curing Dry Salt Meats.=--Dry salt meats, as the name implies, are
supposedly salted dry and piled to cure. Being mostly fat, which
contains but little moisture, and absorbs but little salt, the fat
portion, or cuts consisting principally of fat are easy to cure. Those
cuts which contain lean parts, bone or blood vessels need the most
careful attention. As a result all cuts of the latter type are pumped
by use of hollow needles through which brine solution is forced,
varying with the weight and with the cut. A hard rib is pumped more
than a short rib.


_Dipping._--The meats are usually passed through a dipping tub so as
to make the edges moist and cover the entire surface with salt; damp
salt being caused to adhere to the edges.


_Salt to be Used._--The salt usually used is known as No. 1 Fine or
Common salt, evaporated, rather than mined or ground salt.

[Illustration: FIG. 137.--EXTRA LONG CLEAR.]


_Pumping._--A standard pumping schedule, using an open point needle and
common type dry salt pump, would be as follows:

STANDARD PUMPING SCHEDULE.

                             Strokes
                               per
      Products        Points  Point
  Dry salt shoulders     4      2
  Plates                 2      2
  Short ribs             7      1
  Short clears           7      1
  Rib bellies            4      4
  Clear bellies          4      1
  Hard ribs             10      1

Dry salt pumping pickle should be 100° brine using one pound of
saltpetre per gallon.


_Overhauling and Piling._--The sides are always piled hollow side up
so that pickle made by solution of moisture purging from the meat is
contained on the meats. The piles are overhauled at regular intervals
so as to insure the meats being subjected to salt at all points.
Overhauling should be made: first, eight to twelve days; second,
eighteen to twenty-five days; third, forty-five to fifty-five days.

Green meats should not be piled to exceed three and one-half feet in
height until the third overhauling when they can be stacked higher to
make room.

[Illustration: FIG. 138.--JOWL (DRY SALT BUTTS.)]


=Smoking Dry Salt Meats.=--The following table shows the age, in days,
at which dry salt meat should be cured in order to smoke safely; also
at which to ship safely; also the cuts that should and should not be
pumped:

TIME REQUIRED FOR CURING.

  =====================+==============+=======+=======+======
                       |  Average wt. |Days to|Days to|
       Product         |     lbs.     | smoke | ship  |Pumped
  ---------------------+--------------+-------+-------+------
  Extra short clears   |      ...     |   25  |   15  |  Yes
  Short clears         |45-55         |   50  |   40  |  Yes
  Extra short ribs     |      ...     |   25  |   20  |  Yes
  Short ribs           |45-50         |   55  |   55  |  Yes
  Short ribs           |50-80         |   75  |   70  |  Yes
  Bellies              |15-17         |   25  |   25  |  Yes
  Bellies              |18-21         |   30  |   27  |  Yes
  Bellies              |18-22 and over|   35  |   32  |  Yes
  Bellies fancy        | 4- 6         |   20  |   20  |   No
  English bellies      |      ...     |   15  |   20  |   No
  Shoulders            |      ...     |   30  |   30  |  Yes
  Shoulders English    |      ...     |   25  |   30  |  Yes
  Cumberlands          |      ...     |   20  |   30  |  Yes
  Dublins              |      ...     |   20  |   20  |  Yes
  Long cut hams        |      ...     |   20  |   25  |  Yes
  Fat backs            |      ...     |   20  |   25  |   No
  Jowl butts--         |              |       |       |
    10 days in brine}  |      ...     |   20  |   20  |   No
    10 days in salt }  |      ...     |       |       |
  Backs                |      ...     |   25  |   25  |  Yes
  Plates               |      ...     |   10  |   10  |   No
  ---------------------+--------------+-------+-------+------

Meats put into a smoke house before they are sufficiently cured develop
a condition known to the trade as “puffy,” which means that the meats
being insufficiently cured when submitted to the heat of the smoke
house, decompose and a gas forms which produces the condition referred
to.

In cold weather and by arrangement, meats are frequently shipped at
younger ages.


=Barreled Pork.=--Being usually cut and handled by the Cellar
Department, barreled pork is consequently described therewith.


_Mess Pork._--Regular Mess Pork is “made from sides of well fatted
hogs, split through or one side of the back-bone and equal proportions
on both sides, cut into strips of reasonably uniform width, properly
flanked and not back stripped.” The regular proportion of flank and
shoulder cuts must be included. The strips average about six inches
in width, and not over sixteen pieces may be packed in a barrel for
regular delivery. Mess Pork is made from rough and heavy packing hogs
and occasionally from heavy loin hogs. Mess pork packed between October
1 of one year and September 30 of the succeeding year is “new pork”
until January 1 of the following year, and is thereafter termed “old
pork.” Mess Pork made during December, January and February must have
been packed at least ten days before delivery, and that delivered
during the period from March to November, inclusive, must have been
packed at least thirty days before delivery to grade regular.


_For Mess Pork._--The hog is split through the center of the back-bone,
after the shoulders and hams are removed, about six inches wide, and
are packed 190 pounds to the barrel, but it is supposed to weigh 200
pounds when sold; the gain of pickle making up the difference in
weight. When it is six months old, it will, weigh more than 200 pounds,
and if repacked will make 104 to 105 barrels per 100 barrels when
packed, and should be repacked at 200 pounds. When a number of pieces
is not specified, mess pork is packed from eleven to fifteen pieces per
barrel.

Prime Mess Pork is made from the shoulder and side, containing the
back-bone and ribs, cut into square pieces of about four pounds each.
The shank is cut off close to the breast. In making this cut, the side
is split lengthwise, the back cut into about six pieces and the belly
into four. It is made from light packing hogs.

Extra clear pork is “made from the sides of extra heavy, well-fatted
hogs, the back-bone and ribs to be taken out, (the same as short clear
sides) the number of pieces in each barrel not to exceed fourteen, and
in all other respects to be cut, selected and packed in the same manner
as mess pork.”

Clear pork is “made from the sides of extra heavy, well-fatted hogs,
the back-bone and half the ribs next the back-bone to be taken out,
the number of pieces in each barrel not to exceed fourteen, and in all
other respects to be cut, selected and packed in the same manner as
mess pork.”

Loin clear pork is “made from the sides of medium-weight packing hogs,
the loin, back-bone and back ribs being removed and belly ribs left
in.” It consists of extra short ribs cut into strips, and is also known
as long-cut clear pork. The pieces average five inches in width.


_Belly Pork._--Regular belly pork consists of heavy, fat rib bellies
cut into five-inch widths and packed as plain-pickled pork in barrels
of fifty to sixty pieces. This pork is made from the same grade of
bellies as dry-salt rib bellies.

Brisket pork rib is made by cutting a five-inch strip from the brisket
end of heavy rib bellies (fourteen to twenty pounds average) and
packing like other barreled pork. The pieces average about four pounds
each. This cut is made only when it is desired to reduce the weight of
heavy bellies. Clear brisket pork is made in the same manner as the
above except the pieces are cut from clear bellies. Fancy clear pork
is a strip cut from the brisket end of fancy breakfast bacon bellies,
averaging one to one and one-half pounds per piece.

Lean belly pork consists of lean clear bellies, thirteen to fifteen
pounds average, cut into three pieces each and barreled in plain pickle.


_Back Pork._--Regular back pork (short cut mess, or family back pork)
is “made from the backs of well-fatted hogs, after bellies have been
taken off, cut into pieces of about six pounds each, and in all other
respects to be cut, selected and packed in the same manner as mess
pork.” This cut contains the loin, back-bone and back ribs, with
tenderloin out, and the pieces are cut six inches wide, averaging four
to six pounds.

Clear back pork is “made from the backs of heavy, well-fatted hogs,
after bellies have been taken off, and back-bone and ribs taken out,
cut into pieces of about six pounds each, and in all other respects to
be packed in the same manner as mess pork.” In other words, it consists
of short clear backs cut into strips about six inches wide, and is the
same as regular back pork with the rib removed. It is sometimes called
loin clear pork. The pieces average two to seven pounds.

Fat back pork or short cut clear pork is made from short fat backs by
cutting them into five-inch strips. The pieces average from two to
seven pounds and are packed like mess pork.

Ham butt pork (loin end or rump pork) consists of triangular pieces cut
from the ham end of short clear backs or sides and includes a portion
of the tail-bone. It is made when cutting short-cut harps and “English”
sides, or when it is desired to reduce the weight of heavy sides or
backs. It is packed in barrels, the pieces averaging three to four
pounds.


_Shoulder Pork._--Consists of the following products made from
shoulders and butts:

Extra prime pork is “made from heavy untrimmed shoulders cut into three
pieces, the leg to be cut off close to the breast, and in all other
respects to be cut, selected and packed in the same manner as mess
pork.” The pieces average about four pounds. This and the preceding cut
are not used as extensively as formerly.

Boston style butt pork is made from Boston style butts averaging four
to seven pounds, packed in plain pickle.

Bean pork or clear butt pork is made from the jowl or fat cheek of the
hog, cut square, trimmed smooth and averaging three to four pounds,
packed in plain pickle.


_Spareribs._--Consist of the ribs trimmed from the carcass or side with
as little lean as possible. They are termed “full-sheet,” “half-sheet”
and “back-bone” spareribs according as they are cut from full sides,
bellies or backs respectively. They are essentially a fresh pork
product and are sold in retail markets especially in fall and winter,
for which purpose “half-sheet” ribs are principally used. They are
packed in limited amounts in sweet pickle at times when the demand for
fresh spareribs is dull; dry-salt spareribs are taken from dry-salt
sides and bellies when making them into clear cuts after curing.


=Curing Barrel Pork.=--Barreled or plain-pickled pork is packed in
plain salt brine in tight barrels (eighteen feet × twenty inches) at
200 pounds net weight of cured pork per barrel (355 pounds gross). The
strength of brine is varied somewhat according to the cuts of pork
and their destination. The regulation of the Chicago Board of Trade
governing standard barreled pork (except prime mess) is as follows:
“Between October 1, and the last day of February, inclusive, 190 lbs.,
and between March 1st and September 30th, inclusive, 193 lbs., of green
meat--shall be packed in each barrel, with not less than forty pounds
of coarse salt and barrel filled with brine of full strength; or forty
pounds of coarse salt and in addition thereto fifteen pounds of salt
and barrel filled with cold water.” Standard prime mess pork is packed
twenty pounds salt and twelve ounces of saltpetre per barrel, otherwise
as above.


=English Meats.=--There is, at times, a demand in England for American
pork products, and the English cuts, as well as their methods of
curing in many cases, vary from the American methods on account of
the natural fat hardness due to feeding and breeding, and to the fact
that the English market is supplied chiefly from Denmark, Ireland and
Holland, except as to the pigs raised locally. The result is that the
cure of English meats is quite mild owing to non-exposure and prompt
consumption. These conditions make it requisite that much care be taken
in the production of meats shipped England.


_Pumping._--It is usual to pump English meats with a pumping pickle of
saturated brine, containing three ounces of saltpetre to the gallon. In
pumping Cumberlands (Fig. 139) and shoulders, pump into the blood vein
and under the blade, using one and one-half to two ounces of pickle in
each place, and exercising care to lodge the pickle near the bone and
away from the fat on the side of the meat.

In pumping long cut hams, use ham pumping pickle and pump in the same
manner as described for fancy hams.


_Salting._--Imported English salt is invariably used. There are a
number of standard brands, but the endeavor is to obtain a salt free
from lime or magnesia compounds. The quantity should be exact.

[Illustration: FIG. 139.--CUMBERLAND CUT.]

[Illustration: FIG. 140.--LONG CUT HAM.]

[Illustration: FIG. 141.--MANCHESTER HAM.]

[Illustration: FIG. 142.--STAFFORDSHIRE HAM.]

[Illustration: FIG. 143.--YORKSHIRE SIDE.]

On meats not overhauled not less than four and one-half nor more than
five and one-half pounds of salt to the one-hundred pounds on all cuts
excepting long cut hams, should be used. On the latter from five to six
pounds of salt per one-hundred pounds of meat should be applied. In the
summer months the maximum amounts heretofore described should be used.

On meats overhauled used three to three and one-half pounds of salt per
one-hundred pounds when putting down, and three pounds per one-hundred
pounds when overhauling. Rub salt in well under the sides of shanks of
shoulders, and use plenty on the top of shanks of both.

[Illustration: FIG. 144.--STAFFORDSHIRE SIDE.]

[Illustration: FIG. 145.--DUBLIN CUT.]


_Rubbing Side and Pockets._--In salting sides, salt the heaviest on the
shoulder and along the loin, rubbing the edges of all cuts carefully,
seeing that the salt adheres to all parts of the meat before it is
piled, for if there are places where there is no salt on the meat, it
will discolor and eventually become slippery and in bad condition.

In stuffing the pockets of long clears and long ribs, do not use more
than one and one-half times the amount of salt on the same area of
shoulder or loin. Too much salt used in the pockets of the sides gives
the meat a burned salty appearance and condition.

[Illustration: FIG. 146.--ANTWERP BACK CUT.]

In rubbing the salt into the pockets be careful to put the salt into
every part, otherwise meat will spoil in places missed.

Bellies require less salt, the fixed rule being 42%. They are not
usually overhauled but are frozen at cure, if shipping is deferred.

[Illustration: FIG. 147.--SQUARE EXPORT SHORT RIB.]


_Color._--A great deal depends upon the color of English meats. The
trade demands a bright, attractive appearance in same and considerable
saltpetre is necessary. Four ounces of saltpetre to the 100 pounds of
meat on cuts weighing from three to five pieces per 100 pounds, to as
high as six ounces per 100 pounds on smaller cuts, should be used. The
salt and saltpetre should be thoroughly mixed before applying.

[Illustration: FIG. 148.--WILTSHIRE SIDE.]


_Piling._--Use extra care to pile meats closely and exclude the air,
for they will not develop a desirable color when they are exposed to
the air. After the meats are all piled evenly, the edges should be gone
over, and any exposed parts covered with a fine sprinkling of salt.

Sides are piled so as to make a cup of the hollow portion with a
tendency for the pickle to drain slightly toward the back. Hams are
piled shank down on an angle of about 45°.

[Illustration: FIG. 149.--SQUARE SHORT CLEAR.]


_Overhauling._--English middles weighing from twenty-three to thirty
pounds average, and long cut hams from twelve to fourteen pounds
and heavier, should be overhauled at from eight to twelve days old,
salting them as before described. Do not overhaul English meats unless
necessary in order to hold them after they are cured.

SHIPPING AGE.

  =====================+========+==========+==========
                       |        |Oct. 15 to|  March 1
                       |Average | March 1  |to Oct. 15
        Product        |wt. lbs.|   Days   |   Days
  ---------------------+--------+----------+----------
  Bellies              |  ...   | 15 to 25 | 15 to 25
  Boneless backs       |  ...   | 15 to 25 | 15 to 25
  Cumberlands          | 20-24  | 20 to 25 | 20 to 25
  Cumberlands          | 24-30  | 20 to 25 | 25 to 30
  Cumberlands          | 30-40  | 25 to 30 | 25 to 30
  Long clears          |under 30| 20 to 25 | 20 to 25
  Long clears          |over  30| 20 to 25 | 25 to 30
  Dublins and long ribs|  ...   | 20 to 25 | 20 to 25
  Long cut hams        | 10-14  | 20 to 25 | 20 to 25
  Long cut hams        | 14-18  | 25 to 30 | 25 to 30
  ---------------------+--------+----------+----------


_Shipping Ages._--The table on the preceding page shows the ages at
which English meats can be safely shipped during seasons from October
15 to March 1, and from March 1 to October 15.

These ages for shipping should be followed closely, but when necessary
the following exception may be made without detriment.

From October 15 to March 1, shortest shipping age may be reduced five
days.


_Boxing Meats._--Meats to be packed in borax, cured as above, should be
put in a plain cold pickle 100-degree strong, then scraped on the skin
side and wiped with cloths wrung out of hot water. If the meats are old
and have a slippery appearance, they should be scrubbed with a brush
in warm pickle and wiped afterwards. They should then be rubbed in
borax with the rind placed upon a grating and the surplus borax brushed
off the skin side of the meat, using a fine brush for so doing. It is
customary to use from five and one-half to six and one-half pounds of
borax per 300 pounds of meat. Meats to be packed in salt should not be
washed. The skin and edges of the meat should be thoroughly scraped
and then rubbed in fine salt before being put in the boxes. Meats are
nailed under heavy pressure so as to exclude all the air possible.


_Wiltshires._--Singed Wiltshires, a cut which was revived during the
“Great War,” are made from hogs suitable for Cumberlands. Weights vary
by averages. The hogs are singed during slaughter, cured in plain
pickle, and shipped on ten days’ pickling, packed in dry salt.

LONG CUT HAMS AND CUMBERLAND TESTS.

  =======+===================+========+========+==================+=====
  Av. wt.|                   |        |        |                  |
   live  |  Average          |        |Per cent|                  |Per
   hogs, |   weight          |Per cent|Cumber- |     Per cent     |cent
   lbs.  |    cuts, lbs.     |  hams  | lands  |  miscellaneous   |total
  -------+-------------------+--------+--------+------------------+-----
         |                   |        |        |{P. S. lard  9.86}|
    190  |{Long cuts   16-18}|  18.37 |  40.43 |{Raw leaf    3.59}|73.97
         |{Cumberlands 36-42}|        |        |{Trimmings   1.92}|
         |                   |        |        |                  |
         |                   |        |        |{P. S. lard  7.42}|
    168  |{Long cuts   14-16}|  18.66 |  39.17 |{Raw leaf    3.30}|70.47
         |{Cumberlands 32-38}|        |        |{Trimmings   1.92}|
         |                   |        |        |                  |
         |                   |        |        |{P. S. lard  8.48}|
    136  |{Long cuts   12-14}|  18.45 |  37.48 |{Raw leaf    3.38}|69.34
         |{Cumberlands 24-28}|        |        |{Trimmings   1.55}|
  -------+-------------------+--------+--------+------------------+-----


_Test._--This test may be of service. It shows the percentage of yields
of different weight hogs made into long cut hams and Cumberlands, also
average weights.


=Pig Feet.=--Usually only the front foot is used as it is a better
shaped foot to prepare than the hind foot. The hind feet are more or
less disfigured and out of condition by having the gam strings opened
in order to hang the hog on the sticks. The hind foot being used
largely for making a low grade of glue. It can, however, be used in
boneless pig’s feet.


_Preparation._--The feet are scalded, after which the hoofs are removed
and the feet are shaved and cleaned, put into a plain salt pickle,
90-degree strong by salometer test, and to this pickle should be added
six ounces of saltpetre to each 100 pounds of feet. The feet should be
left in this curing pickle for from six to eight days, or until they
show a bright red appearance when cooked. If this red appearance does
not extend clear through the feet after being cooked, it shows that
they are not fully cured. They should not be left in the pickle longer
than necessary to fully cure them for if heavily salted it has the
effect of making them break in the cooking water.


_Cooking._--After properly cured in the salt pickle the feet should be
cooked in a wooden vat (an iron vat discoloring them) provided with a
false bottom about six inches above the bottom, so that the direct heat
from the steam pipe does not come in contact with the feet. The water
should be brought to a temperature of 200° to 206° F. and held at this
temperature until the feet are sufficiently cooked. The water should
never be brought to the boiling point, as the feet will become badly
broken, which greatly injures their appearance.

After the feet are sufficiently cooked and thoroughly chilled in cold
water, they should be put into a white wine vinegar pickle 45-degree
strong, it being preferable to pack feet which are to be used at once
in open vats in a refrigerated room held at a temperature of 38° to
40° F. Where feet are to be held for some months before using it is
advisable to put them into barrels or tierces after filling the tierces
with vinegar of 45-degree strength. The packages should be stored in a
temperature 40° F. When held this way it will be found that the feet
have absorbed a great deal of the vinegar and a very marked increase
in weight is obtained. There should be a gain of from 10 to 15 per cent
in weight at the end of three months.


_Tests._--Prepared pig’s feet at certain seasons of the year are
difficult of sale and there are times when it pays better to tank them
or use them for glue purposes. The following tests on rough uncleaned
fore and hind feet will show the yield when tanked. Percentages in
tests are correct. The prices are those ruling at the time tests were
made:

TEST ON TANKED PIGS FEET.

    Total weight of front feet tanked 1,070 pounds cooked in tank five
  hours at forty pounds pressure:

  Sixty pounds hock meat, 5.61 per cent, at 3c per pound         $ 1.80
  Prime steam lard, 138 pounds, 12.90 per cent, at $9.35 per
  cwt.                                                            12.90
  Tankage (dry basis), 125 pounds, 11.68 per cent, at $17.50
  per ton                                                          1.09
                                                                 ------
    Total                                                        $15.79
  Gross value, $1.47 per cwt.

    Weight hind feet to tank, 996 pounds, cooked in test tank
  five hours, with forty pounds pressure:

  Prime steam lard, 163 pounds, 16.37 per cent, at $9.35
  per cwt.                                                       $15.24
  Tankage (dry basis), 13.76 per cent, at $17.50 per ton           1.19
                                                                 ------
    Total                                                        $16.43
  Gross value, $1.62 per cwt.

The following tests show costs, in detail, of pig’s feet put up in
different sized packages, costs being figured at the regular Chicago
market prices at the time these tests were made:

TEST ON 483 PIECES OR 500 POUNDS PIGS FORE FEET.

    _Debit:_
  Cost of 500 pounds pigs fore feet at 1¹⁄₈c per pound        $5.63
  Shaving, hand and machine, 32c per 100 pieces                1.55
  Pulling toes, 5c per 100 pieces                               .24
  Counting, pickling and cooking                                .20
  Splitting, 2c per 100 pounds                                  .10
  Miscellaneous labor                                           .10
  Fifty-five pounds salt at ¹⁄₄c per pound                      .14
  Two pounds saltpetre at 5c per pound                          .10
  Administrative expense at 47c per 100 pounds on 300 pounds
  produced                                                     1.41
                                                              -----
    Total                                                     $9.47

    _Credit:_
  Pigs feet oil, 18 pounds at $5.60 per cwt.                  $1.00
  Pigs feet bones, 58 pounds at ³⁄₄c per pound                  .43
  Pigs feet trimmings, 13 pounds at 1¹⁄₄c per pound             .13
                                                             ------
    Total                                                     $1.56
    Total net cost of 300 pounds of prepared feet              7.91

  Cost per pound, including administrative expense, $0.026.

  Green weight, 500 pounds; cleaned weight, 450 pounds; split weight,
  300 pounds.


=Pig Tongues.=--Various uses are made of this piece of meat. They are
very extensively used in canning factories where they are put up and
known as “lunch tongue”; they are also used in different kinds of
sausage, and are put up to quite an extent in vinegar pickle. When
handled in the latter manner the following suggestions are of practical
value.

The tongues after being trimmed should be cured in a 75-degree plain
salt pickle using three ounces of saltpetre to 100 pounds of tongue.
After the tongues are fully cured, which will require from eight to
twelve days, they are scalded, the outer surface of the tongue being
scraped off. In some instances the scalding is done before the tongues
are put in the pickle. Either way is proper. After being scraped and
cleaned they are cooked as desired and afterward pickled in a white
wine vinegar pickle of 45-degree strength. The following tests will
show the cost of tongues packed in different sized packages, the cost
being determined by the cost of meat and supplies at the time tests
were made:

TEST ON 1,000 PIECES, OR 910 POUNDS PIG TONGUES.

    _Debit:_
  910 pounds pig tongues, at 6¹⁄₄c per pound                   $56.88
  Scraping at 15c per 100 pieces                                1.50
  Counting, cooking, etc., three hours at 18c per hour           .54
  Trimming at 5c per 100 pieces                                  .50
  Miscellaneous labor                                            .20
  Administrative expense, 47c per 100 on 560 pounds produced    2.63
                                                              ------
    Total                                                     $62.25

      _Credit:_
  Green weight, 910 pounds; cooked weight, 560 pounds;
    shrinkage, 38 per cent.
  Trimming 112 pounds at 1¹⁄₂c                                  1.68
                                                              ------
    Net cost                                                  $60.57

  Cost per pound, 10⁴⁄₅c; cost handling per cwt., including
  administrative expense, $0.665 per 100 pounds finished.

COST OF ONE BARREL PIG TONGUES PACKED AT 190 POUNDS NET.

  190 pounds pig tongues at 10⁴⁄₅c per pound  $20.52
  One barrel                                     .78
  Packing, one-half hour at 17¹⁄₂c per hour      .09
  Pickle, ten gallons at 2¹⁄₂c per gallon        .25
  Coopering, one-sixth hour at 25c per hour      .04
  Spices, 2c                                     .02
  Miscellaneous labor                            .03
                                              ------
    Total cost per barrel                     $21.73


_Formula for Export Hog Tongue Pickle._--There is at times quite a
demand for fresh pig tongues in Liverpool and other foreign points,
in which case the trade demands that they arrive there without being
salt-cured. The following formula will be found very valuable for
this purpose and also point out how to carry tongues without salting
them, when it is desired to do so: Use 116 pounds of boracic acid,
fifty-eight pounds of borax, twenty-nine pounds of fine salt and seven
and one-quarter pounds of saltpetre.

The method of mixing is as follows: The boracic acid and borax are
put into a vat containing sixty gallons of water. The vat should be
connected with steam supply so that it can be brought to the boiling
point, cooking same slowly and stirring it well for half an hour. The
salt and saltpetre is then added and should be stirred until thoroughly
dissolved. After the solution has been allowed to cool, add sufficient
cold water to give it a strength of 21 degrees by salometer test. Chill
the solution to a temperature of 38° F. The tongues should be trimmed
and thoroughly chilled, it being essential that they are in perfect
condition. They should then be packed in a tierce, after which the
tierce is filled with the preservative. Tongue should be shipped in
refrigerator cars where the temperature is not allowed to go above 38°
F.


=Pig Snouts.=--These consist of the snout of the hog together with the
upper lips and front part of the nose. During preparation they are
handled very much in the same manner as pig’s feet. They are first
shaved and cleaned, afterward scalded, removing the outer skin or
membrane of the nose. Then they are cured, using a 90-degree plain salt
pickle and adding thereto three ounces of saltpetre to 100 pounds of
snouts. After they are fully cured, which will require from five to
eight days, they should be cooked in a wooden vat to the desired degree
of tenderness after which they are chilled in cold water and pickled in
white wine vinegar of 45-degree strength. The following tests show the
cost of preparing pig snouts in different sized packages:

TEST ON 1,060 PIECES, OR 1,000 POUNDS PIG SNOUTS.

    _Debit:_
  Cost of 1,000 pounds pig snouts at 2¹⁄₂c per pound       $25.00
  Shaving at 40c per 100 pieces                              4.24
  Labor, trucking, cooking, inspecting, pickling, etc.       1.10
  100 pounds salt at ¹⁄₄c per pound                           .25
  Two pounds saltpetre at 5c per pound                        .10
  Administrative expenses, 47c per 100 pounds on 610 pounds
  production                                                 2.87
                                                           ------
    Total                                                  $33.56

    _Credit:_
  Trimmings, 90 pounds at 2c per pound                       1.80
                                                           ------
    Net cost                                               $31.76

  Cost per pound, 5¹⁄₅c; cost of handling, administrative expense,
  85⁶⁄₁₀c per cwt.

  Green weight, 1,000 pounds; cleaned weight, 900 pounds; cooked
  weight, 610 pounds.




CHAPTER XXIII.

LARD, COMPOUND AND GREASES


  HISTORICAL -- QUANTITY AND QUALITY -- NEUTRAL LARD -- KETTLE RENDERED
  LARD -- PRIME STEAM LARD -- REFINED LARD -- BLEACHING LARD -- FILTER
  PRESS -- LARD ROLL -- LARD PACKING -- COMPOUND LARD -- COTTONSEED
  OIL -- REFINING CRUDE OIL -- DEODORIZING COTTONSEED OIL -- PRESSING
  TEMPERATURES -- LARD OIL -- TREATMENT FOR LARD GREASE.


=Historical.=--The refining of lard in packing houses is comparatively
recent, and many people will be surprised to know that even the largest
packers only added lard refining to their business within the past
twenty-five to thirty years. Previous to that time lard refineries
were operated by independent firms, who bought their supply of prime
“steam” lard, converting it into the different grades in their own
establishments. In the natural evolution of the business this branch
was taken up by the packers.

Before the advent of present methods, lard refining consisted in
pressing from the lard about 30 to 40 per cent lard oil, sold for
lubricating and lighting purposes, etc., and mixing the stearine with
straight lard, making a high grade pure lard. At this time the method
of bleaching in all lard refineries was accomplished by the use of
caustic soda, pearl ash, lime, alum, or other substances, the principal
ingredient, being caustic soda. The underlying principle is that
alkali, used in proper proportion, saponified the acid in the lard.
This process, however, is a thing of the past.


=Quantity and Quality.=--As shown in a previous chapter from thirteen
to fifteen percent of the live weight of the hog is fresh lard,
consequently where large numbers of hogs are killed the manufacture of
lard is an important factor in the packing business. The principal
grades are known as neutral lard, kettle rendered lard, prime steam
lard, refined lard and compound lard.

Tallow and stearine also enter into the manufacture of refined and
compound lards.


=Neutral Lard.=--When oleomargarine was first manufactured it was
considered necessary to use natural butter in the mixture in order to
give it the proper consistency, as the oleo oil was grainy and coarse,
therefore sufficient natural butter was added to change that condition.
Some one conceived the idea of using neutral lard made from leaf lard
in place of natural butter in oleomargarine. When this was worked out
successfully the term oleomargarine practically disappeared and the
term “butterine” was substituted. In most of the butterine made today
no natural butter is used.

The conditions in making oleo oil and tallows have their parallel in
neutral lard and kettle rendered lard. When leaf lard is cooked for
kettle rendered lard, if a temperature of from 250° to 260° F. is
obtained the tissues of the lard are burned or partially consumed, this
heat giving it a flavor which is called “high kettle rendered” flavor.
When it is made into neutral this condition is reversed, the lard being
melted at a temperature of from 126° to 128° F. At this temperature no
burning of tissues is possible, hence the oil extract is neutral in
every sense of the word, in color, flavor and smell. With these three
essential points the material readily forms the chief substance for
butterine by adding milk or cream and oleo oil and cotton seed oil, as
desired.


=Manufacture of Neutral.=--The following steps define the process of
manufacture necessary to produce neutral:


_Chilling._--The leaves as pulled from the hogs are rapidly sent to a
cooling room to be thoroughly chilled. The leaves are spread separately
in flat sheets on metal supports, which are preferable to wood. If it
is chilled too slowly a strong “hoggy” flavor is developed, which it is
impossible to eradicate from the fresh product. The leaf lard should be
chilled for twenty-four hours in a temperature of 32° to 34° F.


_Melting._--It is put through a hasher of the Enterprise type to an
open top water jacketed kettle, similar in type to an oleo kettle.
Frequently the melting kettle is a wooden vat with a galvanized iron
kettle inside, the space between the wooden vat and the galvanized
kettle being filled with water which is heated to the desired
temperature for melting the product. It is not practicable to use a
steam jacket as the heat would be excessive and it would be difficult
to control. This kettle properly is water jacketed and open top so no
pressure is generated.

In a kettle holding 4,000 to 5,000 pounds, water should be warmed in
the jacket before lard is put in, the agitator started slowly, not
to exceed 10 to 12 revolutions per minute, and the heat should be
regulated so as to have the lard all melted and ready to drop in one
and one-half hours from the time of starting to hash. By the time the
lard is thoroughly melted the temperature should be 126° to 128° F.


_Settling._--As soon as the lard is melted it should be drawn off with
a siphon into receiving kettles, which are also jacketed and held at
practically the same temperature. When dropped it should be salted with
one-half to one per cent of fine salt, letting it stand from fifteen to
thirty minutes. In drawing off it should be siphoned through several
layers of cheese cloth, forming a strainer, into receiving tanks,
where it should settle four hours. It is drawn into tierces through a
pipe raised from the bottom to leave one and one-half to two inches of
lard in the tank, care being taken that no “bottoms” are drawn into
the tierce, as these contain tissues which are, for the most part,
undiscernible; also moisture. These ingredients in neutral, being only
partially cooked, immediately begin to decompose. It is a delicate
article to handle and the settling of all impurities is important. The
neutral, when drawn into tierces, should be at a temperature of from
115° to 118° F.


_Storage._--The tierced lard should be kept at a temperature of about
75° F. for about ten or fifteen hours, and then put into a cooler
with a temperature of from 45° to 50° F. The tierces should be filled
through the bilge and not closed when stored in the first mentioned
temperature, the bungs being left out, while the heat is permitted
to escape, thus carrying with it considerable flavor, and making the
material more neutral than if the tierces were closed as soon as
filled.


=No. 2 Neutral Lard.=--This is a neutral lard made from back fat. At
times it is profitable to make this product into No. 2 neutral instead
of steam lard, for when the market for No. 1 neutral is extremely high
there is demand for a good No. 2. When making this, the rind should
be skinned off from the back fat, leaving clear back fat to be hashed
for neutral. If the rinds are put in, it gives the product a “hoggy”
flavor, which makes it undesirable. It is hashed and melted the same
as No. 1 neutral, except as to temperature, the melting point for this
being 132° to 134° F., method and apparatus as described for the making
of No. 1 neutral, being applicable to this.


_Test--Pure Steam Lard vs. Neutral._--Below is a test on raw leaf lard
rendered into neutral, showing yield, and percentage of the neutral
lard produced; the scrap and bottoms from the kettle being run into
kettle rendered lard.

TEST ON LEAF LARD RENDERED INTO NEUTRAL.

  Raw leaves       8,958 pounds at $0.08¹⁄₈ per pound =          $727.84
  Salt for settling   35 pounds at  4.90    per ton   =              .09
                                                                 -------
                                                                 $727.93

  _Production:_

  Neutral lard    7,880 pounds at  $0.09125 per pound = $718.96
  Neutral bottoms 1,055 pounds
    (Run under forty pounds pressure two and one-half
    hours.)
  Prime steam lard  497 pounds at  0.082 per pound    =   40.75
  Tankage            56 pounds at 18.00  per ton      =     .45
                                                        -------  $760.16
                                                                 -------
  Gain on production                                             $ 32.23

  Gain per 100 pounds on raw weight, $0.036.

  _Percentage Production:_

  Neutral lard to raw weight             87.97
  Neutral bottoms to raw weight          11.78
  Prime steam lard to raw weight          5.55
  Tankage to raw weight                    .63
  Prime steam lard to weight of bottoms  47.11
  Tankage to weight of bottoms            5.31

    Total production of lards            93.52
    Total production of raw weights      94.15

    _Tanking Leaf Lard:_

  Raw leaves       1,000 pounds at $ 0.08125 per pound = $81.25
  Prime steam lard   929 pounds at   0.0825  per pound =  76.18
  Tankage              5 pounds at  18.00    per ton
                                                         ------
    Loss on production                                   $ 5.07
    Loss per pound on raw weight                          .0051

  Prime steam lard to raw weight, per cent, 92.9.


_Test--Chilling and Tanking._--

TEST ON CHILLED LEAF LARD TO DETERMINE VALUE AND YIELD.

      Warm leaf lard to cooler                 1,000 lbs.
      Chilled leaf lard                          986 lbs.
      Shrinkage, 1.4 per cent                     14 lbs.
    Weight to test tank, 986 pounds; value per cwt., $7,556.
  Yield prime steam lard  94.12 per cent; 928 lbs. at $8.025 per
  cwt.                                                            $74.47
  Yield tankage (pressed)   .81 per cent;   8 lbs. at  9.89 per
  ton                                                                .04
                                                                  ------
    Total                                                         $74.51


_Test._--Showing manipulation of 5,000 pounds of back fat to make
neutral, kettle rendered lard and pure steamed lard:

TEST ON 5,000 POUNDS OF BACK FAT CONVERTED TO NO. 2 NEUTRAL KETTLE
RENDERED LARD AND PRIME STEAM LARD.

                                                          Net wt.   Per
                                                            lbs.   cent.
  Back fat                                                 5,000
  Less skins removed                                         586 = 11.72
                                                           -----
  Skinned back fat rendered to No. 2 neutral               4,414

  Production No. 2 neutral                                 1,846 = 41.82
  Bottoms left in kettle                                   2,568
                                                           =====

  Bottoms from No. 2 neutral rendered to kettle rendered
  lard                                                     2,568
  Stearine added                                             270 = 10.51
                                                           -----
    Total                                                  2,838

  Production of kettle rendered lard from above            1,940 = 68.36
                                                           -----
  Bottoms from No. 2 neutrals                                898
  Kettle rendered bottoms                                    673
                                                           -----
    Loss on production                                       225
                                                           =====

  Bottoms from kettle rendered to prime steam lard to tank   673
  Production of prime steam lard                             307 = 45.62
                                                           -----
  Skins from back fat rendered to prime steam lard           586
  Production of prime steam lard                             192 = 32.76

RECAPITULATION.

                                                Net wt.
                                                  lbs.
  Rendering back fat                             5,000
  Oleo stearine added                              270
                                                 -----
    Total                                        5,270

  Production No. 2 neutral lard    1,846 pounds
  Production kettle rendered lard  1,940 pounds
  Production prime steam lard        499 pounds  4,285
                                   -------------------
  Waste                                            985


=Kettle Rendered Lard.=--Kettle rendered lard is the purest and best
lard made in packing houses and consists of leaf lard and back fat, the
proportions varying according to the value of the raw product, usually
on a basis of about 60 per cent back fat and 40 per cent leaf. While
kettle rendered lard is sold under the label of “pure leaf lard” there
is little leaf used, as this part is worth more as a neutral lard than
when made into kettle rendered. A very acceptable formula for kettle
rendered lard, if handled properly, is as follows:

  70 per cent back fat;
  15 per cent leaf scraped lard, which is pieces of leaf, scraped out of
     the hog after the leaf lard has been pulled, and thoroughly
     chilled;
  15 per cent lard stearine.

Where neutral lard and kettle rendered lard are made together a nice
flavor may be imparted to the kettle rendered lard by using the bottoms
of neutral lard when cooking it, as the scrap from the neutral when
brought to the high temperature of kettle rendered lard imparts a rich
flavor.


_Process for Kettle Rendered Lard._--The raw product is put through a
hasher which cuts the fat tissues, so that when the heat is applied the
oil readily separates. The kettle generally used for this purpose is
about five feet in diameter and from five to seven feet deep, made of
wrought iron, jacketed for steam, with an agitator to keep the product
agitated while cooking. The jacket should be kept heated until through
hashing, then increased until the temperature of the lard reaches 255°
to 260° F., when the pressure should be shut off for one and one-half
hours at least--one and one-half hours should be taken to reach this
period. If lard stearine is used it should be added at this time,
using about 15 per cent for the summer formula. After this period of
shut-off, again turn on the steam, holding temperature, allowing the
contents to cook until dry, or until no further steam arises, which
will consume probably from thirty to forty-five minutes. Stop agitating
and add twenty pounds of salt, let stand to settle one hour, then lower
into the kettle below, strain through a cloth sieve, the lard being
taken off the scrap with a siphon. The scrap will remain in the bottom
of the cooking kettle; if handled carefully, very little will pass
through the pipe. The lard, when being drawn into the kettle below,
should be passed through several thicknesses of cheese cloth in order
to catch any small pieces of scrap or tissue.


_Settling._--After the lard is lowered into the settling kettle,
allow it to stand two to three hours, then siphon to a third kettle,
as considerable scrap will have gone through into the lard from the
cooking kettle, strain it through a double thickness of cheese cloth
stretched over a frame. In the third kettle a scum will arise on it,
which should be immediately skimmed off, and about ten pounds of fine
salt added to a 5,000-pound batch, to aid in settling. If convenient,
it is advisable to allow the lard to settle in this kettle for twelve
hours before drawing it off, although this length of time is not
necessary, but a perfect settlement of the impurities is necessary to
make the best lard.


_Scrap._--After the lard is drawn from the cooking kettle, the scrap
should be drawn from the bottom. This scrap is used in the prime steam
lard tank. If, however, there is no other provision for handling the
scrap, it should be put into a hoop press (Fig. 150), and pressure
applied, thereby liberating all the oil left in the residue, the scrap
then being used as “pressed scrap.”


_Packing and Cooling._--Kettle rendered lard is usually sold and used
more extensively during the cooler weather. It is very desirable that
there should be a light, fluffy top. This is only possible when the
lard is drawn hot in a cool room; chilling the lard rapidly causes this
appearance at the top, which is always looked upon by the trade as a
mark of excellence. When the lard is drawn off into small packages they
are placed one on top of the other, covering the top with paper. The
cover should not be put on the package until it is chilled, otherwise
the fluffy appearance is lost.

[Illustration: FIG. 150.--HOOP PRESS.]


_Drawing Temperatures._--When drawn into wooden packages, such as ten,
twenty or fifty pound pails, lard should be drawn at 150° F. If drawn
into tins it should be drawn off at 175° to 180° F.; when drawn into
tierces, barrels or half barrels it should be drawn at about 130° F.
When drawing lard into wooden packages they should be silicated the day
before, giving them ample time to dry, as this prevents the packages
from soaking up the lard and also prevents excessive shrinkage of the
package.


=Refining Prime Steam Lard.=--Refined prime steam lard is made into two
products, pure refined lard and lard with beef fat added.


=Pure Refined Lard.=--Pure refined lard consists of prime steam lard
with lard stearine added. This is a product resulting when prime steam
lard is pressed to obtain lard oil, a process described later; however,
the quantity available is quite limited. Descriptions will be confined
to the making of lard with beef fat added.

[Illustration: FIG. 151.--SECTION THROUGH TANK FOR MIXING FULLERS EARTH
AND LARD.]


=Fullers Earth.=--About thirty years ago the method of refining
lard with fullers earth was first inaugurated, and for years only
imported earth from England was thought suitable for this purpose.
Deposits of fullers earth, of fair quality, have been discovered in
the United States and American fullers earth is today used in some
lard refineries. Indications are that with improvements in mining and
methods of grinding, and possibly also in the discovery of better beds
or layers of this substance, manufacturers will not continue to go
abroad for supplies of fullers earth.

An explanation of how fullers earth bleaches lard and its kindred fats
would be interesting, if anyone knew the exact explanation, but so
far there has been no scientific reason given that accounts for this
property of this material, therefore no chemical test can be applied
to different samples of fullers earth to determine whether they are
suitable for refining or not. The only safe test is the practical one
of heating a sample together with lard and watching the result of the
bleach.

Fullers earth is used for bleaching cotton seed oil and other greases
and fats which are subjected to the bleaching process. In improving
the color of lard it is done at the expense of flavor, and a wholesome
odor, which is natural to the lard, is sacrificed in a greater or
lesser degree to the advantage of color. The tendency is to make lard
white, even though it loses in odor and taste. In compounding lard this
is intensified by the general use of tallow.

[Illustration: FIG. 152.--FULLERS EARTH KETTLE FOR SMALL HOUSES.]


=Bleaching Kettle.=--This can be of a predominant size dependent
upon the volume of business. For a moderate business the most
suitable dimensions are about six feet in diameter and four feet
deep. A sectional view of such a kettle is shown in Fig. 151 and a
smaller kettle is illustrated in Fig. 152. It was the practice to use
compressed air for agitation so as to mix the fullers earth with the
lard. This has been discontinued in the best refineries, as it was
found that agitation with air had a tendency to make the lard turn
rancid more readily than if agitated by mechanical device.

The kettle is supplied with a vertical shaft, to the bottom of which
is attached a propellor about fourteen inches in diameter. Around this
is fitted a wire screen about thirty inches high made of galvanized
wire, ³⁄₁₆-inch mesh, this screen clearing the blades of the fan about
an inch. On top of this screen is fixed an iron pipe approaching to
within about eighteen inches of the surface of the lard when the kettle
is filled. A kettle of this size will hold about 5,000 pounds of lard
for treatment. The agitating blade should revolve at a speed of from
125 to 175 revolutions per minute. This has the effect of producing a
miniature whirlpool in the body of lard by driving the lard through the
screen against the sides of the kettle, where it rises to the surface
and goes down through the funnel-shaped tube to be again driven through
the screen. In this way the fullers earth is thoroughly mixed in and if
there is a tendency to “lump” the lumps are readily broken up by impact.


=Bleaching Lard.=--If cold lard is used it should be melted and any
sediment or moisture which settles should be drawn off. It is best not
to draw off too close to the bottom so as to avoid any moisture.

The temperature at which lard should be bleached is an important matter
to be determined. If the lard has been heavily cooked and has a strong
steam flavor, a temperature of 180° F. is correct. If the lard has
not been well cooked a somewhat lower temperature is necessary. As a
rule the lower the temperature at which bleaching is done, the more
fullers earth is required to get the proper bleach and at the same
time as little earth flavor as possible is a point for careful and
intelligent consideration. The best way to determine, where there are
large quantities of lard, is to take a small sample and make tests in
the laboratory. The point to be obtained is to get the bleach with as
little of the flavor of the earth as possible. Generally speaking, from
three-fourths to one and one-half per cent of fullers earth will get
the desired result.

When the lard is brought to the proper temperature, fullers earth is
put in the kettle, when it is agitated from eight to twelve minutes,
then pumped through the filter press as rapidly as possible. It takes a
certain length of time for fullers earth to do its work properly, and a
strong agitation of from eight to twelve minutes appears to be the best
method to adopt in order to obtain the full effect of the earth.


=Refining Tallow Separately.=--Where tallow is used in lard, it is
always advisable to bleach the tallow separately. This is done in the
same manner as described for lard, with the exception that about three
per cent of fullers earth is used, after which it is pumped through the
filter press and into the receiving tanks.

[Illustration: FIG. 153.--FILTER PRESS.]

When it is compounded with the lard, the desired amount should be put
into the kettle with the lard after it is treated. The same is true
of oleo-stearine, except that in the bleaching of this article from
one-half to one and one-half per cent of fuller earth is sufficient.
Measures must be taken to see that ingredients are intimately mixed
before passing the product to the rolls.

The use of tallow or stearine is for the purpose of cheapening the
product, as well as hardening it, the formula for same being made
according to the values and conditions under which the lard is to
be sold. For instance lard going south, or into a warm climate,
is made much harder than lard for a temperate climate; hence lard
formulas, generally speaking, are worthless for general use, the
different formulas being made to suit widely different conditions, and
their availability also depends to a considerable extent upon the
fluctuation of values.


=Filter Press.=--After the contents of the kettle have been pumped
through the filter air pressure should be turned into the filter press
in order to blow out all the lard possible. After this live steam
should be turned on, expelling the balance of the lard from the pipe. A
large portion of this latter lard, however, is unfit to be used again,
as it contains sediment and fullers earth combined, having a rank,
strong odor, and can be used only for grease.

[Illustration: FIG. 154.--LARD COOLING CYLINDER.]


=Lard Roll.=--This is a device provided for cooling lard in a film
so as to bring plenty of air in contact with the surface during the
congealing. After the lard has been put through the filtering press it
goes to a receiving tank and is next passed over rollers for chilling.
(Fig. 154.) These are cast iron cylinders containing refrigerated
brine. The cylinders revolve at from ten to fourteen revolutions per
minute, the lard being congealed on the outer surface. Fixed against
the side of the cylinder is the edge of a steel knife which scrapes
close to its surface. The lard, in contact with the cool surface of
the cylinders, congeals and as it passes to the knife it is removed
and drops into the trough. Here it is thoroughly beaten by a revolving
shaft with pickers on it, so that all lumps are broken and the grain
is of a smooth, even consistency. Pure lard passes to an agitator,
which is a jacketed kettle, where it is given a thorough agitation
and drawn off cool as possible, the object being to have the different
ingredients thoroughly mixed at a low temperature.

At times rolls are used in tandem. When a bountiful supply of cold
water, say at 60° F., is available, the saving in refrigeration
justifies the use of tandem rolls. In this instance the first roll is
elevated so as to gravitate the lard to the feed of the second.

WEIGHT OF LARD PACKAGES.

  =====================+================+=========
                       |     Weight     |   Avg.
     Weight packages   |    material    |  weight
  ---------------------+----------------+---------
      3-POUND PAILS:   |                |
  100 pails            | 43 lbs.,  7 oz.| 6.95 oz.
  100 bails            |  5 lbs.,  4 oz.|  .84 oz.
  100 covers           |  9 lbs.,  7 oz.| 1.51 oz.
  100 summer covers    |  6 lbs.,  3 oz.|  .99 oz.
  ---------------------+----------------+---------
    Average weight each|       ...      |10.29 oz.
                       |                |
      5-POUND PAILS:   |                |
  100 pails            | 58 lbs., 12 oz.| 9.40 oz.
  100 bails            |  5 lbs., 15 oz.|  .95 oz.
  100 covers           | 13 lbs.        | 2.08 oz.
  100 summer covers    |  8 lbs., 10 oz.| 1.38 oz.
  ---------------------+----------------+---------
    Average weight each|       ...      |13.81 oz.
                       |                |
    10-POUND PAILS:    |                |
  100 pails            | 92 lbs., 14 oz.|14.86 oz.
  100 bails            |  7 lbs., 12 oz.| 1.24 oz.
  100 covers           | 19 lbs.,  5 oz.| 3.09 oz.
  100 summer covers    | 13 lbs., 10 oz.| 2.18 oz.
  ---------------------+----------------+---------
    Average weight each|       ...      |21.37 oz.
                       |                |
    20-POUND PAILS:    |                |
  100 pails            |144 lbs., 15 oz.|23.19 oz.
  100 bails            | 10 lbs.,  9 oz.| 1.69 oz.
  100 covers           | 34 lbs.        | 5.44 oz.
  100 summer covers    | 22 lbs.,  4 oz.| 3.56 oz.
  ---------------------+----------------+---------
    Average weight each|       ...      |33.88 oz.
                       |                |
  40-POUND SQUARE CANS:|                |
  100 cans             |268 lbs.,  8 oz.|42.96 oz.
  100 caps             |  2 lbs.,  8 oz.|  .40 oz.
  ---------------------+----------------+---------
    Average weight each|       ...      |43.36 oz.
                       |                |
   50-POUND ROUND CANS:|                |
  100 cans             |270 lbs., 10 oz.|43.30 oz.
  100 covers           | 50 lbs.,  2 oz.| 8.02 oz.
  100 summer covers    | 38 lbs., 12 oz.| 6.20 oz.
  ---------------------+----------------+---------
    Average weight each|       ...      |57.52 oz.
  ---------------------+----------------+---------


=Lard Packing.=--Refined lard is not usually drawn in a cooler. In most
climates the non-refrigerated rooms will suffice. It is packed in tubs,
barrels or tierces of wood. The lard, when available, in the picker
trough, is usually chilled and stiff. The use of a pump is made to
withdraw and force it through a strainer in an enlarged section of the
pipe, so as to effectually break all lumps. A relief valve should be
placed on the line to spill into the picker in case the draw cocks are
all suddenly closed.


=Lard Packages.=--In wooden packages tare is deducted. The table on
preceding page shows the actual weight of the different packages which
are usually made from an X L grade of tin. Inasmuch as lard sells at
more per pound than the tin costs, there is always an endeavor to get
the packages as heavy as consistent.


=Country Style Lard.=--Many moderate sized plants that do not cater
to a trade accustomed to highly refined lard, prefer to make kettle
rendered lard as most of their output, using leaf, back fat and
trimmings, adding the complimentary proportion of killing lard and
agitating the whole in a water jacketed agitator. All implements used
are similar to those described previously, also the method of drawing
from the agitator to packages is the same. Beef fat can be rendered in
the same way when oleo departments are not operated, and it can thus be
used to good advantage.


=Compound--What it is.=--Compound is a substitute for lard and is
made of cotton seed oil and oleo stearine, or tallow, or both. The
formula on this article varies according to the relative values of the
ingredients. The generally accepted formula is 80 per cent cotton seed
oil, and 20 per cent oleo stearine.

If the market price of oleo stearine is high, a formula may be
substituted as follows: 75 per cent cotton seed oil, 7¹⁄₂ percent
tallow, 17¹⁄₂ per cent oleo stearine. In cold weather even a smaller
amount of stearine may be used and a proportionately larger amount of
tallow.


=Cottonseed Oil.=--This is a product derived from cotton seed. Before
the manufacture of cotton seed oil, the cotton seed, removed from the
cotton, was thrown in large compost heaps and after decomposition, was
used sparingly as a fertilizer. An idea of its value may be gained from
the following table. From one ton of seed, by average, is obtained:

  270 pounds or 36 gallons of oil at 28c per gallon  $10.08
  750 pounds cotton seed meal at 90c per 100 pounds    6.75
  850 pounds hulls at 15c per 100 pounds               1.27
   30 pounds lint at 3¹⁄₂c                             1.05
                                                     ------
    Total value                                      $19.15

  100 pounds waste and dirt.

The oil when extracted from the seed is termed “crude oil.” In refining
this oil the loss varies from 7 per cent to 12 per cent, on an average
about 9¹⁄₄ per cent.


=Refining Crude Oil.=--The crude oil is purchased by refiners and
treated to produce “yellow oil.” In this process it is put into a tank
(it is generally considered profitable to refine cotton seed oil only
in large quantities) supplied with a revolving agitator. Into the
tank is put a solution of eighteen to twenty per cent caustic soda.
The quantity and strength of the solution necessary is determined
by treating a small sample. To a small sample of oil add the soda
solution, stirring continuously, having it heated to a temperature of
160° to 180° F. When sufficient soda lye has been added a floculent
precipitation will be noticed. This indicates a “breaking” of the oil.
By calculation of the relative amount the comparative quantities can be
arrived at.

An excessive amount of lye will saponify its equivalent in good oil,
therefore care must be exercised to see that only the proper amount
is used. In a practical way the soda is introduced in the crude oil
solution and agitation is started to insure the thorough mixing of
the caustic soda and the oil. The floculent substance appearing, the
agitation is stopped and the oil allowed to settle, the sediment and
substance other than oil collecting at the bottom of the tank. A small
quantity (about one-quarter of one per cent by weight) of fullers
earth is added and the oil removed by pumping through a filter press
producing what is known to the trade as “yellow oil.”

The sediment, known as “foots” is collected in kettles and treated with
additional lye, boiled and settled with salt; water added, settled and
drawn. This treatment is duplicated as many times as necessary, until
the soap stock will separate from impurities. When thoroughly settled
draw the soap stock into packages for the soap trade. The finished
“foots” contains about 33 to 40 per cent of moisture and a small
percentage of lye.


=Deodorizing Cotton Seed Oil.=--The “yellow oil” of trade has a
decided flavor which it is desirable to remove, and this process is
accomplished by deodorizing. (See Fig. 155.)


_Treating Tank._--This tank is equipped for heating the oil to a
very high temperature by the introduction of a large coil surface,
preferably rings, one within the other and arranged so that each ring
is accessible. The kettle coils, etc., should be made extra heavy. The
top of the kettle must also be hooded and as the oil boils violently
the steam must be given free opportunity to escape. The escape pipe
should be at least sixteen to twenty inches in diameter in a tank six
feet in diameter, and should be provided with a goose neck, so that the
steam rising which condenses, does not drip back into the tank. Fig.
155 show the construction of an oil treating tank.

The exhaust pipe extends into the atmosphere a short distance above the
deodorizing tanks. On account of the extreme agitation caused by the
heat, the oil is likely to boil over and waste. Special attention is
called to the crook or neck in the exhaust pipe with two-inch outlet at
the lowest point. This is done so that the condensation will not run
back into the oil, but can be taken out at this point.


=Process For Oil.=--The tank is filled with oil to about half its
capacity. The oil is then heated to a temperature of 320° to 360° F.
After being held at this temperature for an hour to an hour and a
half, it is ready for the washing process. This is done by means of a
two-inch perforated pipe at the top of the kettle, through which is
sprinkled cold water on the oil. The extreme temperature evaporates the
water very rapidly and at the same time causes a precipitation. The
water should be allowed to run for five minutes, and then the body of
oil should stand for from one to two hours. The cone, or bottom of the
kettle, will be found to have a sediment which has been precipitated
from the oil. This “bottom” should be drawn off, and the steam again
turned on the coils.

[Illustration: FIG. 155.--DEODORIZING TANK FOR COTTON SEED OILS.]


_Blowing._--The oil is heated to the original temperature and steam
of high pressure and temperature introduced into the body of the oil.
The length of time required for treating the oil depends largely upon
its nature, some oils being more neutral and more nearly odorless than
others, consequently no exact rule can be laid down that would fit all
cases; it must be left to the judgment of the person handling the oil.


_Pressure and Temperature._--To obtain the temperature above mentioned
a pressure of 150 pounds should be carried, and late practice
introduces a superheater for reheating the steam to insure high
temperature by adding 100° to 150° F. to the steam temperature.

[Illustration: FIG. 156.--SECTION OF BOTTOM OF DEODORIZING TANK.]


_Bleaching Process._--As soon as the oil is deodorized it is drawn off
and allowed to cool. It is pumped into the treating kettle, or what is
known in refineries as the “dirt” kettle. There it is brought up to
a temperature of 160° F., when the fullers earth is added, generally
using from one to two percent of earth with this bleach, following an
agitation of about ten minutes. It should then be pumped through the
filter press into the receiving tank, where it is held until used.
After going through this process the oil is known to the trade as
“water white.”

[Illustration: FIG. 157.--SECTION THROUGH EXHAUST HOOD OF DEODORIZING
TANK.]


_Mixing._--Refined tallow or oleo stearine melted and clarified by
pumping through a filter press without the use of fullers earth is
added to the cotton seed oil so prepared, and the mixed substance,
containing proportions previously described, are ready for passing over
the cooling roll.


_Filter Press._--The filter press (Fig. 158) should not be used more
than two or three times until it is taken apart, all the sediment and
dirt removed and clean cloths substituted. Continued use of filter
cloths, without proper cleaning, has a deteriorating effect upon the
material pumped through the presses, and different kinds of products
should not be passed through the same press.


_Color and Roll Treatment._--Color is an important feature of compound,
when an odorless oil has been produced. The mixture passed to the rolls
is usually at a temperature of 120° F. and this heated body of material
amounting to 4000 pounds per hour on an eight foot roll requires a very
large capacity of refrigerating equipment.

It is desirable to maintain a brine temperature in the shell of from
zero to five degrees above. A fifty-ton refrigerating equipment of
commercial rating is inadequate for this duty. Consequently compound
manufacturers must have ample refrigerating machine capacity.

The lard roll is preferably of the size noted and should operate at not
to exceed seven revolutions per minute, provided brine of the above
temperature is supplied; fewer revolutions if temperature is higher,
which naturally reduces the capacity.

The lard roll, pump, and strainer equipment is the same as described
for lard, except that the lard is packed directly from the picker
trough without the use of an additional agitator.


=Hydrogenation of Oils.=--A new process has been devised whereby soft
oils, such as cotton seed oil, can be hardened so as to make a purer
vegetable product. The substance has quite a large field but it is not
intimately connected with the packing business.


=Cotton Seed Stearine.=--This is a purchasable product and is used at
times as a substitute for oleo stearine.


=Lard Oil.=--The production of lard oil used in compounding
lubricating oils and illuminating oils is still carried on to some
extent. The process consists of graining the oils in graining tanks or
in seeding trucks similar to oleo oil graining trucks.


_Pressing._--The lard cooled to a temperature of 40° F. is placed in
cloth wrapper arranged so that all oil is strained through the wrapper.
The solid substance contained in the wrapper is lard stearine used to
harden pure lard.

[Illustration: FIG. 158.--FILTER PRESS FOR LARD OR OLEO OIL.]


_Graining._--After the fats have been washed they should be drawn into
trucks or tierces and placed in a room where there is good ventilation,
and kept there for about two days, giving the acid fumes an opportunity
to pass off; the fat will then be found to be lowered to about 80°
F. and should then be removed to a room that is refrigerated. After
remaining in this temperature three or four days the fats will be found
to be crystallized, or grained, and of about the temperature of the
rooms. It is then ready to go to press.


=Pressing Temperatures.=--The usual pressing temperatures for the
several kinds of commodities pressed are as follows:

  Tallow            58° to 65° F.
  Prime steam lard  48° to 50° F.
  Neatsfoot oil     45° to 48° F.

These and the temperature of the room, however, are subject to
variations.


=No. 2 Lard Oil.=--A lower quality of lard oil is made from hog
greases. These are made from condemned hogs, catch basin skimmings and
similar sources. The methods are similar to those used for No. 1 lard
oil, except that the former is treated as an edible product and the
latter as inedible.

The extracted stearine is sold or used for soap purposes.


=Cold Test-Oil.=--It is not customary to speak of any particular cold
test of cotton or grease oils; however, in case of pure lard oil,
pressed, it would have a cold test of about 42° F. Pure neatsfoot
would have a cold test of about 45° F. In case colder degree oils are
desired, either pure lard or neatsfoot, it would be necessary to make
the lard colder than above; as to neatsfoot oil, if it is desired to
make a 30° F. test, it would be best to make two pressings. First chill
stock to a temperature of 42° F., pressing it in a room at 45° F. and
then take the oil that is made in this way, refrigerating it in a room
at 32° F. and pressing it at a temperature of 32° F.


=Treatment for Lard Grease.=--Before pressing the low grade greases it
is necessary to wash with sulphuric acid to eliminate the impurities,
such as water, lime soaps, albuminous matters and ordinary dirt.
Shallow wooden vats are ordinarily used for this purpose, the vats
being of greater width than depth, as the acid water settles best in
a shallow receptacle. Where a comparatively small amount of work is
to be done an ordinary wooden vat made out of good sound pine, with
three-inch staves and well bolted together, is all that is necessary,
but where the work is continuous these wooden vats should be lined with
ten-ounce lead, as the acid very soon destroys the vats.


_Washing Methods._--The method of washing with the sulphuric acid
is as follows: Into the wooden or lead-lined vat run clear water to
the amount of about 10 to 15 per cent of the weight of the grease to
be treated, and when the water is in, add one per cent of sulphuric
acid to the fat to be washed, the acid to be 66-degree density. It is
important that the water be put in first, for if the acid is put into
the tank first and the water afterwards run in, an explosion is liable
to occur on account of the intense heat generated by the absorption of
the water by the acid. In case of an explosion the acid is liable to be
thrown on the attendants. After the water and acid have been mixed, add
grease, turn on steam and boil until the fat and acid show clear; at
first it will be muddy or cloudy. Usually a boiling of twenty to thirty
minutes is sufficient. This work should be done on the top floor of the
building, or some place where there is ample room for the escape of the
vapor, as the fumes of the acid are very strong and are injurious to
the building. After the boiling is finished, allow the tank to settle
ten to twelve hours, draw off the acid water from the bottom, and if
the same is clear and clean it shows that the fat had little foreign
substance and the solution can be used over again. If it shows a great
deal of foreign matter in the solution it should be run away.

All pipes leading from such treating vats should be of lead. It is also
necessary that the pipes in the vats be of perforated lead coils, as
iron pipes would very soon be destroyed.


_Filtration._--At times, for bleaching purposes, and especially on low
grade greases, it is usual to refine and bleach the oil. The amount of
fullers earth to be used in filtering depends upon the condition of
the oil to be filtered. With prime steam lard no fullers earth should
be used; it is simply filtered through clean press cloths. In the case
of lard oils and tallow oils, the color of the oil desired must also
determine the amount of fullers earth to be used, no set rule as to the
amount to be used in every case being practicable.

Every manufacturer of these different grades of oils has his own grades
and standards established, to which the lard refiners usually work, and
the amount of bleaching, etc., which is necessary for each individual
lot should be governed by the knowledge of the operator, rather than by
any set rules.

In the pressing of these articles the oils generally run from 40 to 52
per cent of stock, the balance being stearine, the percentage of oil
obtained varying according to the temperature at which it is pressed,
and according to the relative market prices for oils and stearines.




CHAPTER XXIV.

SMOKE HOUSE


  SMOKING MEATS -- NOMENCLATURE -- SOAKING -- SMOKING -- GAS SMOKING
  -- TEMPERATURES -- TREATMENT AFTER SMOKING -- TROLLEY SYSTEM --
  CANVASED MEATS -- SHRINKAGE -- WRAPPING -- WHITE WASH -- DRIED BEEF
  -- PACKAGES -- SKIPPER FLY.


=Smoking Meats.=--The smoking of meats is an ancient method of
preserving for future use. In the smoking process which drys the meat
and to some extent impregnates it, a preservative result is brought
about, and meats which are smoked can be carried for quite a long
period of time without becoming unfit for food. Notably a Virginia ham.
The old style developed in Virginia was to smoke the ham for a month or
six weeks. The ham, dried to about 75 per cent of its original weight
and in this form hung in a moderately dry place, would be edible at the
end of twelve months.


=Nomenclature.=--The naming of meats has grown up among the trade
and it is understood that the prefix, “bacon,” as applied to meats
indicated the same to be dry salted, when smoked. Whereas, when used
as a suffix it indicates a sweet pickled cure. For example, “Bacon
Bellies” means dry salted, smoked bellies; while “Breakfast Bacon”
means sweet pickle cured, smoked meats.


=Soaking Meats.=--Before meats are placed in the smoke house, they are
soaked in fresh water. This is done to remove the surplus salt, making
the meat more palatable; and to give it a better appearance. If it is
not properly soaked the salt forms a white crust on the surface. Meat
over-soaked becomes “water-logged” and often becomes water-sour when
exposed to the heat for smoking, also moulds quickly after smoking,
hence it is essential that this part of the work receives careful
attention.

The best results from soaking are obtained by using soaking water at
a temperature of 65° F. A soaking schedule that will be found to give
excellent results is as follows:

THE TIME REQUIRED TO SOAK MEATS.

  Hams at full cured age        2    hrs. (3 min. for each day older)
  Bellies,  8-10 lbs., 20 days  1¹⁄₂ hrs. (3 min. for each day older)
  Bellies, 10-12 lbs., 25 days  1¹⁄₂ hrs. (3 min. for each day older)
  Bellies, 12-16 lbs., 30 days  1¹⁄₂ hrs. (3 min. for each day older)
  Dry salt meats                 ¹⁄₂ hrs. (except bellies, two hours)

If meats still show salt after smoking change water once, as the fresh
water will take up salt rapidly. It will be found better to change
water than to soak longer. Mildly cured bacon is washed to remove salt
on surface, and not soaked. Thorough washing of all meats with a stiff
brush is done before hanging. “Bacon” or dry salted meat is not soaked.


=Smoking.=--After the meats are washed and hung in the smoke house,
they should be allowed to dry about three hours, or until they stop
dripping, for if the smoke is applied while the meats are still
dripping, wherever one piece of meat is subjected to the dripping of
another, the smoke fails to take effect, giving the meats a striped and
discolored appearance. The meat, thoroughly dry, fire should be built
in the smoke house with either hickory, maple or oak wood (partially
green being preferred) and the temperature brought up from 112° to 118°
F., and maintained until the surface of the meat has become thoroughly
dried and has a partially glazed appearance. As soon as this effect is
noticed, which will be in five to eight hours, hardwood sawdust should
be added, which will form a dense, penetrating smoke. At the same time
the temperature should be gradually increased in the smoke house, or
brought up to from 115° to 120° F.

A pile of sawdust, quantity depending upon the size of the smoke
house used, should be raised in the center of the house and a few
burning brands of wood laid around it. These will cause the sawdust to
ignite and a small fire, producing a great deal of smoke, will result
therefrom. If the sawdust is put on a fire already burning much of the
sawdust will go up through the house in the form of a light ash, which
is deposited upon the meat, injuring its appearance.

A house of sweet-pickle meats should be smoked for about twenty-four
to thirty hours, to get good results, and be allowed to stand for
twelve hours with the ventilators open, to give the meat a chance to
thoroughly cool off before discharging.


=Gas Smoking.=--The growing scarcity and consequent increased cost of
wood is forcing many packers to use gas and sawdust for smoking. With
this system the use of sawdust and gas is made in combination, the
gas being burned by slow delivery through a perforated pipe, and the
sawdust banked nearby to burn with a creeping fire. The use of steam
coils for heating the house is a valuable assistance particularly if
exhaust steam is available for use.


=Temperatures.=--The following temperatures will be found to give very
satisfactory results in smoking and while it will be found impossible
to adhere to them absolutely, it is advisable to do so as closely as
possible during the smoking period:

   3 hours in smoke  107° F.
   6 hours in smoke  114° F.
   9 hours in smoke  116° F.
  12 hours in smoke  118° F.
  15 hours in smoke  119° F.
  18 hours in smoke  118° F.
  21 hours in smoke  120° F.
  24 hours in smoke  118° F.
  27 hours in smoke  119° F.
  30 hours in smoke  115° F.

It should be the aim to have the house at a temperature of 118° F.
after twelve hours, and it should be held at that if possible. Meats
thus handled will be found to have a light amber color which indicates
a light smoke, whereas a dark amber would indicate a heavy smoke. The
color of the meats should be regulated by the requirements of the
trade. Lighter meats, such as fancy bacon, should be hung on the upper
floors with the hams nearer the fire.


=Treatment After Smoking.=--When meats are finished smoking the fire
should be put out, the house opened up, giving it a free circulation
of air, and the meats allowed to thoroughly dry and cool before being
removed. Smoked meats should be handled as little as possible, for
every time they are handled or piled on trucks, it detracts from their
appearance. They become greasy and soon lose their bright, attractive
appearance. After being cooled, the meat should not be handled until
inspected and packed for shipment, thereby preserving a very desirable
appearance, as well as reducing the cost of labor in operation.


=Trolley System.=--Originally meats were hung from nails in beams or
from cross sticks suspended from beams, the smoke house being an open
shaft. Many devices have been originated for saving time in taking
meats in and out of smoke, and various forms of racks operated on
overhead rails have been devised. Some sort of arrangement of this kind
is a necessity.

A trolley storage space is usually arranged near to the packing
space and meats packed direct from the trolley. It is usual to make
a complete inspection out of smoke and pass the hams to the storage
trolley, graded, wiped and ready for packing.


=Canvased Meats from Weight.=--Canvased meats are usually sold on
packed weight, cloth included. The gain in weight usually pays for all
cost involved and somewhat better, as the test below indicates:

CANVASING 1,031 HAMS.

  325    yards sheeting at 4⁷⁄₈c                    $15.84
    3³⁄₄ yards Andover twine at 30c                   1.12
  274    yards paper at 1³⁄₄c                         4.32
  One man three hours at 17¹⁄₂c per hour               .52
  Sewing at $1.10                                   11.34
                                                    ------
    Cost of canvasing                                        $33.14

    445 pounds wash at 2.1c                         $ 9.34
  1,031 labels at $1 per 1,000                        1.03
  Eight men two hours twenty-eight min., seven men
  thirty-five min.                                    4.11   $14.48
                                                    ---------------
    Total actual cost                                        $47.62

  Weight before canvasing  10,550 lbs.
  Weight after canvasing   11,041 lbs.
  Weight after washing     11,486 lbs.

It will be noted from the previous test that there was a gain of 936
pounds in canvasing these hams, at a cost of $5.09 per 100 pounds. As
hams always sell at a much higher price than this, the difference would
represent the profit in this operation.


=Shrinkage.=--Shrinkage of smoked meats is a matter tangible in dollars
and cents. Meats for prompt consumption, such as those smoked and
distributed from a branch house, can be smoked for less than meats
smoked at the parent house for shipment via carload or local freight.

The aim is to smoke out the meat as near green weights as possible, the
amount of shrinkage depending largely upon the requirements at points
to which meats are to be shipped and the conditions to which they are
to be subjected. For instance, hams and shoulders which are to be used
for immediate consumption should smoke out 98¹⁄₂ to 100 per cent green
weight, whereas meats which are to be held for some length of time
after being smoked, or which are intended for a warmer climate, will
smoke out from 95 to 97 per cent of the green weight.

Meats, which are to be consumed immediately and not shipped to a warm
climate, may carry more moisture and hence show less shrinkage. At
the same time they have a much finer and more attractive appearance.
This is a matter to which an owner or manager of a smoke house must
necessarily give minute and close attention in order to obtain the best
results. Perhaps as important a point as any, is when the condition of
the meats as to dryness is concerned. Meats should be shipped promptly
when in condition and not allowed to remain in the smoke house awaiting
disposition.

The following table shows the result of tests on 1,136 pounds of meat
hung in smoke house for seven consecutive days, temperature of smoke
house about 90° F.

                             Lbs.
  Weight when fully smoked  1,136
  24 hours later            1,129
  24 hours later            1,121
  24 hours later            1,114
  24 hours later            1,108
  24 hours later            1,105
  24 hours later            1,100

  Thirty-six pounds shrinkage in seven days’ hanging.


=Wrapping Smoked Meats.=--Fancy meats, now almost entirely distributed
in wrappers of paper or cloth, should be well cooled before wrapping.
A piece of cheese cloth is wrapped over the butt, and absorptive paper
folded next, usually doubled at the butt, with an outer covering of
parchment paper. The neatness and appearance of the package must be
considered and naturally the package should be kept clean.

For some trade, meats are sewn in burlap. Others are covered with
whitewash solution, or yellow wash. Meats put out in such manner are
usually intended for distant shipment and should be harder smoked.
Canvassed or white-washed meats are paper wrapped, same as fancy meats,
before covering with the outer bag.


=White-Wash.=--The following recipe can be used for making white-wash:

  1,200 pounds floated barytes.
     90 pounds flour.
    140 pounds water.
     63 pounds white ham wash glue.
      1 teaspoon blueing.

The glue should be cooked and strained through a piece of cloth before
being added to the solution, as there is liable to be more or less
sediment in the glue, which should be removed, after which mix with the
flour; let stand about twelve hours, then add the barytes, using hot
water in mixing. After it is mixed add the blueing.

This material should be put in a tub, held at a temperature of 90°
to 100° F., into which the canvassed meats are to be immersed. After
being dipped they are hung up over the tub while an attendant rubs his
hand over them, taking off the surplus material which has adhered to
the package, and at the same time forcing the wash into the openings
of the cloth. They should next be brushed over with a heavy paint
brush, smoothing off the surface, and then hung in a dry-room to dry.
After being allowed to hang for eight to ten hours, until the wash is
thoroughly dry and has hardened, they are ready for shipment.


=Yellow Wash for Meat Canvas.=--This is practically the same as white
wash, except that a chrome yellow color is used, and the mixture will
have a yellow instead of a white shade when finished. Handle same as
white wash for meats. A formula for yellow wash is given as follows:

  1,200 pounds floated barytes.
    210 pounds whiting.
    195 pounds water.
    114 pounds lemon yellow.
     35 pounds joiner’s glue.

This is used at a temperature of from 90° to 100° F. As all meats
canvassed are sold gross weight, the barytes is added to give an
additional weight to the meats which are canvassed.

A dry room in which meats can be dried by forced draft from fan is a
valuable adjunct for quick deliveries.


=Smoking Dried Beef.=--Dried beef is an article which has to be smoked
heavier, dried more, than pork hams, and unless the moisture is well
evaporated the time it may be kept will be short. An approved method
for handling dried beef is as follows:

Steam coils should be placed at the top and also at the bottom of
the smoke house. The steam should be turned on until the temperature
of house is between 130° and 140° F. After the meat has hung in this
temperature about thirty hours, a light fire should be started, by
using two or three sticks of wood, and plenty of hard wood sawdust
scattered close to the fire, so as to form a dense smoke. It is very
essential that dried beef should have a strong smoked flavor. Steam
should be kept on the house all the time the beef is being smoked and
it will require eighty to ninety hours under these conditions to bring
the beef out in the best condition.

Beef can be smoked in a regular house, but it takes much longer and it
cannot be handled as satisfactorily as with steam heat in connection
with the smoking process.

After the meat is sufficiently smoked the house should be allowed to
cool off, and the meat to hang for about twenty-four hours before being
handled. It is then ready for packing and shipping. Dried beef thus
handled will shrink about 38 to 33 per cent from the cured weight to
the smoked weight.

The following test will show the shrinkage on 100 pieces of dried beef
hams, also the shrinkage each twenty-four hours after:

SHRINKAGE ON DRIED BEEF.

  100 pieces, cellar weight  1,184 lbs.
  After smoking 85 hours       812 lbs.
  24 hours later               806 lbs.
  24 hours later               793 lbs.
  24 hours later               781 lbs.
  24 hours later               762 lbs.
  24 hours later               755 lbs.
  24 hours later               750 lbs.


=Packages.=--The packing of meats for shipment is best done in open
type barrels or crates. Fancy meats should not be packed to exceed one
hundred pounds per box so as not to injure the shape.


=Skipper Fly.=--The skipper, the larvae in the life cycle of a fly is
the one pest needing close watching in a smoke house. This fly does not
attack either green or salted meats, but will select a piece of pork
ham in preference to a beef ham. The fly lays an egg which hatches to
a larvae, and this is the disgusting form in which it is the enemy of
sweet-smoked meats.

The preventive seems to be such as windows and doors finely screened,
regular “gassing” with sulphur fumes and ample light. It is claimed
by some that if smoke houses are well lighted, for instance as a show
room, the skipper fly will not frequent them since it prefers darkness
for the egg laying period.

There is no known chemical agent that can be used without conflicting
with pure food laws that will destroy the egg once deposited. A fly
lays upward of thirty eggs during the life cycle of about two weeks,
consequently it multiplies rapidly.




CHAPTER XXV.

DOMESTIC SAUSAGE


  MEATS AND HANDLING -- ARRANGEMENT OF DEPARTMENT -- CURING MEATS --
  COOLER FOR GROUND MEATS -- GRINDING AND STUFFING ROOM -- SMOKE HOUSE
  -- COOK ROOM -- DRY HANGING ROOM -- COOLER -- SMOKING TEMPERATURE
  -- COOKING TIME -- SHRINKAGES -- PICKLE-CURED PRODUCTS -- DRY-CURED
  MEATS -- PACKING -- CASINGS AND SPICES -- SAUSAGE CEREALS -- SAUSAGE
  FORMULAS -- BOLOGNA VARNISH -- BOILED HAM.


=Introductory.=--There is probably no department where there is
more diversity of methods than in the sausage room. The business of
sausage making is an old one, and was largely developed in Europe,
where on account of the low wages and the high prices for meats it was
necessary to make the cheaper meat products into an edible article. The
gradually increasing value of meats in the United States makes the same
conditions paramount.

In the operation of packing houses the cutting of meats into many
parts so as to supply the various purchasers with what they require,
makes a comparatively large amount of wholesome meat product, equally
nutritious with porter house steak, but not quite so tender or pleasing
to the taste. Cheek meat, hearts and various trimmings are wholesome
as a porterhouse, but not so delectable, at least, in their original
condition; hence, the art of sausage making consists in taking these
products and making from them a palatable, wholesome and less costly
article.


=Meats and Handling.=--Sausage is made in such varieties that there
are a multitude of ingredients in a multitude of forms. Primarily
beef and pork trimmings are the broad classes, but of these there
are many forms, each of different physical properties. Hearts and
cheeks are, for example, the toughest part of the animal organism,
and these usually find their way to the sausage room. On the other
hand the parts of hams and shoulders used are equally delicate with
the meats so conserved, but are of necessity relegated to the sausage
room on account of their shape as a trimming. It is the skillful
manipulation of these various meats that makes for the real results in
this department. Too frequently, the sausage department is regarded
as a necessity, like the tank house, to put things through. The most
successful operators are those who regard the department otherwise, and
many good and successful businesses have been builded on the sausage
department as a basis; not by trying to make sausage to retail at five
cents per pound, extravagantly speaking.


=Arrangement of Department.=--This department becomes quite
comprehensive in its scope in large establishments requiring:

  Refrigerated space for curing fresh meats.

  Cooler for curing meats after ground.

  Grinding and stuffing room.

  Smoke houses.

  Cook room.

  Dry hanging room for smoked sausage.

  Cooler for sausage other than smoked sausage.


=Curing Meats.=--In certain sausages cured meats are a necessity, in
others they can be used without detriment, while there still remain
others in which cured meats are positively bad. Therefore exactly how
to handle the meats so as to have them available for use in proper
form becomes a matter of concern. Formerly when preservatives, like
borax and boracic acid could be used, many products were put into cure
with a preservative of saltpetre, borax, boracic acid, sugar and salt,
and kept sufficiently mild to be acceptable, but the pure food laws
abolishing the use of preservatives have changed conditions. The result
is that sausage products should be cured like hams and frozen when
cured or frozen before curing and carried in this form until wanted.
However, quite a large space should be provided near the sausage
department for curing products.


=Cooler for Ground Meats.=--In close proximity to the sausage room
is provided a shelving room arranged for placing ground fresh spiced
meats for curing processes; spiced completely and ready for stuffing.
Meats can be held in this manner and stuffed, smoked, cooked and packed
rapidly as the exigencies of shipping demand. This enables the maker to
shorten the time between himself and the consumer, most necessary for a
successful business.


=Grinding and Stuffing Room.=--This should be a well lighted and well
ventilated room. Here the grinding equipment and stuffing tables are
located. The principal equipment needed are “Enterprise” type grinders,
silent cutters, mixer and back fat choppers, with a spice mill.

[Illustration: FIG. 159.--DEVICE FOR RUNNING SAUSAGE INTO SMOKE HOUSE.]

Mechanical cutters are expected to be an aid to teeth and therefore
they should be made to perform their part by being fitted with sharp
knives to do the cutting. Choppers are only necessary in making
summer sausage although some manufacturers prefer to rock their fancy
breakfast sausage.


=Smoke Houses.=--The management of sausage smoke houses for ordinary
sausage vary considerably. Figs. 159 and 160 with description
illustrate one of the sliding carriage types. The smoke house carriage
is made of angle irons and is run on a track which is supported by
vertical columns. The outside tracks can be raised to any height
desired to match the tracks in the smoke house. The sausage is hung on
this carriage and run into the smoke house, and when it is sufficiently
smoked the carriage can be drawn out on the movable rails, the
sausages taken off, others put in their place and the operation
repeated.

This device necessitates a carriage for each set of tracks in the
smoke house. Later practice tends toward the use of some sort of
cage--operated from overhead rails; the sausage department being
arranged with rails near to the stuffing tables. Extending to the
smoke houses, thence to the cook boxes and on to the hanging rooms.
This arrangement is so familiar that it does not require further
description. The tracks are made in such form and size as to fit the
houses and usually conform to one of the types illustrated.

[Illustration: FIG. 160.--DETAIL OF SMOKE HOUSE CARRIAGE.]

The modern houses are built of brick, about 54 inches in width, which
will allow, clear of the frame, two to four inches. In depth the houses
vary and can be from ten to sixteen feet. Where possible, they should
be built on a corresponding level to the cook rooms and grinding rooms,
so as to avoid the necessity of using elevators. This brings the fire
pit within a reasonable distance, which is a decided advantage for high
temperature smoke houses.

Smoke house compartments for summer or dried sausage can be from two to
three stories and should be built exclusively of brick, as it has been
shown by numerous experiments with sheet iron and iron lined houses
that these are not a success for smoking all kinds of sausage. The
draft of the house is, of course, regulated by ventilators at the top.

Better results are obtained by the use of tin clad wood center doors
than by the use of plate iron doors.

[Illustration: FIG. 161.--DIAGRAM SMOKE HOUSE SAUSAGE STACK.]

In smoking domestic sausage, it is always preferable to use hard wood,
never to put green or unsmoked sausage into a cold smoke house, the
house should be warmed by first building a fire in it, in case it has
not been recently used. In hot weather or in the summer time this is
not so important, as smoke houses then are sufficiently warm at all
times. In cool weather or during the winter, the smoke house should
either be kept warm by constant usage or by warming up before using in
case the house is empty and has become cold. The fire should not be
over eight feet from the cage.


=Cooking Time.=--To successfully manufacture sausage it should be
cooked properly. The following schedule gives the time and temperature
of cooking different kinds of sausage, forming the “Cooking Schedule”
referred to in many of the foregoing formulas:

COOKING SCHEDULE FOR SAUSAGE.

  ---------------------+-----+-------+-----------
                       | ... |  ...  |Temperature
                       | Time| Time  |  degrees
     Kind of sausage   |hours|minutes| Fahrenheit
  ---------------------+-----+-------+-----------
  Long Bologna         | ... |   30  |   160
  Large Bologna        |  2  |  ...  |   160
  Round Bologna        | ... |   20  |   155
  Bag Bologna          |  2  |  ...  |   160
  Bologna in weasands  | ... |   45  |   155
  Knoblauch            | ... |   20  |   160
  Leona Bologna long   | ... |   40  |   155
  Leona Bologna large  |  2  |  ...  |   160
  Regular Frankfurts   | ... |    7  |   160
  Vienna Frankfurts    | ... |    7  |   160
  High grade Frankfurts| ... |    7  |   160
  Blood                |  2  |  ...  |   200
  Tongue               |  2  |  ...  |   200
  Liver                | ... |   30  |   160
  Minced ham           |  4  |  ...  |   150
  Berlin ham           |  2  |  ...  |   170
  Head cheese          | ... |   45  |   180
  Cooked pressed ham   |  2  |   30  |   180
  ---------------------+-----+-------+-----------


=Cook Room.=--The cook room should be provided with vats of various
types, usually of iron plate on account of ease in cleaning. A later
type is provided with a hood, the apparatus looks like a piano box, a
lifting cover being provided which permits it to be raised and lowered
at will. Permanent ventilating spouts are attached to the top to
dispose of the steam--something that must be contended with in the cook
room. The vats are usually arranged in pairs and are accessible from
three sides.

In some large institutions cook tanks are set in the floor and the
sausage cage submerged with the sausage hanging thereon. This is not
advisable as there is sure to be a discoloration from the cages.

Sausage upon removal from the cook tanks should be drenched with cold
water, preferably sprayed on from the top. This washes the sausage and
cools it, preparatory to hanging in the sales or packing department.


=Smoking Temperatures.=--The smoking of sausage is a very important
factor, and in the different formulas given in the instructions for
handling, reference has been made to the “Smoking Schedule.” This
schedule has been carefully compiled and the time and temperatures
given should be closely followed in order to get the best results.

SMOKING TEMPERATURES FOR SAUSAGE.

  =====================+============+===========
                       |            |Temperature
                       |     Time   |  degrees
     Kind of sausage   |    hours   | Fahrenheit
  ---------------------+------------+-----------
  Long Bologna         |      3     | 145 to 150
  Large Bologna        |      3     | 145 to 150
  Round Bologna        |      2     | 135 to 140
  Bag Bologna          |      1     | 140 to 145
  Bologna in weasands  |      4     | 185
  Knoblauch            |      1¹⁄₂  | 130
  Leona Bologna long   |      3     | 145
  Leona Bologna large  |      3     | 145
  Regular Frankfurts   |2¹⁄₂ to 3   | 130 to 135
  Vienna Frankfurts    |      3     | 140 to 145
  High grade Frankfurts|3    to 3¹⁄₂| 150 to 160
  Blood                |     12     |  65 to 70
  Tongue               |     12     |  65 to 70
  Liver                |1    to 1¹⁄₂| 110 to 120
  Polish               |3    to 3¹⁄₂| 150 to 160
  Minced ham           |3    to 3¹⁄₂| 135
  Berlin               |      5     | 130 to 140
  Cooked pressed ham   |      5     | 130 to 140
  Cottage ham          |     32     | 120
  Boneless ham         |     48     |  80
  ---------------------+------------+-----------

A thermometer in a smoke house is a necessity--not an ornament. A clock
is of the same consequence.


=Dry Hanging Room.=--A well ventilated room with all the light possible
should be provided for storage of smoked sausage awaiting shipment.
This should not be a cooler. Sixty degree Fahr. is amply low, and in
summer a higher temperature is advisable. If smoked sausage is placed
in a cooler it condenses moisture on the surface and becomes slimy,
mouldy and rotten in rapid succession.


=Shrinkages of Domestic Sausage.=--As is known to all sausage makers
it is in very rare cases that 100 pounds of meat makes 100 pounds of
finished sausage; there is always a shrinkage and before the cost of
the finished sausage can be determined one must know the shrinkage from
original weights of raw materials.

The following tabulated statement is compiled from experience with
very large amounts of the different kinds of sausage, extended over a
year and a half of actual manufacture. The mean average of shrinkage
is accurate information and may safely be used as a guide. The cost
of the formulas is not given as there is such a variation in prices
of ingredients induced by market prices that any figures would be
misleading. To find out the cost of the formulas, figure the given
weights at market value, shrinking them according to the table below,
adding cost for labor and supplies, and a very close approximate cost
of the manufactured article will be obtained.

                            Per cent
                               of
    Kind of Sausage.       Shrinkage.
  Long Bologna            8¹⁄₂ to 11
  Large Bologna           7¹⁄₄ to 10
  Round Bologna           8¹⁄₂ to 11
  Bag Bologna             6    to  9
  Bologna in weasands     6    to  9
  Knoblauch              10    to 11
  Leona, long            10    to 13
  Leona, large           10    to 12
  Regular Frankfurts     11    to 13¹⁄₂
  Vienna Frankfurts      19    to 22
  High grade Frankfurts  18    to 20
  Regular pork            2    to  4
  Little pig pork         2    to  4
  High grade breakfast    1¹⁄₂ to  3
  Blood                  31    to 36
  Liver                  12    to 14
  Tongue                 38    to 40
  Polish                 12    to 14
  Head cheese            39    to 42
  Luncheon beef          47    to 50
  Boneless pigs feet     22    to 25
  Minced ham              6    to  9
  Berlin ham             22    to 27
  Cooked pressed ham     15    to 17


=Cooler for Fresh Sausage.=--Fresh pork sausage tongue and other
varieties of cooked sausage are usually placed in a cooler. Dryness
in this cooler is a first and prime essential. Likewise a spreading
of the product so as to give it opportunity to dry. Moisture in
this department creates a bad condition in the product. Fans are an
assistance in that they produce a circulation which adds to dryness.


=Pickle-Cured Product.=--The following products are used in sausage
making. They are of little value except in the cured condition:

  Pork snouts,
  Pork hearts,
  Pork cheeks,
  Pork skins,
  Pork heads,
  Pork hocks,
  Pork ears,
  Pork tails,
  Beef hearts,
  Beef cheeks,
  Ox lips,
  Sheep hearts.

These products should be thoroughly chilled by spreading them out on
racks and placing them in a chill room having a temperature of from
34° to 36° F. They should be turned while being chilled. After being
thoroughly chilled for from twenty-four to thirty-six hours, they
should be put into vats or tierces with an eighty-degree plain pickle,
using eight ounces of saltpetre to the one-hundred pounds of meat.

A wooden frame and weight is placed on the product in order to keep it
immersed in the pickle. To cure these meats in vats use the following
quantities of pickle:

  1,400 pounds of meat will require 54 gallons of pickle.
  1,000 pounds of meat will require 42 gallons of pickle.
    800 pounds of meat will require 36 gallons of pickle.

The meats should be kept in a cellar during the pickling process,
with the temperature ranging from 38° to 40° F., and overhauled every
five, ten and fifteen days in order that all the pickle may thoroughly
penetrate the meats. The different kinds of meats will be found to be
sufficiently cured after being in pickle the following number of days:

  Pork snouts   25 to 30 days
  Pork hearts   25 to 30 days
  Pork cheeks   25 to 30 days
  Pork skins    10 to 15 days
  Pork heads          35 days
  Pork ears           10 days
  Pork hocks          25 days
  Pork tails          10 days
  Beef hearts   25 to 30 days
  Beef cheeks   25 to 30 days
  Ox lips             20 days
  Sheep hearts  25 to 30 days


=Dry Cured Meats.=--For some classes of sausage dry-cured meats are
used. This consists of a process of curing meat in tierces, the meat
packed closely and curing product interspersed. For this product a
formula made from the following serves. For one tierce of 400 pounds
use the following mixture:

  16    pounds salt,
   4    pounds sugar,
   1¹⁄₂ pounds saltpetre,
   2    quarts old ham pickle, which must be sweet and in good
        condition.

Pork and beef trimmings should be fresh, and if they have been packed
in barrels for transport the blood should be allowed to drain off
before being packed in the preservative. They should not be washed in
pickle before being used, but should be handled dry. The two quarts
of old ham pickle mentioned in the above formula should be sprinkled
through as uniformly as possible when pounding the trimmings down into
the tierce.

If packing fresh beef and pork hearts, head meat, beef and pork cheek
meat, giblet and weasand meat, they should be thoroughly washed in a
mild pickle so as to remove the blood and slime before packing in the
tierce. Head, cheek, and giblet meat should not be put into ice water
when cut off on the killing floor, but should be promptly removed to a
cooler where the temperature is 33° to 36° F., and spread or hung up on
racks to refrigerate.

Care must be taken not to allow these meats to accumulate in any bulk
while warm. Hearts and large pieces should be split to reduce their
size and make accessible to the curing ingredient. In the packing of
these meats the pickle used with dry trimming is omitted.


=Packing.=--After the trimmings are properly prepared they are to be
mixed with the curing ingredients. This is best accomplished by the
use of a tumbler churn, weighing a given amount of the trimmings and
placing with the allotted proportion of curing materials into the churn.

When mixed with the preservative, the trimmings should be put in a
tierce, in layers, and pounded down as tightly as possible with a
maul, and the operation continued until the tierce is as full as
possible, allowing for the head to be put on. Before heading up spread
a cheese cloth or thin cotton cloth over the top to protect the
trimmings from the head. The tierce when headed up is removed to cold
storage, where the temperature must be kept as near 38° F. as possible
from thirty to forty-five days, when the trimmings are ready for use.
If it is desired to keep the product sixty days, after it has been in
the temperature above mentioned for thirty to forty-five days, remove
to a lower temperature, 32° to 34° F.; and for more than sixty days to
a temperature of 20° F.


=Casings and Spices.=--All classes of beef casings, namely, rounds,
bungs, middles and weasands, as well as hog bungs, hog casings and
sheep casings are used in the Sausage Department. There is perhaps
more chicanery used in Sausage Room supplies than in any other one
department, consequently care in purchase of these supplies is worthy
of attention. In sheep casings it is a matter of grading as to width,
pieces and yardage per bundle; in hog casings, a matter of salt per
pound purchased, and grading as to width and pieces; in rounds and
middles one of holes, pieces and measurement per set.

Spices should so far as possible be bought in the natural state and
mixed on the premises. Pure Food laws pretty well take care of the
purity of the spice in most states.


=Sausage Cereals.=--This is a very important factor in the manufacture
of sausage. The province of “fillers” is to absorb water, preventing
shrinkage, and while this is advisable to an extent, if overdone, it
detracts from the quality of the product. The main base ingredients for
fillers are rice flour, corn flour and potato flour. There are many
sausage fillers on the market but the foregoing ingredients are most
frequently used.

Potato flour or starch is not used to any extent today, manufacturers
finding that there is a great deal of trouble attached to the
manufacture of sausage containing these ingredients, on account of the
liability to sour and spoil. Corn flour is the best filler that can be
used, being less liable to ferment, while it absorbs the water quickly.
While fillers are used to a great extent, the sausage manufacturer
should remember that the quality of sausage is deteriorated
proportionately to the amount of water that is worked in. Hence fillers
should be used with discretion, and manufacturers who aim to make a
name for their goods, are frugal with fillers.


=Sausage Formulas.=--The following methods are tried and used for the
manufacture of various kinds of sausage. Sausage makers vary procedure
according to stocks on hand. However, for uniformity, it is best to
conform to a standard so far as possible.


_Pork Sausage._--This is produced in various grades, from a fancy
breakfast quality to a substance whose chief claim to the name is the
form. A good pork sausage can be made as follows:

  100 lb. pork trimmings, preferably shoulder trimmings, about one-third
      fat.
    3 pounds salt.
    8 ounces pepper.
    3 ounces sage.
   ¹⁄₄ ounce ginger.
   ¹⁄₂ ounce mace.

This should be chopped by passing through a ⁵⁄₃₂ “Enterprise” plate.
Mix in an arm type mixer, rather than the blade type. Mix as little
as possible but sufficiently to get spice evenly distributed; stuff
in medium sheep casing, 5 inch links. The matter of spicing is one of
taste and can be varied. Note the absence of water and filler in the
formula.

Some makers prefer to “rock” their fancy breakfast sausage. This
produces good results but is unnecessary. It is possible to use many
meats in the making of this sausage and still have it passably good,
but generally speaking, there is less chance for manipulation of this
sort in this kind of sausage than in many of the others. The following
formulas make a cheap and palatable pork sausage:

FORMULA A.

  75 pounds pork trimmings,
  25 pounds tripe,
   8 pounds water,
   3 pounds salt,
   4 ounces sage,
  10 ounces white pepper,
   3 ounces saltpetre,
  10 pounds corn flour.

FORMULA B.

  90 pounds regular pork trimmings,
  10 pounds tripe,
   6 pounds corn flour,
  10 pounds water,
   2 pounds, 8 ounces salt,
   4 ounces sage,
  10 ounces white pepper,
   3 ounces sugar,
   1 pound, 8 ounces color water.

The preceding formulas are for sausage meat, often sold loose or
without stuffing, also for sausage stuffed in hog casings. Stuff in
medium or narrow hog casings. “Tripe” is the source of refuge to
produce cheap pork sausage.


_Bologna Style._--This is one of the most common and generally used
type of sausage manufactured. It is in demand in nearly every locality.
In the manufacture of Bologna, ingredients are used which are not
in themselves palatable, but are nutritious. The seasoning makes it
palatable.

The formulas which are given below, if they are accurately followed and
fresh and wholesome material carefully prepared is used, will make a
sausage which is very acceptable to the consumer. This is the product
that is usually made from the tougher meats such as cheeks and hearts.
For a good bologna use:

  25 pounds beef trimmings,
  50 pounds pork cheeks,
   7 pounds corn flour,
   1¹⁄₈ pounds pepper,
   4 ounces coriander,
  70 pounds pork trimmings,
  30 pounds beef cheeks,
   5 pounds salt,
   2 ounces allspice,
   4 ounces saltpetre,
  25 pounds water.

A cheaper product can be made as follows:

  45 pounds hearts (pork),
  20 pounds sheep cheek meat,
  65 pounds beef cheeks,
   7 pounds corn flour,
   4 ounces coriander (ground),
   4 ounces saltpetre (ground),
  20 pounds pork cellar fat trimmings,
  25 pounds weasand meat,
   5 pounds salt,
  18 ounces pepper (ground),
   2 ounces allspice (ground),
  25 pounds water.

To manufacture, the product should be passed through an “Enterprise”
type of grinder, using ⁷⁄₆₄th plate. Transfer to silent cutter and
chop for full five minutes, adding spice and water as the mixture
is cut and turned. Transfer to shelving room and allow to lay for
twenty-four hours. Stuff in casings as required, put in smoke house at
a temperature of 120° F. for one and one-half hours, raise temperature
to 135° F. and carry for another one and one-half hours. Cook in water
at 155° F. for thirty minutes; rinse with hot water after removal, then
chill with cold water and hang in shipping room.

The length of cooking and smoking varies with the weight and thickness
of the package. See schedule. This recipe is for wide middle casings.


_Frankfurt Style._--This popular sausage is made from a variety of
formulas. Perhaps there is no one piece of sausage as susceptible of
being made so excellent or so tasteless, it being entirely a matter of
what it is made from. The better grades are made from freshly killed
bull beef, hashed warm. The process consists in boning bull beef and
opening the meats along the seams, so to speak, skinning each bundle
of muscle to remove the wrapping and cutting out all ligaments. Fresh
pork, preferably, shoulder meat is treated in the same manner. The
meats are then passed through a ⁷⁄₆₄ “Enterprise” plate, and passed to
a silent cutter. Here cracked ice is added in quantity and the meats
cut until they are a light fluffy pulp. The spices are added during
the last five minutes of cutting, and the whole mass transferred to a
shelving room for twenty-four hours, when it is ready to stuff, smoke,
cook, cool and sell. Wide sheep casings are used for stuffing. Make the
links uniform. The proportions of meat used should be as follows:

  60 pounds bull beef,
  40 pounds pork shoulder (fat),
  35 pounds ice,
  10 pounds corn flour,
   4 pounds salt,
  12 ounces pepper,
   3 ounces saltpetre,
   3 ounces mace,
   6 ounces sugar.

The following formulas are for less costly products and provide a means
for disposing of some by-products:

FORMULA NO. 1.

  57 pounds regular pork trimmings,
  65 pounds beef cheek meat,
  15 pounds cooked tripe,
  25 pounds pork kidneys,
  20 pounds dry salt or pickled pork trimmings,
   9 pounds corn flour,
  45 pounds water,
   1 pound, 4 ounces white pepper,
   3 pounds salt,
   2 pounds color water,
   4 ounces saltpetre,
   3 ounces allspice,
   3 ounces mace,
   3 ounces coriander,
   1¹⁄₂ ounces cloves.

FORMULA NO. 2.

  90 pounds lean pork cheek meat,
  60 pounds regular pork trimmings,
   9 pounds corn flour,
  60 pounds water,
   5 pounds salt,
   2 pounds, 7 ounces color water,
  12 ounces sugar,
   3 ounces saltpetre,
   1 pound black pepper,
   2 ounces mace.

The use of a mixer is unnecessary with this sausage since the silent
cutter will perform this work. It should take about ten minutes to do
the cutting. Smoke at 110° F. for one and one-half hours, then at 135°
F. for one hour. Cook at 155° F. for eight to ten minutes, rinse and
cool.

In medium and low priced frankfurts, cattle lights are used in moderate
proportion, say, 10 per cent. Tripe can also be used in increased
quantity.


_Leona Style Sausage._--The following formula will be found acceptable
for this variety of sausage:

  30 pounds pork knuckle meat,
  65 pounds lean pork trimmings,
  50 pounds back fat trimmings or moderately fat trimmings,
  22 pounds pork neck fat,
   8¹⁄₂ pounds corn flour,
  55 pounds water,
   5 pounds salt,
   1 pound white pepper,
   3 ounces mace,
   2¹⁄₂ ounces saltpetre,
  12 ounces sugar,
   2 ounces grated onions,
  ¹⁄₂ ounce garlic.

Knuckle meat to be ground through a moderately fine plate. Balance of
pork should be chopped in the “silent cutter.” Corn flour and seasoning
should be added to the knuckle meat after it is put into the Buffalo
chopper and the machine has made two or three revolutions. Chop for
four minutes, stuff in eighteen-inch pieces, beef middle casings or
beef bung casings. Smoke, cook as per schedule. Cool and send to
hanging room.


_Knoblauch Style Sausage._--Following are two formulas for Knoblauch
sausage:

  30 pounds pork knuckle meat,
  65 pounds very lean pork trimmings,
  50 pounds back fat trimmings or moderately fat trimmings,
  22 pounds pork neck fat,
   8¹⁄₂ pounds corn flour,
  55 pounds water,
   5 pounds salt,
   1 pound white pepper,
   3 ounces mace,
   2¹⁄₂ ounces saltpetre,
  12 ounces sugar,
   2 ounces grated onions,
   3 ounces garlic,
   8 ounces color water.

Stuff in beef rounds and tie with twine every five inches. Knuckle meat
may be ground through a moderately fine plate. Balance of pork should
be chopped in a “Buffalo Silent Cutter.” Corn flour and seasoning
should be added to the knuckle meat after it is put into the Buffalo
chopper and the machine has made two or three revolutions.

SECOND METHOD.

  50 pounds pork cheeks,
  10 pounds tripe,
  40 pounds standard pork trimmings,
   5 pounds salt,
   3 ounces mace,
   9 ounces sugar,
   3 ounces garlic,
  35 pounds pork trimmings (lean),
  15 pounds D. T. or S. P. trimmings,
   9 pounds corn flour,
  ¹⁄₈ ounce pepper,
   4 ounces coriander,
   3 ounces saltpetre,
  30 pounds water.

Grind pork cheeks through ⁷⁄₆₄ plate “Enterprise” cutter. Transfer to
silent cutter, add water and chop one minute, add balance of trimmings
and chop five minutes, then pass to shelving room, stuff in beef round
casings, tie with No. 12 twine in four-inch links. Smoke at 110° for
one hour and increase temperature to 135° for one and one-half hours.
Cook twenty minutes at 155° and chill after cooking, draw and pass to
hanging room.


_Polish Style Sausage._--Formula for making this sausage is as follows:

  100 pounds beef cheek meat, or shank meat,
   50 pounds dry salt or pickled pork trimmings,
   50 pounds pork trimmings,
    9 pounds corn flour,
   30 pounds water,
    1 pound white pepper,
    5 pounds salt,
    6 ounces saltpetre,
    6 ounces coriander,
    3 ounces garlic.

Grind the beef cheek meat through a ⁷⁄₆₄th plate, add corn flour and
seasoning, work in as much water as possible and then add the pork
trimmings. This is a very coarse chopped sausage and the pork trimmings
should be chopped about as fine as small dice. Beef is the binder of
this sausage, and must be handled according to instructions. The meat,
after it is chopped, can be handled the same as Bologna and Frankfurt
meat by putting in a cooler for a few hours before stuffing. After the
sausage is stuffed, it can also be handled as Bologna and Frankfurts,
if desired, before smoking.

This sausage should be smoked carefully and strictly in accordance with
the smoking schedule, as it is not cooked, this being done practically
in the smoke house, during the process of smoking. After it is smoked
it has a very wrinkled appearance, which is essential for this article.
In fact, it is not Polish sausage unless it has this appearance.

The dicing of the meat other than the beef can be done with a rocker.
Note that a “silent cutter” is not used in this manufacture. The
sausage is stuffed in beef round casings.


_Blood Sausage._--This sausage is made as follows:

  205 pounds shoulder fat,
   54 pounds pig skins,
   47 pounds beef blood,
    5 pounds onions,
    7 pounds salt,
    1 pound white pepper,
    3 pounds corn flour,
    8 ounces marjoram,
    4 ounces cloves.

Use pickled shoulder fat and skins, cook for one hour at a temperature
of 210° F. and run through fat cutting machine or cut into size of
small dice. Pass the beef blood through a fine sieve in order to
separate foreign matter. Cook pig skins for about two hours at a
temperature of 210° F. and grind through a ⁷⁄₆₄th plate. Mix the
shoulder fat, skins, blood and seasoning thoroughly together and stuff
in cap end bungs. Smoking and cooking as indicated in schedules.


_Tongue Sausage._--For Tongue Sausage the following formula is given:

   50 pounds hog or sheep tongue,
  130 pounds shoulder fat,
   34 pounds hog skins,
   30 pounds blood,
    8 pounds salt,
    1 pound, 4 ounces white pepper,
    2 pounds onions,
   10 ounces marjoram,
    4 ounces cloves.

Use pickled shoulder fat, skin and cook for one hour at a temperature
of 210° F. and run through fat cutting machine or cut into size of
small dice. Use beef blood, passed through a fine sieve in order to
separate any foreign material. Cook hog skins for about two hours at a
temperature of 210° F. and grind through a ⁷⁄₆₄th inch plate. Pickled
sheep tongues are preferable to pickled hog tongues, as they are
smaller and make a better appearing sausage when cut. The tongue should
be cooked one and three-quarter hours at a temperature of 210° F.

Before mixing the above ingredients, rinse the fat off the tongues
with hot water in order to remove as much grease as possible. Mix
the ingredients thoroughly with the seasoning by hand. When stuffing
put about four pieces of tongue to each bung. However, this varies
according to the size of the bungs used. Cap end bungs should be used
in all cases. Smoking and cooking to be done as indicated in schedule.


_Minced Ham._--The following formula for Minced Ham is given:

  50 pounds beef trimmings,
  20 pounds pork cheek meat,
  80 pounds regular pork trimmings,
   5 pounds corn flour,
  20 pounds water,
   5 pounds salt,
   8 ounces sugar,
   3¹⁄₂ ounces white pepper,
   3¹⁄₂ ounces saltpetre.

Grind meats through a ⁷⁄₆₄th plate; pass to “Silent Cutter,” add water
and spices; chop three minutes and shelve for curing. Stuff in calf
bladders if available, otherwise small beef bladders.

In tying the bladders, it is best to use a wooden skewer and twine and
it is preferable to use small calf bladders in place of large ones,
as the time required for smoking and cooling is so long that if large
bladders are used the weight of them would break the bladders where
they are skewered or tied and would result in shrinkage or loss.


_New England or Pressed Ham._--This ham is made from dry cured pork
trimmings put down under the formula given. The best and leanest
trimmings obtainable are cured for this purpose. Shoulder blade
trimmings or lean shoulder trimmings are more desirable than any other
kind.

After the trimmings have been cured sufficiently, which is when they
show a bright cured color throughout and are without dark spots in the
center of the meat, the trimmings are weighed up in 100-pound batches,
and about ten per cent of lean beef trimmings, ground through a
⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate, is mixed thoroughly. Immediately after the trimmings
are mixed the mass should be stuffed into large beef bung ends, usually
from fourteen to sixteen inches long. To obtain the best results a
stuffer arranged with a large sized filler is necessary. However, a
hand stuffer arranged with a large sized filler, about three inches at
the small end, or opening, can be used. Care should be taken to stuff
the bungs as tightly as possible. They should be skewered instead of
tied at the ends and should be wrapped with heavy twine, each piece
having from four to six wrappings of the twine, which should terminate
with a hanger for the ham. The pieces are very heavy and will break
during the processes of smoking and cooking unless they are properly
wrapped or tied.

This ham is smoked five hours at a temperature of from 130° to 140° F.
and the house should be moderately warm before the ham is hung in the
smoke. A small fire should be started to dry off the casings, after
which the meat should be smoked the same as Bologna. Cook at least
three hours at a temperature of 160° F. After it has been cooked it is
taken immediately to a cooler, where the temperature is from 38° to 40°
F., and put under a press. If no press is obtainable place the ham in
layers, putting a board between each layer with a weight on top. Place
the hams in a pile or under the press so that they can be picked with a
long, thin skewer about one-half the thickness of a ham tryer in order
to permit the water which is in the ham to escape. After pressure for
twelve hours, take them out and hang up so that boiling hot water can
be thrown on them to wash off the grease; thoroughly washed in this
manner remove to a dry cooler.


_New Jersey Ham._--New Jersey ham is made according to the following
formula:

  60 pounds lean ham trimmings
  80 pounds lean back trimmings,
  10 pounds lean beef chucks or shank meat,
   4 pounds, salt,
   3¹⁄₂ pounds cracker meal,
   4 ounces formula saltpetre,
  12 ounces sugar,
  ³⁄₄ ounce red pepper.

Beef is ground through an Enterprise ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate and rocked about
five minutes, when the pork trimmings are added with the seasoning.
The seasoning should all be mixed thoroughly and added to the meat.
The whole is then chopped about as coarse as summer sausage, or about
twenty to twenty-five minutes. It is taken to a cooler after being
rocked and spread about six or eight inches thick on a table, where it
is allowed to remain about three days at a temperature of from 38° to
40° F.

It is then stuffed by hand stuffers into bags, which will weigh after
being stuffed and dried about five pounds. These bags are made of heavy
drilled cloth and should be stuffed as tightly as possible. They should
be kept very clean during the process of stuffing, as any sausage meat
which may stick to the cloth will leave a bad appearance after the
sausage has been smoked.

After the ham has been stuffed, it should be taken to the dry room,
where the temperature can be kept at all times between 46° and 55°
F., 50° being preferable. The room must be airy and dry and it will
take at least ten days under favorable circumstances to get the ham
in proper condition to smoke. It should be smoked about four hours in
as cold a smoke as possible, 70° to 75° F. being as hot as it is safe
to smoke it, 60° F. being nearer the proper temperature. After it has
been smoked, it should be again hung in a cool temperature for three
days, when it will be ready for shipment. This sausage is manufactured
extensively in New Jersey and the east.


_Head Cheese._--Head cheese is made as follows:

  44 pounds cooked pig skins,
  55 pounds cooked pig snouts,
  33 pounds cooked pig ears,
  55 pounds cooked beef hearts,
  51 pounds cooked neck fat,
  20 pounds water in which the meat has been cooked,
   1 pound white pepper,
  10 pounds onions,
   4 ounces allspice,
   2 ounces cloves,
   3 ounces marjoram,
   3 ounces carroway seeds.

The cooked meats are chopped by hand with a knife until reduced to the
proper size, except the skins, which are ground through a ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch
plate after being cooked. The mass usually is mixed by hand and stuffed
into cured hog paunches or beef bungs and cooked as per cooking
schedule appended hereto. After the sausage is cooked, it is taken to
a cooler and usually pressed by laying the paunches or bungs side by
side with a board between each layer and a moderate weight on top of
the last board. However, if properly made this is unnecessary as the
gelatine from the skins and the water in which the meat has been cooked
will bind the other ingredients together sufficiently without much, if
any, pressing.


_Boneless Pigs Feet._--This product is prepared as follows:

  25 pounds fresh pigs feet,
  30 pounds fresh pigs skins,
  15 pounds fresh pigs snouts,
  15 pounds fresh pigs ears,
  20 pounds fresh pork trimmings,
  15 pounds fresh beef trimmings,
  10 pounds white pepper,
  50 pounds water in which meat has been cooked,
   4 pounds, 1 ounce salt,
   4 ounces cloves.

Use one gallon (45-grain) vinegar to five-hundred pounds of the above
mass. Cook all of the meats in one vat, thoroughly, in pudding nets,
and chop same as headcheese, mix seasoning, water and vinegar with the
meat in a large tub or tight-bottom truck.

It is necessary to use tin moulds for this sausage and they are
generally of one size, shaped as a ten-pound wooden bucket or other
sized packages which may be intended to be used for shipping purposes.
Fill these molds with the mixed mass and put on top of each a wooden
block the size of the mold and about three inches thick. Then remove to
a cooler and press tightly by placing on top a board with a weight. In
order to obtain the best results, the molds or cans should be cooled
quickly, therefore a temperature of about 36° F. is desirable. To
remove the contents from the cans or molds, submerge in hot water for a
few seconds, when the meat will loosen from the sides of the molds and
can be turned out readily.

After the product has been removed from the molds allow it to stand for
a short while in the cooler before placing in shipping packages.

This sausage can be made without using wooden tops on the cans or molds
and without pressing it. If the pig skins, after they are cooked, are
ground through a ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate and then mixed with the mass, more
of a jelly will be produced and they will not require pressing. In
preparing meats be particular to remove all bone, gristle or cartilage.


_Liver Sausage._--The following formula is for Liver Sausage:

  20 pounds cooked lean pork trimmings,
  20 pounds cooked pork cheek meat,
  20 pounds cooked pork skins,
  10 pounds cooked hog livers,
  50 pounds cooked tripe,
   6 pounds cooked shoulder fat,
   3 pounds salt,
   3 pounds onions,
   9 ounces white pepper,
   2 ounces marjoram,
   2 ounces cloves,
   1¹⁄₂ ounces allspice.

Above is all ground through a ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate except the shoulder
fat, which is run through a fat cutting machine or cut into size of
small dice. It is necessary to mix this sausage in a sausage mixer.
The seasoning should be put into the mixer when starting to mix,
but the shoulder fat should not be put in until about half through.
Stuff immediately into hog bungs, or beef middles, as desired. Cook
immediately as per cooking table and then place in cooler, at a
temperature of 36° to 40° F. until thoroughly chilled, when it is ready
for shipping.


_Boneless Ham._--This is made from pork shoulder butts, cured in sweet
pickle and stuffed in small No. 2 beef bungs. Smoke forty-eight hours
at a temperature of 120° F. The bungs may be slightly colored, the same
as Polish sausage casings, before stuffing, if desired. Not cooked.


_Cottage Ham._--This is made from boneless ham butts or shoulder butts,
cured the same as boneless ham butts. It is not stuffed but strung from
the large end of the butt and smoked thirty-two hours at a temperature
of 120° F. and not cooked.


_Stuffed Hogs Heads._--Select a well shaped head, cut off about three
to four pounds behind the ears and remove the bones. Care should be
taken in entering above the eyes, where the skin is thinnest and lies
directly on the bone. Do not remove the snout bones, but saw off the
hindmost jaw bone right behind the mouth. Remove the cheek meat on
either side until with the skin it is about one-half inch thick. Cut
off about three inches square from the lower cheek at the back to make
the head more shapely. Sew from the snout up the back bone, where the
head is to be filled and cut around cover from the skin to fit the back
opening. Prepare the stuffing as follows:

Good firm young pork, moderately fat, is coarsely chopped with the
required quantity of salt and allowed to stand twenty-four hours. Use
about ten pounds chopped fine, spiced with five and one-quarter ounces
of salt, one-half ounce of ground white pepper, seventy-seven grains of
finely ground mace, mixed with one pound of boiled tongue meat cut into
shape of dice, one-half the size of a walnut. Mix all thoroughly and
fill head with the mass. Sew the cover on and smoke for two hours until
it turns to a yellow brown color. After it is smoked, tie the head up
in a cloth, wrapping a string around it very evenly from front to rear.
Cook in boiling water from three to three and one-half hours, and then
allow to cool. The head must be a chestnut brown when thoroughly smoked
and cooked.


_Scrapple._--For making scrapple use two pig heads, two pig tongues and
two pig livers. These should be cooked in an iron-jacketed kettle that
will hold about forty-five gallons. Cover thoroughly and then remove
from kettle and cut up the same as for head cheese. After the heads,
tongues and livers are taken from the water, skim the grease and add
forty pounds of corn meal and five pounds of buckwheat to the water,
putting in a little at a time, stirring as put in. Cook slowly for five
hours. Seasoning should be added before buckwheat and corn meal are put
in, consisting of:

  2 ounces white pepper,
  1 ounce red pepper,
  8 ounces sage,
  4 pounds salt.

After the meal and water has been cooked about four hours and
forty-five minutes, add the heads, tongues and livers, stir thoroughly
about fifteen minutes, shut off steam, and place in pan. When about
cool, but while plastic, add to each pan top a coating of the grease
skimmed from cooking.


_Bologna Sausage in Oil._--This is a sausage manufactured quite
extensively by packers, who find the principal markets for it in the
south. In fact, it is not used anywhere but in warm climates and it is
usually put up in twenty-pound and fifty-pound tin packages.

Much experimenting has been done to ascertain the best size for
packages to put up sausage in oil. The following formula is generally
considered to be a good method for making this sausage:

  20 pounds fresh head pork meat,
  50 pounds fresh pork hearts,
  30 pounds fresh regular pork trimmings,
  15 pounds fat pork trimmings,
  80 pounds fresh beef cheek meat,
   1 pound, 8 ounces corn flour,
   3 pounds, 8 ounces salt,
  ¹⁄₂ ounce cloves,
  ¹⁄₂ ounce coriander,
   3 ounces saltpetre.

Stuff in different sized beef rounds. The beef cheek meat, pork hearts,
and pork cheek meat are ground through a ⁷⁄₆₄th inch plate, and
afterward chopped with a “Silent Cutter” the seasoning being added at
the same time.

Use no water in this sausage under any circumstances. After the beef
and beef hearts, also the pork cheek meat, have been chopped as fine as
desired, add the pork trimmings and chop the same as any other Bologna.

It is desirable to stuff this sausage immediately after it is chopped,
and if a steam stuffer is used care should be taken that no water from
the evaporation of the steam is allowed to get into the sausage. The
bench where the sausage is stuffed should be absolutely free from water
or moisture. This is the principal factor in the successful manufacture
of this product.

After the sausage is stuffed, it is smoked about three hours at a
temperature of 150° to 160° F., or until it is dry clear through. This
sausage is not cooked. Keep it away from all water and moisture.

After the sausage is smoked allow it to cool in a dry airy room, but
do not put it in a cooler. When it is thoroughly cool, pack into
twenty-pound and fifty-pound packages, as desired, as follows: In
twenty-pound cans, place sixteen pounds Bologna and four pounds oil. In
fifty-pound cans, place thirty-six pounds Bologna and fourteen pounds
oil.

In order to pack the cans properly, it is necessary to stuff different
sized beef rounds, as mentioned above, so that they will fit in nicely
without breaking the casings, and without filling the cans too full.

After the cans have been filled with the required amount of Bologna,
crimp on the summer top, which has a two-inch hole and a cap to fit.
Fill the cans as full as possible with deodorized cotton seed oil,
which must be cold. Allow the cans to stand for thirty minutes, then
refill so that the oil runs over the top through the hole, put on the
cap immediately and solder right through the oil which will accumulate
around the cap and on the top of the can. This will not hinder the
process of soldering and it prevents the possibility of any air getting
into the cans.

After the caps have been secured, solder around the crimps of the
summer top. This can be done before the oil is put in if desired.
Extreme care must be used in soldering the cans so that no air whatever
gets in, or oil leaks out, as the sausage will spoil if this occurs.

The cans should also be fitted with the regular covers so as to protect
the summer top. Pack in crates, the twenty-pound size, two to four to
a crate; the fifty-pound size, one to two to a case.

The case should be large enough so as to admit of packing sawdust
beneath the bottom, around the sides and on the tops. A crate large
enough to permit one-half inch space around the cans is the size
generally used and there should be a partition in the crates where more
than one can is packed in a crate.

In freighting this class of merchandise in the south, in fact wherever
it is shipped, it receives more or less rough handling and a great many
freight handlers use box hooks, which they stick into the sides of
the crates, and if there is not sufficient protection from the amount
of sawdust put in, the cans are punctured, the oil leaks out and the
sausage spoils. Sausage handled in the above manner has been known to
keep two years in temperature ranging from 40° to 100° F.


_Pork Sausage in Oil._--Use the same formula as for regular pork
sausage except that the trimmings must be moderately lean, and the
sausage _absolutely_ free from water. Use also the same spices. Stuff
immediately after the sausage is chopped, using the same care as to
moisture as for Bologna in oil, and smoke over a very cold smoke until
the sausage seems dry all the way through. Allow it to cool, handling
and packing in every other respect the same as Bologna Oil.


=Bologna Varnish.=--Where it can be used and not conflict with Food
regulations bologna varnish can be used to advantage. It improves
the appearance and decreases shrinkage. As considerable water is
used, in addition to the natural moisture in meats there is, after
it is manufactured, considerable shrinkage, and if allowed to hang
for any length of time, the casings become wrinkled on account of
the evaporation of this internal moisture. The varnishing of the
sausage creates a covering on the outside which prevents this wrinkled
appearance, improving its looks, and retarding the evaporation of
moisture from the sausage. The formula is as follows:

   6 pounds white shellac,
   1 pound boracic acid,
   2 pounds aqua ammonia,
  14 pounds of water.

The mixture should be put into a vessel and heated to a point where the
shellac is well dissolved. When this is accomplished, add four gallons
of water. This varnish, in order to be ready for use at any time, must
be kept lukewarm. It should, therefore, be kept in a jacketed pan,
surrounded by either hot water or steam, to hold it at the proper
temperature. The sausage should be immersed and immediately hung up to
dry.

This varnish can be used without any detrimental effect whatever on
all kinds of smoked Bologna sausage or smoked cooked pressed ham.
It preserves the sausage, keeps it from molding, and is especially
effective where it is necessary to pack Bologna in boxes for shipment
long distances.

Where the dipping pan is used, it is only necessary to dip the sausage
in the above solution a few seconds before hanging on racks to dry. The
sausage is usually ready for shipment in one hour after it is dipped,
if the preparation is properly made, where a large amount of Bologna is
being dipped it is, of course, necessary to have a larger dripping pan
and a larger quantity of varnish. The proportions should be increased
accordingly.

It is also important that, after the varnish has stood from one
period of dipping to another, to skim the grease off the top of the
varnish before again using it, and the Bologna should always be dipped
immediately after it is taken from the cooking vats; in other words,
while _hot_.


=Boiled Ham.=--Boiled ham and shoulders, also cooked meats, are usually
included as a sausage product. There is nothing that determines the
cost of the finished product as much as the shrinkage, hence the method
that will produce the least loss in weight from original to finished
product is the process desired.

There are two methods of cooking hams, one is to steam them in a
retort or some receptacle where they are cooked by the heat generated
by steam; another is to cook them in water. The latter process, from
careful observation, seems to be the one that gives the best results
as regards the shrinkage, although steaming perhaps makes the ham more
palatable. The hams before being cooked should be bound and wrapped
with twine to hold them in shape. A form made of galvanized iron,
clamping plates which are put into a press, with the ham tightly
clamped on the inside should be used. The ham is cooked and chilled in
this mold.

The cure of the ham has much to do with the shrinkage and it is
therefore preferable to use fully cured hams instead of old cured hams,
as the shrinkage is greater on over-cured meats. It is also advisable
to sort the hams as to size, having each vat or tank of hams uniform.
If not uniform in size there is an excessive shrinkage on small hams
which are overcooked. In all cases the hams should be soaked, removing
the surplus salt. The length and time of soaking depends altogether on
the age of the meats. The hams should be thoroughly washed and if they
are to be branded this should be done before they are boned or cooked.


_Rules for Boiling Hams._--When hams are boned (if desirable) and
wrapped, they should be put into a vat of water, temperature about 212°
and the temperature regulated until it reaches 155° to 160° F. The hams
are held at this temperature until they are cooked, which requires
somewhat longer time than when they are cooked, by steam at a higher
temperature. A twelve-pound ham will require from four and one-half to
five hours. After the hams are cooked they should be allowed to cool
in the water in which they were cooked; not taken out, or drained, or
set in the cooler, for in the water in which they are cooked are juices
which are absorbed by the hams as they cool, and the shrinkage is much
less than if taken out immediately. The hams should then be taken to
the smoke house, laid on racks and given a very light smoke, then to
the cooler.


_Shrinkage in Boiling Hams._--Hams taken out of pickle and drained for
twelve hours to shipping weight, will show the following shrinkages
under favorable circumstances:

                                                              Per cent.
  Hams not boned, smoked after cooking                        9    to 12
  Hams with bone out, including the shank bone, skin on,
  not fatted                                                 12¹⁄₂ to 18
  Hams with bone out, skin lifted, fat removed               18    to 23
  Hams with bone out, the skin and fat removed               33    to 40
  Hams skinned, fatted, bones left in                        28    to 35
  Skinned shoulders, bone out                                30    to 35




CHAPTER XXVI

DRIED SAUSAGE


  SUMMER SAUSAGE -- PRESERVATIVES -- COOLING ROOM -- STUFFING --
  HANGING ROOM -- SMOKE HOUSE -- DRY ROOM TREATMENT -- DRY ROOM CAUTION
  -- SHIPPING AGES -- STORAGE -- PREPARATION OF CASINGS -- TRIMMING
  MEATS -- FORMULAS FOR SAUSAGE.


=Summer Sausage.=--Under the head of “Summer Sausage” we take up an
entirely different article, a sausage that is dried and smoked (not
cooked), during which time the ingredients used for seasoning effect
a cure. This sausage will keep for months if properly handled. It is
necessary, however, that every detail be very carefully watched, as a
slight omission or error in its manufacture causes immense losses at
times.

As this is strictly an air dried sausage, weather conditions have a
great deal to do with its successful manufacture, and it is necessary
to have special facilities in the way of coolers, smoke houses and
dry rooms, the proper arrangement of which is somewhat expensive. Air
conditioning and fan circulation can be used. It is impracticable for
any manufacturer to attempt to make this article in large quantities
unless he has proper facilities, and it is the manufacturers who do
make it in large quantities that are financially successful, and are
able to keep their cost of production to a minimum.


=Preservatives.=--Previous to the enactment of the Pure Food Laws the
liberal use of preservatives made the handling of summer sausage, while
always requiring care, a matter of not so great consequence as at
present. Now, the only preservative used is the agent saltpetre, and
such preservative help as is obtained from the spices which are used.
These conditions require the use of absolutely sweet materials.


=Cooling Room.=--Clean airy cooling rooms are necessary. They should
be provided with spreading shelves of sufficient area to allow the
cut spiced meats to be spread from twelve to forty-eight hours so
as to enable the spices, saltpetre and salt to permeate the product
before stuffing and to make the meat firm. If the sausage is stuffed
immediately after it is rocked, it is liable to wrinkle in the smoke
house, which gives it an unsavory appearance. Temperature of room
should be 37° F.


=Stuffing.=--The stuffing should be performed in a semi-cool room,
using mechanical or hand operated stuffers at a moderate pressure. Some
manufacturers use steam or hydraulic equipment, but these are usually
arranged so that no moisture, condensation or drip comes in contact
with the meats. The temperature of the room should be about 45° F.


=Hanging Room.=--A hanging room in which the temperature can be
properly controlled should be available in which the sausage can be
hung until the casings are sufficiently dried for smoking. While the
sausage should be dry, it should not be allowed to become so dry that
the casings are glossy or hard. This is a very important matter as the
sausage will not take the correct color if the smoke does not penetrate
the casings, or if they are allowed to become too dry. This applies
particularly to sausage stuffed in beef middles, also to sausage
stuffed in hog bungs, though not to so great an extent.

In preparing the sausage for the smoking process, by endeavoring to
prevent the sausage from becoming too dry there is danger of their
becoming slimy, which is more detrimental than excessive dryness. Slimy
sausage will not take the smoke and will sour quickly if not properly
handled. Sausage in both beef casings and hog casings should be dried
before smoking, so that the outside will feel about dry to the touch.

In order to obtain this result it is necessary to have plenty of
hanging room so that the proper temperature and ventilation is
available for the entire lot of sausage which is being prepared for
smoke. If the sausage is too closely hung it should be moved about
from the center to the sides of the room occasionally so that all the
sausage receives the same ventilation.

The manufacturer should have sufficient space to allow the sausage to
hang after it is stuffed and before it is smoked, for from two to three
days, and sometimes longer. In the winter season, which is the proper
time for manufacturing high grade summer sausage, it is a good practice
to allow it to hang as long as possible before smoking, but it must be
watched to prevent sliming or becoming too dry.


=Smoke Houses.=--The smoke houses should be built of brick, sheet
iron houses which have been experimented with, especially for summer
sausage, have proved to be complete failures. The brick not only
protect the house from the varying outside temperatures, but retain the
heat, which is desirable and necessary in the successful smoking of
this kind of sausage.

Smoke houses are preferably equipped with rails and trolleys. The
houses are usually built like ham houses, viz: 12 × 12 feet, or some
size convenient to the trolleys to be used.

The distance from the fire should be in any case, whether the track
system or the ordinary smoke house with the beam system is used, twelve
feet, and in some cases, such as in smoking summer sausage in bladders,
or Braunschweiger in hog casings, the distance from the fire should be
twenty feet or more. This, however, will be explained in the formulas
for making the different kinds of sausage.

The main point to be considered in the construction of a smoke house
for summer sausage is to have it so arranged that the heat can be
regulated to different temperatures, also the amount of smoking, as
each kind of sausage requires a different temperature. The ventilation
of the smoke house should be perfect and absolutely controllable, as
the weather conditions have a great deal to do with the successful
smoking of sausage and the houses should be arranged so that they
can be kept at a uniform temperature and humidity during any kind of
weather.

As in the case of domestic sausage, no smoke house should be used for
summer sausage unless the temperature can be maintained uniform and the
walls in proper condition.

Since, summer sausage is not cooked before it goes to smoke, a cold or
damp smoke house will “ring” the sausage even quicker than a cold smoke
house will “ring” Bologna, therefore extreme caution should be used in
this particular.

Hardwood and hardwood sawdust are used exclusively in smoking summer
sausage, and both wood and sawdust should be absolutely dry when the
fire is started. In some cases, however, after the sausage is very
nearly smoked, it is advisable to use a little damp sawdust before
completing the operation.


=Dry Room Treatment.=--After the smoking process is completed the
sausage is taken to the drying rooms where the temperature can be kept
at all times between 46° and 53° F., the proper temperature being 48°
F., if it can be maintained. The dry room must be fitted with steam
pipes running underneath the sausage and around the sides of the room
and underneath the windows in order to supply the necessary heat. The
room must be supplied with ample windows for light and ventilation and
should be very high so as to permit the required overhead ventilation.
At all times the windows must be kept open a little to allow fresh air
to enter no matter how cold the outside temperature. If the weather
is damp the windows nearest the top or the top ventilator of the room
should be opened a little. Sausage is not usually hung adjacent to the
windows.

Steam should always be turned on in damp weather to dry the air,
providing the weather is not too warm and the temperature in the room
can be kept as low as 53° F. The room should be arranged in sections,
so that there may be an empty section between each lot of new sausage.
As the sausage becomes drier it can be hung more closely. The sausage,
should not dry too quickly as too much air will dry it near the casing,
which will cause the sausage to stick to it and become dry. In that
case the inside will not dry uniformly and the sausage will wrinkle and
in some instances become sour.

The different kinds of sausage require different places in the dry
room. Some require an abundance of air and others, like “Holsteiner”
and “farmer” sausage, if properly smoked, can be hung where it would
not be policy to hang summer sausage in hog bungs. As both of these
sausages are coarse chopped, they can be handled with much less fear
of being spoiled than the finer chopped sausage. However, with every
description of dry sausage, constant attention must be given or poor
results will follow.

Summer sausage in hog bungs can be subjected to more draft or air than
summer sausage in beef casings. Consequently beef casings are generally
hung near the center of the room where they receive plenty of air, but
no drafts. This is a place where the human element comes greatly into
play.


=Dry Room Caution.=--Do not hang green and dry sausage in the same
room. It is advisable to keep dry rooms for smoked sausage as free from
mold as possible. While a slight mold does not hurt summer sausage
(in fact some summer sausage requires this before it is ready for
shipment), it will be found that smoked sausage drys better and quicker
in a room that can be kept free of mold. Sausage that molds too much
before it is dry necessarily has to be washed. This process does not
hurt the sausage, and in some cases washing does it good, especially
if by neglect or otherwise it has become greasy in the smoke house.
Sausage will not dry as rapidly if greasy and the process of washing it
quickens the drying. In washing sausage warm water, not hot, should be
used. A little sal soda in the water is desirable.


=Shipping Ages.=--Summer sausage in both hog bungs and beef casings
if properly handled can be shipped, in three stages of dryness, as
follows: New, twenty to twenty-five days old; medium dry, forty to
forty-five days old; dry, sixty to seventy-five days old. In cheaper
grades of summer sausage, many kinds of which are manufactured, can
be shipped in much less time than indicated above. In fact, there is
sausage made which can be shipped almost immediately from the smoke
house. This sausage is allowed to stand for some time after chopping
and before stuffing, previous to being put in the smoke house. It is
then smoked very hard, or with more heat than the better grades of this
sausage. Some manufacturers use more heat than smoke, but it does not
produce a first-class article.


=Storage.=--Summer sausage when thoroughly dried should be stored in a
cooler at a temperature of 35° F. It can be so handled if boxed, but it
is preferable that it hang from racks, closely, since it will require
an inspection upon shipping.


=Preparation of Casings.=--In preparing casings for summer sausage
of all kinds it is necessary, in order to insure good results, that
casings be prepared, certainly hog bungs, at least thirty days or even
several months before they are used. There are always many fat bungs
in hog casings and in preparing them and putting them down in salt
brine for thirty days or longer, the fat on the casings becomes dry
and there is less danger of the sausage becoming sour. Summer sausage
will become sour as quickly from using fat hog bungs as from any other
cause, therefore these must be thoroughly fatted before they leave the
preparing rooms. They are generally in good condition in this respect
when received, and therefore do not require as much time in the curing
or preparing as do hog bungs. Fat beef middles or beef rounds spoil the
appearance of the goods.


=Trimming Meats.=--The selection and the trimming of meats for summer
sausage is a matter of great consequence. Sinews, muscle cover and
tough binding elements should be removed so as to avoid the sausage
being tough in the eating. All knives and cutting tools should be sharp.


=Formulas.=--Under the formulas given below are descriptions of the
methods of manufacture in detail rather than generalizing. Where the
term “rocking” is used it describes cutting with a rocker cutter. The
description for making Cervelat should be carefully noted, as the
methods are utilized with slight changes in making other kinds.


_Cervelat Style Sausage._--A very satisfactory formula for this sausage
is as follows:

FORMULA A.

  40 pounds beef chucks, very lean and entirely free from all sinews,
  90 pounds work trimmings, trimmed in same manner,
  20 pounds shoulder fat, cut into strips about 2 inches square and cut
     into shavings as fine as it is possible to get them,
   5 pounds, 12 ounces salt,
   2 ounces whole white pepper,
   6 ounces saltpetre.

The beef is first ground through a ⁷⁄₁₆-inch plate, after which it is
placed on the rocker together with the fat and seasoning and rocked for
about five minutes. Then the pork trimmings are added, the whole being
rocked for from twenty-five to thirty minutes.

The pepper is spread through the meat during the rocking process, and
about five minutes before rocking finished. The sausage is taken to a
cooler where the temperature is not lower than 38° F., nor higher than
40° F. It is spread upon shelving about ten or twelve inches thick,
where it is allowed to remain three days, after which it is stuffed by
hand machines into hog bungs or beef middles as required.

The sausage is taken to the hanging room to hang for two or three days
according to the weather, at a temperature of from 48° to 50° F. If the
weather is damp care must be taken to prevent the sausage from sliming
and it is sometimes necessary to keep the temperature up to 55° F. in
order to keep the room free from dampness. If the sausage begins to
slime there is danger of its becoming sour or hollow in the center. It
is advisable, if it is impossible otherwise to keep the sausage from
sliming, to put it into smoke as soon as the slime is detected, which
stops it.

When the sausage is ready for smoke, under favorable circumstances,
from two to three days after it is stuffed it should be hung in a smoke
house where the temperature is as near 48° F. and gradually heated
until the temperature reaches 70° F. It must be kept at this point
throughout the entire process of smoking, or for about twenty-four
hours for beef middles and forty-eight hours for hog bungs.

In starting a fire in the smoke house as little wood should be used as
possible, say, one stick of ash cord wood, just enough fire to keep
the sawdust smoking without blazing. Keep adding sawdust until there
is sufficient fire to scatter it over the entire bottom of the smoke
house, keeping the sawdust ignited only from the coals of the wood
with which the fire was started and which generally lasts through the
entire process of smoking. If the smoke houses are naturally cold it
may be necessary to keep more fire than mentioned in order to keep the
temperature up to 70° F.

The smoking of this sausage requires all possible care. If the
temperature is allowed to rise too high for any length of time, it
will sour. If the fire is too low and smoke too dense there will be a
smoke ring, especially so if the sausage is not properly dried before
smoking. It is advisable that the sausage should not be exposed to too
sudden or severe a change in temperature upon removing from the smoke
house. If it is some distance from the smoke house to the dry room,
cover the sausage on the trucks with a tarpaulin, cover so that the
cold air cannot strike it. It is a good idea not to hang the sausage
up on the racks immediately, but to place it on the bottom rack, close
together, so that it may cool gradually.

The following are additional formulas for the making of cervelat
sausage:

FORMULA B.

  45 pounds beef chucks,
  82 pounds lean pork trimmings,
  23 pounds shoulder fat,
   5 pounds, 12 ounces salt,
   2 ounces whole white pepper,
   6 ounces saltpetre.

FORMULA C.

  30 pounds pork cheek meat,
  30 pounds beef trimmings,
  90 pounds pork trimmings,
   5 pounds, 12 ounces salt,
   2 ounces whole white pepper,
   6 ounces saltpetre.

FORMULA D.

  40 pounds pork cheek meat,
  30 pounds beef trimmings,
  50 pounds lean pork trimmings,
  20 pounds shoulder fat,
  10 pounds pickled pork trimmings,
   5 pounds, 12 ounces salt,
   2 ounces whole white pepper,
   6 ounces saltpetre.

Trim beef chucks very lean, free from sinews. Pork trimmings must be
lean except in Formula C, where fat pork trimmings are used. Shoulder
fat should be handled the same as in Formula A. Pickled pork trimmings
are ground through an Enterprise ¹⁄₄-inch plate. Beef chucks and
trimmings are ground through an Enterprise ⁷⁄₆₄-inch plate. Pork
trimmings and cheeks are chopped on a rocker; otherwise handled same as
Formula A.

If neck fat is used it is cut into small pieces but not shaved. If fat
from Boston butts is used it is run through an Enterprise ¹⁄₄-inch
plate. This fat, of course, has more or less lean in it but might be
called very fat trimmings. Pork hearts, beef cheek and shank meat are
all ground through an Enterprise ⁷⁄₆₄-inch plate. Beef and fat are
always put on the block with the seasoning first. Pork trimmings and
cheeks are added five or ten minutes after rocking; otherwise handled
same as Formulas A, B, C and D.

FORMULA E.

  40 pounds shank meat,
  30 pounds pork cheek meat,
  10 pounds beef cheek meat,
  10 pounds pork hearts,
  20 pounds pork trimmings,
  40 pounds neck fat or fat trimmed from Boston butts,
   5 pounds, 12 ounces salt,
   2 ounces whole white pepper,
   6¹⁄₂ ounces saltpetre.


_Farmers Style Sausage._--The following formulas are for Farmers
Sausage:

FORMULA A.

  50 pounds shank meat,
  10 pounds beef cheek meat,
  30 pounds pork trimmings,
  30 pounds pork cheek meat,
  10 pounds pickled pork trimmings,
  20 pounds shoulder fat,
   5 pounds, 12 ounces salt,
   2 ounces whole white pepper,
   6 ounces saltpetre.

Shank meat, beef cheek and pork cheek meat are ground through an
Enterprise ¹⁄₄-inch plate; shank fat is cut into small pieces but not
shaved. Ground material and shank fat should be put on the block first
with the seasoning and chopped five or ten minutes, when the pork
trimmings are added, the whole being chopped fifteen or twenty minutes.
As this meat is coarse, it should, after chopping be mixed in a mixer
four minutes and be thoroughly mixed by hand, after which it is taken
to the cooler and handled the same as cervelat. It is stuffed in beef
middles cut 11 inches in length, and allowed to hang in the dry room,
same as cervelat for the same length of time, before smoking. The same
precautions should be taken with this as with cervelat, relative to
slime, etc.

It is smoked from six to eight hours at a temperature of from 65° to
70° F. It must be handled very carefully in smoke as too much heat will
wrinkle it. A great deal of farmer sausage is allowed to dry naturally
without smoking, especially in the winter months, and where there is
plenty of room and a proper place. However, in damp weather and in the
summer months it is always advisable to smoke it. This sausage can be
made throughout the summer months, provided there are proper dry rooms,
which can be regulated and kept moderately cool. Some manufacturers
use dry cooler space in the summer time, kept at a temperature of 46°
to 48° F., but the best results are obtained by drying in a room where
the sausage can have the benefit of the outside air. This sausage,
if handled properly according to the directions, will be ready for
shipment in twenty-five days; it should then be in a medium dry state.

FORMULA B.

  80 pounds medium fat pork trimmings,
  20 pounds pork cheek meat,
  50 pounds beef trimmings or shank meat,
   5 pounds, 12 ounces salt,
   2 ounces whole white pepper,
   6 ounces saltpetre.

Beef and pork cheek meat ground through an Enterprise ⁷⁄₆₄-inch plate.
Put ground material with seasoning on block first and chop five or ten
minutes, then add pork trimmings and chop fifteen or twenty minutes.
Stuff and handle same as Formula A.

FORMULA C.

   40 pounds beef trimmings or shank meat,
   10 pounds pickled beef trimmings,
  100 pounds pork trimmings,
    5 pounds, 12 ounces salt,
    2 ounces whole white pepper,
    6 ounces saltpetre.

The beef trimmings or shank meat should be ground through an Enterprise
⁷⁄₆₄-inch plate. Put ground material with seasoning on block first and
chop five or ten minutes; then add pork trimmings and chop fifteen or
twenty minutes. Stuff in beef middles; otherwise handle same as Formula
A.


_Holstein Style Sausage._--This sausage is farmer sausage and is
handled the same except that it is stuffed in beef rounds. The same
care is necessary as with the farmer from the time it leaves the block
until ready for shipment, which should be in about twenty-five days.


_Swedish Style Medwurst._--The following formula is for Swedish
Medwurst or Gottberg sausage:

FORMULA.

  30 pounds pickled beef trimmings,
  30 pounds fresh beef trimmings,
  90 pounds medium fat pork trimmings,
   1 pound rice flour or corn flour,
   5¹⁄₂ pounds salt,
   2 ounces coriander,
   3¹⁄₂ ounces white pepper,
   6 ounces saltpetre.

Beef trimmings are ground through an Enterprise ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate.
Ground beef and seasoning are put on block first and chopped five or
ten minutes when pork trimmings are added, the whole being chopped
twenty to twenty-five minutes. This sausage is stuffed in beef middles
14 inches in length, and handled in other respects same as Cervelat in
beef middles.

The old fashioned way of handling Swedish medwurst was to pickle the
sausage, after it was stuffed, in a vat of 50 degree strength pickle,
for ten hours, when it was taken out of the vats, hung up and allowed
to dry for twenty-four hours, then smoked the same as cervelat in beef
middles. If this process is used, four and one-half pounds of salt to
150 pounds of meat is all that is necessary. However, good results can
be obtained without pickling the sausage, and it is not generally done
by manufacturers of this article.


_Braunschweiger Style Sausage._--This sausage is made according to the
following formula:

FORMULA.

  50 pounds selected back fat trimmings,
  45 pounds selected ham trimmings,
  25 pounds selected shoulder trimmings,
  20 pounds beef chucks trimmed extra lean and free from sinews,
  10 pounds shoulder fat,
   5 pounds salt,
   2¹⁄₂ ounces white pepper (ground),
   1 ounce whole white pepper,
   6 ounces saltpetre.

Beef chucks are ground through a ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate. Shoulder fat is cut
into strips about two inches square, and cut into shavings, as fine as
it is possible to cut them. Ground beef, shoulder fat and seasoning are
put on the block and rocked ten minutes when ham and shoulder trimmings
are added, the back fat trimmings being the last to go on the block.
The whole is rocked twenty to thirty-five minutes. This is not a fine
chopped sausage, however, and is not as coarse as farmer sausage but
a great deal coarser than regular cervelat. It should be stuffed into
short, lean, thick hog bungs about fourteen inches in length, and
handled in every respect, from the block to the smoke house, same as
cervelat in hog bungs. As this is a very fat sausage greater care needs
to be taken in smoking than with any other summer sausage made, and it
should be hung near the top of the smoke house as far away from the
fire as possible. For this reason it is important that the sausage
should be properly dried after stuffing before smoking. Smoke at a
temperature as near 65° F. as possible for thirty-six to forty-eight
hours.


_D’Arles Style Sausage._--This sausage is made as follows:

FORMULA.

  30 pounds extra lean beef chucks trimmed absolutely free from sinews,
  70 pounds fresh lean especially trimmed pork shoulder trimmings free
     from sinews,
  30 pounds selected back fat pork trimmings,
  20 pounds shoulder fat,
   5 pounds salt,
   2¹⁄₂ ounces white pepper (ground),
   1 ounce whole pepper,
   3 ounces saltpetre.

In order to use the following additional seasoning it is advisable to
chop at least six blocks of sausage, 150 pounds each, and mix in a
large truck as this seasoning is to be added immediately after the meat
has been chopped. For 900 pounds, use:

   ¹⁄₄-pound package pure white gelatine,
  2    quarts strong imported French red wine,
  1    whole nutmeg,
  1¹⁄₄ ounces whole cloves,
   ¹⁄₂ ounce stick cinnamon.

Put the gelatine, nutmeg, cloves and cinnamon in a thin bag and cook
with the wine for ten or fifteen minutes, just below boiling point.
Strain the wine through a cloth to remove all particles of spice. When
moderately cool mix in the meat thoroughly by hand; at the same time
mix in the shoulder fat, which is cut into shape of small dice chopped
on the rocker; the beef ground through an Enterprise ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch
plate; after which the mixture is placed on the rocker with the dry
seasoning and rocked for seven to ten minutes, when the pork trimmings
are added and the whole chopped eighteen to twenty-two minutes,
providing the speed of the rocker is from fifty-two to fifty-four
strokes per minute.

This is a coarse sausage but not as coarse as Farmer. Take to the
cooler to remain from twelve to twenty-four hours. It is then stuffed
by hand into No. 1 selected hog bungs entirely free from fat. Hang in
dry room where the temperature is about 50° F. where it is entirely
separate from other sausage and where there is plenty of air but no
currents. After it has hung for thirty-six to forty-eight hours, if
firm and the casing moderately dry, wrap the casings with No. 4 flax
twine commencing at the small end, making a hitch with the twine every
two inches the whole length of the sausage to the top or the bung end;
then hitch back every inch on the off side and back and forth again
until two more hitches are made so that the strings will be about
one-half inch apart when the last hitch is complete.

Care must be taken to wrap the sausage tightly so that the strings will
not fall off in the process of drying. After the sausage has been wound
with string it should be taken to the dry room and dried very slowly
without becoming moldy too soon. If hung in a room with other sausage,
this article should be hung between so that it will not get too much
air or dry too quickly. It should be moved frequently, from the bottom
to the top, and from the middle to the front and back of the section.
This is one of the most difficult of summer sausages to make and but
few manufacturers are successful in making them. Therefore the above
instructions should be followed closely to obtain satisfactory results.
Do not smoke.


_Italian Style Salami._--Practically the same formula is used for
Italian salami sausage as for D’Arles sausage, except that usually not
as high grade trimmings either beef or pork, are required. However,
it is advisable for a high grade Italian salami that the same grade
of trimmings be used and the same care is taken in preparing them.
Identically the same seasoning is used and also the same procedure
is followed in every respect in regard to the chopping and handling
of the meat. Smaller or less expensive hog bungs are used. They are
medium primes and the sausage is usually shorter in length. This is a
matter of preference as this sausage is made in lengths of from twelve
to twenty-two inches. Handling after stuffing, to the wrapping process,
is the same as that for D’Arles sausage. Wrapping, however, is much
simpler and usually the same grade of twine is used, but instead of
wrapping the twine both ways, it is simply wound around tightly after
three or four strings have been run from the top to the bottom of the
sausage. This sausage is not smoked and is tied the same as D’Arles,
the same care being taken in every respect as regards temperatures, etc.


_Milanese Style Salami Sausage._--The formula for this sausage is as
follows:

FORMULA.

  50 pounds fresh lean specially trimmed pork shoulder,
       trimming free from sinews,
  60 pounds fresh Boston butt trimmings,
  20 pounds extra lean beef chucks, trimmed absolutely
       free from sinews,
  20 pounds shoulder fat,
   5 pounds salt,
   2¹⁄₂ ounces white pepper,
   1¹⁄₂ ounces saltpetre,
   1 ounce whole pepper.

Chop at least six blocks (900 pounds) of this sausage and mix at one
time by hand in a large truck constructed for the purpose, in order to
add the following additional seasoning. For the six blocks use:

  3¹⁄₂ quarts strong imported French red wine,
   ¹⁄₄-pound package pure white gelatine,
  4    nutmegs,
   ¹⁄₂ ounce whole cloves,
  1    ounce stick cinnamon.

Prepare same as similar formula for D’Arles sausage and mix with the
meat after it has been rocked by hand thoroughly. The beef is ground
through an Enterprise ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate. Shoulder fat is cut into
small thin pieces but not in the shape of dice. Rock the beef and
the shoulder fat together with the dry seasoning for seven to ten
minutes, then add the pork trimmings, the whole being chopped twenty
to twenty-five minutes. This sausage is not as coarse as D’Arles or
Italian salami.

After the meat and wet seasoning have been mixed thoroughly put in
cooler twelve to twenty-four hours. Then stuff by hand into hog middle
guts, as large as can be obtained. The way to stuff them successfully
is to arrange a board to hold the casings after they are stuffed so
that it will be just high enough from the filler to permit the casings
to be filled and not handled other than to hold them with sufficient
pressure to stuff as tightly as possible without breakage.

If the middles break, which they do in many cases, patch them with a
piece of hog middle when they are being wound with string. They should
be lifted with care from the stuffing board, placed upon a truck and
wrapped immediately with No. 4 flax twine, the same as D’Arles sausage,
the string running equidistant around the sausage from either end and
being wound around it so as to form squares.

As the casings are so very tender, it requires great care in wrapping
and the sausage is usually not of uniform appearance. Greater care must
be used in tying this sausage than D’Arles, salami or any other sausage
known. The casings are so thin that the meat will become dry and hard
on the outside or near the casings while the inside will remain moist,
therefore too much exposure is not desirable. They should be watched
closely after stringing, because, not being allowed to dry before they
are strung, the handling which they get will naturally make them slime
very easily. It takes at least sixty days to dry this sausage properly
with the best conditions. Not smoked.


_German Style Salami._--This sausage may be made according to the
following formula:

FORMULA.

   40 pounds beef chucks or beef shank meat,
  110 pounds regular pork trimmings,
    5 pounds salt,
    5¹⁄₂ ounces white pepper,
    1³⁄₄ ounces garlic,
    6 ounces saltpetre.

Beef is ground through an Enterprise ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate, rocked with the
seasoning five to ten minutes, when the pork trimmings are added and
the whole chopped fifteen to twenty minutes. This is a coarse sausage,
about the same as “Farmers” sausage. It is well to mix the meat
thoroughly by hand after it has been rocked, or to mix it carefully
with a mixer. A “Stallman” mixer is better than a “Zimmerman” for
farmer sausage and coarse chopped summer sausage. However, the teeth in
a “Zimmerman” mixer can be reversed so that it will not tear the meat,
as it otherwise does.

After the meat has been chopped it is removed to a cooler for the same
period as farmer sausage before stuffing. It is stuffed in either beef
middles or hog bungs. After stuffing, the sausage is handled the same
as Italian salami, except that it is wrapped with hitches same as
D’Arles sausage, there being only about one-half the number.

This sausage can be very lightly smoked, but it is preferable to dry
it the same as D’Arles and Italian sausage. If stuffed in beef middles
it should be handled the same as farmer except that it is wrapped with
string about the same number of hitches as salami in hog bungs. The
majority of manufacturers smoke Italian salami in beef casings a very
little, usually about twelve hours with as little smoke as possible.
This is done to prevent sliming, as it is difficult to air-dry
beef-middle sausage without the very best conveniences, or dry rooms
where it can be hung apart from other sausage.


_Hungarian Style Salami._--The formula for this sausage is as follows:

FORMULA.

  90 pounds lean pork trimmings,
  35 pounds beef chucks trimmed free from sinews,
  25 pounds shoulder fat,
   5 pounds salt,
   1¹⁄₂ ounces white pepper,
   1 ounce garlic,
   5¹⁄₂ ounces saltpetre.

The beef chucks are ground through an Enterprise ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate.
The shoulder fat is shaved into thin pieces and both the beef and the
fat, with the seasoning, are rocked seven to ten minutes, when the
pork trimmings are added, and the whole is rocked from eighteen to
twenty-two minutes. This is a moderately coarse sausage, about the same
as Milanese salami.

After the meat is rocked it is handled in the cooler the same as other
summer sausage and stuffed into extra large beef middle ends, which
are, when stuffed, twenty-two to twenty-six inches long and weigh from
twelve to twenty pounds each.

Great care must be taken in stuffing this sausage to stuff it tightly
and two or three lengths of string should be run from the large to the
small end and vice versa, so as to prevent it from breaking, also to
keep it straight, and it should be hung, of course, the small end down.

This sausage is allowed to hang, before being put in the smoke house,
three or four days in a dry atmosphere, and then smoked over a cold
smoke at a temperature the same as for cervelat in beef middles,
for from fifty-five to sixty hours. Handle after smoking the same
as cervelat in beef casings. It usually takes, under favorable
circumstances, sixty to seventy days before the sausage is ready for
shipment.

This sausage is used extensively in Germany and Austria and there is
some of it used in Pennsylvania. There is not a very general demand for
it in the United States.


_Thuringer Style Salami._--Formula for this sausage is as follows:

FORMULA.

  30 pounds extra lean beef chucks, trimmed free from sinews,
  90 pounds fresh pork blade or shoulder meat, trimmed free from sinews,
  30 pounds shoulder fat,
   5 pounds salt,
   1 ounce garlic,
   3¹⁄₂ ounces white pepper,
   6 ounces saltpetre.

Beef is ground through an Enterprise ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate and rocked with
the fat and seasoning, the fat having been cut into small pieces and
shaved. Rock from seven to ten minutes, when the pork trimmings are
added and the whole is chopped eighteen to twenty-two minutes.

This sausage is rocked about as coarse as Milanese salami. After it is
rocked it is handled in the cooler the same as other summer sausage
and stuffed in large calf bladders which have been soaked a short time
before stuffing so that they will be pliable. Care must be taken in
stuffing this sausage to fill the bladders as full as possible. Use a
skewer, also a string hanger.

Allow it to hang two or three days before smoking, in a moderately
cool temperature (50° to 55° F.), where there is no draft, and smoke
over a cold smoke for forty-eight hours, the same as Braunschweiger,
and Gothair, the sausage being hung near the top of the smoke house. Do
not smoke at the same time with any other sausage.

Unless care is taken in smoking, the bladders will come out wrinkled,
which spoils the appearance and consequently the sale of the sausage.
Hang in the dry room with beef middle cervelat and handle in every
respect the same. This sausage is usually ready for shipment in forty
to fifty days.


_Mortadella Style Sausage._--This sausage is made by the following
formula:

FORMULA.

  135 pounds absolutely fresh lean trimmings,
   15 pounds fresh lean beef chucks,
   10 pounds shoulder fat,
    5 pounds salt,
    1¹⁄₂ ounces saltpetre,
    2¹⁄₂ ounces white pepper.

Additional wet seasoning is used for this sausage, therefore it is
advisable to chop it six blocks at a time and mix by hand in a large
truck the seasoning must be added immediately after the meat has been
chopped. For six blocks use:

  3¹⁄₂ quarts strong imported French red wine,
   ¹⁄₄-pound package pure white gelatine,
  8    nutmegs,
  1    ounce whole cloves,
  3    ounces stick cinnamon,
  4¹⁄₂ ounces bay leaves,
  2¹⁄₂ ounces split coriander.

Prepare this seasoning same as D’Arles sausage, then mix the wet
seasoning with the meat in a truck. Scatter through it twelve ounces
of whole white pepper and two ounces of coriander. The beef is ground
through an Enterprise ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate and chopped on the block with
the dry seasoning for seven to ten minutes, when the pork trimmings
are added and the whole chopped thirty to thirty-five minutes. This is
a very fine sausage. After the meat has been chopped mix the shoulder
fat, which is cut into the shape of small dice (same as for D’Arles
sausage), with the meat and mix in the wet seasoning at the same time.

Remove to a cooler and allow it to stand from twelve to twenty-four
hours, then stuff into medium-sized beef bladders which must be soaked
in lukewarm water a few moments before they are stuffed, in order to
make them pliable, and care must be taken to stuff them as tightly as
possible. Skewer, as well as tie them, and also wrap immediately with
heavy coarse flax twine, making about two wraps the long way to the
bladder and one wrap around the center, the twine terminating in a
hanger. This sausage must not be hung by tied end or by the same string
that the bladder is tied with, for in such case they will fall in the
smoke house, or when drying.

Hang for twelve hours after stuffing in a hot smoke house with more
heat than smoke at a temperature of about 90° F.; then cook in clear
water for four hours at a temperature of 150° F.; wash off thoroughly
with boiling water when taken from the cooking vat and hang them up in
a moderately cool place or dry room where the temperature is about 48°
to 50° F. They will be ready to ship in four or five days.

This sausage can be smoked sufficiently heavy, so that cooking is
unnecessary if proper facilities are available in smoke house. The
house should be arranged with steam coils so that a temperature as high
as 150° F. can be obtained during the process of smoking. This really
is the most satisfactory way of handling this sausage.


_Lyon Style Sausage._--For this sausage the following formula is used:

FORMULA.

  120 pounds extra lean selected pork trimmings, pork blade meat being
      preferred, trimmed free from sinews,
   20 pounds extra lean beef chucks, trimmed free from sinews,
   10 pounds shoulder fat,
    5 pounds salt,
    2¹⁄₂ ounces white pepper,
    1 ounce whole pepper,
    1¹⁄₂ ounces saltpetre.

It is necessary to use an additional wet seasoning for this sausage;
at least six blocks should be chopped so as to mix properly and the
seasoning must be added immediately after chopping. For six blocks Lyon
sausage use the same formula for wet seasoning as for Milanese salami,
and prepare in the same way. Grind the beef through a ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate
and chop first on the block with the dry seasoning for seven to ten
minutes when pork trimmings are added and the whole chopped thirty to
thirty-five minutes. This is a very fine chopped sausage. After the
beef and pork have been rocked the wet seasoning and shoulder fat,
which has been previously cut into the shape of small dice, are mixed
with it thoroughly by hand.

The meat is then taken to a cooler for the same period as D’Arles or
Milanese salami, when it is stuffed by a hand stuffer into No. 1 hog
bungs free from fat, and hung in a dry room where the temperature is
about 50° F., and where it can be kept entirely separate from other
sausage, with plenty of air and no draft. After it has hung for
thirty-six to forty-eight hours and the casings are moderately dry,
wrap the sausage with No. 4 flax twine, both lengthwise and around so
as to form a mesh about ¹⁄₂-inch square. It is handled the same as
D’Arles or Milanese salami.


_Gothair Style Sausage._--This sausage is made according to the
following formula:

FORMULA.

   20 pounds extra lean beef chucks free from sinews,
  110 pounds extra lean pork trimmings free from sinews,
   20 pounds pork shoulder fat,
    5 pounds salt,
    3¹⁄₂ ounces white pepper,
    6 ounces saltpetre.

The beef is ground through an Enterprise ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate and together
with the shoulder fat, which has been shaved as thin as possible and
cut into the shape of small dice, is mixed in mixer with the seasoning
for from seven to ten minutes, when the pork trimmings are added and
the whole chopped for thirty to thirty-five minutes, after which it
is taken to a cooler and handled the same as other summer sausage.
It is stuffed into short No. 1 lean hog bungs, or bungs that are
free from fat. This sausage is handled in every respect the same as
cervelat sausage, except smoking. It should be smoked lightly with
the same temperature and same relative position in the smoke house as
Braunschweiger sausage and about the same length of time. It is handled
after smoking, in the dry room, same as Braunschweiger.


_Lehigh Valley Style Summer Sausage._--This sausage is made from lean
bull chucks, the meat being ground through an Enterprise one-quarter
inch plate, then reground through an Enterprise ⁷⁄₆₄th-inch plate and
rocked on a rocker for fifteen minutes. The seasoning is mixed on the
rocker and is as follows for 100 pounds of meat:

SEASONING FORMULA.

   ¹⁄₃ pound fine salt,
  1¹⁄₂ ounces saltpetre,
  4 ounces saltpetre,
  5 ounces mace,
  1 ounce ground cloves,
  2 ounces allspice,
  4 ounces black pepper,
  6 ounces coriander,
  1 ounce sugar.

After it is chopped it is put into a “Zimmerman” mixer and mixed for
about five minutes. It is then taken to a cooler and spread on tables
made for the purpose, about eight or ten inches thick, and allowed to
remain for about three days, when it is stuffed into beef bungs, sack
pieces being preferable. After it is allowed to stand in a temperature
of 48° F. until the casings become moderately dry, it is hung in a
smoke house and smoked for ten days or two weeks, at a temperature
of between 50° and 60° F. Great care should be taken in smoking this
article, as it requires but a light smoke.

After it is taken from the smoke house, it is hung in a dry room, where
a temperature of 48° to 50° F. can be maintained, and where the sausage
can be kept perfectly dry. This sausage takes from two to three months
to dry thoroughly, and sometimes longer.




CHAPTER XXVII

BUTTERINE


  INGREDIENTS -- COLORS -- EQUIPMENT -- ROOMS -- ARRANGEMENT -- TESTING
  MILK -- ACIDITY -- MILK IN BUTTERINE -- REASONS FOR CULTURE -- CREAM
  RIPENESS -- WATER VS. BRINE -- MILK NOT PASTEURIZED -- PREPARATORY
  CULTURE -- STARTERS -- CULTIVATING THE MILK -- LOW GRADE BUTTERINE --
  GRAINING -- WORKING THE BUTTERINE -- BUTTERINE PACKING -- HIGH-GRADE
  BUTTERINE -- CLEANLINESS -- USE OF COLOR -- FORMULAS -- COSTS OF
  BUTTERINE.


=Introductory.=--Butterine is a product possessing value as food and
places within the reach of the masses an article which is wholesome,
palatable and moderate in price. National and state legislation has
done much to curtail its sale since it was found to be a competitor of
the dairyman and farmer. The restrictions in force limit the volume of
business, but the consumption is increasing.

Most of the oleo oil made is shipped to Europe, where it is used in
the manufacture of butterine. With the comparatively dense population
of European countries they are unable to supply themselves with dairy
butter.

While prejudice exists in many places against butterine, it is
wholesome, as it is made in a cleanly manner, for if it is not made
with absolute cleanliness, and if the ingredients are in the least
tainted from any cause, the whole mass is injured. This is true to
a greater extent than it is in the manufacture of pure butter, and
more marked in butterine. Considerable progress has been made in the
manufacture of this article within the past few years, and a more
desirable product has been made since neutral lard has been used as an
ingredient. It is, however, necessary to use milk or cream or butter to
give the goods the flavor, and many manufacturers use a percentage of
the highest quality creamery butter.


=Ingredients.=--The ingredients of butterine are butter, milk, cream,
oleo oil, neutral lard, cottonseed oil, peanut oil, and palm oil. The
latter two being comparatively new compounds. These, together with salt
make the butterine of commerce. The manufacture of oleo oil, neutral
lard, and a description of cotton seed oil is described in previous
chapters, although the cottonseed oil used is usually bought ready
prepared and known to the trade as “Butter” oil, peanut oil and palm
oil are standard articles of commerce of varying qualities, and are
usually bought on sample.


=Colors.=--There are three standard qualities of color in butterine.
White goods, tested goods, and colored goods, in which an artificial
color is used, with due acknowledgement and the payment of ten cents
per pound tax. The production of butterine is closely supervised by
the Federal Government of the United States, with scrupulous care and
exactness, particularly as to any attempt to produce a color resembling
that of butter. At least ten per cent of the quantity of any given
ingredient must be used as a constituent or component part. There are,
for instance, many vegetable oils, that would be considered edible
but of high color, the introduction of a relatively small amount of
which would help to produce the yellow color of butter. Objection
is not made to their uses, but ten per cent of the quantity must be
used in the formulas, and this quantity is usually prohibited for the
reason that the pungency or some peculiarity of the foreign oil makes
it undesirable in butterine. The manufacturer must closely watch his
purchases of product to see they are not artificially colored since the
introduction of any coloring substance in cottonseed or peanut oil, for
example, would react upon the manufacturer of the butterine.

It is best not to attempt any innovations in making butterine without
consulting the Federal authorities so as to be sure you are within the
law.


=Equipment.=--The equipment required in the manufacture of butterine
is a comparatively simple outfit, consisting of the following items
enumerated in the order of their use in the making of the product.

  Storage tanks for cottonseed oil received in carload lots.

  Storage tanks within the building for containing oils for immediate
  use.

  Oleo oil melting kettles for reducing oleo oil to a fluid state.

  “Starter” cans in which the milk culture is kept and developed ready
  for use in the cream ripener.

  “Ripeners” for milk and cream for pasteurizing and propagating
  culture in milk preparatory for churning.

  “Emulsion” churns in which the various ingredients are mixed.

  Flume type crystalizers.

  Tempering trucks.

  Butter Workers.

  Packing tables where prints and tubs are packed.

  Print trucks for setting prints after making.


=Rooms.=--The factory is necessarily divided into several rooms,
notably:

  (a) One in which the milk receiving, testing, weighing, pasteurizing
  and ripening is performed.

  (b) One in which--temperature 70° F.--the oil and melting facilities
  are arranged.

  (c) The tempering room in which the butterine is tempered after
  crystalizing. The temperature 58° to 60° F.

  (d) The packing room where prints are made. Temperatures 40° to 45° F.

  (e) The storage cooler where prints are set up before boxing and
  after boxed. Temperatures 34° F.


=Arrangement.=--In the usual arrangement butterine factories are
designed so that the work begins on an upper floor and terminates on
a shipping floor. The extent of the factory and the space allotted to
each operation depending upon the volume of business. Usually decks
are introduced upon which part of the work is performed. Local pumps,
readily cleansed, are used for transfer of materials via pipes, and
these are arranged with flow toward outlet so as to admit of perfect
drainage.


=Testing the Milk.=--Consider the methods of receiving the milk,
and also making proper tests to determine its value and the amount
of fat it contains. It is very essential this be done carefully and
intelligently, as the result of the test determines the value of the
product purchased. Milk and cream are frequently paid for on the butter
fat percentage.

[Illustration: FIG. 162.--EMULSION CHURN.]

The test generally accepted is obtained by using Babcock’s “Acme” steam
turbine test machine. This machine is made to accommodate twenty-four
bottles. The machine should be set up well, secured and balanced
perfectly for each test. This is accomplished by placing bottles
exactly opposite each other. Should a test be desired on only one
sample of milk, fill a bottle with water and place in machine opposite
sample. The machine in motion makes 3,000 revolutions per minute. It
will, therefore, be seen that equilibrium is necessary. Test bottles
are arranged so they will contain the amount of milk or cream and acid
needed. A 17.6 cc. pipette is used for measuring the milk or cream and
a 17.6 cc. graduated tube for the acid. First pour 17.6 cc. milk in
bottle, then pour in 17.6 cc. commercial grade sulphuric acid. Do not
drop the acid on top of the milk, but hold the bottles sidewise so that
the acid will slip into the milk at side. Otherwise a burnt taste will
result and make it impossible to correctly read the test. Shake the
bottle well until milk has entirely disappeared, then place in machine.

After bottles are filled in this manner the machine balanced, steam is
admitted gradually, increasing until machine is running at full speed.
Allow to run five minutes, then stop, fill each bottle with hot water
up to the lowest mark on graduate neck of bottle; start machine again
and allow it to run for three minutes, when again it will be necessary
to add hot water up to within one-half inch of top of neck of bottle;
run machine two minutes longer, and read test. Use a pair of compasses
in reading the fat in neck of bottle and read it quickly, as the fat
recedes if left long. This test determines the percentage of fat in
sample of milk, consequently its comparative value.

[Illustration: FIG. 163.--BUTTERINE TRUCK.]


=Acidity.=--The “sourness” or acidity of the milk can be determined by
taste or smell, but not accurately. A test is necessary to determine
the exact condition of the milk when purchased.

When milk contains six-tenths of one per cent acid, the most desirable
point has been reached, as then it imparts the best flavor to the
goods. If more than six-tenths of one per cent acid is used the flavor
is not as good. This is also the case if a lower percentage of acidity
is used. Hence the milk or cream should be brought to this exact degree
of sourness before using.

To determine this accurately, it is necessary to do it by a test, as
milk may be three-tenths of one per cent acid before it is perceptible
to the taste or smell. Milk that would pass as sweet by taste or smell
will show two-tenths of one per cent acid.

The test to determine this is simple. Any chemist is able to furnish
all alkali solution and the necessary neutralizer of proper strength.
The usual way, however, is to use what is known as Farrington’s
tablets, prepared by Prof. Farrington of the Wisconsin Dairy School.
These tablets are dissolved in water, a convenient strength being five
tablets to fifty cubic centimeters of water. The solution is mixed
with the milk to be tested and shaken; the acid in the milk acting
upon the alkali of the solution immediately turns the milk to a pink
color and the amount of the solution required to produce the pink color
determines the acidity of the milk.


=Milk in Butterine.=--Cleanliness is the all-important factor, since
milk is easily contaminated by foreign flavors and germ life. Milk
readily absorbs the odors given off by articles placed in the same
room. Only pure and absolutely sweet milk and cream should be used,
but as absolutely pure milk, though sweet, is difficult to secure, it
becomes necessary to adopt some method whereby the condition of such
milk can be righted.

Careless milkers care little whether hair, dirt, dust, etc., drop into
the pails while milking, thinking that in straining the milk, all
particles and impurities are removed. It does remove most particles,
but the germs which were clinging to these particles are not strained
out. They remain in the milk and under favorable temperatures thrive
and multiply unless arrested.

When the milk has been tested and accepted it should be strained
through several thicknesses of clean cloth into the ripening machine,
bringing the temperature in the different vats to the same point, so
that as the milk is used it will all be in the same condition. In cold
weather the temperature should be held at 70° F., while during the
warmer seasons from 60° to 65° is desirable. In cloudy, murky summer
weather a lower temperature will be required. Under such conditions the
temperature should be held at from 55° to 60° F. until the storm is
passed, when it should again be held at the normal temperature named.


=Reasons for Culture.=--To make an acidity test, a 20 cc. pipette is
used for measuring the milk or cream. Each cubic centimeter of solution
is equal to two one-hundredths of one per cent acid, hence if 10 cc. of
solution is necessary to turn the milk or cream a pink color, the milk
would contain just two-tenths of one per cent acid and would be sweet.
Any more than that would show the milk too sour for use. In receiving
sweet milk, it must be assumed to contain impure bacteria, which only
await the proper temperature to develop and sour the milk, producing
bad flavors. It must be neutralized by pasteurizing and then cultivated
with pure bacteria.

Another advantage obtained in the use of the “starter” is, that
it permits the ripening of milk and cream at low temperatures.
Bacteriologists state, and it is proved by experience, that a
temperature of about 65° F. is most favorable to the development
of the best fermentation in ripening milk and cream. Prior to
the use of cultures it was customary to sour the milk at a much
higher temperature, which was correspondingly favorable to all the
objectionable bacteria in the milk. Without the use of the “starter”
the conditions were beyond the control of the operator.


=Cream Ripeners.=--To produce these conditions the milk should
be pasteurized, which can be performed by the use of a standard
pasteurizer of the type shown in Fig. 164. There are a variety of
pasteurizers in use.

This apparatus is equipped with an internal revolving coil of pipe or
discs, built sufficiently strong to withstand the pressure of steam,
water or brine circulated through the coils or discs, which is usually
done in the order named.

To pasteurize, the milk is heated to a temperature of 180° F. for
twenty minutes. This practically destroys the bacteria present. The
milk is then rapidly cooled by passing cold water or chilled brine, or
both, in turn, through the coil to reduce the temperature of the body
quickly to that desired, usually 55° to 70° F., according to conditions
as described. The starter or culture is introduced and the milk
agitated to insure a thorough intermingling.

[Illustration: FIG. 164.--WIZARD PASTEURIZER AND RIPENER, STYLE B WITH
VITRIFIED PORCELAIN ENAMELED JACKET AND “SIDE LIFT” PIANO HINGE METAL
COVER.]


=Water Versus Brine.=--Where an abundant supply of cold water is
available cream ripeners are arranged so that the first cooling is done
by cold water passing through the chilling coil, since much cooling
can be done in this manner. The work is completed by cold brine. It is
best not to attempt this unless the volume of business is sufficient to
justify intelligent supervision on the ripeners, because if it is done,
some means such as compressed air must be attached to the coil in the
ripener for the purpose of flowing out the water before admitting brine
as the mixing would reduce the brine to a point where it would freeze
on the brine coils or in the double pipe ammonia brine coolers with
disastrous results.

In providing brine cooling capacity ample volume should be arranged for
“reserve or inertia” since the demand is insistent and large in a short
period of time.


=Milk not Pasteurized.=--Some manufacturers do not pasteurize the milk
and conduct operations as described in the following paragraphs.
However, the acidity test is equally applicable in either system.


_Preparation of Milk and Cream._--Only sweet milk should be used. Milk
that is sour before reaching the factory causes troubles impossible
to remedy, and no matter how good the “starter” the milk will have
developed bacteria that cannot be destroyed; and, as the milk or cream
becomes older the development of the proper bacteria is impossible to
control. This is as true after it has been worked into the butterine
as before. Hence it will be seen, that a great deal depends upon the
milk and cream being sweet in developing proper conditions with the
“starter.”

The milk upon being received is passed to the ripener, the temperature
reduced as desired, and the process of “starter” is followed.


=What are Starters?=--The “starters” referred to are cultures--the
bacteria found in clean, fresh milk, cultivated in vast numbers and
when incorporated in milk containing an impure variety, miniature
warfare is at once begun. If the “starter” is right, the warfare ends
with the pure germs victorious.

There are two ferments or “starters” on the market which are
commendable on account of their uniformity and purity. They are
produced in laboratories, every care being taken to see that no foreign
germs come in contact with them.


=Preparatory Cultures.=--Into a commercial starter can put four gallons
of sweet, skimmed milk, which tests two-tenths of one per cent acid, no
more. Strain through a double thickness of perfectly clean cloth, heat
the milk to 180° F., holding at this temperature for one-half hour.
This “Pasteurizes” the milk by killing all life in it. It also destroys
all flavor.

The milk should be cooled quickly to 90° F. As soon as this temperature
has been reached pour in a four-ounce bottle of “starter” or culture,
holding the bottle close to the milk so as to avoid contamination.
The bottle should not be opened until ready for use. After adding
the ferment cool down slowly to 70° F., stirring all the while so as
to thoroughly mix the milk. The bacteria grow very rapidly at this
temperature. In twelve hours, if kept evenly at this temperature in a
tightly closed vessel, a sufficient quantity of the proper germs will
have been developed to produce an acidity of five-tenths of one per
cent. The milk will also have thickened somewhat. If the conditions are
found at the termination of twelve hours, cool the milk quickly to 40°
F. and hold at this temperature until ready to make a large “starter.”

If the milk has not grown sufficient germs to produce the above named
acidity, that is, five-tenths of one per cent, reheat to 90° F. and
hold at this temperature until it does. Do not stir it at this stage,
as the “starter” should be kept with as little agitation as possible
after the germs have been propagated.


=The Regular “Starter”.=--When ready to make the factory “starter,”
place twenty gallons of sweet, skimmed milk in a sterilizer, after
having cleaned the vessel, and heat as before to 180° F.; hold at this
temperature for one-half hour, then chill to 70° F. and add the four
gallons of preparatory “starter” already described, stirring well while
adding.

Let this stand twelve hours as before in a temperature of 70° F., when
it should appear as the preparatory starter did, slightly thickened and
showing an acidity of five-tenths of one per cent. When acidity test
shows this to have been reached, chill to 40° F. (at this temperature
the bacteria are dormant and will not develop), and hold until ready to
ripen the day’s run of milk and cream for churning.

When the milk has been brought in the ripeners to the proper
temperature, distribute the larger “starter” evenly through it. Three
per cent is sufficient during the summer months, while even as high as
ten per cent is necessary in cold weather.


=Cultivating the Milk.=--Put the requisite amount of factory “starter”
in the ripeners, thoroughly agitate and allow to remain quiet. At the
expiration of twelve hours, the milk should be ripened sufficiently for
churning and by test it should show, as above stated, six-tenths of one
per cent acid. When this acidity has been developed cool to 58° F. and
place in churn. At this temperature the butter-fat will form in small,
firm globules and separate nicely from the casein. If the temperature
is lower than this it takes much longer to separate the fat from the
casein and it is impossible to separate all of it, hence some fat is
lost. At a higher temperature, the fat, when separate, will be fluffy
and soft and will not produce a firm body.

As texture is one of the essential points to be sought after in
producing artificial butter, the churning of the milk, in order to
produce the proper texture in the butter-fat, is a very important
function and one which should be carefully performed. Before putting
the milk into the churn it should be stirred thoroughly, as during the
twelve hours occupied in ripening, the butter-fat, being the lightest,
has come to the top and unless again thoroughly mixed, one churn will
contain most of the fat and the others will contain comparatively
little, and as each churning of milk going into the mixer constitutes a
separate run, the quality of the butterine manufactured will be uneven.


=Quality in Butterine.=--Butterine is made in various grades, differing
in constituents and proportions, also color, according to selections.
Some manufacturers reduce the milk and cream content and add pure
butter. Formulas for various methods follow:

In the matter of color large oleo producers select fats in the raw
for making high colored oil, keeping it separate in manufacture; also
select oil while graining for color, and press it all separately.
Another source of a high colored oil is the boiling of large knuckles
from shank or leg bones in cutter cattle, cooking them in open tanks
and skimming the oil. The bones are cracked and boiled several times
and the oil skimmed. The flavor is not sufficient to be detrimental.
This is purely an animal oil that can be used in the oleo oil to make
tinted mixtures.


=Low Grade Butterine.=--This is composed of cotton seed oil, No. 2 oleo
oil and No. 2 neutral lard. Straight milk is used for flavor. The oils
go into an emulsion churn at the following temperatures: Cotton seed
oil at 75° F.; neutral lard, added next, at 95° F., and oleo oil next
at 90° F.

The cotton seed oil should be agitated for about fifteen to twenty
minutes before the other oils are added, leaving the lid of the
emulsion churn open. This has the effect of removing some of the
flavor from the oil and while it may be slight, it is an advantage.
The neutral lard should be added next, care being taken to see that it
is free from flakes and grainy mixtures. In other words, it should be
brought to the proper temperature, viz., 95° F. and held there long
enough before going to the agitator to be sure that the grain of the
lard has entirely disappeared, for if this is allowed to go in it can
never be removed in the finished product.

[Illustration: FIG. 165.--CHURN ROOM FOR BUTTERINE.]

The oleo oil is next added and after these three ingredients have been
agitated for twenty minutes and thoroughly mixed, the milk should be
added last and the whole mass left in the agitator for five minutes
with the lid closed tightly.

At this stage the salt and color are added, if color is used. The
amount of salt required should be decided by the necessities of the
particular trade to be supplied, but 5 per cent will be found a medium
salting. Experience is that it is better to add salt at this time
because it is more evenly distributed in the emulsion than in the
granular butterine.

After the color and salt are thoroughly mixed, let the whole body run
into the graining vat filled with water at a temperature of 40° F.

The oils and milk will show a temperature of about 90° F. as a whole.
If not, heat to that point before drawing into the graining vat. This
should be drawn through a 5-inch galvanized pipe flattened out at the
end to form a spreading exit for the butterine. The butterine passes
into the water vat directly behind a paddle wheel arranged so that
one-half of it is above water. The wheel revolves rapidly causing the
butterine to be quickly submerged, thereby graining it as fast as it
hits the cold water. The quicker butterine is grained, the more flavor
it retains, as the globules formed increase the flavor. Should the
water be too cold, the butterine will be hard and dry, and is likely to
crumble and mottle, besides causing a reduction in gain. On the other
hand, if the water is too warm the butterine will be soft and mushy and
cannot be worked properly, although the gain will be larger. Warm water
is used on very cheap grades when butterine is to be packed in solids
and a large gain is desired. As fast as the butterine to be grained
shows on the top of the water, it should be lifted onto a cloth in the
hands of two men to a clean box truck.


=Sluice Trough.=--Many factories have discarded the graining vat and
provided a sluice trough, being a trough into which the contents
are passed from the emulsion churn. Water is introduced, thoroughly
intermingled with the oils and performing an instantaneous chilling.
The sluice trough is arranged with slats in the bottom at intervals so
as to produce the effect of ripples. It flows directly to the seeding
trucks, where as with the graining vat, it was dipped and poured onto
the graining trucks.


=Graining or Tempering.=--The butterine should then be covered with a
sprinkling of fine salt and the trucks placed in the tempering room,
where a temperature of 60° F. should be maintained, to remain twelve
hours. In this time, it will develop all the flavor it is possible to
obtain and be ready for the workers.

The temperature of the tempering room is something that must be watched
carefully and should never be allowed to go above 60° F. as the
ingredients in this condition contain a large amount of water, and at a
warmer temperature action of the water and grease are liable to cause
the goods to sour.

Milk and cream undergo many changes after being incorporated in the
finished butterine and the more cream there is in the product the lower
the temperature in the tempering room should be. It is not at this
stage that flavor is made. Only the flavor the product already contains
is developed and many batches of sour or “off” butterine are traced to
too warm tempering rooms, whereby the butter fat and oil because of
their mixture with water decompose and become rancid.

[Illustration: FIG. 166.--MAKING BUTTERINE PRINTS.]


=Working.=--Butterine differs from creamery butter, in that the
butter-fat and casein are both used in the butterine, whereas in
creamery butter the fat alone is utilized. This is done in butterine
to gain all the flavor possible by passing the buttermilk through
the oils. It is later washed out in the water vats, but in passing
through the oils, it imparts some flavor. Butterine also requires much
less working, thereby avoiding a “salvey” or pasty condition, also
preventing a loss of moisture and increasing the yield of the article.
Salt being the primary cause of the “mottle” or discoloration, that
danger is also avoided when goods are not over-worked.

After remaining in the tempering room twelve hours the butterine is
taken out to the workers. It should be worked as little as possible
to obtain a smooth, compact body, as over-working produces a “salvey”
condition. A very successful butter worker is illustrated in Fig. 167.

[Illustration: FIG. 167.--BUTTERINE KNEADING TABLE.]


=Butterine Packing.=--From the worker the butterine is transferred to
the print making or packing room. In packing the product is worked up
into prints or rolls, or packed solid into tubs, as the case may be,
and should be run into a cooler kept at a temperature of from 32° to
35° F., and there held twelve hours, at least, before being shipped.
This gives the butterine time to properly set. The prints are arranged
on trays to “set” before boxing.


=High Grade Butterine.=--The formula for high grade butterine differs
from low grade in that it does not contain cotton seed oil and that
cream is used instead of straight milk. The oils are also treated in a
different manner and at different temperatures. Larger quantities of
cream are used to improve the quality and grades. The treatment of
oils is the same in all high grades.

The neutral oil should be placed in the agitator first. Before being
put in, however, it should be brought to a temperature of 110° F. or
enough to remove the flakes and grain. Then cooled quickly with clear
ice, or by means of refrigeration, to 95° F. and run into the emulsion
churn, in motion, with the lids open. Oleo oil should be heated just
enough to remove the grain and make it smooth, about 115° F., then
chilled quickly to 85° F. and run into the agitator. Let it be agitated
five minutes and then add the cream.

[Illustration: FIG. 168.--BUTTERINE SOLID PACKING ROOM.]

The whole body is then agitated enough to insure mixture, ten minutes
being sufficient, after which it is dropped into the graining vat,
the temperature of the water being 36° F. It should be removed from
the water into trucks at once and put into the tempering room at a
temperature not over 60° F., tempered twelve hours and worked the same
as low grades.


=Cleanliness and Water Supply.=--Cleanliness of all utensils is
very important and live steam should be run through all pipes after
each time they are used so that there is no possibility of any fats
or grease adhering to the inside and becoming rancid, as it is
carelessness of this kind that often causes a large amount of trouble
in a butterine factory. The use of clean, clear water is imperative.
If the ordinary supply is not so, it should be made thus by the use of
local filtration.

[Illustration: FIG. 169.--PRINT COOLER FOR BUTTERINE.]


=Use of Color.=--The reader will understand that this is the particular
point upon which federal restrictions have been placed, and the goods
today cannot be colored except upon payment of a tax amounting to ten
cents per pound. On uncolored goods the tax is one-quarter cent per
pound. While the goods are equally as wholesome uncolored as colored,
they are not as attractive and sales are proportionately curtailed.

After the different ingredients have been thoroughly agitated in the
mixer, the proper or desired coloring matter is added an article
manufactured especially for this purpose. From four to forty ounces
to a batch of 100 pounds, according to the color and shade required,
should be used.


=Formulas for Making Butterine.=--The following formulas show the
amount of different ingredients used and cost of finished product at
time tests were made. The first is a formula for high grade, then a
formula for medium grade and lastly a formula for low grade butterine.
The excess of yield over ingredients used shows amount of water
absorbed:

FORMULA FOR AND COST OF HIGH GRADE BUTTERINE.

  ==============================+========+=======
                                |  Cost  |
                                |   per  |  Total
     Materials and quantities   |   lb.  |   cost
  ------------------------------+--------+-------
  525 pounds No. 1 oleo oil     |$0.0875 | $45.19
  475 pounds No. 1 neutral lard |  .08125|  38.57
   50 gallons 30 per cent. cream|  .42   |  30.24
  300 pounds creamery butter    |  .28   |  84.00
  Labor and package             |  .01   |  15.00
  Salt and color                |  ...   |   1.00
  ------------------------------+--------+-------
    Total                       |  ...   |$214.00
  ------------------------------+--------+-------

  This will yield 1,500 lbs.; cost per lb., $0.1426.

FORMULA FOR AND COST OF MEDIUM GRADE BUTTERINE.

  ==============================+========+=======
                                |  Cost  |
                                |   per  |  Total
     Materials and quantities   |   lb.  |   cost
  ------------------------------+--------+-------
  525 pounds No. 1 oleo oil     |$0.0875 | $45.19
  475 pounds No. 1 neutral lard |  .08125|  38.57
   40 gallons 30 per cent. cream|  .42   |  40.32
  Labor and package             |  .01   |  12.00
  Salt and color                |  ...   |   1.00
  ------------------------------+--------+-------
    Total                       |  ...   |$137.08
  ------------------------------+--------+-------

  This will yield 1,200 lbs.; cost per lb., $0.1142.

FORMULA FOR AND COST OF LOW GRADE BUTTERINE.

  ===============================+=================+======
                                 |                 | Total
     Materials and quantities    |       Cost      |  cost
  -------------------------------+-----------------+------
  350 pounds No. 2 oleo oil      |$0.08    per lb. |$28.00
  250 pounds cotton seed oil     |  .04    per lb. | 10.00
  450 pounds neutral lard        |  .08125 per lb. | 36.54
   60 gallons 3¹⁄₂ per cent. milk|  .12    per gal.|  7.20
  Labor and package              |      ...        | 12.00
  Salt and color                 |      ...        |  1.00
  -------------------------------+-----------------+------
    Total                        |      ...        |$94.74
  -------------------------------+-----------------+------

  This will yield 1,200 lbs.; cost to produce and pack for shipment,
  $0.0789 per lb.


=Cost of Butterine.=--The following table shows shrinkage and costs of
different grades of butterine, these being compiled from actual tests.
It shows the different quantities of water absorbed by the butterine
at different temperatures and it is readily understood that the amount
of water absorbed regulates the yield, although the more water that
is absorbed the poorer the texture, so that, generally speaking, high
yields are obtained by loss of texture and general character of the
product. It will be seen at a glance that the higher the temperature of
the water in the graining vat the greater the yield, and the lower the
temperature of the water the less the yield, although the texture of
the product is improved.

The high grade shrinks considerably less than the low grade. This is
explained in two ways. First there is very little loss of cream in the
high grade, because one-third of the entire quantity of cream used in
butter fat, or solid matter. While in the low grade only one-sixth
of the milk used is solid matter, and as the emulsion goes into the
graining vat the milk is lost in the water. Furthermore, cotton
seed oil being absent from the high grade quality, the mass retains
more water, as cotton seed oil has little affinity for water at any
temperature.

A less amount of salt was used in this particular test on the high
grade on account of the presence of salt in creamery butter used in
the formula. A careful perusal of the following table will prove
interesting:

TEST SHOWING SHRINKAGE AND COST OF BUTTERINE.

  =================+=====+====+====+====+====+=====+======+====+
                   |     |    |    |Cot-|    |     |      |    |
                   |     |    |Neu-| ton|    |     |Cream-|    |
                   |     |Oleo|tral|seed|    |     |  ery |    |
                   |Temp.| oil| oil| oil|Milk|Cream|butter|Salt|
                   |water|lbs.|lbs.|lbs.|lbs.| lbs.| lbs. |lbs.|
      Butterine    |Fahr.| wt.| wt.| wt.| wt.|  wt.|  wt. | wt.|
  -----------------+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+------+----|
  Low grade        | 38° | 350| 450| 250| 450| ... |  ... | 60 |
  Low grade        | 45° | 350| 450| 250| 450| ... |  ... | 60 |
  Medium high grade| 40° | 525| 475| ...| ...| 300 |  ... | 60 |
  High grade       | 40° | 525| 475| ...| ...| 225 |  300 | 50 |
  -----------------+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+------+----+

  =================+=====+=====+=====+=======+=======+======
                   |     |     |     |       |       |
                   |     |     |     |       |       |
                   |     |     |     |Shrink-|Shrink-|Cost
                   |Color|Total|Yield|  age  |  age  | per
                   | oz. |lbs. | lbs.|  lbs. |  per  | 100
      Butterine    | wt. | wt. |  wt.|   wt. | cent. |lbs.
  -----------------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+------
  Low grade        |  20 | 1560| 1210|  350  | .2243 |$ 7.82
  Low grade        |  20 | 1560| 1290|  270  | .1730 |  7.36
  Medium high grade|  20 | 1360| 1294|   66  | .0485 | 10.59
  High grade       |  20 | 1575| 1497|   78  | .0495 | 14.29
  -----------------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+------

Note the excessive shrinkage where weight of milk is taken into
consideration with other ingredients used, the milk being lost in the
chilling water and the flavor being retained. Where natural butter
is used the shrinkage is much less. The computations can be made on
prevailing prices.




CHAPTER XXVIII

BOXES AND COOPERAGE


  SPECIFICATIONS FOR BOXES -- COOPERAGE SPECIFICATIONS -- GOVERNMENT
  SPECIFICATIONS FOR PACKAGES -- REFRIGERATOR BOXES.


=Specifications for Boxes.=--Of the many supplies needed about a
packing house, one of the most important is boxes into which the
finished products are packed ready for shipment. Where they are used
in such large numbers, it is very essential to have a box suitable
for the products which will be packed into it without waste of room,
sufficiently strong to withstand handling in transit and at the same
time of minimum weight on account of freight charges.

The kind of lumber used for packing boxes varies in different
localities. Cottonwood is the best and wherever available, should be
used. The packing house industry has created a very important outlet
for this otherwise almost worthless wood. It has no natural flavor and
is very desirable for lard, butterine boxes, etc. It is used for making
the small-sized packages into which lard is drawn direct instead of
using pails or tubs. Boxes for these purposes are usually dovetailed
and have a sliding cover. Where cottonwood is not available white pine
is used, although in this case it is necessary to use thicker lumber,
which as a consequence makes the boxes heavier. The following list
gives the kind of boxes, inside measurements, thickness of lumber in
the sides, top, bottom, ends and cleats, where necessary. The figures
are applicable to cottonwood only:

PORK PACKING BOXES.

  ===========================+====================================+
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    +
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
          Contents           |              Remarks               |
  ---------------------------+------------------------------------+
  500 lbs. English bellies   |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. English bellies   |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. English bellies   |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. hog hams          |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. New York shoulders|Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs|Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs|Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs|Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. English bellies   |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. sweet pickle hams |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. sweet pickle hams |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. New York shoulders|Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs|Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. Manchester hams   |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. dry salt and smkd |                                    |
      mts                    |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  150 lbs. dry salt meats    |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. hog fat backs     |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  100 lbs. short clears      |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  ---------------------------+------------------------------------+

  ===========================+====================+====================+
                             |        Inside      |     Thickness      |
                             |     measurement    |     of lumber      |
                             |      in inches     |     in inches      |
                             |------+------+------+------+------+------+
                             |      |      |      |      |  Top |      |
                             |      |      |      |      |  and |      |
          Contents           |Length| Width| Depth| Sides|bottom| Ends |
  ---------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
  500 lbs. English bellies   | 34   | 22¹⁄₂| 22¹⁄₂|   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. English bellies   | 33¹⁄₂| 22   | 23¹⁄₂|   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. English bellies   | 35   | 22¹⁄₂| 21¹⁄₂|   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. hog hams          | 28   | 25   | 22   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. New York shoulders| 30   | 26   | 22¹⁄₂|   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs| 28   | 22   | 28¹⁄₂|   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs| 31   | 26   | 24   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs| 28   | 24   | 27   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. English bellies   | 31   | 20¹⁄₂| 25¹⁄₂|   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. sweet pickle hams | 31   | 22   | 24¹⁄₂|   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. sweet pickle hams | 26   | 24   | 24¹⁄₂|   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. New York shoulders| 31   | 24   | 21   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs| 34   | 24   | 22   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. Manchester hams   | 31   | 24   | 23   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. dry salt and smkd |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      mts                    | 30   | 21   | 20   |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
  150 lbs. dry salt meats    | 24   | 22   | 10   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
  500 lbs. hog fat backs     | 32   | 22   | 27   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  100 lbs. short clears      | 30   | 20   |  8   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |   1  |
  ---------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+

  ===========================+=======+=======+===============
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |  Width|
                             |       |   of  |
          Contents           |Cleats | cleats|Box or crate
  ---------------------------+-------+-------+---------------
  500 lbs. English bellies   |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. English bellies   |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. English bellies   |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. hog hams          |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. New York shoulders|Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs|Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs|Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs|Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. English bellies   |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. sweet pickle hams |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. sweet pickle hams |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. New York shoulders|Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs|Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. Manchester hams   |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. dry salt and smkd |       |       |
      mts                    |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|T. & G. Box
  150 lbs. dry salt meats    |Outside|⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
  500 lbs. hog fat backs     |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  100 lbs. short clears      |Outside|⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
  ---------------------------+-------+-------+---------------

CANNING DEPARTMENT BOXES.

  ===========================+====================================+
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    +
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
          Contents           |              Remarks               |
  ---------------------------+------------------------------------+
   24 2¹⁄₂-lb. cans ox       |                                    |
      tongues                |One piece sides                     |
   24 3-lb. cans ox tongues  |One piece sides                     |
    6 6-lb. cans ox tongues  |One piece sides                     |
   12 6-lb. cans ox tongues  |One piece sides                     |
   24 ¹⁄₂-lb. cans ox tongues|One piece sides                     |
    6 6-lb. cans lunch       |                                    |
      tongues                |One piece sides                     |
   36 2-lb. cans roast beef  |One piece sides                     |
   48 1-lb. cans roast beef  |One piece sides                     |
   24 2-lb. cans English     |                                    |
      brawn                  |One piece sides                     |
    6 5-lb. cans chipped beef|Dove tailed                         |
   24 ¹⁄₂-lb. cans Vienna    |                                    |
      sausage                |Dove tailed                         |
   24 1-lb. cans Vienna      |                                    |
      sausage                |Dove tailed                         |
   24 ¹⁄₂-lb. cans veal loaf |Dove tailed                         |
   24 1-lb. cans veal loaf   |Dove tailed                         |
   24 1-lb. cans chipped beef|Dove tailed                         |
   24 2-lb. cans roast beef  |Dove tailed                         |
   24 2-lb. cans chipped beef|Government box, 2¹⁄₂-in. strap      |
   12 2-lb. cans roast beef  |Government box                      |
    6 14-lb. cans chipped    |                                    |
      beef                   |One piece sides                     |
   24 2-lb. cans chipped beef|One piece sides                     |
   12 2-lb. cans chipped beef|One piece sides                     |
   24 1-lb. cans chipped beef|One piece sides                     |
   24 2-lb. cans tall roast  |                                    |
      beef                   |One piece sides                     |
   24 2-lb. cans flat roast  |                                    |
      beef                   |One piece sides                     |
   12 2-lb. cans flat roast  |                                    |
      beef                   |One piece sides                     |
   48 1-lb. cans lunch tongue|One piece sides                     |
   24 1-lb. cans lunch tongue|One piece sides                     |
   48 ¹⁄₄-lb. cans boneless  |                                    |
      ham                    |One piece sides                     |
   24 ¹⁄₂-lb. cans boneless  |                                    |
      ham                    |One piece sides                     |
   24 ¹⁄₄-lb. cans boneless  |                                    |
      ham                    |One piece sides                     |
   12 ¹⁄₄-lb. cans boneless  |                                    |
      ham                    |One piece sides                     |
   12 2-lb. cans chipped beef|One piece sides                     |
   48 1-lb. cans chipped beef|One piece sides                     |
   12 2-lb. cans roast beef  |One piece sides                     |
   24 1¹⁄₂-lb. cans ox       |                                    |
      tongues                |One piece sides                     |
   24 1³⁄₄-lb. cans roast    |                                    |
      beef                   |One piece sides                     |
   12 6-lb. cans chipped beef|One piece sides                     |
  ---------------------------+------------------------------------+

  ===========================+====================+====================+
                             |        Inside      |     Thickness      |
                             |     measurement    |     of lumber      |
                             |      in inches     |     in inches      |
                             |------+------+------+------+------+------+
                             |      |      |      |      |  Top |      |
                             |      |      |      |      |  and |      |
          Contents           |Length| Width| Depth| Sides|bottom| Ends |
  ---------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
   24 2¹⁄₂-lb. cans ox       |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      tongues                | 24¹⁄₈| 12¹⁄₄|  9¹⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   24 3-lb. cans ox tongues  | 24³⁄₈| 12¹⁄₄| 10¹⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
    6 6-lb. cans ox tongues  | 18¹⁄₄| 12¹⁄₄|  6¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   12 6-lb. cans ox tongues  | 18¹⁄₄| 12¹⁄₄| 13   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   24 ¹⁄₂-lb. cans ox tongues| 17¹⁄₈|  8⁵⁄₈|  4³⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
    6 6-lb. cans lunch       |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      tongues                | 18¹⁄₄| 12   |  7   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   36 2-lb. cans roast beef  | 17³⁄₄| 12⁷⁄₈| 13¹⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   48 1-lb. cans roast beef  | 17¹⁄₄| 12⁷⁄₈|  9³⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   24 2-lb. cans English     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      brawn                  | 16   |  8⁷⁄₈|  9⁷⁄₈|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
    6 5-lb. cans chipped beef| 10¹⁄₂|  7   |  3¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   24 ¹⁄₂-lb. cans Vienna    |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      sausage                | 11³⁄₈|  8³⁄₄|  6¹⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   24 1-lb. cans Vienna      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      sausage                | 11⁷⁄₈|  9   |  9¹⁄₈|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   24 ¹⁄₂-lb. cans veal loaf | 16¹⁄₂|  9   |  3³⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   24 1-lb. cans veal loaf   | 14⁷⁄₈|10³⁄₁₆|  6¹⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   24 1-lb. cans chipped beef| 17¹⁄₄| 12⁷⁄₈|  5¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   24 2-lb. cans roast beef  | 16¹⁄₂| 11   | 12   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   24 2-lb. cans chipped beef| 15⁷⁄₈|  9   | 11¹⁄₂|   1  |   1  |   1  |
   12 2-lb. cans roast beef  | 16¹⁄₂| 11   |  5⁷⁄₈|   1  |   1  |   1  |
    6 14-lb. cans chipped    |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      beef                   | 24¹⁄₂| 13¹⁄₈| 14   |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   24 2-lb. cans chipped beef| 16   |  8⁷⁄₈|  9⁷⁄₈|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   12 2-lb. cans chipped beef| 16   |  8³⁄₄|  5   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   24 1-lb. cans chipped beef| 13¹⁄₄| 13¹⁄₂|  4   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   24 2-lb. cans tall roast  |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      beef                   | 17³⁄₄| 12⁷⁄₈|  9   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   24 2-lb. cans flat roast  |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      beef                   | 22   | 11   |  8³⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   12 2-lb. cans flat roast  |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      beef                   | 16¹⁄₂| 11   |  5⁷⁄₈|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   48 1-lb. cans lunch tongue| 17¹⁄₄| 13   |  9⁵⁄₈|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   24 1-lb. cans lunch tongue| 17¹⁄₄| 12⁷⁄₈|  4³⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   48 ¹⁄₄-lb. cans boneless  |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      ham                    | 15³⁄₈| 10¹⁄₄|  3³⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   24 ¹⁄₂-lb. cans boneless  |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      ham                    | 12¹⁄₄|  9   |  4³⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   24 ¹⁄₄-lb. cans boneless  |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      ham                    | 10¹⁄₄|  7³⁄₄|  4³⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   12 ¹⁄₄-lb. cans boneless  |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      ham                    |  7³⁄₄|  5¹⁄₈|  3³⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   12 2-lb. cans chipped beef| 15⁷⁄₈|  9   |  5⁷⁄₈|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   48 1-lb. cans chipped beef| 17³⁄₄| 10³⁄₈|  8   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   12 2-lb. cans roast beef  | 17³⁄₄| 12⁷⁄₈|  4¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   24 1¹⁄₂-lb. cans ox       |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      tongues                | 22   | 11   |  7¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   24 1³⁄₄-lb. cans roast    |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      beef                   | 22   | 11   |  8   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   12 6-lb. cans chipped beef| 18¹⁄₄| 12¹⁄₄| 12³⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
  ---------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+

  ===========================+=======+=======+===============
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |  Width|
                             |       |   of  |
          Contents           |Cleats | cleats|Box or crate
  ---------------------------+-------+-------+---------------
   24 2¹⁄₂-lb. cans ox       |       |       |
      tongues                |None   |  ...  |Box
   24 3-lb. cans ox tongues  |Outside|⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
    6 6-lb. cans ox tongues  |None   |  ...  |Box
   12 6-lb. cans ox tongues  |Outside|⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
   24 ¹⁄₂-lb. cans ox tongues|None   |  ...  |Box
    6 6-lb. cans lunch       |       |       |
      tongues                |None   |  ...  |Box
   36 2-lb. cans roast beef  |Outside|⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
   48 1-lb. cans roast beef  |None   |  ...  |Box
   24 2-lb. cans English     |       |       |
      brawn                  |None   |  ...  |Box
    6 5-lb. cans chipped beef|None   |  ...  |Box
   24 ¹⁄₂-lb. cans Vienna    |       |       |
      sausage                |None   |  ...  |Box
   24 1-lb. cans Vienna      |       |       |
      sausage                |None   |  ...  |Box
   24 ¹⁄₂-lb. cans veal loaf |None   |  ...  |Box
   24 1-lb. cans veal loaf   |None   |  ...  |Box
   24 1-lb. cans chipped beef|None   |  ...  |Box
   24 2-lb. cans roast beef  |Outside|⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
   24 2-lb. cans chipped beef|None   |  ...  |Box
   12 2-lb. cans roast beef  |None   |  ...  |Box
    6 14-lb. cans chipped    |       |       |
      beef                   |None   |  ...  |Box
   24 2-lb. cans chipped beef|None   |  ...  |Box
   12 2-lb. cans chipped beef|None   |  ...  |Box
   24 1-lb. cans chipped beef|None   |  ...  |Box
   24 2-lb. cans tall roast  |       |       |
      beef                   |None   |  ...  |Box
   24 2-lb. cans flat roast  |       |       |
      beef                   |None   |  ...  |Box
   12 2-lb. cans flat roast  |       |       |
      beef                   |None   |  ...  |Box
   48 1-lb. cans lunch tongue|None   |  ...  |Box
   24 1-lb. cans lunch tongue|None   |  ...  |Box
   48 ¹⁄₄-lb. cans boneless  |       |       |
      ham                    |None   |  ...  |Box
   24 ¹⁄₂-lb. cans boneless  |       |       |
      ham                    |None   |  ...  |Box
   24 ¹⁄₄-lb. cans boneless  |       |       |
      ham                    |None   |  ...  |Box
   12 ¹⁄₄-lb. cans boneless  |       |       |
      ham                    |None   |  ...  |Box
   12 2-lb. cans chipped beef|None   |  ...  |Box
   48 1-lb. cans chipped beef|None   |  ...  |Box
   12 2-lb. cans roast beef  |None   |  ...  |Box
   24 1¹⁄₂-lb. cans ox       |       |       |
      tongues                |None   |  ...  |Box
   24 1³⁄₄-lb. cans roast    |       |       |
      beef                   |None   |  ...  |Box
   12 6-lb. cans chipped beef|Outside|⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
  ---------------------------+-------+-------+---------------

SAUSAGE PACKING BOXES.

  ===========================+====================================+
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    +
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
          Contents           |              Remarks               |
  ---------------------------+------------------------------------+
   25 lbs. sausage           |One ¹⁄₂-in. open space in sides     |
   30 lbs. sausage           |One ¹⁄₂-in. open space in sides     |
   50 lbs. sausage           |One ¹⁄₂-in. open space in sides     |
   60 lbs. sausage           |One ¹⁄₂-in. open space in sides     |
   75 lbs. sausage           |One ¹⁄₂-in. open space in sides     |
    4 10-lb. boxes Frankfurts|Two 2-in. pcs. sides, 3 2-in. top & |
                             |btm.                                |
    5 lbs. boneless pigs feet|Dove tailed                         |
   10 lbs. boneless pigs feet|Dove tailed                         |
   25 lbs. boneless pigs feet|Dove tailed                         |
   15 1-lb. tin meat         |Two 2-in. pcs. sds., 3 2-in. top &  |
                             |btm.                                |
   15 2-lb. tin meat         |Two 2-in. pcs. sds., 3 2-in. top &  |
                             |btm.                                |
   25 1-lb. tin meat         |Two 2-in. pcs. sds., 3 2-in. top &  |
                             |btm.                                |
   25 2-lb. tin meat         |Two 2-in. pcs. sds., 3 2-in. top &  |
                             |btm.                                |
  100 lbs. summer sausage    |...                                 |
  100 lbs. summer sausage    |...                                 |
   12 1-lb. cans Bologna     |Dove tailed                         |
    6 1-lb. cans Bologna     |Dove tailed                         |
    6 10-lb. cans Frankfurts |One 1-in. open space in sides, two  |
                             |2-in. open spaces in top & bottom   |
   50 lbs. boiled ham        |One piece sides                     |
   30 lbs. sausage           |One ¹⁄₂-in. open space in sides     |
   25 lbs. Bologna           |One ¹⁄₂-in. open space in sides     |
    1 50-lb. can Bologna in  |                                    |
      oil                    |...                                 |
    2 20-lb. can Bologna in  |                                    |
      oil                    |...                                 |
    1 20-lb. can Bologna in  |                                    |
      oil                    |...                                 |
  ---------------------------+------------------------------------+

  ===========================+====================+====================+
                             |        Inside      |     Thickness      |
                             |     measurement    |     of lumber      |
                             |      in inches     |     in inches      |
                             |------+------+------+------+------+------+
                             |      |      |      |      |  Top |      |
                             |      |      |      |      |  and |      |
          Contents           |Length| Width| Depth| Sides|bottom| Ends |
  ---------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
   25 lbs. sausage           | 18   | 12   |  6   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   30 lbs. sausage           | 18   | 12   |  7   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   50 lbs. sausage           | 19   | 15   |  8   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   60 lbs. sausage           | 19   | 15   | 10   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   75 lbs. sausage           | 23   | 17   |  9   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
    4 10-lb. boxes Frankfurts|      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 18¹⁄₂| 12¹⁄₄|  8   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
    5 lbs. boneless pigs feet|  7⁵⁄₈|  5¹⁄₄|  3⁵⁄₈|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   10 lbs. boneless pigs feet| 13   |  5⁵⁄₈|  4   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   25 lbs. boneless pigs feet| 26   | 11   |  4¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   15 1-lb. tin meat         |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 13   | 13   |  6³⁄₈|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   15 2-lb. tin meat         |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 26   | 13   |  6³⁄₈|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   25 1-lb. tin meat         |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 13   | 13   |  9¹⁄₈|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   25 2-lb. tin meat         |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 26   | 13   |  9¹⁄₈|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
  100 lbs. summer sausage    | 28   | 17   | 10   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
  100 lbs. summer sausage    | 23   | 17   | 12   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   12 1-lb. cans Bologna     | 16³⁄₄| 10¹⁄₄| 3³⁄₄ |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
    6 1-lb. cans Bologna     | 16³⁄₄| 10¹⁄₄| 1⁷⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
    6 10-lb. cans Frankfurts |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 27   | 12¹⁄₂|  8   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   50 lbs. boiled ham        | 25   | 18   |  6   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   30 lbs. sausage           | 19   | 15   |  6   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   25 lbs. Bologna           | 15¹⁄₂|  9¹⁄₂|  6   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
    1 50-lb. can Bologna in  |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      oil                    | 12¹⁄₂| 12¹⁄₂| 12¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
    2 20-lb. can Bologna in  |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      oil                    | 20   | 10   |  9   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
    1 20-lb. can Bologna in  |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      oil                    | 10   | 10   |  9   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
  ---------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+

  ===========================+=======+=======+===============
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |  Width|
                             |       |   of  |
          Contents           |Cleats | cleats|Box or crate
  ---------------------------+-------+-------+---------------
   25 lbs. sausage           |None   |  ...  |Box
   30 lbs. sausage           |None   |  ...  |Box
   50 lbs. sausage           |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
   60 lbs. sausage           |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
   75 lbs. sausage           |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
    4 10-lb. boxes Frankfurts|       |       |
                             |None   |  ...  |Crate
    5 lbs. boneless pigs feet|None   |  ...  |Box
   10 lbs. boneless pigs feet|None   |  ...  |Box
   25 lbs. boneless pigs feet|None   |  ...  |Box
   15 1-lb. tin meat         |       |       |
                             |None   |  ...  |Crate
   15 2-lb. tin meat         |       |       |
                             |None   |  ...  |Crate
   25 1-lb. tin meat         |       |       |
                             |None   |  ...  |Crate
   25 2-lb. tin meat         |       |       |
                             |None   |  ...  |Crate
  100 lbs. summer sausage    |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
  100 lbs. summer sausage    |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
   12 1-lb. cans Bologna     |None   |  ...  |Box
    6 1-lb. cans Bologna     |None   |  ...  |Box
    6 10-lb. cans Frankfurts |       |       |
                             |None   |  ...  |Crate
   50 lbs. boiled ham        |None   |  ...  |Crate
   30 lbs. sausage           |None   |  ...  |Crate
   25 lbs. Bologna           |None   |  ...  |Crate
    1 50-lb. can Bologna in  |       |       |
      oil                    |None   |  ...  |Crate
    2 20-lb. can Bologna in  |       |       |
      oil                    |None   |  ...  |Crate
    1 20-lb. can Bologna in  |       |       |
      oil                    |None   |  ...  |Crate
  ---------------------------+-------+-------+---------------

LARD REFINERY BOXES.

  ===========================+====================================+
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    +
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
          Contents           |              Remarks               |
  ---------------------------+------------------------------------+
   20 3-lb. pails            |Three 2-in. strips, side, top &     |
                             |bottom                              |
   12 5-lb. pails            |Three 2-in. strips, side, top &     |
                             |bottom                              |
    6 10-lb. pails           |Three 2-in. strips, side, top &     |
                             |bottom                              |
    4 20-lb. pails           |Three 2-in. strips, side, top &     |
                             |bottom                              |
    1 50-lb. pail            |Three 2-in. strips, side, top &     |
                             |bottom                              |
    2 50-lb. pails           |Three 2-in. strips, side, top &     |
                             |bottom                              |
   28 lbs. net lard          |Dove tailed                         |
   56 lbs. net lard          |Dove tailed                         |
    6 10-lb. pails           |Two ³⁄₄-in. iron straps             |
   12 5-lb. pails            |Two ³⁄₄-in. iron straps             |
   20 5-lb. pails            |Two ³⁄₄-in. iron straps             |
   10 10-lb. pails           |Two ³⁄₄-in. iron straps             |
   20 5-lb. pails (Cuban     |                                    |
      trade)                 |Two ³⁄₄-in. iron straps             |
   10 10-lb. pails (Cuban    |                                    |
      trade)                 |Two ³⁄₄-in. iron straps             |
    4 25-lb. pails           |Two ³⁄₄-in. iron straps             |
  ---------------------------+------------------------------------+

  ===========================+====================+====================+
                             |        Inside      |     Thickness      |
                             |     measurement    |     of lumber      |
                             |      in inches     |     in inches      |
                             |------+------+------+------+------+------+
                             |      |      |      |      |  Top |      |
                             |      |      |      |      |  and |      |
          Contents           |Length| Width| Depth| Sides|bottom| Ends |
  ---------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
   20 3-lb. pails            |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 25⁷⁄₈| 10⁵⁄₈| 10⁷⁄₈|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   12 5-lb. pails            |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 18¹⁄₄| 12¹⁄₄| 13   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
    6 10-lb. pails           |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 22⁵⁄₈| 15¹⁄₄|  8¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
    4 20-lb. pails           |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 19⁷⁄₈| 19⁷⁄₈|  9¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
    1 50-lb. pail            |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 12¹⁄₂| 12¹⁄₂| 13³⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
    2 50-lb. pails           |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 26   | 12¹⁄₂| 13³⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   28 lbs. net lard          |13⁵⁄₁₆|  9¹⁄₈|  7⁵⁄₈| ⁵⁄₁₆ | ⁵⁄₁₆ |  ¹⁄₂ |
   56 lbs. net lard          | 18¹⁄₈|13⁷⁄₁₆|  7³⁄₄|  ¹⁄₂ |  ¹⁄₂ |  ¹⁄₂ |
    6 10-lb. pails           | 22⁵⁄₈| 15¹⁄₄|  8¹⁄₄|  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   12 5-lb. pails            | 18¹⁄₄| 12¹⁄₄| 13   |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   20 5-lb. pails            | 30   | 12¹⁄₄| 13   |  ³⁄₄ |  ³⁄₄ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   10 10-lb. pails           | 38   | 15¹⁄₂|  8¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₄ |  ³⁄₄ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   20 5-lb. pails (Cuban     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      trade)                 | 31¹⁄₂| 13   | 12¹⁄₂|  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   10 10-lb. pails (Cuban    |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      trade)                 | 41   | 16¹⁄₂|  7   |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
    4 25-lb. pails           | 20¹⁄₄| 20¹⁄₄| 11¹⁄₈|  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
  ---------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+

  ===========================+=======+=======+===============
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |  Width|
                             |       |   of  |
          Contents           |Cleats | cleats|Box or crate
  ---------------------------+-------+-------+---------------
   20 3-lb. pails            |       |⁷⁄₈ ×  |
                             |Outside|1³⁄₄   |Crate
   12 5-lb. pails            |       |⁷⁄₈ ×  |
                             |Inside |1³⁄₄   |Crate
    6 10-lb. pails           |       |⁷⁄₈ ×  |
                             |Inside |1³⁄₄   |Crate
    4 20-lb. pails           |       |⁷⁄₈ ×  |
                             |Inside |1³⁄₄   |Crate
    1 50-lb. pail            |       |⁷⁄₈ ×  |
                             |Inside |1³⁄₄   |Crate
    2 50-lb. pails           |       |⁷⁄₈ ×  |
                             |Inside |1³⁄₄   |Crate
   28 lbs. net lard          |None   |  ...  |Box
   56 lbs. net lard          |None   |  ...  |Box
    6 10-lb. pails           |Inside |Cor’r  |Box
   12 5-lb. pails            |Inside |Cor’r  |Box
   20 5-lb. pails            |Inside |Cor’r  |Box
   10 10-lb. pails           |Inside |Cor’r  |Box
   20 5-lb. pails (Cuban     |       |       |
      trade)                 |Inside |Cor’r  |Box
   10 10-lb. pails (Cuban    |       |       |
      trade)                 |Inside |Cor’r  |Box
    4 25-lb. pails           |Inside |Cor’r  |Box
  ---------------------------+-------+-------+---------------

SMOKED MEAT BOXES.

  ===========================+====================================+
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    +
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
          Contents           |              Remarks               |
  ---------------------------+------------------------------------+
   25 lbs. bacon             |...                                 |
   50 lbs. bacon             |...                                 |
   50 lbs. shoulder          |...                                 |
   75 lbs. bacon             |...                                 |
   15 lbs. bacon             |...                                 |
  100 lbs. canvased meats    |One 1-inch open space in sides, tops|
                             |and bottoms                         |
   15 lbs. shoulder and bacon|...                                 |
  150 lbs. bacon             |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  200 lbs. bacon             |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  250 lbs. bacon             |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  100 lbs. bacon             |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  ---------------------------+------------------------------------+

  ===========================+====================+====================+
                             |        Inside      |     Thickness      |
                             |     measurement    |     of lumber      |
                             |      in inches     |     in inches      |
                             |------+------+------+------+------+------+
                             |      |      |      |      |  Top |      |
                             |      |      |      |      |  and |      |
          Contents           |Length| Width| Depth| Sides|bottom| Ends |
  ---------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
   25 lbs. bacon             | 22   | 12   |  7   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   50 lbs. bacon             | 23   | 17   |  7   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   50 lbs. shoulder          | 18   | 15   | 11   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   75 lbs. bacon             | 23   | 17   | 11   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   15 lbs. bacon             | 20   |  8   |  5   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
  100 lbs. canvased meats    |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 23   | 17   | 13   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   15 lbs. shoulder and bacon| 19   | 10   |  5   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
  150 lbs. bacon             | 24   | 22   | 14   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
  200 lbs. bacon             | 30   | 21   | 14   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
  250 lbs. bacon             | 30   | 21   | 17   |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
  100 lbs. bacon             | 22¹⁄₂| 17   | 13   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
  ---------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+

  ===========================+=======+=======+===============
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |  Width|
                             |       |   of  |
          Contents           |Cleats | cleats|Box or crate
  ---------------------------+-------+-------+---------------
   25 lbs. bacon             |None   |  ...  |Box
   50 lbs. bacon             |None   |  ...  |Box
   50 lbs. shoulder          |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
   75 lbs. bacon             |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
   15 lbs. bacon             |None   |  ...  |Box
  100 lbs. canvased meats    |       |       |
                             |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Crate
   15 lbs. shoulder and bacon|None   |  ...  |Box
  150 lbs. bacon             |Inside |⁷⁄₈ × 2|Box
  200 lbs. bacon             |Inside |⁷⁄₈ × 2|Box
  250 lbs. bacon             |Inside |⁷⁄₈ × 2|Box
  100 lbs. bacon             |Inside |⁷⁄₈ × 2|Box
  ---------------------------+-------+-------+---------------

BEEF CUTTING, OFFAL AND FREEZER BOXES.

  ===========================+====================================+
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    +
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
          Contents           |              Remarks               |
  ---------------------------+------------------------------------+
  Loin butts                 |...                                 |
  Loin strips                |...                                 |
  Beef tenderloins           |...                                 |
  Beef rolls                 |...                                 |
  Beef kidneys               |...                                 |
  Beef livers and beef knobs |...                                 |
  Ox tails                   |...                                 |
   20 pcs. plucks and hog    |                                    |
      livers                 |...                                 |
  Small ox tongues           |...                                 |
    5 lbs. hog brains        |...                                 |
   15 pieces sheep plucks    |...                                 |
   10 lbs. beef brains       |...                                 |
    5 lbs. beef brains       |...                                 |
  100 pieces lamb tongues    |...                                 |
  200 lbs. ice case          |3-in. ice space on sides and bottom |
  100 lbs. ice case          |3-in. ice space on sides and bottom |
  150 lbs. ice case          |3-in. ice space on sides and bottom |
   12 pieces sheep plucks    |...                                 |
   80 lbs. brains ice case   |3-in. ice space on sides and bottom |
  Large ox tongues           |...                                 |
   50 pieces lambs tongues   |...                                 |
    5 lbs. hog brains iced   |...                                 |
  ---------------------------+------------------------------------+

  ===========================+====================+====================+
                             |        Inside      |     Thickness      |
                             |     measurement    |     of lumber      |
                             |      in inches     |     in inches      |
                             |------+------+------+------+------+------+
                             |      |      |      |      |  Top |      |
                             |      |      |      |      |  and |      |
          Contents           |Length| Width| Depth| Sides|bottom| Ends |
  ---------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------
  Loin butts                 | 28   | 12   | 6¹⁄₂ |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈
  Loin strips                | 29   | 19   | 4¹⁄₂ |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈
  Beef tenderloins           | 29¹⁄₂| 13   |  4¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈
  Beef rolls                 | 29   | 19   |  4¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈
  Beef kidneys               | 16   |  9   |  5   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈
  Beef livers and beef knobs | 24¹⁄₂| 16   | 12   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈
  Ox tails                   | 24¹⁄₂| 15   |  8⁵⁄₈|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈
   20 pcs. plucks and hog    |      |      |      |      |      |
      livers                 | 29¹⁄₂| 13   |  5   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈
  Small ox tongues           | 28   | 14   |  8   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈
    5 lbs. hog brains        | 12³⁄₄| 11¹⁄₂|  1¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈
   15 pieces sheep plucks    | 24   | 13   |  5   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈
   10 lbs. beef brains       | 12³⁄₄| 11¹⁄₂|  2¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈
    5 lbs. beef brains       | 12³⁄₄|  9   |  2¹⁄₄|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈
  100 pieces lamb tongues    | 28   | 12   |  3¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈
  200 lbs. ice case          | 32   | 24   | 16   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈
  100 lbs. ice case          | 28   | 18   | 14   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈
  150 lbs. ice case          | 28   | 21   | 14   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈
   12 pieces sheep plucks    | 22   | 13   |  5   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈
   80 lbs. brains ice case   | 25¹⁄₂| 24¹⁄₂| 17   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈
  Large ox tongues           | 28   | 14   |  9   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈
   50 pieces lambs tongues   | 14   | 12   |  3¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈
    5 lbs. hog brains iced   | 19   | 11¹⁄₂|  1¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈
  ---------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------

  ===========================+=======+=======+===============
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |  Width|
                             |       |   of  |
          Contents           |Cleats | cleats|Box or crate
  ---------------------------+-------+-------+---------------
  Loin butts                 |None   |  ...  |Box
  Loin strips                |None   |  ...  |Box
  Beef tenderloins           |None   |  ...  |Box
  Beef rolls                 |None   |  ...  |Box
  Beef kidneys               |None   |  ...  |Box
  Beef livers and beef knobs |Inside |⁷⁄₈ × 2|Box
  Ox tails                   |None   |  ...  |Box
   20 pcs. plucks and hog    |       |       |
      livers                 |None   |  ...  |Box
  Small ox tongues           |None   |  ...  |Box
    5 lbs. hog brains        |None   |  ...  |Box
   15 pieces sheep plucks    |None   |  ...  |Box
   10 lbs. beef brains       |None   |  ...  |Box
    5 lbs. beef brains       |None   |  ...  |Box
  100 pieces lamb tongues    |None   |  ...  |Box
  200 lbs. ice case          |Inside |⁷⁄₈ × 2|T. & G. Box
  100 lbs. ice case          |Inside |⁷⁄₈ × 2|T. & G. Box
  150 lbs. ice case          |Inside |⁷⁄₈ × 2|T. & G. Box
   12 pieces sheep plucks    |None   |  ...  |Box
   80 lbs. brains ice case   |Inside |⁷⁄₈ × 2|T. & G. Box
  Large ox tongues           |None   |  ...  |Box
   50 pieces lambs tongues   |None   |  ...  |Box
    5 lbs. hog brains iced   |None   |  ...  |Box
  ---------------------------+-------+-------+---------------

FRESH PORK PACKING BOXES.

  ===========================+====================================+
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    +
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
          Contents           |              Remarks               |
  ---------------------------+------------------------------------+
   50 lbs. short pork loins  |One 1-in. open space in sides, two  |
                             |in top and bottom                   |
   50 lbs. regular pork loins|One 1-in. open space in sides, two  |
                             |in top and bottom                   |
   50 lbs. long cut pork     |One 1-in. open space in sides, two  |
      loins                  |in top and bottom                   |
  100 lbs. pork loins        |Two 1-in. open spaces in sides, two |
                             |in top and bottom                   |
   50 lbs. export ham butts  |One 1-in. open space with runner on |
                             |sides, two same, with runner on btm |
   50 lbs. export pork loins |One 1-in. open space with runner on |
                             |sides, two same, with runner on btm |
  100 lbs. pork shoulder     |Three 1-in. open spaces in bottom   |
                             |nd top and two 1-in. on sides       |
  100 lbs. pork loin ice case|3-in. space for ice inside bottom of|
                             |box with rack                       |
   50 lbs. shoulder ice case |3-in. space for ice inside bottom of|
                             |box with rack                       |
  100 lbs. shoulder ice case |3-in. space for ice inside bottom of|
                             |box with rack                       |
  100 lbs. pork ice case     |3-in. space for ice inside bottom of|
                             |box with rack                       |
   25 lbs. butt ice case     |3-in. space for ice inside bottom of|
                             |box with rack                       |
   25 lbs. pork loins        |1-in. open space in sides           |
   50 lbs. pork loins        |...                                 |
  100 lbs. pork loins        |...                                 |
  100 lbs. pork shoulder     |...                                 |
   50 lbs. pork shoulder     |Tight                               |
   50 lbs. pork shoulder     |One 1-in. open space in sides and   |
                             |two 1-in. in top and bottom         |
  ---------------------------+------------------------------------+

  ===========================+====================+====================+
                             |        Inside      |     Thickness      |
                             |     measurement    |     of lumber      |
                             |      in inches     |     in inches      |
                             |------+------+------+------+------+------+
                             |      |      |      |      |  Top |      |
                             |      |      |      |      |  and |      |
          Contents           |Length| Width| Depth| Sides|bottom| Ends |
  ---------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
   50 lbs. short pork loins  |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 26   | 12¹⁄₂|  7¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   50 lbs. regular pork loins|      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 29   | 12¹⁄₂|  7¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   50 lbs. long cut pork     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      loins                  | 34   | 12¹⁄₂|  7¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
  100 lbs. pork loins        |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 29   | 14   | 12   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   50 lbs. export ham butts  |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 29   | 12¹⁄₂|  6¹⁄₂|  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   50 lbs. export pork loins |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 29   | 12¹⁄₂|  7   |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
  100 lbs. pork shoulder     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 25   | 18   | 11   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
  100 lbs. pork loin ice case|      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 29   | 12¹⁄₂| 10¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   50 lbs. shoulder ice case |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 18   | 15   | 12   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
  100 lbs. shoulder ice case |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 25   | 18   | 14   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
  100 lbs. pork ice case     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 29   | 14   | 14   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
   25 lbs. butt ice case     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 22   | 12   |  9   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   25 lbs. pork loins        | 28   |  8   |  6   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   50 lbs. pork loins        | 29   | 12¹⁄₂|  7¹⁄₂|  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
  100 lbs. pork loins        | 29   | 14   | 12   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
  100 lbs. pork shoulder     | 25   | 18   | 11   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   50 lbs. pork shoulder     | 18   | 15   |  9   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   50 lbs. pork shoulder     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                             | 18   | 15   |  9   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
  ---------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+

  ===========================+=======+=======+===============
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |  Width|
                             |       |   of  |
          Contents           |Cleats | cleats|Box or crate
  ---------------------------+-------+-------+---------------
   50 lbs. short pork loins  |       |       |
                             |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Crate
   50 lbs. regular pork loins|       |       |
                             |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Crate
   50 lbs. long cut pork     |       |       |
      loins                  |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Crate
  100 lbs. pork loins        |       |       |
                             |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Crate
   50 lbs. export ham butts  |       |       |
                             |Inside |⁷⁄₈ × 2|Crate
   50 lbs. export pork loins |       |       |
                             |Inside |⁷⁄₈ × 2|Crate
  100 lbs. pork shoulder     |       |       |
                             |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Crate
  100 lbs. pork loin ice case|       |       |
                             |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
   50 lbs. shoulder ice case |       |       |
                             |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
  100 lbs. shoulder ice case |       |       |
                             |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
  100 lbs. pork ice case     |       |       |
                             |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
   25 lbs. butt ice case     |       |       |
                             |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
   25 lbs. pork loins        |None   |       |Crate
   50 lbs. pork loins        |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
  100 lbs. pork loins        |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
  100 lbs. pork shoulder     |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
   50 lbs. pork shoulder     |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
   50 lbs. pork shoulder     |       |       |
                             |Inside |⁵⁄₈ × 2|Box
  ---------------------------+-------+-------+---------------

DRY SALT AND SWEET PICKLE PORK PACKING BOXES.

  ===========================+====================================+
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    +
                             |                                    |
                             |                                    |
          Contents           |              Remarks               |
  ---------------------------+------------------------------------+
  500 lbs. export hams       |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. export bellies    |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. export bellies    |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs|Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs|Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. export Cumberlands|Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. export Cumberlands|Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. export Cumberlands|Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. export Cumberlands|Two hardwood hoops                  |
  250 lbs. fat backs         |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  200 lbs. fat backs         |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  100 lbs. fat backs         |Two hardwood hoops                  |
   50 lbs. fat backs         |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. Cumberlands       |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. long ribs         |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. English bellies   |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. English bellies   |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. fat backs         |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. fat backs         |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  500 lbs. English bellies   |Two hardwood hoops                  |
  ---------------------------+------------------------------------+

  ===========================+====================+====================+
                             |        Inside      |     Thickness      |
                             |     measurement    |     of lumber      |
                             |      in inches     |     in inches      |
                             |------+------+------+------+------+------+
                             |      |      |      |      |  Top |      |
                             |      |      |      |      |  and |      |
          Contents           |Length| Width| Depth| Sides|bottom| Ends |
  ---------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
  500 lbs. export hams       | 28   | 23   | 24   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. export bellies    | 32   | 20¹⁄₂| 23¹⁄₂|   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. export bellies    | 33   | 22¹⁄₂| 24   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs| 31   | 27   | 23   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs| 34   | 24   | 24   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. export Cumberlands| 32   | 21   | 28   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. export Cumberlands| 30   | 18   | 34   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. export Cumberlands| 28   | 18   | 37   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. export Cumberlands| 26   | 18   | 39   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  250 lbs. fat backs         | 32   | 21   | 14   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
  200 lbs. fat backs         | 27   | 24   | 12   |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |  ⁷⁄₈ |
  100 lbs. fat backs         | 26   | 14   | 14   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
   50 lbs. fat backs         | 26   | 14   |  7   |  ³⁄₈ |  ³⁄₈ |  ⁵⁄₈ |
  500 lbs. Cumberlands       | 34   | 17   | 41   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. long ribs         | 26   | 25   | 23¹⁄₂|   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. English bellies   | 34   | 20   | 22   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. English bellies   | 33   | 22¹⁄₂| 23   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. fat backs         | 28   | 26   | 23   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. fat backs         | 35   | 22¹⁄₂| 20   |   1  |   1  |   1  |
  500 lbs. English bellies   | 32¹⁄₂| 22   | 24¹⁄₂|   1  |   1  |   1  |
  ---------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+

  ===========================+=======+=======+===============
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |       |
                             |       |  Width|
                             |       |   of  |
          Contents           |Cleats | cleats|Box or crate
  ---------------------------+-------+-------+---------------
  500 lbs. export hams       |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. export bellies    |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. export bellies    |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs|Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. dry salt fat backs|Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. export Cumberlands|Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. export Cumberlands|Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. export Cumberlands|Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. export Cumberlands|Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  250 lbs. fat backs         |Outside|⁵⁄₈ × 2|T. & G. Box
  200 lbs. fat backs         |Outside|⁷⁄₈ × 2|T. & G. Box
  100 lbs. fat backs         |Outside|⁵⁄₈ × 2|T. & G. Box
   50 lbs. fat backs         |None   |  ...  |T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. Cumberlands       |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. long ribs         |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. English bellies   |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. English bellies   |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. fat backs         |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. fat backs         |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  500 lbs. English bellies   |Outside| 1  × 3|T. & G. Box
  ---------------------------+-------+-------+---------------


=Cooperage Specifications.=--The following specifications will serve
for all kinds of cooperage used throughout a packing house and makes a
very satisfactory package for the different requirements:

SIX-HOOP NO. 1 TIERCES.

  Staves                         33³⁄₄ inches long
  Heads                          20¹⁄₄ inches wide
  Bilge                 79¹⁄₂ inches circumference
  Chime                                   ⁷⁄₈ inch

  Six iron hoops.
    Head hoops       1³⁄₄ inches wide, No. 18 iron
    Quarter hoops    1¹⁄₂ inches wide, No. 19 iron
    Bilge hoops      1³⁄₄ inches wide, No. 18 iron
  Heads                             ⁷⁄₈ inch thick
  Staves                            ³⁄₄ inch thick

WOOD-BOUND BEEF TIERCES.

  Staves                         33³⁄₄ inches long
  Heads                          20¹⁄₄ inches wide
  Bilge                 79¹⁄₂ inches circumference
  Chime                                1¹⁄₈ inches

  Hoops: First wooden hoop on bilge; then one iron hoop; then five
  wooden hoops; then one iron hoop; then one chime hoop on each end.

  Staves                                  ³⁄₄ inch
  Heads                                   ⁷⁄₈ inch

LARD TIERCES.

  Staves                         33¹⁄₂ inches long
  Heads                          20¹⁄₄ inches wide
  Bilge                 79¹⁄₂ inches circumference
  Chime                                1¹⁄₈ inches

  Two-thirds of the tierce to be covered with wooden hoops for prime
  steam lard.

  Staves                                  ³⁄₄ inch
  Heads                                   ⁷⁄₈ inch

EIGHT-HOOP TIERCES.

  Same specifications as six-hoop tierces, with two more hoops on, that
  is, one additional hoop on each end, 1¹⁄₂ inches wide. No. 19 iron
  used for prime steam and export refined lard, two weights for latter;
  on tierce weighing seventy-seven pounds, figure 17 per cent tare; on
  tierce weighing seventy-two pounds, figure 16 per cent tare.

IRON-BOUND OAK PORK BARRELS.

  Staves          30 inches long by ⁵⁄₈ inch thick
  Heads        17¹⁄₂ inches wide by ⁷⁄₈ inch thick
  Bilge                    69 inches circumference
  Chime                                     1 inch

  Six iron hoops, No. 18 iron.
    Head hoops                         1¹⁄₂ inches
    Quarter hoops                      1¹⁄₄ inches
    Bilge hoops                        1¹⁄₂ inches

WOOD-BOUND OAK PORK BARRELS.

  Just the same as iron-hoop pork barrels, but covered with wooden
  hoops--no iron hoops--in two and four series.

ASH PORK BARRELS.

  Same specifications as iron-bound pork barrels put up bound with both
  wood and iron, wood being most expensive.

BASSWOOD LARD EXPORT HALF BARRELS.

  Staves                    22 inches by ⁷⁄₁₆ inch
  Head         14³⁄₄ inches wide by ¹⁄₂ inch thick
  Bilge                    56 inches circumference

  Three wooden hoops on bilge, then one-quarter hoop, then one iron
  collar hoop (No. 20 iron, 1 inch wide), then one wood chime hoop at
  each end.

WOOD-BOUND BASSWOOD TIERCES FOR EXPORT CASINGS.

  Staves        36 inches long by ³⁄₄ inches thick
  Head         22¹⁄₄ inches wide by ⁷⁄₈ inch thick
  Bilge                 86 inches in circumference
  Chime                                1¹⁄₈ inches

  One head; one bilge hoop of No. 18 iron, 1³⁄₄ inches wide; one
  quarter hoop, 1¹⁄₂ inches wide, No. 18 iron, at each end; one chime
  hoop 1³⁄₄ inches wide No. 18 iron; balance, wooden hoops.

NO. 19 SLACK BARRELS.

  Staves                            30 inches long
  Head                              18 inches wide
  Bilge                      75 inches in diameter

  Three patent wooden hoops on each end.

SLACK TIERCES FOR STEARINE.

  Staves                            35 inches long
  Heads                          23³⁄₄ inches wide
  Bilge                               89¹⁄₂ inches
  Chime                                   ³⁄₄ inch

  Two patent wood hoops on each end, and two on each bilge.

WOOD-BOUND HOG BUNG TIERCES.

  Staves                     31 inches by ³⁄₄ inch
  Heads                   20¹⁄₄ inches by ⁷⁄₈ inch
  Bilge              79¹⁄₂ inches in circumference
  Chime                                1¹⁄₄ inches

  Two iron collar hoops (No. 18 iron, 1¹⁄₂ inches wide); twelve wooden
  chime hoops.

EIGHTY-POUND PIGS FEET PACKAGE MADE OF WHITE PINE AND BIRCH.

  Staves                         19³⁄₄ inches long
  Heads                           1¹⁄₄ inches wide
  Bilge                                  49 inches
  Chime                                   ³⁄₄ inch

  Three wooden hoops on each bilge and three on each head.

FORTY-POUND QUARTER BARREL PACKAGE MADE OF WHITE PINE OR BIRCH, FOR
PIGS FEET, TRIPE AND OTHER OFFAL.

  Staves                            17 inches long
  Heads                          10⁵⁄₈ inches wide
  Bilge                               38¹⁄₂ inches
  Chime                                   ⁷⁄₈ inch

  Two head hoops and two bilge hoops of wood each end.


=Government specifications for Packages.=--The following are the
government specifications for packages containing pork or beef:

The packages must be made entirely new and of the best seasoned
heart-of-white oak staves and headings: The staves shall not be less
than ⁵⁄₈-inch thick and the headings not less than ³⁄₄-inch thick.
They shall be three-quarter hooped over, including galvanized iron
hoops with the best hickory hoops, and each one-half barrel shall have
on it four galvanized iron hoops; one of 1¹⁄₄ inches in width to each
bilge and one of 1¹⁄₈ inches in width on each chime, and each shall be
¹⁄₁₆-inch thick.

Each half barrel shall have a capacity of sixteen gallons and must be
branded, if it contains beef, by burning on its head “Navy Beef,” name
of the contractor, name of packer’s brand, and on the bung stave, the
letter “P.”


=Refrigerator Boxes.=--In the shipping of fresh meats which are to be
sent by express, or where small quantities are sent in insufficient
amounts to warrant the use of a car, thousands of refrigerator boxes
are used. In such cases a good refrigerator box is made necessary in
the handling of the product to the trade--a box that will stand the
abuse, wear and tear in shipping and at the same time one that is not
excessively heavy, adding unnecessarily to the express charges. The
dimensions given below are for wooden boxes which are generally made
of 1-inch clear pine lumber, the corners being securely fastened with
angle iron, or with heavy galvanized iron, and the covers put on with
specially strong hinges as the boxes meet with a great deal of hard
usage and when filled must necessarily be strong in order to withstand
the jar and strain.

A galvanized iron box containing the meat is placed inside of the
wooden box, leaving about two inches of space around it and four
inches of space on top. The meat to be shipped is packed tightly into
the galvanized iron box, which is then placed in the wooden box and
the space around the sides and top filled with crushed ice. In this
condition meat will keep fresh in hot weather for from thirty-six to
forty-eight hours under ordinary conditions.

The following dimensions are those generally in use for the different
sized wooden boxes enumerated:

    Capacity   Inside measure, inches
   50 pounds   26 × 16¹⁄₂ × 9
  100 pounds   24 × 18    × 14
  100 pounds   26 × 18    × 13
  200 pounds   34 × 18    × 18¹⁄₂
  200 pounds   34 × 20    × 16
  300 pounds   38 × 24    × 19
  500 pounds   42 × 28    × 18¹⁄₂




CHAPTER XXIX

DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING


  DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING -- EXPENSE ACCOUNTS -- DEPARTMENTS --
  PURCHASES -- INVENTORIES -- STORE ACCOUNTS -- LABOR CHARGED TO
  DEPARTMENTS AND SUB-DIVISIONS -- GENERAL PRINCIPLES.


=Why and How.=--The large packing houses are usually operated on a
departmental basis, so that monthly or yearly, a balance can be drawn
off showing the profit and loss of each department. There is a great
advantage in handling a large business in this manner, for it is
probable that while in the aggregate the house is making money, there
might be departments that are losing money continuously without being
detected unless each one is put on an individual basis.

Each department is made a separate business carrying its proportion
of the divisible expenses, buying the raw product and supplies going
into the manufacture and receiving credit for all sales effected in the
same manner as if owned by an individual and the business conducted at
some remote point. The raw material transferred from one department
to another is charged. At the end of each period, or weekly, those in
charge, put a price on all the different products transferred from one
department to another, generally using the market price which could be
obtained if sold outside.

This method of analysis frequently shows that the department has lost
money. It may develop that some other manufacturer has developed a
field wherein he can pay a price for the raw product in excess of its
value as used in the department and that it should be sold for cash
rather than to use it for manufacturing purposes.


=Expense Account.=--There are a number of expense accounts that
are borne upon an allocation, that is, apportioned among several
departments, perhaps by percentage of sales, units in use, tonnage or
other means devised by the ingenuity of the accountant, all with a view
to an equitable division. These embrace, for example, Steam-Expense,
which, as its name implies, is the cost of producing steam subdivided
into four general uses,--cooking, power, lighting and refrigerating.
Each made up of all items going into its cost. This provides a total of
four items.

Administrative or Executive Expenses embrace the cost of office,
telegraph, telephone, stationery, printing, advertising, insurance,
interest and all other items of general expense. There are also some
general plant expenses that are itemized for other purposes that may be
included in this ledger account, or divided upon some basis and charged
to the departmental ledger account.


=Department.=--The parent products are cattle, sheep and hogs. These
are subdivided into accounts about as follows:

    _Cattle._            _Hogs._          _Sheep._
  Beef                 Fresh Pork         Mutton
  Hides                Sweet Pickle       Skins
  Oleo                 Dry Salt
  Casings              Lard Refining
  Tallow               Sausage
  Fertilizer           Smoke House
  Bones
  Tongue
  Tripe and Pigs Feet
  Beef Cutting
  Beef Cellars
  Veal

Where one subdivision, such as Tongue, embraces several kinds of
products, like sheep, beef and pork, it is operated as one department
and not further sub-divided. Usually the outside departments are
separated so that the departmental results are ascertainable. The
divisions are carried on indefinitely depending upon the size of the
business.


=Purchases.=--All purchases of every nature that can be charged
directly so are distributed from purchase vouchers. The departmental
manager and foreman have a direct interest in these and usually look
out for all supplies and like expense items.


=Inventories.=--An actual physical inventory is taken at the
terminating date of each month or period, making a record of the
items of every nature on hand that is a liquid asset and not usually
including interests which are charged off as an item of expense.


=Store Account.=--To avoid duplication of purchases of material used,
it is usual to have a general store in which these are carried and
dispersed to operating departments on order. This store account usually
includes the distribution of mechanical labor, such as pipe fitters,
carpenters, machinists and labor of similar classes, being charged out
to the department requiring their services.


=Labor.=--Plant labor is a large item of the expense of manufacture
and one that is controllable within measure by the management. There
are certain standards of divisions recognized by practice and for
such departments if the business be large it is well to have a weekly
analysis and a cost per unit developed. For a lesser business, monthly
will serve. This expense item keeps the departmental men on the alert
and serve as a basis of distribution of labor for departmental ledger
purposes.

A system of labor classification is as follows:

(1) _Cattle Yards._--All labor in the care of cattle from arrival at
plant, and delivering into knocking pens.

Includes expense items of caring for cattle, cleaning pens, troughs,
feeding and driving.

(2) _Cattle Killing._--All labor on handling cattle from pens and
delivering dressed beef to coolers.

Includes all labor expense beginning with knocking cattle and all items
of labor involved in the dressing of cattle and all the disposal of
parts, as follows:

_Hides_ dropped on floor ready for inspection.

_Beef_ completely dressed, washed, weighed and delivered in the cooler
department.

_Casings_, the gut sets delivered on floor ready for collection or
passed to chute.

_Tallow fats_ pulled from animal ready for disposal by rough tallow
gang.

_Heads and feet_ delivered on floor ready for picking up by rough
tallow gang.

_Blood_ passing to reservoir ready for pumping or flowing to fertilizer
department.

The killing of cattle cost shall include all labor for washing
premises, grinding choppers, filing saws, or mechanic in charge of
machinery and equipment other than breakdowns or repairs.

(3) _Rough Tallow Department._--Heads, taken from Killing Department,
delivery constituting separation from the animal. Perform all labor
of separating heads into various parts and delivery to the receiving
department of fats, horns, meats, bones, tongues, all meat parts,
washed and in proper merchantable or manufacturing condition.

_Feet_, the picking up of feet and deliver to bone department.

_Casing_, the delivery of the gut sets to the casing department upon
the bench where the casings are cleaned and removed.

_Fats_, the collection of all fats from killing floor, casing
department or where produced and the delivery to the oleo oil or tallow
departments.

_Paunches, etc._, the opening, cleaning and disposal of paunches,
reeds, tripe in all their parts.

_Plucks_, the collection of the heart, liver, lungs and the separation
into fats, refuse or meats and the disposal of the parts.

(4) _Coolers._--Include expense of chilling beef in chill rooms,
spreading for chilling, receiving, chilling and caring for small meats
and the labor of packing and shipping to manufacturing departments.

Includes sorting, tagging and loading in cases or on wagons or delivery
to cutting department.

(5) _Casing Department._--The expense of removing casing from the
entrails and the complete manufacture of rounds, middles, bungs,
weasands and bladders whether salted or blown or dried. Complete
manufacture includes all work up to and placing in packages and
shipping.

(6) _Hides._--The labor involved in taking hides from floor where
dropped, inspecting, fleshing, splitting ears, washing, dipping,
draining, salting and curing. The taking up, packing, loading and
delivery to car, conveyance for shipment.

(7) _Bone Department._--Includes all labor in manufacturing bone
products such as horns, hoofs, manufacturing, bone grinding, bone
and neatsfoot oils. The collecting and drying of pizzles and sinews,
manufacture includes the packing and shipping of all products.

Per ton handled. Sum of weight received and weight shipped.

(8) _Oleo Department._--The expense for manipulating raw fat to make
oil, stearin, tierce, pack and ship. Fat is considered as delivered
to oleo department when placed in chilling or washing vats. Includes
cooperage work occurring in oleo department. The skimming of all catch
basins connected with and a part of the oleo department.

(9) _Tallow._--Labor for inspecting, products, filling tanks, cooking,
pressing and all other work involved in making tallow or grease. Tallow
to be tierced for shipment includes all labor for skimming catch basins
and collecting the fats.

(10) _Fertilizer Department._--The collection of tank water and the
care including evaporation and returning of skimmed grease to rendering
department. The drying, storing, grinding, packing and shipping of
tankage. The collection, cooking, pressing, drying, screening, bagging
and shipping of blood.

(11) _Hog Killing._--All expense involved in dressing pigs from their
receipt in yards to delivery in chill rooms. Including any attention in
pens, cleaning pens.

The dressing of pigs completely, including the disposal and disposition
of all offal and the delivery of separated offal to rendering tanks
or to chill rooms. Include all labor, cleaning department, utensils
and equipment. At times this department is separated into a dressing
department which performs all labor incidental to dressing the hog, all
labor on the heads and entrails being separated into another item.

(12) _Hog Cutting._--To begin with the receipt of pigs at cooler.
To cut pigs into various parts and dispose of said parts. Sausage
department, lard refinery, rendering department or to curing cellars.
Includes packing of any and all cut meats for disposal for sale.

(13) _Pork Trimming Room._--This department takes the fats as delivered
to them by the hog cutting gang, performs the trimming and assorting
of same, delivering the lean trimmings to the sausage or curing
departments, and the bones or fat to the lard tanks.

(14) _Curing Cellars._--The expense for curing, salting, boxing and
packing meats, being all labor of every nature involved on the receipt
from cutting department to its disposal, as a finished product.

Includes unloading supplies and boxes. Includes all overhauling and any
labor involved in curing processes. This department is usually divided
into sweet pickle and dry salt sections upon the basis of the meat
handled by each--but operated entirely separate.

(15) _Sausage Department._--Expense for manufacturing sausage in all
its work from receipt of green meat to its saleable condition boxed,
and shipped. Includes smoking, boiled ham, work. This department is at
times divided into a manufacturing and shipping department, in which
case the manufactured goods are delivered to the packing room.

(16) _Lard Refining._--The expense for handling processing,
manufacturing, packing and shipping lard, including all labor used on
receipt and care for supplies.

(17) _Smoke House._--The soaking, washing, scrubbing, smoking,
inspecting, packing and shipping of all meats, care of houses and all
supplies.

(18) _Tripe and Pig Feet._--The receiving of raw tripe from the rough
tallow gang, washed ready for use. The cleaning, curing, packing,
shipping, pig feet as cut from ham or shoulder and their complete
manufacture ready for shipment.

(19) _Beef Curing._--This department takes products as delivered to
it, curing and loading same or delivering to next department. The
cleaning of ox lips is charged to this department. Also against tongue
department for curing, packing and loading tongues.

(20) _Sheep Killing._--To be the complete expense for dressing sheep
from their receipt in the pens to delivery to chill rooms; including
all occupations, necessary thereto except the disposal of sheep offal
and sheep by meats.

(21) _Sheep Tallow._--All labor on sheep other than that described
in the preceding paragraph, including disposal to manufacturing
departments of all parts and of all meats to the chill rooms. Involving
all work on sheep offal other than sheep casing.


=General Principles.=--The following items describe the intent of the
instructions.

(22) _Delivery._--Constituted by trucking the product into the
department and unloading the trucks or in case mechanical means such as
conveyors are provided for delivering from one department to another,
delivery is constituted by placing in the conveyor leading to the
department.

(23) _Cleaning._--Each department is to keep clean the premises,
utensils and equipment used by it in the operating or manufacture.

(24) _Supplies._--Each department is to receive, unload, care for,
and be responsible for all packages, such as wrappings, tins, boxes,
bags, kits, barrels, tierces, or casks, used for filling with product
produced in that department.

(25) _Shipping or Loading._--The item of shipping or loading expense
shall be borne by the respective producing departments, upon a pro rata
basis.

(26) _Returned Utensils._--Any department using a vehicle for the
delivering of the product to another department shall take the vehicle,
truck or car back to the originating department.

(27) _Cleaning and Icing Cars._--This department includes all labor
of cleaning and icing cars and hooking up same for beef loading.
The cleaning of refrigerator boxes being done by this department,
a transfer is made against the departments using same on the basis
obtained from the relative number of boxes used in each department.

(28) _Steam Expense._--The total labor, cost for taking coal from
quantity store alongside boiler room, to and firing boilers and
disposal of ash. Includes all boiler cleaning, conveyor attention and
labor connected with pumps on water connected with the making of
steam. Expense of transportation from ship not included. Expense per
ton fuel burned.

(29) _Power Expense._--All labor for engineers, engine watch, oilers,
janitors, pumpmen, ammonia or brine piping tenders, electricians or
other labor attendant to or used in the production of electrical power,
refrigeration, water production on pumping of water or brine.

(30) _Repair Department._--Machinery. In this item are to be included
all expense for wages for machinists, blacksmiths, pipe fitters, tin
smiths and workers in metal, performing work for repairs for operating
departments.

(31) _Carpentry._--In this item, shall be included wages for all
carpenters or wood workers and their helpers used in performing work
for repairs for operating departments.

(33) _Laborers._--Under this class shall be included the wages of all
employes other than those named in the two preceding sections for
operating departments.

(34) _Store Department._--In this item is to be included all labor
employed in the stores department for disbursing and distributing and
the accounts of the repair, carpentry, labor and kindred departments.
Items not directly chargeable to operating departments.




TOPICAL INDEX


  A

  Abattoir Building                                                   15

  Absorption Equipment                                                34

  Accounting, Departmental (Chapter XXIX)                            453

  Acidity of Milk                                                    424
    Test for Determining                                             426

  Adopting of Refrigerating System                                    35

  Advantages of Fireproof Construction                                28

  Advice as to Exhaust Steam                                          58

  Air Circulating                                                     37

  Ammonia                                                             30
    Compression System, Diagram (Fig. 15)                             30
    Machines                                                          29
    Value, Slime from Intestines has High                            204

  Animal Feeding                                                     189

  Antwerp Back Cut (Fig. 146)                                        331

  Approval of Plans                                                   28

  Arrangement of Butterine Factories                                 422


  B

  Back, Clear (Fig. 133)                                             300
    Fat, Test on, Converted into Neutral and Prime Steam Lard        344

  Backing Hides                                                      100

  Backs, Pork (Fig. 122)                                        286, 325

  Bacon Bellies, Smoked Breakfast (Fig. 123)                         287
    Curing Fancy                                                     317
    Hogs                                                             267
      Choice (Fig. 111)                                              270

  Balanced Brine System                                               38

  Barrel Pork, Curing                                                327

  Barreled Beef                                                 123, 225
    Pork                                                             324

  Basement Freezers                                                   88

  Beef, Barreled                                                123, 225
    Bladders                                                         213
    Bungs                                                            212
    Carcasses Being Split and Hung on Trolley, View of, (Fig. 42)    102
    Casings, Machines for                                            214
      Description of                                                 208
    Chucks (Fig. 48)                                                 122
    Cooler, View in, of a Chicago Packing House (Fig. 20)             66
    Coolers, Dividing                                                 60
    Cuts                                                             116
      (Pounds) Average Weight of Straight                            118
    Domestic                                                          62
    Freezing                                                          64
    Glass Jar                                                        225
    Grading                                                     118, 131
    Hams, (Fig. 49)                                                  124
      Curing                                                         222
      Formulas for Curing                                            223
      Smoked, Shrinkage of                                           225
      Stripping                                                      222
      Tests on Smoking Regular                                       224
    Handling                                                          61
    Hearts                                                           218
    Hides and Tallow, Yield of                        107, 108, 111, 113
    Hides, Building of Packs                                         133
      Diagram of (Fig. 52)                                           128
      Green                                                          126
      Proper Storage for                                             129
      Salting of                                                     132
      Shrinkage of                                              130, 134
      Trimming of Green                                              133
      Truck for Carting (Fig. 51)                                    126
    Livers                                                           217
    Loading                                                           64
    Loins (Fig. 45)                                                  119
    Middles                                                          211
    Miscellany (Chapter XXIII)                                       217
    Percentage of Various Cuts                                       115
    Plates, Shanks and Flanks                                        123
    Ribbing                                                           63
    Ribs (Fig. 46)                                                   120
    Rounds, (Fig. 47)                                                121
      Surplus                                                        222
    Shanks (Fig. 50)                                                 125
    Smoking Dried                                                    370
    Spreader, Ordinary (Fig. 40)                                     100
      Spring (Fig. 41)                                               101
    Switches, Salting                                                133
    Tails                                                            218
    Tongues                                                          219
      Test on Freezing                                               221
    Trimming of                                                       63
    Trimmings                                                        225
    Weasands                                                         213

  Bellies, Curing                                                    316
    Pork (Fig. 121)                                                  285

  Belly Pork                                                         325
    Rib (Fig. 134)                                                   303

  Bladders, Beef                                                     213

  Blades and Ribs, Cattle                                            167

  Bleaching Kettle                                                   349
    Lard                                                             350

  Blood                                                              201
    and Tankage, Quotations and Values                               203
    Cooking                                                          202
    Handling                                                         202
    Pressing                                                         202
    Storing                                                          202

  Blow-off, Operating the Tank                                       181

  Boiled Ham                                                         397

  Boiler Feed Pumps                                                   54
    Water, Heating                                                    55

  Boilers                                                             59

  Boiling Hams, Rules for                                            398
      Shrinkage in                                                   398
    Points, Table of                                                 193

  Bologna Varnish                                                    396

  Bone, Crushed                                                      168
    Department (Chapter XIII)                                        159
    Grinding                                                         168
    Hard                                                             159
    Products                                                         160
    Quantity, Conversion Factors of, into Another Term               207
    Saw (Fig. 61)                                                    163
    Washer Revolving (Fig. 64)                                       165

  Boneless, Ham                                                      393
    Pigs Feet                                                        391

  Bones, Cutting Sinews and Saving                                   163
    Glue                                                             159
    Jaw                                                              162
    Shins, Cooking                                                   164
    Systems of Drying                                                167

  Box, Surface                                                       174
    Cars, Using                                                        6

  Boxes and Cooperage (Chapter XXXIII)                               440
    Specifications for Packing                                440 to 448

  Breast Sawing                                                       99

  Brine, Calcium                                                      73
    Chilling                                                          37
    Circulation, Gardner “Curtain” System (Fig. 28)                   79
    Coolers, Types of                                                 38
    Methods--Recommendations                                          38
    Pipes, Simple Method of Supporting (Fig. 27)                      78
    Salt                                                              73
      and Spray Systems, Section Showing (Fig. 23)                    74
    Spray, Arrangement of Piping for                                  73
    System, Balanced                                                  38
      Low Temperature                                                 50
      vs. Water in Cream Ripener                                     427

  Breakfast Bacon Bellies, Smoked                                    287

  Bruise, Trimming                                                   102

  Brush, Fountain (Fig. 43)                                          104

  Bucks (Fig. 82)                                                    235

  Build, How to                                                       26

  Building, Division of, To avoid Insurance Area                      90
    Errors in                                                         11
    Freezer and Storage, Ground Plan of (Fig. 31)                     85

  Buildings, Fire Proof                                           70, 83
    Freezer                                                           82
    How to Subdivide                                                  88
    Location of                                                       83
    Permanence of                                                     83
    Storage                                                           82

  Bung Gut Skins                                                     212

  Bungs, Beef                                                        212

  Bunker “Curtain” System, Cross Section Cooler (Fig. 30)             82

  Bunkers, Chill-Room                                                 82

  Business, Character of                                              12

  Butcher Fats                                                       153
    Hogs (Fig. 109)                                                  268

  Butt, Dry Salt, and Square Cut (Fig. 127)                          293

  Butterine, (Chapter XXVII)                                         420
    Churn Room for (Fig. 165)                                        431
    Colors of                                                        421
    Cost of                                                          438
    Emulsion Churn (Fig. 162)                                        423
    Equipment Required for Manufacture of                            421
    Factories, Arrangement of                                        422
    Formulas for Making                                              437
    Graining or Tempering                                            432
    High Grade                                                       434
    Ingredients of                                                   421
    Kneading Table (Fig. 167)                                        434
    Low Grade                                                        430
    Milk in                                                          425
    Origin of                                                        136
    Packing                                                          434
    Print Cooler for (Fig. 169)                                      436
    Prints, Making (Fig. 166)                                        433
    Quality in                                                       430
    Solid Packing Room (Fig. 168)                                    435
    Test Showing Shrinkage and Cost of                               438
    Testing Milk for                                                 422
    Truck (Fig. 163)                                                 423
    Utensils, Cleanliness of                                         435
    Working of                                                       433

  Butts and Plates                                              290, 292

  By-Products, Concentration Permits Manipulation of                   1
    Saving                                                             5


  C

  Calcium Brine                                                       73

  Calves (Fig. 92)                                                   245
    and Sheep (Chapter XIX)                                          229
    Slaughtering                                                     250

  Canvased Meats, Weight of                                          367
    White Wash for                                                   369
    Yellow Wash for                                                  369

  Canvasing Hams                                                     367

  Care of Coolers                                                     67

  Carriage for Tracks in Smoke House, Detail of (Fig. 160)           375

  Casings, (Chapter XVII)                                            208
    Beef                                              107, 109, 111, 113
      Description of                                                 208
      Packages for                                                   214
    Clearing of                                                      214
    Export                                                           209
    Fatting Machine for                                              210
    Hog                                                              214
    Inspecting and Measuring                                         211
    Machines for                                                     214
    Preparation of, for Summer Sausage                               404
    Round                                                            208
    Selection of Round                                               209
    Small                                                            215
    Sausage                                                          382
    Temperature of Water for Cleaning                                214
    Turning and Sliming the                                          211

  Catch Basin                                                        188

  Cattle Blades and Ribs                                             167
    Casings                                           107, 109, 111, 113
    Cuttings, Dressing Yields and (Chapter X)                        106
    Dressing                                                         104
    Driving                                                           93
    Feet                                                             162
    Flooring                                                          99
    Head Splitters (Fig. 60)                                         161
    Heading and Skinning (Fig. 37)                                    96
    Heads and Feet                                         107, 109, 112
    Heavy                                                             62
    Knocking and Stunning                                             94
    Resting in Pens Before Being Slaughtered (Fig. 34)                93
    Skulls and Feet, Test Yield from                                 166
    Slaughtering (Chapter IX)                                         92
    Stunned, Being Hoisted for Sticker (Fig. 36)                      95
    Stunning, Modern Method of (Fig. 35)                              94
    Trimmings                                         107, 109, 111, 113
    Washing                                                          103
    Yields of                                                        106

  Cellar Ceiling Suspension of Pipes                                  78

  Cellars                                                             69
    Curing                                                           311

  Cereals for Sausage                                                382

  Character of Business                                               12

  Chicago Beef Cuts (Fig. 44)                                        117

  Chicago Cuts, Beef                                                 115

  Chilling Fat                                                       138
    Hogs                                                              67
    Lard                                                              49
    Meat                                                          46, 60
    Room, The                                                          6
    Slaughtered Sheep                                                238

  Chill-Room Bunkers                                                  82
    Care of Hogs in                                                  261
    Shrinkage of Hogs in                                             264

  Chucks, Beef (Fig. 48)                                             122

  Churn Room for Butterine (Fig. 165)                                431

  Clarifying Kettles                                                 141

  Clean Floors                                                       127

  Cleaning Hogs Bodies                                               259
    of Casings                                                       214
    Skulls                                                           162
    the Evaporators                                                  193

  Cleanliness                                                         11
    and Collection of Oleo Fats                                      137
    of Butterine Utensils                                            435

  Clear Back (Fig. 133)                                              300
      Tests                                                          301
    Long (Figs. 136 and 137)                                    321, 322

  Clearing the Shanks                                                101

  Clears, Short (Figs. 131 and 132)                             299, 300

  Closed System                                                       40

  Coil, Length of                                                     80
    Room Systems                                                      37
    Rooms                                                             75

  Coils, Method of Erecting Pipe                                      75

  Cold Storage House, Section of, Equipped with Spray System (Fig.
  22)                                                                 72
    Test Oil                                                         362

  Collecting Grease                                                  191

  Color of Butterine                                                 436

  Colors of Butterine                                                421

  Commercial Fertilizer                                              206

  Compound, Lard--What It Is                                         354

  Compressor                                                          31

  Compressors, Two-Stage                                              42

  Computations, Summary                                               49

  Computing from Unit Basis                                           34

  Concentration and By-products                                        1

  Concentrating Arrangement, Balanced Brine System, Closed Type
  (Fig. 18)                                                           41

  Concrete Columns                                                    84

  Condenser                                                           32

  Condensing Water                                                    33

  Construction, Floor                                                 70
    of Spray Systems, Types of                                        72
    Slow Burning                                                      28
    Wall                                                              86
    Types of                                                          84

  Conversion Factors of Bone Quantity into Another Term              207

  Conveyors, Dressing                                                104

  Cook Room for Sausage                                              377

  Cooking Blood                                                      202
    Feet                                                             164
    of Killing Stock                                                 177
    Schedule for Various Kinds of Sausage                            377
    Shin Bones                                                       164
    Skulls                                                           162
    Steam for                                                        185

  Cool Room, Stuffing Sausage in a                                   400

  Cooler Building                                                     17
    Diagram (Fig. 11)                                                 23
    Cross Section, Bunker “Curtain” System (Fig. 30)                  82
    End View of: Detail of Pipe Hangers (Fig. 24)                     75
    for Fresh Sausage                                                379
      Ground Sausage Meats                                           373
    or Expansion Tank                                                 32

  Coolers, Care of                                                    67
    (Chapter VII)                                                     60

  Cooling Room for Sausage                                           400
    Towers                                                            55

  Cooperage and Boxes (Chapter XXVIII)                               440
    Specifications                                            449 to 450

  Copperas                                                           194
    in Water to Evaporate                                            194

  Cost of Butterine                                                  438

  Cottage Ham                                                        393

  Cottonseed Oil                                                     354
      Deodorizing                                                    356
    Stearine                                                         359

  Country Packing House, Ground Plan for (Fig. 8)                     20

  Cream Ripeners (Fig. 164)                                          427

  Crude Oil, Refining                                                355

  Crushed Bone                                                       168

  Cultivating the Milk                                               429

  Cultures, Preparatory                                              428
    Reason for Using, in Milk                                        426

  Cumberland Cut (Fig. 139)                                          328

  Curing Barrel Pork                                                 327
    Beef Hams                                                        222
    Cellars                                                          311
    Dry Salt Meats                                              321, 323
    Fancy Bacon                                                      317
    Hams, Time Required for                                          318
    Meats (Chapter XXII)                                             311
      for Sausages                                                   373

  “Curtain” System, Gardner                                           80

  Cuts, Beef                                                         116
      Average Weight of Straight                                     118
    Chicago Beef (Fig. 44)                                           117
    New York Beef (Natives)                                          115
    of Beef, Percentage of Various                                   115
    Packing House, Beef                                              116
    Philadelphia, Beef                                               115

  Cutter, Oleo Fat                                                   138

  Cutting Sinews and Sawing Bones                                    163
    Tanks                                                            178

  Cycle, The                                                          33

  Cylinder Arrangements                                               36


  D

  Defrosting                                                          80

  Deodorizing Cottonseed Oil                                         356
   Tank, Section Through Exhaust Head (Fig. 157)                     360

  Department, Bone                                                   159

  Departmental Accounting (Chapter XXIX)                             453

  Departments, Requirements as to Arrangements of                     12

  Description of Plants                                               14

  Design                                                              11
    Fireproof                                                         27
    of Steam Jacketed Surface Box (Fig. 69)                          175
    Plant                                                             14
    Principles of                                                     13
    Warehouse                                                         70

  Diagram Ammonia Compression System (Fig. 15)                        30
    Arrangement for String Gang (Fig. 80)                            232
    Balanced Brine System (Fig. 17)                                   39
    Cooler Building (Fig. 11)                                         23
    Cutting Beef                                                     118
    Hydraulic Press with Piping and Pump (Fig. 70)                   177
    Manufacturing Building (Fig. 10)                                  22
    Slaughtering and Rendering Department (Fig. 9)                    21

  Digesters                                                          174

  Direct Expansion                                                    42
    Piping                                                            81

  Dividing Beef Coolers                                               60

  Domestic Beef                                                       62
    Rounds                                                           209
    Sausage (Chapter XXV)                                            372

  Draft, Force                                                        37

  Dressing Cattle                                                    104
    Conveyors                                                        104
    Hogs                                                             254
    Sheep by Piece Methods                                           230
    Yields and Cattle Cuttings (Chapter X)                           106

  Dried Beef, Smoking                                                370
    Sausage (Chapter XXVI)                                           399

  Dry Cured Meats for Sausage                                        381

  Drying Apparatus (Figs. 75 and 76)                                 405
    Bones, Systems of                                                167
    Tankage                                                          204

  Dry Room Caution in Handling Sausage                               403
    Salt Meats                                                       319
      Curing                                                         321
      Standard Pumping Schedule for Curing                           322
      Smoking                                                        323
      Time Required for Curing                                       323

  Dublin Cut (Fig. 145)                                              330

  Duo-Purpose Compressor, Suction Connection for (Fig. 16)            36


  E

  Early Methods                                                        1

  Economic Factors                                                     4

  Economizers                                                         56

  Emulsion Churn, Butterine (Fig. 162)                               423

  Engines, Steam                                                      56

  English Meats                                                      327
    Salting                                                          328
    Shipping Ages for                                                333

  Equipment Absorption                                                34
    Refrigeration                                                     29
    Required for Manufacture of Butterine                            421

  Evaporating Stick, Expense of                                      199
    Tank Water                                                       191

  Evaporator, Swenson (Fig. 73)                                      192

  Evaporators, Cleaning the                                          193

  Ewes (Fig. 86)                                                     239

  Exhaust Steam                                                       57

  Expansion, Direct                                                   42
    Tank                                                              32
    Valve                                                             32

  Expense, Cooking Test and                                          185
    for Drying Tankage                                               206

  Export Casings                                                     209
    Packing House (Fig. 14)                                           27

  Export Plant, Deep Water (Fig. 13)                                  26

  Exterior Walls                                                      84

  Extra Long Clear (Fig. 137)                                        322


  F

  Fan and Ventilation                                                 71

  Fat, Chilling                                                      138
    Mutton                                                           155

  Fats                                                               136
    Butcher                                                          153
    Grading                                                          149

  Fatting Machine for Casings (Fig. 77)                              210

  Feeding, Animal                                                    189

  Feet and Heads, Cattle                                   107, 109, 112
    Cattle                                                           162
    Cooking                                                          164

  Fell Beating                                                        99
    Cutting                                                           99

  Fertilizer (Chapter XVI)                                           201
    Commercial                                                       206
    Grease in, a Detriment                                           203
    Materials, Mixing                                                206
    State Regulations Applying to                                    206

  Filter Press (Fig. 153)                                            351
    for Lard and Clear Oil (Fig. 158)                                361

  Fire-proof Buildings                                            70, 83
    Construction, Advantages of                                       28
    Design                                                            27

  Fittings, Detail of End Pipes, Showing Different (Fig. 26)          77

  Flanks, Shanks and Plates, Beef                                    123

  Floor Area                                                          70
    Construction                                                      70

  Flooring Cattle                                                     99

  Floors, Clean                                                      127

  Floors of Hog Cutting Rooms                                        273

  Fly, Skipper                                                       371

  Foot Skinning                                                       97

  Force Draft                                                         37

  Fore-Cooler                                                         61

  Formula for Export Hog Tongue Pickle                               338
    Wilder Ham Pickle                                                315

  Formulas for Curing Beef Hams                                      223
    Making Butterine                                                 437
    Sausage                                       383 to 388, 404 to 419

  Fountain Brush (Fig. 43)                                           104

  Freezer and Storage Room, Longitudinal Section of a (Fig. 32)       89
    Buildings                                                         82
    Requirement                                                       35

  Freezer Section, Transverse Section through (Fig. 33)               90
    Space                                                             48

  Freezers, Basement                                                  88
    in Small Plants                                                   36

  Freezing Beef                                                       64
    Meats                                                          7, 69

  Fullers Earth                                                      348
    and Lard, Tank, for Mixing                                       348
    Kettle for Small Houses                                          349


  G

  Galvanized Sheet Iron Pipes                                         73

  Gardner “Curtain” System of Refrigeration, Plan of (Fig. 29)        81

  Gardner’s “Curtain” System for Brine Circulation (Fig. 28)          79

  Gate Valve, Tank                                                   174

  Glass Jar Beef                                                     225

  Glue Bones                                                         159

  Government Specifications for Beef or Pork Packages                451

  Grading, Beef                                                 118, 131
    Fats                                                             149

  Graining or Seeding Oil                                            142
    Tempering Butterine                                              432

  Gravity System                                                      20

  Grease, Collecting                                                 191
    in Fertilizer a Detriment                                        203
    Yield of--Test on Condemned Hogs                                 186

  Greases, Lard Compound and (Chapter XXIII)                         340

  Grinding Bone                                                      168

  Ground Plan of Freezer and Storage Building (Fig. 31)               85
    of Small Local Packing House (Fig. 12)                            25
    for Country Packing House (Fig. 8)                                20
    for Export Packing House (Fig. 14)                                27

  Grubs in Hides                                                     132

  Gutting                                                            100


  H

  Ham, Boiled                                                        397
    Boneless                                                         393
    Cottage                                                          393
    Curing Pickle                                                    314
    Facing and Cutting                                               259
    Long Cut (Fig. 140)                                              328
    Manchester (Fig. 141)                                            329
    Minced                                                           389
    New England or Pressed                                           389
    New Jersey                                                       389
    Pump (Fig. 135)                                                  313
    Staffordshire (Fig. 142)                                         329
    and their Treatment                                              312
    Beef (Fig. 49)                                                   124
      Curing                                                         222
      Formulas for Curing                                            223
      Stripping                                                      222
    Boneless Rolled (Fig. 115)                                       276
    Canvasing                                                        367
    “Italian”                                                        279
    Lone Cut (Fig. 116)                                              277
    Cumberland Tests                                                 334
    “Manchester”                                                     279
    Picnic (Fig. 126)                                                293
    Rules for Boiling                                                398
    Short Cut (Fig. 113 and 114)                                     274
    Shrinkage in Boiling                                             398
    Smoked Dried Beef, Shrinkage of                                  225
    “Stafford”                                                       279
    Time Required for Curing                                         318
    Two General Kinds of                                             275
    Wilder                                                           315

  Handling Beef                                                       61

  Hanging Room for Sausage                                           406

  Hard Bone                                                          159
    Short Ribs (Fig. 128)                                            297

  Head Cheese                                                        391

  Heading                                                             96
    and Skinning Cattle (Fig. 37)                                     96

  Heads and Feet, Cattle                                   107, 109, 112
    Hogs, Stuffed                                                    393

  Hearts, Beef                                                       218

  Heating Boiler Feed Water                                           55

  Heavy Cattle                                                        62

  Hide Dropping, Clearing Out and                                    101
    Truck for Carting Beef (Fig. 51)                                 126

  Hides and Pelts (Chapter XI)                                       126
      Tallow, Beef, Yield of                          107, 108, 111, 113
    Beef, Building Packs of                                          133
      Diagram of (Fig. 52)                                           128
      Proper Storage for                                             129
      Salting of                                                     132
      Scores in                                                      127
      Shrinkage of                                              130, 134
    Beef, Trimming of Green                                          133
    Green, Beef                                                      126
    Grubs in                                                         132

  High Grade Butterine                                               434

  Historical--Pork Packing Industry                                  251
    The Refining of Lard in Packing Houses                           340

  Hog By-Products                                                    265
    Carcasses, Cleaning (Fig. 106)                                   262
    Casings                                                          214
    Chill Room Necessities                                           263
    Chilling Room of Large Packing House (Fig. 21)                    68
    Cutting                                                          266
      Room, Floors of                                                273
    Dressing                                                         254
    Hoist, Small (Fig. 102)                                          258
    Hoisting                                                         254
    Scalding                                                         257
      (Fig. 104)                                                     260
    Scraping Gang at Work (Fig. 105)                                 261
      Machines                                                       258
    Splitting                                                        260
    Sticking                                                         256
    Washing                                                          261
    Yarding                                                          254

  Hogs, Bacon                                                        267
    Butcher (Fig. 109)                                               268
      or Light Loin                                                  269
    Care of, in Chill Room                                           261
    Chilling                                                          67
    Choice Bacon                                                     270
    Cleaning Body                                                    259
    Condemned, Test on--Yield of Grease                              186
    Drying                                                           261
    Hoisting on Revolving Wheel (Fig. 101)                           257
    Loin                                                             267
    Marked                                                           272
    Necks, Washing                                                   257
    Open-Air Hanging Room for                                        262
    Packing                                                     267, 270
    Percentages of Yield from                                        294
    Resting and Cooling (Fig. 100)                                   256
    Scraping by Hand                                                 259
    Shrinkage of, in Chill Rooms                                     264
    Slaughtering (Chapter XX)                                        251
    Smooth Heavy (Fig. 108)                                          267
    Special Test on, Mixed                                      307, 310
    Sticking and Bleeding (Fig. 103)                                 259
    Unloading from Car (Fig. 97)                                     252
    Variety and Classes of                                           266

  Hoist, Hog, Small (Fig. 102)                                       258

  Hoisting Hogs                                                      254

  Hoof Puller, Hand (Fig. 62)                                        164
    Power (Fig. 63)                                                  164

  Hoofs, Removal of                                                  163

  Hoop Press (Fig. 150)                                              347

  Horn-Manufactured Articles                                         160

  Horns                                                              160

  Hydrogenation of Oils                                              359


  I

  Ice Computations                                                    48
    Plants                                                            45

  Icing Department                                                17, 24

  Ingredients of Butterine                                           421

  Inspecting and Measuring Middle Casings                            211

  Insulation                                                          86
    Lines                                                             91

  Insurance Area and Division of Buildings                            90

  Introductory. The Business of Sausage Making                       372

  Investment in Pork Packing Industry                                252

  Isolation and Ventilation Rendering Building                       171

  “Italian” Hams                                                     279


  J

  Jaw Bones                                                          162

  Jowl--Dry Salt Butts (Fig. 138)                                    323


  K

  Kettle, Bleaching                                                  349
    for Melting Fats for Oleo Oil (Fig. 54)                          139
    Rendered Lard                                                    345
    Settling, for Oleo Oils (Fig. 55)                                141

  Kettles, Clarifying or Settling                                    141

  Killing and Cutting Stock                                          185
    Floor, Double Bed, View in Modern Packing House Showing (Fig.
    39)                                                               98
    Stock, Cooking                                                   177

  Kneading Table, Butterine (Fig. 167)                               434

  Knocking and Stunning Cattle                                        94


  L

  Lamb Tongue Tests                                                  249
    Tongues                                                          247
    and Mutton Chops (Fig. 89)                                       242
    Genuine Spring (Fig. 85)                                         238

  Lambs, (Fig. 88)                                                   241
    and Mutton, Shipping (Fig. 87)                                   240
    Spring, Showing Quality (Fig. 84)                                237

  Lard and Fullers Earth, Tank for Mixing                            348
      Tallow, Titer in                                               184
    Bleaching                                                        350
    Chilling                                                          49
    Compound Greases (Chapter XXIII)                                 340
    Country Style                                                    354
    Filter Press for (Fig. 158)                                      361
    Grease, Treatment for                                            362
    Kettle Rendered                                                  345
    Leaf                                                             260
    Leaf, Scraping (Fig. 107)                                        263
    Neutral                                                     341, 343
    Oil                                                              359
      No. 2                                                          362
    Packages                                                         354
      Weight of                                                      353
    Packing                                                          354
    Refining Prime Steam                                             348
    Roll                                                             154
    Stoling Cylinder (Fig. 154)                                      352

  Leaf Lard                                                          260
    Scraping (Fig. 107)                                              263
    Test on Rendered into Neutral                                    343

  Leather Yields                                                     129

  Leg Breaking                                                        97

  Live Stock                                                          24
    Going to Scale (Fig. 1)                                            2
    Pens                                                              17
    Receiving                                                         92

  Livers, Beef                                                       217

  Loading Beef                                                        64
    Facilities                                                    14, 20

  Location and Construction (Chapter II)                               9
    of Buildings                                                      83

  Loin, Pork                                                         288

  Loins, Beef                                                        118

  Long Clears (Fig. 136)                                             321
    Cut Ham (Fig. 140)                                               328
    Sides, Pork (Fig. 120)                                           283

  Low Grade Butterine                                                430
    Temperature Brine System                                          50


  M

  Machine, Space per Ton                                              47

  Machinery per Head Killed                                           47

  Machines for Beef Casings                                          214

  Main Cooler                                                         61

  “Manchester” Hams                                             279, 329

  Manufactured Articles, Horn                                        160

  Manufacturing Building                                          19, 24

  Meat Chilling                                                       60

  Meats, After Smoking, Treatment of 366
    Canvased, Weight of                                              367
      White Wash for                                                 369
      Yellow Wash for                                                369
    Curing (Chapter XXII)                                            311
      for Sausages                                                   373
    English                                                          327
    Freezing                                                       7, 69
    Fresh, Refrigerator Boxes for Shipment of                        451
    Naming of                                                        364
    Overhauling                                                      316
    Sausage, and Handling                                            372
    Smoked, Shrinkage of                                             367
      Wrapping                                                       368
    Smoking                                                     364, 365
      by Gas                                                         366
      Temperatures for                                               366
    Soaking, Before Sending to Smoke House                           364
    Trolley System for Hanging                                       367

  Mechanical Refrigeration                                             7
    Washer (Fig. 78)                                                 219

  Melting Oleo Fats                                                  140

  Mess Pork                                                          324

  Middle Casings, Inspecting and Measuring                           211

  Middles, Beef                                                      211

  Milk, Acidity of                                                   424
    Cultivating the                                                  429
    in Butterine                                                     425
    not Pasteurized                                                  427
    Testing for Butterine                                            422

  Minced Ham                                                         389

  Mixing Fertilizer Materials                                        206

  Moderate Size Packing House (Fig. 5)                                15

  Modern Packing Houses                                                1

  Movement Westward                                                    3

  Mutton                                                              67

  Mutton and Lamb Chops (Fig. 89)                                    242
    Fat                                                              155
    Saddles and Racks (Fig. 90)                                      243


  N

  Naming of Meats                                                    364

  Natural Ice                                                         46

  Neatsfoot Oil                                                      166
    Purifiers                                                        168
    Storage Tank                                                     168

  Necessity for Refrigeration                                         45

  Neck Splitting                                                     103

  Neutral Lard                                                  341, 343
    Test on Leaf Lard Rendered into                                  343

  New England or Pressed Ham                                         389
    Jersey Ham                                                       389

  New York Cuts, Beef (Natives)                                      115


  O

  Odorless, Operating                                                187

  Odors and Prevailing Winds                                          11

  Oil, Clear, Filter Press for (Fig. 158)                            361
    Cold Test                                                        362
    Collecting                                                       146
    Cottonseed                                                       354
      Deodorizing                                                    356
    Fats, Tests on                                                   151
    House Operation                                                  155
      Yields                                                         149
    Lard                                                             359
      No. 2                                                          362
    Neatsfoot                                                        166
      Purifiers                                                      168
      Storage Tank                                                   168
    Pork Sausage in                                                  396
    Process for                                                      356
    Purifying                                                        165
    Receivers                                                        147
    Refining Crude                                                   355
    Seeding or Graining                                              143
    Selection                                                        155
    Skimming the                                                     165
    Temperature of, Drawn to Tierce                                  147
    Cottonseed, Deodorizing Tank for (Figs. 155 and 156)        357, 358
    Hydrogenation of                                                 359

  Oleo Fat Cutter (Fig. 53)                                          138
    Fats                                                             137

  Oleo Fats, Cleanliness and Collection of                           137
      Melting                                                        140
    Oil                                                              137
      and Stearine (Chapter XII)                                     136
      Yield in                                        108, 110, 112, 114
      Press, Knuckle Type (Fig. 57)                                  145
      Receiver (Fig. 58)                                             146
      Settling Kettle for (Fig. 55)                                  141
      Kettle for Melting Fats for (Fig. 54)                          139
      Selection and Care of                                          137
      Settling the                                                   140
      Scrap, Test on                                                 154
      Seeding Truck (Fig. 56)                                        143
      Stock, Press Room and Pressing                                 144
      System                                                          40

  Operating Odorless                                                 187

  Operation. Oil House                                               155

  Overhauling Meats                                                  316

  Overseas Shipments                                                   7


  P

  Packages, Beef or Pork, Government Specifications for              451
    for Beef Casings                                                 214
    Lard                                                             354
      Weight of                                                      353
    Stearine                                                         149

  Packer, Stearine (Fig. 59)                                         148

  Packing, Butterine                                                 434
    House Cuts, Beef                                                 116
      Industry, Growth of, in U. S.                                    1
      Moderate Size (Fig. 5)                                          15
      Small Local (Fig. 12)                                           25
    Houses, Modern (Chapter I)                                         1
    Lard                                                             354
    Sausage Materials for Curing                                     381
    Smoked Meats for Shipment                                        371

  Pasteurized Milk                                                   427

  Pelts, Hides and (Chapter XI)                                      126
    Sheep                                                            135

  Penning Sheep                                                      229

  Pens for Hogs and Sheep (Figs. 98 and 99)                     253, 255

  Permanence of Buildings                                             83

  Philadelphia Cuts, Beef                                            115

  Pickle-Cured Products for Sausage                                  380
    Formula for Export Hog Tongue                                    338
      Wilder Ham                                                     315

  Pickle, Ham Curing                                                 314
    Making                                                           314
    Second                                                           317
    Shoulder Meats                                                   316

  Pickled Lamb Tongues                                               248

  Picnic Hams (Fig. 126)                                             293

  Pig Feet                                                           335
    Snouts                                                           338
      Test on                                                        339
    Tongues                                                          337
    Feet, Boneless                                                   391

  Pioneers’ Troubles                                                   6

  Pipe Coils, Method of Erecting                                      75
    Hangers, Detail of (Fig. 24)                                      75
    Life of                                                           77
    Quantity of                                                       75
    Refrigerating, Hung to Ceiling, View of (Fig. 25)                 76

  Pipes, Brine, Simple Method of Supporting (Fig. 27)                 78
    Cellar Ceiling Suspension of                                      78
    Galvanized Sheet Iron                                             73
    Showing Fittings, Detail of (Fig. 26)                             77

  Piping Arrangement for Brine Spray                                  73
    Direct Expansion                                                  81
    Ratio of                                                          78
    Systems                                                           88

  Plan of Gardner “Curtain” System of Refrigeration (Fig. 29)         81

  Plans, Approval of                                                  28

  Plant, Beef, Sheep and Pork, Exterior View of (Fig. 6)              16
    Design (Chapter III)                                              14

  Plants, Description of                                              14

  Plates and Butts, Boston Style                                     290
    (Fig. 125)                                                       292
    Shanks and Flanks, Beef                                          123

  Polled-Angus Cattle, Pen Containing Choice (Fig. 4)                  5

  Pork Backs (Fig. 122)                                         286, 325

  Pork, Barrel, Curing                                               327
    Barreled                                                         324
    Bellies (Fig. 121)                                          285, 325
    Building                                                          24
    Cuts (Fig. 112)                                             271, 273
    Cuttings (Chapter XXI)                                           266
    House                                                             19
    Loins (Fig. 119)                                            282, 288
    Mess                                                             324
    Packing Industry--Historical                                     251
    Sausage in Oil                                                   396
    Short Ribs (Fig. 118)                                            282
    Shoulders (Fig. 124)                                        291, 326
    Sides (Fig. 117)                                            278, 280

  Power Department                                                19, 24
    Plant Requirement (Chapter VI)                                    52

  Preparatory Cultures                                               428

  Preservatives and the Pure Food Laws                               399

  Press, Filter (Fig. 153)                                           151
    Hydraulic, Diagram of, with Piping and Pump (Fig. 70)            177
    Oleo Oil, Knuckle Type (Fig. 57)                                 145

  Press Room                                                         174
    and Pressing Oleo Stock                                          144
    Separation of                                                    171

  Pressing Blood                                                     202
    Tankage                                                          182
    Temperatures of Commodities                                      361

  Principles of Design                                                13

  Print Cooler for Butterine (Fig. 169)                              436

  Pritch Sticks to Support Animal (Fig. 38)                           97

  Process for Oil                                                    356

  Prod Pole Damage                                                   127

  Producing Department                                            15, 20

  Production of Sheep, Increased                                     229

  Products, Bone                                                     160

  Pump, Vacuum                                                       193

  Pumping Schedule for Curing Dry Salt Meats                         322

  Pumps for Boiler Feeding                                            54
      Brine                                                           53
      Wells                                                           53
    Types of                                                          49
    Uses of                                                           52

  Pure Food Laws and Preservatives                                   399

  Purifiers, Neatsfoot Oil                                           168

  Purifying Oil                                                      165


  Q

  Quality in Butterine                                               430

  Quantity of Refrigeration to Provide                                46


  R

  Rating of Refrigerating Compressors                                 35

  Recapitulation of Tests on Cutting Pork Sides in Various
  Manners                                                       304, 307

  Receiver                                                            32
    Oleo Oil (Fig. 58)                                               146
    Oil                                                              147

  Receiving and Discharging Facilities                                90
    Live Stock                                                        92
    Tank                                                             202

  Refining Crude Oil                                                 355
    Prime Steam Lard                                                 348
    Tallow                                                           351

  Refrigerating Compressors, Rating of                                35

  Refrigerating Pipe Hung to Ceiling                                  76
    System, Adopting of                                               35

  Refrigeration                                                       45
    Equipment (Chapter IX)                                            29
    Mechanical                                                         7
    Necessity for                                                     45
    Plan of Gardner “Curtain” System of (Fig. 29)                     81
    Quantity to Provide                                               46
    Required, Summary of                                              49
    Requirement (Chapter V)                                           45
    Unit Basis of                                                     34

  Refrigerator Boxes for Shipment of Fresh Meats                     451
    Cars, Loading Beef into (Fig. 19)                                 65
    Cars, Using                                                        6

  Regular Temperature                                                 61

  Regulations, State Applying to Fertilizer                          206

  Rendering Building                                                  17
      Isolation of                                                   171
    Department                                                        24
    Tank, Detail of Piping Connection                           179, 180
    Tank, Little Neck                                           172, 174
      Section of                                                     175

  Rib Belly, Pork (Fig. 134)                                         303

  Ribbing Beef                                                        63

  Ribs and Blades, Cattle                                            167

  Ribs, Beef (Fig. 46)                                          120, 123
    Short (Figs. 128-129-130)                                   297, 298

  Ripeners, Cream (Fig. 164)                                         427

  Ripping and Leg Breaking                                            97

  Rocking Meat With Rocker Knife                                     404

  Rooms Necessary in Butterine Factory                               422

  Round Casings                                                      208
    Selection of                                                     209

  Rounds, Beef, (Fig. 47)                                       121, 123
    Domestic                                                         209

  Rumping                                                             99


  S

  Salt                                                               214
    Brine                                                             73
    Meats, Dry                                                       319
    to be Used on Beef Hides                                         132

  Salting English Meats                                              328

  Sausage Casings                                                    382
    Cook Room for                                                    377
    Cooking Schedules                                                377
    Cooler for Fresh                                                 379
    Cooling Room for                                                 400
    Department Arrangement                                           373
    Device for Running, into Smoke House (Fig. 159)                  374
    Domestic (Chapter XXV)                                           372
      Shrinkage of                                                   379
    Dried (Chapter XXVI)                                             399
    Dry Cured Meats for                                              381
      Room Treatment of                                              402
    Formulas                                          383, 388, 404, 419
    Grinding and Stuffing Room                                       374
    Hanging Room for Smoked                                          378
    Making, Introductory                                             372
    Materials, Packing for Curing                                    381
    Meats and Handling                                               372
      Cooler for Ground                                              373
    Pickle-Cured Products for                                        380
    Pork, in Oil                                                     396
    Stack, Smoke House (Fig. 161)                                    376
    Stuffing, in a Cool Room                                         400
    Summer                                                           399
      Preparation of Casings for                                     404
      Shipping Ages for                                              403
      Storage of                                                     403
    Temperatures for Smoking                                         378
    Smoke Houses for                                            374, 401

  Saving By-Products                                                   5

  Saw, Bone (Fig. 61)                                                163

  Scalding Hogs                                                      257

  Scores in Hides, Beef                                              127

  Scrap Vat                                                          142

  Scraping Gang, Hog, at Work                                        261
    Hogs by Hand                                                     259
    Machines, Hog                                                    258

  Scrapple                                                           394

  Secondary Cooler                                                    62

  Selection and Care of Oleo Oil                                     137

  Seeding or Graining Oil                                            142

  Settling Kettles                                                   141
    Oleo Oil                                                         140

  Settlings in Bottom of Vats                                        191

  Sewage                                                              10

  Shanks and Flanks, Beef Plates                                     123

  Shanks, Beef (Fig. 50)                                             125

  Sheep and Calves (Chapter XIX)                                     229
    Chill Room, View in (Fig. 91)                                    244
    Chilling Slaughtered                                             238
    Dressing                                                         234
      by Piece                                                       230
    Heads, Comparative Test of                                       186
    Increased Production of                                          229
    Killing and Dressing, String Gang Method of                      230
    Pelts                                                            135
    Penning                                                          229
    Ring                                                             230
    Round Dress and Lamb Dress Caul on (Fig. 83)                     236
    Washing, and Its Effect                                          234

  Shipment of Fresh Meats, Refrigerator Boxes for                    451

  Shipments, Overseas                                                  7

  Shipping Ages for English Meats                                    333

  Short Clear, Square (Fig. 149)                                     333
    Clears (Figs. 131 and 132)                                  299, 300
    Rib, Square Export (Fig. 147)                                    331
    Ribs, Hard (Fig. 128)                                            297
      Pork (Fig. 118)                                                282

  Shoulder Meats, Pickle                                             316

  Shoulders, Pork (Fig. 124)                               289, 291, 326

  Shrinkage of Smoked Meats                                          367
      Domestic Sausage                                               379
      Beef Hides                                                     134
    in Boiling Hams                                                  398

  Side Meats, Pork                                                   280

  Sinews, Cutting, and Saving Bones                                  163

  Skinning and Heading Cattle (Fig. 37)                               96

  Skipper Fly                                                        371

  Skirt Trimming                                                 63, 102

  Skulls                                                             161

  Slaughtering and Rendering Department                               21
    Calves                                                           250
    Cattle (Chapter IX)                                               92

  Slime from Intestines Has High Ammonia Value                       204

  Sliming and Turning the Casing                                     211

  Slow Burning Construction                                           28

  Sluice Trough in Butterine Factories                               432

  Smoke House Carriage, Detail of (Fig. 160)                         375
    (Chapter XXIV)                                                   364
    Device for Running Sausage into (Fig. 159)                       374

  Smoke House, Sausage Stack, Diagram of (Fig. 161)                  376
      Soaking Meats Before Sending to                                364
    Houses for Sausages                                         374, 401

  Smoked Dried Beef Hams, Shrinkage of                               225
    Meats, Packing for Shipment                                      371
    Meats, Shrinkage of                                              367
      Wrapping                                                       368

  Smoking Dried Beef                                                 370
    Dry Salt Meats                                                   323
    Meats                                                       364, 365
      by Gas                                                         366
      Temperatures for                                               366
    Temperatures for Sausages                                        378
    Tests on Regular Beef Hams                                       224
    Treatment of Meats after                                         366

  Soaking Meats Before Sending to Smoke House                        364

  Soil Fertility                                                     189

  Solids in Water                                                    195
    Preparation of                                                   190

  Space, Freezer                                                      48
    Losses                                                            84
    per ton Machine                                                   47

  Spare Ribs (Fig. 127)                                         293, 326

  Specifications for Cooperage                                449 to 450
    Packing Boxes                                             440 to 448

  Splitters, Cattle Head (Fig. 60)                                   161

  Splitting                                                          101
    Cleaver                                                          101

  Spray and Brine Salt Systems, Section Showing (Fig. 23)             74

  Spray Devices                                                       73
    System, Section of Cold Storage House Equipped with (Fig. 22)     72

  Spring Beef Spreader (Fig. 41)                                     101

  “Stafford” Hams                                                    279

  Staffordshire Hams                                                 329
    Side (Fig. 144)                                                  330

  “Starter,” The Regular                                             429

  Starters, What Are?                                                428

  State Regulations Applying to Fertilizer                           206

  Steam Engines                                                       55
    Exhaust                                                           57
    for Cooking                                                      185

  Stearine                                                           147
    and Oleo Oil (Chapter XII)                                       136
    and Oleo Oil Yield in                             108, 110, 112, 114
    Cottonseed                                                       359
    Packages                                                         149
    Packer (Fig. 59)                                                 148
    Storage                                                          148

  Stick Drying 26° Baume                                             195
      with Tankage                                                   196
    Expense of Evaporating                                           199
    Influence of                                                     203
    Quantity Produced                                                200
    Roll, Standard Twin (Fig. 74)                                    196
    Storing                                                          193
    Testing                                                          194

  Sticking                                                            95
    Hogs                                                             256

  Stock, Killing and Cutting                                         185

  Stock, Oleo, Press Room and Pressing                               144

  Storage Buildings                                                   82
    of Summer Sausage                                                403
    Proper, for Beef Hides                                           129
    Stearine                                                         148
    Tank, Neatsfoot Oil                                              168

  Storage, Warm                                                       91

  Storing Blood                                                      202
    Stick                                                            193

  String Gang Method of Killing and Dressing Sheep              230, 231

  Stuffed Hogs Heads                                                 393

  Stuffing Sausage in a Cool Room                                    400

  Stunned Cattle Being Hoisted for Sticker (Fig. 36)                  95

  Sub-divide Building, How to                                         88

  Suction Connection for Duo-Purpose Compressor (Fig. 16)             36

  Summer Sausage                                                     399
    Preparation of                                                   404
    Shipping Ages of                                                 403
    Storage of                                                       403

  Summary Computations                                                49
    of Refrigeration Required                                         49

  Superheaters                                                        56

  Surface Box                                                        174
      Steam Jacketed                                                 176
      Treatment                                                      182
    Boxes, Situation of                                              174

  Sweetbreads                                                        218

  Switches, Beef, Salting                                            134

  System, Closed                                                       4
    Open                                                              40


  T

  Table for Tank Water                                               195
    of Boiling Points                                                193

  Tagging and Weighing                                                64

  Tail Sawing                                                        100

  Tails, Beef                                                        218

  Tallow and Hides, Beef, Yield of                    107, 108, 111, 113
      Lard, Titer in                                                 184
    Refining                                                         351

  Tank Blow-Off, Operating                                           181
    Cooler or Expansion                                               32
    Deodorizing, for Cottonseed Oils (Figs. 155, 156)           357, 358
      Exhaust Head (Fig. 157)                                        360
    for Mixing Fullers Earth and Lard                                348
    Gate Valve                                                       174
    House Department (Chapter XIV)                                   170
      Design                                                         170
      Hazards                                                        173
      Section Through                                                171
      Showing Nesting of Tanks (Fig. 67)                             173
      Tests                                                          186
    Receiving                                                        202
    Rendering, Detail of Piping Connections                     179, 180
      Little Neck                                               172, 174
      Section of                                                     175

  Tank Water (Chapter XV)                                            189
    Cost of Evaporating                                              199
    Evaporating                                                      191
    Produced, Quantity of                                            199
    Table for                                                        195
    Testing                                                          191

  Tankage                                                            202
    and Blood, Quotations and Value                                  203
    Digester                                                         203
    Drying                                                           204
      Stick with                                                     196
    Expense for Drying                                               206
    Pressing                                                         182
    Value of                                                         197

  Tanks, Cutting                                                     178
    Nesting of (Fig. 67)                                             173
    Releasing Pressure from                                          178

  Temperature of Hanging Room for Sausage                            400
    Regular                                                           61
    for Smoking Meats                                                366
    Pressing, of Several Commodities                                 361

  Temperatures, Varying                                               87

  Tempering or Graining Butterine                                    432

  Test, Comparative, of Sheep Heads                                  186
    Cooking and Expense                                              185
    for Determining Acidity of Milk                                  426
    on Back Fat Converted into Neutral and Prime Steam Lard          344
    on Condemned Hogs, Yield of Grease                               186
      Leaf Lard Rendered in Neutral                                  343
      Oleo Scrap                                                     154
      Packing Tripe                                                  227
    Showing Shrinkage and Cost of Butterine                          438
    Special, on Mixed Hogs                                      307, 310
    Yield from Cattle Skulls and Feet                                166

  Testing Milk for Butterine                                         422
    Stick                                                            194
    Tank Water                                                       191

  Tests, Clear Backs                                                 301
    Lamb Tongue                                                      249
    Long Cut Hams and Cumberland                                     334
    on Oil Fats                                                      151
    Smoking, on regular Beef Hams                                    224
    Tank House                                                       186

  Tierce, Temperature of Oil Drawn to                                147

  Titer in Tallow and Lard                                           184

  Tongues, Beef                                                      219
      Test on Freezing                                               221
    Lamb                                                             247

  Transverse Section through Freezer Section (Fig. 33)                90

  Treatment for Lard Grease                                          362
    of Meats after Smoking                                           366
      Tallow and Lard                                                183

  Trimming of Beef                                                    63
    Green Beef Hides                                                 133

  Tripe                                                              226
    Cost of Production                                               227
    Test on Packing                                                  227

  Trolley System for Hanging Meats                                   367

  Truck, Oleo seeding                                                143
    Butterine (Fig. 163)                                             423

  Turning and Sliming the Casing                                     211

  Two-Stage Compressors                                               42

  Types of Pumps                                                      52


  U

  Union Stock Yards, Chicago                                        2, 3

  Unit Basis, Computing from                                          35
    of Refrigeration                                                  34

  Uses of Pumps                                                       52


  V

  Vacuum Pump                                                        193

  Value of Tankage                                                   197

  Valve, Expansion                                                    32
    Gate Tank                                                        174

  Varnish, Bologna                                                   396

  Vat, Bottom of, Settlings in                                       191
    Scrap                                                            142

  Veal                                                                67
    Cuts (Fig. 93)                                                   246
    Racks (Fig. 96)                                                  249
    Saddles (Figs. 94 and 95)                                   247, 248

  Ventilation                                                         86
    Fan and                                                           71

  View Illustrating Modern Method of Stunning Cattle (Fig. 35)        94
    in Beef Cooler of a Chicago Packing House (Fig. 20)               66
    Hog Chilling Room of a Large Packing House in Chicago (Fig. 21)   68
    Showing Beef Carcasses Being Split and Hung on Trolley (Fig. 42) 102
    Deep Water Export Plant (Fig. 13)                                 26
    Double-Bed Killing Floor in a Modern Slaughter House (Fig. 39)    98


  W

  Wall Construction                                                   86

  Warehouse Design                                                    70

  Warehouses (Chapter VIII)                                           70

  Warm Storage                                                        91

  Washer, Mechanical (Fig. 78)                                       219

  Washing Cattle                                                     102
    Hogs                                                             261
    Sheep and Its Effect                                             234

  Water and Sprinkling                                                92
    Condensing                                                        33
    Cooling of                                                       138

  Water Distribution Systems                                          54
    Supply                                                        10, 53
    Temperature for Cleaning Casings                                 214
    vs. Brine in Cream Ripener                                       427

  Weasand, Beef                                                      213
    Meat                                                             219

  Weighing and Tagging                                                64

  Weight of Canvased Meats                                           367

  Wells                                                               55

  Wethers (Fig. 81)                                                  233

  White Wash for Canvased Meats                                      369

  Wilder Hams                                                        315
    Sirup Curing                                                     316

  Wiltshire Side (Fig. 148)                                          332

  Winds, Prevailing                                                   11

  Working of Butterine                                               433

  Wrapping Smoked Meats                                              368


  Y

  Yankee Ingenuity                                                     2

  Yarding Hogs                                                       254

  Yellow Wash for Canvased Meats                                     369

  Yield, Percentages of, from Hogs                         294, 295, 296

  Yields of Cattle (Tables)                                          106
    Oil House                                                        149

  Yorkshire Side (Fig. 143)                                          329




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  Transcriber’s Notes


  The language used in this e-text is that used in the source document.
  Inconsistencies and unusual spelling and style have been retained.
  Differences in wording between lists of subjects, the table of
  contents and the text have not been rectified. Errors or unclear data
  in calculations and (table) data have not been corrected except when
  the source of the error was clear; such corrections are mentioned
  under Changes made below.

  Pages 118-125 and 267-272: the unusual use of quote marks has not
  been standardised.

  Page 224, table: the column “per cent” contains the decimal fraction,
  not the percentage.

  Page 241: reference letters A and B are not visible in the
  illustration.

  Page 289, “Shank cut off above the knee joint ...: the closing quote
  mark is missing.

  Page 419, Seasoning Formula: Saltpetre is mentioned twice (in
  different quantities) in the source document.

  Page 461 ff.: Deviations from the alphabetical order of entries have
  not been corrected.


  Changes made

  Illustrations and tables have been moved out of text paragraphs.
  Footnotes have been moved to directly underneath the paragraph to
  which they refer.

  Some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been
  corrected silently. In tables, the ditto-symbol has been replaced
  with the dittoed text and some data have been re-aligned for
  consistency and legibility. Some tables have been split or otherwise
  re-arranged for legibility and to fit the available width.

  Temperatures (°F and ° F) and densities (°B and ° B) have been
  standardised to ° F and ° B, dimensions and multiplications to m × n,
  salt petre and variants to saltpetre.

  Page 35: The purchaser must never loose sight ... changed to The
  purchaser must never lose sight ....

  Page 45: ... a preventive or retardent in the propogation ... changed
  to ... a preventive or retardant in the propagation ....

  Page 80: superceding changed to superseding.

  Page 155: TEST ON OLIO SCRAP changed to TEST ON OLEO SCRAP.

  Page 163: _Cutting Sinews and Saving Bones._ changed to _Cutting
  Sinews and Sawing Bones._ (changed in Index as well).

  Page 168, table Test yield of 1,209 cattle: column header per head
  Average changed to Average per head.

  Page 191: ... to prevent the tankwater from souring ... changed to
  ... to prevent the tank water from souring ....

  Page 199, table RECAPITULATION: 15 per cent depreciation on $10,00
  investment changed to 15 per cent depreciation on $10,000 investment.

  Page 224, table REGULAR INSIDES FOR SHIPMENT: column headers inserted
  cf. the other two tables on this page.

  Page 362: neatsfood oil changed to neatsfoot oil.

  Page 437, table MEDIUM GRADE BUTTERINE, second row: 30,57 changed to
  38,57.

  Page 441 ff.: For ease of reference, the table headers have been
  repeated above the split parts of the tables. The tables have been
  split so, that they may easily be recombined to their full width.