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  Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book.




                                 THE

                        ARTILLERIST’S MANUAL,

                                 AND

                    BRITISH SOLDIER’S COMPENDIUM.


                      BY MAJOR F. A. GRIFFITHS,
                      R. F. P. ROYAL ARTILLERY.

                          Si quid novisti rectius istis,
          Candidus imperti: si non, his utere mecum.

                          _SEVENTH EDITION._


                       Published by Authority.


                               LONDON:

           SOLD BY W. H. ALLEN AND CO., LEADENHALL STREET;
                  PARKER AND SON, 445, WEST STRAND;
                   CLOWES AND SONS, CHARING CROSS;
          SIMPKIN, MARSHALL AND CO., STATIONERS’ HALL COURT;
            J. BODDY AND SON, AND W. P. JACKSON, WOOLWICH;
                             &C. &C. &C.

                                1856.




                     Entered at Stationers’ Hall.


  PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, AND CHARING CROSS.




PREFACE.

SEVENTH EDITION.


Similar to each of the preceding editions of “THE ARTILLERIST’S
MANUAL, AND BRITISH SOLDIER’S COMPENDIUM,” the present work contains
much additional matter; and notice has been taken of the subjects
in which improvements, or alterations have been adopted. To those
Officers, and Non-commissioned Officers, who are in possession of the
6th edition of The Manual, it is advisable that I should specify the
chief additions, &c., in the present edition, viz.:—

ALTERATIONS:

  Percussion small arms.
  Manufacture of cartridges.
  Ball cartridge barrels, and boxes.
  Carcasses.
  Quick match.
  Shells, weight, &c.
  Ordnance, length, weight, &c.
  Service, and management of heavy ordnance.
  Wads for heavy ordnance.
  Charges for the Royal Navy.

ADDITIONS:

  Manual, and platoon exercise of Riflemen.
  Instructions for aiming with the rifle musket.
  Light infantry signals, and sounds.
  Fusil exercise.
  Instructions for pitching, and striking tents.
  Lights, long. Lights, signal.
  Parachute light ball.
  Water fuze.
  To extricate a shot when jammed in a gun.
  To ascertain if a magazine is damp.
  Detail for active service of 9-Pounder Troop of Royal Horse
    Artillery.
  Reserve of gun, and small arm ammunition.
  Detail for active service—18-Pounder Field battery.
    ”          ”       ”      9-Pounder Ditto.
    ”          ”       ”     32-Pounder Howitzer Ditto.
  Small arm ammunition reserve.
  Exercise of rockets.
  To estimate distances in the field.
  To find the distance from an object, height known.
  Instructions for the exercise, and service of great guns, and
    shells, on board Her Majesty’s ships.
  Instructions for landing seamen, and marines, with Field pieces.
  Charges for the Royal Navy, for boats.
  Proportion of charges, for a 51-screw steam frigate.
    Ditto        Ditto         50-gun frigate.

  _Also_—1 New Plate.
         2  ”  woodcuts.
         1  ”  diagram.

In the publication of each edition my object has been the same—to
render _The Manual a Compendium_ of all that can be required by
Officers in the Field; and if I may be allowed to judge by the
gratifying manner in which the work has been received by the Officers
of the United Services, my humble exertions have indeed been
successful, ten thousand copies of The Manual, including the present
edition, having been printed.

The extensive circulation of “The Artillerist’s Manual, and
British Soldier’s Compendium,” is no doubt, however, chiefly to be
attributed,—

  1st. To the highly favourable notice of the Military Authorities,
  as evinced by the GENERAL ORDER of the Master-General of the
  Ordnance, dated 25th April 1840, and by the MEMORANDUM, dated Horse
  Guards, 10th December 1840.

  2nd. To the considerate notice of The Lords Commissioners of the
  Admiralty, a copy of the work having been ordered to be included in
  the libraries of all Vessels of war.

  3rd. To the liberal distribution, by the Honourable Court of
  Directors of the East India Company, of copies of each edition to
  the military authorities at the several Presidencies in India.

In conclusion, I have to express my grateful feelings to His Royal
Highness the General Commanding in Chief, who has been graciously
pleased to promulgate the MEMORANDUM, dated Horse Guards, 13th
October 1856;[1] and my warm thanks are also due to the Officers
of the various Departments at Head Quarters, for the kind manner
in which they have invariably assisted me in the revision of the
work, in order that each succeeding edition may keep pace with the
improvements, alterations, or requirements of the United Services.

                                                    _F. A. GRIFFITHS._

_Putney, October 13th, 1856._




(Copy.)

                                        _Horse Guards_,
  _Memorandum._                           _13th October 1856._

His Royal Highness, the General Commanding in Chief, strongly
recommends to the Officers, and Non-commissioned Officers of the
Army, the Revised edition of a Work, entitled “The Artillerist’s
Manual, and British Soldier’s Compendium,” a work replete with the
most useful Military information, and of which Major Griffiths,
R.F.P., Royal Artillery, is the author.

  By command of
      His Royal Highness,
          The General Commanding in Chief,
              (Signed) G. A. WETHERALL,
                    _Adj.-General_.




GENERAL INDEX TO THE SUBJECTS.

                                                                  PAGE

  Preface                                                          iii

  _Memorandum_, dated Horse Guards, 13th October 1856               vi

  General Index to the subjects                                    vii

  Plates                                                          viii

  Detailed Index to the subjects                                    ix

  PART. I. Infantry Exercise, Movements, &c. Sword exercise.
  Pitching, and striking tents                                       1

       II.  Carbine exercise. Cavalry sword exercise                43

      III.  Ordnance. Carriages, &c.                                48

       IV.  Ranges.  Charges. Elevations. &c.                       70

        V.  Stores. Implements. Combustibles. &c.                   83

       VI.  Field battery Exercise. Detail for active service of a
  Troop of Horse Artillery; Field batteries, &c. Interior
  management of a Battery. Embarking, and
  disembarking. Application of Field artillery. Encamping,
  and picketing. Tents. Horses. Forage.
  Veterinary directions. Congreve rocket exercise                  100

      VII.  Serving, and working heavy Ordnance                    173

     VIII.  Gunnery                                                195

       IX.  Batteries. Fortification                               223

        X.  Bridges, and Pontoons                                  250

       XI.  Fireworks                                              254

      XII.  Mathematics                                            265




PLATES.

                                                                  PAGE

  1.  Brass Gun, with Names of principal parts                      48

  2.  Field Gun Carriage. Elevation                                102

  3.      ”               Plan                                     103

  4.  Horse with harness                                           134

  5.  Harness. Description                                         134

  6.  Garrison Gun Carriage                                        173

  7.  Loading, &c. Naval Service                                   212

  8.  Vauban’s First system (Plan)                                 240

  9.  Do.        do.        (Profile)                              242

  10.  Modern system of Fortification                              243

  11.  Field Fortification                                         246

      { Mechanics                                }
  12. {                                          }                 294
      { Heights, and Distances                   }

  13. Surveying, and Reconnoitring                                 307

      { Heights, and Distances                   }
  14. {                                          }                 310
      { Practical Geometry                       }

  15. Practical Geometry                                           324

  16. Do.                                                          325

  17. Do.                                                          327




INDEX TO THE SUBJECTS, ETC.


PART I.

INFANTRY EXERCISE, MOVEMENTS, &c.

  SWORD EXERCISE.
  PITCHING, AND STRIKING, TENTS.

                                                                  PAGE
  Musket, Flint lock                                                 1

  Percussion Small arms, length, weight, bore, charge, &c.           1

  Blank cartridges                                                   3

  Manufacture of cartridges                                          3

  Small arm ammunition, boxes, and barrels                           5

  Instructions for browning Gun barrels                              5

  Percussion firelocks, Instructions relative thereto                6


INFANTRY EXERCISE, AND MOVEMENTS;

  _Extracted from_
  “FIELD EXERCISE, AND EVOLUTIONS OF THE ARMY.”


  Paces, Length of, &c.                                              6

  _Flint firelocks_, Manual, and Platoon exercise                    7

  Inspection, and Dismissal of a Company                             8

  _Percussion firelocks_, Manual, and Platoon exercise               8

  Fusil exercise                                                     9

  The Manual, and Platoon exercise of Riflemen                      10

  Instructions for aiming with the Rifle musket                     10

  Words of command, for Funeral parties                             11


COMPANY DRILL.

  SECT.                                                           PAGE

  1. Formation of the Company                                       11

  2. Marching to the front                                          12

  3. The Side, or closing step                                      12

  4. The Back step                                                  12

  5. To form four deep                                              12

  6. File marching                                                  12

  7. Wheeling from a halt                                           12

  8. Wheeling forward by sub-divisions                              12

  9. Wheeling backward by sub-divisions                             13

  10. Marching on an alignement                                     13

  11. Wheeling into line                                            13

  12. Entering into a new direction                                 13

  13. Counter-marching                                              13

  14. Wheeling on the centre                                        13

  15. Diagonal march                                                13

  16. Increasing front of open Column halted                        13

  17. Increasing front of open Column on the march                  13

  18. To pass a Defile, by breaking off files                       14

  19. To move to a flank, in Sections                               14

  20. Forming Company, &c., from file marching                      14

  21. To form to either Flank, from open Column                     15

  22. To gain ground to a flank, by marching in echellon            15

  23. To form the rallying square                                   15


  DISMISSING A COMPANY OFF PARADE                                   15

  INSPECTING A COMPANY ON PARADE                                    15


MOVEMENTS OF A BATTALION.

  1. Commands                                                       16

  2. Degrees of march                                               16

  3. Marching in line                                               16

  4. Wheeling                                                       16

  5. Movements                                                      16

  6. The Alignement                                                 17

  7. Points of formation                                            17

  8. Dressing                                                       17

  9. Open column                                                    17

  10. Quarter distance, and close column                            17

  11. Echellon                                                      18

  12. Squares                                                       19

  13. Firings                                                       19

  Street firing                                                     20


  FORMATION OF THE BATTALION                                        20

  EVOLUTIONS OF THE BATTALION                                       21

  MOVEMENTS OF THE BATTALION FROM LINE                              21

  14. The Battalion, halted, is to advance in Line                  21

  15. When a Battalion, advancing in line, is to charge             22

  16. When the Battalion moving in Line passes a wood, &c., by
  the flank march of Companies                                      22

  17. When the Battalion advances, or retires by half battalion,
  and fires                                                         22

  18. A Battalion in line, to move to attack, &c., to the
  front, &c.                                                        23

  19. A Battalion in line to retire over a bridge, &c., or retreat
  from the flank in the rear of the centre                          24

  20. A Battalion in line to march off in Column of Divisions,
  successively to a flank                                           24

  21. When the Battalion, halted in line, is to form square         25

  22. When the Battalion forms a square, &c., to protect baggage
  against Infantry                                                  27

  23. A Battalion halted, in line, to change front to the rear upon
  the centre                                                        27


CHANGES OF POSITION OF THE BATTALION FROM LINE, BY MOVEMENTS OF THE
OPEN COLUMN.

  _On a fixed point._

  24. The Battalion to change position to the front on the right
  halted Company, by throwing forward the whole left                28

  _On a distant point._

  25. The Battalion in line changes position by breaking into open
  column, marching up in column to the point where its
  head is to remain, and entering the line by the flank
  march of Companies                                                28

  26. The Battalion in line changes position by breaking into open
  column, marching to a point where its head is to rest,
  and to which its rear divisions form by passing each
  other, and wheeling up                                            29


OPEN COLUMN MOVEMENTS.

  27. When the leading flank of the column is changed by the
  successive march of divisions from the rear to the front          29

  28. To change the wings of a column formed where the space
  does not admit of the flank movement                              29

  29. When the column is required to form a square                  29


QUARTER DISTANCE, AND CLOSE COLUMN.

  30. When a Battalion forms a close, or quarter distance column
  from line                                                         30

  31. When the column marches to a flank                            31

  32. When the column at quarter distance, moving, takes ground
  to right, or left, by the echellon march of sections              31

  33. When a column, halted, is to wheel                            31

  34. When a column is to change its front by the wheel, and
  countermarch of sub-divisions round the centre                    32

  35. When a column is to open out to full, or half distance        32


DEPLOYMENTS.

  36. When the Battalion, in column of Companies, deploys into
  line                                                              33


ECHELLON FORMATIONS, AND MOVEMENTS.

  37. When a Battalion, from line, wheels forward by Companies
  into echellon                                                     34

  38. When the Battalion, having wheeled from line into echellon,
  has marched, and halted, and is to form back parallel to the
  line it quitted                                                   34

  39. When the Battalion, having wheeled from line into echellon,
  has marched, and halted, and is to form up oblique to the
  line it quitted                                                   34

  40. When the Battalion formed in line, changes front, on a fixed
  flank Company by throwing forward the rest of the Battalion       35

  41. When the Battalion changes front on a fixed flank Company
  by throwing back the rest of the Battalion                        35

  42. When the Battalion changes front on a central Company, by
  advancing one wing, and retiring the other                        35

  43. When, from Open column, the Companies wheel backward
  into echellon, to form line on the front Company                  36

  44. When from line the Companies of a battalion march off in
  echellon to the front, and again form line                        37

  45. When a Battalion in echellon of Companies is required to
  form square                                                       37

  46. When a Battalion marching in line is to take ground to a
  flank by the echellon movement                                    37


  LIGHT INFANTRY. SIGNALS, AND SOUNDS                               38

  INFANTRY SWORD EXERCISE                                           38

  Extension motions, and positions                                  38

  Preparatory instruction with the sword                            39

  Review, or inspection exercise                                    40

  Attack, and defence                                               40

  Stick drill                                                       40

  INSTRUCTIONS FOR PITCHING, AND STRIKING TENTS                     41


PART II.

CARBINE EXERCISE; SWORD EXERCISE, CAVALRY.

  ROYAL ARTILLERY. CARBINE EXERCISE                                 43

  Inspection, and dismissal of a Company                            43

  To fire a Feu-de-joie                                             44

  Funeral exercise                                                  44

  Sword. Royal Artillery                                            44

  CAVALRY, SWORD EXERCISE                                           45

  Formation for Sword exercise, on foot                             46

  Formation for Sword exercise, mounted                             46

  OFFICERS’ SALUTE                                                  46


PART III.

ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES, etc.

  Names of parts. The Dispart. Point blank range                    48

  The Tangent scale. The sights. The Line of metal                  49

  The Centre of metal. Windage                                      49

  The Vent. Bouching. Tertiating. Quadrating. Honey comb.
  Length. Calibre. Gun metal                                        50

  Brass, and Iron guns                                              50

  Service charges of powder. Point blank range of guns              51

  Description of Howitzers, and Carronades                          51

  Description of Mortars, charges, ranges, &c.                      52

  Value of Brass, and Iron Ordnance                                 52

  Proof of iron Guns, brass Guns                                    53

    ”      Mortars, Howitzers, Carronades                           54

  Water proof of Ordnance                                           54

  Marks on condemned Ordnance, and Shells                           54

  Instructions for the care, and preservation of iron Ordnance      55

  Ingredients for coating, and lacquering iron Ordnance             56

  Instructions for lacquering Shot, and Shells                      56

  To render Ordnance unserviceable, by Spiking, &c.                 57

  Unspiking Ordnance                                                58

  Length, Weight, Calibre, and Charge of Ordnance generally
  used in the service                                           59, 60


CARRIAGES.

  Garrison, Ship, Field gun carriages. Sleighs, equipment, &c.      61

  Depression carriages                                              62

  Weight of Field carriages, Limbers, &c.                     63 to 67

  Weight, and diameter of Wheels                                    67

  Weight of Carriages for iron Guns, Howitzers, Carronades          68

  Weight of Traversing platforms                                    68

  Weight, and dimensions of Trucks                                  69

  Weight, and dimensions of Mortar beds                             69


PART IV.

RANGES, CHARGES, ELEVATIONS, &c.

BRASS ORDNANCE.

  Medium 12 Pr.               Light 12 Pr.                    }
                                                              }
  9 Pr.                       Long 6 Pr.       Light 6 Pr.    }
                                                              }
  Heavy 3 Pr.                                                 }     70
                                                              }
  24 Pr. Howitzer.            12 Pr. Howitzer                 }
                                                              }
  5½-inch heavy Howitzer                                      }

  8-inch Howitzer    32 Pr. Howitzer                                71

  SHRAPNELL SHELLS                                                  72

  RICOCHET PRACTICE with brass Ordnance                             73


  CHARGES FOR THE ROYAL NAVY.

  For boats                                                         73

  High, medium, low                                                 74


  RANGE, ELEVATION, &c.

  IRON ORDNANCE.

  Guns                     42, 32, 24, 18, 12, 9, 6 Prs.        }
                                                                }   75
  Carronades               68, 42, 32, 24, 18, 12 Prs.          }

  SHRAPNELL SHELLS         68 Pr. Carronade, 8-inch Howitzer,   }  76
                             24 Pr. Gun, 18 Pr. Gun             }

  Guns                     12, 10, 8-inch                       }
                                                                }   77
  Carronade gun            32 Pr. Howitzers. 8 and 10-inch      }

  Guns       56, 68 Pr.                                             78

  Gun        8-inch                                                 79

  RICOCHET, FIRING                                                  79

     ”      PRACTICE                                                80


MORTARS.

  Practical rules for charge, range, &c.                            80

  Practice, 13, 10, 8, 5½, 4⅖-inch mortars                          81

  Greatest charges, and ranges                                      82


PART V.

STORES, IMPLEMENTS, COMBUSTIBLES, &c.

  Balls, light, smoke. Carcasses                                    83

  Cartridges for guns, howitzers, carronades                        85

  Fuzes, old pattern, Boxer’s, metal                                86

  Grease. Grenades, hand                                            87

  Gun cotton                                                        88

  Gunpowder, manufacture, proof, marks                              89

     ”       Magazines. Barrels. Boxes                              90

  Handbarrows. Handspikes. Levers. Lights, blue                     91

  Lights, long, signal. Match, quick, slow                          92

  Parachute light ball, Boxer’s. Pendulums                          93

  Portfires, common, percussion, miners’, slow, coast guard         94

  Quoins. Rockets, signal                                           95

  Shells, common, naval, Shrapnell diaphragm                        96

  Shot, case, or canister, grape                                    96

  Stool beds. Tubes, common, detonating, friction                   98

  Wadmiltilt. Wooden bottoms                                        99


PART VI.

  FIELD BATTERY EXERCISE. DETAIL FOR ACTIVE SERVICE OF 9 PR. TROOP
  OF HORSE ARTILLERY, 9 PR. FIELD BATTERY, 18 PR. FIELD BATTERY, 32
  PR. HOWITZER FIELD BATTERY, GUN AND SMALL ARM AMMUNITION RESERVE.
  INTERIOR MANAGEMENT OF A BATTERY. EMBARKING, AND DISEMBARKING.
  APPLICATION OF FIELD ARTILLERY. ENCAMPING, AND PICKETING. TENTS.
  HORSES. FORAGE. VETERINARY DIRECTIONS. CONGREVE ROCKET EXERCISE.

  Telling off the Detachment. Posts of the Detachment              100

  Change of position. Detail of duties. Changing round             101

  Exercise with reduced numbers. Distances required                102

  Names of parts of a Field gun carriage                           102

  Limbering up. Unlimbering. Moving with the Prolonge              103

  Exercise with Drag-ropes                                         103

  Formation of a Battery. Posts, and duties of Officers, &c.       104


MANŒUVRES OF A BATTERY OF SIX PIECES OF ORDNANCE.

  1. To advance. 2. To retire. 3. To come into action. 4. To
  diminish, or increase intervals on the march                     106

  5. To take ground to a flank. 6. To make a half turn on the
  march. 7. To form column of divisions in rear of a flank.
  8. To form column of divisions in front of a flank               107

  9. To form column of divisions on the centre division            107

  10. To change front to the rear                                  107

  11. To change front to a flank                                   108

  12. To advance from a flank, in column                           109

  13. To advance from the centre in double column of sub-divisions.

  14. To move from a flank along the front in a column of divisions.

  15. To advance from a flank in echellon of sub-divisions.

  16. To advance from a flank in echellon of divisions             110

  17. To retire from a flank in column. 18. To retire from the
  centre, in a double column of sub-divisions. 19. To retire
  from a flank by alternate half batteries in action               111

  20. To break into column to a flank                              111

  21. To increase, and diminish the front                          112

  22. To bring the rear to the front, in succession on the march.

  23. To form line on the leading division                         113

  24. To form line on the rear division. 25. To form line on the
  centre division                                                  114

  26. To form line to the rear on the leading division             114

  27. To form line to the rear of the rear division. 28. To form
  line to the rear, on the centre division. 29. To form line
  to the reverse flank on the leading division                     115

  30. To wheel into line                                           115

  31. To deploy on the rear division. 32. To deploy on the
  centre division. 33. To countermarch                             116

  34. From double column of sub-divisions, to form line to the
  front. 35. From double column of sub-divisions to form
  line to a flank                                                  117


  INSPECTION, AND REVIEW                                           117


EQUIPMENT OF A BATTERY.

  Packing the entrenching tools, camp equipage, &c.                119

  18 Pr. Gun                                                       120

  12 Pr. medium, Gun                                          121, 122

  9 Pr. Gun                                                   123, 124

  Light 6 Pr. Gun                                             125, 126

  8-inch Howitzer                                                  127

  32 Pr. Howitzer                                             128, 129

  24 Pr. Howitzer                                             130, 131

  12 Pr. Howitzer                                             132, 133

  Weight of Riders, Harness, Ordnance, Carriages, &c., of a
  Field battery equipped                                           134

  9 Pr. Troop of Horse Artillery. Detail for active service        135

  Reserve of Gun, and Small arm ammunition. Horse Artillery        136

  9 Pr. Field battery. Detail for active service            137 to 140

  18 Pr. Field battery. Detail for active service                  141

  32 Pr. Howitzer Field battery. Detail for active service         142

  Reserve of Gun, and Small arm ammunition. Detail                 143

  Gun ammunition reserve. Detail for Reserve Artillery             144

  Small arm ammunition, reserve. Detail for Reserve Artillery      145

  ON THE INTERIOR MANAGEMENT OF A BATTERY                          146

  EMBARKING, AND DISEMBARKING                                      149

  Embarking guns, and carriages                                    149

  Embarking the horses                                             150


APPLICATION OF FIELD ARTILLERY.

  General remarks. Ammunition waggons                              151

  On the march. Advanced guard                                     152

  Crossing fords. Passage of bridges                               153

  Crossing a bridge, passing a defile, &c.                         154

  Artillery, acting with other troops                              155


ENCAMPING, AND PICKETING.

  First method                                                     155

  Second method. To strike the encampment                          157

  Weight, dimensions, &c. of tents                                 158

  HORSES. Power in draught, &c.                                    158

  Management of draught horses. Horse-shoes                        160

  FORAGE. Method of carrying, &c.                                  161


VETERINARY DIRECTIONS.

  Cathartic mass                                                   162

  Febrifuge mass                                                   163

  Sedative mass                                                    164

  Diuretic mass                                                    164

  Alterative mass                                                  164

  Tonic mass                                                       165

  Anti-spasmodic draught                                           165

  Vermifuge powder                                                 166

  Anti-purgation powder                                            166

  Discutient powder                                                166

  Astringent powder                                                167

  Ophthalmic powder                                                167

  Blistering liquid                                                168

  Turpentine liniment                                              168

  Turpentine ointment                                              168

  Black oil                                                        168

  Hoof ointment                                                    169


CONGREVE ROCKETS.

  On firing rockets                                                169

  Exercise of rockets                                              171


PART VII.

REPOSITORY COURSE.—SERVING, AND WORKING HEAVY ORDNANCE.[2]

  _Part 1._—_Art. 1._ Telling off the detachments                  173

  _Art. 3._ To shift a gun from the firing to the travelling holes,
  or _vice versâ_                                                  176

  _Art. 4._ Exercise of guns on siege carriages                    176

  _Art. 5._ Exercise of guns on dwarf, and casemate traversing
  platforms                                                        177

  _Art. 6._    ”        ”    on common traversing platforms        177

  _Art. 7._ Disposition, and duties, Firing hot shot               177

  _Art. 8._ Exercise of carronades                                 179

  _Art. 9._    ”     of guns, and carronades, on ship carriages    179

  _Art. 10._   ”     of        ”              on depressing
  carriages                                                        180

  _Art. 11._   ”     of 10 and 8 inch howitzers                    180

  _Art. 12._   ”     of mortars                                    180

  _Art. 13._ Firing by night                                       182

  _Art. 14._ Firing at moving objects                              183

  _Part 2._—_Art. 1._ Lever, and handspike                         183

  _Art. 2._ Fulcrums, and props                                    184

  _Art. 3._ Lifting jack                                           185

  _Art. 4._ Rollers                                                185

  _Art. 5._ Crab capstan                                           186

  _Art. 12._ Sling cart                                            187

  _Art. 13._ Sling waggon                                          189

  _Art. 15._ Triangle gyns                                         190

  _Art. 16._ Gibraltar gyn                                         193


PART VIII.

GUNNERY.

  Practical rules                                                  195

  Results from experiments on the velocities of Shot, &c.          196

  Theory, and practice of Gunnery                                  198

  Double shotting. The effects of Wads                             198

  Penetration of Shot                                              199

  Eccentric spherical Shot                                         201

  Resistance of Iron plates, Oak plank, &c., against musketry,
  canister, grape-shot, hollow, and solid shot                     203

  NAVAL GUNNERY                                                    205

  To estimate the distance between Vessels                         206

  Table A.—Heights of the different parts of Ships of war          207

  Table B.—Angles subtended by the masts of Ships of war           208

  Table C.—Tangent practice with 8-inch Gun: 32-Pr. Gun            209

  Table D.      ”     with long 24-Pr., and long 18-Pr. Guns       210

  Table E.      ”     with short 24-Pr., and short 18-Pr. Guns     211

  Instructions for the exercise, and service of great guns, and
  shells on board Her Majesty’s ships                              212

  Arrangement for fighting both sides                              214

  Exercise for the 10-inch, or other revolving gun                 216

  Mortar exercise                                                  217

  Instructions for landing seamen, and marines with field pieces   218

  Proportion of charges, spare powder, &c., for a 51-gun screw
  steam frigate, and 50-gun frigate                                220

  On naval bombardments                                            221


PART IX.

BATTERIES.—PERMANENT, AND FIELD FORTIFICATION.

  Description of Batteries, Embrazures, &c.                        223

  Dimensions of parapet requisite to be proof                      224

  Dimensions of an elevated Gun battery                            224

  Directions for tracing a battery                                 224

  Shelter from an enemy’s fire                                     225

  Epaulments. Elevated sand-bag batteries                          226

  Half-sunken batteries. Sunken gun batteries                      227

  Ricochet batteries                                               227

  Fascines                                                         228

  Gabions                                                          229

  Sod, or turf. Platforms                                          230

  Alderson’s platform                                              231

  Dimensions, and weight of platforms for guns, &c.                232

  Carrying, and laying down, Gun, Howitzer, Mortar, and Madras
  platforms                                                        233

  Breach. To burst open gates of fortresses, &c.                   233

  FORTIFICATION, description of                                    234

  Command. Rampart. Interior slope. Terreplein. Parapet.
  Banquette. Revetment. Berm                                       234

  Tablette. Cordon. Escarp                                         235

  Counterscarp. Faces. Flank. Bastions. Curtain. Front of
  fortification. Ditch. Covered way. Glacis. Places of
  arms. Sally-ports. Traverses                                     235

  Citadel                                                          236

  Esplanade. Body of the place. Outworks. Tenaille. Ravelin
  Horn work. Crown-work. Lunettes. Tenaillons. Flèche.
  Caponiere. Cunette. Batardeau. Ramp. Cavalier                    236

  Parallels. Zig-zags, or roads of communication. Redan.
  Redoubt. Star Fort. Têtes de pont. Lines. Epaulment.
  Loop holes. Palisades. Fraises. Chevaux de frise. Abattis.
  Hurdles. Trous de loup                                           237

  PERMANENT FORTIFICATION                                          238

  Remarks, and general rules                                       238

  Vauban’s first system.—Construction                              240

  Profile, or section of Vauban’s first system                     242

  Modern system, names of parts                                    243

  FIELD FORTIFICATION                                              244

  Remarks, and general rules                                       244

  Capacity of field works                                          245

  To find the quantity of earth for parapets, and banquettes       245

  To find, rapidly, ditto, ditto                                   245

  To compute the content of the ditch                              245

  To find the breadth of the ditch                                 245

  Construction of field works                                      246

  The redan. The lunette. The square redoubt. The pentagonal
  redoubt. The hexagonal redoubt. The circular
  redoubt. The star fort. The field fort with bastions, and
  half bastions                                                    246

  The bridge head, or tête du pont                                 247

  Lines. Bridges. Passages. Traverses                              247

  Table—Dimensions of parapets, ditches, &c., of field works       248

  Simple methods of tracing field works on the ground. Square
  redoubt. Pentagonal redoubt. Hexagonal redoubt. Octagonal
  redoubt. Front of fortification                                  249


PART X.

BRIDGES, AND PONTOONS.—SCALING LADDERS.

  BRIDGES.—To find number of planks to form a float                250

           To find number of casks to form a raft                  250

           To find the number of Boats, or Pontoons
           required to support a given weight                      250

  PONTOONS.—Large pontoons                                         251

            Small pontoons                                         252

  SCALING LADDERS                                                  253


PART XI.

FIREWORKS.

  Candles, Roman, Blue. Crackers                                   254

  Earthquake, artificial. Fires of various colours. Wildfire.
  Gerbes                                                           255

  Iron filings. Iron sand                                          256

  Leaders. Marroons. Mealing gunpowder. Paste for representing
  animals                                                          257

  Portfires for illuminations. Rain, gold, or silver. Rockets,
  line                                                             258

  Rockets, signal                                                  259

  Saltpetre pulverized                                             260

  Serpents, or squibs. Shells. Showers of fire                     261

  Speckie. Spur fire. Suns, or wheels                              262

  Touch paper. Wheels, pin, or Catherine                           264


PART XII.

MATHEMATICS.

  Characters, Marks, or Signs                                      265

  REDUCTION                                                        265

  RULE OF THREE, OR SIMPLE PROPORTION                              266

  FRACTIONS                                                        267

            Reduction                                              268

            Addition. Subtraction. Multiplication. Division        269

            Rule of Three                                          270

  DECIMALS.—Addition                                               270

            Subtraction. Multiplication. Division                  271

            Reduction                                              272

            Rule of Three                                          273

  DUODECIMALS                                                      273

  TABLES OF WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES; English, and French             274

  INVOLUTION, or Raising of powers                                 277

  EVOLUTION, or Extracting roots                                   277

  TABLE OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND ROOTS                               280

  PILING OF SHOT, AND SHELLS                                       281

      To find the number of balls in a complete pile               281

                  number of balls in any pile, base not
                  exceeding 21                                     282

                                  in an incomplete pile            283

      Table for computing the content of piles                     284

  CORDAGE.—To find weight, and strength of a rope                  285

  CHAINS.—To find the weight of chains                             285

          To find the weight that may be lifted by a chain         286

  IRON RODS.—To find the weight of round, and square iron rods     286

             To find the weight that may be sustained, or lifted,
             by round iron rods                                    286

  TIMBER.—To find the area of a plank                              287

                      content of timber                            287

                      weight of a tree                             287

  TONNAGE.—Table of tonnage, and weight of carriages               288

           To ascertain the tonnage of Sailing vessels             289

                                    of Steam vessels               289

  MECHANICS.—Mechanical powers                                     290

             The Lever                                             291

             The Wheel, and Axle                                   292

             The Pulley. Tackles                                   293

             Combination of pulleys                                294

             The inclined plane                                    295

             The Wedge. The Screw                                  296

             Compound machines                                     297

             Friction. Unguents                                    298

             Transverse strength of materials                      299

             Adhesion of Nails, and Screws                         300

  TRIGONOMETRY.—Definitions                                        301

  Methods of resolving Triangles                                   301

  Useful theorems, and corollaries                                 302

  TRIGONOMETRY WITHOUT LOGARITHMS                                  303

  Trigonometric ratios. Natural sines, and cosines                 304

  Application of trigonometry without logarithms                   305

  Table,—showing the reduction in feet, &c., upon 100 feet, at
  angles of elevation, and depression                              306

  Table, showing the rate of inclination of inclined planes, for
  angles of elevation                                              307

  SURVEYING, AND RECONNOITRING.—HEIGHTS, AND DISTANCES             307

      Methods of ascertaining Heights                              307

        1. By means of a pocket sextant                            307

        2.      ”      a portable barometer, and thermometer       308

        3.      ”      the Reconnoitring protractor                308

        4. By the shadow of the object                             310

        5. Where there is no shadow                                310

        6. By the tangent scale of a gun                           310

        7. By means of two pickets                                 310

      Methods of ascertaining Distances                            311

        1. By means of the sextant                                 311

        2.      ”      a pocket sextant                            311

        3.      ”      the prismatic compass                       312

        4.      ”      the Reconnoitring protractor                312

        5. 6, 7, & 8.  Pickets                                   312–4

        9.      ”      the tangent scale of a gun                  314

        10.     ”      the peak of a cap                           314

        11.     ”      the report of fire-arms                     314

      To traverse Roads—
        By means of the Reconnoitring protractor, or other
        instrument                                                 315

  SOUND.—Velocity of, &c.                                          315

      To ascertain the distance, by the report of fire-arms        316

  GRAVITY                                                          316

      Specific gravities of bodies                                 317

      To find the magnitude, weight, or specific gravity of a
      body, or a fluid                                             318

          Quantities of two ingredients in a compound              319

          Diameter of a sphere, or globule                         319

  Table showing the weight of a cubic foot of materials            319

  MOTION, FORCES, ETC. Body                                        319

  Density. Velocity. Momentum. Force. Gravity                      320

  Momentum. Amplitude. Time of flight. Time of descent             321

  PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. Definitions                                  322

  To divide a line into two equal parts. To bisect an angle        324

  To erect a perpendicular. To let fall a perpendicular            324

  To draw a line parallel to a given line                          324

  To divide an angle                                               324

  To find the centre of a circle                                   325

  To describe an equilateral triangle, a square                    325

  To inscribe a square in a circle                                 325

       ”      an octagon in a circle                               325

  On a line to describe all the polygons                           325

  To inscribe in a circle an equilateral triangle                  325

              ”           a hexagon, or a dodecagon                326

  To inscribe a pentagon, hexagon, or decagon, in a circle         326

  To find the angles at the centre, and circumference of a
  polygon                                                          326

  To inscribe a polygon in a circle                                326

  To circumscribe a circle about a triangle, or a square           327

          ”       a square about a circle                          327

  To reduce a Map, or Plan                                         327

  MENSURATION OF PLANES                                            327

  To find the area of a parallelogram                              327

          ”        of a triangle                                   328

          ”        of a trapezium, or of a trapezoid               329

          ”        of an irregular figure                          329

          ”        of a figure, having a part bounded by a curve   329

  To measure long irregular figures                                330

  To find the number of square acres, &c. in preceding figures     330

     ”    the area of a regular polygon                            330

     ”    diameter, and circumference of a circle                  331

     ”    the area of a circle                                     331

     ”    the area of a circular ring                              332

     ”    the length of any arc                                    332

     ”    the area of a sector                                     332

          ”        of a segment, of a semicircle                   333

          ”        of an ellipsis, of a parabola, &c.              333

  MENSURATION OF SOLIDS.—Definitions                               334

  To find the superficies of a prism, or cylinder                  334

       ”      surface of a pyramid, or cone                        335

       ”      surface of the frustrum of a pyramid, or cone        335

       ”      solid content of a prism, or cylinder                335

       ”      content of the solid part of a hollow cylinder       336

       ”      solidity of the frustrum of a cylinder               336

       ”      content of a pyramid, or cone                        336

       ”      solidity of the frustrum of a cone, or pyramid       336

       ”      surface of a sphere, or any segment                  337

       ”      solidity of a sphere, or globe                       337

       ”           ”        hemisphere                             337

       ”      solid content of a spherical segment                 337

       ”      diameter of a sphere                                 338

       ”      weight of an iron shot                               338

       ”      weight of a leaden ball                              338

       ”      diameter of an iron shot                             338

       ”      diameter of a leaden ball                            339

       ”      weight of an iron shell                              339

       ”      quantity of powder a shell will contain              339

       ”      size of a cubical box to contain powder              340

       ”      quantity of powder to fill the chamber of a mortar,
              or howitzer                                          340

       ”      quantity of powder to fill a rectangular box         340

       ”      quantity of powder to fill a cylinder                340

       ”      size of a shell to contain a given weight of powder  341

       ”      length of a cylinder, or bore of a gun to be filled
              by a given weight of powder                          341

  To find the content, and weight of a piece of ordnance           341

       ”      content of a cask                                    341

  EPITOME OF MENSURATION                                           342

  Of the Circle; Cylinder; Sphere, &c.                             342

  Of the Square; Rectangle; Cube, &c.                              343

  Table of the Surfaces, and Solidities of bodies                  344

  Of Triangles; Polygons, &c.                                      344

  Table of the Areas of regular Polygons                           345

  Of Ellipses; Cones; Frustrums, &c.                               345




PUBLICATIONS,

REFERRED TO, OR EXTRACTED FROM.


  The Infantry Manual.

  Field Exercise, and Evolutions of the Army.

  Instruction of Musketry.

  Bombardier, and Pocket Gunner  {Captain Adye.
                                 {Major Elliott.

  British Gunner                  Captain Spearman.

  Artillery                       Mr. J. Landmann.

                                 {Lieut.-General Sir H. Douglas, Bart.
  Naval Gunnery                  {Captain Stephens.
                                 {Lieut. Beauchant.

  Instructions for the Exercise, and Service of Great guns, and Shells,
  on board Her Majesty’s ships.

  Field battery Exercise, and Movements.

  The Horse, with a treatise on draught.

  Directions for the guidance of the Farriers of }
  the Royal Artillery                            }  Mr. C. Percivall.

  Instructions, and Regulations for the Service, and Management of Heavy
  Ordnance, &c.

  Fortification            {Lieut.-General Pasley.
                           {Mr. J. Landmann.

                                   {Mr. Lochée.
  Field fortification              {Captain Malorti.
                                   {Captain Macaulay.

  Military Surveying                Lt.-Col. Basil Jackson.

  Treatises on Attack, and Defence  Lt.-Colonel Jebb.

  Artificial fireworks              Mr. G. Mortimer.

                                   {Dr. Hutton.
  Mathematics                      {Dr. O. Gregory.
                                   {Mr. Trotter.

  Practical Geometry                Mr. J. Landmann.

  Natural Philosophy                Dr. Fergusson.

  The practical Mechanic’s guide.

  The practical Engineer’s guide.

  The Engineer’s, and Contractor’s pocket-book

  Tables                            Mr. Beardmore.

            &c. &c. &c.




                                 THE
                        ARTILLERIST’S MANUAL,
                                 AND
                    BRITISH SOLDIER’S COMPENDIUM.




PART I.

INFANTRY EXERCISE, MOVEMENTS, &c.


MUSKET—FLINT LOCK.

                                                    lb.   lb.
  Weight of Musket                                  10}   11
    Do. of Bayonet                                   1}
    Charge, Ball cartridge 6 drams.
            Blank cartridge 5 drams.


PERCUSSION SMALL ARMS.

1. Percussion Musket, Smooth-bore: 1842 Pattern.

  Barrel          {Length                            3 ft. 3 in.
                  {Diameter of bore                  ·753 inch.
  Musket          {Length                            4 ft. 7 in.
                  {Weight                           10 lb. 2 oz.
  Bayonet         {Length beyond muzzle              1 ft. 5½ in.
                  {Weight                            1 lb. 1 oz.
  Arm complete    {Length                            6 ft. ½ in.
    with bayonet  {Weight                           11 lb. 3 oz.

    Bullet (Spherical) ·689 inch diameter, weight 490 grains.
    Charge, 4½ drams F. G.
    Sixty rounds with 75 Caps = 6 lb. 10 oz.

2. Artillery Carbine: 1853 Pattern.

  Barrel          {Length                            2 feet.
                  {Diameter of bore                  ·577 in.
  Carbine         {Length                            3 ft. 4½ in.
                  {Weight                            6 lb. 7½ oz.
  Sword Bayonet   {Length                            1 ft. 10¾ in.
    beyond muzzle {Weight                            1 lb. 12 oz.
  Arm Complete    {Length                            5 ft. 3 in.
    with bayonet  {Weight                            8 lb. 3½ oz.
  The Rifling is 3 grooves and one turn, 6 ft. 6 in.
  Bullet          {Weight                             530 gr.
                  {Diameter                          ·568 in.
    Charge of Powder, 2 drams F. G.
    Weight of 20 Rounds, with 25 Caps = 1 lb. 11 oz. 2 drams.

3. Regulation Rifle—Musket: 1851 Pattern.

  Barrel          {Length                            3 ft. 3 in.
                  {Bore                              ·702 in.
    Rifling, 4 Grooves, one turn in 6 ft. 6 in.
  Musket          {Length                            4 ft. 7 in.
                  {Weight                            9 lb. 9¼ oz.
  Bayonet         {Length beyond muzzle              1 ft. 5½ in.
                  {Weight                           15½ oz.
  Arm complete    {Length                            6 ft. 0½ in.
    with bayonet  {Weight                           10 lb. 8¾ oz.
  Bullet (Minie)  {Weight                             696 gr.
                  {Diameter                          ·691 in.
    Sixty rounds and 75 Caps = 7 lb. 0 oz. 8 drs.
    Charge, 2½ drs. F. G.

4. Enfield Rifle—Musket: 1853 Pattern.

  Barrel          {Length                            3 ft. 3 in.
                  {Bore                              ·577 in.
    Three grooves, one turn in 6 ft. 6 in.
  Musket          {Length                            4 ft. 7 in.
                  {Weight                            8 lb. 8 oz.
  Bayonet         {Length beyond muzzle              1 ft. 5½ in.
                  {Weight                           11 oz.
  Complete with   {Length                            6 ft. 0½ in.
    Bayonet       {Weight                            9 lb. 3 oz.
  Bullet          {Weight                             530 gr.
                  {Diameter                          ·567 in.
    Charge, 2½ drams F. G.
    Sixty rounds and 75 Caps = 5 lb. 8 oz. 4 drams.

5. Victoria Carbine: (For Cavalry.)

  Barrel          {Length                            2 ft. 2 in.
                  {Bore                              ·733 in.
  Bullet          {Weight                             490 gr.
    (Spherical)   {Diameter                          ·689 in.
    Charge, 2½ drams F. G.
  Arm complete    {Length                            3 ft. 6 in.
                  {Weight                            7 lb. 9 oz.

6. Naval Rifle.

    1842 Pattern.  Percussion musket, Rifled with 3 or 4 grooves.
  Bullet (Minie), {Weight                             848 gr.
    with iron cup {Diameter                          ·746 in.
    Charge, 3 drams F. G.

7. Pistol: Army pattern.

  Barrel          {Length                            9 inches
                  {Weight                            1 lb. 6 oz.
                  {Diameter of bore                  ·733 in.
  Arm complete    {Weight                            3 lb. 4 oz.
                  {Length                            1 ft. 3½ in.
    Charge of Powder for Ball cartridges, 2½ drams.
    Ball, Lead, the same as for the Line-pattern Musket.


BLANK CARTRIDGES.

The charge of powder for Blank cartridges, for all the
above-mentioned Small arms, is the same; viz., 3½ drams.

The cartridges are made with _blue_ paper.


MANUFACTURE OF CARTRIDGES.

The following articles are required for the manufacture of Cartridges:

_Five tin measures_, containing two and a half drams.

_Five tin funnels. A large knife._

_An iron straight edge_ for cutting the paper.

_Five cylindrical mandrels_ of hard wood, to roll the cartridge.

_A former_, to make the hollow in the inner case, to receive the
point of the bullet.

_A set of tin patterns_ for shaping the paper.

_Cartridge paper and fine white paper._

_Bullets_ and _gunpowder_.

_To construct the Cartridge._—Cut the paper according to the
patterns, place the rectangle (fig. 9) on the little trapezium (fig.
10), the sides A B C of the rectangle coinciding with the sides A
B C of the trapezium, lay the mandrel on the rectangle, parallel
to the side B C, the base of the mandrel even with the side C D
of the rectangle; roll the whole tightly on the mandrel; place it
vertically, and fold the remainder of the trapezium paper into the
hollow in the base of the mandrel; commencing with the acute angle
of the trapezium, make use of the point of the former to close the
folds; examine the bottom of the inner case thus formed, to see that
there remains no hole for the escape of the powder when charged;
introduce the point of the bullet into the aperture at the base of
the mandrel; take the trapezium envelope (fig. 11), place the mandrel
and bullet parallel to the side F G, the base of the bullet at half
an inch from the base F H, of the envelope; press up the point of the
bullet into the cavity; roll the envelope tightly on the bullet and
on the mandrel; fold the remainder of the envelope on the base of
the bullet, commencing with the acute angle; place the base of the
cartridge on the table; withdraw the mandrel, squeezing the case of
the cartridge with the left hand, and raising up the mandrel with the
right hand.

_To charge the cartridge_, introduce the point of the copper funnel
into the bottom of the case of the cartridge; pour in 2½ drams
of fine grain powder from the powder-flask; withdraw the funnel,
taking care that none of the powder escapes between the case and the
envelope; squeeze the top of the cartridge, and twist it round.

[Illustration: Fig. 9. Fig. 10.

  1½ inch.    4 inches.    Rectangle.

    2⅛ inches.    4 inches.    5 inches.    Little Trapezium.]

[Illustration: Fig. 11.

  5½ inches.    4½ inches.    3¼ inches.    Trapezium Envelope.]

_When completed_, the base of the cartridge must be dipped up to the
shoulder of the bullet in a pot of grease, consisting of six parts
tallow to one of bees-wax.


SMALL ARM AMMUNITION.

_Dimensions of Boxes._

  Length, 1 ft. 4 in.    Depth, 8⅝ in.    Breadth, 7¼ in.
  including the cleat.

_Weight of Boxes._

  Empty, 7 lb. 6 oz.


_Contents and Weight of Barrels and Boxes._

  ---------------------------+-----------------------+----------------------
                             |       _Barrel._       |        _Box._
                             +--------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------
                             |  No.   | No.  |Weight |  No.   | No. |Weight
                             |of Car- | of   |filled.|of Car- | of  |filled.
                             |tridges.|Caps. |       |tridges.|Caps.|
                             +--------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------
                             |        |      |lb. oz.|        |     |lb. oz.
  Rifle Musket, Pattern 1842 |   500  |  625 | 79  0 |    ..  |  .. |   ..
  Rifle Musket,    ”    1851 |   700  |  875 | 66  4 |   500  | 625 | 65  4
  Rifle Musket,    ”    1853 |   700  |  875 | 73  8 |   560  | 700 | 60  6
  Artillery Carbine          |   800  | 1000 | 81  8 |   660  | 825 | 63  0
  Victoria Carbine           |   700  |  875 | 69  0 |   600  | 750 | 60  8
  ---------------------------+--------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------


INSTRUCTIONS FOR BROWNING GUN BARRELS.

The following ingredients, viz.:—

  1½ oz. of Spirits of wine,
  1½ oz. Tincture of steel,
   ½ oz. of Corrosive sublimate,
  1½ oz. of Sweet spirit of Nitre,
  1 oz. of Blue vitriol,
   ¾ oz. of Nitric acid.

are to be mixed and dissolved in one quart of soft water.

Previous to commencing the operation of browning, it is necessary
that the barrel should be made quite bright with emery or a fine
smooth file (but not burnished), after which it must be carefully
cleaned from all greasiness; a small quantity of pounded lime
rubbed well over every part of the barrel is best for this purpose:
a plug of wood is then to be put into the nose of the barrel, and
the mixture applied to every part with a clean sponge or rag. The
barrel is then to be exposed to the air for twenty-four hours; after
which it is to be well rubbed over with a _Steel scratch-card or
Scratch-brush_, until the rust is entirely removed; the mixture may
then be applied again, as before, and in a few hours the barrel will
be sufficiently corroded for the operation of scratch-brushing to be
repeated. The same process of scratching off the rust and applying
the mixture is to be repeated twice or three times a day for four
or five days, by which the barrel will be made of a very dark-brown
colour.

When the barrel is sufficiently brown, and the rust has been
carefully removed from every part, about a quart of boiling water
should be poured over every part of the barrel, in order that the
action of the acid mixture upon the barrel may be destroyed, and the
rust thereby prevented from rising again. The barrel, when cold,
should afterwards be rubbed over with linseed oil, or common oil.
It is particularly directed that the use of the hard hair-brush be
discontinued in browning, and the steel scratch-card or scratch-brush
used in place of it, otherwise the browning will not be durable, nor
have a good appearance. The browning mixture must be kept in glass
bottles, as it will soon lose its virtue if kept in earthenware.

The locks are on no account to be made of the hardening colour, as
the repetition of the operation of hardening has a very injurious
tendency.


PERCUSSION FIRELOCKS.

Muskets with Percussion locks require to be carefully handled, to
prevent the cocks being made loose, by which their direct fall on the
nipples would be rendered uncertain.

They will, at all times, when unloaded, be used with the cocks down
upon the nipples; but, when they are loaded, the caps, or primers,
will be put on, and the muskets carried _at half-cock_ for safety,
there being then less risk of accidental explosion than with the
cocks resting on the caps.

When marching with the cap on, the cock will be brought up under
the arm-pit, the sling resting on the arm; but at other times the
firelock may be carried with the barrel downwards, the right hand
grasping the piece between the loop and swell; and the left the right
arm just below the elbow.


INFANTRY EXERCISE, AND MOVEMENTS, Extracted from “FIELD EXERCISES
AND EVOLUTIONS OF THE ARMY,” _the Parts and Sections being numbered
according thereto._[3]


PACES.

_Slow time_, each step, 30 inches, and 75 paces in a minute.

_Quick time_, each step, 30 inches, and 108 paces in a minute.

_Double time_, each step, 36 inches, and 150 paces in a minute.

_Back step_, each 30 inches. _Side_ or _Closing step_, 10 inches.


_To calculate the number of Paces (each 30 inches) required for a
given number of Files._

As a soldier occupies 21 inches, take two-thirds of the number of
Files in the division, and add an inch for each File.


_Table of the number of Paces corresponding to a given number of
Files._

  ------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+----+----+----+----
  Number of Files   |       |       |       |       |    |    |    |
  in a Division,    |       |       |       |       |    |    |    |
  each occupying    |   5   |  15   |  16   |  18   | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50
  21 inches.        |       |       |       |       |    |    |    |
  ------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+----+----+----+----
  Front of Divisions|       |       |       |       |    |    |    |
  in Paces          | P. I. | P. I. | P. I. | P. I. | P. | P. | P. | P.
  of 30 inches.     | 3  15 | 10 15 | 11 6  | 12 18 | 14 | 21 | 28 | 35
  ------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+----+----+----+----


FLINT FIRELOCKS.

MANUAL EXERCISE.

  1.  Secure arms.
  2.  Shoulder arms.
  3.  Order arms.
  4.  Fix bayonets.
  5.  Shoulder arms.
  6.  Present arms.
  7.  Shoulder arms.
  8.  Port arms.
  9.  Charge bayonets.
  10.  Shoulder arms.
  11.  Advance arms.
  12.  Order arms.
  13.  Advance arms.
  14.  Shoulder arms.
  15.  Support arms.
  16.  Stand at ease.
  17.  Attention.
  18.  Carry arms.
  19.  Slope arms.
  20.  Stand at ease.
  21.  Attention.
  22.  Carry arms.
  23.  Order arms.
  24.  Unfix bayonets.
  25.  Stand at ease.


PLATOON EXERCISE.

      _As front rank standing._
  or, _As rear rank standing._
  —  _As front rank kneeling._
  —  _As rear rank kneeling._
  1. Prime, and Load.
  2. Handle cartridge.
  3. Prime.
  4. ’Bout.
  5. Draw ramrods.
  6. Ram down cartridge.
  7. Return ramrods.
  8. _As front rank_, Ready.
  9. Present.
  10. Load.
  11. Shoulder arms.
      _As rear rank_, Ready, &c.


AS A COMPANY.

        Prime and Load.
  _Company_ Ready.
        Present.
  _At the word_ “Cease firing,”
  _the Company, if made ready, receives
  the words_,
        Half-cock arms.
        Shoulder arms.
  _Or the word will be given to_
  “Fire a volley; and half-cock,”
  (_at priming position_,)
        Shoulder arms.
        Shut pans.


INSPECTION OF A COMPANY.

  1. Attention.
  2. Fix bayonets.
  3. Shoulder arms.
  4. Rear rank take open order—March.
  5. Open pans.
  6. Slope arms.
  7. Carry arms.
  8. Shut pans.
  9. Order arms.
  10. Examine arms.
  11. Return ramrods.
  12. Unfix bayonets.
  13. Rear rank take close order—March.
  14. Stand at ease.


DISMISSAL OF A COMPANY.

  Attention.
  Shoulder arms.
  Recover arms.
  Ease springs.
  Right face.
  Lodge arms.


PERCUSSION FIRELOCKS.

MANUAL EXERCISE.

_Words of Command_ similar to those for Muskets with Flint locks.


THE PLATOON EXERCISE, AND DIFFERENT FIRINGS FOR THE ORDINARY OR RIFLE
MUSKET.

  _To load from the shoulder, standing_         Prepare to load.
      ”   _from the Advance, standing_          Prepare to load.
      ”   _from the Order, standing_            Prepare to load.
                                                Load.
                                                Rod.
                                                Home.
                                                Return.
                                                Cap.
  _As Front, or Rear rank_                      —Yards, Ready,
                                                Present.
                                                Load, _&c._, _as above_.
  _To shoulder, when at the Capping position_   Shoulder arms.
  _To advance arms, from the Capping position_  Advance arms.
  _To make ready from the shoulder_             —Yards—Ready.
         ”      _from the Advance_              —Yards—Ready.
  _To fire kneeling_                            As front rank kneeling.
                                                —Yards—Ready.
                                                Present.
                                                Load, _&c._, _as above_.
                                                Cap.
                                                Shoulder arms.
                                                Advance arms.
  _To load from the shoulder_,                  As front rank, kneeling.
    _as Front Rank, kneeling_                   Prepare to load.
  _To load from the Advance_,                   As front rank, kneeling.
    _as Front Rank, kneeling_                   Prepare to load.
                                                Shoulder, _or_ } _as before_
                                                Advance arms,  } _directed._
                                                As rear rank, kneeling,
                                                  Yards—Ready.
                                                Present.
                                                Load, _&c._, _as above_.
                                                Cap.
                                                Shoulder, _or_ } _as before_
                                                Advance arms,  } _directed._
  _To load from the shoulder_,                  As rear rank, kneeling,
    _as Rear Rank, kneeling_                    Prepare to load.
  _To load from the Advance._                   As rear rank, kneeling,
    _as Rear Rank, kneeling_                    Prepare to load.
  _As a Company, Load_                          Company, at    yards, Ready.
                                                Present.
                                                Half-cock arms.
                                                Shoulder arms.

  _Firing as a wing, or as a Battalion, is performed precisely as laid
  down for a Company._

  _A Company, Wing, or a Battalion can load, or make ready from
  the Order with the same ease, as from the shoulder._

  _Trailing arms_                               Trail arms.
                                                Change arms.
  _To resist Cavalry_                           Prepare to resist Cavalry.
                                                Ready, &c.


FUSIL EXERCISE.

  1. Secure arms.
  2. Shoulder arms.
  3. Order arms.
  4. Fix bayonets.
  5. Shoulder arms.
  6. Port arms.
  7. Charge bayonets.
  8. Shoulder arms.
  9. Support arms.
  10. Stand at ease.
  11. Attention.
  12. Carry arms.
  13. Slope arms.
  14. Stand at ease.
  15. Attention.
  16. Carry arms.
  17. Trail arms.
  18. Shoulder arms.
  19. Order arms.
  20. Unfix bayonets.
  21. Stand at ease.
  22. Attention.


THE MANUAL AND PLATOON EXERCISES OF RIFLEMEN.

THE MANUAL EXERCISE.

  Present arms.
  Shoulder arms.
  Order arms.
  Shoulder arms.
  Support arms.
  Carry arms.
  Trail arms.
  Shoulder arms.

    _From the Order, to Trail arms._

  Trail arms.

    _From the Trail, to Order arms._

  Order arms.
  Fix swords.
  Shoulder arms.
  Charge bayonets.
  Shoulder arms.
  Order arms.
  Unfix swords.
  Stand at ease.


THE PLATOON EXERCISE.

  Prepare to load.
  Load.
  Rod.
  Home.
  Return.
  Cap.
  Shoulder.
  Make ready.
  Present.

    _After firing, the rifle to be brought immediately
  to the position of—_

  Prepare to load.


INSTRUCTIONS FOR AIMING WITH THE RIFLE MUSKET.

     _Firing at a Human figure._              _Firing at the Target._

  _At 100 yards._—Aim at the waist.        Aim with the sight down, straight
                                             at the bull’s-eye.

  _At 150 yards._—Raise the sliding-bar,   Raise the sliding-bar, raise the
    raise the sight, and aim                 sight, aim with the 200 yards’
    with the 200 yards’ point at the         point at the bottom of the
    thigh.                                   black ring.

  _At 200 yards._—Aim at the waist         Aim at the bull’s-eye with the
    with the 200 yards’ point.               200 yards’ point.

  _At 250 yards._—Press down the           Press down the sliding-bar, aim
    sliding-bar, aim with the 300            with the 300 yards’ point six
    yards’ point at the knees.               inches below the black ring.

  _At 300 yards._—Aim with the 300         Aim with the 300 yards’ point at
    yards’ point at the waist.               the bull’s-eye.

  _At 350 yards._—Raise the sliding-bar    Raise the sliding-bar to half
    at half distance between the             distance between the 300 and
    300 and 400 yards’ point, and            400 yards’ point, and aim at
    aim at the waist.                        the bull’s-eye.

  _From 400 yards to 800 yards._—Make use of the sliding-bar, by
    raising it to the respective distances, as marked on the back sight.


WORDS OF COMMAND FOR FUNERAL PARTIES.

_Ranks open—Arms shouldered—Bayonets unfixed, facing the quarters of
the Deceased._

  _When the Corpse is brought out:_
               |   Present arms—Reverse arms—Rear rank take close
               |   order—March.

  _Divisions, Sub-divisions, or Sections are wheeled forwards (or
  backwards) to form Column left in front._
               |   Rear rank take open order—March.

  _When arrived at the Burial-ground:_
               |   Halt—Ranks, left and right wheel—Quick
               |   march—Halt—Inwards face—Rest upon your
               |   arms reversed—Stand at ease.

  _When the Corpse has passed through:_
               |   Attention—Reverse arms—Re-form Column—Ranks,
               |   right and left wheel—Quick march—Halt,
               |   front—March.

  _When facing the grave:_
               |   Rest upon your arms reversed—Stand
               |   at ease.

  _After funeral service:_
               |   Attention—Present arms—Shoulder arms—Load
               |   with blank cartridge—Fire three volleys
               |   in the air—Order arms—Fix bayonets—Shoulder
               |   arms—Rear rank take close order—March.

  _March back to barracks, right in front._


COMPANY DRILL.

_Part 2.—Section 1.—Formation of the Company._

The Company is ordered to “FALL IN” at close order; is then sized
from flanks to centre; and told off in Sub-divisions, and four
sections. In Column of Sections, the Senior officer takes the
Leading, the second senior the Third, the third Senior the Fourth,
and the junior the Second section. The Company is also told off by
“Threes from the right,” numbered 1, 2, 3. Should there be a blank
file in telling off the company in line, it will invariably be the
fourth file from the left. The Company is also told off from the
right by alternate files, right, and left.

In Close order the Rear rank is one pace, in Open order two paces,
and for inspection three paces, from the front rank.


_S. 2. Marching to the Front._

  BY THE RIGHT (LEFT, OR      | _The Company will occasionally_
    CENTRE)—MARCH.            | _be ordered, to_
                              | _Step out—Mark time—Step short—Open,_
                              | _and close ranks—Oblique—Diagonal_
                              | _march._


_S. 3. The Side, or Closing step._

  TO THE RIGHT (OR LEFT) CLOSE—QUICK    |
    MARCH—HALT.                         |


_S. 4. The Back step._

  STEP BACK—MARCH.                      |


_S. 5. To form four deep._*

  FORM FOUR DEEP—MARCH.         | * _In telling off the files, should the_
  REAR FORM FOUR DEEP—MARCH.    | _last file be a right file, the left_
  RIGHT FORM FOUR DEEP—MARCH.   | _file on its right will double in the_
  LEFT FORM FOUR DEEP—MARCH.    | _rear of it, completing it to four deep,_
                                | _and leaving the other Section only_
                                | _two deep_

_To re-form two deep, from each of these formations._

  FRONT. (OR HALT—FRONT.†)      | † _If the Company is in movement._


_S. 6. File marching._

  TO THE LEFT FACE—QUICK MARCH.     | Halt, Front.


_From the Halt._

  ADVANCE IN DOUBLE FILES FROM THE  | _After facing, the leading files_
    CENTRE—SUB-DIVISIONS INWARDS    | _disengage._
    FACE—QUICK MARCH.               |
  FRONT FORM COMPANY—(OR, TO THE    | Forward.
    RIGHT FORM COMPANY.)            | _Right Sub-division_—Halt, Front,
                                    | Dress. _The remainder of the_
                                    | _Company march on in file, and_
                                    | _form in succession on left of_
                                    | _halted Sub-division._


_On the March._

  ADVANCE IN DOUBLE FILES FROM THE  | Sub-divisions, inwards turn—Right
    CENTRE.                         | and left wheel.


_S. 7. Wheeling from a Halt._

  RIGHT (OR LEFT) WHEEL—QUICK MARCH.                 | Halt, Dress.


_S. 8. Wheeling forward by Sub-divisions, from Line._

  BY SUB-DIVISIONS RIGHT WHEEL—QUICK MARCH.          | Halt, Dress.


_S. 9. Wheeling backward by Sub-divisions, from Line._

  BY SUB-DIVISIONS ON THE LEFT BACKWARD              | Halt, Dress.
  WHEEL—QUICK MARCH.                                 |


_S. 10. Marching on an Alignement, in Open column of Sub-divisions._

  MARCH—(OR, QUICK MARCH).


_S. 11. Wheeling into Line, from Open column of Sub-divisions._

  1. HALT—LEFT WHEEL INTO LINE—QUICK MARCH.    | Halt, Dress, Eyes front.


  _2. On the Moveable pivot._

  SHOULDERS FORWARD—FORWARD (OR, HALT, DRESS.) |


_S. 12. In Open column of Sub-divisions entering into a new direction
on a moveable pivot._

                                               | Right (or left)
                                               | shoulders forward—Forward.


_S. 13. Counter-marching._

_Counter-march by files._

  RIGHT (OR LEFT) FACE—QUICK MARCH.            | Halt, Front, Dress.


_Counter-march by ranks._

  RIGHT AND LEFT FACE—RIGHT                    | Halt, Front, Dress.
  COUNTERMARCH—QUICK MARCH.                    |


_S. 14. Wheeling on the centre of the Company._

  COMPANY        { RIGHT       }               |
  ON THE         { LEFT        } WHEEL         |
  CENTRE—MARCH.  { RIGHT ABOUT }               |
                 { LEFT ABOUT  }               | Halt, Dress.


_S. 15. Diagonal march._

_The pivots, or outward Files, march in the direct line to which they
have faced, the others conforming to them._


_S. 16. Increasing the Front of an Open column halted Right in front._

  FORM COMPANY.        | Left Sub-division, Left half face—Quick march—Halt,
                       |Front, Dress up.


_Diminishing the front of an Open column, halted._

  FORM SUB-DIVISIONS.  | Left Sub-division—Right about three-quarters
                       | face—Quick march.
                       | _2nd Senior._ Halt, Front, Dress.


_S. 17. Increasing the front of an Open column, on the march._

  FORM COMPANY.        | Left Sub-division, Left half turn, Double—Front
                       | turn, Quick.


_Diminishing the front of an Open column, on the march._

  FORM SUB-DIVISIONS.  | Left Sub-division, Mark time—Right half turn—
                       | _2nd Senior_, Front turn.

When the above movements, 16 and 17, are performed Left in front,
the Words RIGHT will be altered to LEFT, and LEFT to RIGHT. The same
directions apply to sections.


_S. 18. In Open column of Sub-divisions to pass a short defile, by
breaking off files._

  BREAK OFF —— FILES.   | —— Files on the left, Right turn—Left wheel.

_After passing the defile._—Files to the front.


_S. 19. The Company in line halted, or on the march, moves to a flank
in Column of sections, or Sections of threes._

  SECTIONS (OR THREES) RIGHT (OR LEFT) SHOULDERS |
  FORWARD (_if halted_, QUICK MARCH—FORWARD.)    |

_When Pivots are required to be accurately dressed, or when the
alignement of the Company is to be preserved._

  SECTIONS (OR THREES) ON THE RIGHT (OR LEFT)    |
  BACKWARDS WHEEL—QUICK MARCH.                   | Halt, Dress.

_To re-form Company on the march._

  SECTIONS (OR THREES) RIGHT (OR LEFT) SHOULDERS | * If the march is to
  FORWARD—                                       | be continued.
  *FORWARD—(OR HALT, DRESS.)                     |

_For accurate dressing, or when the alignement is to be preserved._

  RIGHT (OR LEFT) WHEEL INTO LINE—QUICK MARCH.   | Halt, Dress.


_S. 20. Forming Company, Sub-divisions, Sections, or Sections of
threes, from file marching._

  FRONT FORM COMPANY (SUB-DIVISIONS, OR          | * If the march is to
  SECTIONS)—*FORWARD.                            | be continued.

_Marching in file from the right, to form the Company to the Left
flank._

  HALT—FRONT.

_Marching in file from the right, to form the Company to the Right
flank._

  ON THE LEADING FILE TO THE RIGHT FORM COMPANY. |

_To form to the Right about._

  ON THE LEADING FILE TO THE RIGHT ABOUT FORM    |
  COMPANY.                                       |


_S. 21. To form to either flank, from Open column of Sub-divisions._

_To the Left flank._

  HALT—LEFT WHEEL INTO LINE—QUICK MARCH.  | Halt, Dress, Eyes front.

_To form the Company to its Right flank._

  TO THE RIGHT FORWARD FORM COMPANY.      | _Leading sub-division_
                                          | Left shoulders forward—Forward,
                                          | Halt, Dress.
                                          | _2nd Sub-division (Left oblique
                                          | till clear of the right
                                          | Sub-division)_—Left shoulders
                                          | forward—Forward, Halt, Dress up.


_S. 22. Company moving to the front, to gain ground to a flank, by
march in echellon, by sections._

  SECTIONS RIGHT—FORWARD.                 |

_To form Company—_

  FORM COMPANY—FORWARD.                   |


_S. 23. To form the Rallying square._

  FORM THE RALLYING SQUARE.
    _When the Square is to march_—THE     |
    SQUARE WILL MOVE TO THE FRONT, (REAR, | * _If ordered to fire, the_
    RIGHT, OR LEFT,) INWARDS FACE—QUICK   | _Standing ranks only will_
    MARCH—HALT—PREPARE TO RESIST          | _commence an independent fire.
    CAVALRY—READY.*                       |
    REDUCE THE SQUARE—QUICK MARCH.        |


MODE TO BE OBSERVED IN DISMISSING A COMPANY OFF PARADE.

  Recover arms.
  Right face.
  Lodge arms.

_In turning in a Guard, or Piquet, the same mode is to be observed._


MANNER OF INSPECTING A COMPANY ON PARADE.

  Attention.
  Fix bayonets.
  Shoulder arms.
  Rear rank take open order—March.
  Slope arms.

_The inspection of Arms will now take place_

  Carry arms.
  Order arms.
  Examine arms.
  Return ramrods.

_An inspection of the Appointments, Clothing, &c., is now to be made._

  Unfix bayonets.
  Rear rank take close order—March.
  Stand at ease.


MOVEMENTS OF A BATTALION.

_Part 3.—Section 1. Commands._

All words of command must be given short, quick, and loud.


_S. 2. Degrees of march._

_The Slow step_ is particularly applicable to purposes of parade, and
occasionally to the march of extended lines.

_The Quick march_ is the usual pace to be applied to all general
movements of Battalions, or greater bodies, in Column, or Line.

_The Double march_ is only to be applied to the movements of the
Divisions of a battalion, except upon peculiar occasions for short
distances.


_S. 3. Marching in line._

The March in line is generally adopted where the country is open.


_S. 4. Wheeling._

Wheels are made on a _Halted pivot_ from Line into Column, and from
Column into Line. The principle of the _Moveable pivot_ must always
be applied to the wheel of divisions marching in column. Wheels of
divisions may be either made forward, or backward. In progressive
movements they are to be made _Forward_, but particular occasions
require that they should be made _Backward_ on the pivot flank. _The
Backwards_ wheel need not, however, be practised where the ground is
uneven, and the Divisions stronger than 15 or 16 files: where this is
the case, the Command will be

  FORM OPEN COLUMN, RIGHT (OR LEFT) IN  |
    FRONT—RIGHT ABOUT FACE—RIGHT (OR    |
    LEFT) WHEEL—QUICK MARCH.            | Halt, Front.


_S. 5. Movements._

Every movement must be divided into its distinct parts, and each part
executed by its cautionary and executive words of command. All field
movements and firings are to be performed with fixed bayonets, except
when troops are acting as Light infantry.


_S. 6. The Alignement._

To march in an Alignement is to make troops march in any straight
line, which joins two given points—or to form upon any such given
line. When troops are to form in a straight line, two necessary
points in it must always be previously ascertained. One, the point of
_Appui_ at which one flank of the Body is to be placed, and the other
the distant point of formation or dressing, on which the front of the
body is directed.


_S. 7. Points of formation._

The line on which troops move, or are successively to form, may be
taken up to any extent by the prolongation of an original short base,
given in the direction which the Commander of a line will point out.


_S. 8. Dressing._

The Officer in dressing is placed on that flank of his division to
which the men’s eyes are turned on the word “DRESS,” and from the
second file from the flank of the Company towards which his wheeling
flank moves from column, or his inward flank from echellon: he makes
his corrections on his intermediate point. In all wheelings into
line the word “EYES FRONT” will be given as soon as the dressing
is completed. When Officers change from one flank to the other in
order to close, they will pass by the front, and repass by the rear
of their Companies. On all other occasions, when it is necessary to
change their flanks in line, they will pass and repass by the rear.


_S. 9. Open column._

All changes of position, by means of the Open column, will be
effected by the formation of a column, right or left, in front, on
the named division. If on a flank division, the caution will specify
whether the other flank is to be thrown back, or forward: if on a
central division, the caution will in like manner specify which
wing is to be thrown forward. An open column may effect a change of
position upon its front, rear, or any central division by the named
division wheeling up according to the front to which it is intended
to change; and the other divisions facing, and filing into the new
alignement.


_S. 10. Column at Quarter distance, and Close column._

When Close columns are formed, the Companies or Divisions must be
at one pace distance. In the wheel of a Column at quarter or close
distance, the leading division acts as a moving base for the rear
Companies to follow; its length of step is regulated according to
the depth of the column, and when at quarter distance must be very
short to enable the rear to circle simultaneously round at the
usual pace. Upon the wheel being ordered, all the rear divisions
make a half face to the wheeling flank; but at a quarter distance,
the leading division will advance six paces on the word “QUICK (OR
DOUBLE) MARCH,” and will wheel round the pivot file at a shortened
pace, while each succeeding division will advance, in circling round,
to quarter distance, which will leave room for the rear divisions to
circle into their relative positions at that distance. In wheeling
on the Moveable pivot, the rear divisions make a half turn towards
the shoulder brought forward, and the front division wheels and
advances at a shortened pace in the new direction, the rear divisions
circling round. In Close column, the supernumeraries will form on the
reverse flanks of companies; and when the column marches to a flank,
they will move with their companies; when the Close column is to
countermarch they will remain on the reverse flank, and countermarch
on their own ground. When a Column deploys on a rear division, the
named division when uncovered will move up to the front (which its
covering Serjeant will mark); the points, therefore, necessary for
the formation of the Battalion will be taken in prolongation of these
points, and the Divisions which successively move up must _Halt_,
_Front_, until their front is clear.


_S. 11. Echellon._

The Echellon position and movements are applicable to the oblique or
direct changes of situation, which a Battalion may be obliged to make
to the front or rear, or on a particular fixed division of the line.
The oblique changes are produced by the wheel (less than the quarter
circle) of divisions, which places them in the echellon situation.
The direct changes are produced by the perpendicular and successive
march of divisions from line to front or rear. In Echellon, the inner
flank, (or that which first joins its preceding division when the
line is to be formed forward,) is the directing one; and in Oblique
echellon the wheels are made on it, into echellon—forward, and into
line—backward.


_Practical rule for the Battalion and Line on all occasions of
Wheeling by Companies into echellon._

“Each covering Serjeant having previously placed himself before or
behind a given file (the 8th) from the standing flank, will take the
named number of paces from the centre of that file on the arc of the
circle, and thereby become a direction for the Company to wheel up
to, and halt.”

As eight paces from the eighth file complete the Quarter circle, so
four paces give the One-eighth, and two paces the One-sixteenth of
the circle. All changes of front by the Echellon march are performed
by the forming divisions wheeling half the angle wheeled by the
division to be formed upon. In all changes of position by echellon,
whether direct or oblique, the leaders of companies will invariably
be on that flank towards which the change of position is to be
made. But in taking ground to a flank on the march, in echellon of
Sub-divisions or Sections, Companies’ leaders remain in their places
as when in line.


_S. 12. Squares._

Squares are formed either from Line, or from Column at full, half,
or quarter distance. _The Hollow square_, four deep, is sufficiently
solid to oppose an attack of Cavalry: it possesses, at the same
time the advantage of rendering the fire of all the men available
to the resistance of the enemy. _The Solid square_ should seldom be
adopted, because a proportion of the men cannot give their fire.
Close columns should in all cases when practicable, open therefore to
quarter distance, and form Square (as in Sec. 21, No. 1, Part III.).
But as every position in which a Battalion may be placed should be
susceptible of ready resistance against Cavalry, the Close column
can always assume an efficient posture of defence, by the six centre
Companies wheeling outwards by Threes, and closing to the front,
and the two rear Companies facing to the right about: the Officers
and Serjeants taking post in the centre. The wing of a battalion
can in like manner form the solid square from a Close column of
Sub-divisions. When Cavalry is not to be resisted, it will be
sufficient to form the Square two deep to the rear. The formation of
Battalion squares, either from Line or Column, is to be completed as
expeditiously as possible; and the Squares may afterwards be placed
in direct echellon for mutual defence.


_S. 13. Firings._

In all movements, Firing should commence after a formation. In
firing by Companies, the Leaders will give the Word “_Ready_” when
the previous division fires, preserving the pause of slow time
between this and “_Present_,” the men firing when they have covered
their objects. In firing by wings, one wing will receive the word
“_Ready_,” the instant the other has completed its loading. Great
care must be taken in file firing that it is not hurried, and
that the men “_Present_” deliberately. The value of a soldier’s
ammunition, and a jealousy of its expenditure without effect, must be
carefully inculcated; for in proportion as a cool and well-directed
fire serves to distract and throw an enemy into disorder, so is a
wild, confused, and hurried fire (which is always without effect)
calculated to give him confidence, and a contempt for his opponent.
Soldiers should, therefore, bear in mind that nothing makes so
strong an impression on an enemy, as the thinning of his ranks by
a well-directed fire; and that nothing tends more to animate and
encourage troops than the diminished fire from ranks so thinned;
affording also the most favourable opportunity for a successful
charge. In firing in square, the two front ranks are to come to the
kneeling position without cocking, on preparing to receive cavalry.
The standing ranks in square will fire independently from the right
of faces.


_Street firing._

A Column at open, half, or quarter distance, formed in a street or
narrow ground where deployment is impracticable, may be required to
fire previous to charging forward, or by successive divisions in
retiring. It will be performed in the following manner:—

_If advancing_, the two front Companies only will fire in succession;
the leading Company firing and loading kneeling, the second Company
closing to the front, and firing standing. When the enemy’s fire has
been overcome, or at any favourable moment that may present itself,
the column will charge briskly forward, and make good the ground it
is contending for.

_In retiring_, the leading division will give its fire; Slope arms;
Face outwards by sub-divisions; File to the rear; Re-form Company;
Load; and remain halted, until its front is again clear, or the whole
column is put in motion. The moment the front of the second company
is clear, it will give its fire; Face outwards by sub-divisions;
and file to the rear as above directed: and so on by companies in
succession: the companies thus follow each other, and when the
front of the column occupies the whole breadth of the street, the
outward files of companies will double in the rear, to give the
companies which have fired room to pass. It must never be forgotten,
in entering towns or villages occupied by the enemy, that the first
thing to be done, on gaining a footing in the place, is to clear the
houses on both flanks, and the column should on no account proceed
through the streets without previously occupying the houses on either
side; the troops employed for that purpose breaking through partition
walls, or pushing on from house to house, so as to accompany the
march of the main body, and protect its flanks.


FORMATION OF THE BATTALION.

When the Battalion is formed, there is to be no interval between any
of the Companies, and every part of the front of the Battalion should
be equally strong. The Grenadiers will be on the right, Light company
on the left, the other companies from right to left. The Battalion
will be told off into Right, and Left wings.


FORMATION OF THE BATTALION, AT CLOSE ORDER.

The Commanding officer is advanced in front for the general purpose
of exercise when the Battalion is single; but in the March in
line, and in the firings, he is in the rear of the Colours. The
Lieutenant-colonel is behind the colours, twelve paces from the
supernumerary rank. The 1st Major is six paces in the rear of the
second Battalion company from the right flank; 2nd Major at the
same distance in the rear of the second Battalion company from the
left; the Adjutant at the same distance in rear of the colours. One
Officer is on the right of the front rank of each company, and One
on the left of the Battalion; all these are covered in the rear
rank by their respective Serjeants; and the remaining Officers and
Serjeants are in a third rank behind their companies. The colours are
placed (both in the front rank) between the two Centre companies. The
supernumerary rank is at three paces distance when in Line; and when
in Column, it is at the distance of one pace.


_When the Battalion takes Open order._

  REAR RANK TAKE OPEN   | Officers of Companies and those with
    ORDER—MARCH.        | the Colours dress three paces in front of
                        | the Line. The 1st Major is on the right
                        | of the Officers, the 2nd Major on the left.
                        | The Adjutant on the left of the front
                        | rank. The Colonel ten paces, and the
                        | Lieutenant-colonel six paces, in front of
                        | the Colours.


_When the Battalion resumes Close order._

  REAR RANK TAKE CLOSE  |
    ORDER—MARCH.        |


EVOLUTIONS OF THE BATTALION.

MOVEMENTS OF THE BATTALION FROM LINE.

_S. 14. 1. The Battalion halted, and correctly dressed, is to advance
in Line._

       _Commander’s_       |            _Executive_
    _Words of command._    |   _Words of command, Directions, &c._
  THE BATTALION WILL       |
    ADVANCE—MARCH (OR      |
    QUICK MARCH)—HALT.     |


_2. When the Battalion is to retire._

  THE BATTALION WILL       |
    RETIRE—RIGHT ABOUT     |
    FACE—QUICK MARCH.      |

_3. While advancing in Line, the Battalion may form to either flank
by the Divisions wheeling to the Bight (or Left) on the Moveable
pivot, and forming on the flank Company (which will be halted in the
direction of the new front) by the Echellon march of divisions._


_S. 15. When a Battalion advancing in Line is to charge._

PREPARE TO CHARGE—CHARGE—HALT.


_S. 16. When a Battalion moving in Line passes a wood, &c., to Front
or Rear, by the flank march of Companies in file._

1. _If to pass to the Front._

  FROM THE RIGHT (OR LEFT) OF COMPANIES  |
    PASS BY FILES TO THE FRONT.          |
    COMPANIES, RIGHT (OR LEFT)           |
    TURN—RIGHT (OR LEFT) WHEEL.          |

2. _If to pass to the Rear._*

  FROM THE PROPER RIGHT (OR LEFT) OF     | * _THE BATTALION IN
    COMPANIES PASS BY FILES TO THE       | LINE HAVING ARRIVED AT
    REAR—LEFT (OR RIGHT) TURN—RIGHT      | THE POINT WHERE IT MUST
    (OR LEFT) WHEEL—HALT—FRONT.          | break. Companies may
                                         | also pass to the front
                                         | or rear by Sections of
                                         | Threes._

3. _If a Battalion in first Line passes through a second, which
advances and relieves it._

  PASS BY FILES TO THE REAR—RIGHT        | _THE RELIEVING BATTALION
    FACE—RIGHT WHEEL—QUICK               | MARCHES UP WITHIN
    MARCH—HALT—FRONT.                    | twelve Paces of the
                                         | front Line, the Companies
                                         | of which proceed
                                         | to the rear through the
                                         | second Line._

4. _When the second Line does not advance to relieve the first._

  PASS BY FILES TO THE REAR—LEFT         | _THE FIRST LINE RETIRES,
    TURN—RIGHT WHEEL.                    | and when within twelve
                                         | paces passes through the
                                         | second._


S. 17. _When the Battalion advances, or retires, by half Battalion,
and fires._

1. _If the Battalion is in march, and advancing._

  THE BATTALION WILL ADVANCE BY          |
    WINGS. (_2nd Major_) LEFT WING,      |
    HALT—MARCH (OR QUICK MARCH).         |
    (_Senior Major_)* RIGHT WING,        | * _AFTER HAVING ADVANCED
    HALT—READY—PRESENT—LOAD—MARCH        | 15 PACES._
    (OR QUICK MARCH). (_2nd Major_)      |
    LEFT WING, HALT—READY, &C.           |

2. _If the Battalion is in march, and retiring._

  THE BATTALION WILL RETIRE BY WINGS.    |
    (_Senior Major_) RIGHT WING,         |
    HALT—FRONT. (_2nd Major_)* LEFT      | * _After retiring 15_
    WING, HALT—FRONT. (_Senior Major_)   | _paces._
    RIGHT WING,                          |
    READY—PRESENT—LOAD—RIGHT             |
    ABOUT FACE—MARCH (OR                 |
    QUICK MARCH). (2nd Major) Left       |
    WING, HALT—FRONT. †LEFT WING,        | † When Right wing
    READY—PRESENT—LOAD, &C.              | has retired 15 paces.


_S. 18. A Battalion in Line to move to attack, or pass a bridge, &c.,
to the front, from either flank, or from the centre._

1. _If from a Flank, by Companies, or Sub-divisions._

  RIGHT (OR LEFT) DIVISION TO THE        | _Rear Divisions_
    FRONT.—REMAINING DIVISIONS, RIGHT    | _successively_—Right
    (OR LEFT) SHOULDERS FORWARD—QUICK    | (or left)
    MARCH—FORWARD.                       | shoulders forward—Forward.

2. _When the Column arrives near the point where the Line is to
re-form._

  FORM LINE ON THE FIRST                 | _Leading Division_, Halt,
    DIVISION—REMAINING                   | Dress up.
    DIVISIONS, RIGHT (OR                 | _Remaining Divisions_
    LEFT) SHOULDERS FORWARD—FORWARD.     | _successively_—Right (or
                                         | left) shoulders
                                         | forward—Forward.—Halt—Dress
                                         | up—Eyes front.

3. _If the advance is from the Centre._

  TWO CENTRE SUB-DIVISIONS TO THE        | _Right wing Sub-divisions_
    FRONT.                               | _first throw Right_
  REMAINING SUB-DIVISIONS, RIGHT AND     | _shoulders, and afterwards_
    LEFT SHOULDERS FORWARD—QUICK         | Left shoulders forward.
    MARCH—FORWARD.                       | _Left wing Sub-divisions_
                                         | _first throw Left_
                                         | _shoulders, and afterwards_
                                         | Right shoulders _forward_,
                                         | _Sub-divisions_
                                         | _successively_—Forward.

4. _When the Double column arrives near the point where the Line is
to be formed._

  FORM LINE ON TWO CENTRE                | _Remaining Sub-divisions_
    SUB-DIVISIONS.—REMAINING             | _successively_—Right
    SUB-DIVISIONS, RIGHT AND LEFT        | (or left) shoulders
    SHOULDERS FORWARD—FORWARD.           | forward—Forward—Halt—Dress
                                         | up—Eyes front.

5. _To form Line to the right, from the Double column._

  FORM LINE TO THE          | _Right wing Sub-divisions_—Halt, Dress.
    RIGHT—RIGHT WING        | _Left wing Sub-divisions successively_—Left
    LEFT SHOULDERS FORWARD. | shoulders forward—Forward—Halt, Dress
                            | up—Eyes front.


_S. 19. A Battalion in Line to retire over a bridge, or defile, or
retreat from a Flank or Flanks, in rear of the Centre._

1. _If from a flank._

  RETIRE BY COMPANIES       | _Left (or Right) Company_—Company
    (OR SUB-DIVISIONS)      | (or Sub-division)—Right about face—Quick
    FROM THE LEFT (OR       | march—Right (or Left) shoulders
    RIGHT) IN REAR OF       | forward—Forward. _When at inward_
    THE RIGHT (OR LEFT).    | _flank of right (or left) Division_—Right (or
                            | left) shoulders forward—Forward.
                            | _The other Divisions follow in succession._

2. _If the Retreat is from both flanks._

  RETIRE FROM BOTH          | Right (or left) Sub-division—Right
    FLANKS BY SUB-DIVISIONS | about face—Quick march—Right (or left)
    IN REAR OF THE CENTRE.  | shoulders forward—Forward. _When_
                            | _arrived at the proper points_—Right (or
                            | left) shoulders forward—Forward.
                            | _Remaining right, and left Sub-divisions_
                            | _follow in succession. Two centre_
                            | _Sub-divisions, when the Divisions next to_
                            | _them have commenced their second wheel_—Right
                            | about face—Quick march.


_S. 20. A Battalion in Line to march off in Column of divisions,
successively to a flank._

1. _If the Movement is along the rear, and from the right flank._

  THE BATTALION WILL        | _Right Division (or Section)_—Left face—Left
    MOVE IN COLUMN OF       | wheel—Quick march—Front turn.
    DIVISIONS (OR SECTIONS) |
    FROM THE                |
    RIGHT ALONG THE REAR.   |

2. _When the Movement is from the left flank._

                            | _Left Division (or Section)_—Right face—Right
                            | wheel—Quick march—Front turn.

_In both movements the Divisions follow in succession the leading
division._


_S. 21. When the Battalion, halted in Line, is to form Square on a
named Company, or on two centre Sub-divisions._

_1. If on a Central company._

  COLUMN AT QUARTER DISTANCE    | _When the Companies reach their places_
    ON THE RIGHT (OR LEFT)      | _in Column, they receive successively_
    CENTRE COMPANY—THREES,      | Threes right (or left) shoulders
    RIGHT AND LEFT SHOULDERS    | forward—Halt, Dress.
    FORWARD—DOUBLE MARCH,       |
  FORM SQUARE—QUICK MARCH.      | _The two rear Companies close up, and_
    _When the Second Company_   | _form the rear face of the Square,_
    _has closed upon the front_ | _receiving_ Halt—Right about face.
    _Company, which stands_     | _The remaining Companies wheel outwards_
    _fast—_                     | _by Sections, the rear Sections closing_
  SECTIONS OUTWARDS.            | _to the front, after the wheel._

_2. If on a Flank Company, and to a flank._

  SQUARE ON THE RIGHT (OR       | _Leading Company_—Halt.
    LEFT) COMPANY—COMPANIES     | _Second Company closes on it_—Halt.
    RIGHT (OR LEFT)             | _Remainder (except the two last_
    SHOULDERS FORWARD—DOUBLE    | _Companies), as they successively arrive
    MARCH—FORWARD.              | at Quarter distance_—Sections outwards.
                                | _Two last Companies when closed up_
                                | —Halt—Right about face.

_3. When the Square is to resist Cavalry._

  PREPARE FOR CAVALRY           | _The Kneeling ranks do not cock until_
    —READY.                     | _ required to fire._
   *KNEELING RANKS—READY—       | _The Standing ranks fire by Files._
    PRESENT—LOAD.               | * _The Kneeling ranks, when required to_
  PREPARE FOR CAVALRY           | _fire a volley._
    (OR SHOULDER ARMS).         |

_4. To reduce the Square._

  RE-FORM COLUMN.         | _Rear sections of side Faces step back to_
                          | _wheeling distance, pivot men facing to their_
  QUICK MARCH.            | _proper front, and at_ QUICK MARCH _wheel_
                          | _backwards_—Halt, Dress. _Front Company_
                          | _advances to quarter distance_—Halt, Dress.
                          | _Two rear Companies retire_—Halt, Front, Dress.

_5. If the Square is to be formed on the two centre Sub-divisions._

  ON THE TWO CENTRE       | _The outer Sub-divisions of the two centre_
    SUB-DIVISIONS FORM    | _Companies face inwards, and leading files_
    SQUARE.               | _disengage; the two flank Companies face_
                          | _inwards, and the remaining Companies of_
                          | _the Battalion face to the right about._
  RIGHT AND LEFT          | _No. 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8 Companies, Sections_
    SHOULDERS FORWARD.    | _successively_, Halt, Front. _The two centre_
                          | _Sub-divisions close by the side step, upon_
                          | _the interval left by the Colours. The_
  QUICK MARCH.            | _Sub-divisions of the two flank Companies are_
                          | _conducted to form the rear Face, the right_
                          | _Sub-division of the Grenadiers covering its_
                          | _left Sub-division, and the left Sub-division_
                          | _of the Light Company covering its right_
                          | _Sub-division, each receiving_ Halt, Right
                          | (or Left) face.

_6. To reduce the Square and form Line._

  RE-FORM LINE—QUICK      | _The flank Companies face outwards;_
    (OR DOUBLE) MARCH.    | _and the rear Sub-divisions of the centre_
                          | _face outwards, and file into line at_ QUICK
                          | (OR DOUBLE) MARCH—Halt, Front, Dress.
                          | _The two centre Sub-divisions open by the_
                          | _side step to right, and left. The flank_
                          | _Companies move in file to their respective_
                          | _places. The other Companies deploy by_
                          | _Sections and (when at their places) receive_
                          | Right (or left) shoulders forward—Forward—Halt,
                          | Dress up.

_7. But should it have been previously necessary to move the Square._

  FORM DOUBLE COLUMN      | _The rear Sub-divisions of the side faces_
    OF SUB-DIVISIONS—     | _fall back to Section distance, and the Pivot_
    QUICK MARCH.          | _men face to their proper front, and at_
                          | QUICK MARCH_, the Sections which formed_
                          | _the side faces wheel backwards; and the_
                          | _two Sub-divisions of the front face, and_
                          | _four Sub-divisions of the rear face, advance_
                          | _to quarter distance. The Sub-divisions of_
                          | _front face receive—_Halt. _Sub-divisions of_
                          | _the rear face receive—_Halt—Front.

_8. When the Line is retiring, the Square may be formed at once
without halting._

  ON TWO CENTRE           | _The two centre Sub-divisions_ Halt—Front.
    SUB-DIVISIONS FORM    | _The outer Sub-divisions of centre_
    SQUARE.               | _Companies_ “Inwards turn,” _and the formation_
                          | _will proceed (as directed in No. 5,_
                          | _Section 21) at the Double march._


_S. 22. When the Battalion forms a Square, or Oblong two deep, to
protect baggage, &c., against Infantry._

  1. FORM SQUARE, TWO     | _The two centre Companies stand fast,_
    DEEP, ON THE TWO      | _remaining Companies face to the right_
    CENTRE COMPANIES.     | _about, and at_ QUICK MARCH _the two_
                          | _centre Companies (4 and 5) close inwards:_
  REMAINING COMPANIES,    | _the remainder right, and left shoulders_
    RIGHT AND LEFT        | _forward, and move into Square. Nos. 1,_
    SHOULDERS FORWARD—    | _2, and 3, form the right face, 6, 7, and 8_
    QUICK MARCH.          | _the left face, the Grenadier, and Light_
                          | _Infantry the rear face of the Square,_
                          | _respectively receiving_ Halt, Front, Dress.

_2. When the Square or Oblong is to march by any one face._

  THE SQUARE WILL         |
    MARCH TO THE FRONT    |
    (REAR, RIGHT, OR      |
    LEFT) FACE.           |
                          |
  _Flank Faces_—BY        |
    SUB-DIVISIONS ON THE  |
    RIGHT AND LEFT        |
    BACKWARDS WHEEL—      | _The rear face advances two paces and_
    QUICK MARCH.          | _faces about_—Halt, Dress.
                          |
  QUICK MARCH.            | _The Square marches two faces in Line,_
                          | _(by their centre,) and two faces in Open_
                          | _column of Sub-divisions._
  HALT—RE-FORM            | _The Sub-divisions in column wheel up_
    SQUARE—QUICK          | _and form their faces, and the rear face_
    MARCH.                | _will close up and then face about._

_3. To reduce the Square._

  FORM LINE—RIGHT         | _The two centre Companies open out by_
    AND LEFT SHOULDERS    | _the side step, to leave room for the Colours._
    FORWARD—QUICK         | _Remaining Companies_, Right (or left)
    MARCH.                | shoulders forward—Forward—Halt, Dress up.


_S. 23. A Battalion halted in Line, to change front to the rear upon
the centre._

  CHANGE FRONT TO THE     | _Centre Companies_—Right (or left) face—Right
    REAR UPON THE         | Counter-march—Quick march—Halt,
    CENTRE.               | Front, Dress up—Eyes front.
                          |
  _Remaining Companies,_  | _The Companies pass each other by the_
    THREES RIGHT, and     | _left, those of the Right wing describing a_
    LEFT SHOULDERS        | _circle to allow room for the others to pass,_
    FORWARD—RIGHT AND     | _and when in their proper position_—Right
    LEFT COUNTER-MARCH—   | (or left) shoulders forward—Forward—Halt,
    QUICK MARCH.          | Dress up—Eyes front.


CHANGES OF POSITION OF THE BATTALION FROM LINE BY MOVEMENTS OF THE
OPEN COLUMN ON A FIXED POINT.

_S. 24. The Battalion to change position to the front on the right
halted Company, by throwing forward the whole Left, and by the flank
march of Companies._

  1. FORM OPEN COLUMN         | _If the change of front is to be at_
    IN FRONT OF THE           | _right angles with the old line, the_
    RIGHT COMPANY—REMAINING   | _right Company stands fast; if oblique_
    COMPANIES—RIGHT           | _to it, that Company will wheel_
    FACE—QUICK MARCH.         | _back on the right flank as many paces_
                              | _as will make it perpendicular to the_
                              | _new direction. Remaining Companies face_
                              | _to the right, and disengage to the_
                              | _left_—Halt, Front, Dress.
                              |
  RIGHT WHEEL INTO            | Halt, Dress—Eyes front.
    LINE.                     |

_2. The Battalion may change its position to the Left, Right thrown
forward, by the formation of the Open column in front of the left
halted Company._

_3. If the Change of position is effected by the formation of the
Open column on a central Company, the caution will specify which
flank is to be_ thrown forward. _The Companies face inwards, and
disengage._

_4. When a Battalion is to change position on a flank halted Company,
by throwing back the other flank._

  FORM OPEN COLUMN IN         |
    REAR OF THE RIGHT         |
    (OR LEFT) COMPANY—        |
    REMAINING COMPANIES—      |
    RIGHT (OR LEFT) FACE—     |
    QUICK MARCH.              | _Remaining Companies_—Halt,
                              | Front, Dress.
  RIGHT (OR LEFT) WHEEL       |
    INTO LINE—QUICK MARCH.    | Halt, Dress—Eyes front.


ON A DISTANT POINT.

_S. 25. The Battalion in line changes position by breaking into Open
column, marching up in column to the point where its head is to
remain, and entering the line by the flank march of Companies._

  RIGHT (OR LEFT) FACE—QUICK  | _The Battalion in Open column to form_
    MARCH.                    | _at a point where its leading flank is_
  HALT.                       | _to be placed, receives_—HALT—
                              | _when its leading division is at wheeling_
                              | _distance short of that point._


_S. 26. The Battalion formed in line, changes position by breaking
into Open column, marching to a point where its head is to rest, and
to which its rear divisions form, by successively passing each other,
and wheeling up._

  FORM LINE TO THE            | _Leading division_—Right (or left)
    REVERSE FLANK.            | shoulders forward—Forward—Halt,
                              | Dress. _Remaining divisions_
                              | _successively_—Right (or left) shoulders
                              | forward—Forward—Halt, Dress up.


OPEN COLUMN MOVEMENTS.

_S. 27. When the leading flank of the Column is changed by the
successive march of Divisions from the rear to the front._

  HALT—                       | _If Right in front; Rear Company_—Right
    BY SUCCESSIVE DIVISIONS   | face—Quick march—Front turn.
    —REAR WING                | _Remaining Divisions in succession, when_
    TO THE FRONT.             | _their rear Division passes them_—Right
                              | face—Quick march—Front turn.
                              | _If left in front, the rear Divisions are_
                              | _faced to the left._


_S. 28. To change the Wings of a column formed upon a road, where the
space does not admit of the Flank movement._

  BY DOUBLE FILES FROM        | _Rear Company_—Inwards face, by Files
    THE CENTRE, REAR WING     | from the centre. _Remaining_
    TO THE FRONT. TWO CENTRE  | _Companies_*—Halt, Dress. _Rear_
    SECTIONS OUTWARDS         | _Division when clear of the column_—Form
    WHEEL—QUICK MARCH.*       | Company—Forward. _Remaining Divisions_
                              | _in succession when clear_—Inwards
                              | face—Quick march—Form Company—Forward.


_S. 29. When the Column, at open, or half distance, is required to
form a Square._

1. _If the Square is to be formed on the front Company._

  FORM SQUARE UPON            | (_Vide S. 21, No. 2._)
    THE FRONT COMPANY—QUICK   |
    MARCH.                    |

2. _If upon a central Company._

  FORM SQUARE ON THE RIGHT    | _The Officer commanding the named Division,_
    (OR LEFT) CENTRE          | _gives_—Sections outwards; _the rear_
    COMPANY—RIGHT (OR LEFT)   | _Sections closing on the front Sections._
    WING—RIGHT ABOUT          | _The Left wing will close to Section_
    FACE—QUICK (OR DOUBLE)    | _distance, and the Companies receive,_
    MARCH.                    | _in succession_—Sections outwards;
                              | _the Right Wing will move to the Centre,_
                              | _rear Rank in front, and when each_
                              | _Company shall close up to_
                              | _the one preceding it, Companies_ 3, 4, 5,
                              | 6, Front turn, Sections outwards, _and the_
                              | _rear Sections close to the front. Nos. 1_
                              | _and 2_—Halt, Front,—_Nos. 7 and 8_—Halt,
                              | Right about face.

_3. If an Open column, moving to front, or rear in File, or Sections
of Threes, be attacked by Cavalry._

_If in File._

  FORM SQUARE ON THE        | _The Divisions turn to the right, and_
    CENTRE—WINGS            | _left; and if the Column be right in front,_
    INWARD TURN—DOUBLE      | _when the left centre Company has turned_
    MARCH.                  | _it receives_—Sections outwards; _the Wings_
                            | _close on the centre, at the double march,_
                            | _and each Company wheels outwards into_
                            | _Square; as in No. 2._

_If the Column is moving in Sections of Threes._

  RIGHT (OR LEFT)           |
    SHOULDERS FORWARD.      | _The Formation proceeds as before._
  FORWARD—SQUARE ON         | _The Column is re-formed as directed in_
    THE CENTRE—RIGHT        | _S. 21, No. 4._
    WING, RIGHT ABOUT       |
    TURN—DOUBLE.            |


QUARTER DISTANCE, AND CLOSE COLUMN.

_S. 30. When a Battalion forms a close, or quarter distance Column,
from Line._

_1. If a Close Column before, or behind, either of the flank
Companies._

  FORM CLOSE (OR            |
    QUARTER DISTANCE)       |
    COLUMN ON ——            |
    COMPANY, RIGHT (OR      |
    LEFT) IN FRONT—RIGHT    |
    (OR LEFT) FACE—QUICK    | _All except the named Company_—Halt,
    MARCH.                  | Front, Dress.

_2. On a central Company._

  INWARDS FACE—QUICK        | _All except the named Company_—Halt,
    MARCH.                  | Front, Dress.

_In the same manner, Column may be formed from Line upon any Company
facing to the rear; that Company countermarching by files, and the
Wings facing outwards, and countermarching to the right, or left; and
forming as before._

_In all Counter-marches from Line, the Company of formation will be
faced by the command of its own Officer._

_3. If a Quarter distance Column upon any named Company._

  FORM COLUMN AT QUARTER    |
    DISTANCE, RIGHT (OR     |
    LEFT) IN FRONT, ——      | Shoulders forward—Halt, Dress, _as in_
    ON COMPANY—REMAINING    | _Nos. 1 and 2._
    COMPANIES, THREES—      |
    SHOULDERS FORWARD—      | _The leading threes of the Company next_
    QUICK (OR DOUBLE)       | _the one of formation must wheel upon its_
    MARCH—FORWARD.          | _centre file in disengaging to the rear._

_4. The Close column may be formed from Open column._

  CLOSE TO THE FRONT—QUICK    | _If on the March, Leading division_—Halt.
    (OR DOUBLE) MARCH.        | _Remaining divisions successively_—Halt:
  _Or without halting_—CLOSE  | _When on the Double march_—Quick.
    TO THE FRONT—DOUBLE.      |


_S. 31. When the Column, at close, or quarter distance, marches to a
flank._

  COLUMN WILL MARCH           |
    TO THE RIGHT (OR          |
    LEFT) FLANK—RIGHT         |
    (OR LEFT) FACE—QUICK      |
    MARCH—HALT, FRONT.        |

_If the Column is at quarter distance, it may be marched to a flank
in Sections of threes._

  THREES RIGHT (OR            |
    LEFT) SHOULDERS           |
    FORWARD—QUICK             |
    MARCH—FORWARD.            |


_S. 32. When the Column at quarter distance, moving to front, or
rear, takes ground to the Right, or Left, by the Echellon march of
Sections._

  1. SECTIONS RIGHT (OR       | _Officers remain on their proper pivot_
    LEFT)—FORWARD.            | _flank._
  2. RE-FORM COLUMN—          |
    FORWARD.                  |

_Ground may be taken to a flank by the diagonal march._

  RIGHT (OR LEFT) HALF        |
    TURN.                     |


_S. 33. When a Column halted, at Close, or Quarter distance, is to
wheel on a fixed, or moveable pivot._

_1. At close distance on a fixed pivot._

  COLUMN TO THE RIGHT         | _The flank file of front Company will_
    (OR LEFT) WHEEL—QUICK     | _face. Remaining Companies make a half_
    (OR DOUBLE)               | _face._
    MARCH—HALT.               | _Vide S. 10. No. 6._

_2. At close distance on a moveable pivot._

  RIGHT (OR LEFT) SHOULDERS   |
    FORWARD—HALT              | _Rear Divisions will make a half turn to_
    (OR FORWARD).             | _the outward flank, and circle round._

_If the Column is to wheel in double time._

  DOUBLE—FORWARD—QUICK.       |

_3. At Quarter distance on a fixed pivot._

  RIGHT (OR LEFT) WHEEL—      | _Rear Divisions half face to the wheeling_
    QUICK (OR DOUBLE)         | _flank. The front Division will advance_
    MARCH—HALT.               | _six paces, and wheel at shortened pace_
                              | _round the Pivot, the rear Divisions_
                              | _circling round._

_4. At Quarter distance on a moveable pivot._

  RIGHT (OR LEFT) SHOULDERS   | _The Front division moves round at a short_
    FORWARD—DOUBLE—           | _pace, the pivot-man gradually advancing_
    FORWARD—QUICK.            | _in the new direction._


_S. 34. When a Close, or Quarter distance Column is to change its
front by the wheel and countermarch of Sub-divisions round the
centre._

_1. If at the halt._

  COUNTER-MARCH BY            |
    SUB-DIVISIONS ROUND THE   | _The Reverse sub-divisions face about._
    CENTRE—RIGHT (OR LEFT)    | _The whole wheel round in succession._
    SUB-DIVISIONS—RIGHT       |
    ABOUT FACE—QUICK (OR      | _ * When the leading Sub-division is in a_
    DOUBLE) MARCH—*HALT,      | _line upon the new front of the Column._
    FRONT, DRESS.             | FRONT _applies to the Reverse_
                              | _sub-divisions only._

_2. If the Column at Quarter distance is on the march._

  RIGHT (OR LEFT)             |
    SUB-DIVISIONS—RIGHT       |
    ABOUT TURN—FRONT          |
    TURN—FORWARD.             |


_S. 35. When a Column at close, or quarter distance, is to open out
to full, or half distance, from front, or rear._

_1. If from the front._

  COLUMN WILL OPEN            | _The requisite number of paces are_
    FROM THE FRONT—RIGHT      | _counted by the leaders of each Division._
    ABOUT FACE—QUICK          | Halt, Front.
    MARCH.                    |

_2. If from the rear._

  COLUMN WILL OPEN            | _Each Division leader gives_ Halt _to the_
    FROM THE REAR—QUICK       | _Company in his front, when at the ordered_
    MARCH.                    | _distance._


DEPLOYMENTS.

_Deployments are made from Column invariably on the base of the front
Company; Close columns deploy in File._


_S. 36. When the Battalion in column of Companies, at Close, or
Quarter distance (right in front), deploys into Line._


FROM CLOSE COLUMN.

_1. On the Front Company._

  DEPLOY ON THE FRONT       | _Each Company, in succession_—Front
    COMPANY—REMAINING       | turn—Halt, Dress up—Eyes front.
    COMPANIES,              |
    LEFT FACE—QUICK         |
    MARCH.                  |

_2. On the Rear Company._

  DEPLOY ON THE REAR        | _When the front of the named Company_
    COMPANY—REMAINING       | _is clear, the Officer commanding it gives_—
    COMPANIES,              | Double march—Halt, Dress up—Eyes
    RIGHT FACE—QUICK        | front—_Remaining Companies successively_
    MARCH.                  | —Halt, Front. _When uncovered_, Quick
                            | march, _and when in the alignement_, Halt,
                            | Dress up—Eyes front.

_Deployments on a central Company are performed in a similar manner.
In deploying on a rear, or central Company, the Company of formation
will be moved up in Double time._


FROM QUARTER DISTANCE COLUMN.

_3. When a Battalion in Column of Companies at quarter distance,
right in front, deploys upon its Front division._

  DEPLOY ON THE FRONT       |
    COMPANY—REMAINING       |
    COMPANIES, THREES—      |
    RIGHT SHOULDERS FORWARD |
    —QUICK (OR DOUBLE)      | Left shoulders forward—Forward—
    MARCH—FORWARD.          | Halt, Dress up—Eyes front.

_4. On a Rear Company._

  DEPLOY ON THE REAR        | _When the Front is clear, Rear Company_
    COMPANY—REMAINING       | —Double march—Halt, Dress up—Eyes
    COMPANIES, THREES—      | front. _The other Companies successively_
    LEFT SHOULDERS FORWARD  | —shoulders forward—Halt. _When uncovered_
    —QUICK MARCH—           | —Quick march—Halt, Dress up—Eyes front.
    FORWARD.                |

_The Base points are three paces in advance of the Front Company of
the Column._


ECHELLON FORMATIONS AND MOVEMENTS.

_S. 37. When a Battalion from Line wheels forward by Companies, to
either flank, into Echellon._

  1. COMPANIES ——           |
    PACES TO THE ——         |
    WHEEL—QUICK             |
    MARCH.                  | Halt, Dress.

_2. When the Echellon thus formed marches forward, and halts._

  QUICK MARCH—HALT.         |


_S. 38. When the Battalion having wheeled from Line into Echellon,
has marched, and halted, and is to form back parallel to the Line it
quitted._

  WHEEL BACK INTO           |
    LINE—QUICK MARCH.       | Halt, Dress—Eyes front.


_S. 39. When the Battalion having wheeled from Line into Echellon,
has marched and halted, and is to form up oblique to the Line it
quitted._

_1. If the Formation is made forward._

  LEADING DIVISION,         | _Leading Division_—Halt, Dress—Eyes
    —— PACES RIGHT          | front. _Remaining Divisions_—shoulders
    (OR LEFT) WHEEL—        | forward—Halt, Dress up—Eyes front.
    QUICK MARCH.            |
  FORM LINE—QUICK           |
    MARCH.                  |

_2. If the wheel of the leading Division exceed the number of paces
which it before wheeled from Line into Echellon, the others wheel up
one-half of that excess, move on, and successively dress up with it._

_3. If the formation is to be on the prolongation of the front
Division as it stands, the others wheel back one-half of what they
originally wheeled forward, then move on, and dress up with it._


_S. 40. When the Battalion formed in Line changes front on a fixed
flank Company, by throwing forward the rest of the Battalion._

  CHANGE FRONT ON ——        |
    COMPANY, RIGHT (OR      |
    LEFT) THROWN FORWARD,   |
    —— COMPANY              |
    —— PACES RIGHT          | _Company of formation_—Halt, Dress.
    (OR LEFT) WHEEL.        |
  REMAINING COMPANIES,      | _Remaining Companies—_
    —— PACES TO THE         |
    —— WHEEL—QUICK          | * Halt, Dress.
    MARCH.*                 | † —— shoulders forward—Halt, Dress
                            | up—Eyes front.
  QUICK MARCH.†             |


_S. 41. When the Battalion changes front on a fixed flank Company, by
throwing back the rest of the Battalion._

  CHANGE FRONT ON ——        | —— Company on the  —— backwards
    COMPANY, RIGHT (OR      | wheel—Quick march—Halt, Dress.
    LEFT) THROWN BACK.      |
  REMAINING COMPANIES,      |
    RIGHT ABOUT FACE,       |
    —— PACES TO THE         |
    —— WHEEL—QUICK          |
    MARCH.                  | Halt, Dress.
  QUICK MARCH (OR           | —— shoulders forward—Halt, Front,
    MARCH).                 | Dress up—Eyes front.


_S. 42. When the Battalion changes front on a central Company, by
advancing one Wing, and retiring the other._

_The Company of the Wing to be thrown back is wheeled backward, and
the Company of the wing to be brought forward is wheeled forward; or
a Central Company is wheeled upon its centre into the new direction._

  —— WING, RIGHT            |
    ABOUT FACE—COMPANIES    |
    —— PACES                |
    INWARDS WHEEL—QUICK     |
    MARCH.                  | Halt, Dress.
  QUICK MARCH.              | _Companies successively_—shoulders forward—
                            | _and when in Line, those of the advancing_
                            | _Wing receive_—Halt, Dress up: _the
                            | retiring Wing_—Halt, Front, Dress up.


_S. 43. When, from Open column, the Companies wheel backward into
Echellon, in order to form in Line on the front Company._

  1. FORM LINE ON THE       | _The front Company remains square to_
    LEADING DIVISION.       | _the Column, or is wheeled backward into_
  REMAINING DIVISIONS       | _the intended direction of the Line by its_
    —— PACES ON THE         | _Officer._
    —— BACKWARD             | _If the front Company remains square,_
    WHEEL—QUICK             | _the remaining Companies wheel back four_
    MARCH.                  | _paces, or the eighth of a circle; but if_
                            | _the direction be Oblique, then the_
                            | _remaining Companies wheel one-half the_
                            | _number wheeled by the front Company, in_
                            | _addition to the eighth of a circle_—Halt,
  QUICK MARCH.              | Dress. —— shoulders forward—Halt, Dress up
                            | —Eyes front.

_2. If the Line be formed on the rear Company of the Column, that
Company will stand fast, the others will receive._

  RIGHT ABOUT FACE,         |
    —— PACES ON THE         |
    —— BACKWARDS            |
    WHEEL—QUICK             | Halt, Dress.
    MARCH.                  | —— shoulders forward—Halt, Front,
  QUICK MARCH.              | Dress up—Eyes front.

_3. If the Line is to be formed on a rear Company, but facing to the
Rear._

  FORM LINE ON REAR         |
    COMPANY, FACING TO      |
    THE REAR.               |
  THE COLUMN WILL           |
    COUNTER-MARCH.          |
    —FACE—QUICK MARCH.      | Halt, Front, Dress—Eyes front.
    FORM LINE ON THE        |
    LEADING DIVISION.       |
  REMAINING DIVISIONS,      |
    FOUR PACES ON THE       |
    —— BACKWARD             |
    WHEEL—QUICK             | * Halt, Dress.
    MARCH.*                 | † —— shoulders forward—Halt, Dress
  QUICK MARCH.†             | up—Eyes front.

_4. If the Line be formed on a Central Company of the Column._

  FORM LINE ON THE          |
    RIGHT (OR LEFT)         |
    CENTRE COMPANY,         |
    —— WING RIGHT           |
    ABOUT FACE—FOUR         |
    PACES ON THE RIGHT      |
    (OR LEFT) BACKWARDS     |
    WHEEL—QUICK             | _All except the central Company_ Halt,
    MARCH.                  | Dress.
                            |
  QUICK MARCH.              | _Companies of Wings (except Company_
                            | _formed on_)—— shoulders forward—Halt,
                            | Dress up—Eyes front. _Or_ —— shoulders
                            | forward—Halt, Front, Dress up—Eyes
                            | front.


_S. 44. When from Line the Companies of a Battalion march off in
Echellon, successively and directly to the front; and again form Line
to the front, or flank._

_1. When the intention is to form Line to the front._

  ADVANCE IN DIRECT         |
    ECHELLON OF COMPANIES   | _When the leading Division receives_—Halt,
    FROM THE                | _the others move on, and_ Halt, Dress
    RIGHT (OR LEFT).        | up_, in line with it._

_2. When the intention is to form Line to the flank._

  FORM LINE TO THE          |
    RIGHT (OR LEFT)         | _Leading Division_—Halt, Dress—Eyes
    FLANK.                  | front.
  BY DIVISIONS, SHOULDERS   | _Remaining divisions_—Halt, Dress up—
    FORWARD—FORWARD.        | Eyes front.

_3. If a Column is to be formed to the flank, from a direct Echellon._

  FORM COLUMN IN REAR       |
    OF THE LEADING          |
    DIVISION—THREES—        |
    SHOULDERS FORWARD—      |
    FORWARD.                | —— shoulders forward—Halt, Dress.


_S. 45. When a Battalion, in Echellon of Companies, halted, or in
motion, is required to form square._

  COMPANIES RIGHT (OR       | _The formation will proceed as directed_
    LEFT) SHOULDERS         | _in Section 29._
    FORWARD—FORWARD—FORM    |
    SQUARE.                 |


_S. 46. When a Battalion marching in Line is to take ground to a
flank by the Echellon movement of Sub-divisions, or Sections._

  1. SUB-DIVISIONS (OR      |
    SECTIONS) RIGHT (OR     |
    LEFT)—FORWARD.          |

_2. When sufficient ground has been taken to the flank._

  RE-FORM LINE—FORWARD—     |
    HALT.                   |

_3. When sufficient ground has been taken in Echellon to a flank, and
a forward formation of the Line is to be made._

  FORM LINE ON THE          | _The head Division is wheeled up two_
    LEADING DIVISION.       | _paces more and halted._
                            | _Divisions successively_ —— shoulders
                            | forward. Halt, Dress up—Eyes front.

_In taking ground to a flank, if a small degree of obliquity from
the former position is to be taken, the Line may wheel forward by
Companies; if a greater, by Sub-divisions; and if a greater still, by
Sections._


LIGHT INFANTRY.

SIGNALS AND SOUNDS FOR REGULATING MOVEMENTS.

The Officers’ call—_as established, and therefore not numbered_.

  1. To extend.
  2. To close.
  3. To advance.
  4. To halt.
  5. To fire.
  6. Cease firing.
  7. To retreat.
  8. Assembly.
  9. Incline to the right.
  10. Incline to the left.
  11. The alarm.


INFANTRY SWORD EXERCISE.

Words of command throughout

THE PROGRESSIVE INSTRUCTIONS OF THE DRILL.

_The words in Italics are to serve as a caution only._


SECTION I.

EXTENSION MOTIONS, AND POSITIONS.

                              Attention.
         _First extension motions._—One—Two—Three—Four—Five.
          _First position in three motions._—One—Two—Three.
              _Second position in two motions._—One—Two.
                _Balance motions._—One—Two—Three—Four.
                          _First position._
              _Third position in two motions._—One—Two.
              _Second extension motions._—One—Two—Three.
                           First position.
                                Front.
                            Stand at ease.

                              Attention.
                              Positions.
                      First—Second—First—Third.
                      First—Second—Third—Second.
                     Single attack—Double attack.
             Advance—Single attack—Retire—Double attack.
                         Front—Stand at ease.


SECTION II.

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION WITH THE SWORD.

                              Attention.
         Draw swords—Return swords—Draw swords—Slope swords.
                            Stand at ease.


                              Attention.
                     Prepare for Sword exercise.
                  Right prove distance—Slope swords.
                  Front prove distance—Slope swords.
                               Assault.
                  One—Two—Three—Four—Five—Six—Seven.
          First Point—Two—Second Point—Two—Third Point—Two.
                               Defend.
               Second—Third—Fourth—Fifth—Sixth—Seventh.
               Parry—Two. Slope swords. Stand at ease.
                              Attention.
                  Guard—Inside guard—Outside guard.

  Cut one.             First guard.
  Cut two.             Second guard.
  Cut three.           Third guard.
  Cut four.            Fourth guard.
  Cut five.            Fifth guard.
  Cut six.             Sixth guard.
  Cut seven.           Seventh guard.
  First point.         Two.
  Second point.        Two.
  Third point.         Two.
  Parry.               Two.
  Guard.               Slope swords.
            Stand at ease.


SECTION III.

REVIEW, OR INSPECTION EXERCISE.

                              Attention.
                     Prepare for Sword exercise.
                  Right prove distance—Slope swords.
                  Front prove distance—Slope swords.
                  Guard—Inside Guard—Outside guard.
                  One—Two—Three—Four—Five—Six—Seven.
                   Points—First—Second—Third—Parry.
                         Guard—Slope swords.

SWORD PRACTICE.

                                Guard.
       _Inside, and outside Cuts._—One—Two—Three—Four—Five—Six.
                            Inside guard.
                    _Outside Cuts._—Two—Four—Six.
                            Outside guard.
                    _Inside Cuts._—One—Three—Five.
                  Guard—Slope swords—Stand at ease.


SECTION IV.

ATTACK AND DEFENCE.

                              Attention.
    Front rank, Right about face—Prepare for Attack, and Defence.
                     Prove distance—Slope swords.
                  Guard—Inside guard—Outside guard.
                  Left cheek—Right cheek—Wrist—Leg.
                      Left side—Right side—Head.
                   First point—Two—Third point—Two.
                         Guard—Slope swords.

             _Point, and Parry._—Guard—Third point—Point.
               Point (continuing as long as requisite).
                  Guard—Slope swords—Stand at ease.


SECTION V.

STICK DRILL.

_First Practice._

Guard—Continuing the same words of command and movements as in the
“Attack and Defence” in Section 4th, omitting the word “Two” in the
delivery of each point.

_Second Practice._

Guard—Continuing, &c., as the “Point and Parry,” but not exceeding
Six points.

_Third Practice._

                     Guard—Leg—Inside guard—Leg.
                Outside guard—Leg—Guard—Slope swords.

_Fourth Practice._

               Guard—Head—Head—Leg—Leg—Head—Head—Guard.
                            Slope swords.

_Fifth Practice._

                     Head—Head—Arm—Head—Head—Arm.
              Head—Head—Right side—Head—Head—Right side.
                            Slope swords.

When perfect, by Word of command, the whole of this Section is to
be performed in Quick time, by the drill officer naming only the
practice required, but first giving the caution—_Stick drill by
practice divisions._


INSTRUCTIONS FOR PITCHING, AND STRIKING TENTS.

1. Whenever possible, the quartermaster, or an officer acting for
him, with a non-commissioned officer and a camp colourman per
company, will precede the corps to be encamped.

2. This officer will take up ground for the companies’ and the
officers’ and other tents, &c., according to the directions he may
have received, to conform to one or other of the methods laid down in
the “Regulations for Encampments,” marking by a picket the spot to be
occupied by each tent-pole, and taking care that the lines of tents
are perpendicular and correctly covered.

3. Before arriving in camp the men will be told off for their several
functions as pole-men, peg-men, and unpackers of tents, two men being
allotted for each of these duties, and six in all for every tent.
More than this number only impede each other.

Each tent requires, therefore, one section of threes to pitch, or
strike it.

4. From the remainder of the company the parties will be told off
for provisions, wood, water, fire, guards and pickets, and for the
pitching of the officers’ orderly-room, store-room, guard-tents, &c.

To each tent, as far as possible, a non-commissioned officer will be
told off.

5. It is known that the soldiers’ tent, with its cords, occupies a
space of nearly 6 yards—that is, between 7 and 8 paces from pole to
pole.

6. The pole-men, being stationed at the spots indicated by the
pickets, the pole is lowered, and the cap of the tent fixed on, and
all things prepared for the raising of the tent. On the signal, or
word of command, the whole of the poles are raised together, the
skirt of the tent being lifted over the poleman’s head.

7. It will be remembered, that, to insure stability, four of the
cords which divide the circumference accurately into quarters, must
be first made fast before any of the others.

8. Each cord must be stretched on the true prolongation of the tent
seam.

9. The slides must be made fast at an equal distance from the tent
and the ground peg, so as to permit shifting, as expansion or
contraction of the cord ensues on atmospheric changes.

10. The non-commissioned officer sees that the door is properly
placed, and attends especially to the fastenings of the first four
pegs, with a view to the general uprightness of the pole and security
of the tent, under the general superintendence of the company’s
officers; one being stationed at the flank, the more easily to detect
and correct errors.

11. In order to strike the tents, all the pegs are drawn except
the four first driven, and four men place themselves at these in
readiness for the signal; they draw these pegs, and hold down the
tent till the signal be given.

12. On the signal, the pole-men lower the poles to the rear, and come
out by the door, bringing the poles with them.

13. In rolling up the tent, the cap is turned on one side, in such a
manner as shall make it visible at one end when the tent is rolled.
This prevents the cap from cutting the tent.




PART II.

ROYAL ARTILLERY.


CARBINE EXERCISE.

MANUAL EXERCISE.

  Present arms.
  Shoulder arms.
  Order arms.
  Shoulder arms.
  Slope arms.
  Stand at ease.
  Attention.
  Carry arms.
  Trail arms.
  Shoulder arms.
  Order arms.
  Trail arms.
  Order arms.
  Fix bayonets.
  Shoulder arms.
  Charge bayonets.
  Shoulder arms.
  Order arms.
  Unfix bayonets.
  Stand at ease.


PLATOON EXERCISE.

  _1. As a front rank standing._
  _2. As a rear rank standing._
  _3. As a front rank kneeling._
  _4. As a rear rank kneeling._
     _As front rank standing_, Load.
      Handle cartridge.
      Draw ramrods.
      Ram down cartridge.
      Return ramrods.
      ’Bout.
      Prime.
  _As front rank_—Ready.
      Present.
      Load, _as before directed_.
      ’Bout.
      Prime.
      Shoulder arms.
  _As rear rank standing_—Ready.
      Present.
      Load.
      &c., &c.


TO FIRE KNEELING.

  _As front rank kneeling_—Ready.
      Present.
      Load, _as before directed_.
      ’Bout.
      Prime.
      Order, or Shoulder arms.
  _As rear rank kneeling_—Ready.
      Present.
      Load, _as before directed_.
      ’Bout.
      Prime.
      Order, or Shoulder arms.
    _Wing or Battalion: Company,_
      _prepare to load._ Load.
    _Company, Wing,_  } Ready.
      _or Battalion._ } Present.
      Half-cock arms.
      Shoulder arms.

  _To fire a volley, and half-cock._
      Ready.
      Present.
      Shoulder arms.


INSPECTION OF A COMPANY.

  Double distance—Rear rank take open order—March.
  Port arms.
  Half-cock arms.
  Ease springs.
  Shoulder arms.
  Order arms.
  Examine arms.
  Return ramrods.
  Fix bayonets.


DISMISSAL OF A COMPANY.

  Recover arms.
  Right face.
  Lodge arms.


TO FIRE A FEU-DE-JOIE.

  With blank cartridge—Load.
  Ready.
  Present.

_Commence firing from the right,
and then reload._

_After the third fire._

  Shoulder arms.
  Present arms.
  Shoulder arms.
  Order arms.
  Three cheers.


FUNERAL EXERCISE.

  Present arms.
  Reverse arms.
  Rest upon your arms reversed.
  Stand at ease.
  Attention.
  Reverse arms.
  Rest upon your arms reversed.
  Present arms.
  Shoulder arms.
  With blank cartridge—Load.
  Ready.
  Present.

_After the third round._

  Shoulder arms.
  Rear rank take close order—March.

On all occasions the percussion Carbine, when capped, or having
the snap-cap on, is to be kept at the half-cock, either when the
soldier is on duty, or at drill, or when the carbine is lodged in
the arm-rack of the guard-room or barrack-room; and on no account
whatever is the cock to be allowed to remain down upon the cap at
any time, except during the interval between the words of command,
“Fire,” and “Load,” in the Platoon exercise.


SWORD, ROYAL ARTILLERY.

                                 lb.   oz.
  Weight  { Sword                 2    7½ }  4 lb.
          { Scabbard, steel       1    8½ }

                                  inches.
  Length  { Blade                  28¾    } 33¾ inches.
          { Handle                  5     }

Light Cavalry pattern of 1822, for Royal Horse Artillery.

                                 lb.   oz.
  Weight  { Sword                 2    5  }  4 lb. 6 oz.
          { Scabbard, steel       2    1  }

                                  inches.
  Length  { Blade                   35    } 40¾ inches.
          { Handle                   5¾   }


CAVALRY, SWORD EXERCISE.

Review, or Inspection exercise.

                  Right prove distance—Slope swords.
                  Front prove distance—Slope swords.
        Perform Sword exercise—First division—Second division.


The time to be taken from the Flugleman as follows:—

  _Words of Command._            _Flugleman._
  Right prove distance             Right.
  Slope swords                     Right.
  Front prove distance             Right.
  Slope swords                     Right.

  Perform sword exercise.

  Engage                           Right.
  Right guard                      Right.
  Left guard                       Right.

  Assault 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, Left and Right.
  Right defend, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, Parry Right.
  Left defend, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th.
        Parry                Right and Left.
        Slope swords                   Left.

      FIRST DIVISION.     |     SECOND DIVISION.
  Assault          Left.  | Assault             Left.
  One              Left.  | One                 Left.
  Point            Left.  | Point               Right.
  Two              Right. | Two                 Right.
  Point            Right. | Point               Left.
  Three            Right. | Three               Right.
  Point            Right. | Point               Left.
  Four             Left.  | Four                Left.
  Point            Left.  | Point               Right.
  Five             Left.  | Five                Left.
  Point            Left.  | Point               Right.
  Six              Right. | Six                 Right.
  Point            Right. | Point               Left.
  Seven            Right. | Seven               Right.
  Point            Right. | Point          Right rear.
  Slope swords     Right. | Slope swords   Right rear.


FORMATION FOR SWORD EXERCISE ON FOOT.

  Officers take post in front.        Right prove distance.
  Quick march.                        Slope swords.
  From the inward flanks of wings     Front prove distance.
      tell off by Threes.             Slope swords.
  From the right of the left wing     Sword exercise.
      open your files.                First division.
  Quick march.                        Second division.
  From the right of threes to the     Eyes right.
      front, File.                    Return swords.
  Quick march.                        Front form line.
  Halt.                               Quick march.
  Prepare for sword exercise.         Close to the right of the
  Eyes right.                             left wing.
  Draw swords.                        Inwards face.
  Slope swords.                       Quick march.


FORMATION FOR SWORD EXERCISE MOUNTED.

  From the right of threes to the     Slope swords.
      front, File.                    Sword exercise.
  March.                              First division.
  Halt.                               Second division.
  Right prove distance.               Front form ranks.
  Slope swords.                       March.
  Front prove distance.


OFFICERS’ SALUTE.

The Officers to be formed in line at four paces distant from each
other, “Standing at ease” with the point of the sword lowered between
the feet, the edge to the right, and left hand covering the right.

ATTENTION—Carry swords.

REAR RANK TAKE OPEN ORDER—“Recover swords” and move forward an
oblique pace to the left, so as to be placed in front, and just clear
of the second File.

MARCH—Advance three paces to the front, and bring the sword to the
“Port,” the blade being diagonally across the body, the edge upwards,
and arms nearly extended; the left elbow bent with the hand as
high, and in front of the shoulder; holding the blade between the
forefinger and thumb, the knuckles to the front, and elbows close to
the side.

PRESENT ARMS—“Recover swords” at the second motion of the carbine;
and at the third motion lower the sword (to the full extent of the
arm) to the right, with the edge to the left, and point in the
direction of the right foot, the elbow close to the side, at the
same time raising the left arm as high as the shoulder, and bringing
the hand round by a circular motion over the peak of the cap, the
knuckles uppermost, and fingers extended.

SHOULDER ARMS—“Recover swords” at the first motion of the carbine;
and at the second motion “Port swords.”

REAR RANK TAKE CLOSE ORDER—“Right face;” and as the right foot is
drawn to the rear, “Recover swords.”

MARCH—Move back into the front Rank. “Front” and “Carry swords.”

The Salute on the march is to commence when at ten paces from the
Reviewing officer, the Officer on the right giving the signal to
prepare the other Officers by raising the fingers of the left
hand two paces, previous to saluting; the sword is then raised by
extending the arm to the right, and by a circular motion brought to
the “Recover;” and continuing the motion to the right shoulder, from
whence the sword is lowered, and the left hand is then gradually
raised over the peak of the cap in the manner before directed. The
time for completing the salute is six paces, commencing with the left
foot, and may be divided (for Drill practice) as follows:—First pace,
the sword raised to the right; Second pace, to the “Recover;” Third
pace, to the right shoulder; Fourth pace, the sword lowered to the
right; Fifth pace, the left arm raised; Sixth pace, hand brought to
the peak of the cap.

The head should be slightly turned towards the Reviewing Officer,
whilst passing him, and having done so six paces, and given the
signal (as before) “Recover swords” at one pace, and in “Port” the
following pace.

The same time is given for the Salute when mounted (which is to be
completed in four motions), but the sword should then be kept in a
line with the knee.

On the march, or when manœuvring, the sword may be carried to the
full extent of the arm, the guard of the hilt resting upon the inside
of the fingers, the back of the blade being against the hollow of the
shoulder.




PART III.

ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES, ETC.


ORDNANCE.

GUNS.

_Guns are distinguished_ from each other by their metal, and weight
of their shot.

_A Gun is divided into five parts_, which are named _Cascable_,
_First reinforce_, _Second reinforce_, _Chase_, _Muzzle_.

The metal is made thicker towards the breech than at the muzzle,
to strengthen the piece, for the elastic force of the Gunpowder is
there greatest, and diminishes in power as the space it occupies is
extended. The metal is made thinner towards the muzzle to make the
gun lighter.

_The Dispart_ is half the difference between the diameter of the
Gun at the base ring and at the swell of the muzzle. By affixing on
the muzzle a piece of metal equal to the height of the dispart, the
line of sight will be made parallel to the axis of the bore, and
therefore an object within point blank range can be seen. Howitzers,
and some guns which have a patch or projection on the upper part of
the muzzle, have no dispart, the semi-diameter of the muzzle with the
patch added to it being equal to the semi-diameter of the base ring.
Iron ordnance (Bloomfield’s) are intended to have a degree and a half
dispart, but the founder is allowed two-tenths of an inch variation
in casting Iron ordnance, for any difference which there may be
between the intended and actual diameter of the base ring and muzzle.

Light Brass Field Guns 12, 6, and 3-pounders have a dispart of one
degree, and Medium 12-pounders and 9-pounders have one degree and a
quarter.

_The Angle of dispart_ is the number of degrees the axis of the bore
would point above the object aimed at, when laid by the surface of
the gun.

_Point blank range_ is when the piece is laid at the object without
any elevation; the plane and the axis of the bore being parallel to
each other. _Its distance is measured_ from the muzzle of the piece
(fired with the service charge of powder) to the first graze of the
shot, or point at which it first touches the ground.

When a Shot is fired from a gun, it is acted upon by three forces:—

1st. The explosion of the Powder, which urges it forward.

2nd. The resistance of the Air, which tends to stop it.

3rd. The force of gravity, which causes it to descend.

[Illustration: A BRASS GUN.

NAMES OF THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A GUN.

  AB   _Length of the Gun_
  AC   _First Reinforce_
  CD   _Second Reinforce_
  DE   _Chase_
  EB   _Muzzle_
  FA   _Cascable_
  GH   _Bore_
  RH   _Axis of the Piece_
  I    _Trunnions_
  L    _Vent Field_
  N    _Vent_
  O    _Swell of the Muzzle_
  VAK  _Breech_
  S    _Button_
  ab   _Button Astragal_
  cd   _Neck_
  ef   _Neck Fillet_
  g    _Breech Ogee_
  h    _Base Ring_
  i    _Base Ring Ogee_
  k    _Vent Field Astragal & Fillets_
  l    _First Reinforce Ring_
  m    _Second Reinforce Ring & Ogee_
  n    _Muzzle Astragal & Fillets_
  o    _Muzzle Mouldings_
  s    _Shoulder of the Trunnion_
  tu   _Diameter of the Bore or Calibre_]

When a Shot has been fired from a gun one second of time, it has
fallen 16-1/12 feet; in two seconds, 64⅓ feet; in three seconds, 144¾
feet; and proportionally for every additional second.[4] For this
reason, it is necessary to give a certain degree of elevation to a
gun: as, for instance, should _the time of flight_ of a shot be two
seconds, the gun must be pointed 64⅓ feet above the object intended
to be struck, because in that time it will have fallen through that
space; therefore, the more distant the object is, the greater must be
the elevation given to enable the shot to reach it.

_There are three modes of extending the range of a Shot_ without
increasing the charge of powder, viz.:—

1st. By raising the piece to a higher level.

2nd. By giving its axis greater elevation.

3rd. By excentric projectiles; recent experiments having shown that
if the centre of gravity is placed directly above the centre of
figure the range is greatly increased.[5]

_A Tangent scale_ is affixed to the breech of Guns and Howitzers, by
means of which the requisite elevation may be given, and the object
seen at the same time. This scale has divisions, called degrees,
marked on it, and it is placed in a groove at the breech, from which
it can be raised (being fastened by a screw) to give the necessary
elevation.

_The divisions on the Tangent scale_ are found by multiplying the
length of the piece in inches, from the base ring to the swell of
the muzzle, by ·017455, and the product will give the length nearly
of each degree or division on the tangent scale. By subtracting the
dispart from this product, the length of the tangent scale above the
base ring for one degree of elevation will be obtained.

_The Sights of a gun_ are two small notches marked on the upper part
of the base ring (or on the top of the tangent scale) and swell of
the muzzle. Their situation is ascertained by means of a spirit level.

_The line of metal_ is an imaginary line drawn along the surface of
the metal between the two sights.

_The line of metal Elevation_ is obtained by laying a Gun at an
object by means of the sights, without giving any elevation; from the
thickness of metal at the breech, the line of metal elevation varies
from one to two degrees.

_The Centre of metal_ is indicated by a line drawn through the
uppermost point of the base ring and swell of the muzzle; and is
ascertained by means of a spirit level.

_Windage_ is the difference between the diameter of the bore, and
that of the shot. The windage formerly allowed was one-twentieth the
diameter of the shot, but it is now reduced considerably: (Field Guns
having only one-tenth of an inch) and this diminution of windage is
very beneficial, longer ranges being obtained with the same charges
of powder, and also greater precision of fire.

_The Vent_, for every nature of Ordnance, is two-ninths of an inch in
diameter.

_Bouching a gun_ is fixing a pure copper vent into it; which is done
by drilling a hole in the piece, where the vent is usually placed,
about one inch in diameter, and screwing therein a piece of wrought
copper with a vent of two-ninths of an inch through the centre of it.

_Tertiating a gun_ is examining the thickness of metal, whether the
bore is perfectly straight, the trunnions properly placed, &c. It is
performed by means of calliper compasses, and other instruments.

_Quadrating a gun_ is ascertaining if it is properly placed on its
carriage, and if the wheels are of an equal height.

_A Gun is honeycombed_ when the surface of the bore has cavities, or
holes in it.

_The Length of a gun_ is ascertained by measuring it from the rear of
the base ring to the face of the muzzle.

_The Calibre of a gun_ is the diameter of the bore.


_To find the length of a gun, in feet and inches, its length in
Calibres being known—_

Divide the product of the number of Calibres and the diameter of the
bore, in inches, by 12, and the quotient will be the length in feet
and inches.


_To find the Number of calibres in the Length of a gun._

Divide the length of the gun in inches by the number of inches in the
calibre.


_Gun metal_ is a compound of 8 lb. or 10 lb. of tin, to 100 lb. of
copper. The property of tin being to harden, the largest proportion
(10 lb.) is used for mortars, they requiring a greater degree of
hardness than guns.

Ordnance cast of gun metal are generally designated _Brass Ordnance_.

_Brass guns_ are used for field batteries, they having been
considered preferable to iron for the service, being lighter than
iron guns could be cast of the same calibre, without risking their
bursting.

_Brass guns_ are, however, soon rendered unserviceable by repeated
and quick firing.

_Iron guns_ are better adapted for batteries in the attack or defence
of towns or fortresses, and also for service on board ship; being
less expensive than brass, and better able to sustain long-continued
and rapid firing. At the siege of Badajoz the firing continued for
104 hours, and the number of rounds fired from each 24-pounder
averaged 1249; at the siege of St. Sebastian, each piece fired
about 350 rounds in 15½ hours. None of these guns were rendered
unserviceable; but three times the number of brass guns would have
been required to produce the same effect, or maintain such long and
rapid firing.


_Service Charges of powder._

  For heavy guns      ⅓ the weight of the shot.
  For light do.       ¼       do.      do.

_The Point blank range of Iron_ 32, 24, 18, and 12-pounders with
solid shot varies from 380 to 260 yards; from which to 1200 yards,
every ¼ degree increases the range about 100 yards; and from 1200 to
1500 yards, every ¼ degree increases the range about 50 yards.

_The Point blank range of Brass_, Medium 12, 9, and Heavy 6-pounders,
with solid shot, is 300 yards, and from which to 700 yards, every ¼
degree elevation increases the range 100 yards; from 700 to 1000,
every ¼ degree increases it 75 yards, and from 1000 to 1200, every ¼
degree increases it 50 yards.

_The Point blank range of Brass_, Light 12, 6, and 3-pounders is 200
yards, from which to 600 yards, each ¼ degree increases the range 100
yards, and from 600 to 1000, each ¼ degree increases it 50 yards.

_Note._—For Weights, Dimensions, Ranges, Charges, &c., vide Tables.


HOWITZERS.

_Howitzers_ are a short description of Ordnance, either Brass or
Iron, and are used for projecting Shells. Their principal advantages
are that they can be more easily loaded, and are considerably
lighter, in proportion to their calibre, than Guns; and they also
may be used as Mortars. They have no dispart, the diameter of the
base ring and swell of the muzzle being equal, except in the 24 and
12-pounders; which, however, are provided with a patch to make up the
difference.

_Millar’s howitzers_ differ from the old pattern in the increased
length, being from six to ten calibres; and in the conical form given
to their Chambers (called _Gomer_) which are the frustrum of a cone,
terminating in an hemisphere.

_Note._—Vide Tables for Weights, Dimensions, Ranges, Charges, &c.


CARRONADES.

_A Carronade_ is a short piece of Iron Ordnance, with a loop under
the reinforce instead of trunnions. Its construction is materially
different to that of guns; having a chamber; a part scooped out
inside the muzzle forming a cup; also a patch on the reinforce. They
take their name from the Carron Foundry (where they were first cast
for the Navy in 1779), are considerably lighter than Guns of similar
calibres, and are fired with charges of about one-twelfth the weight
of the shot.

Carronades are chiefly used on board ship, but occasionally in
casemates, and retired flanks of fortresses.

  _The highest charge_ is one-eighth the weight of the shot.
  _The lowest charge_     one-sixteenth    do.       do.

_Note._—For Weights, Dimensions, Ranges, &c., vide Tables.


MORTARS.

Mortars differ from Guns in the construction of their bore, and also
in their form, which is considerably shorter, the metal being much
thicker, and the trunnions being at the extremity of the breech.

They are used for throwing Shells into a town, or battery, setting
fire to and overthrowing works, blowing up magazines, and breaking
through the roofs of barracks, casemates, magazines, &c. They are
distinguished from each other by the diameter of their bore. Their
chambers are in the form of a frustrum of a cone, in which the powder
is more concentrated; the Shell fits close to the sides of the
piece, and thereby receives the whole force of the expansion of the
powder. The greatest charges their chambers will contain, and the
corresponding Ranges, are as follows:—

                      13-inch.           10-inch.           18-inch.
                    Land Service.      Land Service.      Land Service.
  Greatest charge      9 pounds.          4 pounds.          2 pounds.
  Greatest range    2706 yards.        2536 yards.        1726 yards.

_When Mortars are used in firing on Inclined planes, up or down
hill_, should the inclination be considerable, take half the angle it
makes with the horizon, and add it to, or subtract it from 45 degrees
(which is for a medium plane), and it will give _the greatest range
upon the required plane_.

_Note._—Vide Tables of Dimensions, Weight, Charges, Ranges, &c.


VALUE OF ORDNANCE.

BRASS ORDNANCE.

Dependent on the market price of metals; at £100 per ton, after their
combination, the value of gun metal is from 4 pence to 4½ pence per
lb.


IRON ORDNANCE.

The value is variable according to the market price. Average from £14
to £16 per ton, according to the nature of the ordnance, the higher
price being the value of the smaller pieces.


PROOF OF ORDNANCE.

All natures of Ordnance undergo several kinds of proof before they
are received into the service:—

1st. They are gauged as to their several dimensions, internal and
external; as to the justness and position of the bore, the chamber,
vent, and trunnions, &c.

2nd. They are fired with a regulated charge of powder and shot, being
afterwards searched to discover irregularities, or holes produced by
the firing.

3rd. By means of engines, an endeavour is made to force water through
them.

4th. They are examined internally by means of light, reflected from a
mirror.


IRON GUNS.

The guns are first examined as to their proper dimensions, in which
no more than ·3 of an inch variation is allowed; and in the diameters
of the bore only ·033 from 42 to 18 pounders, and ·025 from 12 to 6
pounders; but in the position of the bore ·5 of an inch out of the
axis of a piece from a 42 to an 18 pounder, and ·334 of an inch from
a 12 to a 6 pounder is allowed.

They are then fired twice with the charge in the following table,
with one shot and two high junk wads, and examined with a searcher
after each round.

In this examination they must not have any hole or cavity in the bore
of two-tenths of an inch in depth behind the first reinforce ring, or
one-fourth of an inch in depth before this ring.

                           PROOF CHARGES.
  Nature       42 Pr.  32 Pr.  24 Pr.  18 Pr.  12 Pr.  9 Pr.  6 Pr.  3 Pr.
  Charge, in }
    pounds   } 25      21½     18      15      12      9      6      3


BRASS GUNS.

From 3 to 12 pounders the diameter of the bore must not vary more
than ·025 of an inch, nor in any dimensions more than ·2.

                           PROOF CHARGES.
  Nature       12 Pr. medium.  12 Pr. light.  9 Pr.  6 Pr.  3 Pr.
  Charge        4 lb.           4 lb.         3 lb.  2 lb.  1 lb.

The 12 pounders are fired twice, the remainder three times. Any hole
·15 of an inch upwards, or sideways in the bore, or ·1 in the bottom,
between the breech and first reinforce; or ·2 of an inch upwards, or
sideways, or ·15 in the bottom of the bore before the first reinforce
ring, will be sufficient to condemn them.


MORTARS, AND HOWITZERS.

The exterior dimensions are in no respect to deviate more than ·1
of an inch in the 10, and 8 inch Howitzers, and ·05 of an inch in
the 24, and 12 pounder Howitzers, and Royal and Coehorn Mortars, and
Howitzers. Their bores and chambers must not deviate from their true
diameters, or positions more than ·025 of an inch.

PROOF CHARGES.

The Brass Mortars, and Howitzers are fired twice with their chambers
full of powder, and an iron shell. The Mortars on their own beds
at an elevation of about 75 degrees, and the Howitzers on their
carriages at an elevation of about 12 degrees. The Iron Mortars are
proved with a charge equal to the full chamber, and a solid shot
equal in diameter to the shell. Royal or Coehorn Mortars, and also
24, and 12 pounders, or Royal Howitzers, having a hole of ·1 of an
inch in depth in the chamber, or ·15 of an inch in the chase are
rejected. A hole ·15 of an inch in depth in the chamber, or ·2 of
an inch in the chase is sufficient to condemn the 10 and 8 inch
Howitzers.


CARRONADES.

The bores, and chambers of Carronades must not deviate more than ·05
of an inch from their true dimensions, and positions.

PROOF CHARGES.

They are proved with two rounds, with their chambers full of powder,
and one shot and wad. A hole of ·2 of an inch in depth in the bore,
or ·1 in the chamber condemns the piece.

WATER PROOF.

_All Ordnance_, after having undergone the before-mentioned proofs,
and the subsequent searchings, are subject to the _Water proof_. This
is done by means of a forcing pump, having a pipe or hose fitted and
secured to the mouth of the piece, and a plug to stop up the vent.

After two or three efforts to force the water through any honeycombs
or flaws, which there may be in the bore, they are left to dry, and
generally the next day examined by light reflected from a mirror. If
the bore should contain any small holes or flaws, which have not been
discovered by the former proofs, they are very readily found by this,
as the water will continue to weep or run from the holes, after the
solid parts of the bore are perfectly dry.

_When a gun bursts in proving_, the remainder in proof at the same
time are subjected to another proof round.

_Ordnance condemned_, for any of the foregoing reasons as
unserviceable, is marked as follows:—

  D × for faulty in dimensions.
  S × by Searcher.
  W × by Water proof.

_Condemned Shells_ are thus marked:—

  F — for Fuze hole faulty.
  N × for Non-concentric.
  W × for Water proof.


INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CARE AND PRESERVATION OF IRON ORDNANCE.

Great attention should be paid to the care and preservation of iron
Ordnance when in Depôt or on Service, to prevent the irreparable
injury Guns sustain from rust and corrosion.

With this view the first step to be taken is to clear their bores
and exterior surfaces from all rust and dirt, which is done on the
inside with circular Spring Scrapers, fixed on the end of a long
shaft or handle, these scrapers are made to press strongly on the
sides of the cylinder, and by being drawn backwards and forwards by
two or three efficient labourers, will remove the rust, and if not in
a very bad state, will restore a regular smooth surface; the bottom
or end of the bore is also scraped with a tool for that purpose, and
the vent is opened by passing a square steel rimer of its diameter
through it, gently turning the tool round until the vent is clear;
after which the bore must be well brushed out, first with a hard
round brush, and then with a Turk’s-head brush, so that not the least
dirt remains in it. This being performed, the first coat of lacquer
may be laid on, to which when dry, a second is to be added. This is
done with a common painter’s brush, fixed vertically on the end of a
staff sufficiently long to reach down the cylinder; and the bottom of
the bore is lacquered by another brush fixed horizontally at the end
of the staff; the outside or exterior parts of the pieces are also
to be well scraped with an old sea-service sword, or steel tool of
that nature, tolerably sharp, especially about the mouldings, where
former coatings and dirt have accumulated, and when the rust will not
give way, it should be slightly hammered, so as to loosen it. These
operations must be continued until the whole coat of old paint, rust,
or dirt, is completely removed, after which the dust must be well
brushed or rubbed off, and the piece will then be fit to receive its
first coat of anticorrosion, to which, when dry, a second is to be
added.

Before the work is commenced the pieces should be arranged as nearly
as possible in the places where they are to remain, as too much
rolling is apt to disturb the coating of paint, especially before it
has gained sufficient hardness to be durable.

The following objects also require to be particularly attended
to—viz.:

In skidding Guns, &c., care must be taken that they are laid under
metal, so that their muzzles may be sufficiently inclined downwards
to prevent rain or any moisture lodging, and the bores from time to
time should be swept out, as dust or sand blowing into them and being
suffered to remain, would be very destructive; nor should the Guns be
ever stacked one over the other, if the space where they are kept is
sufficiently large to admit of their being laid in single tiers.

After the Ordnance is once got into a complete state of preservation,
by following these instructions, very little trouble or expense will
attend their being kept so, for a slight coat of anticorrosion on the
exterior, and a thin coat of lacquer in the cylinder every three or
four years, is all they will require, provided they are every now and
then brushed out as before stated.

On coating the Guns, it may be found useful to let the painter mark
on them the date, which will show how long it lasts, as this may
differ at different stations, especially such as are exposed to much
damp air, and it will afford the means of calculating the necessary
demands of articles for this purpose at stated periods.

The same rules are to be observed in the preservation of all iron
Ordnance mounted on works, with regard to the application of lacquer
and anticorrosion, and the precautions of keeping the pieces laid
under metal, and frequently brushing out their bores, &c., as
recommended in the foregoing instructions.


MIXTURE OF INGREDIENTS FOR COATING AND LACQUERING IRON ORDNANCE.

                                     lb.
  Anticorrosion                      40
  Black (Grant’s) ground in oil       4
  Red lead, as a drier                3
  Linseed oil, gallons             4
  Turpentine (spirits of) pint     1

This mixture, when well stirred and incorporated, will be fit for
use, but, as by long keeping in this state it becomes hard, no more
should be mixed than is required for present use.


BLACK LEAD LACQUER, FOR THE BORE OR CYLINDER.

                                 lb.  oz.
  Black lead (Cumberland)         9
  Linseed oil, gallons        4
  Red lead                        2    8
  Lamp black, or wad              0    4

The oil to be boiled, and the paint to be well ground. This will
keep. Great care should be taken in boiling the oil, as any damp
falling in would cause an explosion.


INSTRUCTIONS FOR LACQUERING SHOT, AND SHELLS.

All Shot and Shells (including Shrapnell) are first to be cleaned
exteriorly by the machine or otherwise, and then such as are found
sufficiently correct and up to their proper gauge are to be twice
lacquered with the following composition, leaving sufficient time
between for the coats to become perfectly dry and hard. The warmest
weather is the proper time for this operation. Ten labourers can
examine, clean, and lacquer with two coats one thousand shot in a
day, provided the weather be favourable.

COMPOSITION.

Grant’s black 40 lb. Red lead 5 lb. Raw linseed oil 5 gallons.

The red lead is to be ground into a part of the oil, in order that
the whole of the ingredients may be thoroughly incorporated.


TO RENDER ORDNANCE UNSERVICEABLE BY SPIKING, ETC.

The most effectual method of rendering Guns unserviceable, or of
no further use, is by removing one or both of the trunnions, which
may be done by striking it near its end with a sledge hammer; or by
firing a shot against it from a carronade, or howitzer, the muzzle of
the piece being placed near the trunnion.

Brass Ordnance may also be rendered unserviceable by firing whole
or broken shot into the bore from another piece; or by filing a
shot against the chase, which generally bulges the metal within the
bore.[6]

_For spiking Ordnance_, two kinds of spikes are used:—

1st. _The Common spike_, which is 4 inches long, ·27 inches in
diameter at the head, and about ·1 at the point. It is driven as far
as it will go into the vent, and afterwards broken off close to the
gun.

2nd. _The Spring or temporary spike_, which is ·17 in diameter, and
varies in length from 3·25 to 5·25 inches. It has a flat head to
prevent its falling through the vent into the bore, and also a spring
about two inches in length, which extends from the point towards the
head. In passing through the vent, this is compressed, but as soon as
it is clear of the metal, it expands and cannot be withdrawn, unless
it is again compressed sufficiently to allow its being again drawn
into the vent, which may be done by pressing a rammer head against
it, provided the spring is towards the muzzle, which may be known by
a small notch cut in the head of the spike to point out its direction.

A long spike with a soft point may be driven into the vent, and the
end projecting into the bore clenched; which, as well as either
a common nail or even a wooden peg would answer as a temporary
expedient if a proper spike were not at hand. Should a momentary
abandonment of the guns become unavoidable, by taking away the
cap-squares, elevating screws, quoins, linch-pins, or side-arms, the
Enemy will be prevented using them for some time.

An artilleryman should, however, _never forget_ that the _guns are
his Standard_, which it should be his pride and glory to defend to
_the last moment_, never deserting them without positive orders to do
so, or until the last glimmering hope of saving them is destroyed.
But should the necessity of abandoning the guns appear imperative,
then let the Artillerist remember that a _parting shot_ (especially
canister) at the advancing columns of the enemy, may insure not only
his own safety, but also that of a large portion of the army.


UNSPIKING ORDNANCE.

_If a gun has been spiked with a Common steel spike_, load with a
charge of powder equal to half the shot’s weight: lay a leader of
quick match along the bore, and double shot the gun, introducing the
shot, however, very carefully.

By affixing a piece of slow match to the end of the quick match which
reaches to the muzzle, the gun may be easily and safely fired. Should
the spike not be removed, the operation may be repeated.

_When Brass guns have been spiked_, it would be advisable, a day or
two before making the above experiment, to scratch round the spike
with a graver, and pour a few drops of Sulphuric, or Nitric acid into
the circle, which, being repeated, will find its way down between
the spike and the metal, particularly if the former is not perfectly
round. When the gun cannot be unspiked by the above-mentioned
operations, make a large fire round the breech to soften the spike,
and after the gun has been gradually cooled, the spike may generally
be removed by using the drill.

_When a gun cannot be unspiked_, the only means of rendering it
serviceable is to drill another vent, about half an inch from the
original one.

_To drill a new Vent_ will require about an hour per inch. Care must
be taken that a very small drill is first used, and afterwards one
rather less than the diameter of the vent, otherwise the vent will
run the risk of being too much enlarged.

     _Length, Weight, Calibre, Charge, &c., of Ordnance._
  +-----------+----------+---------------------+-------+--------+
  |           |          |       Length.       |       |        |
  |           |          |                     |       |        |
  |           |          +-----------+---------+       |        |
  |           |Nature of |In feet and|   In    |Weight.|Calibre.|
  |           | piece.   |   inches. |Calibres.|       |        |
  +-----------+----------+-----------+---------+-------+--------+
  |           |          |  ft. in.  |         | cwt.  | inches.|
  |           | 10-Inch  |   9   4   |  11·    |  85   | 10·    |
  |           |  8       |   9       |  13·3   |  65   |  8·05  |
  |           |          |   8  10   |  13·05  |  60   |  8·05  |
  |           |          |   8       |  11·82  |  52   |  8·05  |
  |           |          |   6   8   |   9·93  |  50   |  8·05  |
  |           | 68 Pr.   |  10  10   |  16·15  | 112   |  8·12  |
  |           |          |  10       |  14·78  |  95   |  8·12  |
  |           |          |   9   6   |  14·    |  87   |  8·12  |
  |           | 56 Pr.   |  11       |  17·6   |  98   |  7·65  |
  |           |          |  10       |  16·    |  87   |  7·65  |
  |           | 42 Pr.   |  10       |  17·21  |  84   |  6·97  |
  |           |          |  10       |  17·21  |  75   |  6·97  |
  |           |          |   9   6   |  16·43  |  67   |  6·93  |
  |           | 32 Pr.   |   9   7   |  17·95  |  64   |  6·41  |
  |           |          |   9   6   |  17·78  |  56   |  6·41  |
  |           |          |   9       |  16·35  |  46   |  6·35  |
  |           |          |   8   6   |  16·    |  45   |  6·35  |
  |           |          |   8       |  14·9   |  48   |  6·41  |
  |           |          |   8       |  15·1   |  42   |  6·35  |
  |           |  *       |   7   6   |  14·1   |  40   |  6·35  |
  |           |  *       |   6   6   |  12·38  |  32   |  6·3   |
  |           |  *       |   6       |  11·4   |  25   |  6·3   |
  |           | 24 Pr.   |   9   6   |  19·57  |  50   |  5·82  |
  |           |          |   9       |  18·54  |  48   |  5·82  |
  |           |          |   6   6   |  13·39  |  33   |  5·82  |
  |           | 18 Pr.   |   9       |  18·52  |  42   |  5·29  |
  |           |          |   8       |  18·14  |  38   |  5·29  |
  |           |  *       |   7       |  16·24  |  22   |  5·17  |
  |           |  *       |   6       |  13·92  |  20   |  5·17  |
  |           |  *       |   5   6   |  12·76  |  15   |  5·17  |
  |           | 12 Pr.   |   9       |  23·14  |  34   |  4·62  |
  |           |          |   8   6   |  22·    |  33   |  4·62  |
  |           |          |   7   6   |  19·46  |  29   |  4·62  |
  |           |          |   6       |  15·57  |  21   |  4·62  |
  |           | 9 Pr.    |   8   6   |  24·28  |  28   |  4·2   |
  |           |          |   7   6   |  21·4   |  26   |  4·2   |
  |           |          |   7       |  20·    |  25   |  4·2   |
  |           |          |   5   6   |  15·71  |  17   |  4·2   |
  |           | 6 Pr.    |   7   6   |  24·53  |  21   |  3·66  |
  |           |          |   6       |  19·6   |  17   |  3·66  |
  +-----------+----------+-----------+---------+-------+--------+
        * Bored-up guns.

      +-----------+----------+---------------------------------+
      |           |          |    Charges,     |     Shot.     |
      |           |          |  Land Service.  |               |
      |           |          +--------+--------+-------+-------+
      |           |Nature of |Service.| Proof. | High  |  Low  |
      |           | piece.   |        |        | gauge.| gauge.|
      +-----------+----------+--------+--------+-------+-------+
      |           |          | lb. oz.| lb. oz.|inches.|inches.|
      |           | 10-Inch  | 12 †   | 20     |       |       |
      |           |  8       | 10 †   | 20     |  7·95 |  7·9  |
      |           |          | 10 †   | 20     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |          |  8 †   | 16     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |          |  8 †   | 14     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           | 68 Pr.   | 18     | 30     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |          | 14     | 28     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |          | 14     | 25     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           | 56 Pr.   | 14     | 28     |  7·51 |  7·45 |
      |           |          | 14     | 25     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           | 42 Pr.   | 14     | 25     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |          | 14     | 25     |  6·79 |  6·73 |
      |           |          | 10     | 23     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           | 32 Pr.   | 10     | 21   5 |  6·2  |  6·14 |
      |           |          | 10     | 21   5 |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |          |  6     | 12     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |          |  7     | 16     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |          |  8     | 21   8 |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |          |  6     | 14     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |  *       |  6     | 12     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |  *       |  5     | 10     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |  *       |  4     |  9     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           | 24 Pr.   |  8     | 18     |  5·63 |  5·58 |
      |           |          |  8     | 18     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |          |  6     | 12     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           | 18 Pr.   |  6     | 15     |  5·12 |  5·07 |
      |           |          |  6     | 15     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |  *       |  3     |  7     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |  *       |  3     |  7     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |  *       |  2     |  5     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           | 12 Pr.   |  4     | 12     |  4·54 |  4·50 |
      |           |          |  4     | 12     |  4·54 |  4·50 |
      |           |          |  4     | 12     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |          |  4     | 10     |  4·50 |  4·50 |
      |           | 9 Pr.    |  3     |  9     |  4·11 |  4·08 |
      |           |          |  3     |  9     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |          |  3     |  9     |   ”   |   ”   |
      |           |          |  2     |  8     |  4·11 |  4·08 |
      |           | 6 Pr.    |  2     |  6     |  3·58 |  3·55 |
      |           |          |  2     |  6     |  3·56 |  3·55 |
      +-----------+----------+--------+--------+-------+-------+
          * Bored-up guns.
          † Hollow shot.


     _Length, Weight, Calibre, Charge, &c., continued_
  +-----------+----------+---------------------+-------+--------+
  |           |          |       Length.       |       |        |
  |           |          +-----------+---------+       |        |
  |           |Nature of |In feet and|   In    |Weight.|Calibre.|
  |           | piece.   |   inches. |Calibres.|       |        |
  +-----------+----------+-----------+---------+-------+--------+
  |           |          |  ft. in.  |         |  cwt. | inches.|
  |CARRONADES.| 68 Pr.   |   5   4   |   7·9   |   36  |  8·05  |
  |           | 42       |   4   6   |   7·8   |   22  |  6·84  |
  |           | 32       |   4       |   7·6   |   17  |  6·25  |
  |           | 24       |   3   9   |   7·9   |   13  |  5·68  |
  |           | 18       |   3   4   |   7·7   |   10  |  5·16  |
  |           | 12       |   2   8   |   7·    |    6  |  4·52  |
  +-----------+----------+-----------+---------+-------+--------+
  |IRON       | 10-inch  |   5       |   6·    |   40  | 10·    |
  |HOWITZERS. |  8       |   4       |   6·    |   20  |  8·    |
  +-----------+----------+-----------+---------+-------+--------+
  |IRON       | 13-inch  |   4   5   |   4·    |  100  | 13·    |
  |MORTARS.   | 13       |   3   5   |   2·8   |   36  | 13·    |
  |           | 10       |   3   9   |   4·5   |   52  | 10·    |
  |           | 10       |   3   9   |   4·5   |   41  | 10·    |
  |           | 10       |   2   4   |   2·8   |   16  | 10·    |
  |           |  8       |   1  10   |   2·7   |    8  |  8·    |
  +-----------+----------+-----------+---------+-------+--------+
  |BRASS GUNS.| 12 Pr. † |   6   6   |  17·    |   18  |  4·62  |
  |           |  9 Pr.   |   6       |  17·    |   13½ |  4·2   |
  |           |  6     ‡ |   5       |  16·3   |    6  |  3·66  |
  |           |  3     † |   4       |  16·4   |    3  |  2·91  |
  |           |  3     † |   3       |  12·3   |    2¼ |  2·91  |
  |           |  1       |   5       |  29·8   |    2½ |  2·01  |
  +-----------+----------+-----------+---------+-------+--------+
  |BRASS      | 32 Pr.   |   5   3   |  10·5   |   18  |  6·3   |
  |HOWITZERS. | 24       |   4   8·6 |   9·8   |   13  |  5·72  |
  |           | 12¼      |   3   9·2 |   9·8   |    6½ |   4·58 |
  |           |  4⅖     |   1  10   |   4·8   |    2½ |   4·52 |
  +-----------+----------+-----------+---------+-------+--------+
  |BRASS      | 10-inch  |   2   3   |   2·7   |   12¼ |  10·   |
  |MORTARS.   |  8       |   1   9   |   2·6   |    6½ |   8·   |
  |           |  5½      |   1   3   |   2·6   |    1¼ |   5·62 |
  |           |  4⅖     |   1   0   |   2·6   |     ¾ |   4·52 |
  +-----------+----------+-----------+---------+-------+--------+
          † Medium.
          ‡ Long.

      +-----------+----------+---------------------------------+
      |           |          |     Charge.     |  Shot* Shell. |
      |           |          +--------+--------+-------+-------+
      |           |Nature of |Service.| Proof. | High  |  Low  |
      |           | piece.   |        |        | gauge.| gauge.|
      +-----------+----------+--------+--------+-------+-------+
      |           |          | lb. oz.| lb. oz.|inches.|inches.|
      |CARRONADES.| 68 Pr.   |  5     | 13     |  7·95 |  7·9  |
      |           | 42       |  3   8 |  9     |  6·79 |  6·72 |
      |           | 32       |  2  10 |  8     |  6·2  |  6·14 |
      |           | 24       |  2     |  6     |  5·63 |  5·58 |
      |           | 18       |  1   8 |  4     |  5·12 |  5·07 |
      |           | 12       |  1     |  3     |  4·47 |  4·43 |
      +-----------+----------+--------+--------+-------+-------+
      |IRON       | 10-inch  |  7     |  7     |  9·88 |  9·8  |
      |HOWITZERS. |  8       |  4     |  4     |  7·9  |  7·82 |
      +-----------+----------+--------+--------+-------+-------+
      |IRON       | 13-inch  |        | 20  11 | 12·88 | 12·8  |
      |MORTARS.   | 13       |        |  9     | 12·88 | 12·8  |
      |           | 10       |        |  9   8 |  9·88 |  9·8  |
      |           | 10       |        |  9   8 |  9·88 |  9·8  |
      |           | 10       |        |  4     |  9·88 |  9·8  |
      |           |  8       |        |  2     |  7·9  |  7·82 |
      +-----------+----------+--------+--------+-------+-------+
      |BRASS GUNS.| 12 Pr. † |  4     |  5     |  4·47 |  4·43 |
      |           |  9 Pr.   |  2   8 |  3   8 |  4·1  |  4·06 |
      |           |  6     ‡ |  1   8 |  2     |  3·56 |  3·53 |
      |           |  3     † |     12 |  1     |  2·83 |  2·8  |
      |           |  3     † |     10 |  1     |  2·83 |  2·8  |
      |           |  1       |      6 |     12 |  1·99 |  1·92 |
      +-----------+----------+--------+--------+-------+-------+
      |BRASS      | 32 Pr.   |  3   0 |  3   0 |  6·2  |  6·1  |
      |HOWITZERS. | 24       |  2   8 |  2   8 |  5·62 |  5·57 |
      |           | 12¼      |  1   4 |  1   4 |  4·47 |  4·43 |
      |           |  4⅖     |      8 |      8 |  4·47 |  4·43 |
      +-----------+----------+--------+--------+-------+-------+
      |BRASS      | 10-inch  |        |  4     |  9·88 |  9·8  |
      |MORTARS.   |  8       |        |  2     |  7·9  |  7·82 |
      |           |  5½      |        |      7 |  5·62 |  5·57 |
      |           |  4⅖     |        |      5 |  4·47 |  4·43 |
      +-----------+----------+--------+--------+-------+-------+
            * Shot for guns: Shells for howitzers and mortars.
            † Medium.
            ‡ Long.


CARRIAGES.

_Garrison carriages_ are made of oak and other hard wood. _Trucks_
iron; but in those situations which are not exposed to enfilade, the
carriages are cast iron.

_Ship carriages._—The Brackets and Transoms are elm, _Axletrees_ oak,
_Trucks_ elm.

_Field gun carriages._—_All Travelling carriages_ are now made
entirely of oak. _The Carriages_, for the heavy iron 12 and
9-pounders with bracket-trail, and also for all heavy battering
ordnance, are made of oak. _Limbers_ have the axletree beds of oak;
_Futchells_, _Splinter_, or _Sweeping-bar_, of ash; _Foot-boards_,
fir or elm. _Limber boxes_ have the sides elm, and the rest fir.
_Ring-tires_ are used for light 3-pounders and hand-cart wheels.
_Shafts_ are always made of ash. _Wheels_ have the _Nave_ of elm,
_Spokes_ (12) of oak, _Felloes_ (6) of ash.

_Sleighs_ are used for the conveyance of artillery, during the
winter, in Canada.[7] The sleigh consists of a platform six feet
ten inches long, and three feet ten inches wide, placed on runners
sixteen inches high; upon this rest two strong transoms, to which the
brackets supporting the gun are secured. A box, distinct from the
ammunition boxes, is placed on each side of the gun, together capable
of containing about thirty rounds of ammunition, and which serve as
seats for Nos. 1 and 6. These boxes usually contain the shot, and
small stores carried in the axletree boxes, as well as long reins for
driving, when in single draught. The extreme breadth of the runners
is three feet.


_Packing the Intrenching tools, &c._

_Marching order._—In marching order, the following stores and
intrenching tools are _on the gun sleighs_; two fitting ropes, one
spare swingletree; swords of Nos. 1 and 6 on front platform under
breast of gun, claw hammer, wrench, and pincers; in sockets, two
portfire sticks on right rear of platform.

_On No. 1 ammunition sleigh_; two fitting ropes, prolonge, two spare
swingletrees, and sword of No. 3, on front part of platform; carbines
of No. 1 and 6, on front box; spare sponge, and worm on platform
right of boxes; spare handspike on left side; 4 spare traces between
front and rear boxes; swords of Nos. 4 and 5 on platform in rear of
boxes, covered by knapsacks of Nos. 1, 6, 5, and 4. The knapsacks
are strapped from off-handle of off-box to rear handle of rear box.

_On No. 2 sleigh_; felling axe, and two camp kettles, on front of
platform; sword of No. 2 on front box; pickaxe in rear of front box;
four spades strapped to front of rear boxes; four water buckets
strapped to guard irons of front box, two at each side; swords of
Nos. 7 and 8 in rear of boxes, covered by knapsacks of Nos. 2, 3, 7,
and 8.


DEPRESSION CARRIAGES.

Of these there are two descriptions—

  1st. Those in the batteries at Gibraltar.
  2nd. Those constructed for general service.

These latter carriages are similar to common standing carriages,
excepting that they are about a foot longer, and the front transom
is hollowed so as to allow of a greater depression, and has a bolt
behind it for the end of the stool bed. There is also a skid, or
transom, placed across the last step of the carriage, which has a
thread in it for the elevating screw that supports one end of the
stool bed. These carriages admit of a depression of 30°, but after
every round the piece must be brought horizontal to load, which is
done by taking out altogether the rear transom. _Depression Carronade
carriages_ differ from the common carriages in having their trucks in
rear instead of in front. They are depressed by an iron segment of a
circle, which is moveable in a slit in the trail, and which has holes
in it about an inch apart, through which a bolt is to be placed to
support it at any height, the intermediate depression being given by
a screw.


_Weight of Field Carriages, Limbers, &c._

Spare wheels are not included in the following Table of weights.

  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                                  |No. of |    Weight.   |    Total.   |
  |         Nature of Carriage.      |Rounds.+--------------+-------------+
  |                                  |       |cwt. qrs. lb. |cwt. qrs. lb.|
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                 { Gun            |       | 38    2      }             |
  |                 { Carriage       |       | 18    1  26  }             |
  | 18 Pr. Iron     { Limber         |       |  7    1  10  } 66   2   18 |
  |                 { Side-arms      |       |          24  }             |
  |                 { Stores         |       |  2       14  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                 { Limber         |       |  8    2  10  }             |
  |                 { Ammunition     |   24  |  5        6  }             |
  | 18 Pr. Waggon   { Stores         |       |  1       12  } 37        2 |
  |                 { Body           |       | 10    3  24  }             |
  |                 { Ammunition     |   36  |  7    2  17  }             |
  |                 { Stores         |       |  3    2  17  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                 { Gun            |       | 18           }             |
  |                 { Carriage       |       | 12    2   8  }             |
  | Brass           { Limber         |   24  |  8    3   6  } 44       17 |
  | 12 Pr. Medium   { Ammunition     |       |  3    2  22  }             |
  |                 { Side-arms      |       |       1  14  }             |
  |                 { Stores         |       |       2  23  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                 { Limber         |       |  9    2   2  }             |
  | 12 Pr. Medium   { Ammunition     |   32  |  4    3   2  }             |
  | Ammunition      { Stores         |       |       2  27  } 36   1    9 |
  | Waggon          { Body           |       | 10    3  24  }             |
  |                 { Ammunition     |   48  |  6    3  24  }             |
  |                 { Stores, Tent,  |       |  3    2   8  }             |
  |                 {   &c.          |       |              }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | 12 Pr. Medium   { Carriage       |       | 13    1  21  }             |
  | Spare wheel     { Limber         |       |  8    2  11  } 30   1   15 |
  | Carriage        { Stores         |       |  8    1  11  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                 { Gun            |       | 13    2      }             |
  |                 { Carriage       |       | 12    1   8  }             |
  | 9 Pounder       { Limber         |       |  8       17  } 38   2    9 |
  |                 { Ammunition     |   32  |  3    2  25  }             |
  |                 { Side-arms      |       |       1  10  }             |
  |                 { Stores         |       |       2  23  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                 { Limber         |       |  8    1  24  }             |
  | 9 Pounder       { Ammunition     |   32  |  3    2  25  }             |
  | Ammunition      { Stores         |       |       2  27  } 34   1   17 |
  | Waggon          { Body           |       | 10    3  24  }             |
  |                 { Ammunition     |   64  |  6    3  22  }             |
  |                 { Stores, &c.    |       |  3    2   5  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | 9 Pounder       { Carriage       |       | 12    2      }             |
  | Spare wheel     { Limber         |       |  7    3  11  } 29   2   15 |
  | Carriage        { Stores         |       |  9    1   4  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+

  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                                  |No. of |    Weight.   |    Total.   |
  |         Nature of Carriage.      |Rounds.+--------------+-------------+
  |                                  |       |cwt. qrs. lb. |cwt. qrs. lb.|
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                 { Gun            |       | 12    1      }             |
  |                 { Carriage       |       | 11       26  }             |
  | 6 Pr. Heavy     { Limber         |       |  8       24  }             |
  |                 { Ammunition     |   50  |  3    3  18  } 36   2   11 |
  |                 { Side-arms      |       |       1   4  }             |
  |                 { Stores         |       |       2  23  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                 { Limber         |       |  8       24  }             |
  | 6 Pr. Heavy     { Ammunition     |   50  |  3    3  18  } 33       19 |
  | Ammunition      { Stores         |       |       2  27  }             |
  | Waggon          { Body           |       |  8    3  21  }             |
  |                 { Ammunition     |  100  |  7    3   8  }             |
  |                 { Stores         |       |  3    2   5  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | 6 Pr. Heavy     { Carriage       |       | 11    2  14  }             |
  | Spare wheel     { Limber         |       |  7    3  11  } 28   2   20 |
  | Carriage        { Stores         |       |  9       23  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                 { Gun            |       |  6           }             |
  |                 { Carriage       |       |  9    1  15  }             |
  |                 { Shot, Axletree |    6  |       1  27  }             |
  | 6 Pr. Light     { Side-arms      |       |       1   2  } 28       23 |
  |                 { Limber         |       |  8    1  18  }             |
  |                 { Ammunition     |   40  |  2    3  22  }             |
  |                 { Stores         |       |       2  23  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                 { Limber         |       |  8    1  18  }             |
  | 6 Pr. Light     { Ammunition     |   48  |  3    2      }             |
  | Ammunition      { Stores         |       |       2  27  } 33   3    8 |
  | Waggon          { Body           |       | 10    3   3  }             |
  |                 { Ammunition     |  100  |  6    3  11  }             |
  |                 { Stores         |       |  3    2   5  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | 6 Pr. Light     { Carriage       |       |  9    2  11  }             |
  | Spare wheel     { Limber         |       |  7    3  11  } 26   2   26 |
  | Carriage        { Spare Stores   |       |  9    1   4  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                 { Gun            |       |  6           }             |
  |                 { Carriage       |       |  8    1  24  }             |
  |                 { Shot, Axletree |    8  |       1  10  }             |
  | 3 Pr. Heavy     { Side-arms      |       |          24  } 26   2   15 |
  |                 { Limber         |       |  8        6  }             |
  |                 { Ammunition     |   70  |  2    3  14  }             |
  |                 { Stores         |       |       2  21  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                 { Limber         |       |  8        6  }             |
  | 3 Pr. Heavy     { Ammunition     |   70  |  2    3  14  }             |
  | Ammunition      { Stores         |       |       2  27  } 30   1   25 |
  | Waggon          { Body           |       |  8    3  18  }             |
  |                 { Ammunition     |  168  |  6    1  14  }             |
  |                 { Stores         |       |  3    2   2  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+

  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                                  |No. of |    Weight.   |    Total.   |
  |         Nature of Carriage.      |Rounds.+--------------+-------------+
  |                                  |       |cwt. qrs. lb. |cwt. qrs. lb.|
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | 3 Pr. Heavy     { Carriage       |       |  9       15  }             |
  |   Spare wheel   { Limber         |       |  7    3  11  } 24   3    1 |
  |   Carriage      { Stores         |       |  7    3   3  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | 3 Pounder       { Gun            |       |  3           }             |
  |   Light         { Carriage       |       |  4    1   8  }             |
  |                 { Shot, Axletree |       |          16  } 12   3   11 |
  |                 { Limber         |       |  3    3   4  }             |
  |                 { Ammunition     |   34  |  1        8  }             |
  |                 { Side-arms &    |       |       2   3  }             |
  |                 {   Stores       |       |              }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | 3 Pounder Light { Car Stores, &c.|   60  |  6    1  24  }  6   1   24 |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | 5½ in. Howitzer { Howitzer       |       | 10           }             |
  |   Heavy         { Carriage       |       | 13    3  15  } 37   2    1 |
  |                 { Limber         |       |  8    1   3  }             |
  |                 { Side-arms &    |   24  |  5    1  11  }             |
  |                 {   Stores       |       |              }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | 5½ in. Howitzer { Limber         |       |  8    1   3  }             |
  | Heavy,Ammunition{ Body, &c.    } |       |              } 32   2   21 |
  | Waggon          { Ammunition   } |   60  | 24    1  18  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | 5½ in. Howitzer { Howitzer       |       |  4    3      }             |
  | Light           { Carriage       |       | 10    1  23  }             |
  |                 { Limber         |       |  8    1  16  } 26   3   21 |
  |                 { Ammunition     |   22  |  3    1  10  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | 5½ in. Howitzer { Limber         |       |  8       16  }             |
  | Light,Ammunition{ Body, &c.      |       | 10    3   3  } 28   1    9 |
  | Waggon          { Ammunition     |   62  |  9    1  18  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | 4⅖ in. Howitzer{ Howitzer       |       |  2    2      }             |
  |                 { Carriage       |       |  5    1   2  }             |
  |                 { Limber         |       |  3    1  16  } 13       11 |
  |                 { Ammunition, &c.|   16  |  1    3  21  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | Limber 4⅖ in.  { Carriage       |       |  3    3  20  }             |
  | Howitzer        { Ammunition, &c.|   32  |  3    1   6  }  7       26 |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | 32 Pounder Brass{ Carriage       |       | 13    3   2  }             |
  |                 { Limber         |       | 10       11  } 23   3   13 |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | 24 Pounder Brass{Howitzer        |       | 12    2      }             |
  | Howitzer        {Carriage        |       | 12    2  13  }             |
  | Gen. Millar’s   {Side-arms       |       |          25  } 39   1   11 |
  |                 {Limber          |       |  8    2   4  }             |
  |                 {Ammunition      |   24  |  4    3   2  }             |
  |                 {Stores          |       |       2  23  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                 {Limber          |       |  8    2   4  }             |
  | 24 Pounder Brass{Ammunition      |   24  |  4    3   2  }             |
  | Howitzer        {Stores          |       |       2  27  } 35   1   20 |
  | Ammunition      {Body            |       | 10    3   4  }             |
  | Waggon          {Ammunition      |   36  |  6    3  24  }             |
  |                 {Stores          |       |  3    2  15  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+

  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                                  |No. of |    Weight.   |    Total.   |
  |         Nature of Carriage.      |Rounds.+--------------+-------------+
  |                                  |       |cwt. qrs. lb. |cwt. qrs. lb.|
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                 { Howitzer       |       |  6    2      }             |
  | 12 Pr. Brass    { Carriage       |       |  9    3  14  }             |
  | Howitzer        { Side-arms      |       |          23  } 29       17 |
  | Gen. Millar’s   { Limber         |       |  8       21  }             |
  |                 { Ammunition     |   36  |  3    2  20  }             |
  |                 { Stores         |       |       2  23  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                 { Limber         |       |  8    1   3  }             |
  | 12 Pr. Brass    { Ammunition     |   36  |  3    2  20  }             |
  | Howitzer        { Stores         |       |       2  27  } 31   2   13 |
  | Ammunition      { Body           |       |  8    3  22  }             |
  | Waggon.         { Ammunition     |   64  |  6    1  12  }             |
  |                 { Stores         |       |  3    2  13  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | 3 Pr. Colonial  { Gun            |       |  3           }             |
  | service Gun     { Carriage       |       |  4        3  } 12       15 |
  | 4 feet          { Limber, Stores,|   34  |  5       12  }             |
  |                 {   &c.          |       |              }             |
  |                 { Car            |       |  3    3  14  }  6   1   24 |
  |                 { Stores, &c.    |   60  |  2    2  10  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | 1 Pr. Mountain  { Gun            |       |  2    2      }             |
  | service Gun     { Carriage       |       |  2    3   2  }  8   1   22 |
  | drawn by two    { Four small boxes|      |       2  20  }             |
  | mules           { Stores, &c.    |   72  |  2    2      }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | Carried on the  { Two large boxes|       |       2   4  }  2   2    1 |
  | backs of 2 mules{ Ammunition, &c.|  112  |  1    3  25  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                 { Limber         |       |  8        9  }             |
  | Forge Waggon    { Body           |       |  9    2  25  }             |
  | with lockers,   { Bellows        |       |       2  15  } 24       11 |
  |   &c.           { Anvil          |       |  1    2  18  }             |
  |                 { Smith’s tools, |       |  4           }             |
  |                 {   &c.          |       |              }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | Forge cart, Cavalry, complete;   |       |              |             |
  |   including frame, &c.           |       | 11    2  16  | 11   2   16 |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | Flanders waggon Ammunition       |       | 15    2      | 15   2
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | Store Limber   { Limber          |       |  8        9  } 18   3   16 |
  | Carriage       { Body, &c.       |       | 10    3   7  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                { Limber          |       |  7    2   4  }             |
  | Ball cartridge { Body      lb.oz.|       |  7       26  }             |
  | Waggon         { 20 Boxes at 12 4|       |  2       21  } 34   2    7 |
  | Gen. Millar’s  { 20,000 Rounds   |       | 16    2  27  }             |
  |                { 2,000 Flints &  |       |       3  13  }             |
  |                {   Boxes         |       |              }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | Sling Cart                       |       | 16    1  17  | 16   1   17 |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | Large Gyn     { Gyn                      |  9    2  22  } 12   2   19 |
  |               { Blocks and Tackles       |  2    3  25  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | Common Gyn    { Gyn                      |  7    3   3  } 10   2    4 |
  |               { Blocks and Tackles       |  2    3   1  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | Traversing Platform (Iron)       |       | 51           } 72   2   18 |
  | Platform Carriage                |       | 21    2  18  }             |
  |   (24 Pounder) Iron              |       |              }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+

  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  |                                  |No. of |    Weight.   |    Total.   |
  |         Nature of Carriage.      |Rounds.+--------------+-------------+
  |                                  |       |cwt. qrs. lb. |cwt. qrs. lb.|
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | Devil Carriage  { Large carriage |       | 28    2   7  } 36       15 |
  | complete        { Small Ditto    |       |  7    2   8  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | Sling Waggon    { Carriage       |       | 18    0  26  } 27   1   27 |
  |                 { Limber         |       |  9    1   1  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | Large Pontoon   { Carriage       |       | 13    3  20  }             |
  | Carriage        { Two pontoons   |       |  9    1   9  } 45       20 |
  | Blanshard’s     { Appurtenances  |       | 21    3  19  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | Small Pontoon   { Carriage       |       |  9           }             |
  | Carriage        { Five pontoons  |       |  5           } 21   1   23 |
  | Blanshard’s     { Appurtenances  |       |  7    1  23  }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | Small boat for  { Carriage       |       |  7        5  } 10   2    5 |
  | Pontoon bridge  { Wooden boat    |       |  3    2      }             |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+
  | Baggage cart                     |       |  9    0   7                |
  | Hand cart                        |       |  4    3   4                |
  | French cart                      |       |  5    2  13                |
  | Ball Cartridge cart              |       |  7    3   4                |
  +----------------------------------+-------+--------------+-------------+

  +-------+-----------------------------------+-------------+-------------+
  | Class.|             WHEELS.               |  Diameter.  |    Weight.  |
  |       |       Guns, Howitzers, &c.        +-------------+-------------+
  |       |                                   |feet. inches.|cwt. qrs. lb.|
  +-------+-----------------------------------+-------------+-------------+
  |   1   | _or Heavy_ 6-Pounder _Wheel_,     |             |   per pair. |
  |       |   used by 12-Pr. Gun and Limber,  |             |             |
  |       |   by 9-Pr. and heavy 6-Pr. Gun    |             |             |
  |       |   carriage, and by heavy 5½ inch, |             |             |
  |       |   and 24-Pr. Howitzer Carriage    |   5         |  4   2    4 |
  |   2   | _or Light_ 6-Pr. _Wheel_, used    |             |             |
  |       |   by Limbers of the above, and by |             |             |
  |       |   light 6-Pr. heavy 3-Pr., light  |             |             |
  |       |   5½ inch and 12-Pr. Howitzer     |             |             |
  |       |   carriage and Limber, and by Body|             |             |
  |       |   and Limber of ammunition Waggon |   5         |  3   3  18  |
  |   3   | used by Light 3-Pr.               |   4     4   |  2   1      |
  |   4   | used by mountain Guns, &c.        |   3         |      3  22  |
  | 24-Pr.| Gun and 10-inch Howitzer          |   5         |  8   1  12  |
  |  18   | Ditto  8-inch  ditto              |   5         |  7          |
  | Limber to the above                       |   3    10   |  3   2  10  |
  | Platform Waggon, hind                     |   5         |  5   1  26  |
  | Ditto    ditto   fore                     |   4         |  4   2      |
  | Devil Carriage, hind                      |   7         | 12   1  18  |
  | Ditto  ditto    fore                      |   5         |  5   1  26  |
  | Sling cart, Gun or Mortar                 |   5     6   |  8   3  10  |
  | Flanders Waggon, hind                     |   5         |  3   3  18  |
  | Ditto    ditto   fore                     |   4     2   |  2   3  20  |
  | Hand cart                                 |   4     4   |  2       1  |
  +-------------------------------------------+-------------+-------------+


Weight of Carriages for Iron guns, Heavy howitzers, &c., also Weight
of Traversing platforms.

  +-----------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------+
  |           |      Travelling.      |     Garrison, with    | Traversing|
  | Nature of |                       | trucks, &c., complete.| Platforms.|
  | Ordnance. +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----+-----+
  |           |    Gun    |  Limber.  |   Wood.   |   Iron.   |Wood.|Iron.|
  |           | Carriage. |           |           |           |     |     |
  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----+-----+
  |           |cwt.qrs.lb.|cwt.qrs.lb.|cwt.qrs.lb.|cwt.qrs.lb.| cwt.| cwt.|
  | Guns.     |           |           |           |           |     |     |
  |  { 42 Pr. |           |           | 16  3  13 | 26  1     |  23 |  51 |
  |  { 32     |           |           | 15  1   2 | 23  2     |  23 |     |
  |  { 24     | 23  3  25 |  7  1  27 | 13  2  23 | 21  2     |  19 |     |
  |  { 18     | 18  1  26 |  7  1  27 | 12  3   1 | 18  3  19 |  19 |     |
  |  { 12     | 12     22 |  6     11 | 11  2   7 | 17     16 |  19 |     |
  |  {  9     | 11  2   6 |  6     11 | 10  1  13 | 15  1   7 |     |     |
  |  {  6     |           |           |  9     20 | 14     19 |     |     |
  |  {  3     |           |           |  6  1  24 |           |     |     |
  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----+-----+
  | Millar’s  |           |           |           |           |     |     |
  | Howitzers.|           |           |           |           |     |     |
  |  { 10 in. | 31  2   9 |  7  1  27 | 16        | 25  1   5 |     |     |
  |  { 8      | 24  1  13 |  7  1  27 | 14        | 18  1  18 |     |     |
  |  { 5½     | 11  2  23 |  6     10 |           | 15  1  24 |     |     |
  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----+-----+
  |Carronades.|           |           |Block Trail.           |     |     |
  |  { 68 Pr. |           |           | 17  2  25 |           |     |     |
  |  { 42     |           |           | 10  1  21 |           |     |     |
  |  { 32     |           |           |  8  3  24 | 11  3     |     |     |
  |  { 24     |           |           |  7  3  21 | 10  3  20 |     |     |
  |  { 18     |           |           |  6  3  20 |  9  2  10 |     |     |
  |  { 12     |           |           |  6  1     |  8  1  12 |     |     |
  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----+-----+

  +--------+----+-----------+-----------------------+-----------+-----------+
  | Nature |    | Carriages,|    Dwarf traversing   | Carriages,| Traversing|
  |   of   |    | Garrison, |       Platforms.      | Garrison, | Platforms,|
  | Ordn-  |Wei-|   Wood,   +-----------------------+  Common   |  common.  |
  |  ance. |ght.|  Sliding. |   Wood.   |   Iron.   |   Wood.   |           |
  +--------+----+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
  |        |cwt.|cwt.qrs.lb.|cwt.qrs.lb.|cwt.qrs.lb.|cwt.qrs.lb.|cwt.qrs.lb.|
  | Guns.  |    |           |           |           |           |           |
  |{ 68 Pr.|112 | 16  0  26 |           |           |           |           |
  |{ 56 Pr.| 98 | 18  2  22 | 31  1  26 |           |           |           |
  |{  8 in.| 65 | 13  1   0 | 26  0  21 | 52  0   5 | 13  3  11 | 25  1   2 |
  |{ 32 Pr.| 56 | 12  1  23 | 26  0  21 | 52  0   5 | 13  3   0 | 25  1     |
  +--------+----+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+


_Weight and Dimensions of Trucks, for Land Service._

  +---------+------------------------------------+
  |         |             Fore.                  |
  | Nature  +--------------+-------+-------------+
  |   of    |  Diameter.   | Width |  Weight of  |
  | Trucks. +-------+------+  of   |   a pair.   |
  |         | Truck.| Hole.| sole. |             |
  +---------+-------+------+-------+-------------+
  |         |ft. in.|  in. |  in.  |cwt. qrs. lb.|
  | 42 Pr.  | 1   7 |  7·5 |  6·62 | 3    0   20 |
  | 32      | 1   7 |  7·5 |  6·62 | 3    0   20 |
  | 24      | 1   7 |  6·5 |  5·   | 2    1   26 |
  | 18      | 1   7 |  6·5 |  5·   | 2    1   26 |
  | 12      | 1   7 |  6·5 |  5·   | 2    1   26 |
  |  9      | 1   7 |  6·5 |  5·   | 2    1   26 |
  |  6      | 1   6 |  5·5 |  4·25 | 1    3    4 |
  |  3      | 1   6 |  5·5 |  4·25 | 1    3    4 |
  +---------+-------+------+-------+-------------+

        +---------+------------------------------------+
        |         |             Hind.                  |
        | Nature  +--------------+-------+-------------+
        |   of    |   Diameter.  | Width |  Weight of  |
        | Trucks. +--------------+  of   |   a pair.   |
        |         | Truck.| Hole.| sole. |             |
        +---------+-------+------+-------+-------------+
        |         |ft. in.|  in. |  in.  |cwt. qrs. lb.|
        | 42 Pr.  | 1   4 |  7·5 |  5·   | 2    0    4 |
        | 32      | 1   4 |  7·5 |  5·5  | 2    0    4 |
        | 24      | 1   4 |  6·5 |  4·5  | 1    2    5 |
        | 18      | 1   4 |  6·5 |  4·5  | 1    2    5 |
        | 12      | 1   4 |  6·5 |  4·5  | 1    2    5 |
        |  9      | 1   4 |  6·5 |  4·5  | 1    2    5 |
        |  6      | 1   4 |  6·5 |  3·5  | 1    1    6 |
        |  3      | 1   4 |  6·5 |  3·   | 1    1    6 |
        +---------+-------+------+-------+-------------+


_Weight and Dimensions of Mortar beds._

OLD PATTERN.

  +-------------------+-------------+-----------------------------+
  |   Nature of Bed   |             |       Dimensions.           |
  |   Land service.   |  Weight.    +--------------------+--------+
  |                   |             | Length.  | Breadth.| Height.|
  +-------------------+-------------+----------+---------+--------+
  |                   |cwt. qrs. lb.| ft. in.  | ft. in. | ft. in.|
  | 13 Inch      Iron | 35   2   22 |  5  5½   |  3   1  |  2   1 |
  | 10 Inch      Iron | 16   1   16 |  4  4    |  3   1  |  1   7 |
  |  8 Inch      Iron |  7   2   27 |  3  3    |  3   1  |  1   3 |
  |  5½ Inch  Wood    |  1       10 |  2  7    |  1   3  |      9 |
  |  4⅖ Inch  Wood   |      3    5 |  2  5    |  1   3  |        |
  +-------------------+-------------+----------+---------+--------+

NEW PATTERN.

  +-------------------+-------------+-----------------------------+
  |   Nature of Bed   |             |       Dimensions.           |
  |   Land service.   |  Weight.    +--------------------+--------+
  |                   |             | Length. | Breadth. | Height.|
  +-------------------+-------------+---------+----------+--------+
  |                   |cwt. qrs. lb.| ft. in. | ft. in.  | ft. in.|
  | 13 Inch    Iron   | 35   2   20 |  6   1  | 3   2¾   |  2   ½ |
  | 10 Inch    Iron   | 17   3   16 |  4   4  | 3   1    |  1   7 |
  |  8 Inch    Iron   |  8   3    3 |  3   3  | 3   1    |  1   3 |
  +-------------------+-------------+---------+----------+--------+
      The Breadth and Length of each Bed are measured from the
      extremities of the traversing bolts.




PART IV.


RANGE, ELEVATION, ETC., OF BRASS ORDNANCE.

  +----------------------------------++----------------------------------+
  |          SOLID SHOT.             ||         COMMON CASE SHOT.        |
  +--------+-----------+-------------++--------+-----------+-------------+
  |        |Med. 12 Pr.|Light 12 Pr. ||        |Med. 12 Pr.|Light 12 Pr. |
  | Eleva- |   9 Pr.   | Ditto 6 Pr. || Eleva- |   9 Pr.   | Ditto 6 Pr. |
  |  tion. | Long 6 Pr.| Heavy 3 Pr. ||  tion. | Long 6 Pr.| Heavy 3 Pr. |
  +--------+-----------+-------------++--------+-----------+-------------+
  |degrees.|   yards.  |    yards.   ||degrees.|   yards.  |    yards.   |
  |  P. B. |     300   |     200     ||  P. B. |     150   |     100     |
  |    ¼   |     400   |     300     ||     ¼  |     175   |     125     |
  |    ½   |     500   |     400     ||     ½  |     200   |     150     |
  |    ¾   |     600   |     500     ||     ¾  |     225   |     175     |
  |   1    |     700   |     600     ||    1   |     250   |     200     |
  |   1¼   |     775   |     650     ||    1¼  |     275   |     225     |
  |   1½   |     850   |     700     ||    1½  |     300   |     250     |
  |   1¾   |     925   |     750     ||    1¾  |     325   |     275     |
  |   2    |    1000   |     800     ||    2   |     350   |     300     |
  |   2¼   |    1050   |     850     ||        |           |             |
  |   2½   |    1100   |     900     ||        |           |             |
  |   2¾   |    1150   |     950     ||        |           |             |
  |   3    |    1200   |    1000     ||        |           |             |
  |   3¼   |    1250   |    1050     ||        |           |             |
  |   3½   |    1300   |    1100     ||        |           |             |
  |   3¾   |    1350   |    1150     ||        |           |             |
  |   4    |    1400   |    1200     ||        |           |             |
  +--------+-----------+-------------++--------+-----------+-------------+

  +-----------------------------------------------------+
  |                   24 Pr. Howitzer.                  |
  |                    Charge 2½ lb.                    |
  |                                                     |
  +-------------------------------+---------------------+
  |          Com. Shells.         |       C. Case.      |
  +------------+---------+--------+------------+--------+
  | Elevation. |  Fuze.* | Range. | Elevation. | Range. |
  +------------+---------+--------+------------+--------+
  |    deg.    |  10ths  |  yds.  |    deg.    |  yds.  |
  |   P. B.    |         |   250  |    P. B.   |   150  |
  |     ¼      |         |   300  |      ¼     |   175  |
  |     ½      |         |   350  |      ½     |   200  |
  |     ¾      |         |   400  |      ¾     |   225  |
  |    1       |    1    |   450  |     1      |   250  |
  |    1¼      |    1½   |   500  |     1¼     |   275  |
  |    1½      |    2    |   550  |     1½     |   300  |
  |    1¾      |    2½   |   600  |     1¾     |   325  |
  |    2       |    3    |   650  |     2      |   350  |
  |    2¼      |    3½   |   700  |     2¼     |   375  |
  |    2½      |    4    |   750  |     2½     |   400  |
  |    2¾      |    4½   |   800  |            |        |
  |    3       |    5    |   850  |            |        |
  |    3¼      |    5½   |   900  |            |        |
  |    3½      |    6    |   950  |            |        |
  |    3¾      |    6½   |  1000  |            |        |
  |    4       |    7    |  1025  |            |        |
  |            |         |        |            |        |
  |            |         |        |            |        |
  +------------+---------+--------+------------+--------+
          * Fuze—Old pattern.

      +-----------------------------------------------------+
      |                   12 Pr. Howitzer.                  |
      |                    Charge 1½ lb.                    |
      |                                                     |
      +-------------------------------+---------------------+
      |          Com. Shells.         |       C. Case.      |
      +------------+---------+--------+------------+--------+
      | Elevation. |  Fuze.* | Range. | Elevation. | Range. |
      +------------+---------+--------+------------+--------+
      |    deg.    |  10ths  |  yds.  |    deg.    |  yds.  |
      |     1      |    1    |   400  |    P. B.   |   100  |
      |     1¼     |    1½   |   450  |      ¼     |   125  |
      |     1½     |    2    |   500  |      ½     |   150  |
      |     1¾     |    2½   |   550  |      ¾     |   175  |
      |     2      |    3    |   600  |     1      |   200  |
      |     2¼     |    3½   |   650  |     1¼     |   225  |
      |     2½     |    4    |   700  |     1½     |   250  |
      |     2¾     |    4½   |   750  |     1¾     |   275  |
      |     3      |    5    |   800  |     2      |   300  |
      |     3¼     |    5½   |   850  |            |        |
      |     3½     |    6    |   900  |            |        |
      |     3¾     |    6¼   |   950  |            |        |
      |     4      |    7    |  1000  |            |        |
      |     4¼     |    7½   |  1025  |            |        |
      |     4½     |    7¾   |  1050  |            |        |
      |     4¾     |    8    |  1075  |            |        |
      |     5      |    8¼   |  1100  |            |        |
      |     5¼     |    8½   |  1125  |            |        |
      |     5½     |    8¾   |  1150  |            |        |
      +------------+---------+--------+------------+--------+
               * Fuze—Old pattern.

          +--------------------------------+
          |         5½ in. Howitzer.       |
          |         Heavy  |  Light        |
          |      2 lb.   Charge  1 lb.     |
          +--------------------------------+
          |          Com. Shells.          |
          +------------+---------+---------+
          | Elevation. |  Range. |  Range. |
          +------------+---------+---------+
          |    deg.    |   yds.  |   yds.  |
          |    P. B.   |    250  |    150  |
          |     1      |    400  |    300  |
          |     2      |    550  |    450  |
          |     3      |    700  |    600  |
          |     4      |    850  |    750  |
          |     5      |    975  |    850  |
          |     6      |   1100  |    950  |
          |     7      |   1225  |   1050  |
          |     8      |   1350  |   1150  |
          |     9      |   1450  |   1200  |
          |    10      |   1550  |   1250  |
          |    11      |   1650  |   1300  |
          |    12      |   1750  |   1350  |
          |            |         |         |
          |            |         |         |
          |            |         |         |
          |            |         |         |
          |            |         |         |
          |            |         |         |
          +------------+---------+---------+


_Ranges, Elevation, &c., of 8-inch Howitzer._

  +--------------------------++-------------++--------------------------+
  |                          ||  Shrapnell  ||                          |
  |      Common Shells.      ||   Shells.   ||     Ricochet firing.     |
  +-----+------+------+------++------+------++-----+------+------+------+
  | Cha-| Fuze.|Eleva-|Range.|| Fuze.|Eleva-|| Cha-|Eleva-|Range.| Fuze.|
  | rge.|      | tion.|      ||      | tion.|| rge.| tion.|      |      |
  +-----+------+------+------++------+---------+---+------+------+------+
  | lb. |inches| deg. |yards.||inches| deg. || lb. | deg. |yards.|inches|
  +-----+------+------+------++------+------++-----+------+------+------+
  |  4  |  ·3  |   2  |  450 ||  ..  |  ..  || ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |
  |     |  ·4  |   2½ |  600 ||  ·3  |  2⅝  || 1   |  9·5 |  400 |  ·85 |
  |     |  ·52 |   3  |  750 ||  ·5  |  3½  || 1·5 |  6·  |  400 |  ·8  |
  |     |  ·65 |   3¾ |  900 ||  ·7  |  4½  || 1·5 |  9·  |  600 | 1·   |
  |     |  ·8  |   4½ | 1050 ||  ·9  |  5⅝  || 2   |  6·25|  600 |  ·9  |
  |     |  ·95 |   5⅜ | 1200 || 1·1  |  6⅞  || 2·5 |  5·5 |  600 |  ·75 |
  |     | 1·1  |   6¼ | 1350 || 1·35 |  8¼  || 2   |  8·5 |  800 | 1·2  |
  |     | 1·3  |   7¼ | 1500 || 1·6  |  9¾  || 2·5 |  6·25|  800 | 1·   |
  |     | 1·5  |   8¼ | 1650 |+------+------++-----+------+------+------+
  |     | 1·75 |   9⅜ | 1800 ||      |      ||  1  | 34·5 | 1170 |      |
  |     | 2·   |  10½ | 1950 ||      |      ||  2  | 34·5 | 2010 |      |
  |     | 2·3  |  11¾ | 2100 |+------+------++-----+------+------+------+
  |     | 2·6  |  13  | 2250 ||      |      ||  3  |  5   |  900 |      |
  |     | 3·   |  14⅜ | 2400 ||      |      ||  3  | 10   | 1200 |      |
  |     | 3·4  |  15¾ | 2550 ||      |      ||  3  | 15   | 1930 |      |
  |     | 3·9  |  17¼ | 2700 ||      |      ||     |      |      |      |
  +-----+------+------+------++------+------++-----+------+------+------+


_32 Pr. Brass Howitzer._

  +----+----+-----------+-----------++-----+----+-----------+-----------+
  |Ran-|Com-|  Common   | Shrapnell || Ran-|Com-|  Common   | Shrapnell |
  | ge.| mon|  Shell.   |   Shell.  ||  ge.| mon|  Shell.   |   Shell.  |
  |    |Case|           |           ||     |Case|           |           |
  +----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----++-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
  |Yar-|Ele-| Ele-|Fuze.| Ele-|Fuze.|| Yar-|Ele-| Ele-|Fuze.| Ele-|Fuze.|
  | ds.|vat-| vat-|     | vat-|     ||  ds.|vat-| vat-|     | vat-|     |
  |    |ion.| ion.|     | ion.|     ||     |ion.| ion.|     | ion.|     |
  +----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----++-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
  | 200| P B|     |     |     |     || 1150|    |  4⅜ |  ·8 |  4¼ |     |
  | 300| 1° |     |     |     |     || 1200|    |  4⅞ |  ·9 |  4⅝ |  ·8 |
  | 400| 2° |   ¾ |  ·2 | P B |     || 1250|    |  5½ |  ·9 |  5° |     |
  | 450+----+   ⅞ |  ·2 |   ¼ | ·2  || 1300| .. |  .. |  ·9 |  5¼ |  ·9 |
  | 500|    |  1° |  ·2 |   ½ |     || 1350| .. |  .. | 1·0 |  5⅝ |     |
  | 550|    |  1¼ |  ·3 |  1° |     || 1400| .. |  .. | 1·0 |  6° | 1·0 |
  | 600|    |  1⅜ |  ·3 |  1¼ |     || 1450| .. |  .. | 1·1 |  6¼ |     |
  | 650|    |  1½ |  ·3 |  1⅝ | ·3  || 1500| — |  7½ | 1·1 |  6⅝ |     |
  | 700|    |  1¾ |  ·4 |  2° |     || 1550|    |     | 1·2 |  7° |     |
  | 750|    |  2° |  ·4 |  2¼ |     || 1600|    |     | 1·3 |  7¼ |     |
  | 800|    |  2¼ |  ·5 |  2½ | ·4  || 1650|    |     | 1·4 |  7⅝ |     |
  | 850|    |  2½ |  ·5 |  2¾ |     || 1700|    |     | 1·5 |  8° |     |
  | 900|    |  2¾ |  ·6 |  3° | ·5  || 1750|    |     | 1·6 |     |     |
  | 950|    |  3° |  ·6 |  3¼ |     || 1800| — |  9½ | 1·7 |     |     |
  |1000|    |  3¼ |  ·7 |  3½ | ·6  || 1850|    |     | 1·8 |     |     |
  |1050|    |  3⅝ |  ·7 |  3¾ |     || 1900|    |     | 1·9 |     |     |
  |1100|    |  4° |  ·8 |  4° | ·7  || 2000|    |     | 2·0 |     |     |
  +----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----++-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+


_Range, Elevation, &c., of Brass Ordnance._

SHRAPNELL SHELLS.

  +---------------------------------+---------------------------------+
  |          12 Pr. Medium.         |              9 Pr.              |
  +---------------------------------+---------------------------------+
  |  Shell filled 10 lb. 13¼ oz.    |  Shell filled  8 lb. 1¼ oz.     |
  |  Shell empty   5 lb. 10    oz.  |  Shell empty   4 lb. 9½ oz.     |
  |  Number of Balls           63   |  Number of Balls          41    |
  +----------+--------+-------------+----------+--------+-------------+
  | Letter & | Eleva- |    Range.   | Letter & | Eleva- |    Range.   |
  | Length   |  tion. |             | Length   |  tion. |             |
  | of Fuze. |        | from |  to  | of Fuze. |        | from |  to  |
  +----------+--------+------+------+----------+--------+------+------+
  | in.      |  deg.  | yds. | yds. | in.      |  deg.  | yds. | yds. |
  |   10ths. |        |      |      |   10ths. |        |      |      |
  |  B  ·2   |   1⅜   |  660 |  960 |  B  ·2   |   1⅜   |  640 |  920 |
  |  C  ·3   |   1⅞   |  820 | 1110 |  C  ·3   |   1⅞   |  800 | 1060 |
  |  D  ·4   |   2¼   |  960 | 1230 |  D  ·4   |   2¼   |  930 | 1180 |
  |  E  ·5   |   2¾   | 1080 | 1340 |  E  ·5   |   2¾   | 1050 | 1290 |
  |     ·6   |   3¼   | 1195 | 1445 |     ·6   |   3¼   | 1160 | 1390 |
  |     ·7   |   3¾   | 1301 | 1545 |     ·7   |   3¾   | 1260 | 1480 |
  |     ·8   |   4⅜   | 1415 | 1645 |     ·8   |   4⅜   | 1360 | 1570 |
  |     ·9   |   5⅛   | 1520 | 1740 |     ·9   |   5⅛   | 1455 | 1655 |
  |  1  ·    |   5¾   | 1620 | 1830 |  1  ·    |   5¾   | 1550 | 1740 |
  |  1  ·1   |   6⅜   | 1720 | 1920 |  1  ·1   |   6⅜   | 1640 | 1820 |
  |  1  ·2   |   7    | 1815 | 2005 |  1  ·2   |   7    | 1725 | 1895 |
  |  1  ·3   |   7⅝   | 1905 | 2085 |  1  ·3   |   7⅝   | 1805 | 1965 |
  |  1  ·4   |   8¼   | 1990 | 2160 |  1  ·4   |   8¼   | 1885 | 2035 |
  |  1  ·5   |   8⅞   | 2070 | 2230 |  1  ·5   |   8¾   | 1960 | 2100 |
  |  1  ·6   |   9⅜   | 2140 | 2290 |  1  ·6   |   9⅜   | 2030 | 2160 |
  |  1  ·7   |  10    | 2200 | 2340 |  1  ·7   |  10    | 2095 | 2215 |
  |          |        |      |      |  1  ·8   |  10¾   | 2165 | 2275 |
  |          |        |      |      |          |        |      |      |
  |          |        |      |      |          |        |      |      |
  |          |        |      |      |          |        |      |      |
  +----------+--------+------+------+----------+--------+------+------+

      +---------------------------------+
      |           Light 6 Pr.           |
      +---------------------------------+
      |   Shell filled 5 lb. 7¼ oz.     |
      |   Shell empty  3 lb. 2  oz.     |
      |   Number of Balls         27    |
      +----------+--------+-------------+
      | Letter & | Eleva- |    Range.   |
      | Length   |  tion. |             |
      | of Fuze. |        | from |  to  |
      +----------+--------+------+------+
      | in.      |  deg.  | yds. | yds. |
      |   10ths. |        |      |      |
      |          |   1    |  380 |  640 |
      |  B  ·2   |   1¼   |  570 |  800 |
      |  C  ·3   |   1⅝   |  720 |  930 |
      |  D  ·4   |   2¼   |  845 | 1045 |
      |  E  ·5   |   2⅞   |  955 | 1145 |
      |     ·6   |   3⅜   | 1060 | 1240 |
      |     ·7   |   4    | 1160 | 1330 |
      |     ·8   |   4⅝   | 1255 | 1415 |
      |     ·9   |   5¼   | 1345 | 1500 |
      |  1  ·    |   5⅞   | 1430 | 1580 |
      |  1  ·1   |   6⅝   | 1510 | 1655 |
      |  1  ·2   |   7¼   | 1585 | 1725 |
      |  1  ·3   |   7⅝   | 1655 | 1785 |
      |  1  ·4   |   8¼   | 1720 | 1840 |
      |  1  ·5   |   8⅞   | 1780 | 1890 |
      |  1  ·6   |   9⅝   | 1835 | 1940 |
      |  1  ·7   |  10¼   | 1885 | 1980 |
      |  1  ·8   |  11    | 1953 | 2020 |
      |          |        |      |      |
      |          |        |      |      |
      +----------+--------+------+------+

          +----------------------------+----------------------------+
          |      24 Pr. Howitzer.      |      12 Pr. Howitzer.      |
          +----------------------------+----------------------------+
          |    S. filled 21 lb. 4 oz.  | S. filled 10 lb. 13¼ oz.   |
          |    S. empty  11 lb. 1 oz.  | S. empty   5 lb. 10  oz.   |
          |    No. of Balls     129    | No. of Balls        63     |
          +----------+--------+--------+----------+--------+--------+
          | Letter & | Eleva- | Range. | Letter & | Eleva- | Range. |
          | Length   |  tion. |        | Length   |  tion. |        |
          | of Fuze. |        |        | of Fuze. |        |        |
          +----------+--------+--------+----------+--------+--------+
          | in.      |  deg.  |  yds.  | in.      |  deg.  |  yds.  |
          |   10ths. |        |        |   10ths. |        |        |
          |    ·1    |   1    |   450  |    ·1    |   1¼   |   450  |
          |    ·1½   |   1¼   |   500  |    ·1½   |   1½   |   500  |
          | B  ·2    |   1½   |   550  | B  ·2    |   1¾   |   550  |
          |    ·2½   |   1¾   |   600  |    ·2½   |   2    |   600  |
          | C  ·3    |   2    |   650  | C  ·3    |   2¼   |   650  |
          |    ·3½   |   2¼   |   700  |    ·3½   |   2½   |   700  |
          | D  ·4    |   2½   |   750  | D  ·4    |   2¾   |   750  |
          |    ·4½   |   2¾   |   800  |    ·4½   |   3    |   800  |
          | E  ·5    |   3    |   850  | E  ·5    |   3¼   |   850  |
          |    ·5½   |   3¼   |   900  |    ·5½   |   3½   |   900  |
          |    ·6    |   3½   |   950  |    ·6    |   3¾   |   950  |
          |    ·6½   |   3¾   |  1000  |    ·6½   |   4    |  1000  |
          |    ·7    |   4    |  1050  |    ·7    |   4¼   |  1025  |
          |    ·7½   |   4¼   |  1100  |    ·7½   |   4½   |  1050  |
          |    ·8    |   4½   |  1125  |    ·7¾   |   4¾   |  1075  |
          |    ·8½   |   4¾   |  1150  |    ·8    |   5    |  1100  |
          |    ·9    |   5    |  1175  |    ·8¼   |   5¼   |  1125  |
          |    ·9½   |   5¼   |  1200  |    ·8½   |   5½   |  1150  |
          |          |        |        |    ·8¾   |   5¾   |  1175  |
          |          |        |        |    ·9    |   6    |  1200  |
          +----------+--------+--------+----------+--------+--------+


_Ricochet Practice with Brass Ordnance._

  yds. = yards.  Chg. = Charge.  Ele. = Elevation.
  +-----+------------------------+
  |     |     Solid Shot.        |
  |     +-----------+------------+
  |     |   12 Pr.  | 9 Pr. Gun. |
  |     |   Medium  |            |
  |Range|    Gun.   |            |
  | in  +----+------+----+-------+
  |yds. |Chg.| Ele. |Chg.|  Ele. |
  |     +----+------+----+-------+
  |     | oz.| deg. | oz.|  deg. |
  +-----+----+------+----+-------+
  |     |    |      |    |       |
  | 400 |    |      |    |       |
  |     |    |      |  8 |  4    |
  |     |  6 |  6½  |  7 |  5    |
  |     |  5 |  7   |  6 |  6¼   |
  |     |    |      |  5 |  6¾   |
  | 500 |    |      |    |       |
  |     |    |      |    |       |
  |     |    |      |  7 |  6½   |
  | 600 |    |      |  6 |  7½   |
  |     |    |      |  5 |  9½   |
  +-----+----+------+----+-------+


  yds. = yards.  Chg. = Charge.  Ele. = Elevation.
  +-----+-----------------------------------------------------------------+
  |     |                         Common Shells.                          |
  |     +------------+-----------+--------------+------------+------------+
  |     |    24 Pr.  |   12 Pr.  |    5½ in.    |   5½ in.   |    4⅖ in. |
  |     |  Howitzer  |  Howitzer |Howitzer heavy|   Mortar   |    Mortar  |
  |Range|Shell, 16lb.|Shell, 8lb.| Shell, 16lb. |Shell, 16lb.| Shell, 8lb.|
  | in  +------+-----+-----+-----+------+-------+----+-------+----+-------+
  |yds. | Chg. | Ele.|Chg. | Ele.| Chg. |  Ele. |Chg.|  Ele. |Chg.|  Ele. |
  |     +------+-----+-----+-----+------+-------+----+-------+----+-------+
  |     |lb.oz.| deg.| oz. | deg.|lb.oz.|  deg. | oz.|  deg. | oz.|  deg. |
  +-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-------+----+-------+----+-------+
  |     |    6 |  7½ |     |     |      |       |    |       |    |       |
  | 400 |    9 |  4¾ |     |     |   12 |   5   |  8 |  14½  |  5 |  14½  |
  |     |      |     |     |     |    8 |   8   |    |       |    |       |
  |     |    8 |  9  |     |     |   12 |   7   |    |       |    |       |
  |     |   10 |  7½ |     |     |      |       |    |       |    |       |
  |     |   11 |  6  |     |     |   10 |   9   |    |       |    |       |
  | 500 |   12 |  5¼ |     |     |    8 |  11   |    |       |    |       |
  |     |   14 |  5  |     |     |      |       |    |       |    |       |
  |     |    9 |  7¾ |  6  |  7  |      |       |    |       |    |       |
  | 600 |   12 |  6½ |  8  |  6  | 1    |   6¾  |    |       |    |       |
  |     | 1    |  4¾ | 10  |  5  |   12 |   9   |    |       |    |       |
  +-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-------+----+-------+----+-------+
      NOTE.—When Shot are fired from the 24 Pounder and 12 Pounder
      Howitzers, the Elevation must be about half a degree more than when
      Shells are used.


CHARGES FOR THE ROYAL NAVY.

_For Boats._

                                                        lb. oz.
                              { 24 Pounder               2   8
                { Howitzer    { 12 Pounder    { Heavy    2   0
  Cartridges    {                             { Light    1   4
  filled with   { Gun            6 Pr. Light    {        1   8
    Powder      {                               {        0   4
                { Carronade     12 Pounder               1   0


CHARGES FOR THE ROYAL NAVY.

High; Medium; Low: equivalent to Distant; Full; Reduced.

  +---------------+-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+
  |               | Gun.  | High. | Medium. |  Low.  | Proof. |
  +---------------+-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+
  |               | cwt.  |  lb.  |   lb.   |   lb.  |   lb.  |
  | 18-Pounder.   |  42   |   6   |    4½   |    3   |   15   |
  |  ”    ”       |  38   |   6   |    4½   |    3   |   15   |
  |  ”    ”       |  22   |       |    3    |    2   |    7   |
  |  ”    ”       |  20   |       |    3    |    2   |    7   |
  |  ”    ”       |  15   |       |    2    |        |    5   |
  +---------------+-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+
  | 24-Pounder.   |  50   |   8   |    6    |    4   |   18   |
  |  ”    ”       |  48   |   8   |    6    |    4   |   18   |
  |  ”    ”       |  33   |       |    6    |    4   |   12   |
  |  ”    ”       |  20   |       |    2½   |        |    6   |
  +---------------+-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+
  | 32-Pounder*.  |  64   |  10   |    8    |    6   |   21½  |
  |  ”    ”       |  58   |  10   |    8    |    6   |   21½  |
  |  ”    ”       |  56   |  10   |    8    |    6   |   21½  |
  |  ”    ”       |  46   |   8   |    6    |        |   21½  |
  |  ”    ”       |  48 } |       |         |        |        |
  |  ”    ”       |  50 } |   8   |    6    |    5   |   21½  |
  |  ”    ”       |  50 A |   8   |    6    |    4   |   18   |
  |  ”    ”       |  45 B |   8   |    7    |    5   |   16   |
  |  ”    ”       |  42 C |   6   |    4    |    2½  |   14   |
  |  ”    ”       |  41   |   6   |    4    |    2½  |   12   |
  |  ”    ”       |  40   |   6   |    4    |    2½  |   12   |
  |  ”    ”       |  32   |   5   | 3 and 4 |    2½  |   10   |
  |  ”    ”       |  25   |       |    4    |    2½  |    9   |
  |  ”    ”       |  25   |       |    4    |    2½  |    9   |
  +---------------+-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+
  | 42-Pounder.   |  84   |  14   |   10    |    5   |   25   |
  |  ”    ”       |  75   |  14   |   10    |    5   |   25   |
  |  ”    ”       |  67   |       |   10    |    6   |   23   |
  +---------------+-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+
  | 56-Pounder.   |  98   |  16   |   10    |    5   |   28   |
  |  ”    ”       |  87   |  14   |   10    |    5   |   25   |
  +---------------+-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+
  | 68-Pounder.   | 112   |  20   |   10    |    5   |   30   |
  |  ”    ”       |  95   |  16   |   12    |    8   |   28   |
  |  ”    ”       |  87   |  14   |   10    |    6   |   25   |
  +---------------+-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+
  | 8-Inch Gun.   |  65   |  10   |    8    |    5   |   20   |
  |  ”    ”       |  60   |  10   |    8    |    5   |   20   |
  |  ”    ”       |  52   |   8   |         |    5   |   16   |
  |  ”    ”       |  50   |       |    8    |    5   |   14   |
  +---------------+-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+
  | 10-Inch Gun.  | 112   |  16   |         |        |   25   |
  |  ”    ”       |  86   |  12   |         |    6   |   20   |
  +---------------+-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+
      * Charge of powder, for firing 32-pounder shells, 8 lb.

In changing the charge from Distant to Full, add ¼ degree elevation
as far as 1000 yards, and half a degree beyond that range.

_Double Shotting._—Double shotting may be employed with 32-pounder
guns of

  56 cwt.  charge 6 lb.  up to 400 yards.
  42  ”      ”    4 lb.     ”  300  ”
  25  ”      ”   2½ lb.     ”  200  ”

With double shot and reduced charge, give double the elevation, and
half a degree additional, for the reduced charge.


_Range, Charge, Elevation, &c., of Iron Ordnance._

  +-------------+---------+---------+----------+----------+
  |   Nature.   | Weight. | Length. | Diameter |  Charge  |
  |             |         |         |  of the  |    of    |
  |             |         |         |  bore.   |  powder. |
  |             |         |         |          |          |
  +-------------+---------+---------+----------+----------+
  |             |   cwt.  | ft. in. |    in.   |  lb. oz. |
  |   GUNS.     |         |         |          |          |
  |     42 Pr.  |   85    | 10      |   9·60   |  14      |
  |     32 Pr.  |   63    |  9   7  |   6·41   |  10  10½ |
  |             |   56    |  9   6  |   6·41   |  10  10½ |
  |             |   48    |  8      |   6·41   |   8      |
  |             |   40    |  7   6  |   6·35   |   6      |
  |        *    |   32    |  6   6  |   6· 3   |   5      |
  |        *    |   25    |  6      |   6· 3   |   4      |
  |             |   25    |  5   4  |   6· 3   |   4      |
  |     24 Pr.  |   50    |  9   6  |   5·82   |   8      |
  |             |   48    |  9      |   5·82   |   8      |
  |             |   40    |  7   6  |   5·82   |   8      |
  |             |   33    |  6   6  |   5·82   |   6      |
  |     18 Pr.  |   42    |  9      |   5·29   |   6      |
  |             |   38    |  8      |   5·29   |   6      |
  |     12 Pr.  |   34    |  9      |   4·62   |   4      |
  |             |   29    |  7   6  |   4·62   |   4      |
  |      9 Pr.  |   26    |  7   6  |   4· 2   |   3      |
  |      6 Pr.  |   17    |  6      |   3·66   |   2      |
  |             |         |         |          |          |
  | CARRONADES. |         |         |          |          |
  |     68 Pr.  |   36    |  6   4  |   8·05   |   5  10½ |
  |     42      |   22    |  4   6  |   6·84   |   3   8  |
  |     32      |   17    |  4      |   6·25   |   2  10  |
  |     24      |   13    |  3   9  |   5·68   |   2      |
  |     18      |   10    |  3   4  |   6·16   |   1   8  |
  |     12      |    6    |  2   8  |   4·62   |   1      |
  +-------------+---------+---------+----------+----------+
        * Bored-up guns.

      +-------------+-------------------------------------------------+
      |   Nature.   |                 Range in yards.                 |
      |             +-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
      |             | Point |   1° |   2° |   3° |   4° |   5° |   6° |
      |             | blank.|      |      |      |      |      |      |
      +-------------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
      |             |       |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      |   GUNS.     |       |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      |     42 Pr.  |  400  |  940 | 1340 | 1620 | 1840 | 2050 | 2250 |
      |     32 Pr.  |  380  |  760 | 1130 | 1455 | 1730 | 1950 | 2160 |
      |             |  380  |  760 | 1130 | 1455 | 1730 | 1950 | 2160 |
      |             |  330  |  680 | 1015 | 1300 | 1540 | 1740 | 1840 |
      |             |  340  |  675 |  985 | 1260 | 1500 | 1700 | 1800 |
      |        *    |  330  |  670 |  945 | 1210 | 1450 | 1640 | 1730 |
      |        *    |  225  |  485 |  735 |  995 | 1260 | 1500 | 1630 |
      |             |  225  |  485 |  735 |  995 | 1260 | 1500 | 1630 |
      |     24 Pr.  |  360  |  755 | 1125 | 1417 | 1670 | 1850 | 2000 |
      |             |  360  |  755 | 1125 | 1417 | 1670 | 1850 | 2000 |
      |             |  340  |  730 | 1080 | 1377 | 1620 | 1800 | 1950 |
      |             |  260  |  530 |  805 | 1082 | 1350 | 1560 | 1760 |
      |     18 Pr.  |  360  |  730 | 1080 | 1377 | 1600 | 1780 | 1960 |
      |             |  340  |  710 | 1075 | 1347 | 1560 | 1730 | 1900 |
      |     12 Pr.  |  360  |  720 | 1075 | 1337 | 1540 | 1700 | 1850 |
      |             |  340  |  710 | 1040 | 1307 | 1500 | 1650 | 1800 |
      |      9 Pr.  |  330  |  685 | 1015 | 1278 | 1460 | 1600 | 1730 |
      |      6 Pr.  |  320  |  655 |  985 | 1238 | 1400 | 1520 | 1610 |
      |             |       |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      | CARRONADES. |       |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      |     68 Pr.  |  270  |  540 |  812 | 1042 | 1240 | 1420 | 1570 |
      |     42      |  240  |  515 |  810 |  983 | 1180 | 1350 | 1880 |
      |     32      |  235  |  485 |  705 |  905 | 1100 | 1260 | 1400 |
      |     24      |  225  |  435 |  650 |  826 | 1000 | 1150 | 1300 |
      |     18      |  220  |  430 |  620 |  787 |  950 | 1100 | 1250 |
      |     12      |  205  |  375 |  580 |  738 |  880 | 1000 | 1100 |
      +-------------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
            * Bored-up guns.


_Carronades._

      +----------+---------+---------+---------+------+---------+-----+
      | Nature   |  68 Pr. |    42   |    32   |  24  |    18   | 12  |
      +----------+---------+---------+---------+------+---------+-----+
      | Charge   | lb. oz. | lb. oz. | lb. oz. |  lb. | lb. oz. | lb. |
      |          |  5   8  |  3   8  |  2  10  |   2  |  1   8  |  1  |
      +----------+---------+---------+---------+------+---------+-----+
      |          |  yards. |         |         |      |         |     |
      | P. B.    |    450  |    400  |    330  |  300 |    270  | 230 |
      | 1 Degree |    650  |    600  |    560  |  500 |    470  | 400 |
      | 2  ” ”   |    890  |    860  |    830  |  780 |    730  | 580 |
      | 3  ” ”   |   1000  |    980  |    900  |  870 |    800  | 740 |
      | 4  ” ”   |   1100  |   1020  |    970  |  920 |    870  | 810 |
      | 5  ” ”   |   1280  |   1170  |   1080  | 1050 |   1000  | 870 |
      +----------+---------+---------+---------+------+---------+-----+


_Range, &c., of Iron Ordnance._

SHRAPNELL SHELLS.

  +----------------+----------------+------+
  |68 Pr.Carronade.| 8 in. Howitzer.|      |
  +----------------+----------------+------+
  |          lb.oz.|          lb.oz.|      |
  | Charge    4  0 | Charge    4  0 |      |
  |S. filled 61  4 |S. filled 61 13 |      |
  |S. empty  32  2 |S. empty  32  2 |      |
  |No. of Balls 337|No. of Balls 337|      |
  +--------+-------+--------+-------+      |
  | Eleva- | Fuze. | Eleva- | Fuze. |Range.|
  |  tion. |       |  tion. |       |      |
  +--------+-------+--------+-------+------+
  |  deg.  |tenths.|  deg.  |tenths.|yards.|
  |   2½   |   4   |   2¾   |   3½  |  650 |
  |   3½   |   6   |   3    |   6   |  900 |
  |   5    |   8½  |   6    |  10   | 1100 |
  +--------+-------+--------+-------+------+

          +----------------+----------------+------+
          |  24 Pr. Gun.   |  18 Pr. Gun.   |      |
          +----------------+----------------+------+
          |          lb.oz.|          lb.oz.|      |
          | Charge    5  0 | Charge    4  8 |      |
          |S. filled 21  5 |S. filled 15 11 |      |
          |S. empty  11  0 |S. empty   8  6 |      |
          |No. of Balls 128|No. of Balls 90 |      |
          +--------+-------+--------+-------+      |
          | Eleva- | Fuze. | Eleva- | Fuze. |Range.|
          |  tion. |       |  tion. |       |      |
          +--------+-------+--------+-------+------+
          |  deg.  |tenths.|  deg.  |tenths.|yards.|
          |   1¼   |   2   |   1¼   |   2   |  650 |
          |   1¾   |   3½  |   2    |   4   |  900 |
          |   2½   |   5   |   3    |   5¾  | 1100 |
          +--------+-------+--------+-------+------+


_Range, Elevation, &c., of 12, 10, and 8 inch Guns, 32 Pr. Carronade
Gun, and 10, and 8 inch Iron Howitzers._

  +---------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
  |                     |     Elevation in degrees; Range in yards;     |
  |                     |              Flight in seconds.               |
  |                     +--------+--------+-------+-------+------+------+
  | Nature of Ordnance. | Length.| Weight.|Charge.| Point |  1°  |  2°  |
  |                     |        |        |       | blank.|      |      |
  +---------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+------+------+
  |                     |feet.in.|cwt.qrs.| lb.oz.|       |      |      |
  | 12 in. Gun          |  8   4 | 90   3 | 12    |  240  |  540 |  790 |
  |    (Hollow shot)    |        |        |       |       |      |      |
  |                     |        |        |       |       |      |      |
  |                   { |  7   6 | 57   3 |  7    |  210  |  460 |  720 |
  | 10 Do. (H. S.)    { |  8   4 | 62   1 |  8    |  250  |  570 |  810 |
  |                   { |  9   4 | 84     | 12    |  325  |  630 |  930 |
  |                     |        |        |       |       |      |      |
  | 8 Do.  (H. S.)      |  6  8½ | 50     |  7    |  210  |  320 |  570 |
  |                     |        |        |       |       |      |      |
  | 8 Do. (Solid shot)  |  8   6 | 60     |  9  7 |  340  |  640 |  960 |
  |                     |        |        |       |       |      |      |
  | 8 Do.             } |  9     | 65     | 10    |  300  |  580 |  940 |
  |   Time of Flight  } |        |        |       |   ¾”  |   2” |   3” |
  |                     |        |        |       |       |      |      |
  | Do. (Hollow shot) } |  9     | 65     | 12    |  370  |  700 | 1050 |
  |   Time of Flight  } |        |        |       |   1”  |  2¼” |   3” |
  |                     |        |        |       |       |      |      |
  | 32 Pounder          |  5     | 25     |  4    |  200  |  470 |  730 |
  |   Carronade Gun     |        |        |       |       |      |      |
  |                     |        |        |       |       |      |      |
  | 10 inch iron        |  5     | 40     |  7    |       |      |  600 |
  |     Howitzer        |        |        |       |       |      |      |
  |                     |        |        |       |       |      |      |
  | 8 inch Do.          |  4     | 21     |  4    |       |      |  450 |
  +---------------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+------+------+

  +---------------------+------------------------------------------------+
  |                     |     Elevation in degrees; Range in yards;      |
  |                     |              Flight in seconds.                |
  |                     +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
  | Nature of Ordnance. |  3°  |  4°  |  5°  |  6°  |  7°  |  8°  |  9°  |
  |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
  +---------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
  |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
  | 12 in. Gun          | 1020 | 1250 | 1400 | 1550 |      |      |      |
  |    (Hollow shot)    |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
  |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
  |                   { |  935 | 1160 | 1350 | 1500 |      |      |      |
  | 10 Do. (H. S.)    { | 1030 | 1230 | 1400 |      |      |      |      |
  |                   { | 1200 | 1460 | 1700 |      |      |      |      |
  |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
  | 8 Do.  (H. S.)      |  830 | 1130 | 1300 |      |      |      |      |
  |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
  | 8 Do. (Solid shot)  | 1190 | 1300 | 1500 |      |      |      |      |
  |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
  | 8 Do.             } | 1220 | 1480 | 1700 | 1880 | 2120 | 2290 | 2430 |
  |   Time of Flight  } |  4¼” |  5½” |  7”  |  8”  |  8¾” |  9¾” | 10½” |
  |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
  | Do. (Hollow shot) } | 1230 | 1540 | 1700 | 1831 | 1980 | 2090 | 2310 |
  |   Time of Flight  } |  4¼” |   6” |  6½” |  7¾” |   8” |  8¾” |  10” |
  |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
  | 32 Pounder          |  960 |      |      |      |      |      |      |
  |   Carronade Gun     |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
  |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
  | 10 inch iron        |      |      | 1200 | 1320 |      | 1500 |      |
  |     Howitzer        |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
  |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
  | 8 inch Do.          |  730 |      |      |  975 |      | 1227 |      |
  +---------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+

      +---------------------+-----------------------------------------+
      |                     |  Elevation in degrees; Range in yards;  |
      |                     |            Flight in seconds.           |
      |                     +------+------+------+------+------+------+
      | Nature of Ordnance. |  10° |  11° |  12° |  13° |  14° |  15° |
      |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      +---------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
      |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      | 12 in. Gun          |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      |    (Hollow shot)    |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      |                   { |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      | 10 Do. (H. S.)    { |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      |                   { |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      | 8 Do.  (H. S.)      |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      | 8 Do. (Solid shot)  |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      | 8 Do.             } | 2510 | 2710 | 2930 | 2990 | 3140 | 3250 |
      |   Time of Flight  } | 11½” | 12¼” | 12½” |  13” | 13½” |  14” |
      |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      | Do. (Hollow shot) } | 2400 | 2510 | 2720 | 2830 | 2870 | 2220 |
      |   Time of Flight  } | 10½” | 11½” | 12½” | 13½” |  14” | 15½” |
      |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      | 32 Pounder          |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      |   Carronade Gun     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      | 10 inch iron        | 1926 |      | 2078 |      |      |      |
      |     Howitzer        |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      |                     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
      | 8 inch Do.          | 1506 |      | 1725 |      |      |      |
      +---------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+

The above Ranges for the 12 and 10 inch Guns are with hollow shot,
weighing respectively 112 lb. and 84 lb. The 8 inch Gun carries
either hollow shot, plugged, 48 lb.; or shell, 46 lb.

_Vide also_ NAVAL GUNNERY. Table of Tangent Practice, 8 inch Gun.


_56 Pounder Gun, and 68 Pounder Gun._

_Weight, Ranges, &c._

  +-------+-----+-------+-------+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+
  |       | Gun.| Shot. |Charge.| P B |  1° |  2°  |  3°  |  4°  |  5°  |
  |       |     |       |       |     |     |      |      |      |      |
  |       +-----+-------+-------+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+
  |       | cwt.|  lb.  |  lb.  | yds.| yds.| yds. | yds. | yds. | yds. |
  | 56 Pr.|  98 |  S S  |  16   | 490 | 930 | 1340 | 1720 | 2000 | 2200 |
  |       |  87 |  S S  |  14   | 380 | 900 | 1310 | 1660 | 1940 | 2100 |
  +-------+-----+-------+-------+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+
  | 68 Pr.| 112 |  S S  |  20   | 400 | 980 | 1400 | 1760 | 1980 | 2240 |
  |       |  95 |  S S  |  15   | 310 | 700 | 1070 | 1430 | 1710 | 1930 |
  |       |  95 | Shell |  16   | 350 | 850 | 1250 | 1560 | 1840 | 2100 |
  |       |  87 |  S S  |  14   | 300 | 680 | 1050 | 1360 | 1650 | 1900 |
  |       |  87 | Shell |  14   | 310 | 710 | 1080 | 1350 | 1610 | 1850 |
  +-------+-----+-------+-------+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+

      +-------+-----+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+--------+
      |       | Gun.| Shot. |Charge.|  6°  |  8°  |  10° |  12° | Above  |
      |       |     |       |       |      |      |      |      | Plane. |
      |       +-----+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+--------+
      |       | cwt.|  lb.  |  lb.  | yds. | yds. | yds. | yds. |feet.in.|
      | 56 Pr.|  98 |  S S  |  16   | 2400 | 2740 | 3040 | 3320 |  5     |
      |       |  87 |  S S  |  14   | 2310 | 2580 | 2940 | 3270 |  8     |
      +-------+-----+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+--------+
      | 68 Pr.| 112 |  S S  |  20   | 2480 | 2840 | 3130 | 3400 |  8     |
      |       |  95 |  S S  |  15   | 2130 | 2520 | 2890 | 3180 |  5   4 |
      |       |  95 | Shell |  16   | 2350 | 2690 | 3000 | 3300 |  5   4 |
      |       |  87 |  S S  |  14   | 2140 | 2490 | 2820 | 3150 |  8     |
      |       |  87 | Shell |  14   | 2080 | 2450 | 2800 | 3140 |  8     |
      +-------+-----+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+--------+


_8 Inch Gun._

Length, 9 feet; Weight, 65 cwt.; Height of gun above the plane, 5
feet 7 inches.

  +-------+-------+--------+------+-------+------+-------+-------+-------+
  |Nature |Charge.| Eleva- |First |Flight.|Second|Extreme|Time of|Number |
  |  of   |       |  tion. |graze.|       |graze.|range. |flight.|  of   |
  | shot. |       |        |      |       |      |       |       |grazes.|
  +-------+-------+--------+------+-------+------+-------+-------+-------+
  |       |   lb. |Degrees.|Yards.|  Sec. |Yards.| Yards.|  Sec. |       |
  | Solid |   10  |  P. B. |  315 |   1”  |  901 |  3207 |  20”  |   23  |
  |       |   10  |   1°   |  660 |   2”  | 1006 |  2803 |  19”  |   18  |
  |       |   10  |   1½°  |  818 |   3”  | 1240 |  2433 |  16”  |   13  |
  |       |    9  |  P. B. |  343 |   1”  |  776 |  2683 |  17”  |   12  |
  |       |    9  |   1°   |  615 |   2”  |  970 |  2483 |  15”  |   10  |
  +-------+-------+--------+------+-------+------+-------+-------+-------+


RICOCHET FIRING.

1. When adopted in the field, the guns should seldom be elevated
above 3 degrees, as the objects fired at are generally cavalry and
infantry, and the lower the angle the longer will the shot preserve
its force, and have effect.

2. In the ricochet of a fortification of any kind, the elevation
should seldom exceed 10 degrees to throw the shot over the parapet a
little higher than the level of the battery; and, on the whole, the
best elevation to enfilade a work is from 6 to 9 degrees, measured
above the crest of the parapet with corresponding charges.

3. The charge, and elevation being known for any range, when the gun
and parapet are on the same level, the same charge, and elevation
may be used so long as the difference of level does not exceed
one-twentieth of the horizontal distance between them, the elevation
being given by the tangent scale, and the gun laid at the parapet,
whether above or below its own level.


_Ricochet Practice with Iron Ordnance._

  +-------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
  |       |                       Round Shot.                         |
  |       +--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  | Range |   68 Pr.     |  24 Pr. Gun, |  18 Pr. Gun, |  12 Pr. Gun, |
  |       | Carronade.*  |    9 Feet.   |    8 Feet.   |    8½ Feet.  |
  |  in   |              |              |              |              |
  |       +-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+
  | yards.|Charge.|Eleva-|Charge.|Eleva-|Charge.|Eleva-|Charge.|Eleva-|
  |       |       | tion.|       | tion.|       | tion.|       | tion.|
  +-------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+
  |       | lb.oz.| deg. | lb.oz.| deg. | lb.oz.| deg. | lb.oz.| deg. |
  |  400  |       |      |    12 |   6¼ |     9 |   6½ |     8 |   4½ |
  |       |       |      |    10 |   7¾ |       |      |     6 |   6½ |
  |       |       |      |     8 |  11  |       |      |       |      |
  |       |       |      |       |      |       |      |       |      |
  |  600  |  1 12 |   7  |     6 |   6  |  1    |   5¼ |    12 |   4¾ |
  |       |  1  8 |   8¾ |  1  8 |   4  |    12 |   7  |    10 |   6  |
  |       |       |      |  1    |   6½ |       |      |     8 |   7¾ |
  |       |       |      |       |      |       |      |       |      |
  |  800  |       |      |  2    |   3¾ |  1  8 |   4¼ |  1    |   4½ |
  |       |       |      |  1  8 |   5½ |  1    |   7  |    12 |   6½ |
  +-------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+
      * NOTE.—When Shells are fired from the 68 Pounder Carronade,
        the Elevation must be decreased about half a degree.

          +-------+--------------------------------------------+
          |       |                Common Shell.               |
          |       +--------------+--------------+--------------+
          | Range |   10-inch    |    8-inch    |    24 Pr.    |
          |       |   Howitzer   |   Howitzer   |   Howitzer   |
          |  in   | Shell, 92 lb.| Shell, 46 lb.| Shell, 16 lb.|
          |       +-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+
          | yards.|Charge.|Eleva-|Charge.|Eleva-|Charge.|Eleva-|
          |       |       | tion.|       | tion.|       | tion.|
          +-------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+
          |       | lb.oz.| deg. | lb.oz.| deg. | lb.oz.| deg. |
          |  400  |  2  8 |   6¼ |  1  8 |   6  |     9 |   4¾ |
          |       |  2    |   8½ |  1    |   9½ |     6 |   7½ |
          |       |       |      |       |      |       |      |
          |       |       |      |       |      |       |      |
          |  600  |  3    |   6½ |  1  8 |   8¼ |  1    |   4¾ |
          |       |  2  8 |   8¼ |  1  4 |  10  |    12 |   5¼ |
          |       |       |      |       |      |     9 |   7½ |
          |       |       |      |       |      |       |      |
          |  800  |  4    |   6¼ |  2  8 |   6¼ |       |      |
          |       |  3  8 |   7½ |  2    |   6½ |       |      |
          +-------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+


MORTARS.

_Practical rules._

_To find the Charge for a given Range at 45° elevation._

_13 inch Mortar._—To the range, in yards, add half the range,
multiply the sum by ·03 for the charge, in ounces.

_10 inch Mortar._—When the range is under 1350 yards, add to the
range 160, and multiply by ·02; and if the range is over 1350 yards,
add one-fifth of the range, and multiply by ·02 for the charge, in
ounces.

_8 inch Mortar._—To the range, in yards, add 20, and the sum
multiplied by ·015 will give the charge, in ounces.

_5½ inch Mortar._—To the range in yards, add 150, and multiply by
·08, for the charge, in ounces.

_4⅖ inch Mortar._—To the range in yards add 300, and multiply by ·06,
for the charge, in drams.

_To find the Time of flight_, the range being given. Divide the
square root of the range, in feet, by 4·5 for the time of flight, in
seconds.

_To find the Range_, the Time of flight being given. Multiply the
time of flight, in seconds, by 4·5, and square the product for the
range, in feet.

_To find the length of Fuze_,[8] for a given range. Multiply the time
of flight, in seconds, by ·22, for the 13, and 10 inch mortars, and
by ·24 for 8, 5½, and 4⅖ inch mortars, for the length of fuze, in
tenths.


_Mortar Practice at 15°, 25°, and 45° Elevation. 1838._

  +--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
  |          13 INCH IRON.         |          10 INCH IRON.         |
  |  Weight                 36 cwt.|  Weight          16 cwt. 2 qrs.|
  | *Shell filled          200 lb. |  Shell filled           92 lb. |
  |  Burst. powder    6 lb. 12 oz. |  Burst. powder    2 lb. 10 oz. |
  |  Blowing powder          2 oz. |  Blowing powder       1½ oz.   |
  +-------+---------+------+-------+-------+---------+------+-------+
  | Eleva-| Charge. | Fuze.| Range.| Eleva-| Charge. | Fuze.| Range.|
  |  tion.|         |      |       |  tion.|         |      |       |
  +-------+---------+------+-------+-------+---------+------+-------+
  | degs. | lb. oz. | in.  |  yds. | degs. | lb. oz. | in.  |  yds. |
  |  45   |  2   1½ | 1·9  |   450 |  45   | 1     ½ | 1·9  |   450 |
  |       |  2   3  | 2·   |   500 |       | 1    2  | 2·   |   500 |
  |       |  2   4¾ | 2·1  |   550 |       | 1    3¼ | 2·1  |   550 |
  |       |  2   6  | 2·2  |   600 |       | 1    4¾ | 2·2  |   600 |
  |       |  2   7¾ | 2·3  |   650 |       | 1    6  | 2·3  |   650 |
  |       |  2   9½ | 2·4  |   700 |       | 1    7½ | 2·4  |   700 |
  |       |  2  11¾ | 2·45 |   750 |       | 1    9  | 2·45 |   750 |
  |       |  2  14  | 2·5  |   800 |       | 1   10  | 2·5  |   800 |
  |       |  3    ½ | 2·55 |   850 |       | 1   11  | 2·55 |   850 |
  |       |  3   3  | 2·6  |   900 |       | 1   12  | 2·6  |   900 |
  |       |  3   5½ | 2·65 |   950 |       | 1   13  | 2·65 |   950 |
  |       |  3   8  | 2·7  |  1000 |       | 1   14  | 2·7  |  1000 |
  |       |  3  10  | 2·75 |  1050 |       | 1   15¼ | 2·75 |  1050 |
  |       |  3  12  | 2·8  |  1100 |       | 2     ½ | 2·8  |  1100 |
  |       |  3  14  | 2·85 |  1150 |       | 2    1¾ | 2·85 |  1150 |
  |       |  4      | 2·9  |  1200 |       | 2    3  | 2·9  |  1200 |
  |       |  4   5  | 3·   |  1300 |       |         |      |       |
  |       |  4  15  | 3·2  |  1500 |       |         |      |       |
  |       |  5  10  | 3·4  |  1700 |       |         |      |       |
  +-------+---------+------+-------+-------+---------+------+-------+
              * The Shells were filled with sand.

      +--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
      |             8 INCH IRON.       |         5½ INCH BRASS.         |
      |  Weight           8 cwt. 1 qr. |  Weight    1 cwt. 1 qr. 10 lb. |
      |  Shell filled           46 lb. |  Shell filled           16 lb. |
      |  Burst. powder    1 lb. 14 oz. |  Burst. powder          10 oz. |
      |  Blowing powder          1 oz. |  Blowing powder          ½ oz. |
      +-------+---------+------+-------+-------+---------+------+-------+
      | Eleva-| Charge. | Fuze.| Range.| Eleva-| Charge. | Fuze.| Range.|
      |  tion.|         |      |       |  tion.|         |      |       |
      +-------+---------+------+-------+-------+---------+------+-------+
      | degs. | lb. oz. | in.  |  yds. | degs. | lb. oz. | in.  |  yds. |
      |  15   |     14  |  ·8  |   500 |  15   |  6      |  ·7  |  350  |
      |       | 1       | 1·   |   550 |       |  7      |  ·75 |  400  |
      |       | 1   2   | 1·1  |   600 |       |  7   8  |  ·8  |  450  |
      |  45   |     9½  | 1·9  |   450 |       |  8      |  ·85 |  500  |
      |       |    10¾  | 2·   |   500 |  25   |  5   8  | 1·1  |  480  |
      |       |    12½  | 2·1  |   550 |  45   |  4   8  |      |  300  |
      |       |    13¾  | 2·2  |   600 |       |  4  12  |      |  350  |
      |       |    14½  | 2·3  |   650 |       |  5      | 1·75 |  400  |
      |       |    15½  | 2·4  |   700 |       |  5   4  | 1·8  |  450  |
      |       | 1       | 2·45 |   750 |       |  5   8  | 1·85 |  500  |
      |       | 1    ½  | 2·5  |   800 |       |  5  12  | 1·9  |  550  |
      |       | 1   1¼  | 2·55 |   850 |       |  6      | 1·95 |  600  |
      |       | 1   2   | 2·6  |   900 |       |         |      |       |
      |       | 1   2¾  | 2·65 |   950 |       |         |      |       |
      |       | 1   3½  | 2·7  |  1000 |       |         |      |       |
      |       | 1   4   | 2·75 |  1050 |       |         |      |       |
      |       | 1   4¾  | 2·8  |  1100 |       |         |      |       |
      |       | 1   5¼  | 2·85 |  1150 |       |         |      |       |
      |       | 1   6   | 2·9  |  1200 |       |         |      |       |
      +-------+---------+------+-------+-------+---------+------+-------+

          +-------------------------------+
          |         4⅖ INCH BRASS.       |
          |  Weight        3 qrs. 19 lb.  |
          |  Shell filled          8 lb.  |
          |  Burst. powder         5 oz.  |
          |  Blowing powder         ½ oz. |
          +-------+--------+------+-------+
          | Eleva-| Charge.| Fuze.| Range.|
          |  tion.|        |      |       |
          +-------+--------+------+-------+
          | degs. | lb. oz.|  in. |  yds. |
          |  15   |  4   8 |  ·8  |  450  |
          |       |  4  12 |  ·85 |  500  |
          |  25   |  4     | 1·1  |  540  |
          |       |        |      |       |
          |       |        |      |       |
          |  45   |  2   6 | 1·65 |  300  |
          |       |  2   9 | 1·7  |  350  |
          |       |  2  12 | 1·75 |  400  |
          |       |  3     | 1·8  |  450  |
          |       |  3   4 | 1·85 |  500  |
          |       |  3   8 | 1·9  |  550  |
          |       |  3  12 | 1·95 |  600  |
          |       |        |      |       |
          |       |        |      |       |
          |       |        |      |       |
          |       |        |      |       |
          |       |        |      |       |
          |       |        |      |       |
          |       |        |      |       |
          +-------+--------+------+-------+


_Greatest Charges, and Ranges._

                        lb. oz.      yds.
  13 Inch, Sea          20   0      4200
  10   ”                10   8      4000
  13 Inch, Land          9   0      2900
  10   ”                 4   0      2400
   8   ”                 2   0      2000
   5½  ”                     9      1200
   4⅖ ”                     4·5    1000

Distance from the parapet of a battery, the parapet being 8 feet
high, for Mortars at the following elevations:—

  Elevation    45    30    20    15    10 degrees.
  Distance     12    13    21    30    40 feet.




PART V.

STORES, IMPLEMENTS, COMBUSTIBLES, ETC., REQUIRED IN BATTERIES.[9]


BALLS, LIGHT.

Light Balls are thrown from mortars at night, to discover the
operations of the enemy’s working parties, &c.

Light balls burn from 10 to 20 minutes.


_Composition._

                             lb.  oz.
  Saltpetre, pulverized       6    4
  Sulphur, ground             2    8
  Rosin, pounded              1   14
  Linseed oil, boiled         0    7½


BALLS, SMOKE.

Smoke balls are fired from mortars to suffocate the men in mines,
&c., or to prevent them continuing their work. They are also used to
conceal manœuvres, &c., from an enemy.

Smoke balls burn from 25 to 30 minutes.


_Composition._

                             lb.  oz.
  Corned mealed powder        5    0
  Saltpetre, pulverized       1    0
  Sea coal                    1    8
  Swedish pitch               2    0
  Tallow                      0    8


_To construct hollow Globes, or Cases for Light Balls, &c._

The canvas, or paper, may be formed in the following manner,
viz.:—With radius of half the intended calibre, describe the circle
A B C D (_vide Figure 20, Practical Geometry_), and divide the same
into four equal parts. From B with radius A B describe arc A E,
from A with radius A B describe arc B E, and from E with radius E A
describe arc A B. Eight pieces, as E A B, will form a ball nearly,
the edges being brought close together.


CARCASSES.

Carcasses, a species of shell, are filled with composition, the flame
from which is extremely powerful, and nearly unextinguishable. They
are much used in bombardments of towns, setting fire to shipping,
&c., and are discharged from guns, mortars, and howitzers, similarly
to common shells; from which, however, they differ, in being made
thicker, to enable them to withstand the intensity of fire; and in
having three fuze holes instead of one.

Carcasses burn from 8 to 10 minutes.

Common shells may be made to produce effects similar to carcasses,
by filling them with a proportion of Valenciennes composition, and
bursting powder.

All carcasses have three holes; and, from guns and howitzers, are
fired with sabots.


_Carcass Composition._

                             lb.  oz.
  Saltpetre, pulverized       6    4
  Sulphur, sublimated         2    8
  Rosin, pounded              1   14
  Antimony, pounded           0   10
  Tallow                      0   10
  Turpentine                  0   10


_Valenciennes Composition._

                             lb.  oz.
  Saltpetre, pulverized       6    4
  Sulphur, sublimated         2    8
  Rosin, pounded              1    4
  Antimony, pounded           0   10
  Linseed oil, 6 oz. 14 drams.


_Weight, and Dimensions of Carcasses._

  +--------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
  | Nature of Carcass. | Exterior |  Weight,  |  Weight,  |
  |   Land Service.    | Diameter.|  empty.   |  filled.  |
  +--------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
  |                    |  inches. | lb.  oz.  | lb.  oz.  |
  | 13 Inch            |  12·84   | 220   0   | 234   8   |
  | 10 Inch            |   9·84   |  97   0   | 104   0   |
  | 8 Inch             |   7·86   |  52   4   |  57   0   |
  | 5½ Inch            |   5·59   |  15   8   |  17   1   |
  | 4⅖ Inch            |   4·45   |   8   4   |   9   1   |
  | 42 Pr.             |   6·85   |  28  14   |  30  10   |
  | 32 Pr.             |   6·1    |  23   3½  |  24   8   |
  | 24 Pr.             |   5·54   |  15   6   |  16   9½  |
  | 18 Pr.             |   5·04   |  13  12   |  14   7½  |
  | 12 Pr.             |   4·4    |   8   6   |   8  13   |
  +--------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+


CARTRIDGES FOR GUNS, HOWITZERS, ETC.

  +--------------------+--------+-----------------------------+
  |                    |        |       Dimensions.           |
  |     Nature of      | Charge +---------+-------------------+
  |     Ordnance.      |   of   |         |   Circumference.  |
  |                    | powder.| Length. +---------+---------+
  |                    |        |         |Superior.|Inferior.|
  +--------------------+--------+---------+---------+---------+
  | GUNS, IRON.        | lb. oz.| ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. |
  |   68 Pounder       | 18     |  1  8·6 |  1      |  1      |
  |   56               | 20     |  1 10·  |  1  3·  |  1  3·  |
  |   ”                | 16     |  1 10·  |  1      |  1      |
  |   ”                | 14     |  1 10·  |    11·3 |    11·3 |
  |   ”                | 10     |  1 10·  |     9·  |     9·  |
  |   ”                |  6     |  1 10·  |     7·2 |     7·2 |
  |   42               | 14     |  1 11·1 |  1  9·4 |  1  9·4 |
  |   32               | 10     |  1  9·8 |  1  7·9 |  1  7·9 |
  |   24               |  8     |  1  6·3 |  1  5·6 |  1  5·6 |
  |   18               |  6     |  1  7·  |  1  4·5 |  1  4·5 |
  |   12               |  4     |  1  4·5 |  1  2·5 |  1  2·5 |
  |    9               |  3     |  1  2·2 |  1  1·  |  1  1·  |
  |    6               |  2     |  1  1·1 |  1  1·5 |  1  1·5 |
  |   12 Inch          | 12     |  1  6·5 |  1  6·5 |  1  2·  |
  |   10               | 12     |  1  5·5 |  1  3·  |  1      |
  |    8               | 10     |  1  7·  |  1  1·5 |    10·  |
  |                    |        |         |         |         |
  | GUNS, BRASS.       |        |         |         |         |
  |   12 Pr. {Medium   |  4     |  1  4·5 |  1  2·5 |  1  2·5 |
  |          {Light    |  3     |  1  1·5 |  1  2·5 |  1  2·5 |
  |    9               |  2   8 |  1  1·1 |  1  1·  |  1  1·  |
  |    6     {Heavy    |  2     |  1  2·2 |    11·5 |    11·5 |
  |          {Light    |  1   8 |    11·2 |    11·5 |    11·5 |
  |    3     {Heavy    |  1     |     9·7 |     9·  |     9·  |
  |          {Light    |     12 |     9·  |     9·  |     9·  |
  |                    |        |         |         |         |
  | HOWITZERS.         |        |         |         |         |
  | Iron.  {10 Inch    |  7     |  1  1·8 | 1   3·8 |     9·7 |
  |        { 8         |  4     |  1  1·7 | 1   1·2 |     7·  |
  | Brass. {24 Pr.     |  2   8 |  1  0·2 |    10·  |     6·3 |
  |        {12         |  1   4 |    10·8 |     8·5 |     5·8 |
  |        { 5½ inch   |  2     |    10·3 |     5·9 |     3·8 |
  |        { 4⅖        |      8 |     7·6 |     5·  |     3·  |
  |                    |        |         |         |         |
  | CARRONADES.        |        |         |         |         |
  |   68 Pr.           |  5  10 |  1  8·3 |  1  9·  |  1  9·  |
  |   42               |  3   8 |  1  5·  |  1  7·1 |  1  7·1 |
  |   32               |  2  10 |  1  6·  |  1  5·5 |  l  5·5 |
  |   24               |  2     |    11·  |  1  3·9 |  1  3·9 |
  |   18               |  1   8 |    10·  |  1  1·8 |  1  1·8 |
  |   12               |  1     |     8·8 |  1  1·2 |  1  1·2 |
  |    6               |     12 |     7·5 |    10·1 |    10·1 |
  +--------------------+--------+---------+---------+---------+

When the circumference of the Cartridge is not uniform, each
Cartridge is made of two pieces, and the dimensions given are for one
piece only.


FUZES, OLD PATTERN.

The wooden cases for holding the Fuze composition are made of
well-seasoned beech. The interior diameter of the cup is equal to
three times that of the bore, and its depth is equal to 1½ of the
said diameter. The thickness of wood at the bottom of the bore is
equal to two diameters.


_Fuze composition._

                             lb. oz.
  Saltpetre, pulverized       3   4
  Sulphur, sublimated         1   0
  Pit-mealed powder           2  12


_Blind fire for Night._

                             lb.
  Mealed powder              16½
  Wood ashes                  9½

Fuzes, being bored for Field guns, or cut to the length required for
the range of Garrison guns, are made to fit the Shell correctly by
means of a rasp and cutter; after which they are carefully driven
into the Shell with a mallet and setter, leaving only the cup of the
Fuze out of it. The Fuze is uncapped when placed in the piece.

  13 inch Fuze burns 40 Seconds.
  10    do.    do.   35   do.
   8    do.    do.   30   do.
  5½ inch Fuze burns 20 Seconds.
   4    do.    do.   15   do.

All natures of Fuzes, when driven with the above composition, burn
one inch in five seconds; but when driven with mealed powder, they
burn two inches in the same time.


BOXER’S FUZE.

The composition bore is made excentric with regard to the exterior,
and two powder channels are bored upon that side in which there is
the greatest thickness of wood. A hole is bored through the mealed
powder at the top, and into the fuze composition, to insure the
ignition of the fuze composition from the priming. Two rows of holes,
two inches apart, are made into the powder channels, and the bottom
hole in each row is continued to the axis of the composition bore.
The small side holes, with the exception of the bottom ones, are
filled with pressed powder, and a small portion of clay. The powder
channels contain rifle powder, and the bottom side holes have a piece
of quick match placed in them. Beyond this quick match, the powder
channels in the fuze for common shells are filled with putty; but in
the Shrapnell fuze the corresponding portion contains quick match,
which is continued from one channel to the other through a groove
made in the bottom. A piece of quick match is tied into the cup,
and it is recommended that this quick match is laid over the side
before the shell is set home. The bursting powder is contained in a
tin cylinder,[10] and is admitted through a hole at the bottom of
the socket. There is a small hole in the side of the shell, through
which the balls, and composition, which is run between them, are
admitted. It is recommended that the bursting powder be placed in
the tin cylinder before going into action, and the plug covered with
serge, inserted in the fuze hole. The bursting powder can be speedily
removed from the shell, if necessary; and, from its being separated
from the balls, it will not be liable to injury, even when subjected
to the action of travelling.

A simple boring-bit is supplied to each gun, in case the borer,
specially made for the fuze, is lost, or damaged.

Captain Boxer’s 5½ inch fuzes are to be adopted for all natures of
guns and howitzers, one inch in length for Shrapnell shells, and two
inches in length for common shells.


FUZES, METAL.

Fuzes, for the Naval service specially, are formed of gun metal, and
are screwed into a gun metal bouched screw hole in the shell.

Metal fuzes are of three natures, viz., 3-inch, 4-inch, and
short-range Fuzes. The first is driven with mealed powder, and will
burn seven seconds; the second is driven with fuze composition, and
will burn twenty seconds; and the short-range fuze is also driven
with the composition, and will burn two seconds. These fuzes are
driven and primed precisely the same as wooden fuzes; but instead of
being capped with canvas, have a screw metal cap.

The fuzes are screwed into the shells, the holes of which are
bouched with metal to receive them; they are screwed into the left
hand, so that unscrewing the cap in the same direction prevents the
possibility of the fuze being loosened by that operation.

The diameter of the fuze holes for all natures of shells, fitted to
receive metal fuzes, is exactly the same.

A 3-inch metal fuze will burn seven seconds, and is calculated for
ranges not exceeding 1,900 yards. A 4-inch metal fuze will burn ten
seconds, and is not to be used at a greater distance than 2,400 yards.

_Bickford’s Water Fuze_, which burns about two or three feet in a
minute, may be advantageously used for exploding gunpowder under
water, for the destruction of booms, vessels, &c.


GREASE.

The composition used for greasing wheels is composed of equal parts
of tallow and coarse sweet oil melted together, and it is made up in
kegs of 28 lb. each. In warm weather the proportion of tallow must be
increased.


GRENADES, HAND.

A Land service Hand grenade weighs 1 lb. 13 oz., and may be thrown
from 40 to 60 feet. The diameter of the Fuze composition is ·2 of an
inch, length 2·25 inches, and weight 3 drams.


_Fuze Composition._

  Saltpetre, 3 lb. 4 oz.; Sulphur, 1 lb.; Mealed powder, 2 lb. 12 oz.

  On service the Grenades are charged with 1½ oz. of powder.


GUN COTTON.

Although there appears no prospect of Gun cotton being used in the
British service as a substitute for gunpowder, it is advisable
that every Artillerist should be cognizant of its merits and
demerits; for circumstances may arise when this new impulsive
power may be advantageously employed. The exploding cotton is thus
prepared:—Common well-cleaned cotton is dipped for about half a
minute in highly-concentrated nitric acid (made by the distillation
of ten parts of dried saltpetre, and six of oil of vitriol), and then
instantly placed in water, which must be often renewed, in order to
free the cotton from the acid with which it is impregnated. Care
must then be taken that all the knotty particles of the cotton are
properly disentangled, and that it is thoroughly dried. After the
explosive preparation is ready for use, the smallest portion explodes
when struck on an anvil with a hammer, like fulminating-powder; when
kindled with a glowing body, it takes fire just like gunpowder;
and, when used in a gun, its operation, though in a far greater
proportion to its weight, is similar to that of gunpowder. Gun cotton
is employed in the same manner as gunpowder: a piece of it is rammed
down the barrel, then a bit of wadding, and after that a ball; a
copper cap ignites and explodes the cotton.

To Dr. Otto, professor of chemistry in Brunswick, we are indebted
for the foregoing description of the preparation of the explosive
cotton; and the intrinsic value of this impulsive agent has been
ascertained by Colonel Mordecai, at Washington, in 1845, 1847,
1848. The following are the results of this scientific officer’s
experiments for the purpose of determining the fitness of Gun cotton,
as a substitute for gunpowder in the military service:—

1. Explosive cotton burns at 380° Fahrenheit, therefore it will not
set fire to gunpowder when burnt in a loose state over it.

2. The projectile force of explosive cotton, with moderate charges,
in a musket or cannon, is equal to that of about twice its weight of
the best gunpowder.

3. When compressed by hard ramming, as in filling a fuze, it burns
slowly.

4. By the absorption of moisture, its force is rapidly diminished,
but the force is restored by drying.

5. Its bursting effect is much greater than that of gunpowder, on
which account it is well adapted for mining operations.

6. The principal residua of its combustion are water and nitrous
acid; therefore the barrel of a gun would be soon corroded, if not
cleaned after firing.

7. In consequence of the quickness and intensity of its action, when
ignited, it cannot be used with safety in the present fire-arms.

8. An accident on service, such as the insertion of two charges
before firing, would cause the bursting of the barrel; and it is
probable that the like effect would take place with the regular
service charges, if several times repeated.


GUNPOWDER.

_The component parts of Powder_ are 75 parts of nitre, 10 of sulphur,
and 15 of charcoal.

_Cylinder powder_ is made from charcoal that has been burnt in iron
cylinders; and _Pit powder_ from charcoal burnt in common pits.

_Gunpowder, when ignited_, expands with a velocity of about 5,000
feet per second; and the pressure of the fluid is about 2,000 times
that of common air.

_One pound of Powder_ measures 32 solid inches.

_A cubic foot of Government powder_ weighs about 58 pounds.

_Gunpowder is manufactured_ by reducing the nitre, sulphur, and
charcoal to powder; they are then mixed, moistened with water, and
again mixed in a mill for five or six hours, or until the mixture is
as intimate as possible, for upon this the strength of the powder
chiefly depends.

When taken from the mill, the composition is put in a press, and
formed into hard cakes about a quarter of an inch thick; these, when
dry, or nearly so, are broken by wooden mallets into small pieces,
and reduced into grains by being put into sieves, and forced by means
of a wooden roller through circular holes of the proper diameter.

_Good powder_ should be devoid of smell, and of uniform colour,
approaching to that of a slate. The particles should be perfectly
granulated, and free from cohesion. It should admit of being readily
poured from one vessel to another.

_In powder that has become damp_, large lumps are formed: should
the damage, however, not be very considerable, these concretions
may be reduced by drying the powder in a hot-air stove, rubbing and
loosening the grains; but powder thus affected never thoroughly
regains its lost strength.

_To test the purity of powder._—Lay a dram of it on a piece of clean
writing-paper, and fire the heap by means of a red-hot iron wire: if
the flame ascend quickly with a good report, leaving the paper free
from white specks, and without burning holes in it, the goodness of
the ingredients and proper manufacture of the powder may be safely
inferred.

_Good powder_ blasted upon a clean plate of copper should leave no
track or mark of foulness.

_Powder exposed_ for 17 or 18 days to the influence of the atmosphere
ought not to increase materially in weight. One hundred pounds of
powder should not absorb more than twelve ounces: if it increase in
weight more than one per cent., the powder should be condemned.


_Proof of Gunpowder._

To prove the strength of _large grain or common powder_, 2 ounces
are fired from 8-inch Gomer mortars (at an angle of 45°), placed on
stone beds, and so fixed as not to recoil. These mortars are loaded
with shot weighing 68 pounds, and the average of the ranges, with
Government powder of Waltham Abbey, is 250 feet. Powder made of
common pit charcoal will only project such a ball, under the same
circumstances, about 220 feet; and powder that has been re-stoved
will only produce a range of from 107 to 117 feet.

A musket, charged with two drams of _fine grained or musket powder_,
should drive a steel bullet through 15 or 16 half-inch elm boards,
placed three quarters of an inch from each other, the first board
being set at 40 inches from the muzzle of the musket: with re-stoved
powder, the bullet will only perforate from 9 to 12 of the boards.

The quality of large grain powder is ascertained by its general
appearance, its firmness, glazing, uniformity of grain, and density.


POWDER MARKS.

The various sorts of Powder are distinguished by the following marks
on the heads of the barrels:—

  L G          Large grain.
  F G          Fine grain.
  R A          For rifle arms.
  L G          Large grain.
  F G          Fine grain.
  R S          Re-stoved.

_Red_ L G, or F G, denotes powder of the best quality. _White_ L G,
or F G, is an inferior Powder for salutes, &c.


POWDER MAGAZINES.

_To ascertain if a Magazine is damp._—Soak a piece of sponge in a
solution of salt of tartar, or common salt and water: let it be well
dried and weighed, and then be placed in the magazine, which, if
damp, will cause the sponge to become heavier.

A small weight, suspended by a piece of catgut, or hair, will also
discover moisture, causing the former to contract and the latter to
lengthen.


POWDER BARRELS.

Whole Barrels contain 100 lb., and Half Barrels 50 lb., of powder,
whether fine or coarse.


_Dimensions of Powder barrels._

                 Whole barrels.  Half barrels.  Quarter barrels.
                   inches.          inches.         inches.
  Depth              20½              16¾             14
  Diameter at top    15½              12¼              9½
  Do. at bulge       16¾              13¼             10¼
  Do. at bottom      15½              12¼              9½


BUDGE BARRELS.

Weight of Barrel, copper-hooped, 10 lb., hazel-hooped, 6 lb.

  Length of barrel 10½ inches  } each barrel will contain 38 lb.
  Diameter    ”    13     ”    }


BOXES TO CONTAIN POWDER, CORRESPONDING TO THE BARRELS.

  External    Whole boxes.  Half boxes.  Quarter boxes.
  dimensions.   inches.       inches.       inches.
    Length        16¾           13¼           10¼
    Breadth       16¾           13¼           10¼
    Depth         20½           16¾           14

         These boxes are lined with copper, tinned.


HANDBARROWS.

  Length, 5 ft. 3 in.      Breadth, 2 ft.      Weight, 19 lb.


HANDSPIKES.

  Length, 5 ft. Diameter at top, 1·25; Diameter at bottom, 2·75
  inches. Length of square, 1 foot 9 inches. Weight of ten, 64 lb.

  There is a larger kind, 6 feet in length; weight of ten, 100 lb.


LEVERS.

                       ft.  in.                      lb.
  Iron shod, length     4    0        Weight of 5    36
  Common                6    6           Do.         54


LIGHTS, BLUE.

Blue lights are used for signals, &c., and will burn half a minute.

_Composition._

                           lb.  oz.
  Saltpetre, ground         1   12
  Sulphur, sublimated       0    7
  Red orpiment              0    2


LIGHTS, LONG (BOXER’S).

The paper case is 10 inches long, 6 inches of which are filled with
composition; one end is left open to fix on a wooden holder; the
other end is fitted with a nipple, on which a percussion cap is to
be placed. By giving the cap a smart blow on some hard substance, it
ignites the composition, which will burn for six minutes.

_Composition._

                          lb.  oz.
  Saltpetre, ground        7    0
  Sulphur, sublimated      1   12
  Red orpiment             0    8


LIGHTS, LONG (OR STEVENS’).

The composition is similar to that for blue lights. The cases are
made of brown paper, and are of the same diameter as the one-pound
signal rocket. The case is cut to the length of 9·75 inches, one end
being perforated at an inch from the bottom to allow a wooden pin to
pass through it, for the purpose of attaching the handle to the case.

Two coats of paint are given to the cases.

A long light will burn five minutes.


LIGHTS, SIGNAL (BOXER’S)

This is similar to the LIGHT, LONG, but has only one inch of
composition.


MATCH, QUICK.

_Composition._

                       lb.  oz.
  Cotton wick           2    2
  Gum arabic            0    8
  Gunpowder                    12 lb.
  Water                         4 quarts.

Four pounds of the gunpowder are mixed into a thin paste with a
portion of the gum-water _boiling_, in this the cotton is then
immersed. Six pounds of gunpowder made into a stiff paste, with the
remainder of the gum-water, is spread on the top of the match, which
is afterwards reeled off, the remaining two pounds of powder being
sifted on the match while on the reel, and some of the stiff paste
being held in the hand through which the match passes.


MATCH, SLOW.

_Slow match_ is prepared from slightly-twisted hemp rope, which is
dipped in a solution of lime water and saltpetre.

One yard burns about three hours. One skein, 35 yards, weighs seven
pounds.

During the Siege of Gibraltar, Slow match was thus made:—Eight ounces
of saltpetre were put in a gallon of water, and just made to boil
over a slow fire, strong blue paper was then wetted with the liquor,
and hung to dry. When dry, each sheet was divided into two parts,
which were rolled up tight, and the outward edges pasted down. Each
half sheet would burn three hours.

_French slow match_ is made by soaking light twisted white rope in a
solution of one pint of rain water, and three quarters of an ounce of
sugar of lead.


PARACHUTE, LIGHT BALL (BOXER’S).

This light ball consists of a paper shell, enclosing two tin
hemispheres, one containing the composition, the other the parachute.
The shell is fired from a mortar, having a fuze, fixed in the usual
manner, which communicates with the bursting powder, opens the
shell, and lights the composition in the hemisphere attached to the
parachute, which, suspended in the air, renders conspicuous the
objects required to be illuminated.


_Composition._

                          lbs.  oz.
  Saltpetre, ground        7     0
  Sulphur, sublimated      1    12
  Red orpiment             0     8


PENDULUMS.

A Pendulum is readily made with a musket ball, and a piece of silk.
The length of a Pendulum is measured from the centre of the ball to
the end of the loop on which it swings.

                                  { 1 Seconds  39·14 inches
  Length of Pendulums to vibrate  { ½ Seconds   9·8    ”
                                  { ¼ Seconds   2·45   ”

_To find the length of a pendulum to make a given number of
vibrations._

_Rule._—As the square of the given number of vibrations is to the
square of 60, so is the length of the standard (39·14 length for one
second) to the length sought.

Or, multiply 39·14 by the square of the time required for the
Pendulum to vibrate—viz., by the square of ½ = ¼, for ½ second; and
by the square of 2 = 4 for two seconds.

_To find the number of vibrations, the length of pendulum being
given._

_Rule._—Multiply 60 seconds by the square root of 39·14, divided by
the length of the given pendulum.

Or say, As the given length is to the standard length, so is the
square of 60 (its vibrations per minute) to the square of the number
required.


PORTFIRES.

Portfires are of four different natures—viz., Common portfires,
Percussion portfires, Miners’ portfires, and Slow portfires.

A common portfire is 16 inches long, and will burn 15 minutes.


_Composition._

                               lb.
  Brimstone, sublimed           2
  Powder, cylinder mealed       1
  Saltpetre, pulverized         6


PORTFIRES, PERCUSSION.

_Composition._

  Brimstone, sublimed           4
  Powder, cylinder mealed       1
  Saltpetre, pulverized         8

The percussion priming is added to these portfires at the stations
where they are used (principally for the Coast Guard), and is simply
a small glass globule, containing sulphuric acid. This is embedded
in loose composition, which ignites on the globule being broken. A
percussion portfire will burn 5 minutes.


PORTFIRES, MINERS.

_Composition._

                               lb.  oz.
  Saltpetre, pulverized         0    8
  Sulphur, sublimed             0    8
  Powder, cylinder mealed       1    0


PORTFIRES, SLOW.

The paper, which is called blue sugar-loaf paper, is wetted by
dissolving 12 ounces of saltpetre in one gallon of water, wetting
each sheet separately on both sides with a brush, one side being
dried before the other is made wet.

Slow portfires burn from three to four hours.

Portfires were made during the Siege of Gibraltar in the following
manner: Two ounces of nitre were dissolved in a gallon of water, and
sheets of soft brown paper dipped in the solution; these, when dry,
were rolled up to about the size of common portfires.

_Portfires may be made_ by boiling square rods of lime, birch, or
poplar, in a solution of nitrate of lead for six hours (a quart of
water to every pound of the nitrate); the matches are then dried,
and afterwards boiled in spirits of turpentine; they are then wiped
and dried. A yard of this match will burn three hours.


COAST GUARD PORTFIRES.

_Composition._

  Saltpetre 8 lb.    Sulphur 4 lb.    Cylinder mealed powder 1 lb.


QUOINS.

  Nature.    Length.      Width.       Thickness.
             ft. in.      inches.       inches.

  42 Pr.      2   3        10·75         6·75
  32  ”       2   3        10·75         6·75
  24  ”       2   9         9·5          6·75
  18  ”       2   9         9·5          6·75
  12  ”       1  11         9·25         6·25
   9  ”       1  11         9·15         6·


ROCKETS.

There are two descriptions of Rockets:—

  1st.—_Signal Rockets._      2nd.—_Congreve Rockets._
  (_Vide_ PART VI.)


SIGNAL ROCKETS.

Signal rockets are of two natures—viz., 1 lb. and ½ lb. Rockets. They
are fired from a tube, the ignition being effected by means of a
percussion tube.

_Composition._

                                lb.
  Saltpetre, pulverized          4
  Sulphur, sublimed              1
  Dog-wood charcoal              1½

_Composition for Stars of Rockets._

                                lb.
  Saltpetre, pulverized          8
  Antimony, pounded              2
  Cylinder mealed powder         1
  Sulphur, sublimed              2
  Isinglass                  3 oz. 8 drs.
  Vinegar                    1 quart.
  Spirits of Wine            1 pint.

The head of a 1 lb. rocket contains 36 stars, and that of the ½ lb.
rocket 24 stars.


SHELLS.

Shells are hollow iron Shot, and are of various descriptions, viz.:—

1st.—The _Common shell_, with one fuze hole, used in the attack and
defence of fortresses, &c., against shipping, and troops.

2nd.—The _Carcass_, which has three fuze holes, is filled with
burning composition, and is used to set fire to towns, &c.

3rd.—The _Compound-shot_, which is filled with lead to increase the
impetus of the shot, and the extent of the range.

4th.—The _Shrapnell shell_, which is very destructive when used
against bodies of Cavalry or Infantry, as it produces the same effect
as common Case or Canister shot from guns or howitzers, but at a much
greater range.[11]


_Diameter and thickness of each Shell now in the Service._

  +-----------------------+-----------+------------+-------------+
  |   Nature of Shell.    |   Mean    | Thickness. |  Bursting   |
  |                       | Diameter. |  Powder.   |             |
  +-----------------------+-----------+------------+-------------+
  |                       |  inches.  |  inches.   | lb. oz. dr. |
  |           { 13   Inch |  12·84    |   2·146    |  6   8      |
  |           { 10    ”   |   9·84    |   1·646    |  5   8      |
  | COMMON    { 8     ”   |   7·86    |   1·39     |  2   4      |
  |           { 5½    ”   |   5·595   |   0·936    |  0  10      |
  |           { 4⅖   ”    |   4·454   |   0·746    |  0   5      |
  |           { 32 Pr.    |   6·177   |   1·034    |  1   0      |
  |                       |           |            |             |
  |           { 10 Inch   |   9·85    |   1·35     |  5   8      |
  | NAVAL     { 8   ”     |   7·925   |   1·35     |  2   4      |
  |           { 32 Pr.    |   6·177   |   1·034    |  1   0      |
  |                       |           |            |             |
  |           { 8 Inch    |   7·86    |   0·82     |     10      |
  |           { 32 Pr.    |   6·177   |   0·64     |      6      |
  |           { 24  ”     |   5·595   |   0·58     |      3      |
  | SHRAPNELL { 18  ”     |   5·099   |   0·53     |             |
  | DIAPHRAGM { 12  ”     |   4·454   |   0·477    |      1   12 |
  |           { 9   ”     |   4·08    |   0·41     |      1    8 |
  |           { 6   ”     |   3·55    |   0·356    |  0   0   12 |
  +-----------------------+-----------+------------+-------------+

All shells are now issued in the Field Service, _loaded_, and secured
with a metal plug.


SHOT, CASE OR CANISTER.

The common Case or Canister shot consists of a number of balls packed
in tin canisters of a cylindrical form: the balls being of different
weights according to the size of the gun. For field service the
balls are counted into the case, and laid in tiers, but for other
purposes they are loosely thrown in till the case is filled. The top
being soldered on, the bottom of the tin case is nailed on to the
wooden bottom, and the heads of the nails are soldered. These shot
should seldom be used at a greater distance than 300 yards, and even
at that range they scatter so much as to be nearly unserviceable; but
at from 100 to 200 yards they are very destructive.

  +----------------------------------------------------------------+
  |               SHOT, COMMON CASE, OR CANISTER.                  |
  +-------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+
  |  Nature of Ordnance.    |  Weight    | Number in | Weight of   |
  |                         |  of ball.  | each case.| case filled.|
  +-------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+
  |                         | lb.  oz.   |           | lb. oz. dr. |
  | IRON GUNS.  10 Inch*    |  1         |     34}   | 82   7      |
  |                         |      13⅛   |     50}   |             |
  |             8 Inch*     |       8    |     90    | 48  12      |
  |             8 Inch*     |       8    |     90    | 48  12      |
  |             68 Pr.*     |       8    |     90    | 50   4      |
  |             56 Pr.*     |  1         |     50    | 52  11      |
  |             42 Pr.†     |       8    |     85    | 45  15      |
  |             32 Pr.†     |       8    |     66    | 34  13      |
  |             24 Pr.†     |       8    |     46    | 10   7      |
  |             18 Pr.†     |       6    |     46    | 10   7      |
  |             12 Pr.†     |       4    |     46    | 12   2      |
  |             9 Pr.†      |       3    |     44    |  9  11      |
  |             6 Pr.†      |       2    |     40    |  5  10      |
  |             3 Pr.†      |       1½   |     34    |  3   9   8  |
  |                         |            |           |             |
  | BRASS GUNS. 12 Pr.‡     |       2    |    126    | 17   4      |
  |                   ‡     |       6½   |     41    | 16  14      |
  |              9 Pr.‡     |       1½   |    126    | 12  15      |
  |                   ‡     |       5    |     41    | 13   2   8  |
  |              6 Pr.‡     |       1½   |     85    |  8  13      |
  |                   ‡     |       3¼   |     41    |  8  15   8  |
  |              3 Pr.‡     |       1½   |     41    |  4   3   8  |
  |                         |            |           |             |
  | HOWITZERS.  10 Inch*    |       8    |    170    | 85   6      |
  |              8 Inch*    |       2    |    258    | 35  15   8  |
  |              5½ Inch†   |       2    |    100    | 14  11   8  |
  |              4⅖ Inch†   |       2    |     55    |  7  14   8  |
  |             24 Pr.*     |       2    |    140    | 19   0   8  |
  |             12 Pr.*     |       2    |     84    | 11   9      |
  |                         |            |           |             |
  | CARRONADES. 68 Pr.†     |       8    |     90    | 47   5   8  |
  |             42 Pr.†     |       8    |     66    | 33  11      |
  |             32 Pr.†     |       8    |     40    | 20  13      |
  |             24 Pr.†     |       8    |     32    | 16  12   8  |
  |             18 Pr.†     |       6    |     31    | 12  14      |
  |             12 Pr.†     |       4    |     32    |  8   3   8  |
  |             9  Pr.†     |       3    |     30    |  6   7   8  |
  |             6  Pr.†     |       2    |     30    |  4   9      |
  +-------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+
        * Iron Tampeon.
        † Wood Tampeon.
        ‡ Tier Shot.

      +----------------------------------------------------------------+
      |                          SHOT, GRAPE.                          |
      +-------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+
      |  Nature of Ordnance.    |  Weight    | Number in |  Weight of  |
      |                         |  of ball.  | each case.|  Grapeshot. |
      +-------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+
      |                         | lb. oz.    |           | lb. oz. dr. |
      | GUNS.          10 Inch  |  3         |     24    | 81          |
      | Shot Quilted.  68 Pr. } |  3         |     15    | 50   7      |
      |                 8 Inch} |            |           |             |
      |                56 Pr.   |  4         |     12    | 56  14      |
      |                42 Pr.   |  4         |      9    | 41   6      |
      |                32 Pr.   |  3         |      9    | 29  11      |
      |                24 Pr.   |  2         |      9    | 20  10      |
      |                18 Pr.   |  1   8     |      9    | 16  12      |
      |                12 Pr.   |  1         |      9    | 11   2      |
      |                 9 Pr.   |     13⅛    |      9    |  8  12      |
      |                 6 Pr.   |      8     |      9    |  8   7      |
      |                 3 Pr.   |      8     |      9    |  2   9      |
      |                         |            |           |             |
      | CARRONADES.     68 Pr.  |  3         |     15    | 52   8      |
      | Tin Case Shot.† 42 Pr.  |  4         |      9    | 37  15      |
      |                 32 Pr.  |  3         |      9    | 30   6      |
      |                 24 Pr.  |  2         |      9    | 20   9      |
      |                 18 Pr.  |  1   8     |      9    | 15  10      |
      |                 12 Pr.  |  1         |      9    | 11   0   8  |
      |                  9 Pr.  |     13⅛    |      9    |  9   1      |
      |                  6 Pr.  |      8     |      9    |  5   2      |
      +-------------------------+------------+-----------+-------------+
              † Wood Tampeon.


STOOL BEDS.

  NATURE.                      BEDS.                 BLOCKS.
          Length.  Breadth.  Thickness.  Length.  Breadth.  Depth.
            ft.      in.        in.      ft. in.    in.      in.
  42 Pr.    2·91     11         4·5       1   5     4·75      9
  32  ”     2·91     10         4·25      1   5     4·75      9
  24  ”     2·83     10         4·25      1   4     4·5       8
  18  ”     2·85      9·5       4·25      1   3     4·5       8
  12  ”     2·85      9·5       4         1   3     4·5       8
   9  ”     2·85      9·5       4         1   1     4·5       8


TUBES.

Tubes are of five different natures—viz., Common quill, and Dutch or
Paper tubes for exercise, and Detonating quill, and Brass tubes; and
Friction tubes for service.

All tubes are gauged to two-tenths of an inch diameter.

The pipes for the _Quill tubes_ are 2½ inches long; and the barrels
of _Dutch tubes_ are 1¾ inch in length.[12]


_Composition for Common tubes._

Mealed powder, mixed with spirits of wine into a stiff paste.


DETONATING TUBES.

The quills of these tubes are cut to 2¾ inches in length. Small,
or pigeon quills, are also prepared for the arms to receive the
detonating composition; these are cut to ¾ of an inch in length; and
a small hole is bored in the centre to communicate the composition to
the body of the tube. The body of the tube is filled precisely in the
same way as common tubes.


_Composition for the Crosses, or Arms, of Detonating tubes._

                              grains.
  Chlorate of potassa           230
  Antimony                      230
  Glass, finely pounded          73

_Brass tubes_, _common_, are 3 inches long, and the cups, previous to
being stamped, are one inch in diameter.

They are filled similarly to common quill tubes.


FRICTION TUBES.

These tubes are of copper, and are three inches in length. The
detonating composition is inserted in a tin arm, into which is
introduced and pressed down tight, by the sides of the aim, a piece
of copper, grooved; with a small ring to receive the cord for firing
the tube, and gun.


WADMILTILT.

  Length, 14 ft. 6 in.    Breadth, 11 ft. 6 in.    Weight, 50 lb.


WOODEN BOTTOMS.

They are riveted to shot for brass guns to prevent the bore being
indented in front of the seat of the shot by the first impulse of the
powder: and to Shells, to keep the fuze in the centre of the bore.




PART VI.

FIELD BATTERY EXERCISE.[13]


STANDING DRILL.

  _Section. 1. Telling off the Detachments._[14]

  _Section 2. Posts of the Detachment._

_Art. 1.—In Action._

  No. 1. At the handspike.

  Nos. 2, 3. Outside the wheels: with Howitzers rather in rear of the
  muzzle; with Guns in line with the front of the wheels.

  Nos. 4, 5. In line with the breech.

  No. 6. Five yards in rear of the left wheel.

  No. 7. In rear of the Limber.

  No. 8. Ten yards in rear of No. 6.

  No. 9. Four yards in rear of the Limber.

_Art. 2.—In Order of March._

  No. 1. On the off-side at the wheel horses’ heads.

  Nos. 2, 3. In line with the muzzle.

  Nos. 4, 5. In line with the breech.

  Nos. 6, 7. In line with the axletree of the Limber.

  Nos. 8, 9. In line with the splinter bar.

_Art. 3.—In Front._

  In line, ten yards in front of the leading horses.

_Art. 4.—In Rear._

  In line, two yards in rear of the muzzle of the Gun.

_Art. 5._—In line with the gun axletree, one yard to the right or
left of the wheel.

_Art. 6.—Mounted._

  No. 1. On the right.} On the Gun limber.
  No. 6. On the left. }
  No. 3. On the right.} On the Waggon limber.
  No. 2. On the left. }

  No. 3. On the right.} On the front of the Waggon body.
  No. 2. On the left. }

  No. 7. On the right.} On the rear of the Waggon body.
  No. 8. On the left. }

  When there are 9 men, No. 9 between Nos. 5 and 4.

  _Section 3. Change of Position of Detachments._

  1. FORM THE ORDER OF MARCH.  | _Nos. 1._ Right face. Double march.
  2. FORM THE ORDER OF MARCH.  | _Nos. 1._ Left face. Double march.
  3. DETACHMENTS REAR.         | _Nos. 1._ Right about face. Double
                               |   march. Halt. Front.
  4. DETACHMENTS FRONT.        | _Nos. 1._ Double march. Halt.
  5. DETACHMENTS RIGHT.        | _Nos. 1._ Right (or left) face.
                               |   Double march, front turn. Halt.
  6. DETACHMENTS REAR.         | _Nos. 1._ Right about face. Double
                               |   march. Halt, front.
  7. DETACHMENTS FRONT.        | _Nos. 1._ Double march. Halt. Front.

  _Section 4. Detail of Duties in the service of Ordnance._

      No. 1 Commands, and lays the Gun.
      No. 2 Sponges.
      No. 3 Loads, and serves ammunition.
      No. 4 Serves the vent, and primes. After the discharge he
              clears the vent with the drift, previous to reloading.
      No. 5 Fires.[15]
      No. 6 Serves ammunition.
      No. 7 Attends the Limber, and serves ammunition to No. 8.
      No. 8 Assists No. 7.
      No. 9 Attends the ammunition Waggon.
      */


CHANGING ROUND.

      No. 2 becomes No. 4.
      No. 4    ”    No. 9.
      No. 9    ”    No. 7.
      No. 7    ”    No. 8.
      No. 8    ”    No. 6.
      No. 6    ”    No. 1.
      No. 1    ”    No. 5.
      No. 5    ”    No. 3.
      No. 3    ”    No. 2.


_Exercise, with Reduced Numbers._

  +------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
  |    Nos. Retained.      |           Distribution of duties.           |
  |------------------------+-------+-------+------+------+---+---+---+---+
  |                        |   1   |   2   |  3   |  4   | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
  |                        +-------+-------+------+------+---+---+---+---+
  | 1, 2                   |1, 4, 5|2, 3, 6|      |      |   |   |   |   |
  | 1, 2, 3                |   4, 5|   2   | 3, 6 |      |   |   |   |   |
  | 1, 2, 3, 4             |   1   |   2   | 3, 6 | 4, 5 |   |   |   |   |
  | 1, 2, 3, 4, 5          |   1   |   2   | 3, 6 |  4   | 5 |   |   |   |
  | 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6       |   1   |   2   |  3   |  4   | 5 | 6 |   |   |
  | 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7    |   1   |   2   |  3   |  4   | 5 | 6 | 7 |   |
  | 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 |   1   |   2   |  3   |  4   | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
  |------------------------+-------+-------+------+------+---+---+---+---+


DISTANCES REQUIRED

_for a Battery of 6 Guns (4 horses to each Carriage)._

  In Line, from muzzle to muzzle        15 yards.
  In Column of Route                   177   ”
        ”      Sub-divisions            87   ”
        ”      Divisions                87   ”
        ”      Half battery             72   ”

A Gun, or Waggon, with 4 Horses covers 11 yards of ground, from front
to rear.

For every additional pair of Horses 4 yards should be added.

A Battery of 6 Guns, when limbered up at full intervals, occupies from

  Right to left      78 yards.
  Front to rear      26 yards.

On each flank, 22 additional yards should be allowed.

A battery of 6 Guns, when unlimbered for Action, at full intervals,
occupies from

  Right to left      78 yards.
  Front to rear      37 yards.

The space required for reversing a Gun with 4 Horses is 9 yards, and
for a Waggon about 8 yards.

[Illustration: ELEVATION OF A 9 P^R BRASS FIELD CARRIAGE.

  NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A FIELD GUN CARRIAGE.

  A Block, or Trail.                 g Portfire clipper.
  B Cheeks, or Brackets.             h Locking plate.
  C Axletree.                        i Trail plate bolt.
  D Ogee.                            k Trail plate.
  E Trunnion holes.                  l Trail plate eye.
  F Wheel.                           m Chain eye bolt.
  G Felly.                           n Locking chain.
  H Spokes.                          o Breast, or advancing chain.
  I Nave.                            p Trail handles.
  J Tire, or Streak.                 q Handspike shoe.
  K Rivets.                          r Handspike pin.
  L Tire, or Streak bolts.           s Handspike ring.
  a Eye, or Capsquare bolts.         t Axletree arms.
  b Capsquares.                      u Dragwashers.
  c Axletree bands.                  v Nave hoops.
  d Bracket bolts.                   w Elevating screw.
  e Transom bolts.                   x Handles of elevating screw.
  f Trunnion plates.                 y Elevating screw box.]

[Illustration: PLAN OF A 9 P^R BRASS FIELD CARRIAGE.]

  _Section 5. Method of performing the duties of serving ordnance._

  _Section 6. Ranges._

  _Section 7. Method of laying a piece of ordnance._

  _Section 8. Limbering up._

  FRONT (REAR, RIGHT, OR LEFT) LIMBER UP.    | Halt: Limber up.

  _Section 9. Unlimbering, or coming into action._

  To the front, rear, right or left. The reverse of limbering up.

  _Section 10. Moving with the Prolonge._

  PREPARE TO RETREAT WITH THE PROLONGE.    | _Nos._ 1
  THE BATTERY WILL RETIRE.                 | Right about
          HALT.                            |   face.
      UNHOOK PROLONGE.                     | Front.

  PREPARE TO ADVANCE WITH THE PROLONGE.    | _Nos._ 3
          ACTION.                          | Drive on.

  _Section 11. Mounting field ordnance_, with the materials belonging
  to the battery.

  _Section 12. Dismounting field ordnance_, with the materials
  belonging to the battery.

  _Section 13. Shifting shafts._

  _Section 14. Disengaging a shaft horse_, when he falls, or is
  disabled in action.

  _Section 15. Changing wheels_, when the lifting jack is not at hand.

  _Section 16. Shifting the medium 12 pounder._

  _Section 17. To remove disabled field artillery._

  _Section 18. Exercise with Drag-ropes._

1. A light 6 pounder with its limber requires 15 men, six of whom are
told off entirely for the drag-ropes, the other men at the gun also
assisting in manning them: No. 9 is always in the shafts, and No. 8
at the point of the shaft, near side. A 9 pounder requires additional
men, and a double set of drag-ropes.

2. The drag-rope men are numbered off from 10 upward. Nos. 10, 12,
14, are with the left drag-rope; 11, 13, 15, with the right; 10, 11,
carry the drag-ropes.

3. The gun being limbered up, and the detachment and drag-rope men
in the order of march, at the word “HOOK ON,” Nos. 8 and 9 get into
their places; 10 and 11 move outside the gun detachments to the
rear, and hook on to the gun drag-washers, passing the end of the
drag-ropes at once to the front.

The Nos. then man the drag-ropes as follows:—Nos. 10 and 11 outside,
close to the drag-washer; 2, 12, 3, and 13 the centre of the
drag-rope; 4, 14, 5, and 15 the front; 6 and 7 the ends. The gun
detachments inside, and the drag-rope men outside. No. 1 at the point
of the shafts, off-side. At the word “UNHOOK,” Nos. 10 and 11 unhook,
coil up the drag-ropes; and the whole then form the order of march.

4. At the word “ACTION,” whether to the “FRONT,” “REAR,” “RIGHT,” or
“LEFT,” the drag-ropes are at once quitted; Nos. 10 and 11 unhook,
and coil them up; and the whole of the drag-rope men retire with the
limber, forming in front of it two deep, as they were numbered off.
In limbering up, the drag-rope men form the order of march, and wait
for the word to hook on.


FORMATION OF A BATTERY.

A battery of Artillery is generally composed of six pieces of
ordnance, to which a Company of Artillery is attached. The number of
ammunition, forge, and store waggons varies according to the nature
of the ordnance.

  _Section 19. Fitting of saddles, bridles, harness, &c._

  _Section 20. Harnessing._

  _Section 21. Carrying forage._

  _Section 22. Instruction for Drivers._

  _Section 23. Parade, and inspection._

The Battery, limbered up, is told off by sub-divisions, divisions,
and half batteries.

  One gun and its waggon constitute a sub-division.
  Two sub-divisions          ”      a division.
  Three sub-divisions        ”      a half battery.

The battery is numbered from right to left by sub-divisions. It
is then told off into three divisions. No. 1 the right; No. 2 the
centre; No. 3 the left. Sub-divisions Nos. 1, 3, and 5 are also
distinguished as right sub-divisions of divisions; and Nos. 2, 4, and
6 the left; the two centre sub-divisions are also to be named. It is
also told off into half batteries, and these are distinguished by
right, centre, and left sub-divisions of half batteries. The gun of
direction should always be named. A flank gun is generally named with
a battery of four guns, and the right centre gun with a battery of
six guns.

Spare carriages, with the battery, form a third, and, if necessary,
a fourth line, in rear. The forge and store-waggon always in the
centre, and the ammunition waggons on the flanks, covering those in
the front line.

  _Section 24. Posts, and duties of Officers, and mounted
  Non-commissioned officers, &c., at exercise._

  _Second Captain._

  _In line, limbered up._—One horse’s length in rear of the centre.

  _In column._—Two horses’ length from the centre on the reverse
  flank.

  _In action._—He assists the Captain in general superintendence.

  He dresses all points of formation, gives the word “_Steady_,” when
  they have been correctly taken up, and the formation completed.
  When required he commands a division.


  _Subalterns._

  _In line, limbered up._—The senior on the right of the right
  division; the second on the left of the left division; the junior
  on the right of the centre division.

  _In column of route._—On the pivot flanks of their leading
  sub-divisions.

  _In column of divisions._—On the pivot flanks of their respective
  divisions.

  _In column of half-batteries._—The subaltern of the centre
  division, on the pivot flank of the leading half battery. The
  others continue on the same flank of their sub-divisions as when in
  line.

  _In action._—Between the guns of their divisions, a little in rear.

  They command the divisions to which they are attached, dressing in
  line with, and close to the leaders, and always with the guns.

  _In shifting from one flank to the other._—It is always along the
  front, and at a canter; and in joining the new sub-division, the
  officer always turns his horse’s head inwards.


  _Staff Serjeants._

  _In line, limbered up._—The senior on the right of the marker of
  the right division. The junior on the left of the marker of the
  left division.

  _In column of route._—One on the reverse flank of the leading gun;
  the other on the pivot flank of the rear carriage.

  _In column of divisions._—One between the guns of the leading, the
  other between the guns of the rear division.

  _In column of half-batteries._—On the reverse flank of the waggons
  of each half battery.

  They take up points in changes of position. In line formations, 10
  yards from the flank sub-divisions; in column formations, 10 yards
  in front and rear. They dress the markers when there is no staff
  officer; and the limbers and waggons in action.


  _Markers._

  _In line, limbered up._—In line with the leaders of the waggons,
  and covering their officers.

  _In column of route._—With their leading waggons covering their
  officers. (Without waggons, covering their officers, and in line
  with the centre horses of the gun.)

  _In column of divisions, and half-batteries._—They cover their
  officers. (Without waggons, on the reverse flank of their
  divisions.)

  _In action._—Those of the right, and centre divisions on the right
  of the leaders of the limbers of their right sub-divisions. The
  marker of the left division, on the left of the leaders of the
  limber of the left sub-division.

  They take up points in changes of position; in line formations,
  for the sub-division nearest the one of formation; in column
  formations, for the pivot sub-division.


  _Farriers, and Artificers._

  The farrier is generally attached to the forge; but when the
  battery is limbered up he is in the centre, in rear of the second
  captain. The other artificers are told off in the gun detachments
  when not mounted.


  _Trumpeters._

  _In line, limbered up._—On the right of the battery, in line with
  it, one horse’s length distant.

  _In column._—One horse’s length in front.

  _During manœuvres._—One with the commander; the other in rear of
  the battery.


MANŒUVRES OF A BATTERY OF SIX PIECES.

  _Section 25._ BATTERY IN LINE.

    _1. To advance. Commanding officer’s word of command repeated by
        officers._

  [16]THE BATTERY WILL        | _The officer, and marker of the_
     ADVANCE—MARCH.           | _sub-division of direction take up points._

    _2. To retire._

  RIGHT (OR LEFT)             |
  REVERSE—MARCH.              |

    _3. To come into action._

  ACTION FRONT.               | _Senior staff-serjeants._—Left reverse.

    _4. To diminish (or increase) intervals on the march._

    _To diminish._            | _Nos._ 1. Right (or left) half
  HALF, OR QUARTER, INTERVALS | turn—Trot—Front turn—Trot—(except No. 1
  ON—SUB-DIVISION.            | of the named sub-division).
    _To increase._            |
  FULL INTERVALS              |
  ON—SUB-DIVISION.            |

    _5. To take ground to a flank._

  RIGHT (OR LEFT) TAKE        | _The officers shift to the pivot flank_
  GROUND—                     | _of what will become their leading_
  MARCH.                      | _sub-divisions._

    _6. To make a half turn on the march._

  RIGHT (OR LEFT)             |
  HALF TURN—MARCH.            |

    _7. To form Column of divisions in rear of a flank._

  FORM COLUMN OF DIVISIONS IN  |   _Centre division_—Right
  REAR OF THE RIGHT.           | reverse—March—By the left—Left take
                               | ground—Halt—Dress.
  MARCH.                       |   _Left division_—Right reverse—March—By
                               | the left—Left half turn—Left take
                               | ground—Halt—Dress.
  FORM COLUMN OF DIVISIONS IN  |   _Centre division_—Left
  REAR OF THE LEFT.            | reverse—March—By the right—Right take
                               | ground—Right take ground—Halt—Dress.
  MARCH.                       |   _Right division_—Left reverse—March—By
                               | the right—Right half turn—Right take
                               | ground—Halt—Dress.

    _8. To form Column of divisions in front of a flank._

  FORM COLUMN OF DIVISIONS IN  |   _Centre division_—Forward—March—Left
  FRONT OF                     | take ground—Waggons close intervals—Right
  THE LEFT—                    | take ground—Halt—Dress.
  MARCH.                       |   _Right division_—Forward—March—Left
                               | half turn—Left half turn—Waggons close
                               | intervals—Right take ground—Halt—Dress.
  FORM COLUMN OF DIVISIONS     |   _Centre division_—Forward—March—Right
  IN FRONT OF                  | take ground—Waggons close intervals—Left
  THE RIGHT—                   | take ground—Halt—Dress.
  MARCH.                       |   _Left division_—Forward—March—Right
                               | half turn—Right half turn—Waggons close
                               | intervals—Left take ground—Halt—Dress.

    _9. To form Column of divisions on the centre division._
          This manœuvre is a combination of Nos. 7 and 8.

    _10. To change front to the rear._
          _First method. By a countermarch._

  THE BATTERY WILL CHANGE      |   _The officers shift to the pivot flank_
  FRONT TO THE REAR—GUNS       | _of their leading guns—viz., to the left_
  RIGHT, WAGGONS LEFT          | _of 1, 3, and 5 guns._
  TAKE GROUND—MARCH—           |
  RIGHT COUNTERMARCH—FRONT     |
  TURN—HALT—DRESS.             |

_Second method. On the centre._

  CHANGE FRONT TO THE REAR ON  |   _CENTRE DIVISION_—SUB-DIVISIONS INWARDS
    THE CENTRE—MARCH.          | about wheel—March—Halt—Dress.
                               |   _Right division_—March—Left wheel—Left
                               | wheel—Halt—Dress.
                               |   _Left division_—March—Right
                               | wheel—Right wheel—Halt—Dress.

_Third method. When at diminished intervals; on the march._

  THE BATTERY WILL CHANGE      |
    FRONT TO THE REAR; ON THE  |
    CENTRE. LEFT HALF          |
    BATTERY—HALT—HALF          |
    BATTERIES INWARDS ABOUT    |
    WHEEL—FORWARD.             |

    _11. To change front to a flank._

  _First method. Right (or left) back, on a flank sub-division._

                                 _Nos._ 1.
  CHANGE FRONT TO THE RIGHT    | 6. Left wheel—Left about
    ON NO. 6. MARCH.           |        wheel—Halt—Dress.
                               | 5. } Right reverse.
                               | 4. } Left shoulders.
                               | 3. } Right reverse.
                               | 2. } Halt—Dress.
                               | 1. }

                                 _Nos._ 1.
  CHANGE FRONT TO THE LEFT     | 1. Right wheel—Right about
    ON NO. 1. MARCH.           |        wheel—Halt—Dress.
                               | 2. } Left reverse.
                               | 3. } Right shoulders.
                               | 4. } Left reverse.
                               | 5. } Halt.
                               | 6. } Dress.

  _For Action._

  CHANGE FRONT TO THE RIGHT, ON NO. 6,  |   _The named sub-division
    FOR ACTION. MARCH (OR CHANGE FRONT  | comes into action in the new
    TO THE LEFT ON NO. 1, FOR ACTION.   | direction; the others
    MARCH).                             | proceed as before, and come
                                        | into action to the rear._

  _Second method. Right (or left) forward, on a flank sub-division._

                                     _Nos._ 1.
  CHANGE FRONT TO THE LEFT ON      | 6. Right wheel—Right about
    NO. 6. MARCH.                  |        wheel—Halt—Dress.
                                   | 5. }
                                   | 4. }
                                   | 3. } Right shoulders.
                                   | 2. } Halt—Dress.
                                   | 1. }

                                     _Nos._ 1.
  CHANGE FRONT TO THE RIGHT        | 1. Left wheel—Left about
    ON No. 1—MARCH.                |        wheel—Halt—Dress.
                                   | 2. }
                                   | 3. } Left shoulders.
                                   | 4. } Halt.
                                   | 5. } Dress.
                                   | 6. }

  _For Action._

  CHANGE FRONT TO THE RIGHT        |   _The named sub-division comes into
    ON NO. 1 FOR ACTION—           | action in the new direction; the
    MARCH—(OR CHANGE FRONT         | others proceed as before, and come
    TO THE LEFT ON NO. 6, FOR      | into action to the front._
    ACTION—MARCH).                 |

_Third method._ _To the right_ (or left) _on a central sub-division_,
one flank thrown forward, the other back. This is a combination of
the First and Second methods.

_Note._—_A battery may change its front_, Half right, or Half
left, on the same principle as already detailed. The commanding
officer’s word would be “CHANGE FRONT, HALF RIGHT (OR HALF LEFT)
ON—SUB-DIVISION.”

These manœuvres can be executed on the same principle, by divisions,
or half batteries.

A Battery can also change front on a moveable pivot by a simple wheel.

    _12. To advance from a flank, in column._

  ADVANCE FROM THE RIGHT,    | _Right division._    Forward by the left.
    IN COLUMN OF             |                        March.
    DIVISIONS—MARCH.         |                     { Right take ground.
                             | _Centre, and left   { March—Left take
                             | divisions_          {   ground.
                             |
                             | _Nos._ 1.
                             | 2. } Waggon right.    Waggon rear.
                             | 4. }
                             |
  ADVANCE FROM THE LEFT,     | _Left division_     { Forward by the
    IN COLUMN OF             |                     {   right—March.
    DIVISIONS—MARCH.         |
                             | _Centre, and right  { Left take
                             | divisions_          {   ground—March.
                             |                     { Right take ground.
                             |
                             | _Nos._ 1.
                             | 5. } Waggon left.     Waggon rear.
                             | 3. }

    _13. To advance from the centre, in double column of sub-divisions._

  ADVANCE FROM THE CENTRE,   | _Centre division_—Forward.—Trot—March.
    IN A DOUBLE COLUMN OF    | _Right division_—Left take ground—March.
    SUB-DIVISIONS—MARCH.     | _Left division_—Right take ground—March.
                             |
                             | _Nos._ 1.
                             | 2. } Right take ground—Trot.
                             | 1. } Right take ground.
                             | 5. } Left take ground—Trot.
                             | 6. } Left take ground.

    _14. To move from a flank along the front in a column of divisions._

  MOVE FROM THE RIGHT, ALONG | Forward—March.
    THE FRONT, IN COLUMN OF  | Left wheel.
    DIVISIONS. MARCH.        |

_Note._—_To advance from the left, along the front_, is done in the
same manner.

    _15. To advance from a flank, in echellon of sub-divisions._

  ADVANCE FROM THE RIGHT,    |
    IN ECHELLON OF           |
    SUB-DIVISIONS—MARCH.     |

_Advancing from the Left_ is done on the same principle.

_Note._—_A Battery in echellon of Sub-divisions_, if required to
change its front when in action, can do so at the word “ACTION LEFT”
(OR RIGHT), by merely throwing the trails round, and bringing the
guns into the new direction, the limbers and waggons forming in rear
of their guns.

    _16. To advance from a flank in echellon of divisions._

  ADVANCE FROM THE RIGHT,    |   _The right division advances, the centre
    IN ECHELLON OF           | moves off in succession, when at its
    DIVISIONS—MARCH.         | wheeling distance, in rear of the leading
                             | one. The left division follows in the same
                             | manner._

_Advancing from the Left is done on the same principle._

_Note._—_A Battery in echellon of Divisions_, if required to change
its front when in action, does so as follows:—

  CHANGE FRONT TO THE LEFT,  | _Nos._ 1.
    ON THE LEFT GUNS OF      | 2. }
    DIVISIONS—MARCH.         | 4. } Action left.
                             | 6. }
                             | 1. } Front limber up.
                             | 3. } Left wheel—Halt.
                             | 5. } Action front.

_An echellon of Half batteries_ is formed in the same manner as that
of divisions; the rear half battery must, however, keep its wheeling
distance from the leading one. When in action, if the front is to be
changed, it is better to do it on a centre gun.

_Retirements in echellon_, are done on the same principle as the
advance.

    _17. To retire from a flank in column._

  _First Method._

  RIGHT DIVISION TO THE      |   _Right division_—Sub-divisions
    REAR—MARCH.              | inwards about wheel—March.
                             |   _Centre and left
                             | divisions_—Forward—Right
                             | wheel—March—Right wheel.

_To retire with the Left division_ is done on the same principle.

  _Second method._

  RETIRE FROM THE RIGHT,     |   _Right division_—Right reverse—March.
    IN COLUMN OF             |   _Centre, and left divisions_—Right
    DIVISIONS—MARCH.         | take ground—March—Right take ground.
                             |
                             | _Nos._ 1.
                             | 2. } Gun left.
                             | 4. } Gun rear.

    _18. To retire from the centre in a double column of sub-divisions._

In order to perform this manœuvre, the battery should be reversed,
and then (with waggons leading) it is performed in the same manner as
the advance from the centre, in a double column.

    _19. To retire from a flank by alternate Half batteries, in action._

When a battery in line, in action, is ordered to retire from a flank
by alternate Half batteries, the named half battery at once limbers
up to the rear, retires to its distance in echellon, and comes into
action. As soon as this half battery is in action, the other limbers
up to the rear, retires, passes the half battery in action, and so
on. The senior officer of each half battery gives the word of command.

_Note._—This manœuvre would generally be practised with the prolonge.

    _20. To break into column to a flank._

  BREAK INTO COLUMN OF       | _Nos._ 1.
    DIVISIONS TO THE         | 1. } Right take ground.
    RIGHT. MARCH.            | 3. } Guns front.
                             | 5. }
                             |
                             | 2. }
                             | 4. } Right wheel.
                             | 6. }

_Breaking into Column to the Left_ can be done on the same principle.

_A Column of Half batteries_ can be formed in the same manner; the
pivot sub-divisions wheeling as before, but the others after taking
ground, must incline away to gain their required intervals.

_Note._—This movement would generally be employed in breaking into
column from line, to march past with other troops; and with half
batteries it would be done at reduced intervals.

    _21. To increase, and diminish the front._

  _First method._

_From Column of route, to form Column of divisions, on the march.
Column, right in front._

  FORM COLUMN OF DIVISIONS.  | _Right division_—Forward by the left.
                             | _Centre and left divisions._—Forward by
                             |   the left. Trot—Walk.
                             |
                             | _Nos._ 1.
                             | 2. }
                             | 4. } Left half turn—Trot—Front turn.
                             | 6. }

_Column, left in front._

  FORM COLUMN OF DIVISIONS.  | _Left division_—Forward by the right.
                             | _Centre and right divisions._—Forward
                             |   by the right—Trot—Walk.
                             |
                             | _Nos._ 1.
                             | 5. }
                             | 3. } Right half turn—Trot.
                             | 1. } Front turn.

_Second method._

_From Column of route, to form Column of divisions, in succession.
Column, right in front._

  IN SUCCESSION FORM         | _Nos._ 1.
    COLUMN OF DIVISIONS.     | 1. }
                             | 3. } Halt.
                             | 5. }
                             |
                             | 2. } Left half turn.
                             | 4. } Front turn.
                             | 6. } Halt—Dress.

_Column, left in front._

  IN SUCCESSION FORM         | _Nos._ 1.
    COLUMN OF DIVISIONS.     | 6. }
                             | 4. } Halt.
                             | 2. }
                             |
                             | 5. } Right half turn.
                             | 3. } Front turn.
                             | 1. } Halt—Dress.

_Third method._

_From Column of divisions, to form Column of route, on the march._

_Column right in front._

  FORM COLUMN OF ROUTE.      | _Centre and left divisions_—Halt.
                             |
                             | _Nos._ 1.
                             | 1. Forward.
                             |
                             | 3. } Forward—March.
                             | 5. }
                             |
                             | 2. } Halt—Right half turn—March.
                             | 4. } Front turn.
                             | 6. }

_Column left in front._

  FORM COLUMN OF ROUTE.      | _Centre and right divisions_—Halt.
                             |
                             | _Nos. 1._
                             | 6. Forward.
                             |
                             | 4. } Forward—March.
                             | 2. }
                             |
                             | 5. } Halt—Left half turn.
                             | 3. } March—Front turn.
                             | 1. }

    _22. To bring the Rear to the front, in succession, on the march._

_First method. In Column of route._

  REAR SUB-DIVISION TO       | _Nos._ 1.
    THE FRONT.               | 6. }
                             | 5. }
                             | 4. } In succession { Right half turn.
                             | 3. }               { Front turn.
                             | 2. }

_Second method. In Column of divisions._

  REAR DIVISION TO THE FRONT | _Centre and rear divisions in succession._
    THROUGH THE INTERVALS.   | Inwards close—Forward—Full intervals.

    _23. To form Line on the leading division._

_Divisions right in front._

  LEFT OF THE FRONT FORM     |   _Centre division_—Left take
    LINE—MARCH.              | ground—March—Right take
                             | ground—Halt—Dress.
                             |   _Left division_—Left take
                             | ground—March—Right half turn—Right
                             | half turn—Halt—Dress.

_Divisions left in front._

  RIGHT OF THE FRONT FORM    |   _Centre division_—Right take
    LINE—MARCH.              | ground—March—Left take
                             | ground—Halt—Dress.
                             |   _Right division_—Right take
                             | ground—March—Left half turn—Left
                             | half turn—Halt—Dress.

_On the March._

The centre and rear divisions make a half turn towards the intended
line, and come up at an increased pace.

_For Action._

  RIGHT (OR LEFT) OF THE     | Halt—Action front.
    FRONT FORM LINE FOR      |
    ACTION—MARCH.            |

    _24. To form Line on the rear division._

_Divisions right in front._

  RIGHT OF THE REAR FORM     |   _Centre division_—Right take
    LINE—MARCH.              | ground—March—Right take ground—Right
                             | reverse—Halt—Dress.
                             |   _Right division_—Right take
                             | ground—March—Right half turn—Right half
                             | turn—Right reverse—Halt—Dress.

_Divisions left in front._

  LEFT OF THE REAR FORM      |   _Centre division_—Left take
    LINE—MARCH.              | ground—March—Left take ground—Left
                             | reverse—Halt—Dress.
                             |   _Left division_—Left take
                             | ground—March—Left half turn—Left half
                             | turn—Left reverse—Halt—Dress.

_For Action._

  RIGHT (OR LEFT) OF THE     |   _The standing division comes into action
    REAR, FORM LINE FOR      | to the front: the others, as they arrive
    ACTION, FRONT—MARCH.     | in line, come into action to the rear._

    _25. To form Line on the centre division._

This manœuvre is a combination of Nos. 23 and 24.

    _26. To form Line to the rear on the leading division._

_Divisions right in front._

  FORM LINE TO THE REAR,     |   _Right division_—Sub-divisions inwards
    ON THE LEADING           | about wheel—March—Halt—Dress.
    DIVISION—MARCH.          |   _Centre division_—Right take
                             | ground—March—Left take
                             | ground—Sub-divisions inwards about
                             | wheel—Halt—Dress.
                             |   _Left division_—Right take
                             | ground—March—Left half turn—Left half
                             | turn—Sub-divisions inwards about
                             | wheel—Halt—Dress.

_Divisions left in front._

  FORM LINE TO THE REAR,     |   _Left division_—Sub-divisions inwards
    ON THE LEADING           | about wheel—March—Halt—Dress.
    DIVISION—MARCH.          |   _Centre division_—Left take
                             | ground—March—Right take
                             | ground—Sub-divisions inwards about
                             | wheel—Halt—Dress.
                             |   _Right division_—Left take
                             | ground—March—Right half turn—Right half
                             | turn—Sub-divisions inwards about
                             | wheel—Halt—Dress.

    _27. To form Line to the rear of the rear division._

_Divisions right in front._

  FORM LINE TO THE REAR,     |   _Right division_—Left
    ON THE REAR              | wheel—March—Right shoulders—Right
    DIVISION—MARCH.          | shoulders—Halt—Dress.
                             |   _Centre division_—Left
                             | wheel—March—Left wheel—Halt—Dress.
                             |   _Left division_—Sub-divisions inwards
                             | about wheel—March—Halt—Dress.

_Divisions left in front._

  FORM LINE TO THE REAR,     |   _Left division_—Right wheel—March—Left
    ON THE REAR              | shoulders—Left shoulders—Halt—Dress.
    DIVISION—MARCH.          |   _Centre division_—Right
                             | wheel—March—Right wheel—Halt—Dress.
                             |   _Right division_—Sub-divisions inwards
                             | about wheel—March—Halt—Dress.

    _28. To form Line to the rear on the centre division._

This is a combination of Nos. 26 and 27.

    _29. To form Line to the reverse flank on the leading division._

_Divisions right in front._

  FORM LINE TO THE RIGHT     |   _Right division_—Right
    FLANK ON THE LEADING     | wheel—March—Halt—Dress.
    DIVISION—MARCH.          |   _Centre, and left divisions_—Left half
                             | turn—March—Front turn—Right
                             | wheel—Halt—Dress.

_Divisions left in front._

  FORM LINE TO THE LEFT      |   _Left division_—Left
    FLANK ON THE LEADING     | wheel—March—Halt—Dress.
    DIVISION—MARCH.          |   _Centre, and right divisions_—Right
                             | half turn—March—Front turn—Left
                             | wheel—Halt—Dress.

    _30. To wheel into Line._

_Divisions right in front._

  LEFT WHEEL INTO            | _Nos._ 1.
    LINE—MARCH.              | 1. } Sub-divisions, left
                             | 3. }   wheel—Halt—Dress.
                             | 5. }
                             |
                             | 2. } Sub-divisions, right wheel—Right
                             | 4. }   about wheel—Halt—Dress.
                             | 6. }

_Divisions left in front._

  RIGHT WHEEL INTO           | _Nos._ 1.
    LINE—MARCH.              | 2. } Right wheel.
                             | 4. } Halt—Dress.
                             | 6. }
                             |
                             | 1. } Left wheel—Left about wheel.
                             | 3. } Halt—Dress.
                             | 5. }

    _31. To deploy on the rear division._

_Note._—All deployments are on the front base.

_Divisions right in front._

  DEPLOY ON THE REAR         |   _Right division_—Right take
    DIVISION—MARCH.          | ground—March—Right take ground—Right
                             | reverse—Halt—Dress.
                             |   _Centre division_—Right take
                             | ground—March—Left take
                             | ground—Halt—March—Halt—Dress.
                             |   _Left Division_—Forward—March—Trot—
                             | Halt—Dress.

_Divisions left in front._

  DEPLOY ON THE REAR         |   _Left division_—Left take
    DIVISION—MARCH.          | ground—March—Left take ground—Left
                             | reverse—Halt—Dress.
                             |   _Centre division_—Left take
                             | ground—March—Right take
                             | ground—Halt—March—Halt—Dress.
                             |   _Right division_—Forward—Trot—March—
                             | Halt—Dress.

_For Action._

  DEPLOY ON THE REAR         |   The Divisions all proceed
    DIVISION, FOR ACTION     | as before, except that the
    FRONT—MARCH.             | leading division, instead of
                             | going to the rear and
                             | reversing, comes into action
                             | to the right, or left, when
                             | in its place; the other
                             | divisions come into action
                             | to the front.

    _32. To deploy on the Centre division._

  DEPLOY ON THE CENTRE       |   _Right division_—Right take
    DIVISION—MARCH.          | ground—March—Right take ground—Right
                             | reverse—Halt—Dress.
                             |   _Centre division_—Forward—Trot—March—
                             | Halt—Dress.
                             |   _Left division_—Left take
                             | ground—March—Right take
                             | ground—Halt—Dress.

    _33. To countermarch._

  THE COLUMN WILL            |   _The Sub-divisions wheel about_
    COUNTERMARCH—DIVISIONS   | inwards, and halt on their markers.
    BY SUB-DIVISIONS         | The officers moving up with their
    INWARDS ABOUT            | SUB-DIVISIONS.
    WHEEL—MARCH—HALT—DRESS.  |

_On the March._—The markers fall in rear of their officers.

    _34. From Double column of sub-divisions to form Line to the front._

  RIGHT AND LEFT OF THE      | _Nos._ 1.
    FRONT, FORM LINE—MARCH.  | 2. { Right half turn—Front turn.
                             | 1. { Halt—Dress.
                             |
                             | 5. { Left half turn—Front turn.
                             | 6. { Halt—Dress.

_On the March._—The rear sub-divisions move up at an increased pace.

_For Action._—At the word “MARCH,” the two leading sub-divisions come
into action to the front: the other sub-divisions come into action in
succession as they arrive in line.

    _35. From Double column of sub-divisions, to form line to a flank._

  FORM LINE TO THE RIGHT,    | _Nos._ 1.
    ON THE RIGHT HALF        | 3. }Right wheel—Halt—Dress.
    BATTERY—MARCH.           | 2. } Forward—Right wheel.
                             | 1. } Halt—Dress.
                             |
                             | 4. } Forward—Right wheel.
                             | 5. } Halt—Dress.
                             | 6. }

_To form Line to the left is done on the same principle._


INSPECTION, AND REVIEW.

_A single Battery._

The Battery is formed in line limbered up; the detachments in the
order of march.

The waggons at order—viz., ten yards in rear of their guns.

The Officers at order—viz., the Subalterns one horse’s length in
front of, and in the centre of their divisions.

The second Captain on the right of the battery, in line with the
Subalterns.

The Staff serjeants on the outer flanks of the waggons.

The Markers move up into the places of their officers.

The Commanding officer in the centre of the battery, one horse’s
length in front of the Subalterns.

As the Inspecting Officer arrives, the Officers draw swords and
salute; taking the time from the Commanding officer, whose word of
command is “GENERAL SALUTE, DRAW SWORDS.” The officers then recover
their swords in like manner. As soon as the inspection has been made,
the Commanding officer gives the word, “TAKE CLOSE ORDER—MARCH,” when
the officers and markers return to their places in line, the officers
sloping their swords; and the waggons move up.

_Marching past._

This may be done either by Divisions, or by Half batteries; in the
latter case usually at half intervals.

    THE BATTERY WILL MARCH PAST.

  BREAK INTO COLUMN OF DIVISIONS (OR HALF BATTERIES   |
    AT HALF INTERVALS) TO THE RIGHT—MARCH.            |

At thirty yards from the Inspecting officer, the Subaltern officers
in command of divisions, or half batteries, give the word, “TAKE
ORDER—EYES RIGHT,” and move out one horse’s length in the front of,
and in the centre of their divisions. In Half batteries, the two
officers of the leading half battery between the guns of it; the
officer of the rear half battery in front of his centre gun. The
Commanding Officer two horses’ length in front of the battery, and
the Second Captain in rear of the battery. The officers salute at six
yards distance from the Inspecting officer, and recover their swords
at ten yards past him. At twenty yards past, the Subaltern officers
in command of divisions (or half batteries) give the word, “TAKE
CLOSE ORDER.”

_In trotting past_ the detachments are mounted; the officers remain
on the flanks, and carry swords as they pass the Inspecting officer,
giving the word, “EYES RIGHT.”

Should a battery be required to _rank past_, it wheels as before,
until it arrives on the line of the Inspecting officer, when it halts.

  THE BATTERY WILL RANK PAST—MARCH.

The battery advances in a column of route, the officers in front
of the guns, the markers, staff-serjeants, and farrier in front of
the waggons. The officers and drivers salute, as before. The spare
carriages in rear of the divisions to which they belong: the second
Captain in rear of the whole.


EQUIPMENT OF A BATTERY.

  _Sec. 32. Packing the Intrenching tools, Camp equipage, &c., &c._

1.—In equipping a battery for the march, the stores, intrenching
tools, camp equipage, &c., are packed as follows:—


_On gun limber._

  Two carbines on the front of the boxes, barrels up.
  Two fitting ropes on the foot board.
  One swingletree between the foot board and the splinter bar.
  One felling axe on the splinter bar, edge inwards.
  One bill-hook under the foot board.
  Two spades on the sides of the boxes, and fastened to the splinter bar.
  One grease tin on the front of the axletree.
  One pickaxe under the axletree.
  One prolonge between the boxes, above the washer box.
  Two water buckets on the back of the axletree.
  Two corn sacks; two blankets folded (21 inches by 16), on the box
    lids, the blankets uppermost.


_On gun carriage._

  One claw hammer   }
                    } On each cheek.
  One wrench hammer }
  One pair of pinchers on the cheek.
  One spare sponge, wadhook, and handspike, under the trail.
  Two camp kettles in rear of axletree.

The whole of these stores, &c., are buckled on by Nos. 1, and 6.


_On waggon limber._

  One picket line on the foot board.
  One lifting jack on the foot board.
  One grease tin on the front of the axletree.
  Two corn sacks, two blankets folded, on the box lids.

These stores are buckled on by Nos. 4, and 5.


_On waggon body._

  Four picket posts, two on each side of the boxes.
  One maul under off end of rear foot board.
  Spare horse-shoe box, under the front foot board.
  Grease magazine under near end of rear foot board.
  Four blankets on the box lids.
  One camp kettle on the rear of the axletree.

These stores are buckled on by Nos. 2, 3, 7, and 8.


18 POUNDER GUN.

LIMBER.

               NEAR BOX.                             OFF BOX.
  +--------------+-------------------+  +------------------+--------------+
  | 3 solid shot,|                   |  | 6 solid shot.    | 3 solid shot,|
  |  under.      |                   |  |                  |  under.      |
  | 3 common     |                   |  | 12 6 lb.         | 3 common     |
  |  case, over. | 6 shrapnell.      |  |                  |  case, over. |
  | 1 auger.     | 6 6lb.}cartridges.|  |                  | 1 hammer.    |
  | 1 corkscrew. | 6 4½  }           |  | 6 portfires} on  | 1 set irons  |
  | 1 clipper    | 6 5 oz. bursters. |  | slow match } lid.|  priming.    |
  |  portfire.   | 2 fuze boxes.     |  |                  | 1 lock.      |
  | 2 files.     | 2 fuze bags.      |  |                  | 1 powder     |
  | 1 funnel.    | 24 fuzes in four  |  |                  |  horn.       |
  | 1 knife.     |  bundles.         |  |                  | 1 punch.     |
  | 1 mallet.    | 1 powder horn.    |  |                  | 2 common     |
  | 1 pincers.   | quick match.      |  |                  |  spikes.     |
  | 1 rasp.      | needles.          |  |                  | 1 spike-     |
  | 1 saw.       | worsted.          |  |                  |    spring.   |
  | 1 scissors.  | 6 portfires } on  |  |                  |              |
  | 2 setters.   | 1 saw.      } lid.|  |                  |              |
  | 1 shrapnell  |                   |  |                  |              |
  |  scraper.    |                   |  |                  |              |
  +--------------+-------------------+  +------------------+--------------+

                                  MIDDLE BOX.
                                +------------+
                                |4 couples.  |
                                |            |
                                |2 linchpins.|
                                |            |
                                |2 washers.  |
                                +------------+
                                |            |
                                |            |
                                +------+-----+
                                       |
                                  FORE | BOX.
                                       |
            10 sets of horse-shoes.    |    10 sets of horse-shoes.
         +-----------------------------+----------------------------+
         |   6 shrapnell in two tiers. | 12 solid shot.             |
         |  24 fuzes in four bundles.  | 12 6 lb.     } cartridges. |
         | 100 tubes.                  |  5 4½ lb.    }             |
         |   1 spunge.                 |  6 5 oz. bursters.         |
         |   1 rammer head.            |  1 skein slow match.       |
         +-----------------------------+----------------------------+

                                   HIND BOX.
              +------------------------+----------------------+
              | 12 solid shot.         |                      |
              | 18 6 lb. cartridges.   |                      |
              |  2 tube boxes.         |                      |
              |  2 thumb-stalls.       |                      |
              |  2 portfire sticks.    | 6 solid shot in two  |
              |  1 skein slow match.   |   tiers.             |
              |  1 ditto Hambro’ line. |                      |
              |  1 ditto marline.      |                      |
              | 50 cartridges flannel, |                      |
              |    empty.              |                      |
              +------------------------+----------------------+
                    Grease magazine. 10 sets of horse-shoes.


12 POUNDER MEDIUM GUN.

LIMBER.

          NEAR BOX.               MIDDLE BOX.               OFF BOX.
  +------------------------+ +--------------------+ +--------------------+
  | 9 4 lb. cartridges.    | |                    | |                    |
  | 2 fuze bags, 6 in each.| | 6 shrapnell shells.| | 9 4 lb. cartridges.|
  | Quick match.           | | 6 4 lb. cartridges.| |                    |
  | 5 portfires }          | | 6 4½ oz. bursters. | | 7 portfires on lid.|
  |             } On lid.  | | Quick match.       | |                    |
  | 1 saw       }          | |                    | |                    |
  +------------------------+ +----------+---------+ +--------------------+
  |                        |            |           | 3 common case.     |
  | 3 common case.         |            |           | 1 set irons        |
  |                        |            |           |  priming.          |
  | 2 fuze boxes, 6 in     |            |           | 1 punch.           |
  |  each.                 |            |           | 100 tubes; 1 tube  |
  |                        |            |           |  pocket.           |
  +------------------------+            |           +--------------------+
  | 6 solid shot, in 2     |            |           |                    |
  |  tiers.                |            |           | 6 solid shot, in   |
  | 1 auger, 1 corkscrew,  |            |           |  two tiers.        |
  |  2 files, 1 funnel, 1  |            |           | 1 hammer.          |
  |  knife, 1 mallet, 2    |            |           | 1 tin primer.      |
  |  needles, 1 pincers, 1 |            |           | 1 skein, slow      |
  |  scissors, 1 setter, 1 |            |           |  match.            |
  |  oz. worsted.          |            |           |                    |
  +------------------------+            |           +--------------------+
                                        |
                            2 portfire sticks on trail.
                                        |
          OFF AXLETREE BOX.             |            NEAR AXLETREE BOX.
        +-------------------+           |          +--------------+------+
        |                   |           |          | 1 washer.    |      |
        |                   |           |          | 1 linchpin.  |      |
        | Slow match.       |           |          | 2 covers.    |      |
        |                   |-----------+----------| 1 gun lock.  |      |
        | 1 set irons       |                      | 10 flints.   | Slow |
        |  priming.         |                      | 2 couples.   |match.|
        |                   |                      | 2 th. stalls.|      |
        | 1 tin primer.     |                      | 2 punches.   |      |
        |                   |                      | 2 spikes com.|      |
        |                   |                      | 1 do. sprg.  |      |
        +-------------------+                      +--------------+------+
     */


MEDIUM 12 POUNDER AMMUNITION WAGGON.

LIMBER.

                 NEAR BOX.                          OFF BOX.
      +--------------+--------------+  +---------------+-------------+
      |              | 6 solid shot.|  | 6 solid shot. |             |
      |              |              |  |               |             |
      | 4 shrapnell. | 8 4 lb.      |  | 8 4 lb.       |             |
      |              |  cartridges. |  |  cartridges.  |             |
      |              |              |  |               |             |
      | 40 fuzes, in | 6 portfires, |  | 6 portfires,  | 4 common    |
      |  4 bundles.  |  on lid.     |  |  on lid.      |  case.      |
      |              +--------------+  |               |             |
      |              | 6 shrapnell. |  | 1 tube pocket.|             |
      | 1 sk. Hambro’|              |  |               |             |
      |  line.       | 8 4 lb.      |  | 100 tubes.    | 1 skein of  |
      |              |  cartridges. |  +---------------+  slow match.|
      |              |              |  | 6 solid shot. |             |
      | 1 sk.        | 10 4½oz.     |  |               |             |
      |  marline.    |  bursters.   |  | 8 4 lb.       |             |
      |              |              |  |  cartridges.  |             |
      |              | quick match. |  |               |             |
      +--------------+--------------+  +---------------+-------------+

                                 MIDDLE BOX.
                               +-------------+
                               |             |
                               | 2 washers.  |
                               |             |
                               | 2 linchpins.|
                               |             |
                               | 2 couples.  |
                               |             |
                               |             |
                               +------+------+
                                      |
                                 FORE | BOX.
                                      |
     15 sets of horse-shoes.          |          15 sets of horse-shoes.
    +---------------------+-----------+----------+---------------------+
    | 4 solid shot, under.| 8 shrapnell.         | 8 solid shot.       |
    |                     |                      |                     |
    |                     | 12 4 lb. cartridges. |                     |
    | 4 shrapnell, over.  |                      | 12 4 lb. cartridges.|
    |                     | 12 4½oz. bursters.   |                     |
    |                     |                      |                     |
    | 48 fuzes, in        | Quick match (24      | 1 skein slow match. |
    |  4 bundles.         |  lengths).           |                     |
    +---------------------+----------------------+---------------------+

                                  HIND BOX.
      +---------------------+---------------------+-------------------+
      | 8 solid shot.       | 8 solid shot.       | 8 solid shot, in  |
      |                     |                     |  2 tiers.         |
      | 12 4 lb. cartridges.| 12 4 lb. cartridges.|                   |
      |                     |                     | 1 spunge head.    |
      |                     |                     |                   |
      |        50 empty flannel cartridges.       | 1 rammer head.    |
      +---------------------+---------------------+-------------------+


9 POUNDER GUN.

LIMBER.

               NEAR BOX.                        OFF BOX.
  +--------------+-------------------+  +--------------+-------------+
  | 4 com. case. | 6 solid shot.     |  | 6 solid shot.| 4 com. case.|
  | 1 auger.     |                   |  |              |             |
  | 1 corkscrew. | 8 2½lb.           |  | 8 2½lb.      |             |
  | 2 files.     |  cartridges.      |  |  cartridges. | 1 tube      |
  | 1 funnel.    |                   |  |              |  pocket.    |
  | 2 fuze boxes | 6 portfires } On  |  | 6 portfires, |             |
  |  6 in each.  | 1 saw       } lid.|  |  on lid.     |             |
  | 1 knife.     +-------------------+  |              | 100 tubes.  |
  | 1 mallet.    | 6 shrapnell.      |  | Slow match.  |             |
  | 2 needles.   | 8 2½lb.           |  |              |             |
  | 1 pincers.   |  cartridges.      |  +--------------+ 1 tin       |
  | 1 saw set.   | 6 3½oz.           |  | 6 solid shot.|  primer.    |
  | 1 scissors.  |  bursters.        |  |              |             |
  | 1 setter.    | Quick match.      |  | 8 2½lb.      |             |
  | 1 oz.worsted.| 2 fuze bags, 6 in |  |  cartridges. | 1 hammer.   |
  |              |  each.            |  |              |             |
  +--------------+-------------------+  +--------------+-------------+

                                  MIDDLE BOX.
                              +------------------+
                              | 1 heavy washer.  |
                              | 1 light washer.  |
                              | 1 heavy linchpin.|
                              | 1 light linchpin.|
                              | 2 couples.       |
                              +------------------+
                              | 1 rammer head.   |
                              +---------+--------+
                                        |
                             2 portfire sticks on trail.
                                        |
                OFF AXLETREE BOX.       |           NEAR AXLETREE BOX.
            +----------------------+    |    +--------------+------------+
            |                      |    |    | 2 covers.    |            |
            | Slow match.          |    |    | 1 gun lock.  |            |
            |                      |----+----| 10 flints.   |            |
            |                      |         | 1 prim. irons| Slow match,|
            | 1 set priming irons. |         | 2 punches.   |   3 lb.    |
            |                      |         | 2 spikes.    |            |
            |                      |         | 1 do. spring.|            |
            | 1 tin primer.        |         | 1 spunge hd. |            |
            |                      |         | 2 th. stalls.|            |
            +----------------------+         +--------------+------------+


9 POUNDER AMMUNITION WAGGON.

LIMBER.

              NEAR BOX.                                       OFF BOX.
  +------------+--------------+                +--------------+-----------+
  |            | 6 solid shot.|                | 6 solid shot.|           |
  |            | 8 2½ lb.     |                |              | 4 common  |
  |            |  cartridges. |                | 8 2½ lb.     |  case.    |
  | 4 common   | 6 portfires, |                |  cartridges. |           |
  |  case.     |  on lid.     |   MIDDLE BOX.  |              |           |
  |            | slow match.  | +------------+ | 6 portfires, |           |
  |            +--------------+ | 1 washer.  | |  on lid.     | 1 tube    |
  |            | 6 shrapnell. | |            | +--------------+  pocket.  |
  | 50 empty   | 8 2½ lb.     | | 1 linchpin.| | 6 solid shot.|           |
  |  flannel   |  cartridges. | |            | |              |           |
  | cartridges.| 6 3½ oz.     | | 2 couples. | | 8 2½ lb.     |           |
  |            |  bursters.   | +------------+ |  cartridges. | 100 tubes.|
  |            | 24 fuzes.    | |            | |              |           |
  |            | quick match. | |            | | slow match.  |           |
  +------------+--------------+ +------+-----+ +--------------+-----------+
                                       |
                                  FORE | BOX.
                                       |
       15 sets of horse-shoes.         |        15 sets of horse-shoes.
      +---------------------+----------+---------+-----------------+
      |                     | 8 shrapnell.       |                 |
      |                     |                    | 8 solid shot.   |
      | 16 solid shot.      | 13 2½ lb.          |                 |
      |                     |  cartridges.       | 14 2½ lb.       |
      |                     |                    |  cartridges.    |
      | 9 3 lb. cartridges. | 8 3½ oz. bursters. |                 |
      |                     |                    | 32 fuzes, in 4  |
      |                     | quick match.       |  bundles.       |
      +---------------------+--------------------+-----------------+

                                   HIND BOX.
        +-------------------+--------------------+----------------+
        | 8 solid shot.     | 8 solid shot.      |                |
        |                   |                    | 16 solid shot, |
        | 14 2½ lb.         | 14 2½ lb.          |  in 2 tiers.   |
        |  cartridges.      |  cartridges.       |                |
        |                   |                    |                |
        |        50 empty flannel cartridges.    |                |
        |              1 skein marline.          |                |
        |           1 ditto Hambro’ line.        |                |
        |                slow match.             |                |
        +-------------------+--------------------+----------------+


LIGHT 6 POUNDER GUN.

                        NEAR BOX.
    +---------------+------------------+-------------+
    | 4 com. case.  |                  |             |
    | 1 auger.      | 8 solid shot.    | 8 shrapnell.|
    | 1 corkscrew.  |                  |             |
    | 2 files.      |                  | 9 1½ lb.    |
    | 1 funnel.     | 13 1½ lb.        |  cartridges.|
    | 2 fuze boxes, |  cartridges.     |             |
    |  8 in each,   |                  | 8 2½ oz.    |
    |  C. and D.    |                  |  bursters.  |
    | 1 knife.      |                  |             |
    | 1 mallet.     |                  | 2 fuze bags,|
    | 2 needles.    |                  |  8 in each, |
    | 1 pincers.    |                  |  E. and 1   |
    | 1 saw set.    |                  |  inch.      |
    | 1 scissors.   | 6 portfires} on  |             |
    | 1 setter.     | 1 saw      } lid.| Quick match.|
    | 1 oz. worsted.|                  |             |
    +---------------+------------------+-------------+

                                           OFF BOX.
                              +-------------+-------------+----------+
                              |             |             |          |
                              | 8 solid     | 8 solid     | 4 common |
                              |  shot.      |  shot.      |  case.   |
                              |             |             |          |
                              |             |             |          |
                              | 11 1½ lb.   | 13 1½ lb.   | 1 tin    |
                MIDDLE BOX.   |  cartridges.|  cartridges.|  primer. |
               +------------+ |             |             |          |
               | 1 washer.  | |             |             |          |
               |            | |             |             | 1 tube   |
               | 1 linchpin.| | 100 tubes.  |             |  pocket. |
               |            | |             | 6 portfires |          |
               | 2 couples. | |             |  on lid.    |          |
               +------------+ | Slow match. |             | 1 hammer.|
               | 1 rammer   | |             |             |          |
               |  head.     | |             |             |          |
               +------+-----+ +-------------+-------------+----------+
                      |
                      +------------+
                                   |
                      2 portfire sticks on trail.
                                   |
        OFF AXLETREE BOX.          |            NEAR AXLETREE BOX.
  +--------+--------+--------+     |     +----------------+-------------+
  |        |        |        |     |     | 2 covers.      |             |
  | 1 com. | 1 com. | 1 com. |     |     | 10 flints.     |             |
  |  case. |  case. |  case. |     |     | 1 gunlock.     |             |
  |        |        |        |     |     | 1 prim. irons. | Slow match, |
  +--------+--------+--------|-----+-----| 2 punches.     |  3 lb.      |
  |                          |           | 2 spikes cm.   |             |
  |       3 solid shot.      |           | 1 do. spring.  |             |
  |                          |           | 1 spunge hd.   |             |
  |                          |           | 2 th. stalls.  |             |
  +--------------------------+           +----------------+-------------+


LIGHT 6 POUNDER AMMUNITION WAGGON.

LIMBER.

                    NEAR BOX.
      +---------+--------------+-------------+
      |         |              | 8 shrapnell.|
      |         | 8 solid shot.|             |
      |         |              | 11 1½ lb.   |
      | 4 common|              |  cartridges.|
      |  case,  | 12 1½ lb.    |             |
      |  under. |  cartridges. |             |
      |         |              | 8 2½ oz.    |
      |         |              |  bursters.  |
      |         |              |             |
      | 4 solid |              | 32 fuzes, in|
      |  shot,  | slow match.  |  4 bundles. |
      |  over.  |              |             |
      |         |              | quick match.|
      |         |              |             |
      |         | 6 portfires, |             |
      |         |   on lid.    |             |
      +---------+--------------+-------------+

                                               OFF BOX.
                              +--------------+--------------+---------+
                              |              |              |         |
                              |              |              |         |
                              | 8 solid shot.| 8 solid shot.|         |
                              |              |              | 4 common|
                              | 12 1½ lb.    | 13 1½ lb.    |  case,  |
                 MIDDLE BOX.  |  cartridges. |  cartridges. |  under. |
               +------------+ |              |              |         |
               |            | |              |              |         |
               | 1 washer.  | |              |              |         |
               |            | |              |              | 4 solid |
               | 1 linchpin.| |              |              |  shot,  |
               |            | | 100 tubes.   |              |  over.  |
               | 2 couples. | |              | 6 portfires, |         |
               +------------+ | slow match.  |    on lid.   |         |
               |            | |              |              |         |
               |            | |              |              |         |
               +------+-----+ +--------------+--------------+---------+
                      |
                      +---------------+
                                      |
                                 FORE | BOX:
   15 sets of horse-shoes.            |           15 sets of horse-shoes.
  +----------------------+------------+-----------+----------------------+
  |                      | 10 shrapnell.          | 15 solid shot.       |
  |                      | 16 1½ lb. cartridges.  |                      |
  | 20 solid shot, in    | 10 2½ oz. bursters.    | 27 1½ lb. cartridges.|
  |  2 tiers.            | 40 fuzes, in 4 bundles.|                      |
  |                      | 100 tubes.             | 1 tube pocket.       |
  | 12 1½ lb. cartridges.| quick match.           |                      |
  |                      | 6 portfires.           | 1 skein marline.     |
  |                      | slow match.            |                      |
  +----------------------+------------------------+----------------------+

                                   HIND BOX.
  +----------------------+------------------------+----------------------+
  | 15 solid shot.       | 10 solid shot.         | 30 solid shot,       |
  |                      |                        |  in 3 tiers.         |
  | 27 1½ lb. cartridges.| 18 1½ lb. cartridges.  |                      |
  |                      |                        | 5½ lb. slow match.   |
  | 100 empty flannel    | 1 skein Hambro’ line.  |                      |
  |  cartridges.         |                        |                      |
  +----------------------+------------------------+----------------------+


8 INCH HOWITZER.

LIMBER.

            NEAR BOX.                                    OFF BOX.
  +-------------------------+                +----------------------------+
  | 2 shrapnell.            |                | 2 common shells, in 1 tier.|
  | 6 4 lb. cartridges.     |                | 6 4 lb. cartridges.        |
  | 6 15 oz. bursters.      |                | 6 1 lb. 14 oz. bursters.   |
  | 64 shrapnell fuzes,     |                | 2 tube pockets.            |
  |  in 4 bundles.          |   MIDDLE BOX.  | 2 thumb-stalls.            |
  | 2 fuze bags.            | +------------+ | 100 tubes.                 |
  | 6 fuze boxes.           | | 2 couples. | | 6 portfires, on lid.       |
  | 6 portfires, on lid.    | |            | |                            |
  +------------+------------+ | 1 linchpin.| +--------------+-------------+
  |            |            | |            | | 2 common     | 2 common    |
  |2 shrapnell,|2 shrapnell,| | 1 washer.  | |  shells, in  |  shells, in |
  | in 2 tiers.| in 2 tiers.| |            | |  2 tiers.    |  2 tiers.   |
  |            |            | +------------+ | 1 skein slow | 15 common   |
  |            |            | |            | |  match.      |  fuzes.     |
  +------------+------------+ +------+-----+ +--------------+-------------+
                                     |
                              WAGGON | BODY.
                                     |
                                FORE | BOX.
     10 sets of horse-shoes.         |         10 sets of horse-shoes.
      +-------------------+----------+----------+-------------------+
      |                   |                     | 1 shrapnell,      |
      | 2 shrapnell, in   |                     |  under.           |
      |   2 tiers.        | 8 4 lb. cartridges. | 1 common case,    |
      |                   |                     |  over.            |
      +-------------------+ 7 15 oz. bursters.  +-------------------+
      |                   |                     | 2 shrapnell, in   |
      | 2 shrapnell, in   | 28 shrapnell fuzes, |  2 tiers.         |
      |  2 tiers.         |  in 4 bundles.      |                   |
      |                   |                     | 1 skein—match.    |
      +-------------------+---------------------+-------------------+

                                HIND BOX.
      +-------------------+---------------------+-------------------+
      | 1 common shell,   |                     |                   |
      |  under.           |                     | 2 common shells,  |
      | 1 common case,    | 8 4 lb. cartridges. |  in 2 tiers.      |
      |  over.            |                     |                   |
      +-------------------+ 6 1 lb. 14 oz.      +-------------------+
      | 1 common shell,   |  bursters.          |                   |
      |  under.           |                     | 2 common shells,  |
      | 1 common case,    | 50 empty flannel    |  in 2 tiers.      |
      |  over.            |  cartridges.        |                   |
      | 1 skein Hambro’   |                     | 1 skein marline.  |
      |  line.            |                     |                   |
      +-------------------+---------------------+-------------------+


32 POUNDER HOWITZER.

LIMBER.

         NEAR BOX.                                OFF BOX.
  +---------------------+                 +---------------------+
  |                     |                 |                     |
  | 2 shrapnell.        |                 | 2 common shells.    |
  |                     |                 |                     |
  | 2 3 lb. cartridges. |                 | 2 3 lb. cartridges. |
  |                     |                 |                     |
  | 2 7 oz. bursters.   |                 | 2 12 oz. bursters.  |
  |                     |   MIDDLE BOX.   |                     |
  +---------------------+ +-------------+ +---------------------+
  |                     | | 2 common    | |                     |
  | 4 shrapnell.        | |  case.      | | 4 common shells.    |
  |                     | |             | |                     |
  | 4 3 lb. cartridges. | | 2 3 lb.     | | 4 3 lb. cartridges. |
  |                     | | cartridges. | |                     |
  | 4 7 oz. bursters.   | +-------------+ | 4 12 oz. bursters.  |
  |                     | |             | |                     |
  +---------------------+ +------+------+ +---------------------+
                                 |
                    2 portfire sticks on trail.
                                 |
        OFF AXLETREE BOX.        |        NEAR AXLETREE BOX.
       +-----------------+       |       +------------------+
       |                 |       |       |                  |
       |                 |       |       | Slow match.      |
       |                 |-------+-------|                  |
       |                 |               +------------------+
       |                 |               |                  |
       |                 |               |                  |
       |                 |               |                  |
       +-----------------+               +------------------+


32-POUNDER HOWITZER AMMUNITION WAGGON.

                   NEAR BOX.
  +-------------+-------------+-------------+
  |             |             |             |
  |             |             |             |
  |             | 12 3 lb.    | 4 shrapnell.|
  | 2 shrapnell,|  cartridges.|             |
  |  in 2 tiers.|             |             |
  |             | 10 7 oz.    | 2 common    |
  |             |  bursters.  |  case.      |
  |             |             |             |
  |             |             |             |
  +-------------+-------------+-------------+
                                             OFF BOX.
                                  +---------+-------------+---------+
                                  |         |             |         |
                                  |         |             |         |
                                  | 6 common| 12 3 lb.    | 6 common|
                      MIDDLE BOX. |  shells,|  cartridges.|  shells,|
                      +---------+ |  in 2   |             |  in 2   |
                      |         | |  tiers. | 12 12 oz.   |  tiers. |
                      |         | |         |   bursters. |         |
                      |         | |         |             |         |
                      |         | |         |             |         |
                      +----+----+ +---------+-------------+---------+
                           |
                           +------+
                                  |
                             FORE | BOX.
    10 sets of horse-shoes.       |         10 sets of horse-shoes.
    +-------------------+----------+---------+---------------------+
    |                   |                    |                     |
    |                   |                    |                     |
    |                   | 6 shrapnell.       | 3 common shells.    |
    | 6 shrapnell,      |                    |                     |
    |  in 2 tiers.      | 9 3 lb. cartridges.| 6 3 lb. cartridges. |
    |                   |                    |                     |
    |                   | 12 7 oz. bursters. | 3 12 oz. bursters.  |
    |                   |                    |                     |
    |                   |                    |                     |
    +-------------------+--------------------+---------------------+

                               HIND BOX.
    +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
    |                    |                    |                    |
    |                    |                    |                    |
    | 3 common shells.   | 6 common shells.   |                    |
    |                    |                    | 6 common shells,   |
    | 6 3 lb. cartridges.| 9 3 lb. cartridges.|  in 2 tiers.       |
    |                    |                    |                    |
    | 6 12 oz. bursters. | 9 12 oz. bursters. |                    |
    |                    |                    |                    |
    |                    |                    |                    |
    +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
             grease magazine. 10 sets of horse-shoes.


24-POUNDER HOWITZER.

LIMBER.

             NEAR BOX.                                      OFF BOX.
  +----------------------------+                 +-------------------------+
  | 12 2½ lb. cartridges; 12   |                 | 12 2½ lb. cartridges;   |
  | 6 oz. bursters; 1 auger; 1 |                 | 8 10 oz. bursters; 10   |
  | corkscrew; 1 funnel; 2 fuze|                 | common fuzes; 1 pr.     |
  | boxes; 2 fuze bags, 12     |                 | compasses; 2 files; 1   |
  | fuzes in each; 50 empty    |                 | rasp; 1 rule; 1 scraper;|
  | flannel cartridges; 1      |                 | 1 tube pocket; 100      |
  | knife; 1 mallet; 2 needles;|                 | tubes; 1 tin primer.    |
  | 1 pr. pincers; 1 saw set; 1|    MIDDLE BOX.  +-------------------------+
  | pr. scissors; 2 setters; 1 | +-------------+ | 4 common shells } lower |
  | oz. worsted; quick match.  | | 2 washers.  | | 2 common case   } tier. |
  +----------------------------+ |             | |                         |
  |                            | | 2 linchpins.| | 4 common shells } upper |
  | 12 shrapnell, in 2 tiers.  | |             | | 2 common case   } tier. |
  |                            | | 2 couples.  | |                         |
  | 6 portfires }              | +-------------+ | 6 portfires on lid.     |
  | 1 saw       } on lid.      | |             | | slow match.             |
  |                            | |             | | 1 hammer.               |
  +----------------------------+ +------+------+ +-------------------------+
                                        |
                             2 portfire sticks on trail.
                                        |
            OFF AXLETREE BOX.           |             NEAR AXLETREE BOX.
        +----------------------+        |        +------------------------+
        |                      |        |        | Slow match.            |
        | Slow match.          |        |        +------------------------+
        |                      |        |        | 1 set priming irons;   |
        | 1 set priming irons. |--------+--------| 2 covers; 10 flints;   |
        |                      |                 | 1 gunlock; 2 punches;  |
        | 1 tin primer.        |                 | 1 spring spike; 2 com. |
        |                      |                 | spikes; 2 thumb-stalls.|
        +----------------------+                 +------------------------+


24-POUNDER HOWITZER AMMUNITION WAGGON.

LIMBER.

            NEAR BOX.                                      OFF BOX.
  +--------------------------+                +--------------------------+
  | 12 2½ lb. cartridges.    |                | 12 2½ lb. cartridges.    |
  | 12 6 oz. bursters.       |                | 8 10 oz. bursters.       |
  | 48 shrapnell fuzes, in 4 |                | 10 common fuzes.         |
  |  bundles.                |   MIDDLE BOX.  | 1 tube pocket. 100 tubes.|
  | quick match.             | +------------+ +--------------------------+
  |                          | | 1 washer.  | | 4 common shells } lower  |
  +--------------------------+ | 1 linchpin.| | 2 common case   }  tier. |
  |                          | | 2 couples. | | 4 common shells } upper  |
  | 12 shrapnell, in 2 tiers.| +------------+ | 2 common case   }  tier. |
  | 6 portfires, on lid.     | |            | | 6 portfires on lid.      |
  |                          | |            | | slow match.              |
  +--------------------------+ +------+-----+ +--------------------------+
                                      |
                                 FORE | BOX.
                                      |
              15 sets of horse-shoes. | 15 sets of horse-shoes.
              +----------------+------+-----------------------+
              | 18 2½ lb.      |                              |
              |  cartridges.   |                              |
              | 18 6 oz.       | 18 shrapnell in 2 tiers.     |
              |  bursters.     |                              |
              | 72 shrapnell   |                              |
              |  fuzes, in 4   | 1 skein of slow match.       |
              |  bundles.      |                              |
              | Quick match.   |                              |
              +----------------+------------------------------+

                                  HIND BOX.
              +-------------------------------+---------------+
              | 7 common shells }             |               |
              | 2 carcasses     } lower tier. |               |
              | 9 common shells, upper tier.  | 18 2½ lb.     |
              | 1 skein marline.              |  cartridges.  |
              | 1 skein Hambro’ line.         |               |
              | 1 spunge head.                | 16 10 oz.     |
              | 1 rammer head.                |  bursters.    |
              | 50 empty flannel cartridges.  |               |
              | 20 common fuzes.              |               |
              +-------------------------------+---------------+


12-POUNDER HOWITZER.

LIMBER.

             NEAR BOX.
  +-----------------+--------------+
  | 12 shrapnell,   | 6 shrapnell. |
  |  in 2 tiers.    | 18 1¼ lb.    |
  | 1 auger.        |  cartridges. |
  | 1 corkscrew.    | 18 4½ oz.    |
  | 1 funnel.       |  bursters.   |
  | 1 knife.        | 2 fuze boxes.|
  | 1 mallet.       |  (C and D),  |
  | 2 needles.      |  16 in each. |
  | 1 pr. pincers.  | 2 fuze bags, |
  | 1 saw set.      |  (E and 1    |
  | 1 pr. scissors. |  inch,) 18   |
  | 2 setters.      |  in each.    |
  | 1 oz. worsted.  | quick match. |
  | 72 fuzes.       | 6 portfires, |
  |                 |  on lid.     |
  +-----------------+--------------+

                                           OFF BOX.
                               +--------------+------------------+
                               | 2 common     | 12 common        |
                               |  shells      |  shells, in 2    |
                               | 4 common     |  tiers.          |
                               |  case.       | 1 compasses.     |
                               | 18 1¼ lb.    | 17 common fuzes. |
                               |  cartridges. | 2 files.         |
                               | 14 5 oz.     | 1 hammer.        |
                 MIDDLE BOX.   |  bursters.   | 1 rasp.          |
               +-------------+ |              | 1 rule.          |
               | 1 washer.   | |              | 1 shell scraper. |
               | 1 linchpin. | | 6 portfires, | slow match.      |
               | 2 couples.  | |  on lid.     | 1 tin primer.    |
               +-------------+ | 1 saw,       | 100 tubes.       |
               |             | |  on lid.     | 1 tube pocket.   |
               |             | |              |                  |
               +------+------+ +--------------+------------------+
                      |
                      +--------+
                               |
                  2 portfire sticks on trail.
                               |
     OFF AXLETREE BOX.         |            NEAR AXLETREE BOX.
  +--------------------+       |       +----------------+--------+
  |                    |       |       | 2 covers.      |        |
  |                    |       |       | 10 flints.     |        |
  | slow match.        |       |       | 1 gun lock.    |        |
  | 1 set priming      |-------+-------| 1 prim. irons. | Slow   |
  |  irons.            |               | 2 punches.     | match. |
  | 1 tin primer.      |               | 2 com. spikes. |        |
  |                    |               | 1 spg. spike.  |        |
  |                    |               | 2 thb. stalls. |        |
  +--------------------+               +----------------+--------+


12-POUNDER HOWITZER AMMUNITION WAGGON.

LIMBER.

               NEAR BOX.
    +--------------+--------------+
    | 12 shrapnell,| 6 shrapnell. |
    |  in 2 tiers. |              |
    |              | 18 1¼ lb.    |
    | 72 fuzes, in |  cartridges. |
    |  4 bundles.  |              |
    |              | 18 4½ oz.    |
    | Slow match.  |  bursters.   |
    |              |              |
    | 6 portfires, | quick match. |
    |  on lid.     |              |
    +--------------+--------------+

                                            OFF BOX.
                                +--------------+---------------+
                                | 2 common     | 12 common     |
                                |  shells.     |  shells, in 2 |
                  MIDDLE BOX.   | 4 common     |  tiers.       |
                +-------------+ |  case.       | 17 common     |
                | 1 washer.   | | 18 1¼ lb.    |  fuzes.       |
                | 1 linchpin. | |  cartridges. | slow match.   |
                | 2 couples.  | | 14 4½ oz.    | 1 shell       |
                +-------------+ |  bursters.   |  scraper.     |
                |             | | 6 portfires. | 100 tubes.    |
                |             | |              | 1 tube pocket.|
                +------+------+ +--------------+---------------+
                       |
                       +-----+
                             |
                        FORE | BOX.
                             |
   15 sets of horse-shoes.   |   15 sets of horse-shoes.
  +-----------------+--------+--------+-----------------+
  | 16 shrapnell,   | 28 1¼           | 16 shrapnell,   |
  |  in 2 tiers.    |  cartridges.    |  in 2 tiers.    |
  | 8 1¼ lb.        |                 |                 |
  |  cartridges,    | 32 4½ oz.       | 64 fuzes in 2   |
  |  over.          |  bursters.      |  bundles.       |
  | 64 fuzes in 2   |                 |                 |
  |  bundles.       | quick match.    | slow match.     |
  +-----------------+--------+--------+-----------------+

                        HIND  BOX.
  +--------------+-----------+--+-----------------------+
  | 16 common    |              | 4 com. shells }       |
  |  shells, in  | 28 1¼ lb.    | 4 carcasses   } under.|
  |  2 tiers.    |  cartridges. | 8 common shells,      |
  | 34 common    |              |  above.               |
  |  fuzes.      |              | 1 skein Hambro’ line. |
  | 100 flannel  | 28 5 oz.     | 1 skein marline.      |
  |  cartridges, |  bursters.   | 1 rammer head.        |
  |  empty.      |              | 1 spunge head.        |
  +--------------+--------------+-----------------------+


_Sec. 34. Weight of Riders, Harness, Ordnance, Carriages, &c., of a
Field battery equipped._

                                                             st. lb.
        { Riding set of harness, with head-collar and chain   4   8
        { Driver, in marching order (including greatcoat
        {   and apron)                                       12   3
        {                                                    ------
  Lead  {           Total weight carried by riding horse     16  11
        {                                                    ------
        { Off set, with head-collar, chain, &c., and man’s
        {   kitt                                              5   4

        { Riding set of harness, with head-collar and chain   5   0
        { Driver, in marching order (including greatcoat
        {   and apron)                                       12   3
        {                                                    ------
  Wheel {           Total weight carried by riding horse     17   3
        {                                                    ------
        { Off set of harness, with head-collar, chain, &c.,
        {   and man’s kitt                                    6   2

          Mounted N. C. officer’s appointments, including
            greatcoat, apron, and kitt                        5   2
          Non-commissioned officer                           12  10
                                                             ------
                           Total weight carried by horse     17  12
                                                             ------

The average weight of an Artillery horse is 10 cwt. 2 qrs.


ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES, AND STORES.

  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
  |           |12-pounder.| 9-pounder.| 24-pounder| 12-pounder| Light     |
  |           |           |           |  howitzer.|  howitzer.| 6-pounder.|
  |           +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
  |           |cwt.qrs.lb.|cwt.qrs.lb.|cwt.qrs.lb.|cwt.qrs.lb.|cwt.qrs.lb.|
  |Gun, carriage, and     |           |           |           |           |
  |  limber   | 39  2  15 | 33  1  23 | 32  3   3 | 24  2   7 | 23  3  11 |
  |Side arms, intrenching tools,      |           |           |           |
  |  &c.      |     3  14 |     3  10 |     2  25 |     2  23 |     3   2 |
  |Ammunition,|           |           |           |           |           |
  |  &c.      |  3  3  17 |  3  3  20 |  4  3  25 |  3  3  15 |  3  2  16 |
  |           |           |           |           |           |           |
  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
  |    Total  | 44  1  18 | 38  0  25 | 38  1  25 | 29  0  17 | 27  1   1 |
  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
  |Waggon limber & body,  |           |           |           |           |
  | including spare       |           |           |           |           |
  | wheel     | 19  1  14 | 19  0  26 | 17  0  25 | 17  0  25 | 18  2  26 |
  |Stores, intrenching tools,         |           |           |           |
  | spare horse-shoes,    |           |           |           |           |
  | &c.       |  4  0   7 |  4  0   7 |  4  0   7 |  4  0   7 |  4  0   7 |
  |Ammunition | 11  3  26 | 10  3  16 | 12  0   5 | 10  1   9 | 10  2   8 |
  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
  |    Total  | 35  1  19 | 34  0  21 | 33  1   9 | 31  2  13 | 33  1  13 |
  +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

[Illustration: _OFF LEADER._

_SHAFT HARNESS._]

_OFF LEADER_

  A  _Pad or Off Saddle_
  B  _Surcingle_
  C  _Girth of the Pad_
  D  _Pannel of D^o_
  E  _Pad Staples_
  F  _Trace_
  G  _Pipe of D^o_
  H  _Hook of D^o_
  I  _Belly Band of D^o_
  J  _Trace Lines_
  K  _Bearing Strap_
  L  _Buckling Piece of D^o_
  M  _Hip Strap_
  N  _Buckling Piece of D^o_
  O  _Crupper_
  P  _Crupper Ring_
  Q  _Buckling Piece of Crupper_
  R  _Collar_
  S  _The Hames_
  T  _The Housing_
  U  _The Housing Strap_
  V  _Shoulder Link & Hook_
  W  _Breast Chains or Links_
  X  _Wither Strap_
  Y  _Bearing Hook_
  Z  _Cantle of Pad_
  a  _Sheepskin_
  b  _Valise_
  c  _Baggage Strap_
  d  _Mess Tin_
  e  _D^o. Strap_
  f  _Buckle of D^o_
  g  _Wooden Canteen_
  h  _Forage Cord_
  i  _Nose Bag_

_THE BRIDLE._

   1  _Winker_
   2  _Front or Brow Band_
   3  _Cheek_
   4  _Cheek Billets_
   5  _Throat Lash_
   6  _Bearing Rein_
   7  _Bit_
   8  _Cheek of D^o_
   9  _Leading Rein_
  10  _Bar of the Bit_
  11  _Head-Collar_
  12  _Nose Band_
  13  _Collar Chain_
  14  _Jowl Strap_
  15  _Side Rein_

_SHAFT HARNESS._

  k  _Pad or off Saddle_
  l  _Back Band_
  m  _Shaft Tugs_
  n  _Bearing Strap_
  o  _Breeching_
  r  _Strap of Breeching_
  s  _Loin Strap_
  t  _Hip Strap_


DETAIL OF A 9-POUNDER TROOP OF ROYAL HORSE ARTILLERY FOR ACTIVE
SERVICE, WITH THE ARMY IN THE EAST.

        Key:
        A = Number of Carriages.
        C = Gunners.
        D = Drivers.
        E = Riding.
        F = Draught.
        G = Total.
        K = Sets of Appointments N. C. Officers and Men.
        L = Harness Sets Double.
        M = Lead.
        N = Wheel.

  +---+-----------------------+--------------+--------------+----+---------+
  |   |                       |     Men.     |    Horses.   |    |    L    |
  |   |   EQUIPMENT.          +----+----+----+----+----+----+    +----+----+
  | A |                       |  C |  D |  G |  E |  F |  G |  K |  M |  N |
  +---+-----------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
  | 4 | 9-Pounder Guns        | 40 | 16 | 56 | 40 | 32 | 72 | 40 | 12 |  4 |
  | 2 | 24-Pounder Howitzers  | 20 |  8 | 28 | 20 | 16 | 36 | 20 |  6 |  2 |
  | 6 | Gun Ammunition Waggons| 12 | 18 | 30 |  4 | 36 | 40 |  4 | 12 |  6 |
  | 5 | Howitzer Ammunition   |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |   Waggons             | 10 | 15 | 25 |  2 | 30 | 32 |  2 | 10 |  5 |
  | 1 | Store Limber Waggon   |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |  . |  2 |  1 |
  | 1 | Spare Gun Carriage    |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |  . |  2 |  1 |
  | 1 | Forge                 |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |  . |  2 |  1 |
  | 1 | Rocket Carriage       |  . |  4 |  4 |  . |  8 |  8 |  . |  3 |  1 |
  | 1 | Store Cart            |  . |  1 |  1 |  . |  2 |  2 |  . |  . |  1 |
  | 1 | Medicine Cart         |  . |  1 |  1 |  . |  2 |  2 |  . |  . |  1 |
  | 2 | Light Forage Waggons  |  . |  4 |  4 |  . |  8 |  8 |  . |  2 |  2 |
  | 3 | Water Carts           |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |  . |  . |  3 |
  | . | For 2 Staff Serjeants, }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |   2 Trumpeters,        }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |   1 Farrier,           }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |   3 Shoeing-Smiths     } . |  . |  . |  8 |  . |  8 |  8 |  . |  . |
  | . | Spare Men, Officers’  }    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |   Servants and Bâtmen,}    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |   &c., and Spare      }    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |   Horses              } 15 | 44 | 59 |  6 | 16 | 22 |  . |  4 |  4 |
  | . | Officers’ Horses      |  . |  . |  . | 12 |  . | 12 |  . |  . |  . |
  | . | Bât Horses            |  . |  . |  . |  . |  6 |  6 |  . |  . |  . |
  +---+                       +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
  |28 |Total Carriages. Total | 97 |123 |220 | 92 |180 |272 | 74 | 55 | 32 |
  +---+-----------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+

  +--------------------------------------------------+
  |                    { Captain                   1 |
  |  Officers.         { Second Captain            1 |
  |                    { Lieutenants               3 |
  |                    { Assist.-Surgeon           1 |
  |                                                  |
  |                    { Staff Serjeants           2 |
  |                    { Serjeants                 8 |
  |  Non-Commissioned  { Corporals                 4 |
  |    Officers and    { Bombardiers               6 |
  |    Men.            { Gunners                  97 |
  |                    { Drivers                 123 |
  |                    { Trumpeter                 1 |
  |                                                  |
  |                    { Farrier                   1 |
  |  Artificers.       { Shoeing-smiths            6 |
  |                    { Collar-makers             3 |
  |                    { Wheelers                  2 |
  |                                            ----- |
  |                                                  |
  |                        Total                 259 |
  +--------------------------------------------------+


DETAIL OF THE RESERVE OF GUN AND SMALL ARM AMMUNITION, ROYAL HORSE
ARTILLERY, FOR ACTIVE SERVICE WITH THE CAVALRY OF THE ARMY IN THE
EAST.

        Key:
        A = Number of Carriages.
        C = Gunners.
        D = Drivers.
        E = Riding.
        F = Draught.
        G = Total.
        K = Sets of Appointments N. C. Officers and Men.
        L = Harness Sets Double.
        M = Lead.
        N = Wheel.

  +---+-----------------------+--------------+--------------+----+---------+
  |   |                       |     Men.     |    Horses.   |    |    L    |
  |   |   DISTRIBUTION.       +----+----+----+----+----+----+    +----+----+
  | A |                       |  C |  D |  G |  E |  F |  G |  K |  M |  N |
  +---+-----------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
  |12 | Gun Ammunition Waggons|  . | 36 | 36 |  . | 72 | 72 |  . | 24 | 12 |
  | 6 | Howitzer Ammunition   |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |   Waggons             |  . | 18 | 18 |  . | 36 | 36 |  . | 12 |  6 |
  | 6 | Carbine Ammunition    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |   Waggons             |  . | 18 | 18 |  . | 36 | 36 |  . | 12 |  6 |
  | 1 | Store Limber Waggon   |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |  . |  2 |  1 |
  | 1 | Forge                 |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |  . |  2 |  1 |
  | . | 2 Portable Forges     |  2 |  . |  2 |  2 |  . |  2 |  . |  . |  . |
  | 3 | Light Forage Waggons  |  . |  6 |  6 |  . | 12 | 12 |  . |  3 |  3 |
  | 3 | Water Carts           |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |  . |  . |  3 |
  | 1 | Store Cart            |  . |  1 |  1 |  . |  2 |  2 |  . |  . |  1 |
  | 1 | Medicine Cart         |  . |  1 |  1 |  . |  2 |  2 |  . |  . |  1 |
  |   | { 2 Staff Serjeants,} |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   | {   9 Serjeants,    } |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   | {   6 Corporals,    } |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  | . | {   6 Bombardiers,  } |  . |  . |  . | 30 |  . | 30 | 30 |  . |  . |
  |   | {   3 Trumpeters,   } |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   | {   1 Farrier,      } |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   | {   3 Shoeing-Smiths} |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  | . | Servants and Bâtmen   |  7 |  7 | 14 |  . |  . |  . |  . |  . |  . |
  | . | Mounted Gunners       | 48 |  . | 48 | 48 |  . | 48 | 48 |  . |  . |
  | . | Spare Men             | 49 | 50 | 99 |  . |  . |  . |  . |  . |  . |
  | . | Spare Horses          |  . |  . |  . | 12 | 42 | 54 |  8 | 10 | 10 |
  +---+                       +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
  |34 | Total Carriages. Total|106 |146 |252 | 92 |220 |312 | 86 | 65 | 44 |
  +---+-----------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+

  +-------------------------------------------------+
  |                   { Captain                   1 |
  | Officers.         { Second Captain            1 |
  |                   { Lieutenants               4 |
  |                   { Assist.-Surgeon           1 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Staff Serjeants           2 |
  |                   { Serjeants                 9 |
  | Non-Commissioned  { Corporals                 6 |
  |   Officers and    { Bombardiers               6 |
  |   Men.            { Gunners                 106 |
  |                   { Drivers                 146 |
  |                   { Trumpeter                 1 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Farrier                   1 |
  | Artificers.       { Shoeing-smiths            8 |
  |                   { Collar-makers             4 |
  |                   { Wheelers                  4 |
  |                                             --- |
  |                       Total                 300 |
  +-------------------------------------------------+


DETAIL OF A 9-POUNDER FIELD BATTERY, ROYAL ARTILLERY, FOR ACTIVE
SERVICE WITH THE ARMY IN THE EAST.

        Key:
        A = Number of Carriages.
        C = Gunners.
        D = Drivers.
        E = Riding.
        F = Draught.
        G = Total.
        H = Sets of Appointments.
        I = Officers.
        J = N. C. Officers.
        L = Harness Sets Double.
        M = Lead.
        N = Wheel.

  +---+-----------------------+--------------+-----------+-------+-------+
  |   |                       |     Men.     |  Horses.  |   H   |   L   |
  |   |    EQUIPMENT.         +----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | A |                       | C and D |  G | E | F | G | I | J | M | N |
  +---+-----------------------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | 4 | 9-Pounder Guns        | 40 | 16 | 56 | . | 32| 32| . | . | 12| 4 |
  | 2 | 24-Pounder Howitzers  | 20 |  8 | 28 | . | 16| 16| . | . | 6 | 2 |
  | 6 | Gun Ammunition Waggons| 12 | 18 | 30 | . | 36| 36| . | . | 12| 6 |
  | 5 | Howitzer Ammunition   |    |    |    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
  |   |   Waggons             | 10 | 15 | 25 | . | 30| 30| . | . | 10| 5 |
  | 1 | Store Limber Waggon   |  . |  3 |  3 | . | 6 | 6 | . | . | 2 | 1 |
  | 1 | Spare Gun Carriage    |  . |  3 |  3 | . | 6 | 6 | . | . | 2 | 1 |
  | 1 | Forge                 |  . |  3 |  3 | . | 6 | 6 | . | . | 2 | 1 |
  | 1 | Rocket Carriage       |  . |  4 |  4 | . | 8 | 8 | . | . | 3 | 1 |
  | 1 | Store Cart            |  . |  1 |  1 | . | 2 | 2 | . | . | . | 1 |
  | 1 | Medicine Cart         |  . |  1 |  1 | . | 2 | 2 | . | . | . | 1 |
  | 2 | Light Forage Waggons  |  . |  4 |  4 | . | 8 | 8 | . | . | 2 | 2 |
  | 3 | Water Carts           |  . |  3 |  3 | . | 6 | 6 | . | . | . | 3 |
  | . | For Staff-Serjeants  }|    |    |    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
  |   |  and mounted Non-Com.}|  . |  . |  . | 14| . | 14| . | 14| . | . |
  |   |  Officers            }|    |    |    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
  |   | For Trumpeters        |  . |  . |  . | 2 | . | 2 | . | 2 | . | . |
  |   | For Farrier           |  . |  . |  . | 1 | . | 1 | . | 1 | . | . |
  |   | For Shoeing-smiths    |  . |  . |  . | 1 | . | 1 | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Spare Men, Officers’ }|    |    |    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
  |   |  Servants and Bâtmen,}|    |    |    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
  |   |  &c., and Spare      }| 15 | 24 | 39 | 2 | 20| 22| . | 1 | 3 | 3 |
  |   |  Horses              }|    |    |    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
  | . | Officers’ Horses      |  . |  . |  . | 6 | . | 6 | 6 | . | . | . |
  | . | Bât Horses            |  . |  . |  . | . | 6 | 6 | . | . | . | . |
  +---+-----------------------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  |28 | Total Carriages. Total| 97 |103 |200 | 26|184|210| 6 | 19| 54| 31|
  +---+-----------------------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

  +-------------------------------------------------+
  |                   { Captain                   1 |
  | Officers.         { Second Captain            1 |
  |                   { Lieutenants               3 |
  |                   { Assist.-Surgeon           1 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Staff-Serjeants           2 |
  |                   { Serjeants                 8 |
  | Non-Commissioned  { Corporals                 5 |
  |   Officers and    { Bombardiers               7 |
  |   Men.            { Gunners }               200 |
  |                   { Drivers }                   |
  |                   { Trumpeters                2 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Farrier                   1 |
  |                   { Shoeing-smiths            6 |
  | Artificers.       { Collar-makers             3 |
  |                   { Wheelers                  2 |
  |                                             --- |
  |                       Total                 242 |
  +-------------------------------------------------+


9-POUNDER FIELD BATTERY, ROYAL ARTILLERY.—DETAIL OF THE RIGHT
DIVISION.

          Key:
          A = Number of Carriages.
          B = N. C. Officers and Artificers.
          C = Gunners.
          D = Drivers.
          E = Riding.
          F = Draught.
          H = Sets of Appointments.
          I = Officers.
          J = N. C. Officers.
          L = Harness Sets Double.
          M = Lead.
          N = Wheel.

  +---+--------------------+-----------------------------------+
  |   |                    |      NO. 1 SUB-DIVISION.          |
  |   |                    +---+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |   |   EQUIPMENT.       |   |  Men. |Horses.|   H   |   L   |
  |   |                    |   +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | A |                    | B | C | D | E | F | I | J | N | M |
  +---+--------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | 2 | 9-Pounder Gun      | . |10 | 4 | . | 8 | . | . | 1 | 3 |
  | 3 | Gun Amm. Wag.      | . | 2 | 3 | . | 6 | . | . | 1 | 2 |
  | 1 | Forge              | . | . | 3 | . | 6 | . | . | 1 | 2 |
  | 1 | Forage Waggon      | . | . | 2 | . | 4 | . | . | 1 | 1 |
  | 1 | Store Cart         | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | 1 | Water Cart         | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Staff Serjeants    | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Serjeants          | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Corporals          | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Bombardiers        | 2 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Trumpeters         | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Farriers           | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Shoeing-smiths     | 1 | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Collar-maker       | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | For Officers       | . | . | . | 1 | 1 | 1 | . | . | . |
  | . | Spare              | . | 4 | 4 | . | 4 | . | . | 1 | . |
  +---+                    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | 9 |            Total.  | 6 |16 |16 | 5 |29 | 1 | 4 | 5 | 8 |
  +---+--------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

  +---+--------------------+-----------------------------------+
  |   |                    |     NO. 2 SUB-DIVISION.           |
  |   |                    +---+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |   |   EQUIPMENT.       |   |  Men. |Horses.|   H   |   L   |
  |   |                    |   +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | A |                    | B | C | D | E | F | I | J | N | M |
  +---+--------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | 2 | 9-Pounder Gun      | . |10 | 4 | . | 8 | . | . | 1 | 3 |
  | 3 | Gun Amm. Wag.      | . | 4 | 6 | . |12 | . | . | 2 | 4 |
  | 1 | Forge              | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | 1 | Forage Waggon      | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | 1 | Store Cart         | . | . | 1 | . | 2 | . | . | 1 | . |
  | 1 | Water Cart         | . | . | 1 | . | 2 | . | . | 1 | . |
  | . | Staff Serjeants    | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Serjeants          | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Corporals          | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Bombardiers        | 1 | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Trumpeters         | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Farriers           | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Shoeing-smiths     | 1 | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Collar-maker       | 1 | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | For Officers       | . | . | . | 1 | 1 | 1 | . | . | . |
  | . | Spare              | . | 2 | 4 | . | 4 | . | . | . | 1 |
  +---+                    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | 9 |            Total.  | 6 |16 |16 | 4 |29 | 1 | 3 | 5 | 8 |
  +---+--------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

  +-------------------------------------------------+
  | Officers.         { 1st Captain (No. 2.)      1 |
  |                   { Senior Lieut. (No. 1.)    1 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Staff Serjeant            1 |
  |                   { Serjeants                 2 |
  | Non-Commissioned  { Corporal                  1 |
  |   Officers and    { Bombardiers               3 |
  |   Men.            { Gunners                  32 |
  |                   { Drivers                  32 |
  |                   { Trumpeter                 1 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Farrier                   1 |
  | Artificers.       { Shoeing-smiths            2 |
  |                   { Collar-maker              1 |
  |                                                 |
  | Horses.           { Riding                    9 |
  |                   { Draught                  58 |
  |                                                 |
  | Appointments.     { Officers                  2 |
  |                   { N. C. Officers            7 |
  |                                                 |
  | Harness.          { Wheel                    10 |
  |                   { Lead                     16 |
  +-------------------------------------------------+

N. B.—The Gunners attached to first line of waggons are the
Officers’ Servants and Bâtmen, viz.—2 to each sub-division. The
mounted Coverers or Horseholders may be taken from either full
Non-Commissioned Officers or the acting Bombardiers, of whom 12 are
allowed to be made, at the discretion of the officer commanding.


9-POUNDER FIELD BATTERY, ROYAL ARTILLERY.—DETAIL OF CENTRE DIVISION.

          Key:
          A = Number of Carriages.
          B = N. C. Officers and Artificers.
          C = Gunners.
          D = Drivers.
          E = Riding.
          F = Draught.
          H = Sets of Appointments.
          I = Officers.
          J = N. C. Officers.
          L = Harness Sets Double.
          M = Lead.
          N = Wheel.

  +---+--------------------+-----------------------------------+
  |   |                    |       NO. 3 SUB-DIVISION.         |
  |   |                    +---+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |   |   EQUIPMENT.       |   |  Men. |Horses.|   H   |   L   |
  |   |                    |   +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | A |                    | B | C | D | E | F | I | J | N | M |
  +---+--------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | 2 | 24-Pr. Howitzers   | . |10 | 4 | . | 8 | . | . | 1 | 3 |
  | 5 | How. Amm. Wag.     | . | 4 | 6 | . |12 | . | . | 2 | 4 |
  | 1 | Spare Gun Carriage | . | . | 3 | . | 6 | . | . | 1 | 2 |
  | 1 | Medicine Cart      | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | 1 | . |
  | 1 | Water Cart         | . | . | 1 | . | 2 | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Serjeants          | 2 | . | . | 1 | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Corporals          | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Bombardiers        | 1 | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Wheeler (senior)   | 1 | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Collar-maker       | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Shoeing-smith      | 1 | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | For Officers       | . | . | . | 1 | 1 | 1 | . | . | . |
  | . | Spare              | . | 2 | 4 | 1 | 3 | . | 1 | 1 | . |
  +---+                    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  |10 |            Total.  | 6 |16 |18 | 4 |32 | 1 | 3 | 6 | 9 |
  +---+--------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

  +---+--------------------+-----------------------------------+
  |   |                    |       NO. 4 SUB-DIVISION.         |
  |   |                    +---+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |   |   EQUIPMENT.       |   |  Men. |Horses.|   H   |   L   |
  |   |                    |   +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | A |                    | B | C | D | E | F | I | J | N | M |
  +---+--------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | 2 | 24-Pr. Howitzers   | . |10 | 4 | . | 8 | . | . | 1 | 3 |
  | 5 | How. Amm. Wag.     | . | 6 | 9 | . |18 | . | . | 3 | 6 |
  | 1 | Spare Gun Carriage | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | 1 | Medicine Cart      | . | . | 1 | . | 2 | . | . | 1 | . |
  | 1 | Water Cart         | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Serjeants          | 2 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Corporals          | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Bombardiers        | 1 | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Wheeler (senior)   | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Collar-maker       | 1 | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Shoeing-smith      | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | For Officers       | . | . | . | 1 | 1 | 1 | . | . | . |
  | . | Spare              | . | 1 | 4 | . | 3 | . | . | . | 1 |
  +---+                    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  |10 |            Total.  | 6 |17 |18 | 4 |30 | 1 | 3 | 5 |10 |
  +---+--------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

  +-------------------------------------------------+
  | Officers.         { Junior Lieut. (No. 3.)    1 |
  |                   { Assist.-Surgeon (No. 4.)  1 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Serjeants                 4 |
  | Non-Commissioned  { Corporals                 2 |
  |   Officers and    { Bombardiers               2 |
  |   Men.            { Gunners                  33 |
  |                   { Drivers                  36 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Wheeler (senior)          1 |
  | Artificers.       { Collar-maker              1 |
  |                   { Shoeing-smiths            2 |
  |                                                 |
  | Horses.           { Riding                    8 |
  |                   { Draught                  62 |
  |                                                 |
  | Appointments.     { Officers                  2 |
  |                   { N. C. Officers            6 |
  |                                                 |
  | Harness.          { Wheel                    11 |
  |                   { Lead                     19 |
  +-------------------------------------------------+


9-POUNDER FIELD BATTERY, ROYAL ARTILLERY.—DETAIL OF THE LEFT DIVISION.

  Key:
  A = Number of Carriages.
  B = N. C. Officers and Artificers.
  C = Gunners.
  D = Drivers.
  E = Riding.
  F = Draught.
  H = Sets of Appointments.
  I = Officers.
  J = N. C. Officers.
  L = Harness Sets Double.
  M = Lead.
  N = Wheel.

  +---+--------------------+-----------------------------------+
  |   |                    |        NO. 5 SUB-DIVISION.        |
  |   |                    +---+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |   |   EQUIPMENT.       |   |  Men. |Horses.|   H   |   L   |
  |   |                    |   +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | A |                    | B | C | D | E | F | I | J | N | M |
  +---+--------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | 2 | 9-Pounder Guns     | . |10 | 4 | . | 8 | . | . | 1 | 3 |
  | 3 | Gun Amm. Wag.      | . | 4 | 6 | . |12 | . | . | 2 | 4 |
  | 1 | Store Limber Wag.  | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | 1 | Forage Waggon      | . | . | 2 | . | 4 | . | . | 1 | 1 |
  | 1 | Rocket Carriage    | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | 1 | Water Cart         | . | . | 1 | . | 2 | . | . | 1 | . |
  | . | Staff Serjeant     | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Serjeant           | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Corporal           | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Bombardier         | 1 | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Wheeler            | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Collar-maker       | 1 | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Shoeing-smith      | 1 | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Trumpeters         | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | For Officers       | . | . | . | 1 | 1 | 1 | . | . | . |
  | . | Spare              | . | 2 | 4 | 1 | 3 | . | . | . | 1 |
  +---+                    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | 9 |            Total.  | 6 |16 |17 | 5 |30 | 1 | 3 | 5 | 9 |
  +---+--------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

  +---+--------------------+-----------------------------------+
  |   |                    |       NO. 6 SUB-DIVISION.         |
  |   |                    +---+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |   |   EQUIPMENT.       |   |  Men. |Horses.|   H   |   L   |
  |   |                    |   +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | A |                    | B | C | D | E | F | I | J | N | M |
  +---+--------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | 2 | 9-Pounder Guns     | . |10 | 4 | . | 8 | . | . | 1 | 3 |
  | 3 | Gun Amm. Wag.      | . | 2 | 3 | . | 6 | . | . | 1 | 2 |
  | 1 | Store Limber Wag.  | . | . | 3 | . | 6 | . | . | 1 | 2 |
  | 1 | Forage Waggon      | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | 1 | Rocket Carriage    | . | 3 | 4 | . | 8 | . | . | 1 | 3 |
  | 1 | Water Cart         | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Staff Serjeant     | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Serjeant           | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Corporal           | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | Bombardier         | 1 | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Wheeler            | 1 | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Collar-maker       | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Shoeing-smith      | 1 | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
  | . | Trumpeters         | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . | 1 | . | . |
  | . | For Officers       | . | . | . | 1 | 1 | 1 | . | . | . |
  | . | Spare              | . | 1 | 4 | . | 3 | . | . | 1 | . |
  +---+                    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  | 9 |            Total.  | 6 |16 |18 | 4 |32 | 1 | 3 | 5 |10 |
  +---+--------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

  +-------------------------------------------------+
  | Officers.         { 2nd Capt. (No. 5)         1 |
  |                   { 2nd Sen. Lieut. (6)       1 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Staff Serjeant            1 |
  |                   { Serjeants                 2 |
  | Non-Commissioned  { Corporals                 2 |
  |   Officers and    { Bombardiers               2 |
  |   Men.            { Gunners                  35 |
  |                   { Drivers                  32 |
  |                   { Trumpeter                 1 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Wheeler                   1 |
  | Artificers.       { Col.-maker (sen.)         1 |
  |                   { Shoeing-smith             1 |
  |                                                 |
  | Horses.           { Riding                    9 |
  |                   { Draught                  62 |
  |                                                 |
  | Appointments.     { Officers                  2 |
  |                   { N. C. Officers            6 |
  |                                                 |
  | Harness.          { Wheel                    10 |
  |                   { Lead                     19 |
  +-------------------------------------------------+


DETAIL OF AN 18-POUNDER FIELD BATTERY, ROYAL ARTILLERY, FOR ACTIVE
SERVICE WITH THE ARMY IN THE EAST.

          Key:
          A = Number of Carriages.
          C = Gunners.
          D = Drivers.
          E = Riding.
          F = Draught.
          G = Total.
          H = Sets of Appointments.
          I = Officers.
          J = N. C. Officers.
          L = Harness Sets Double.
          M = Lead.
          N = Wheel.

  +---+-------------------------------+--------------+--------------+
  |   |                               |     Men.     |    Horses.   |
  |   |   EQUIPMENT.                  +----+----+----+----+----+----+
  | A |                               | C and D |  G |  E |  F |  G |
  +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+
  | 4 | 18-Pounder Guns               | 56 | 24 | 80 |  . | 48 | 48 |
  |12 | Gun Ammunition Waggons        | 24 | 36 | 60 |  . | 72 | 72 |
  | 2 | Store Limber Waggons          |  . |  6 |  6 |  . | 12 | 12 |
  | 1 | Spare Gun Carriage            |  . |  4 |  4 |  . |  8 |  8 |
  | 1 | Platform Waggon               |  . |  4 |  4 |  . |  8 |  8 |
  | 1 | Forge                         |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |
  | 1 | Store Cart                    |  . |  1 |  1 |  . |  2 |  2 |
  | 1 | Medicine Cart                 |  . |  1 |  1 |  . |  2 |  2 |
  | 2 | Light Forage Waggons          |  . |  4 |  4 |  . |  8 |  8 |
  | 3 | Water Carts                   |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |
  | . | For { Staff-Serjeants and }   |  . |  . |  . | 10 |  . | 10 |
  |   |     {   Non-Commissioned  }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |     {   Officers          }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |     { Trumpeters              |  . |  . |  . |  2 |  . |  2 |
  |   |     { Farrier                 |  . |  . |  . |  1 |  . |  1 |
  |   |     { Shoeing-Smith           |  . |  . |  . |  1 |  . |  1 |
  | . | { Spare Men, Officers’    }   | 15 | 24 | 39 |  2 | 20 | 22 |
  |   | {   Servants and Bâtmen,  }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   | {   &c., and Spare Horses }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  | . | Officers’ Horses              |  . |  . |  . |  6 |  . |  6 |
  | . | Bât Horses                    |  . |  . |  . |  . |  6 |  6 |
  +---+                               +----+----+----+----+----+----+
  |28 | Total Carriages.       Total  | 95 |110 |205 | 22 |198 |220 |
  +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+

      +---+-------------------------------+---------+---------+
      |   |                               |    H    |    L    |
      |   |   EQUIPMENT.                  +----+----+----+----+
      | A |                               |  I |  J |  M |  N |
      +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+
      | 4 | 18-Pounder Guns               |  . |  . | 16 |  8 |
      |12 | Gun Ammunition Waggons        |  . |  . | 24 | 12 |
      | 2 | Store Limber Waggons          |  . |  . |  4 |  2 |
      | 1 | Spare Gun Carriage            |  . |  . |  2 |  2 |
      | 1 | Platform Waggon               |  . |  . |  2 |  2 |
      | 1 | Forge                         |  . |  . |  2 |  1 |
      | 1 | Store Cart                    |  . |  . |  . |  1 |
      | 1 | Medicine Cart                 |  . |  . |  . |  1 |
      | 2 | Light Forage Waggons          |  . |  . |  2 |  2 |
      | 3 | Water Carts                   |  . |  . |  . |  3 |
      | . | For { Staff-Serjeants and }   |  . | 10 |  . |  . |
      |   |     {   Non-Commissioned  }   |    |    |    |    |
      |   |     {   Officers          }   |    |    |    |    |
      |   |     { Trumpeters              |  . |  2 |  . |  . |
      |   |     { Farrier                 |  . |  1 |  . |  . |
      |   |     { Shoeing-Smith           |  . |  1 |  . |  . |
      | . | { Spare Men, Officers’    }   |  . |  1 |  3 |  3 |
      |   | {   Servants and Bâtmen,  }   |    |    |    |    |
      |   | {   &c., and Spare Horses }   |    |    |    |    |
      | . | Officers’ Horses              |  6 |  . |  . |  . |
      | . | Bât Horses                    |  . |  . |  . |  . |
      +---+                               +----+----+----+----+
      |28 | Total Carriages.       Total  |  6 | 15 | 55 | 37 |
      +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+

  +-------------------------------------------------+
  |                   { Captain                   1 |
  | Officers.         { Second Captain            1 |
  |                   { Lieutenants               3 |
  |                   { Assist.-Surgeon           1 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Staff-Serjeants           2 |
  |                   { Serjeants                 7 |
  | Non-Commissioned  { Corporals                 5 |
  |   Officers and    { Bombardiers               6 |
  |   Men.            { Gunners }               205 |
  |                   { Drivers }                   |
  |                   { Trumpeters                2 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Farrier                   1 |
  | Artificers.       { Shoeing-smiths            6 |
  |                   { Collar-makers             3 |
  |                   { Wheelers                  2 |
  |                                             --- |
  |                       Total                 245 |
  +-------------------------------------------------+


DETAIL OF A 32-POUNDER HOWITZER FIELD BATTERY, ROYAL ARTILLERY, FOR
ACTIVE SERVICE WITH THE ARMY IN THE EAST.

          Key:
          A = Number of Carriages.
          C = Gunners.
          D = Drivers.
          E = Riding.
          F = Draught.
          G = Total.
          H = Sets of Appointments.
          I = Officers.
          J = N. C. Officers.
          L = Harness Sets Double.
          M = Lead.
          N = Wheel.

  +---+-------------------------------+--------------+--------------+
  |   |                               |     Men.     |    Horses.   |
  |   |   EQUIPMENT.                  +----+----+----+----+----+----+
  | A |                               | C and D |  G |  E |  F |  G |
  +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+
  | 4 | 32 Pounder Howitzers          | 48 | 16 | 64 |  . | 32 | 32 |
  |12 | Howitzer Ammunition Waggons   | 24 | 36 | 60 |  . | 72 | 72 |
  | 1 | Store Limber Waggon           |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |
  | 1 | Spare Howitzer Carriage       |  . |  4 |  4 |  . |  8 |  8 |
  | 1 | Forge                         |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |
  | 1 | Store Cart                    |  . |  1 |  1 |  . |  2 |  2 |
  | 1 | Medicine Cart                 |  . |  1 |  1 |  . |  2 |  2 |
  | 2 | Flanders Waggons              |  . |  4 |  4 |  . |  8 |  8 |
  | 3 | Water Carts                   |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |
  | . | For { Staff Serjeants, and }  |  . |  . |  . | 10 |  . | 10 |
  |   |     {   Mounted Non-Com.   }  |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |     {   Officers           }  |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |     { Trumpeters              |  . |  . |  . |  2 |  . |  2 |
  |   |     { Farrier                 |  . |  . |  . |  1 |  . |  1 |
  |   |     { Shoeing-smith           |  . |  . |  . |  1 |  . |  1 |
  | . | { Spare Men, Officers’    }   | 15 | 24 | 39 |  2 | 20 | 22 |
  |   | {   Servants and Bâtmen,  }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   | {   &c., and Spare Horses }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  | . | Officers’ Horses              |  . |  . |  . |  6 |  . |  6 |
  | . | Bât Horses                    |  . |  . |  . |  . |  6 |  6 |
  +---+                               +----+----+----+----+----+----+
  |26 | Total Carriages.       Total  | 87 | 95 |182 | 22 |168 |190 |
  +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+

      +---+-------------------------------+---------+---------+
      |   |                               |    H    |    L    |
      |   |   EQUIPMENT.                  +----+----+----+----+
      | A |                               |  I |  J |  M |  N |
      +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+
      | 4 | 32 Pounder Howitzers          |  . |  . | 12 |  4 |
      |12 | Howitzer Ammunition Waggons   |  . |  . | 24 | 12 |
      | 1 | Store Limber Waggon           |  . |  . |  2 |  1 |
      | 1 | Spare Howitzer Carriage       |  . |  . |  3 |  1 |
      | 1 | Forge                         |  . |  . |  2 |  1 |
      | 1 | Store Cart                    |  . |  . |  . |  1 |
      | 1 | Medicine Cart                 |  . |  . |  . |  1 |
      | 2 | Flanders Waggons              |  . |  . |  2 |  2 |
      | 3 | Water Carts                   |  . |  . |  . |  3 |
      | . | For { Staff Serjeants, and }  |  . | 10 |  . |  . |
      |   |     {   Mounted Non-Com.   }  |    |    |    |    |
      |   |     {   Officers           }  |    |    |    |    |
      |   |     { Trumpeters              |  . |  2 |  . |  . |
      |   |     { Farrier                 |  . |  1 |  . |  . |
      |   |     { Shoeing-smith           |  . |  1 |  . |  . |
      | . | { Spare Men, Officers’    }   |  . |  1 |  3 |  3 |
      |   | {   Servants and Bâtmen,  }   |    |    |    |    |
      |   | {   &c., and Spare Horses }   |    |    |    |    |
      | . | Officers’ Horses              |  6 |  . |  . |  . |
      | . | Bât Horses                    |  . |  . |  . |  . |
      +---+                               +----+----+----+----+
      |26 | Total Carriages.       Total  |  6 | 15 | 48 | 29 |
      +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+

  +-------------------------------------------------+
  |                   { Captain                   1 |
  | Officers.         { Second Captain              |
  |                   { Lieutenants               3 |
  |                   { Assist.-Surgeon           1 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Staff Serjeants           2 |
  |                   { Serjeants                 6 |
  | Non-Commissioned  { Corporals                 5 |
  |   Officers and    { Bombardiers               6 |
  |   Men.            { Gunners }               182 |
  |                   { Drivers }                   |
  |                   { Trumpeters                2 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Farrier                   1 |
  | Artificers.       { Shoeing-smiths            5 |
  |                   { Collar-makers             2 |
  |                   { Wheelers                  2 |
  |                                             --- |
  |                       Total                 219 |
  +-------------------------------------------------+


DETAIL OF A RESERVE OF GUN AND SMALL ARM AMMUNITION FOR ACTIVE
SERVICE WITH THE ARMY IN THE EAST.

          Key:
          A = Number of Carriages.
          C = Gunners.
          D = Drivers.
          E = Riding.
          F = Draught.
          G = Total.
          H = Sets of Appointments.
          I = Officers.
          J = N. C. Officers.
          L = Harness Sets Double.
          M = Lead.
          N = Wheel.

  +---+-------------------------------+--------------+--------------+
  |   |                               |     Men.     |    Horses.   |
  |   |   EQUIPMENT.                  +----+----+----+----+----+----+
  | A |                               | C and D |  G |  E |  F |  G |
  +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+
  |30 | Ammunition { Gun            4 |  8 | 12 | 20 |  . | 24 | 24 |
  |   |   Waggons  { Howitzer       2 |  4 |  6 | 10 |  . | 12 | 12 |
  |   |            { Small arm     24 | 24 | 72 | 96 |  . |144 |144 |
  | 1 | Store Limber Waggon           |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |
  | 1 | Forge                         |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |
  | 1 | Store Cart                    |  . |  1 |  1 |  . |  2 |  2 |
  | 1 | Medicine Cart                 |  . |  1 |  1 |  . |  2 |  2 |
  | 2 | Light Forage Waggons          |  . |  4 |  4 |  . |  8 |  8 |
  | 3 | Water Carts                   |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |
  | . | For { Staff-Serjeants and }   |  . |  . |  . | 10 |  . | 10 |
  |   |     {   Mounted Non-Com.  }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |     {   Officers          }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |     { Trumpeters              |  . |  . |  . |  2 |  . |  2 |
  |   |     { Farrier                 |  . |  . |  . |  1 |  . |  1 |
  |   |     { Shoeing-smith           |  . |  . |  . |  1 |  . |  1 |
  | . | { Spare Men, Officers’    }   | 12 | 27 | 39 |  2 | 18 | 20 |
  |   | {   Servants and Bâtmen,  }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   | {   &c., and Spare Horses }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  | . | Officers’ Horses              |  . |  . |  . |  6 |  . |  6 |
  | . | Bât Horses                    |  . |  . |  . |  . |  6 |  6 |
  +---+                               +----+----+----+----+----+----+
  |39 | Total Carriages.       Total  | 48 |132 |180 | 22 |234 |256 |
  +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+

      +---+-------------------------------+---------+---------+
      |   |                               |    H    |    L    |
      |   |   EQUIPMENT.                  +----+----+----+----+
      | A |                               |  I |  J |  M |  N |
      +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+
      |30 | Ammunition { Gun            4 |  . |  . |  8 |  4 |
      |   |   Waggons  { Howitzer       2 |  . |  . |  4 |  2 |
      |   |            { Small arm     24 |  . |  . | 48 | 24 |
      | 1 | Store Limber Waggon           |  . |  . |  2 |  1 |
      | 1 | Forge                         |  . |  . |  2 |  1 |
      | 1 | Store Cart                    |  . |  . |  . |  1 |
      | 1 | Medicine Cart                 |  . |  . |  . |  1 |
      | 2 | Light Forage Waggons          |  . |  . |  2 |  2 |
      | 3 | Water Carts                   |  . |  . |  . |  3 |
      | . | For { Staff-Serjeants and }   |  . | 10 |  . |  . |
      |   |     {   Mounted Non-Com.  }   |    |    |    |    |
      |   |     {   Officers          }   |    |    |    |    |
      |   |     { Trumpeters              |  . |  2 |  . |  . |
      |   |     { Farrier                 |  . |  1 |  . |  . |
      |   |     { Shoeing-smith           |  . |  1 |  . |  . |
      | . | { Spare Men, Officers’    }   |  . |  1 |  2 |  1 |
      |   | {   Servants and Bâtmen,  }   |    |    |    |    |
      |   | {   &c., and Spare Horses }   |    |    |    |    |
      | . | Officers’ Horses              |  6 |  . |  . |  . |
      | . | Bât Horses                    |  . |  . |  . |  . |
      +---+                               +----+----+----+----+
      |39 | Total Carriages.       Total  |  6 | 15 | 68 | 40 |
      +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+

  +-------------------------------------------------+
  |                   { Captain                   1 |
  | Officers.         { Second Captain            1 |
  |                   { Lieutenants               3 |
  |                   { Assist.-Surgeon           1 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Staff-Serjeants           2 |
  |                   { Serjeants                 6 |
  | Non-Commissioned  { Corporals                 5 |
  |   Officers and    { Bombardiers               7 |
  |   Men.            { Gunners }               180 |
  |                   { Drivers }                   |
  |                   { Trumpeters                2 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Farrier                   1 |
  | Artificers.       { Shoeing-smiths            6 |
  |                   { Collar-makers             3 |
  |                   { Wheelers                  2 |
  |                                             --- |
  |                       Total                 220 |
  +-------------------------------------------------+


DETAIL OF A GUN AMMUNITION RESERVE FOR ACTIVE SERVICE, AND TO BE
ATTACHED TO THE RESERVE ARTILLERY WITH THE ARMY IN THE EAST.

          Key:
          A = Number of Carriages.
          C = Gunners.
          D = Drivers.
          E = Riding.
          F = Draught.
          G = Total.
          H = Sets of Appointments.
          I = Officers.
          J = N. C. Officers.
          L = Harness Sets Double.
          M = Lead.
          N = Wheel.

  +---+-------------------------------+--------------+--------------+
  |   |                               |     Men.     |    Horses.   |
  |   |   EQUIPMENT.                  +----+----+----+----+----+----+
  | A |                               | C and D |  G |  E |  F |  G |
  +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+
  |24 | Ammunition { Gun           16 | 32 | 48 | 80 |  . | 96 | 96 |
  |   |   Waggons  { Howitzer       8 | 16 | 24 | 40 |  . | 48 | 48 |
  | 1 | Store Limber Waggon           |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |
  | 1 | Forge                         |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |
  | 1 | Store Cart                    |  . |  1 |  1 |  . |  2 |  2 |
  | 1 | Medicine Cart                 |  . |  1 |  1 |  . |  2 |  2 |
  | 2 | Light Forage Waggons          |  . |  4 |  4 |  . |  8 |  8 |
  | 3 | Water Carts                   |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |
  | 2 | { Spare Gun Carriages—1  }    |  . |  6 |  6 |  . | 12 | 12 |
  |   | {   Gun and 1 Howitzer   }    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  | . | For { Staff-Serjeants and }   |  . |  . |  . | 14 |  . | 14 |
  |   |     {   Mounted Non-Com.  }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |     {   Officers          }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |     { Trumpeters              |  . |  . |  . |  2 |  . |  2 |
  |   |     { Farrier                 |  . |  . |  . |  1 |  . |  1 |
  |   |     { Shoeing-smiths          |  . |  . |  . |  2 |  . |  2 |
  | . | { Spare Men, Officers’    }   | 15 | 30 | 45 |  2 | 20 | 22 |
  |   | {   Servants and Bâtmen,  }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   | {   &c., and Spare Horses }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  | . | Officers’ Horses              |  . |  . |  . |  6 |  . |  6 |
  | . | Bât Horses                    |  . |  . |  . |  6 |  6 |  . |
  +---+                               +----+----+----+----+----+----+
  |35 | Total Carriages.       Total  | 63 |123 |186 | 27 |212 |239 |
  +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+

      +---+-------------------------------+---------+---------+
      |   |                               |    H    |    L    |
      |   |   EQUIPMENT.                  +----+----+----+----+
      | A |                               |  I |  J |  M |  N |
      +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+
      |24 | Ammunition { Gun           16 |  . |  . | 32 | 16 |
      |   |   Waggons  { Howitzer       8 |  . |  . | 16 |  8 |
      | 1 | Store Limber Waggon           |  . |  . |  2 |  1 |
      | 1 | Forge                         |  . |  . |  2 |  1 |
      | 1 | Store Cart                    |  . |  . |  . |  1 |
      | 1 | Medicine Cart                 |  . |  . |  . |  1 |
      | 2 | Light Forage Waggons          |  . |  . |  2 |  2 |
      | 3 | Water Carts                   |  . |  . |  . |  3 |
      | 2 | { Spare Gun Carriages—1 }    |  . |  . |  4 |  2 |
      |   | {   Gun and 1 Howitzer   }    |    |    |    |    |
      | . | For { Staff-Serjeants and }   |  . | 10 |  . |  . |
      |   |     {   Mounted Non-Com.  }   |    |    |    |    |
      |   |     {   Officers          }   |    |    |    |    |
      |   |     { Trumpeters              |  . |  2 |  . |  . |
      |   |     { Farrier                 |  . |  1 |  . |  . |
      |   |     { Shoeing-smiths          |  . |  2 |  . |  . |
      | . | { Spare Men, Officers’    }   |  . |  1 |  2 |  1 |
      |   | {   Servants and Bâtmen,  }   |    |    |    |    |
      |   | {   &c., and Spare Horses }   |    |    |    |    |
      | . | Officers’ Horses              |  6 |  . |  . |  . |
      | . | Bât Horses                    |  . |  . |  . |  . |
      +---+                               +----+----+----+----+
      |35 | Total Carriages.       Total  |  6 | 16 | 60 | 36 |
      +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+

  +-------------------------------------------------+
  |                   { Captain                   1 |
  | Officers.         { Second Captain            1 |
  |                   { Lieutenants               3 |
  |                   { Assist.-Surgeon           1 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Staff-Serjeants           2 |
  |                   { Serjeants                 6 |
  | Non-Commissioned  { Corporals                 5 |
  |   Officers and    { Bombardiers               7 |
  |   Men.            { Gunners }               186 |
  |                   { Drivers }                   |
  |                   { Trumpeters                2 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Farrier                   1 |
  | Artificers.       { Shoeing-smiths            7 |
  |                   { Collar-makers             3 |
  |                   { Wheelers                  4 |
  |                                             --- |
  |                       Total                 229 |
  +-------------------------------------------------+


DETAIL OF A SMALL ARM AMMUNITION RESERVE FOR ACTIVE SERVICE, TO BE
ATTACHED TO THE RESERVE ARTILLERY WITH THE ARMY IN THE EAST.

          Key:
          A = Number of Carriages.
          C = Gunners.
          D = Drivers.
          E = Riding.
          F = Draught.
          G = Total.
          H = Sets of Appointments.
          I = Officers.
          J = N. C. Officers.
          L = Harness Sets Double.
          M = Lead.
          N = Wheel.

  +---+-------------------------------+--------------+--------------+
  |   |                               |     Men.     |    Horses.   |
  |   |   EQUIPMENT.                  +----+----+----+----+----+----+
  | A |                               | C and D |  G |  E |  F |  G |
  +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+
  |36 | Small Arm Ammunition Waggons  | 36 |108 |144 |  . |216 |216 |
  | 1 | Store Limber Waggon           |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |
  | 1 | Forge                         |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |
  | 1 | Store Cart                    |  . |  1 |  1 |  . |  2 |  2 |
  | 1 | Medicine Cart                 |  . |  1 |  1 |  . |  2 |  2 |
  | 2 | Light Forage Waggons          |  . |  4 |  4 |  . |  8 |  8 |
  | 3 | Water Carts                   |  . |  3 |  3 |  . |  6 |  6 |
  | . | For { Staff-Serjeants and }   |  . |  . |  . | 10 |  . | 10 |
  |   |     {   mounted Non-Com.  }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |     {   Officers          }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   |     { Trumpeters              |  . |  . |  . |  2 |  . |  2 |
  |   |     { Farrier                 |  . |  . |  . |  1 |  . |  1 |
  |   |     { Shoeing-smith           |  . |  . |  . |  1 |  . |  1 |
  | . | { Spare Men, Officers’    }   | 30 | 31 | 61 |  4 | 20 | 24 |
  |   | {   Servants and Bâtmen,  }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |   | {   &c., and Spare Horses }   |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  | . | Officers’ Horses              |  . |  . |  . |  6 |  . |  6 |
  | . | Bât Horses                    |  . |  . |  . |  . |  6 |  6 |
  +---+                               +----+----+----+----+----+----+
  |45 | Total Carriages.       Total  | 66 |154 |220 | 24 |272 |296 |
  +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+

      +---+-------------------------------+---------+---------+
      |   |                               |    H    |    L    |
      |   |   EQUIPMENT.                  +----+----+----+----+
      | A |                               |  I |  J |  M |  N |
      +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+
      |36 | Small Arm Ammunition Waggons  |  . |  . | 72 | 36 |
      | 1 | Store Limber Waggon           |  . |  . |  2 |  1 |
      | 1 | Forge                         |  . |  . |  2 |  1 |
      | 1 | Store Cart                    |  . |  . |  . |  1 |
      | 1 | Medicine Cart                 |  . |  . |  . |  1 |
      | 2 | Light Forage Waggons          |  . |  . |  2 |  2 |
      | 3 | Water Carts                   |  . |  . |  . |  3 |
      | . | For { Staff-Serjeants and }   |  . | 10 |  . |  . |
      |   |     {   mounted Non-Com.  }   |    |    |    |    |
      |   |     {   Officers          }   |    |    |    |    |
      |   |     { Trumpeters              |  . |  2 |  . |  . |
      |   |     { Farrier                 |  . |  1 |  . |  . |
      |   |     { Shoeing-smith           |  . |  1 |  . |  . |
      | . | { Spare Men, Officers’    }   |  . |  2 |  4 |  2 |
      |   | {   Servants and Bâtmen,  }   |    |    |    |    |
      |   | {   &c., and Spare Horses }   |    |    |    |    |
      | . | Officers’ Horses              |  6 |  . |  . |  . |
      | . | Bât Horses                    |  . |  . |  . |  . |
      +---+                               +----+----+----+----+
      |45 | Total Carriages.       Total  |  6 | 16 | 82 | 47 |
      +---+-------------------------------+----+----+----+----+

  +-------------------------------------------------+
  |                   { Captain                   1 |
  | Officers.         { Second Captain            1 |
  |                   { Lieutenants               3 |
  |                   { Assist.-Surgeon           1 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Staff-Serjeants           2 |
  |                   { Serjeants                 6 |
  | Non-Commissioned  { Corporals                 5 |
  |   Officers and    { Bombardiers               7 |
  |   Men.            { Gunners }               220 |
  |                   { Drivers }                   |
  |                   { Trumpeters                2 |
  |                                                 |
  |                   { Farrier                   1 |
  | Artificers.       { Shoeing-smiths            7 |
  |                   { Collar-makers             3 |
  |                   { Wheelers                  2 |
  |                                             --- |
  |                       Total                 261 |
  +-------------------------------------------------+


ON THE INTERIOR MANAGEMENT OF A BATTERY.

1. The greatest care should be paid to the fittings of the saddles
and collars; extensive sore backs and galled shoulders arise chiefly
from neglect on the march: and by prompt attention on the part of
the officers, many horses may be preserved to the service, which
would otherwise be disabled for months. The drivers should never
be suffered to lounge in their saddles, or to sit uneven. A folded
blanket under the saddle is found to be the best preventive of sore
backs, as it adapts the shape of the saddle to any loss of flesh in
the animal.

On long marches, the shaft horse should invariably be provided with
a half blanket under the pad saddle; every driver should also have
attached to his harness a pair of pads of basil leather, about six
inches by four, stuffed with hair; and the moment any tenderness is
perceived in a horse’s shoulder, the pressure should be relieved by
placing the pads above and below the tender part.

2. On a march, there will always be an advanced and rear guard;
the advanced guard of one day becoming the rear guard of the next.
On arriving on the ground where the battery is to be parked, the
advanced guard will immediately pitch their tent, and post sentinels.
When the battery quits its ground, the non-commissioned officer of
the guard is responsible that nothing be left behind.

3. When a battery is to march, the camp kettles, and everything
that will not be required before morning, should be lashed on the
carriages at sunset.

4. In parking guns, the usual interval is ten or twelve paces; but
on a march, that everything may be better under the eye of the
sentinels, the intervals may be diminished to three or four paces.
The guns are to be in the first line, covered by their respective
waggons; the spare ammunition and store carriages in the third line.
The tents of the detachment are sometimes on the flanks of the
battery, and sometimes in rear of their respective sub-divisions:
the officers in rear of the battery. The horses are sometimes
picketed in rear of the whole, and parallel to the line of guns,
and sometimes perpendicular to this line, and on the flanks between
the detachments, tents, and the carriages; but in general, the form
of encamping will depend on the nature of the ground and local
circumstances. In every situation the approach to the park, and the
road by which the guns are brought out, should be kept clear and open.

5. If the battery is parked in hot weather, the naves of the wheels
must be defended as much as possible from the effect of the sun, by
sods or other covering.

6. When a battery arrives in camp, quarters, or cantonments, each
non-commissioned officer will immediately examine every part of the
carriages of his sub-division, especially the wheels, to the greasing
of which he will attend. Any damages, to be repaired without delay,
he will report to the officer of his division, who will report to the
commander of the battery.

7. When a battery is in stationary quarters, there must be a weekly
inspection of every part of the battery, and a parade in marching
order, when circumstances will permit; at which parade, every part of
the harness and appointments of gunners and drivers is expected to be
in the best order. Particular attention should be paid to the state
of the ammunition, which should be frequently aired; and no fresh
ammunition should ever be received without being gauged to the guns.

8. The drivers must immediately report any loss or breakage of their
harness; and, on the instant, make known to the non-commissioned
officer of the sub-division, any gall or other hurt which may have
happened to the horses committed to their charge: any neglect on
this point must be punished. Airing and beating with a knotted rope
the stuffing of the collars and saddles is an important part of the
driver’s duty, which should never be omitted on continued marches.
In camp, greasy heels are the most common disability which horses
labour under; and as they proceed from cold, occasioning humours to
settle, the best preventive is hand-rubbing and exercise, to keep up
a circulation.

9. Unless for some particular purpose, the elevating screws should
never be raised higher than the half of their length; on a march,
they should be covered with a piece of canvas, or an old flannel
cartridge, which will prevent their being clogged with dirt; and the
travelling chain should be always applied. The pintail, and the trail
plate eye, should be greased previous to marching.

10. After a field day, or an action, the bores of the guns should be
washed, and then laid under metal.

11. If a wheel be so disabled as not to be worth repairing, the nave,
if not damaged, should be at any rate saved. If the nave be good,
a new wheel can easily be made from materials perhaps found on the
spot, but it is very difficult to find a nave.

12. In marching in ordinary circumstances, the officer next for duty
will always proceed in advance, to take up quarters, and to choose
ground for parking, or encamping on; and the officer on duty for the
day will always march in, and bring up the rear.

13. When a battery is to march, and “_Boot and saddle_” has been
sounded, the officer of the day, the non-commissioned officers,
drivers, and horses will turn out, and immediately proceed to the
park and put-to; if encamped, tents to be struck, and lashed to the
carriages. At the sound “_Turn out_,” the whole of the officers,
non-commissioned officers, and gunners, repair to the park; and
when the usual inspections have been made, and the regular reports
delivered to the commander, the battery will be marched off.

14. Feeding will always take place three times a day at the park,
under the inspection of the officer of the day; when the nose-bags
have been filled by the non-commissioned officer in charge of the
forage, the trumpeter is to sound “_Feed_,” the nose-bags are put
on, and the drivers fall in, in front; after the feed, the nose-bags
are rolled up and buckled on.

15. A non-commissioned officer is to have charge of and serve out the
corn and forage, which for security will be deposited at the park
guard; but on a march, when the corn is carried on the ammunition
waggons, no more corn should be taken off the carriages than is
likely to be wanted.

16. Buckets are provided for watering the horses on a march; by this
means they can be watered from wells or places inaccessible to the
animals, or at least to more than one or two of them at a time: but
the operation is a long one. If on a march a small river or stream
of water is to be forded, this opportunity of watering them, or at
any rate of giving them a mouthful of water in crossing it, should
be seized: it saves much time. Should the stream, however, be very
rapid, or deep, or should there be troops immediately in the rear, no
halt should be made in fording it.

17. The _Serjeant-major_ is to superintend all parades and drills,
under the inspection of the officer on duty. The _Quartermaster
serjeant_ is to draw provisions and forage; he is to make out
returns, and have charge of the spare stores.

18. The _Trumpeter_ is always to be quartered in the nearest
billet to the commanding officer; and the men and horses of each
sub-division and division to be as near together as possible. A
gunner from each sub-division, or a gunner of the guard, is to be
made acquainted with the quarters of the commander of the battery,
that in any emergency there may be no delay in finding him out: the
same applies to the officers of divisions as far as their divisions
are concerned.

19. The _Farrier_ is to report every evening to the commanding
officer the state of the sick animals; and on the ——, (the particular
days to be mentioned) a return, in writing, of the number of horse
(and mule, if any) shoes, and quantity of horse medicines expended.

20. The senior _Collar-maker_, the _Jobbing-smith_, and the
_Wheeler_, to make similar reports of the stores expended in
their several departments: these reports to be delivered to the
serjeant-major, to be laid by him before the commander of the battery.

21. The _Artificers_ are to work as near as possible to the park
guard, the non-commissioned officer of which is responsible that no
work is done, or horse shod, except for the battery, without written
permission from the commander.

22. The _Forge_, when employed, should be removed to a proper
distance from the park. It should, at night, be brought back to its
place, and everything arranged on it, so that, should the battery be
suddenly ordered to march, there may be no delay.


LASSO.

_Lasso harness_ consists of a brown leather surcingle, and one trace.
The surcingle is rather wider than a common girth, and is composed
of two pieces (joined together by rings), one of which is placed over
the saddle, and the other round the belly of the horse. There are
also rings at the end of the surcingle, which is drawn very firmly
round the horse, and fastened tight by lapping a white leather thong
(fixed at one end of the surcingle) through these rings. There are
two descriptions of traces, one being 8, and the other 12 feet long.
They have hooks at each end, and, when the lasso harness is made use
of by cavalry, &c., to assist draught horses in moving very heavy
carriages, or in dragging guns, &c., up steep hills, one of these
hooks is fastened to a ring in the surcingle, and the other to the
carriage, &c.

Lasso harness may be advantageously employed with all horses; even
those unaccustomed to draught having been found perfectly tractable
and efficient the first time they were required to draw by means of
the lasso. When two horses are in draught, the traces must be inside,
and each rider should keep his horse’s croup a little outwards.


EMBARKING, AND DISEMBARKING.

The following directions will be found applicable to nearly all the
cases likely to occur: such as embarking, or disembarking from a
beach; from a wharf; with, or without boats; in presence of an enemy,
&c., &c.


_Sec. 39.[17] Embarking Guns, and Carriages._

_Preparations._

1. On the arrival of the battery at the place of embarkation, it
is to be drawn up in as compact order as is consistent with the
performance of the operations required. The horses are to be taken
out; the harness taken off and packed in vats, and the stores in
cases. When there are no vats and cases, the stores must be secured
to the carriages or tied together: the intrenching tools may remain
with the carriages. The non-commissioned officers in charge of
sub-divisions will attach to their harness and stores, pieces of
basil having the number of their sub-divisions written upon them. The
harness for each carriage should be embarked with it.

2. The gun detachments will prepare the carriages for embarkation.
They will take off the side arms and secure them together, take out
the elevating screws, unkey the cap-squares, unlash the ammunition
boxes, and coil up the lashing ropes. Each carriage, when called
for, is to be run forward to the boat or crane; the gun is to be
unlimbered and dismounted; the ammunition boxes, shafts, wheels, &c.,
to be taken off; the washers and linch-pins must be carefully put
away in the slow match box, and in the small box between the limber
boxes. Every article must be stowed away with the greatest care, and
arranged so as to be got at without delay.

3. Those articles which will be the last required when disembarking
are the first to be embarked. The divisions, and everything belonging
to them, should be kept together as much as possible. The first
to be embarked are the spare carriages and forge, which are to be
stowed forward, the left division next to them, and before the
main hatchway; the centre abaft the hatchway; the right under the
hatchway. The whole of the guns are put together, generally in the
bottom of the hold, vents turned downwards, and a fid in them, to
prevent their being choked.

4. When a battery is embarked in different vessels, every part
should be complete, and a proportion of general stores be on board
of each. If the voyage is likely to last some days, the cartouches
with the ammunition must be taken out of the boxes, and stowed in the
magazine. The ammunition must be so placed that whatever part belongs
to any particular carriage may be got at without difficulty. When
the cartouches are not taken out, the boxes must be stowed well aft
in the hold, or between decks, and they should be well covered with
wadmilltilts, or hair cloths.

5. In embarking from a beach, it may be necessary to erect small
sheers, made of a couple of topgallant masts, previously prepared
for the purpose. In embarking from a wharf, if there are cranes,
they should be made use of. If boats are employed, the loads must be
regulated by the state of the weather, and distance of the vessels.


_Embarking the horses._

6. When the vessels can come alongside a wharf, the horses are
hoisted in by means of tackle. The slings, made of canvas, should
be minutely inspected, to see that they are secure. There must be a
double guy made fast to the horse’s head, one end on shore, the other
on board, to keep his head steady. A shoeing-smith should be in each
ship, to receive the horses.

7. A horse requires at least four men besides the driver to sling
him, one on each side, one at his breast, and one behind. One end of
the sling is passed under his belly, and both ends made to meet over
his back; one man passes his loop through the other, it is received
by the man on the other side, who hauls it through, hooking the
tackle to it, both men holding up the ends of the sling. The men at
the breast and behind bring their ropes round, and make them fast to
the grummets. The driver holds the horse’s head, and makes fast the
guys to it. The horse being previously blindfolded, the word “HOIST
AWAY” is given, and he is hoisted on board. The sling is then taken
off, and he is led to his place; the first horses being always placed
forward or aft, as the ship fills; the stalls nearest the hatchway
being reserved for the horses which are to be first landed.

8. The horses are to be embarked in the same order as the carriages,
taking care that the officers’ and non-commissioned officers’ horses
are on board with the divisions to which they belong. The farriers
and shoeing-smiths should be distributed in different ships.

9. When horses are embarked in boats; sheers, or a derrick, are
necessary. The head of the derrick must incline inwards when the
horse is rising, but when he is high enough the head of the derrick
or sheers must be forced out, to bring the horse over the boat. This
applies to a beach, or wharf. Sand or straw should be put in the
boats, to prevent the horses slipping. They should stand athwart, the
head of one horse being on the starboard, and the head of the next on
the larboard side. The drivers sit on the gunwale, or stand between
the horses.

10. When horses are embarked from an open beach without any
appliances, they are to be led to the boat, and the halter given to
one of the men in it. The horse must then be made to walk or leap
into it, the gunwale of the boat being inclined towards the shore.
A quiet horse should first be embarked, and the others will more
readily follow.

11. In embarking in presence of an enemy, the horses and carriages,
should first be embarked, the guns being retained to the last, to
repel any attack. If the position be a mile or two from the place of
embarkation, it may be necessary to retain a portion of the horses.


APPLICATION OF FIELD ARTILLERY.[18]

_General remarks._

1. In a defensive position, the guns of the largest calibre should be
posted on the weakest points of the line, and on those from whence
the enemy can be discovered at the greatest distance. Those heights
on which the enemy in advancing may rest his flanks, and those from
whence he may be fired upon obliquely, must also be occupied by the
largest calibres.

2. In an offensive position, the guns of the heaviest calibre should
be placed in such situations as will render them available, without
difficulty, for any operations in advance. In heavy ground, a nine or
twelve pounder battery, when coming into action, should reverse, when
it will be only necessary to drop the trail, instead of carrying it
round by hand.

3. The guns should be placed as much as possible under cover; this is
easily done on heights, by keeping them so far back that the muzzles
are only to be seen over them. By proper attention, advantage may be
taken of many situations, such as banks, ditches, &c.

4. Artillery in the field should be concealed from the enemy till the
very moment it is to open; the guns may be masked by being a little
retired, or by being covered with troops, particularly by cavalry.

_Ammunition waggons._

5. No positive rule can be laid down for all cases, with respect to
the ammunition waggons in presence of an enemy: this must depend on a
variety of circumstances; but in general it will be found expedient
to place them under charge of an officer, who will conform to the
movements of the main body, in such a manner and at such distance, as
to enable him to supply the guns with ammunition, before that which
is in the limbers is expended.

6. The spot selected for a battery should be one which does not
present any obstacles to the ulterior movements.

7. The most elevated situations are not the best; the greatest effect
may be produced at a distance of six hundred yards, from a height
of thirty or forty yards; and at two hundred yards distance from a
height of sixteen.

8. Round shot should be used from three hundred yards, upwards. The
use of case should begin at three hundred, and the quickness of fire
increase as the range diminishes.

9. Double charges of case may be used at one hundred and fifty or one
hundred and sixty yards. Shrapnell shells should not be used at a
less range than six hundred and fifty yards.

10. The guns should never be abandoned till the last extremity; the
last discharges are the most destructive.


_On the march._

1. Intelligent non-commissioned officers should be sent to
reconnoitre a road or ground that artillery is to pass over, and,
when necessary, to report the state of it. When the march is
connected with military operations, an officer should always be
employed for this duty.

2. The officers of divisions should frequently halt, to see that
their carriages are marching in proper order, and are well up.

3. The strictest attention should constantly be paid to the correct
preservation of distances, the loss of which may be made up by
small bodies of artillery; but when in large bodies, or when acting
with infantry, the operation is attended with serious disadvantage,
particularly to the latter; it is a point, therefore, which cannot be
too strongly insisted upon, being one of most essential consequence.

_Advanced Guard._

4. A battery marching by itself should always have an advanced guard.
In a narrow road it should be considerably in front, to stop all
carriages which might cause obstruction. In a hilly road, it should
reconnoitre the top of every hill, and see that it is all clear
before the guns come up.

5. Parties should always be sent out on each flank.

6. When an accident happens to a carriage, either on the march, or
manœuvring, those in its rear should pass it on the most convenient
flank, and fill up its interval. It will resume its place as soon as
the damage is repaired. A waggon belonging to a disabled gun should
always remain with it; but a gun must not wait for its disabled
waggon, but leave only a sufficient number of men to put it into a
proper state.


_Crossing fords._

1. Artillery can cross a river about three and a half feet deep,
though much depends on the strength of the current. The ammunition
boxes are so well made that the water will seldom penetrate through
them, particularly if the river be narrow, and the guns pass quickly.
The canvas cartouches afford additional protection, and they may be
taken out if necessary.

2. When the water is deep, and the current strong, great attention
must be paid in fording. The person conducting the column over
a direct ford, should keep his eye steadily on an object on the
opposite bank, which points out where the ford is: he must never look
at the stream, which would deceive him, and would appear to carry him
down, and he would endeavour to keep too high up the stream, and miss
the ford.

3. All those in the rear should keep their eyes on those in front;
every individual should wade rather against the stream, in order to
resist its power.

4. Troops should always cross a ford with the largest possible front,
for the same reason.

5. If the ford is not well known, and there is no guide, it should be
previously examined, and the dangerous places marked. In fording, the
horses should neither be allowed to trot, halt, or drink.


_Passage of military bridges._

1. Great attention and caution are required in passing over pontoon
bridges, the vibratory motion of which is very dangerous, and should
be lessened by every possible means.

2. The troops, in passing, should not preserve an equal pace. There
should be no halt on the bridge. As soon as the bridge is perceived
to rock, the passage of the troops must be stopped.

3. The greatest precaution is necessary to prevent accidents in tide
rivers at low water. Unless battens are nailed across the chesses on
the slopes, the horses will have the greatest difficulty in keeping
their feet, indeed if the chesses be wet it will be impossible; the
men must therefore always assist; holding on when going down, and
manning the wheels when going up.

4. The drivers must in some cases dismount, and an interval must be
left between the carriages equal to their own length; they must be
passed over gently. In wet weather over chesses, great care must be
taken to prevent the horses slipping. It may sometimes be necessary,
unless the bridge be strong, to pass the carriages and horses over
separately.

5. In passing over a flying bridge, it may occasionally be advisable
to take the horses out; and in boisterous weather, or at night, the
wheels should be locked.


_Crossing a bridge, and passing a defile._

1. The battery should always pass with the largest front possible.

2. The artillery must be previously posted to the right and left
of the bridge; if it be flat, and that the other side can be seen,
a gun or two should be placed on each side, and close to the road
leading to it; these guns should cross first and come into action on
the other side, the remaining guns continue in action and follow by
degrees; they should be posted at such a distance from the bridge,
that they may keep up a fire while the others are crossing and
forming.

_Advancing through a defile._

3. A defile should be passed as quickly as possible, as it is a
much more hazardous operation than crossing a bridge. Artillery can
seldom be made available till it has passed the defile; whereas it
can generally be employed in clearing the opposite bank of a river,
previous to the troops pushing across.

_Over a bridge._

4. In retreating over a bridge, the artillery will gradually close
in from the flanks of the troops, till all the guns are in line in
front of the bridge. They will cross by degrees; the flank guns
will generally cross under the protection of the centre ones; they
may retire limbered up, taking up their position and coming into
action to the right and left of the bridge, to protect the centre
guns, which will retire with the prolonge and with the largest front
possible. They may halt on the highest part, or middle of the bridge,
and keep the enemy in check.

_Retiring through a defile._

5. A battery should retire from one of its flanks under the
protection of the other; the covering guns retiring with the largest
front possible.

6. Should the defile be wide, and there are any favourable situations
in it, they should be taken advantage of, and guns posted to protect
the retreat of the others. The situations must be such as the guns
can retire from, and continue the retreat without difficulty.

7. When artillery is retiring along a road, or through a defile which
is hilly, some of the guns should halt on the tops of the hills, and
protect the retreat of those in the hollow. In these cases, round
shot may be fired with safety to the troops retreating, and perhaps
with good effect against an enemy.

8. The guns which are retreating, may pass those in position without
halting; they will take up other positions, the whole retreating
alternately.

9. In retreating towards a defile, the artillery may retire in
line, or by half batteries, or by divisions; forming new lines and
retreating again; or it may retreat alternately; or in echellon from
either flank. This must depend on the nature of the ground, and the
flank on which the enemy may be.

10. In these retrograde movements, the ammunition waggons must be
sent to the rear. One or two may be kept nearer than the others, to
supply ammunition.


_Artillery, acting with other troops._

1. The artillery should always cover the troops when advancing,
retiring, or deploying into line.

2. When the line retires by alternate companies, wings, or
battalions, the artillery must remain with that part of it which is
nearest the enemy; retiring with the prolonge, and halting when it
arrives at the halted part of the line.

_In column._

3. When the troops are in column, the artillery should be on the
flank.

4. When a line of troops wheels backward into column, the artillery
break into column, and close to the reverse flank, so as not to
interrupt the line of pivots.


ENCAMPING, AND PICKETING.

_[19]Sec. 29. First method._

The battery being formed in line, at full intervals, the horses are
picketed, and the tents pitched in rear.

_Prepare to encamp, and picket._

At the word PREPARE TO ENCAMP, AND PICKET, the drivers dismount and
unhook; the markers take up an alignment twelve yards in rear of the
battery, and facing it, for the line of pickets; the marker of the
centre division in the centre; the others extend from him the number
of yards there are horses in each half battery. One staff serjeant
ten yards in rear of the centre marker indicates the alignment for
the men’s tents. The second staff serjeant twenty yards in rear of
the other, to mark the spot for the captain’s marquee. Nos. 1 and
6 unlash tents; 4 and 5 of each sub-division are told off for the
marquee; 2, 3, 7, and 8 take a picket each, 9 a maul, and the wheel
drivers a picket line.

_Encamp, and picket._

At the word ENCAMP, AND PICKET, the numbers with the pickets form on
the centre marker, facing to the front, the numbers with the mauls in
front of and facing them.

The start’ officer gives OUTWARDS FACE—QUICK MARCH, when the men with
pickets extend outwards, dividing themselves at equal distance along
the alignment taken up by the markers.

The staff officer dresses them, and gives the word STEADY, when the
numbers with the mauls commence to drive the pickets.

The markers dismount, and assist the wheel drivers in making fast
the line from centre to flanks, taking two half hitches round each
picket, above and below the hook.

The horses are then brought up, the marker’s horse of the centre
division in the centre, the spare horses on each side of him, the
wheelers, centre horses, and the leaders of the centre waggon next,
and the rest in succession; the officers’ and N.C. officers’ horses
on the flanks of their respective divisions.

_Fastening the horses._

The horses are fastened by the centre of the collar chains to the
line, taking two half hitches round it; the T end being also passed
through the diamond link.

Nos. 1 take up an alignment ten yards in rear of the pickets, for the
men’s tents. They are dressed by the staff serjeant.

The centre of the tent is indicated by a peg; they then drive four
guy pegs to the front, rear, right, and left, at three yards distance
from the centre one. Nos. 6 spread out the tents, and fix the second
cord from each side of the door to the front peg, the fifth cord on
each side to the side pegs, and the rear cord to the rear peg. They
then put the tent-pole into the canvas, lying on the ground.

_Raising the tents._

As soon as all is ready, the commanding officer gives the word RAISE
THE TENTS, which is done by Nos. 6. Nos. 1 and 6 then drive in their
pegs, and fasten the remaining cords.

_Preparing the marquee._

The second staff serjeant dismounts, and the position of the marquee
is indicated by two pegs, driven at a distance equal to the length
of the ridge pole, on the spot where his horse stood. Nos. 4 and 5
of each sub-division (being detailed for the marquee), fall in, and
are told off by the second staff serjeant, from 1 to 12; as eight men
only are required, the remainder are spare. 1, 2, 3, and 4 spread out
the roof, the outside on the ground, the door to the rear; 5 and 7
double the lining, lay it on the roof, and put in the ridge pole; 6
and 8 put the standards together, and pass them through the lining; 5
and 7 fix the girthing and ridge pole on the spikes. The inside being
thus arranged, half of the roof is turned over in order to prepare
the outside. Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 fix the vases on the spikes, and take
two half hitches round them with the centre of each guy.

The marquee is raised by 5, 6, 7 and 8, at the same time as the
tents. Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 take a guy peg and a mallet each, stretch
the guys, and fasten them to the pegs in such a manner that they
cross each other at each side, at the point of the dirk, which is
painted on the roof; they then drive in the roof pegs, working round
to their left, with their backs to the marquee; the pegs on the sides
to be driven in a line parallel to the marquee, but at the ends in
a half circle; 5 and 6 then hook on the wall from rear to front,
overlapping two hooks at the rear, and peg it down; 7 and 8 hook on
the lining, and peg it down; 5, 6, 7 and 8 also arrange the door. If
there is a second marquee, it is fixed in the same manner.

As soon as the pickets are driven, Nos. 2 and 3 of each sub-division
pitch the subalterns’ tents, directed by the staff serjeant, ten
yards in rear of the men’s tents, in the centre of their division,
the doors to the front; Nos. 7 pitch the guard tent, twenty yards in
front of the centre of the battery, the door to the front.


_Sec. 30. Second method._

The battery being formed in line, at half intervals, the horses are
picketed, and the men’s tents pitched on each flank; the officers’
tents in rear.

At the word PREPARE TO ENCAMP, AND PICKET, the markers of the flank
divisions mark twelve yards from the flanks of the battery for the
line of pickets, facing to the rear.

At the word ENCAMP, AND PICKET, the picket numbers of each half
battery form on the markers facing the battery; the numbers of the
centre sub-divisions next the markers; they are faced to the rear,
extended at equal distances, and dressed by the officers of the flank
divisions; the distance they extend must be regulated by the number
of horses in each half battery, allowing one yard for each horse.

The men’s tents are ten yards outside of the line of pickets, facing
the horses of their own sub-divisions, dressed by the staff serjeants.

The subalterns’ tents ten yards in rear of the last line of
carriages, and the commanding officer’s marquee ten yards in rear of
them.

The guard tent as in the first method.

All the duties of picketing the horses, pitching the tents and
marquees, are performed by the same numbers as detailed in the first
method.

_Arrangement of the harness._

If the harness is to be taken off, it is placed in line, ten yards
behind the horses. The traces, breeching, and collars are put inside
the pad, which is laid inside the saddle; and the whole is kept
compact by buckling the surcingle of the saddle tight round it; the
bridles are laid over the cantles, which are towards the horses.


_Sec. 31. To strike the Encampment._

The horses being harnessed and hooked in, at the word STRIKE TENTS,
AND PICKETS, the pickets are struck at once; the tents and marquees
prepared for striking by pulling up all the pegs except the guy ones.
At the word DOWN, the whole are lowered together, and packed up as
quick as possible.

With a brigade of batteries, the commanding officer’s marquee would
be pitched fifteen yards in centre, and in rear of the whole, door to
the rear, by the spare marquee men of each battery. The pickets and
tents of the whole brigade would be pitched in line, dressed by the
adjutant, and serjeant-major.


WEIGHT, DIMENSIONS, ETC., OF TENTS.

CAPTAIN’S MARQUEE.

                      ft. in.                             in.
  Ridge pole, length   6  11 }                           { 2½
  Standards, each      8   2 } in two pieces    diameter { 2½
  Door standards       6   3 }                           { 1½

  Mallets, 2. Pins—Large, 4; Small, 96.
  Weight of Marquee complete, 142 lb.

SUBALTERN’S MARQUEE.

                      ft. in.                             in.
  Ridge pole, length   6   3 }                           { 2¼
  Standards, each      8   0 } in two pieces    diameter { 2¼
  Door standards       6   1 }                           { 1½

  Mallets, 2. Pins—Large, 4; Small, 76.
  Weight of Marquee complete, 132 lb.

BELL TENT, CIRCULAR.

                      ft. in.                             in.
  Standards, length   10   3   in two pieces    diameter   2

  Pins, 40 Mallets, 2.
  Weight of Tent complete, 60 lb.

LABORATORY TENT, CIRCULAR.

                      ft. in.                             in.
  Standards, length   16   3 { in two } diameter { Top     3
                             { pieces }          { Bottom  5

  Mallets, 2. Pins—Large, 4; Small, 100.
  Weight of Tent complete, 2 cwt. 10 lb.


HORSES.

The average weight of artillery horses is 10 cwt. 2 qrs.

An allowance of 27 square feet is generally made for each horse
standing at picket, or three feet in breadth, and nine feet in
depth.[20] A horse should seldom be made to draw more than three cwt.
besides the weight of the carriage. With great burthens, less weight
must be allowed for each horse to draw than with medium burthens; as
with a team of horses, the leaders cannot draw so much as the horses
nearer the carriage, and the disadvantage must increase in proportion
to the lengthening of the team.

            {  4 horses may each draw 6 cwt.    Total, 24 cwt.
  A Team of {  6   do.      do.       5 do.            30 do.
            {  8   do.      do.       4 do.            36 do.
            { 12   do.      do.       4 do.            48 do.

These weights include the carriages. It is usual, however, in heavy
carriages, to reckon all their weight exceeding twelve cwt. as part
of the load.

The most useful mode of applying a horse’s power is in draught, and
the worst is in carrying a load. This is owing to the structure of
the animal. It has been found that three men, carrying each 100 lb.,
will ascend a hill with greater rapidity than one horse carrying
300 lb. When a horse has a large draught in a waggon, however, it
is found useful to load his back to a certain extent, this prevents
him from inclining so much forward as he would otherwise do, and
consequently frees him from the fatigue of great muscular action.
The best disposition of the traces in draught is when they are
perpendicular to the collar; when the horse stands at ease, the
traces are then inclined to the horizon, at an angle of about 15°;
but when he leans forward to draw, the traces should then become
nearly parallel to the road. The most proper inclination, however, is
determined from the relation which subsists between the friction, and
the pressure, in every particular case.

When a horse is employed in moving a machine, by travelling in a
circular path, the diameter of the path ought not to be less than
twenty-five or thirty feet, and in most cases forty feet should be
preferred: at all events, it must not be less than eighteen feet.

The following table shows the _maximum quantity of labour_, which
a horse of average strength is capable of performing at different
velocities, on canals, railways, and turnpike roads; but in comparing
this table with practice at the higher velocities, it is reckoned
necessary to add one-third more than the useful effect for the total
mass moved.

  +----------+--------+----------+--------------------------------+
  |          |        |          |  Useful effect per Day for a   |
  |          |        |          |   distance of one Mile on a    |
  |Velocities|  Day’s | Force of |                                |
  | per hour.|  work. | traction.|             Level       Level  |
  |          |        |          |  Canal.    railway.     road.  |
  +----------+--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
  |  Miles.  | Hours. |    lb.   |  Tons.   |  Tons.   |  Tons.   |
  |   2½     |  11·5  | }      { |   520    |   115    |    14    |
  |   3      |   8·   | }      { |   243    |    92    |    12    |
  |   3½     |   5·9  | }      { |   153    |    82    |    10    |
  |   4      |   4·5  | }      { |   102    |    72    |     9    |
  |   5      |   2·9  | }  83⅓ { |    52    |    57    |     7·2  |
  |   6      |   2·   | }      { |    30    |    48    |     6    |
  |   7      |   1·5  | }      { |    19    |    41    |     5·1  |
  |   8      |   1·8  | }      { |    12·8  |    36    |     4·5  |
  |   9      |    ·9  | }      { |     9    |    32    |     4    |
  |  10      |    ·75 | }      { |     6·6  |    28·8  |     3·6  |
  +----------+--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Result of experiments_ with a light four-wheeled cart, weighing with
its load 1000 lb., drawn upon different sorts of roads, (12½ lb.
having been deducted from the force of traction for the friction at
the axles, which were of wood).

  Turnpike-road, hard, dry       18     }   Force of traction
      Do.        dirty           26½    } required to move the
      Do.        new gravelled  130½    } carriage, independent of
  Loose sandy road              191½    } the friction at the axles.

  _Note._—An ox can draw about 4 cwt., and a pair of oxen 9 cwt.,
  on a level road.


MANAGEMENT OF DRAUGHT HORSES.

Whatever the difficulties of a road or ground may be, ten horses
are as many as can be harnessed with effect to one carriage. It is
difficult for a greater number to act at the same instant, even if
the pull be straight.

Before a carriage moves, the traces should be equally stretched out,
that at the word “MARCH” every horse may act steadily at the same
instant on the carriage, and not by jerks.

The distance of one horse’s length between the carriages is always to
be maintained on the best road, to prevent fatigue and unnecessary
stoppage to the horses. In bad or difficult roads it may be necessary
to increase the distance to double, or perhaps more, according to the
nature of the ground.

After going up a short steep hill, the horses should be halted, but
when that cannot be done, they ought to move slowly to recover their
wind. Should the ascent be long, and steep, the road in a bad state,
or when from any other cause the exertion is likely to be very great
for the horses, a part of the carriages should halt, the leaders of
them be hooked on to those in front, and when they arrive at the top,
as many leaders sent back as may be necessary.

In going up a hill, a carriage may be halted to rest the horses, by
bringing them across it, and locking the limber.

Whenever the ruts are very deep, the carriages must quarter the road,
and if the road is narrow, and sunk between banks, the horses should
be left to themselves, and not be hurried.

In passing over deep furrows, or small ditches or drains, the
carriages should cross them obliquely: when they are crossed
perpendicularly, the horses not only encounter greater difficulty,
but they, as well as the harness, suffer much from the jerks. The
former line of march should be resumed as soon as they are passed.


HORSE-SHOES.

NEW PATTERN.

There are three sizes of horse-shoes in the service, and also a
smaller size made for mules.

           Size.                                            lb. oz.
  Weight { 1st   } (not including the weight of nails)       7  0¼
    of   { 2nd   }        do.          do.                   6  4½
   set.  { 3rd   }        do.          do.                   4  8½
         { Mules }        do.          do.                   2 14


NAILS.

LENGTH, WEIGHT, NUMBER, ETC.

  1st size. { No. of nails*          8  9 10 } 5½ oz. }
  Largest.  { No. of each required  16  8  8 }        }
                                                      } Weight
  2nd size. { No. of nails*          7  8  9 } 4½ oz. } of set.
            { No. of each required   8 12 12 }        } 32 Nails.
                                                      }
  3rd size. { No. of nails*          5  6  7 } 3½ oz. }
            { No. of each required   8  8 16 }        }

  No. of Nails.  Length of Nails.  Weight of 1000 Nails.
       188         2¾ inches.         10 lb.
       187         2½   —             9 —
       186         2⅜   —             8 —
       185         2¼   —             7 —
       184         2⅛   —             6 —
       183         2    —             5 —

  *_Note._—These several nails are known by farriers according to
  their No.—viz., when they say shoes require nails, Nos. 8, 9, 10,
  this implies nails of 8, 9, and 10 pounds per thousand nails.


FORAGE.

_Method observed in carrying one day’s forage._

NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS, AND TRUMPETERS.—One feed of oats in the
nose bag, and buckled to the near-ring of the saddle. Three feeds
in the corn bag, and carried across the saddle. Twelve pounds of
hay twisted, and rolled up into two bundles, each nine inches long,
carried at the ends of the kitt, and made fast with the forage cord,
one end to pass in front, and the other in the rear of the kitt,
making it fast by two hitches.

DRIVERS.—One feed of oats for each horse, carried in the nose-bags,
and made fast to the rear staples of the off-horses’ saddles. Three
feeds for each horse (six feeds) in the corn bag, carried across the
saddle of the near horse. The hay is twisted and rolled up into two
bundles of twelve pounds, each eighteen inches long; carried on the
off-horse at the ends of the kitt; the end of one forage cord passing
in front of the kitt, the end of the other forage cord passing in
rear of the kitt, both ends being made fast by two half hitches.

If a waggon accompanies the battery, the officers’ horses’ forage
will be carried in it; if not, the oats are to be divided between the
sub-divisions, and the hay carried on the foot board in front of the
body of the waggon.


_In heavy marching order, when forage is not ordered to be carried._

NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS, AND TRUMPETERS.—The nose bags are rolled
up and buckled to the near-ring of the saddle. Forage cord, currycomb
and brush, mane-comb, picker, and sponge, are made fast to the
off-ring.


DAILY RATION FOR ONE HORSE.

                          Oats.    Hay or Grass.    Straw.
                           lb.       lb.   lb.       lb.
  In Quarters               8        18    ..         6
  In Barracks              10        12 or 36         8
  A load of Hay, or Straw                    36 trusses.
  A truss of Hay                             56 lb.
  Ditto      Straw                           36 lb.


VETERINARY DIRECTIONS.[21]

MASSES.

_The ordinary dose of every Mass is One ounce (Avoirdupois)._


NO. I.—CATHARTIC MASS.

_One ounce of this Mass made into a ball is a Dose of physic._

_A Ball contains seven drams of Aloes, the remaining dram being made
up with Ol. olivar, Ol. carui, and water._

Any horse to which a dose of physic is given, should be fed on bran
mashes, in lieu of corn, until its operation has ceased. If there be
no cause for its immediate administration, let ample bran mashes be
given, by way of preparation, in lieu both of hay and corn, during
one day, and the ball administered the following morning, after
the horse is sufficiently watered, and a couple of hours at least
before his bran mash be given him. Exercise also, during the day,
is advisable. The following day, early in the morning, after the
horse has had water, with the chill taken off, offered him, till he
refuses to drink more, let him be walked out briskly for one hour,
unless he purge; in which case let him be returned to the stable,
littered down, frequently watered, and plentifully supplied with
bran mashes. But should the physic not operate at the expiration of
his exercise, nor after he has remained four succeeding hours in the
stable, let him be exercised for another hour; and he may be gently
trotted at this time should he still show no signs of purging; let it
be here understood, however, that in no case is a horse in physic
to be galloped. To insure purgation, water is no less requisite than
exercise.

Should the animal continue to purge on the third day, let his bran be
eaten dry, and let him be kept short of water, and without exercise,
until the physic be set. As soon as his dung shall have put on its
natural appearance and consistence, the usual ration of provender may
be restored, and he may return to duty.

If the horse has been lately taken up from grass, or be low in
condition, or light-carcassed, six drams of the mass is generally a
sufficient dose; but if he be of large size, and in high condition,
even nine drams may be occasionally required.

Horses of a costive habit, whose dung-balls are small and not of
their natural colour—whose coats are rough and skins tight upon their
ribs, and who do not thrive, require physic. Purging balls are also
given with benefit to horses that have mange, or itchy skins—swelled
legs, or grease—fever in the feet—inflamed eyes—staggers—locked
jaw—any swellings from blows or wounds, &c.

When a sick or lame horse requires physic, to whom exercise would
be injurious, let the dose be increased by one or two drams; and to
him the ball may be given at any time—either day, or night—he may
stand in need of it; in order that its operation may be as speedy as
possible.

To a horse not labouring under active disease, a second dose of
physic is not to be administered prior to the seventh day; but to a
_sick_ one, should the case be urgent, the dose may be repeated at
the expiration of twenty-four hours.

Horses suffering from coughs, discharges from the nose, or
inflammation of the lungs, are not to have full doses of purgative
medicine given them, but the febrifuge, or sedative mass should be
given.


NO. II.—FEBRIFUGE MASS.

_A ball contains—Aloes one dram, Antim. tart. one dram, Nitre two
drams, and Common Turpentine three drams._

In fever, also in cough or discharge from the nose in which fever
is present, this mass is especially useful; and if the fever be
violent, the horse ought to lose three or four quarts of blood before
the ball is given. Let the animal be warmly clothed—a hood be worn
in catarrh—be littered down, have bran mashes in lieu of corn, and
be kept still and quiet in a well-ventilated box. The ball may be
administered once or twice a day according to the symptoms; but it
must be discontinued whenever it seems to affect the appetite, or
should purging appear to be coming on. The appetite being restored,
and the dung in balls again, should it be required, the ball may be
repeated.


NO. III.—SEDATIVE MASS.

_A ball contains—Digitalis one scruple, Antim. tart. one dram, Nitre
two drams, Linseed meal three drams, and Treacle three drams._

In case of inflammation of the lungs, these balls are especially
beneficial—a disease in which colds and coughs not unfrequently
terminate. After having drawn four or five, or even six quarts of
blood, according to the violence of the symptoms and the apparent
strength of the animal, give a sedative ball three times a day at
regular intervals. Let the sides of the chest be well rubbed with
some of the blistering liquid, clothe warmly and hand-rub the legs,
making use of the turpentine liniment from time to time until they
become warm; and bandage them with flannel. Keep the stable well
ventilated.

Should the symptoms continue unabated, four or five quarts more blood
must be taken away at the expiration of four or five hours from the
first bleeding, and the operation may be repeated again in six should
the animal continue unrelieved.

Let the horse be littered down, and have bran mashes. No exercise.


NO. IV.—DIURETIC MASS.

_A ball contains—Common Turpentine half an ounce, Nitre two drams,
and Sulphur two drams._

Diuretic or urine balls may be given in all cases in which they
may be required, one every third night: seldom is it necessary to
administer one every other night, and still more rarely every night.

Should the flow of urine prove abundant—the horse frequently making
efforts to stale, and groaning in so doing; or if he cannot stale,
but appear to experience pain about the loins and hips, and to be
stiff in moving those parts, diuretic balls must on no account be
given.

Diuretics are beneficial in recent swelled legs; linen bandages and
walking exercise being had recourse to at the same time. They are
also useful in watery farcy, dropsy, and puffy or watery swelling of
all kinds.


NO. V.—ALTERATIVE MASS.

_A ball contains—Aloes one dram, Calomel a scruple, Sulphur half an
ounce, and Treacle three drams._

To ill-conditioned horses that do not thrive, notwithstanding they
eat and appear otherwise in health—to horses that rub themselves, or
that have small lumps or bare places upon the skin (not mange), balls
made up of this mass are serviceable; one may be given every day for
a week, or every other day for a fortnight, unless the horse should
purge, when they are to be omitted, and had recourse to again in the
course of a week or ten days.

Bruised corn, hay cut into chaff, and frequent and full supplies
of water, contribute to restore such horses to condition. Walking
exercise once or twice a day, according to the strength and thrift of
the horse, is also recommended.


NO. VI.—TONIC MASS.

_A ball contains—Blue Vitriol one dram, Verdigris half a dram,
Linseed meal four drams, and Treacle two drams._

These balls may be administered with advantage to horses affected
with farcy, or under suspicion of glanders, after the swelling and
inflammation attendant upon those diseases have been abated by
bleeding, purging, and diuretic medicines.

Not more than one ought to be given in the space of twenty-four
hours; nor on any account should the dose be continued unless the
horse’s appetite is good; as soon as he refuses any part of his
provender, or appears to be in any manner affected by the medicine,
let the ball be omitted.


NO. VII.—ANTI-SPASMODIC DRAUGHT.

_This draught is prepared for horses that become griped, after the
following manner:—_

_Mix together two ounces of Spirits of Turpentine, and one ounce of
Tincture of Opium, and add a pint and a half of warm water._

In mild cases of gripes this single draught will generally suffice;
but in violent attacks, four or five quarts of blood ought to be
immediately taken away, and the draught, after an interval of a
couple of hours, repeated; also two or three ounces of the turpentine
liniment should be well rubbed upon the surface of the belly. If no
dung is passed, let the horse be raked, and have clysters of salt and
water (about four ounces of salt dissolved in four quarts of water)
thrown up every hour until the bowels be relaxed. When the horse
continues to lie down and rise in the stall, and to roll upon his
back, relief will frequently be given by walking exercise for ten
minutes.

Those cases, in which the symptoms do not intermit, and in which
the pulse and breathing are much quickened, are not gripes, but
_inflammation_ of the bowels. Take away five or six quarts of blood
without loss of time, and give a draught composed of eight or ten
drams of aloes dissolved in a pint and a half of hot water,[22] with
the addition of an ounce of tincture of opium, inject clysters
frequently, rub a blister upon the belly, composed of equal parts of
oil of turpentine and blistering liquid, wrap the legs in flannel
bandages, making use of the turpentine liniment to the legs if
cold, and clothe warmly. Water, with the chill taken off, should be
plentifully given; or, what is better, water-gruel.

If the symptoms do not speedily subside, draw three or four quarts of
blood again, and repeat the blister to the belly, and clysters and
turpentine liniment to the legs if not warm.


NO. VIII.—VERMIFUGE POWDER.

_Three drams of this powder, containing one dram of Calomel and two
drams of Tartarized antimony, form a dose._

To be given in a bran mash at night to a horse having worms, and
to be followed up by the administration of a dose of physic the
following morning—paying attention to the directions already laid
down under the head—CATHARTIC MASS. The powder and physic may be
repeated in the course of a week or ten days.


NO. IX.—ANTI-PURGATION POWDER.

_This powder is composed of prepared Chalk half a pound, Cinnamon
four ounces, Tormentil three ounces, Gum arabic three ounces, and
Long pepper half an ounce, reduced to a fine powder, and mixed
together, with the addition of Gum opium._

An ounce of the powder, which contains only a scruple of gum opium,
may be administered in a quart of gruel, in cases of continued
purging or scouring, every four or five hours, or as circumstances
may require, but its use is to be discontinued when the purging is
checked.


NO. X.—DISCUTIENT POWDERS.

_This powder is composed of Zinc vitriol three drams, and Bole armen.
one dram._

A lotion, composed of half an ounce of this powder, and one quart of
water, is a proper application to sore backs, and to recent swellings
from blows or injuries of any kind.

Bandages may be used, wetted with this lotion, in sprains of the back
sinews.


NO. XI.—ASTRINGENT POWDER.

_This powder is composed of Linseed meal half an ounce, Powdered alum
half an ounce, Blue vitriol half a dram, and Bole armen. two drams._

This powder is prepared principally for grease and thrushes, but it
is also a good dressing for unhealthy sores—or sores in which there
is proud flesh.

In cases of grease, when the discharge is but little, and not very
offensive, besprinkle the affected parts with this powder; let the
horse be exercised in the morning and afternoon; and, if the legs be
swollen, let a diuretic ball be occasionally administered.

But should the discharge be copious and fetid, apply to the heels,
by means of pledgets of tow and linen bandages, a liniment composed
of this powder and oil. This dressing ought to continue undisturbed
for two or three days; during which time a dose of physic may be
administered with considerable benefit. Let his food consist of bran
mashes. As soon as the dressings shall have been removed, the animal
ought to be exercised for two hours, the heels afterwards wiped dry,
and the liniment again applied, unless the discharge have ceased; in
which case the powder sprinkled upon the part, as above recommended,
and a diuretic or two will complete the cure. Should the case require
a repetition of the liniment, purging balls are preferable to
diuretics.

Of horses that have thrushes, lower the heels, that the frog may be
upon a level with the heels of the shoe, pare out the cleft with a
small drawing-knife, so as to cut away the ragged parts of it, and
introduce a little of the astringent powder daily, at the evening
stable hour. If heat be perceptible in the foot, a dose of physic may
be given at the same time.


NO. XII.—OPHTHALMIC POWDER.

_This powder is composed of Sugar of lead two drams, Turmeric half a
dram._

So long as the eyes appear red and angry, nothing but cold water
should be made use of to them, with which they ought to be
continually wet. At the same time, if there be much inflammation,
take four or five quarts of blood from that side of the neck
corresponding to the affected eye, or from both sides, should both
eyes be bad.

When the inflammation is abated, sponge the eyes and eyelids with a
lotion, made by dissolving a quarter of an ounce of this powder in a
quart of cold spring water, several times in the course of the day.

In every case in which it is found advisable to draw blood, a dose of
physic is recommended.


NO. XIII.—BLISTERING LIQUID.

_This liquid is composed of Cantharides four ounces, and Linseed oil
a pint and a half._

For sore throat and _jugged_ swellings, in glanders, or farcy—for
inflammation of the lungs, and inflammation of the bowels, the
blistering liquid is a proper application.

For spavins, splints, old strains, curbs, ringbones, windgalls,
thoroughpins, and other enlargements of joints that have no heat
in them, and swellings in general which will not yield to simple
remedies, this liquid may likewise be used.

Let a small quantity of it be well rubbed in with the hand—without
the hair being cut off—and let the same be repeated at the expiration
of six hours, should it not have taken effect.

About one table spoonful of this mixture is sufficient for the
throat, two for the leg, three for the side or the chest, and so on.


NO. XIV.—TURPENTINE LINIMENT.

_This liniment is composed of equal parts of Spirits of turpentine,
and Linseed oil._

In cases of sore throat and cough, this liniment will be found very
useful, as well as in cases of inflammation of the lungs, and fever,
where the legs are cold, making use at the same time of flannel
bandages, and repeating the liniment every two or three hours, until
they become warm.

Half an ounce will be found sufficient for a leg, or for the throat,
and requires to be well rubbed in.


NO. XV.—TURPENTINE OINTMENT.

_It is composed of equal parts of Common turpentine, and Hog’s lard._

This ointment is the best application that can be made use of in case
of treads or wounds on the coronet, between hair and hoof; a small
quantity is to be spread upon a pledget of tow, and bound on with a
bandage. It is likewise a good dressing for broken knees, or cuts,
and to promote the action of rowels.


NO. XVI.—BLACK OIL.

_It is composed of Olive oil one pint, Spirits of turpentine half a
pint, and Acid vitriol two drams._

In recent wounds, such as broken knees, or other lacerated wounds,
this will be found a good dressing to promote healthy and speedy
granulation. It may be applied to extensive wounds by means of a
feather; and in cases of broken knees, a pledget of tow is to be
bound on with a tail bandage. It is likewise a good application for
sitfasts, produced by the pressure of the saddle.


NO. XVII.—HOOF OINTMENT.

_This ointment is composed of Tar, and Train oil, equal parts._

This ointment is intended for brittle feet, or such as have sand
cracks.

By mixing one part of the ointment with two of train oil, it forms a
good application for mange.


CONGREVE ROCKETS.

Rockets may be of great use when a disembarkation of troops takes
place in presence of an enemy, since Rocket men can land with the
first party of Infantry, and commence firing before any guns can be
brought into position. Rockets will not only be useful against masses
of Cavalry, and squares of Infantry, but, when guns cannot be brought
up, may be of material benefit in dislodging an enemy from villages
or houses, which could not be approached by Infantry alone without a
considerable loss of men, and chance of failure. The larger rockets
are of great service in bombardments and sieges.

Congreve Rockets are of four different natures—viz., 24 pounders, 12
pounders, 6 pounders, and 3 pounders. The cases are of wrought iron,
and the rockets are driven upon the same principle as Signal rockets.
Congreve rockets may be used either as shot or shell-rockets, and
the shell may be made to burst either at long or short ranges. Each
rocket is fitted with a fuze screwed into the base of the shell;
this fuze is as long as the size of the shell will admit of, so
as to leave sufficient space between the end of it and the inner
surface of the shell, for putting in the bursting powder, and the end
of the fuze is capped to serve as a guide in the insertion of the
boring-bit. There is a hole in the apex of the shell, secured by a
screw metal plug, for putting in the bursting powder, and for boring,
according to the different ranges at which it may be required to
burst the shell.


ON FIRING ROCKETS.

If the Rocket is to be used as a Shot-rocket, the only thing to be
attended to, is to take care that there is no powder in the shells,
and that the plug is secured in the plug-hole. If the rocket is to be
used as a shell-rocket at the longest range, the plug is to be taken
out, and the shell filled, the fuze left at its full length, and the
plug replaced. If at the shortest range, the fuze is to be entirely
bored through, and the rocket composition bored to within an inch and
a half of the top of the cone in the 24 pounder rocket, and to within
one inch in the 12, 6, and 3 pounder rockets. The distances from the
surface of the shell to the top of the cone, and from the surface of
the shell to the end of the fuze, and also, the length of the fuze
being fixed and known, the place on the boring-bit at which to screw
the stopper, whether for various lengths of fuzes, or lengths of
rocket composition to be left over the cone, is easily determined;
these distances are marked on the brass scales for each nature of
rocket, and the length of rocket composition available for boring
into, and the lengths of fuze, are also set off and subdivided into
tenths of an inch.


ELEVATIONS, RANGES, AND LENGTHS OF FUZE.

The 24 pounder and 12 pounder rockets are very destructive against
troops from 800 to 1000 yards; against buildings, &c., from 500 to
600 yards: with 6 pounders about 300 yards, and never at a greater
range than 600 or 700 yards.

The range and elevation of a 12 pounder rocket is 10 degrees of
elevation for 600 yards, and 1 degree more is given for each
additional 100 yards, as far as 1250 yards, the elevation for which
will be 16 degrees.

The range and elevation of a 6 pounder rocket is 7¾ degrees for 400
yards, and as far as 700 yards 1 degree for each 100 yards; and from
700 to 1250 yards, half a degree increases the range about 100 yards.

_24 pounders._—If the whole length of fuze is left in the shell,
the rocket may be expected to burst at from 3300 to 3700 yards;
elevation, 47 degrees.

If the whole of the fuze composition is bored out, and the rocket
composition left entire, the shell may be expected to burst at about
2000 yards; elevation, 27 degrees.

If the rocket composition be bored to within 1·5 inch of the top of
the cone, the shell may be expected to burst at about 700 yards;
elevation, 17 degrees.

_12 pounders._—If the whole length of fuze be left in the shell, the
rocket may be expected to burst at about 3000 yards; elevation, 40
degrees.

If the whole of the fuze composition is bored out, and the rocket
composition left entire, the shell may be expected to burst at about
1300 yards; elevation, 15 degrees. If the rocket composition be bored
to within one inch of the top of the cone, the shell may be expected
to burst at about 500 yards; elevation, 9 degrees.

_6 pounders._—If the whole length of the fuze be left in the shell,
the rocket may be expected to burst at about 2300 yards; elevation,
37 degrees. If the whole of the fuze composition be bored out, and
the rocket composition be left entire, the shell may be expected
to burst at about 950 yards; elevation, 13¾ degrees. If the rocket
composition be bored to within one inch of the top of the cone, the
shell may be expected to burst at about 500 yards; elevation 9½
degrees.

_3 pounders._—If the whole length of the fuze be left in the shell,
the rocket may be expected to burst at about 1850 yards; elevation,
25 degrees. If the whole of the fuze composition be bored out, and
the rocket composition be left entire, the shell may be expected
to burst at about 750 yards; elevation, 10 degrees. If the rocket
composition be bored to within one inch of the top of the cone, the
shell may be expected to burst at about 500 yards; elevation, 8
degrees.

_Ranges, and Elevation of Congreve rockets._

  +---------+-------------------------------------------+
  |         |                 Elevation.                |
  | Ranges. +---------------------+---------------------+
  |         |     12 Pounder.     |      6 Pounder.     |
  +---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
  |  Yards. | Degrees. | Minutes. | Degrees. | Minutes. |
  |   400   |          |          |     7    |    45    |
  |   500   |          |          |     8    |    45    |
  |   600   |    10    |     0    |     9    |    45    |
  |   700   |    11    |    30    |    10    |    30    |
  |   800   |    12    |    45    |    11    |    15    |
  |   900   |    13    |    30    |    11    |    45    |
  |  1000   |    14    |     0    |    12    |    30    |
  |  1100   |    14    |    45    |    13    |    15    |
  |  1200   |    15    |          |    14    |     0    |
  |  1250   |    16    |          |    14    |    30    |
  +---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+


EXERCISE OF ROCKETS.[23]

The 24 pounder is used for siege purposes. The 12 and 6 pounders are
for service in the field.


EXERCISE OF 12 AND 6 POUNDER, OR FIELD ROCKETS.


_Telling off the Detachment._

The detachment falls in, in rear of and facing the carriage, and is
told off as for gun exercise.

“FORM THE ORDER OF MARCH, LEFT FACE—QUICK MARCH.”


_Disposition and Duties of a Detachment of Seven Men, with a 12 and 6
pounder Rocket._

    No. 1 stands one yard in rear of the tube, points, and commands.

  3 stands on the left of the tube, |  2 stands on the right of the tube,
    in line with its centre,        |     in line with its centre,
    elevates,and traverses.         |     elevates, and traverses.
  5 stands on the left of the tube, |  4 stands on the right of the tube,
    in line with the rear of it,    |    in line with the rear of it,
    primes, and fires.              |    brings up rockets, arranges
                                    |    the priming, and loads.
  7 stands in rear of the carriage  |  6 stands in rear of the carriage,
    and prepares rockets. When      |    assists No. 7 in preparing
    firing shell-rockets, he bores  |    rockets. When firing shell
    out the composition, assisted   |    rockets he puts in the
    by No. 6.                       |    bursting powder, &c.


_The following is the proportion of Stores furnished with Field
Carriages._

  _Two hundred and sixteen rockets with sticks._        } with
  _Two hundred and sixteen bursters._                   } 6 pounder.

  _One hundred rockets with sticks._                    } with
  _One hundred bursters._                               } 12 pounder.

  _One rocket tube. One rocket frame, comprising two    }
  cheeks, a prypole, elevating bar, and tangent scale.  }
  Two funnels. One boring stock. Two boring bits.       } with both
  One brass scale_ fitted to bits. _Two turnscrew bits. } natures.
  One grease box. One tube pocket with tubes. One       }
  lanyard with hook_ for friction tubes.                }


_To every other equipment not exceeding 144 Rockets._

  _One rocket tube with frame. One stick for each rocket. One burster
  ditto. Two funnels. One boring stock. Two boring bits. One
  brass scale_ fitted to bits. _Two turnscrew bits. One grease box.
  One tube pocket with tubes. One lanyard with hook_ for friction
  tubes.

  _One angle. One plummet with line. One elevating      } with
  chain. Two guy ropes. Two additional pieces_ for      } 24 pounder.
  the cheeks.                                           }

On field service the bursters are carried in the limber boxes, in
canvas cartouches, similar to those in which the field ammunition is
carried. The 12 pounder rocket carriage takes 50 bursters in each
limber box, and the small stores in a box on the body of the carriage
corresponding to the slow match box. The 6 pounder carriage takes
108 bursters in each limber box, and the small stores in a box which
is between the limber boxes. In mountain equipments the bursters and
small stores are carried in a box fitted to the pack saddle.

[24]ACTION FRONT, REAR, RIGHT, OR LEFT. DRIVE ON. LOAD. ELEVATE.
LOWER. HALT. MUZZLE RIGHT, OR LEFT. HALT. Priming, and Firing, as at
Field guns.

[Illustration: PLAN OF A GARRISON CARRIAGE.

  A  _Sides or brackets_         K  _Stool bed_
  B  _Transom_                   L  _Quoin_
  C  _Fore axletree_             a  _Transom bolt_
  D  _Hind axletree_             b  _Bed bolt_
  E  _Steps_                     c  _Bracket bolts_
  F  _Quarter round or ovolo_    d  _Linch-pins_
  G  _Fore truck_                e  _Axletree hoops_
  H  _Hind truck_                f  _Stool bed bolts_
  I  _Trunnion hole_             g  _Eye or loop bolts_
  J  _Axletree arm_]

[Illustration: ELEVATION OF A GARRISON CARRIAGE.]


EXERCISE OF 24 POUNDER, OR SIEGE ROCKET.

_Disposition, and duties with seven men._

When the detachment is in action, the disposition and duties of the
numbers are the same as at the lighter natures.

PUT THE FRAME TOGETHER AT LOW ORDER. RAISE THE FRAME. REEVE THE GUYS.
SLING THE ROCKET TUBE, AND FIX THE ANGLE. ADJUST THE FRAME. LOAD.
TRAVERSE, when necessary, MUZZLE RIGHT, MUZZLE LEFT. If greater
alteration be required, than can be given by means of the guys, the
cheeks of the rocket frame are moved in the named direction, CHEEKS
TO THE RIGHT, OR LEFT. ELEVATE, when necessary. Priming, and Firing,
as directed for Field guns. When the frame is fixed at _Low
order_, the prypole forms an angle of 30 degrees with the horizon.
If greater elevation than this be required, the frame must be raised
to _High order_—45 degrees elevation; or higher still—50 degrees
elevation.

PREPARE TO RAISE THE FRAME TO HIGH ORDER. JOIN THE CHEEKS. RAISE THE
FRAME. ADJUST THE FRAME. LOAD, ETC. PREPARE TO STRIKE THE FRAME.
STRIKE THE FRAME.




PART VII.

REPOSITORY COURSE.

SERVING, AND WORKING HEAVY ORDNANCE.[25]


PART I.—_Article 1.—Telling off the Detachments._

The men fall in two deep, and are told off on the same principle as
for field guns. No. 1 always commands his detachment.

A gun detachment being drawn up in line, two deep, No. 1 is the right
hand man of the front rank; No. 2 is the right hand man of the rear
rank; and No. 3 his front rank man; and so on.

The men must go through every part of the exercise in turn. At the
word “_Change round_” when there are seven men in a detachment,

  No. 2 becomes 4      |      No. 1 becomes 7
      4    ”    6      |          7    ”    5
      6    ”    1      |          5    ”    3
                       |          3    ”    2

No. 3 shifting in front of the muzzle.

When there are only six men in a detachment,

  No. 4 becomes 1
      1    ”    6
      6    ”    5

the rest as above.

The detachments are told off on their private parades, and marched
to the battery. Arrived there, they are halted a few paces in rear
of the platforms, to the left of their respective guns, so as to be
covered by the merlons, and facing the parapet.

The commander then gives the caution, “_Take post under cover of the
merlon_;” and immediately afterwards the executive word, “_To the
right face_,” No. 1 after facing takes an oblique pace to the rear,
on the left of 3. At the word _quick march_, the detachments step
off except No. 1, who at first marks time until the detachment has
past him, and then follows in rear of 6. When the detachments are
opposite to the left corner of the platforms, the ranks open out on
each side of the guns, the rear ranks on the right, the front ranks
on the left—the whole outside of the platforms. Nos. 2 and 3 halt
next to the embrasure, as soon as they arrive at the parapet; 4, 6,
and 1 halt in succession on the right of 2; 5 and 7 on the left of 3.
When all the numbers have arrived at the parapet in the order here
detailed, the commander gives the word, “_Right about face_.”

The detachments are now in the position, which they should always
occupy in action, in a battery, unless actively employed in their
duties at the guns.

When there is no parapet, the command is given to “_Take post at the
guns_;” Nos. 2 and 3 halt in line with the muzzle of the piece; 4 and
5 in line with the trunnions; 6 and 7 with the vent; 1 the trail: the
whole outside of the platform and in echellon. The numbers should
never cover if they can avoid doing so.


The following general detail of duties for a detachment of seven men
is applicable to all natures of guns, from 18-pounders and upwards,
on any description of carriage whatever.

  No. 1 commands, points, and primes.

  3 loads, assists to ram home shot  |  2 searches, spunges, rams home,
    and wad, runs up, and elevates.  |    runs up, and elevates.
  5 supplies 3 with shot and wad,    |  4 clears the vent, serves it,
    runs up, and traverses.          |    pricks the cartridge, runs up,
                                     |    and traverses.
  7 supplies 3 with cartridge,       |  6 supplies 2 with side arms,
    double-man’s his handspike,      |    double-man’s his handspike,
    serves 1 with tubes, and fires.  |    replaces 1’s handspike, and
                                     |    supplies 7 with cartridges,
                                     |    (and 3 with shell when
                                     |    required.)

The following general detail of duties for a detachment of six
men, is applicable to all natures of guns below 18-pounder, on any
description of carriage whatever.

  No. 1 commands, supplies 2 with side arms, points, and primes.

  3 loads, assists to ram home shot  |  2 searches, spunges, rams home,
    and wad, runs up, and elevates.  |    runs up, and elevates.
  5 supplies 3 with cartridge, shot, |  4 clears the vent, serves it,
    and wad, runs up, and traverses. |    pricks the cartridge, runs up,
  6 supplies 5 with cartridge,       |    and traverses.
    replaces 1’s handspike, serves   |
    him with tubes, and fires.       |

Besides the men told off to each gun, there must be some at the
magazine, to fill and issue cartridges. When shells are fired, some
men must be appointed to fill them, and to cut and fix fuzes; No. 6
brings up shells to 3, who uncaps the fuze.

Guns are always laid under metal, _i. e._, at an angle of depression,
after exercise.

The following is a list of stores required for the service of heavy
ordnance in batteries:—

  _One spunge_  { to be placed on the right of the gun outside of 4,
  _One rammer_  { resting against the parapet; the spunge head, rammer
  _One wadhook_ { head, and the worm uppermost, and just below the
                { interior crest.

When there is no parapet the side arms must be laid on the ground in
the order above detailed, about two paces from the gun, and parallel
to it; the spunge and rammer heads to the front, and supported to
keep them free from gravel.

_Five handspikes._—Two of these are placed on each side of the
platform close to the edge of it, the points towards the parapet; the
points of the front handspikes about two feet from the hurter, the
points of the rear ones overlapping inside to about the middle of the
front ones; the front handspikes for the use of 2 and 3, the rear
ones for the use of 4 and 5. The fifth handspike is placed close to
the rear of the middle of the platform, small end to the right, for
the use of 1. All bevelled handspikes are to be laid bevelled side
upwards.

  _One set of priming irons_ { For the use of No. 4. The priming
  _One thumbstall_           { irons to be placed in the loop on
                             { the right of the carriage.

_One leather pocket with tubes._—The tube pocket must be strapped on
the left side of No. 7, who will keep it close shut.

_One lanyard with hook_ for friction tubes in charge of No. 7, who
attaches it to the waist belt of the tube pocket; or, one hammer with
lanyard likewise in charge of 7, who fixes it to the gun, assisted by
1.

_Shot_, piled on the left of the gun, close to the front of the
platform.

_Wads_, (if necessary,) close to the shot.

_Broom, shovel_, one or two for each battery.

_Spade, pick_, one per battery if thought necessary.

Guns on dwarf and casemate traversing platforms require nearly the
same stores.

_Two shod levers_, in place of three common handspikes, and in
addition,

_Two truck levers. Two scotches. One preventive rope._

_Two luff tackles._ With 8-inch guns and all above that calibre, the
tackles should consist of double blocks.

Guns on common traversing platforms require nearly the same stores
as those on dwarf platforms. When the four trucks are on, two shod
levers to be substituted for two truck levers.


_Article 3._

TO SHIFT A GUN FROM THE FIRING TO THE TRAVELLING, OR FROM THE
TRAVELLING TO THE FIRING TRUNNION HOLES.

The wheels of the gun carriage and those of the limber should, if
possible, always be on a level and scotched. In shifting the gun
either way, it should only be lifted so high, as to keep the under
side of the trunnions clear of the cheeks of the carriage.

When the gun is in the travelling holes, the screw must be taken out
to prevent its being damaged; it is lodged in a place for it between
the cheeks. The gun roller is strapped to the hind part of the centre
transom.

Heavy guns on travelling carriages require the following number of
men for their service in the field:—

  24-pounder   18 men } besides non-commissioned
  18   ”       14  ”  }   officers,
  12   ”       12  ”  }

being necessary on the march for extricating them out of
difficulties, taking up positions, laying temporary platforms,
placing planks under the wheels and trail, to facilitate the working
of the gun, &c., &c.

PREPARE TO SHIFT THE GUN. BEAR DOWN. LOWER. LIFT, AND HEAVE. HALT,
LOWER THE MUZZLE. BEAR DOWN. LOWER. STRAP ON THE SIDE ARMS AND
HANDSPIKES.


_Article 4._

EXERCISE OF GUNS, ON SIEGE CARRIAGES.

The disposition, and duties of the detachments are the same as
detailed for guns on standing carriages; with the exception of the
application of the handspikes.

In addition to the stores, and side arms for the service of the gun,
a heavy gun in the field requires men’s harness, and dragropes, a
lifting jack, a set of intrenching tools, and three planks of a
foot wide, and ten or twelve feet long. There should be a lever,
and fulcrums, and prop, for every two guns; besides a gyn, rollers,
tackles, and ropes for every four guns. The side arms, handspikes,
and planks are strapped on the cheek; the gyn, rollers, tackles, &c.,
are carried on a platform waggon.

Planks for temporary platform. When the ground is not very hard, it
will be found very necessary to lay planks under the wheels and trail
for the carriage to recoil on.


_Article 5._

EXERCISE OF GUNS ON DWARF, AND CASEMATE TRAVERSING PLATFORMS.

The disposition, and duties of the detachments are the same as at
page 174, with the following additions, viz., No. 1 guides the levers
whilst the gun is running back; Nos. 1, and 7 hold on the preventer
rope, and 4, and 5 guide the levers, whilst it is running up; Nos.
2, 3, 4, and 5 manage the truck levers, reeve the tackles, hook, and
unhook them.

[26]PREPARE FOR ACTION. REEVE THE TACKLE, AND FIX THE PREVENTER
ROPE. HOOK THE TACKLES. LOAD. RUN THE GUN UP. EASE OFF. HALT. _After
Pointing, Laying, Priming, and Firing_——RUN THE GUN BACK. HEAVE.
HALT. UNREEVE THE TACKLE, AND TAKE OFF THE PREVENTER ROPE.


_Article 6._

EXERCISE OF GUNS ON COMMON TRAVERSING PLATFORMS.

The disposition, and duties of the detachments, as at page 174.

LOAD. RUN THE GUN UP. HEAVE. Elevating, Traversing, Priming, Firing,
and Running back, as detailed for guns on dwarf, and casemate
traversing platforms.


_Article 7._

DISPOSITION, AND DUTIES OF FIRING HOT SHOT, WITH SEVEN MEN.

  No. 1. commands, supplies 2 with side arms, points, and primes.

  3 loads, puts a dry wad over the  |  2 searches, spunges, rams home,
    cartridge, then a damp one,     |    assists to put in the shot,
    (and a dry wad over the shot    |    runs up, and elevates.
    if necessary,) assists No. 2 to |
    ram home the dry wads, runs     |
    up, and elevates.               |  4 clears the vent, serves it,
  5 supplies 3 with cartridges and  |    pricks the cartridge, runs up,
    wads, runs up, and traverses.   |    and traverses.
  7 brings shot from the furnace,   |  6 assists 7 to bring shot from
    and assists to put them in,     |    the furnace, double-mans 2’s
    double-mans 3’s handspike,      |    handspike, and supplies 5 with
    supplies 1 with tubes, and      |    cartridge, and wads.
    fires.                          |

With all kinds of traversing platforms, No. 3 receives the bearer
from 6 and 7, and assists 2 to put in the shot.

The gun is spunged in the ordinary manner, but the spunge must be
wetted, and the gun frequently cooled with it.

The same stores are required as for the service of heavy guns with
cold shot. Junk wads are indispensable, and those which are used wet
should be made of a low gauge.


_Utensils required for the Shot._

  _One furnace or grate._
  _One moving tool._
  _One scraper._
  _One pair of tongs._
  _One poker._
  _One rake._
  _One shovel._

_One stand_ on which to place the shot, in order to scrape them.

_One shot bearer_ per gun. _Two tubs_ full of water, to soak wads,
cool tongs, &c. _Two or three water buckets._

_The furnace_ may be heated either with wood, or coals, or a mixture
of coal and coke, according to circumstances.

There should never be less than three men to attend the furnace, even
when the shot and wood are close at hand, and four will generally be
required, viz., one non-commissioned officer, or steady man in charge
to see that the reddest shot are served out and replaced by cold
ones, and to keep up such a fire as he may judge necessary.

One man to light and attend the fire, and supply fresh fuel when
required.

One to take out shot, lay them on the stand, scrape them, and
afterwards place them on a bearer.

One to supply the furnace with cold shot, and to bring fuel.


_Loading._

The powder must be in a good flannel cartridge, which must undergo
the strictest examination, to see that there are no holes in it,
lest in setting it home any grains should fall out. The gun must be
elevated, in order that the shot may roll freely along the bore.

LOAD. PREPARE TO LOAD. LOAD.


ADDISON’S SHOT FURNACE.

This furnace will contain in three rows, alongside of each other,
fifteen 32-pounder, or eighteen 24-pounder, or twenty-one 18-pounder
shot.


_To heat the furnace._

To heat the furnace, it takes of coals ½ a bushel, of coke 2½
bushels, and shavings for lighting it. It should be allowed twenty
minutes to light properly.


_To heat the shot._

Fifteen 32-pounder shot being then put in, are heated in forty
minutes.


_Order of using the shot._

The shot should be taken equally out of each row from the rear of the
furnace, and replaced by cold ones from the front.

After the furnace has been thoroughly heated, it will supply a new
batch of shot every twenty minutes.

The furnace should be placed to leeward, and as near the battery as
may be convenient, carefully selecting an open space, with as great a
draught as can be found. The draught-hole should be to windward, and
the furnace perfectly horizontal.


_Article 8._

EXERCISE OF CARRONADES, 68-POUNDER, SEVEN MEN.

The disposition and duties are the same as detailed for the service
of heavy guns with seven men, in Articles 1 and 2. But as the spunge
stave is short, No. 2 receives it with his right hand at the rammer
head, and left near the spunge head, pushes it up to the bottom of
the chamber at once, spunges out, and proceeds as directed for guns.

The shot weighing above ½ cwt. No. 2 assists 3 to put it into the
bore by means of a shot bearer, which they raise to the muzzle with
their outward hands, backs down, and their inward hands, backs up.


_24 and 12-Pounders, Six men._

The disposition, and duties are the same as detailed for the service
of heavy guns with six men. See Articles 1, and 2.


_Article 9._

EXERCISE OF GUNS, AND CARRONADES ON SHIP CARRIAGES, WITH SEVEN MEN.

The disposition, and duties are the same as in the gun and carronade
exercises, but a few additional men are necessary for manning the
tackles.

The same stores as for guns on common traversing platforms, with the
exception of the four levers, and in addition, three handspikes, and
a breeching.

FIX THE BREECHING. HOOK THE TACKLES. RUN THE GUN IN. HEAVE. HALT.
Spunge, and load, _as detailed for guns on standing carriages_. RUN
THE GUN OUT. HEAVE. HALT. Elevating, Traversing, Priming and Firing,
_as directed in Article 2_.


_Article 10._

GUNS, AND CARRONADES ON DEPRESSING CARRIAGES.

When, after being fired, the piece is to be loaded, it must be
brought to such a position that the spunge may be clear of the
ground, or sill of the embrasure. Short pieces, such as carronades,
and howitzers, are superior to guns for great depression, as they are
easily managed and quickly loaded.


_Article 11._

EXERCISE OF 10 AND 8-INCH HOWITZERS, ON STANDING AND SIEGE CARRIAGES,
WITH SEVEN MEN.

  No. 1 commands, supplies 2 with side arms, points, and primes.

  3 loads, runs up, and elevates.  |  2 spunges, wipes the shell, uncaps
                                   |    the fuze, puts the shell up,
                                   |    runs up, and elevates.
  5 supplies 3 with cartridge,     |  4 clears the vent, serves it,
    runs up, and traverses.        |    pricks the cartridge, runs up,
                                   |    and traverses.
  7 prepares and brings up shells, |  6 prepares and brings up shells,
    assists to put them in,        |    assists to put them in,
    double-mans 3’s handspike,     |    double-mans 2’s handspike,
    supplies 1 with tubes, cuts    |    replaces 1’s handspike, supplies
    and fixes fuzes, and fires.    |    5 with cartridges, cuts and
                                   |    fixes fuzes.

The same stores are required for the service of howitzers as for that
of guns, (substituting shells for shot,) and, in addition, a shell
bearer, a sheepskin, and a pair of setting up pincers.

The detachments take post as directed for guns.

LOAD. SHELL. The howitzers are run up, elevated, traversed, primed,
and fired, _as detailed for guns_.


_Article 12._

EXERCISE OF MORTARS.

The detachments are told off and numbered as detailed in Article 1.
When they are to take post the commander gives the word, “_Take post
at the mortars, to the right face_.” No. 1, after facing, takes an
oblique pace to the rear on the left of No. 3. At the word “_Quick
march_,” the ranks open out and march on each side of the mortars,
as directed for guns. Nos. 2 and 3 halt in line with the muzzle; 4
and 5 with the trunnions; 6 and 7 with the rear of the bed; the whole
outside of the platform, and in echellon, except No. 1, who takes
post in rear of the platform.


_Disposition, and Duties of Detachments, for 13 and 10-inch Mortars,
with Seven men._

  No. 1 commands, hands the spunge to 2, points, and primes.

  3 runs up, puts in the cartridge, |  2 runs up, spunges, wipes the
    assists to put in the shell,    |    bottom of the shell, uncaps
    and traverses.                  |    the fuze, assists to put the
                                    |    shell in, and traverses.
  5 runs up, supplies 3 with        |  4 runs up, clears the vent, serves
    cartridge, and traverses.       |    it, pricks the cartridge, and
                                    |    traverses.
  7 double-mans 3’s handspike,      |  6 double-mans 2’s handspike,
    prepares and brings up shells,  |    prepares and brings up shells,
    assists to put them in, cuts    |    assists to put them in, supplies
    and fixes fuzes, supplies 1     |    5 with cartridges, cuts
    with tubes, and fires.          |    and fixes fuzes.

At 10-inch mortars, Nos. 2 and 3 are sufficient to put in the shell.


_Disposition, and Duties of Detachments, for 8, 5½, and 4⅖-inch
Mortars, with Five men._

  No. 1 commands, hands the spunge to 2, points, and primes.

  3 runs up, puts in the cartridge, |  2 runs up, spunges, wipes the
    puts in shell, and traverses.   |    bottom of the shell, uncaps
                                    |    the fuze, and traverses.
  5 prepares and brings up shells,  |  4 clears the vent, serves it,
    cuts and fixes fuzes, supplies  |    pricks the cartridge, supplies
    1 with tubes, and fires.        |    3 with cartridges, cuts and
                                    |    fixes fuzes.

The shells ought always to be deposited behind traverses raised
for the purpose, or in other sheltered places, and one or two men,
according to circumstances, should be appointed to scrape and clean
the inside of them, and prepare them for the powder and fuzes. There
must also be men to weigh or measure out the charges of powder,
according to the directions of No. 1.

The following stores are required for the service of mortars:—

_One spunge_ to be placed on the right of the mortar, the spunge head
to the front, and supported to keep it free from gravel.

_One scraper_ for two mortars.

_One cartridge case_, for bringing up the cartridge; or a paper or
leather case, for loading when the powder is loose.

_One beam hook_, for 13-inch; _One pair of hand hooks_, for 10-inch.

_One new pattern hand hook, or piece of cord_, for 8-inch.

_Four handspikes._ Two on each side of the platform, as directed for
guns.

_Two pointing rods, or pickets._

_One plummet_ with line, in charge of No. 1.

_A piece of sheepskin, or an empty sand-bag_ for wiping the bottom of
the shell; to be placed on the right of the spunge.

_One quadrant, One perpendicular, One fuze engine_, for every four or
five mortars. _One tube pocket. One lanyard with hook_, for friction
tubes. _One set of priming irons. One filling funnel. One cork screw.
One mallet. Two setters. Tow, or flax. Shells. Pound shot, or stones.
Bottoms_ for ditto. _Valenciennes composition. Fuzes. Carcasses.
Light balls._


_At the Magazine._

  _One budge barrel._
  _One set of weights and scales._
  _One set of powder measures._

PREPARE FOR ACTION. PLANT THE POINTING RODS. HALT. PLANT THE ROD.
Pointing rods are sometimes fixed in two and a half or three inch
planks, about seven or eight feet in length, prepared for this
purpose.

Mortars are run up by the same numbers, and in the same manner, as
guns on standing carriages, the handspikes being applied under the
running up bolts. LOAD. PUT IN THE SHELL. TRAVERSE. MUZZLE RIGHT.
HEAVE. HALT. MUZZLE LEFT. HEAVE. HALT. _If necessary_—CROSS LIFT THE
MORTAR TO THE RIGHT, (or LEFT). HEAVE. DOWN. Priming, and Firing, as
detailed for guns, except that No. 2, at the word “READY,” takes the
sheepskin out of the mortar, and as well as No. 3 takes an oblique
pace to the rear, to be clear of the explosion.


_Article 13._

FIRING BY NIGHT.

To insure as accurate a fire as possible during the night, the
following expedients have been adopted:—

_For guns on standing carriages._—A directing bar, or piece of
timber, about a foot or eighteen inches longer than the platform and
four inches by six in thickness, is used. It has a hole at one end,
through which a bolt is passed into the platform close to the hurter,
and in the object line. On this bolt the bar traverses. At equal
distances from the axis or middle line of the carriage, two cleats
are bolted under each axletree, at a distance from each other equal
to the breadth of the bar, and the bar is passed under the carriage
and fitted between these cleats. Holes are bored at the tail of the
platform, for the reception of bolts, at distances from each other
to suit the size of the bar. The gun is laid for the object during
the day, and should the bar fall exactly between two holes, the bolts
are put in, and the bar remains fixed. When however the bar covers
a hole, the bolts are put into the nearest holes on each side, and
small wedges driven in between them and the bar, in order to keep
it in its place. The gun now requires nothing more after each round
than to be loaded, run up, and fired; operations which are as easily
performed by night as by day.

_For guns on travelling carriages._—The gun having been properly laid
during the day, a bead or piece of timber of a proper scantling is
nailed or screwed to the platform, inside the felloe of each wheel,
and parallel to the object line, and two shorter pieces are fastened
in like manner outside of the cheeks of the carriage, at the trail.

By a proper application of scotches, the Madras and every description
of traversing platform can be made available for night firing.

When the foregoing expedients cannot be resorted to, the platform and
the carriage should be chalked in different places, and when the gun
is run up, these chalk-marks should be made to correspond. A lantern,
in this case, is always required.


_For Mortars._

After the mortar has been accurately laid, a plank, thin enough to go
under the running-up bolts without touching them, is placed against
the outside of one of the cheeks of the bed, and nailed or screwed
to the platform, and the mortar after every round, run up to it. If
a suitable piece of plank cannot be procured the platform must be
chalked close to the mortar bed.


_Article 14._

FIRING AT MOVING OBJECTS.

For firing at moving objects a garrison carriage may be fitted with a
directing bar, as for night firing, and traversed by means of tackles
hooked to eye-bolts in the rear end of the bar. If the rear end be
shaped for about ten inches like an axletree arm, and fitted with
a truck, the operation of traversing will be greatly facilitated.
This method is peculiarly applicable to coast batteries, where the
guns are mounted _en barbette_ and where vessels under sail are the
objects to be fired at. The gun is elevated and primed, and the
proper tackle being then hauled upon, No. 1 gives the word “_Fire_,”
without any caution to the traversing numbers.


PART 2.—_Article 1._

LEVER, AND HANDSPIKE.

The lever is of essential use in the service of artillery. When it
is 6 feet long, and 3½ inches square at the large end, called _the
point_, it is termed a handspike. The greater the length of the lever
the greater is its power.[27]


_Slewing._

To slew a gun, or mortar, strictly speaking, is to turn it on its
axis without moving it from the spot on which it rests.


_Pinching._

Pinching is the operation of moving a gun, or mortar, by small heaves
of the handspike, without allowing it to turn on its axis. It is
moved little by little, and never raised in its progress, but rubs
against the skid on which it rests.


_Cross-lifting._

To cross-lift a gun, or carriage, is to move it in a direction nearly
perpendicular to its axis. Heavy guns, mounted, or dismounted,
require a long lever, and a fulcrum, for cross-lifting. Guns of
medium weight may be cross-lifted by means of handspikes.


_Article 2._

FULCRUMS, AND PROPS.

Any piece of strong timber of suitable dimensions may serve for a
fulcrum, or a prop. It is called a fulcrum when used to support a
lever, and a prop when used as a temporary support for anything else.


_Fulcrums._

The distance of the fulcrum from the weight which is to be raised
should be such that, when the lever rests upon the top of it, the
point may be put under the weight, and the lever form such an angle
with the horizon that, when it is heaved down, and the small end
nearly touches the ground, the weight may be raised to the required
height.

Except with very heavy bodies, care must be taken, in placing a
fulcrum, that it is inclined in a small degree towards the body, so
that when the lever acts it may bring the fulcrum into a vertical
position.


_Props._

There cannot be a better prop than a quoin, when it is long enough,
or a piece of wood of that shape, of proportionate size.

If the wheels of a carriage are to be taken off, and the carriage
propped, the trail should be first secured from slipping.

The props are placed under each cheek, or under the shoulder of the
axletree, with a slight inclination towards the carriage.

When one wheel only is to be taken off, and the other scotched, the
props may be placed vertically; but practice alone will point out the
proper position of props in all situations.

The point of the lever must not be withdrawn, until it is evident
that the prop is well placed.


_Article 3._

LIFTING JACK.

The lifting jack forms part of the equipment of every battery, and
battering train. It may be applied to many of the purposes for which
a long lever is used; but it is commonly employed to raise the
wheels of carriages from the ground when they are to be greased, or
exchanged, and to extricate them from ruts and holes.

The wheel opposite to that which is to be raised must be scotched.

On soft ground a piece of board must be placed under the foot of the
jack, to prevent its sinking.

There are three kinds of lifting jacks in the service—

1st. _The common lifting jack_ is used for field carriages only. The
arm, which may be adjusted, within certain limits, to any required
height, is a lever of the first kind, and is applied accordingly. The
body of the jack is the support on which it works.

2nd. _The tooth and pinion jack_ is of greater power than the common
jack, and is used for heavy carriages. It is applied vertically under
the carriage, which is raised by turning the winch of the jack.

3rd. _The screw jack_ is an elevating screw of large dimensions, and
is of greater power than either of the other two. Like the tooth
and pinion jack, it is applied vertically under the body, which is
raised, like the breech of a gun, by turning up the screw. The foot
of it is furnished with three spikes, to prevent its slipping when
the screw is turned.

If a wheel is to be extricated from a rut, into which it has sunk so
far that the lifting jack cannot be applied in the ordinary manner,
the jack is placed as close to the wheel as possible, on the outside
of it. A piece of rope, passed under the nave, is made fast to the
extremity of the arm, if the common jack is used, or to the fork,
if either of the other kinds be employed. The jack is then worked
as usual, and stones or other hard substances are thrown under the
wheel, to prevent its sinking, as often as it may be necessary to
take fresh purchases.

The tooth and pinion and screw jacks may be employed to move bodies
horizontally a few inches, provided a good abutment or support can be
found for the foot of the stock. By the application of two jacks, in
opposite directions, bodies may be brought together to be spliced,
riveted, &c.


_Article 4._

ROLLERS.

Rollers are solid cylinders of wood, used in mounting guns upon their
carriages, in shifting them from carriage to carriage, and in moving
them through passages too narrow to admit of the use of the ordinary
means of transport. Their dimensions vary, according to the nature of
the service for which they are intended.

They can be used with advantage, only on a perfectly level plane
surface.

When a cylindrical body is moved on rollers, they must be perfectly
horizontal, or it will roll off them; and even when the rollers are
horizontal, steadying handspikes should, if possible, be applied, to
guard still further against such an accident.

The rollers must be placed at right angles to the direction in which
they are intended to move, projecting equally on each side of the
axis of the gun, or other body, which they support.

A gun laid upon rollers may be moved, either by hauling upon it with
ropes, or by means of levers. In the last case, two holes crossing
each other at right angles, are pierced near each end of the several
rollers, and in them are inserted the points of iron levers, by means
of which the rollers are turned in the required direction.

In order that rollers may be used with the greatest effect, and that
there may be as little necessity as possible for shifting them during
the course of an operation, it must be borne in mind,—

1st. That a roller moves in a direction perpendicular to its own axis.

2nd. That it moves over half the space only which is traversed by the
body it supports.


_Article 5._

CRAB CAPSTAN.

A crab capstan consists of a barrel, (in shape, a frustum of a cone,)
and of a framework of wood and iron by which the barrel is supported
in a vertical position with its largest diameter next the ground. It
is furnished with two levers, called capstan bars, which are passed
through mortices in the upper part of the barrel, and by means of
which the barrel may be turned about on its axis. By means of the
crab capstan, a few men, acting at the levers, can move weights
which would be far beyond their strength, if applied in the ordinary
manner; and it may, therefore, be used with advantage in many
situations, in which it may be either difficult to command labour, or
desirable to economise it.

One end of a rope is made fast to the weight which is to be moved,
and is called the _standing end_. The other, called the running end,
is passed two or three times round the lower part of the barrel, the
loose or running end being kept above the turns, and stretched taught
by the man who passed it round. As the barrel is turned, the standing
end of the rope winds round it, forces the turns up the barrel, and
clears itself. As fast as the running end comes off the barrel, it is
coiled by a man appointed to that duty.

The capstan, when used, is secured by ropes to pickets, driven on
the opposite side of it to that on which the strain acts upon it.
Three men at each end of both bars—_i. e._, twelve men in all—is the
greatest number that can be employed at the capstan with advantage;
and two men are required for the running end of the fall, as
previously described. The levers are twelve feet in length, and the
power of twelve men, acting upon them, is about equivalent to that of
132 men acting at the end of a taught rope.

If a crab capstan cannot be procured, the windlass of a gyn may be
used as a substitute, the cheeks being laid on the ground and secured
with pickets; or a temporary capstan may be rigged, by lashing four
handspikes to the spokes and felloe of a limber wheel, which is
turned upon the pintail of the dismounted limber.


_Article 12._

SLING CART.

The sling cart weighs about 15 cwt., and is employed for moving heavy
ordnance. It is capable of carrying 65 cwt.

One non-commissioned officer and six men are required, numbered as
usual; but it can be worked by one non-commissioned officer and four
men.

Articles required:—

_One sling_ of six-inch white rope, two fathoms long, with an
eye-splice at each end.

_One sling tye_, of one-inch tarred rope, two feet long.

_One prypole._

_One prypole rope_, 2½-inch, three fathoms long.

_Two levers_, six feet nine inches long.

_Two lever ropes_, of two-inch tarred rope, each two fathoms.

_Two pawls._

_Two common handspikes._

_Two pieces of short skidding_, about 4½ feet long, and five or six
inches square.

The detachment is drawn up in rear of and facing the cart, the
command is given, “_Form the order of exercise—to the right
face—quick march_.” The detachment wheels to the left, and the ranks
open out. Nos. 2 and 3 halt one pace in rear of and covering the
wheels. The whole one pace from each other, and covering.


_Disposition, and duties of the Men._

  No. 1 attends to the pawl, and commands.

          _Left side._              |       _Right side._
                                    |
  3 has charge of the left lever,   |  2 has charge of the right lever,
    and skids the gun when          |    and skids the gun when
    necessary.                      |    necessary.
  5 has charge of a handspike,      |  4 has charge of a handspike,
    assists 3 at the lever, and     |    assists 2 at the lever, and
    skidding, and raises the weight |    skidding, and raises the weight
    when it is to be lashed.        |    when it is to be lashed.
  7 assists 3 at the lever, slings, |  6 assists 2 at the lever, slings,
    and unslings the gun, and       |    and unslings the gun, and
    lashes it to the prypole.       |    lashes it to the prypole.

FORM THE ORDER OF MARCH. QUICK MARCH. If the gun be not on skids,
a piece of skidding is placed under it, a little in front of the
trunnions, to make room for the sling to be passed under the piece.
Before the piece is slung, the trunnions are brought vertical, or
nearly so, either by the ordinary method of slewing, or by means of
the sling cart, as follows:—

BACK THE CART OVER THE GUN. SCOTCH THE WHEELS. FORM THE ORDER OF
EXERCISE. QUICK MARCH. UNLASH THE PRYPOLE, LEVERS, AND HANDSPIKES.
FIX THE SLING TO THE RIGHT OF THE WINDLASS. OVERHAUL THE SLING.
PREPARE TO RAISE THE RIGHT TRUNNION. HEAVE IN THE SLACK. TAKE UP
LEVERS. RIGHT LEVER TAKE PURCHASE. HEAVE. LEFT LEVER TAKE PURCHASE.
RIGHT LEVER FETCH. LEFT LEVER HEAVE. RIGHT LEVER TAKE PURCHASE. LEFT
LEVER FETCH. HALT. OUT LEVERS. SLING THE GUN. HEAVE IN THE SLACK. MAN
THE LEVERS. HEAVE. LEFT LEVER HOLD ON. RIGHT LEVER FETCH. Alternately
to the lever numbers—HOLD ON, and FETCH, until the gun is close to
the axletree, HALT. PREPARE TO RAISE THE BREECH. RAISE THE BREECH.
(If necessary, TAKE A FRESH PURCHASE. HEAVE.) HALT, LASH THE BREECH.
LASH LEVERS, AND HANDSPIKES.


_Unslinging the Gun._

UNLASH LEVERS, AND HANDSPIKES. UNLASH THE PRYPOLE. MAN THE LEVERS.
EASE OFF. LEFT LEVER HOLD ON. RIGHT LEVER FETCH. RIGHT LEVER HOLD ON.
LEFT LEVER FETCH. OUT LEVERS.


_Slinging a Howitzer._

A howitzer is slung, and unslung according to the foregoing details.


_Slinging a Mortar._

A mortar is slung with the muzzle towards the rear. For a 13-inch
mortar, the wheels of the sling waggon ought to be used for the sling
cart, and a double-barrelled windlass, if procurable.


_Unslinging a Mortar._

See “Unslinging a Gun.”


_Slinging a Mortar bed._

The windlass for raising Mortar beds is of a different construction
from that of guns, being square in the middle, and cylindrical at
each end. The bed is slung with the front part towards the rear of
the cart.

SLING THE BED. LASH THE BED.


_Unslinging a Mortar bed._

Unslinging a mortar bed is just the reverse of slinging, each number
undoing what he had previously done.


_Article 13._

SLING WAGGON.

The sling waggon weighs about 29 cwt., and is employed for
moving heavy ordnance, and their standing carriages. It requires
a detachment of 1 non-commissioned officer and 8 men; but 1
non-commissioned officer and 6 men can sling any weight below a
24-pounder.

The following articles are required:—

_One sling_ of five-inch white rope, 2½ fathoms long, and having an
eye-splice at each end.

_One sling tye_ of one-inch tarred rope, two feet long.

_One breech rope, or carriage sling_, of 2½-inch tarred rope, 6
fathoms long.

_Two levers_, six feet nine inches long.

_Two lever ropes_, of two-inch tarred rope, 2½ fathoms each.

_Two pawls._

_Four common handspikes._

_Two pieces of skidding_, about four feet long, and six or seven
inches square.

_One pair of strong dragropes._

The detachment is numbered in the usual manner, and takes post for
exercise, as at the sling cart.


_Disposition, and duties of the men._

  No. 1 attends to the pawls, and commands.

            _Left side._             |           _Right side._
                                     |
  3 has charge of the left lever,    |  2 has charge of the right lever,
    and skidding, scotches the       |    and skidding, scotches the
    wheels in rear, assists in       |    wheels in rear, assists in
    unlimbering, and limbering up.   |    unlimbering, and limbering up.
  5 has charge of a handspike,       |  4 has charge of a handspike,
    assists 3 at the lever, scotches |    assists 2 at the lever, scotches
    the wheels in front, fixes the   |    the wheels in front, fixes the
    carriage sling, and assists in   |    carriage sling, and assists in
    unlimbering, and limbering up.   |    unlimbering, and limbering up.
  7 assists 3 at the lever, slings,  |  6 assists 2 at the lever, slings,
    and unslings the gun, lashes the |    and unslings the gun, lashes the
    breech, handspikes, and levers,  |    breech, handspikes, and levers,
    and assists in unlimbering, and  |    and assists in unlimbering,
    limbering up.                    |    and limbering up.
  9 assists in unlimbering, and      |  8 assists in unlimbering, and
    limbering up, keys, and unkeys   |    limbering up, keys, and unkeys
    the limber chain, and fixes the  |    the draught chain, and fixes
    breech rope.                     |    the breech rope.

_Bringing the stores._—If the stores are not with the waggon, Nos. 2
and 3 bring a lever each, and 4 and 5 two handspikes each; 6 the gun
sling, and 7 the carriage sling or breech rope; 8 and 9 the skids and
drag ropes.

The gun is supposed to be lying on skids, and its carriage on one
side, with its breast nearly in line with the breech.

FORM THE ORDER OF MARCH. QUICK MARCH. BACK THE WAGGON OVER THE GUN.
PREPARE TO UNLIMBER. UNLIMBER. OUT LEVERS. PREPARE TO TURN THE GUN
CARRIAGE OVER. TURN THE GUN CARRIAGE OVER—HEAVE. TAKE OFF THE TRUCKS.
PREPARE TO LIFT THE CARRIAGE TO THE CROSS-BAR. LIFT THE CARRIAGE TO
THE CROSS-BAR. FIX THE CARRIAGE SLING. TAKE UP LEVERS. RIGHT LEVER
TAKE A PURCHASE—HEAVE. OUT LEVERS—OFF SLING. PREPARE TO LIMBER UP.
LIMBER UP. PREPARE TO BACK THE WAGGON. BACK THE WAGGON. SCOTCH THE
HIND WHEELS. PUT ON THE TRUCKS. FORM THE ORDER OF EXERCISE. QUICK
MARCH. PREPARE TO RAISE THE TRUNNION ON THE RIGHT. HEAVE IN THE
SLACK. TAKE UP LEVERS. RIGHT LEVER TAKE A PURCHASE—HEAVE. LEFT LEVER
TAKE A PURCHASE. RIGHT LEVER FETCH. LEFT LEVER HEAVE. OUT LEVERS.
SLING THE GUN. MAN THE LEVERS. LEFT LEVER HOLD ON—RIGHT LEVER FETCH.
PREPARE TO RAISE THE BREECH. RAISE THE BREECH. FRAP AND MAKE FAST.
PLACE STOOL BED, AND QUOIN. LASH UP LEVERS, AND HANDSPIKES.


_Dismounting the Gun, and Carriage._

PLACE SKIDS, UNLASH, AND SCOTCH THE WHEELS. UNLASH THE BREECH. FORM
THE ORDER OF EXERCISE. QUICK MARCH. LEVERS TAKE A PURCHASE TO LOWER
THE GUN. BEAR DOWN. EASE OFF. RIGHT LEVER HOLD ON. LEFT LEVER FETCH.
LEFT LEVER HOLD ON. RIGHT LEVER FETCH. EASE OFF.


_Slinging Howitzers._

A howitzer is slung in the same manner as a gun.


_Slinging Mortars._

A 13-inch mortar and its bed require each a waggon for itself; but a
10 or 8-inch mortar can be conveyed on its bed, by one waggon.

LIMBER UP. UNSCOTCH THE WHEELS. RUN THE WAGGON BACK. PREPARE TO LASH
UP THE MUZZLE. HEAVE. RUN THE WAGGON FORWARD.


_Article 15._

TRIANGLE GYNS.

There are two patterns of triangle gyn, the small and the large.

The small gyn has legs sixteen feet long, weighs about 8½ cwt.,
including the tackle, and is capable of raising with safety 65 cwt.
It is principally used for mounting guns and howitzers on their
carriages, and for dismounting them; and for placing ordnance of
every description on platform waggons.

The large gyn has legs twenty feet long, weighs about 11½ cwt.,
including the tackle, and is also capable of raising with safety
65 cwt. It is principally used for mounting guns upon traversing
platforms, and for dismounting them.

The rear of the gyn is the part where the windlass is fixed. The
front of the gyn is the prypole.


_Strength of Gyn Detachments._

One non-commissioned officer and ten men are allowed to raise and
work the gyn, numbered as for gun drill.

The same number is sufficient to carry the small gyn. The large one
should be drawn to the place where it is to be used in a hand cart.

At exercise the even numbers are on the right, and the odd numbers on
the left.

The following is the list of stores required for the service of gyns:—

  _One fall_, of 3½-inch white rope, seventy-two feet long, for
  the small gyn.

  _One fall_, of 3½ inch white rope, ninety-six feet long.    }
  _One staple_, fixed in the top of the prypole.              } For
  _One four-inch block_ for whip.                             } the
  _One whip fall_, of 1½-inch rope, thirty feet long.         } large
  _Four lashing ropes_, each nine feet long.                  } gyn.

  _Two levers and lever ropes._                               }
  _One triple block._                                         }
  _One double block._                                         }
  _One sling_, of six-inch white rope, of a length to suit the}
  dimension of the gun or other object which is to be slung.  }
  _One single lashing rope_, 2½-inch, for slinging mortars.   }
  _One piece of spun yarn_, three-stranded, 1½ fathom long,   }
  for seizing the clinch of the fall.                         }
  _One ditto_, one fathom long, for stoppering the fall.      } With
  _One fid_, (for which a couple of handspikes may be         } both
  substituted,) for slinging the gun; or,—                    } patterns.
  _One short piece of skidding_, for the same purpose,        }
  for slinging mortars and howitzers.                         }
  _One hammer._                                               }
  _Three trucks_, or _small pieces of board_, four inches     }
  thick, with a hole in the centre of each, to receive the    }
  spikes of the feet of the gyn on soft ground. Handspikes    }
  laid upon the ground, and on each side of the several       }
  spikes, will answer this purpose.                           }
  _One pair of dragropes._                                    }


_Disposition, and duties of the Men._

  No. 1 commands.

            _Left side._             |           _Right side._
                                     |
  3 carries the foot of the left     |  2 carries the foot of the right
    cheek, has charge of the left    |    cheek, has charge of the right
    lever, keys and unkeys the left  |    lever, keys and unkeys the
    capsquare, runs the carriage up, |    right capsquare, runs the
    or back.                         |    carriage up or back.
  5 carries the top of the left      |  4 carries the top of the right
    cheek, assists 3 at the lever,   |    cheek, assists 2 at the lever,
    runs the carriage up, or back.   |    runs the carriage up or back.
  7 carries the levers and           |  6 carries the windlass, passes the
    handspikes, assists 6 to pass    |    fall round it, holds on the fall
    the fall round the windlass,     |    and makes it fast, eases off
    holds on next to him.            |    the fall, and lowers the gun.
  9 carries the top of the prypole   |  8 carries the foot of the prypole
    with sling, fid, trucks, &c.,    |    with sling, fid, trucks, &c.,
    holds on the fall behind 7,      |    holds on the fall behind 6.
    and coils it up.                 |
  11 assists in carrying the blocks, |  10 assists in carrying the blocks
    and fall, reeves, and unreeves   |    and fall, reeves, and unreeves
    the triple block, assists in     |    the double block, assists in
    slinging the gun, and steadies   |    slinging the gun, and steadies
    it on his own side.              |    it on his own side.

PUT THE GYN TOGETHER, AND REEVE THE TACKLE. PLACE THE WINDLASS.


_To raise, and place a Gyn._

PREPARE TO RAISE THE GYN. At a small gyn the tackle is hooked before
the gyn is raised; at a large gyn it is not hooked until after the
operation has been performed. _At the Small gyn_, HOOK THE TACKLE.
RAISE THE GYN. HALT. PREPARE TO PLACE THE GYN, either pattern. LIFT
THE CHEEKS IN, OUT, TO THE RIGHT, OR TO THE LEFT. _At the Large gyn_,
PREPARE TO HOOK THE TACKLE. HOIST THE TACKLE.


_To raise a Gun, or other object, and to mount and dismount a Gun or
Howitzer on, and from a standing carriage; or to shift it from one
carriage to another._

POST YOURSELVES. PASS THE FALL ROUND THE WINDLASS. PUT ON THE SLING,
AND HOOK THE BLOCK. FIX THE SLING, to a gun, or howitzer without
dolphins. Or, FIX THE LASHING, to a mortar, or other piece of
ordnance with dolphins. FIX THE SLING, to a mortar bed. SHIFT THE
FALL TO THE RIGHT OF THE WINDLASS. HAUL TAUGHT. Everything being
prepared for raising the piece, &c., which has been slung, WORK THE
LEVERS. HEAVE. FETCH. HEAVE, FETCH, alternately until the piece,
&c., is high enough. HIGH ENOUGH. MAKE FAST THE FALL. If a gun, or
howitzer is to be dismounted, the carriage is run from under by Nos.
2, 3, 4, 5, and the piece is lowered to the ground—PREPARE TO LOWER
THE PIECE. LOWER. The piece is unslung, and the sling removed by
the same numbers that slung it. Before striking the large gyn, the
tackle must be unhooked; an operation exactly the reverse of hooking.
PREPARE TO STRIKE THE GYN. STRIKE THE GYN. TAKE THE GYN TO PIECES.


_To mount a Gun, and Carriage, upon a platform waggon, by means of a
triangle gyn._

The gyn is placed over the gun in the usual manner, and the platform
waggon is brought to the side of the gyn, with its rear towards the
muzzle of the gun. The gun is then raised, by means of the gyn; and,
when high enough, and the fall made fast, the carriage is run back by
Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5. PREPARE TO BACK THE WAGGON. BACK THE WAGGON. LOWER
THE GUN. The sling is then removed, and the waggon is run forward.
The gun carriage is next brought under the gyn, and turned bottom
upwards—LIFT. FIX THE CARRIAGE SLING. The carriage is now raised by
means of the gyn, and is lowered upon the piece. LASH THE CARRIAGE.


_Article 16._

GIBRALTAR GYN.

The Gibraltar gyn is principally used for mounting, and dismounting
guns, and howitzers on, and from standing carriages. It weighs 10¾
cwt., and can support three tons with safety.

The following stores are required for the service of the gyn:—

_One fall_, of 3½-inch white rope, eight fathoms long.

_Two lashings_ for slinging the gun, of 2½-inch tarred rope, each
twenty feet long.

_One stopper_, about 5½ feet long, of 2½-inch tarred rope, more than
one half plaited as a gasket.

_One iron triple block_, with brass sheaves, to which is attached a
bar of iron 2½ feet long, for suspending the gun, its ends turned up
to prevent the slings slipping off.

_Four common handspikes. Two dragropes._

One non-commissioned officer and six men are allowed for working the
gyn, numbered as usual.

The gyn is moved by means of dragropes hooked to the staples of the
front, or rear axletrees by Nos. 6 and 7. It can be drawn over hard
level ground by the working detachment of six men. On ground of an
unfavourable nature, a greater number than this is necessary.

The rear of the gyn is the part where the windlass is fixed.

The detachment being formed a few paces in rear of the gyn, No. 1
gives the word, “TAKE POST FOR EXERCISE—TO THE RIGHT FACE—QUICK
MARCH.” The detachment wheels to the left, and the ranks open out.
Nos. 2 and 3 halt one pace in rear of their respective axletree arms.
The whole one pace from each other, and covering.


_Disposition, and Duties of the Detachment._

  No. 1 commands.

            _Left side._            |          _Right side._
                                    |
  3 runs the carriage up, or back,  |  2 runs the carriage up, or back,
    heaves round the windlass,      |    heaves round the windlass,
    assists 7 to sling the gun.     |    assists 6 to sling the gun.
  5 runs the carriage up, or back,  |  4 runs the carriage up, or back,
    assists to hold on the fall,    |    holds on the fall, makes it
    stoppers, and unstoppers it.    |    fast, and lowers the gun.
  7 reeves the tackle, slings, and  |  6 reeves the tackle, slings, and
    unslings the gun at the chase,  |    unslings the gun near the first
    and steadies it.                |    reinforce, steadies the gun,
                                    |    and overhauls the tackle.

PREPARE TO PLACE THE GYN. PLACE THE GYN BY HAND, (or BY
CROSSLIFTING). REEVE THE TACKLE. PREPARE TO SLING THE PIECE. SLING
THE PIECE. HAUL IN THE SLACK. HEAVE ROUND THE WINDLASS. HALT. STOPPER
THE FALL. SHIFT THE FALL. HALT. The carriage having been run under
the piece, or away from it, as may be required, the piece is lowered,
and cast loose, each number reversing the operations which he
performed in lashing; and raising it.




PART VIII.

GUNNERY.


By the Parabolic Theory, the greatest range is when the angle of
elevation is 45°, or half a right angle; and the ranges are equal
at angles, equally above, and below 45°. In projectiles, moving
with velocities not exceeding 300 or 400 feet per second of time,
the Parabolic theory will resolve cases tolerably near the truth;
but in cases of great projectile velocities, that theory is quite
inadequate, without the aid of data, drawn from good experiments; for
so great is the effect of the resistance of the air to projectiles
of considerable velocity, that some of those, which in the air range
only two or three miles, would, in vacuo, range between twenty and
thirty miles. The effects of this resistance are also various,
according to the velocity, the diameter, and the weight of the shot.

By experiments it will be found that the greatest range (instead of
being constantly that at an elevation of 45°, as in the Parabolic
theory), will be at all intermediate degrees between 45° and 30°
(with ordinary charges about 42°), being more, or less, both
according to the velocity, and the weight of the projectile; the
smaller velocities, and larger shells ranging farthest when projected
almost at an elevation of 45°; while the greatest velocities,
especially with the smaller shells, range farthest with an elevation
of about 30°. However, as sufficient experiments have not yet been
made to establish true rules for practical gunnery, independent of
the Parabolic theory, we must at present content ourselves with the
data of some one certain experimental range, and time of flight at
a given angle of elevation, and then, by help of these, and the
Parabolic theory, we can determine the like circumstances for other
elevations that are not greatly different from the former, assisted
by the following rules:—


PRACTICAL RULES IN GUNNERY.

1.—_To find the Velocity of any shot, or shell._

It has been found by experiments, that with shot of mean windage,
and powder of mean strength, a charge of one-third of the weight of
the ball gives an initial velocity of about 1600 feet per second:
therefore, _to find the velocity given by any other charge_, divide
three times the weight of the charge by the weight of the ball, and
multiply the square root of the quotient by 1600, the product will be
the velocity in feet, or the space the shot passes over in the first
second.[28]

2. _The first graze, with given elevation, and charge, being known,
to determine the charge for any other first graze, and elevation._

Multiply the known charge, and elevation into the proposed first
graze, also the proposed elevation into the known first graze, and
divide the first product by the last, for the charge required in
ounces.

3. _Given the range for one charge, to find the range for another
charge, or the charge for another range._

The ranges have the same proportion as the charges; that is, as one
range is to its charge, so is any other range to its charge, the
elevation of the piece being the same in both cases.


_Table of Velocities, &c., of shells._

  Nature of shells, in inches            13    10     8     5½     4⅖
  Their weight (loaded) in pounds       200    92    46    16      8
  Charge of powder (land service) do.     5     3     2     1       ½
  The velocities                        436   500   629   693    693

_From Experiments on the velocities of shot_, the following results
have been obtained:—

1. _The time of a ball’s flight is nearly as the range_, the gun, and
elevation being the same.

2. _The velocities decrease as the distances increase_ (arising from
the resistance of the air, which opposes the progress of the shot,)
in a proportion somewhat higher than the squares of the velocities
throughout, and subject only to a small variation.

3. _Very little advantage is gained, in point of range, by increasing
the charge_ more than is necessary to attain the object, the
velocities given by large charges being very soon reduced to those
by moderate charges; those, for instance, given by half the shot’s
weight are reduced to an equality with those by one-third, after
passing through a space of only 200 feet. (_Vide_ 8.)

4. _Very little benefit is derived from increasing the length of
guns_, the velocity given by long guns of 22 calibres being reduced
to an equality with that of short guns of 15½ calibres with similar
charges, after passing through the following spaces—viz.:—

  With ½ the shot’s weight, about       285
   ”   ⅓     do.      do.               200
   ”   ¼     do.      do.               150
   ”   ⅙     do.      do.               115

5. _The resistance of the air_ against balls of different diameters
with equal velocities, is very nearly in the proportion of the
squares of their diameters, or as their surfaces.

6. _A very great increase of velocity may be acquired by a decrease
of windage_, from ⅓ to ¼ being lost by the windage of ½0 the diameter
of the bore.

7. _By firing the charge in different parts_ (separately, or
simultaneously), by compressing the charge, by the use of wads,
by varying the weight of the gun to lessen the recoil, or even by
stopping the recoil entirely, no sensible change is produced in the
velocity of the ball.

8. _The velocity increases with the charge_, to a certain point,
peculiar to each gun; but, by further increasing the charge, the
velocity gradually diminishes; yet the recoil is always increased by
an increase of charge. (_Vide_ 3.)

9. _The velocities of balls fired with equal charges_ increase to
a certain point, when the gun is longer, in a proportion which is
nearly the middle ratio between the square and cube roots of the
length of the bore.

10. _When shot of different weights are fired with the same charges
of powder_, the velocities communicated to them are nearly in the
inverse ratio of the square roots of their weights. Therefore,
shot which are of different weights, and impelled by the firing of
different charges of powder, acquire velocities which are directly
as the square roots of the charges of powder, and inversely as the
square roots of the weights of the shot. By making use of shot of
a heavier metal than iron (lead for instance) the momentum of the
shot discharged with the same charge of powder would be increased in
the ratio of the square root of the shot’s weight, which would both
augment the force of the blow with which it would strike, and also
the extent of the range.

_Compound-shot_, or shells filled with lead, fired with charges
increased ⅛th, will increase the power of range considerably.

11. _With common shells at 45° elevation, the time of flight_ is
nearly equal to the square root of the range in feet, divided by 4;
or, more nearly, equal to the square root of the quotient of the
range in feet, divided by 16-1/12.

12. _The range at 45° elevation_ is nearly equal to the square of the
time of flight in seconds, multiplied by 16-1/12 feet. The range at
15° will be about half that at 45°.

13. _Upon inclined planes, at any elevation_, there are always two
elevations with which any range may be obtained.

_The elevation which gives the greatest range, on a given ascent_, is
equal to half the sum of 90° added to the ascent.

_The elevations which give equal ranges on a given ascent_, are the
complements of each other added to the ascent.

_The elevation which gives the greatest range on a descent_, is equal
to half the complement of the descent.

14. _The depths penetrated by balls of the same size into wood_,
with different velocities, or charges, are nearly as the squares of
the velocities. Balls of different sizes will penetrate to depths
proportionate to their diameters; therefore a greater ball will not
only make a larger hole, but will also penetrate farther than a
small one with the same velocity.

15. By experiments at a mean range, it has been ascertained that in
common earth, dug up and well rammed, a musket ball buries itself
nearly 1½ foot; a 6-pounder from 3½ feet to 4½ feet; 9-pounder from
6½ feet to 7 feet; 12-pounder from 8½ feet to 10 feet; 18, and
24-pounders from 11½ feet to 13 feet.


THEORY, AND PRACTICE OF GUNNERY,

APPLICABLE ESPECIALLY TO THE SERVICE OF NAVAL ORDNANCE.[29]

_Double Shotting._

“Double shotting may be used with all 32-pounder guns above those of
32 cwt., at distances not exceeding 400 or 500 yards; but the most
efficient practice with two shot is at 300 yards. The 32-pounders of
32 cwt. and 25 cwt. should not, however, be so used beyond 200 and
250 yards.

“With double loadings of round shot and grape, when the shot is put
in first, the projectiles range more together than when the reverse
process is used; such loading requires, however, more elevation to
be given to the gun than when single shot are used, on account of
the grape shot impeding the flight of the round shot. A double load
of grape from the same gun ranges tolerably well together for 300
yards. With a double load of case shot, even with half a degree more
elevation than when a single load is used, a great many balls will
not range above 100 yards to the first graze; within this extent they
lose much of their velocity, and few reach an object at 200 yards.
A 32-pounder gun of 56, or of 50 cwt., double shotted with charges
of 6 lb., requires at 400 yards 1½ degree of elevation; at 300 yards
1 degree; and at 200 yards half a degree; and, in general, half a
degree must be added, with any double loading, to the elevation
required with single shot.

“For round, and grape, at 400 yards, there is required 1½ degree of
elevation; and at 200 yards half a degree. These projectiles range
well together at a target, but they should not be used at a greater
distance than 150 yards on account of their dispersion, and the
differences of their striking velocities, and penetrating forces.

“With a single load of grape at 400 yards, the elevation required is
1 degree, a full charge of powder being used. With a double load of
grape at 400 yards, and the reduced charge, the elevation required is
3½ degrees; at that distance, however, double grape scatters so much
as to make very bad practice.”


_The effects of wads._

“Experience has proved that different degrees of ramming, or
different dimensions of wads, make no sensible alteration in the
velocities of the ball as determined by the vibrations of the
suspended gun. Stout firm junk wads, so tight as with difficulty to
be rammed into the gun, have been used; sometimes they were placed
between the powder and ball, sometimes over both, but no difference
was discovered in the velocity of the ball. Different degrees of
ramming were also tried without wads. The charge was sometimes set
home without being compressed; sometimes rammed with different
numbers of strokes, or pushed up with various degrees of force; but
the velocity of the ball remained the same. With great windage, the
vibrations of the pendulum were much reduced, although tight wads
under the shot were used; so that wads do not prevent the escape
of the inflamed powder by the windage, nor under any circumstances
occasion any sensible difference in the velocity of the ball.[30]

“From experiments made on board the ‘Excellent,’ in 1847, it was
found that a grummet wad is more efficient than one of junk, in
preventing the cartridge from shifting its place in the bore when the
guns were run out with a strong jerk.

“With respect to small arms, it is found that wads of different kinds
have different effects upon the projectile, by modifying the action
of the charge; and from experiments which have been made in the
United States with a musket pendulum, the following results have been
obtained: With a charge equal to 77 grains, a musket ball, wrapped in
cartridge paper, and the paper crumpled into a wad, the velocity of
the ball was 1342 feet; and when two felt wads, cut from a hat, were
placed on the powder, with one on the ball, the velocity was 1482
feet. With a charge equal to 140 grains, two felt wads being placed
on the powder, and one on the ball, the velocity was 1525 feet; when
cartridge paper was used, crumpled into a wad, the velocity was 1575
feet; and when one wad of pasteboard was placed over the powder, with
another on the ball, it was 1599 feet. These results seem to indicate
that wads made of the stiffest materials are the most advantageous.”


_Penetration of Shot._

“Experiments were made in 1848 on board H.M.S. ‘Excellent,’ by firing
both solid and hollow shot against the ‘Prince George’ hulk, which
was moored at the distance of 1200 yards. The guns were laid at small
angles of elevation, generally between two and three degrees; and
the following is a brief statement of some of the most remarkable
effects which were produced, the depth penetrated being expressed by
the sum of the distances in solid wood which the shot passed through,
or deeply furrowed. Several 18-pr. shot, with charges of 6 lb. of
powder, penetrated to depths varying from 21 to 33 inches, according
to the state of the wood, and there stuck. With charges of 8 lb.,
the 32-pr. shot penetrated to depths varying from 22 to 48 inches. A
68-pr. shot (solid), with a charge of 10 lb. of powder, made a total
penetration of 46 inches. Many hollow shot were fired with remarkable
effects from 68-pr. guns, making penetrations which varied from
25 to 56 inches. One of these, with a charge of 8 lb., penetrated
the side of the hulk, passing through 28 inches of good wood, tore
out the iron hook, which holds the port-hinge, and fractured the
after-side of the port, driving the splinters about the deck. It rent
away the end of a beam, grazed the deck, passing through two planks,
and cutting down a stanchion 8 inches square, making several large
splinters; it then struck against the opposite side of the ship,
whence it rebounded against that which it entered.

“At 800 yards, with heavy guns, a charge of one quarter of the weight
of shot may always be used; at 500 yards, the charge may be reduced
to one-sixth; and within 400 yards, two shot at once may be used with
advantage.

“Hollow shot from a 68-pounder carronade, with a charge of 5 lb. 8
oz., penetrated to depths varying from 28 to 31 inches.

“In order to ascertain if shot reflected from water would damage a
ship, shots from a 32-pounder gun, with a charge of 10 lb. and a
depression equal to 7 degrees, were fired, and the following are some
of the effects produced:—

“At the distance of 16 yards, the shot struck the water at 4 feet
from the ship’s side; and in one experiment it lodged in the
cut-water; in another, it indented the ship’s side; and in both
cases it struck at 18 inches below the water-line. At the distance
of 36 yards, with a depression of 5 degrees, the shot struck the
water at distances from the ship’s side varying from 2 to 15 feet;
and, ricocheting, entered the ship at distances above the water-line
varying from 2 inches to 3 feet. In consequence of the loss of
force which the balls sustained by striking the water, it has been
inferred, that if a shot be fired with such a depression as a ship’s
gun will bear, it will not penetrate into water more than 2 feet;
and, consequently, it will be impossible to injure a ship materially
by firing at her under water.

“From experiments made at Metz, in 1834, it appears that masses of
cast iron, above one yard square and thirteen inches thick, do not
resist the shock of balls fired against them with even moderate
velocities, having been fractured not only at the point of contact,
but also at points considerably distant from thence. It was found,
also, that the side of a traversing gun carriage of iron was
broken by an 8-pounder ball, having a velocity of 492 feet; which
proves that carriages of this nature would, if struck, be rendered
unserviceable: and that a collision, which, with a wooden carriage,
would have damaged only an accessory part, without requiring its
being replaced, would, with a cast-iron carriage, have a more fatal
effect. Not only is the object struck destroyed, but the fragments
scattered in different directions are highly dangerous.

“During the year 1850, various experiments were made on board the
‘Excellent,’ at Portsmouth, in order to ascertain the effects which
might be produced on iron vessels by shot, both solid and hollow,
with various charges of powder; for which purpose a double target, ⅝
of an inch thick, consisting of iron ribs and plates, resembling the
opposite sides of a strongly-built iron steamer, was constructed, at
the distance of about 450 yards from the ship. The general effect
was, that the target was always pierced by the shot, and that
numerous splinters were detached from it in every direction, which
could not fail to be most destructive to the crew of a vessel of this
description; the shot was, besides, almost always split in pieces by
the shock. One 32-pounder shot broke into thirty-four fragments. Some
experiments were made with grape-shot, fired from a 32-pounder, with
charges of 3 lb. and 6 lb., when the shot passed through a plate,
making a clean hole 3 inches in diameter, and knocking out some
rivets. The effects produced by 6-inch shells were not greater than
those produced by shot. Two of these being filled with powder, and
having the fuze holes plugged up, broke on passing through the plate;
the powder, however, did not explode, but was seen to go away in a
cloud like dust.

“From the above-mentioned experiments, it may be concluded, that the
splinters detached from the side of an iron ship, and the fragments
of the shot themselves, would as effectually clear her quarters
as the explosions of shells; in either case the effect would be
more serious than any that could be produced by like means on a
ship constructed of timber, incendiary effects excepted. With both
raking, and diagonal firing, the effect is described as being most
formidable; the holes, which were very irregular, were in all cases
larger than the shot.

“In 1838, experiments were made at Gavre with two solid balls fired
at once against a butt of oak timber, in order to determine the
different penetrations of the shot, and the distances between their
centres at different distances from the piece. Three different
natures of ordnance were used: a long 30-pounder gun, a cannon
obusier of 30, and a 30-pounder carronade. One ball was in contact
with the charge, and the other in contact with the former. From these
experiments it was evident that the ball which was in contact with
the charge had the least velocity, and the least penetrating power.
It is further remarkable that, at distances beyond 200 yards, the
vertical dispersion greatly exceeds the horizontal dispersion.”


_Excentric spherical shot._

“Experiments with these projectiles were carried on at Metz in 1841;
the following were the effects observed:—When the centre of gravity
was above the centre of the figure, the ranges were the longest,
and when below, the shortest; when to the right, or left hand, the
deviations were also to the right, or left. The mean range of a
12-pounder brass gun, which, with the usual shot, was 1640 yards,
was, with the shot whose centres of gravity and of figure were not
coincident, the centre of gravity being upwards, equal to 2140 yards,
being an increase of 500 yards.

“When the centre of gravity is not coincident with that of figure,
the projectile is made to revolve, _ab initio_, on the former centre,
thus occasioning a compound motion in the flight of the projectile.
When the centre of gravity is below the axis of the bore, the front
must turn from below upwards, and a rotation in this direction
continuing, the range will be diminished. In like manner, when the
centre of gravity is placed on the right, or left hand of the axis
of the bore, the shot will turn on a vertical axis, and produce
deviations to the right, or left hand respectively. Experiments were
carried on at Portsmouth, and at Shoebury Ness, in the year 1850, to
ascertain whether the deviations of excentric projectiles were so
regular as to admit of being allowed for in pointing the gun; and
whether any result might appear to disprove the maxim, that spherical
and homogeneous projectiles are the truest in their flight.

  +-----------+--------+-------+------------+----------+-----------+
  | Nature of | Charge.| Eleva-| Nature of  | Greatest | Deviation.|
  | Ordnance. |        |  tion.| Projectile.|  Range.  |           |
  +-----------+--------+-------+------------+----------+-----------+
  |           |   lb.  |  Deg. |            |  Yards.  |   Yards.  |
  | AT PORTSMOUTH.                                                 |
  |           |{   8   |   2⅛  |{Common Shot|   1200   |  2 to 6   |
  |           |{       |       |{Excentric  |   1450   |  2 to 7   |
  |           |{       |       |            |          |           |
  |   32 Pr.  |{  10   |   2½  |{Common     |   1654   |     2     |
  |           |{       |       |{Excentric  |   2108   |  6 to 27  |
  |           |{       |       |            |          |           |
  |           |{  12   |  12   |{Common     |   3100   | 10 to 58  |
  |           |        |       |{Excentric  |   3710   | 10 to 150 |
  |           |        |       |            |          |           |
  |           |{  10   |   2½  |{Common     |   1035   |  2 to 3   |
  |           |{       |       |{Excentric  |   1181   |  2 to 7   |
  |           |{       |       |            |          |           |
  |   8 inch  |{  10   |   5   |{Common     |   1750   |  2 to 4   |
  |           |{       |       |{Excentric  |   1980   |  9 to 21  |
  |           |{       |       |            |          |           |
  |           |{  10   |  10   |{Common     |   2800   |  2 to 25  |
  |           |        |       |{Excentric  |   3230   |  6 to 54  |
  |           |        |       |            |          |           |
  | AT SHOEBURY NESS.                                              |
  |           |{   8   |   2½  |{Common     |   1296   |     8⅖    |
  |           |{       |       |{Excentric  |   1750   |    16     |
  |           |{       |       |            |          |           |
  |   32 Pr.  |{  10   |   2½  |{Common     |   1404   |     6¼    |
  |           |{       |       |{Excentric  |   1776   |  ⅓ to 5⅔  |
  |           |{       |       |            |          |           |
  |           |{  10   |  12   |{Common     |   3068   |    68     |
  |           |        |       |{Excentric  |   3498   |   186     |
  |           |        |       |            |          |           |
  |           |{  10   |   5   |{Common     |   1820   |    16⅖    |
  |   8 inch. |{       |       |{Excentric  |   2207   |    19⅓    |
  |           |{       |       |            |          |           |
  |           |{  10   |  10   |{Common     |   2703   |    35     |
  |           |        |       |{Excentric  |   2339   |   141     |
  +-----------+--------+-------+------------+----------+-----------+

“The preceding table presents, in an abstracted form, the results
of the experiments at Portsmouth, and Shoebury Ness. It will be
observed that the ordnance used were 32-pounders, and 8-inch guns;
from both of which natures were fired the ordinary solid shot, and
also shot rendered excentric by the removal of certain quantities of
metal. Thus, in the Portsmouth experiments, 1 lb. of metal was taken
from each 32 lb. shot, and 3 lb. from each 68 lb. shot; in those at
Shoebury Ness, 1 lb. or 2 lb. were taken from the 32 lb. shot, and 4
lb. from the 68 lb. shot.

“On analyzing the experiments, both at Portsmouth, and Shoebury
Ness, it appears that the flight of the ordinary solid shot was the
most true, the lateral deflections being frequently but one-half,
sometimes one-third, or one-fourth only of the deflections of the
excentric shot; that these last deflections were always in the
direction in which the centres of gravity of the shot were placed in
the gun; and that the increases, or diminutions of range caused by
the vertical deviations were produced respectively, as the centres of
gravity of the shot were placed upwards, or downwards. It appears,
also, that the lateral deviations, though in general constant in
direction, were very variable in amount. The results above stated
prove decisively the correctness of the deductions from theory, and
of the practical maxim, that errors in sphericity and homogeneity
in a shot are causes of its deviation from a correct path; and it
follows that spherical and homogeneous projectiles, being the most
simple, and quite indifferent to the position in which they are
placed in the gun and rolled home, as well as to that in which they
pass through the atmosphere, are decidedly to be preferred to the
others.

“The results of these very curious, and instructive experiments
fully explain the extraordinary anomalies, as they have hitherto
been considered, in length of range, and in the lateral deviations:
these have been attributed to changes in the state of the air, or
the direction of the wind, to differences in the strength of the
gunpowder, and to inequalities in the degrees of windage. All these
causes are, no doubt, productive of errors in practice; but it is now
clear that those errors are chiefly occasioned by the excentricity,
and non-homogeneity of the shot, and the accidental positions of the
centre of gravity of the projectile with respect to the axis of the
bore.

“The whole of these experiments furnish decisive proof of the
necessity of paying the most scrupulous attention to the figure, and
homogeneity of solid shot, and the concentricity of shells; and they
exhibit the remarkable fact, that a very considerable increase of
range may be obtained without an increase in the charge, or elevation
of the gun.”


_Resistance of iron plates, oak plank, &c., against musketry,
canister, grape shot, hollow, and solid shot._

“From experiments in November, 1849, the following results were
obtained:—

“_Marine percussion musket_—Charge, 4½ drams; distance, 40 yards.

  “Iron plates, ⅛ inch   } All passed through.
  Oak plank,    1   ”    }

  Iron plates,  2/8 ”    } 4 in 6 passed through.
  Oak plank,    2   ”    }

  Iron plates,  ⅜   ”    } Both musket proof.
  Oak plank,    3   ”    }

_Canister_—Charge, 6 lb.; distance, 100 yards.

  Iron plates,  ⅜ inch   } Passed through.
  Oak plank,    3   ”    }

  Iron plates,  4/8 ”    } Canister proof.
  Oak plank,    4   ”    }

_Grape_—Charge, 6 lb.; distance, 200 yards.

  Iron plates,  4/8 inch }
       ”        ⅝   ”    } All passed through.
       ”        6/8 ”    }

  Oak plank,    4 inch   } All passed through.
       ”        5   ”    }
       ”        6   ”       Generally passed through.

“Experiments were made in June, 1850, against two sections of the
‘Simoom,’ ⅝ inch thick, placed 35 feet apart; the guns, and charges
were those used in all steam vessels. The result made evident that
two, or three shot, or sometimes even a single one, striking near the
water-line of an iron vessel, must endanger the ship. Another most
serious evil is, that the shot breaks, on striking, into innumerable
pieces, which pass into the ship with such force, as to range
afterwards to a distance of 400 or 500 yards; and that the effect on
men at their quarters would be more destructive than canister shot,
supposing them to pass through a ship’s side; as when the plates are
only ⅜ inch thick.

“Experiments were made in July, 1850, against an iron section similar
to the ‘Simoom;’ it was filled in and made solid with 5½ inch oak
timber between the iron ribs, and 4½ inch oak planking above the
water-ways, which were 1 foot thick, and with 3 inch fir above the
portsills; these were strongly secured to the iron plates by bolts.
The results were as follows:—The holes made by the shot were not so
irregular as on the former occasion, but as clear and open; all parts
of the shot passed right through the iron and timber, and then split,
and spread abroad with considerable velocity. With low charges, the
shot did not split into so many pieces as before. With high charges,
the splinters from the shot were as numerous and as severe as before,
with the addition, in this, and the former case, of the evil to which
other vessels are subject—that of the splinters torn from the timbers.

“In August, 1850, an iron section similar to the ‘Simoom’ was
prepared with a covering of fir plank on the outside, of the
thickness of 2, 3, and 4 inches, in different parts. The result of
this experiment was similar to the last, when the wood was on the
inside; with the exception of the splinters from the wood. The holes
made by the shot were regular, of the full size of the shot, and
open; every shot split on passing through—those between the ribs into
a few pieces only, those that struck on the ribs into a great number;
in both cases, when combined with the splinters of the iron side, the
effect must prove highly destructive.

“A comparison as to the effect of shot on iron, and timber, was made
by firing 8-inch hollow shot, and 32-pound solid shot, at a butt
built for experimental shell-firing, with timber having 6-inch plank
on the outside, and 4-inch within; the result was, that the splinters
from the wood were trifling when compared with those from the iron.

“The general result of all the foregoing, and consecutive experiments
for the same purpose, clearly demonstrates that the destructive
effects of the impacts of shot on iron cannot be prevented. If the
iron sides are of the thickness required to give adequate strength
to the ship (⅝, or at least 4/8 of an inch), the shot will be broken
by the impact; if the iron plates be thin enough to let the shot
pass into the ship without breaking, the vessel will be deficient
in strength; the shot will do its work, particularly in oblique or
raking fire, more effectively than its splinters, and, in passing
out, make apertures more difficult to plug or stop, than in passing
in. When a clean hole is made by a shot penetrating an iron plate,
the whole of the disc struck out by the shot is broken into numerous
small pieces, which are driven into the ship with very destructive
effects; and if the plate be so thick (viz., upwards of 4/8 of an
inch) as to cause the shot to break on striking, the fragments will
nevertheless pass into the ship, as in the case of a percussion, or
concussion shell, and so produce a terrific compound effect by the
fragments of both.

“The expedient of combining wood, and iron, either by substituting
timber for the iron ribs, or the reverse, outside planking for the
iron plates—makes the matter worse. The pieces of ribs struck off,
sometimes of great length, pass on with the shot, to produce more
extensive ravages elsewhere.”


NAVAL GUNNERY.

“In firing into masses of timber, or any solid substance, _that
velocity which can but just penetrate_ will occasion the greatest
shake, and tear off the greatest number of and largest splinters;
consequently, in close actions, shot discharged with the full
quantity of powder tear off fewer splinters than balls fired from the
same nature of guns with reduced charges.

“_In naval actions_, shot intended to take effect upon the hull of an
enemy should rather be discharged with a falling than with a rising
side; but such pieces as may be appointed specially to act against
the masts and rigging should be fired, on the contrary, with the
rising motion, the aim being taken low.

“_In all close actions_, the great object should be to strike as
often as possible the enemy’s hull. One or two 24-lb. shot taking
effect just below the water-line, and perhaps perforating both sides
of a small vessel, will in general either force her to surrender, or
send her to the bottom; and such an injury is much more likely to be
occasioned by firing with a falling than with a rising side.


“_To estimate the distance between vessels._[31]

“Measure with a sextant, or quadrant, the angular height of the
enemy’s mast, and by referring _to Table B_, the corresponding
distance may be taken out.

“_In Table A_, the height of the masts to the head of the
maintopgallant rigging, and likewise to the maintopmast crosstrees
above the surface of the water at low water mark, are given for every
rate, and class of vessel.

“The distances in English yards, corresponding to the angles
subtended by the masts, are given in the first column _of Table B_.

“_Table B_ may also be applied to the important purpose of
determining distances, making use of the ship’s own mast as the given
height or side of the triangle, by marking upon it any of the heights
expressed in the table, and placing an observer there when required
to measure the angle A B C (_vide fig._) formed by the mast when most
perpendicular, and the line of sight B C.

[Illustration: (triangle A B C)]

“_The Tangent practice Tables_ C, D, and E will frequently be found
useful in pointing ordnance, when the distance is known; for by
referring to that distance in the column of the table belonging to
the corresponding nature of gun, the part, that should be aimed at,
will be ascertained.”


TABLE A.

Heights above the water of the different parts of French ships of
War, and their masts, according to the following Rates:

  +-------------------------------+---------------------------------------+
  |                               |         Line of battle Ships.         |
  |                               +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |                               | Guns. | Guns. | Guns. | Guns. | Guns. |
  |                               | 120.  | 100.  |  90.  |  86.  |  82.  |
  |                               +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |                               | ft.in.| ft.in.| ft.in.| ft.in.| ft.in.|
  |    _Port-sills_:              |       |       |       |       |       |
  | Of lower deck                 |  5  3 |  7 10 |  6  7 |  5  8 |  5  8 |
  | Middle                        | 13  1 |       |       |       |       |
  | Upper                         | 19  4 | 15  1 | 14  9 | 12  9 | 12  9 |
  | Quarter                       | 25  7 | 21  3 | 19  8 | 19  2 | 19  2 |
  |    _After-part_:              |       |       |       |       |       |
  | Of poop plank sheer           | 35  5 | 29  2 | 29  6 | 25  4 | 25  4 |
  |    _Mainmast_:                |       |       |       |       |       |
  | Upper side of mainyard        | 79  0 | 77  1 | 76  5 | 71  0 | 66  0 |
  | Under side of maintop         | 93  6 | 91 10 | 90  2 | 84  0 | 78  0 |
  | Upper side of cap to mainmast |109  6 |109 10 |108  3 |101  0 | 94  0 |
  | Upper side of maintopsail-yard|148  7 |140  9 |141  0 |139  0 |130  0 |
  |   ” Crosstrees to maintopmast |158  5 |150 11 |150 11 |148  0 |138  0 |
  |   ” Cap to maintopmast        |166  4 |161  8 |158  9 |156  0 |147  0 |
  | Head of topgallant rigging    |190  7 |185  4 |185  4 |183  0 |170  0 |
  | Truck                         |219  9 |212  7 |201  9 |205  0 |192  5 |
  |    _Foremast_:                |       |       |       |       |       |
  | Upper side of foreyard        | 72 10 | 72  2 | 71  2 | 64  0 | 61  0 |
  | Under side of foretop         | 86  7 | 84 11 | 83  7 | 77  0 | 72  0 |
  | Upper side of cap to foremast |103  0 |101  8 |100  0 | 92  0 | 87  0 |
  |   ” Foretopsail-yard          |136  5 |128 11 |129  7 |128  0 |117  0 |
  |   ” Crosstrees to foretopmast |145  8 |139  1 |137  9 |136  0 |126  0 |
  |   ” Cap to foretopmast        |153  6 |148 11 |145  0 |144  0 |135  0 |
  | Head to topgallant rigging    |173 10 |170  3 |169  7 |168  0 |156  0 |
  | Truck                         |200  1 |194 10 |184  8 |188  0 |176  0 |
  |    _Mizenmast_:               |       |       |       |       |       |
  | Upper side of crossjack-yard  | 73  1 | 71 10 | 70  2 | 64  0 | 61  0 |
  | Under side of mizentop        | 83  4 | 83  7 | 81  4 | 75  0 | 71  0 |
  | Upper side of cap to mizenmast| 93  6 | 96  5 | 93  9 | 85  0 | 82  0 |
  |   ” Mizentopsail-yard         |121  4 |116  9 |117  1 |110  0 |107  0 |
  |   ” Crosstrees to mizentopmast|127 11 |125 11 |122  4 |117  0 |112  0 |
  | Head of topgallant rigging    |154  2 |150 11 |145  8 |143  0 |136  0 |
  | Truck                         |177  9 |171  7 |158  9 |160  0 |153  0 |
  +-------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

     +--------------------------------+---------------+----------+-------+
     |                                |   Frigates.   |Corvettes.| Brigs.|
     |                                +-------+-------+----------+-------+
     |                                | Guns. | Guns. |   Guns.  | Guns. |
     |                                |  60.  |  44.  |    24.   |  18.  |
     |                                +-------+-------+----------+-------+
     |                                | ft.in.| ft.in.|   ft.in. | ft.in.|
     |    _Port-sills_:               |       |       |          |       |
     | Of lower deck                  |       |       |          |       |
     | Middle                         |       |       |          |       |
     | Upper                          |  6  6¾| 6  11 |    5 10  |  4  3 |
     | Quarter                        | 13  9 | 13  4 |   12  0  |       |
     |    _After-part_:               |       |       |          |       |
     | Of poop plank sheer            |       |       |          |       |
     |    _Mainmast_:                 |       |       |          |       |
     | Upper side of mainyard         | 67  0 | 59  0 |   41  0  | 39  0 |
     | Under side of maintop          | 79  0 | 70  0 |   49  0  | 47  0 |
     | Upper side of cap to mainmast  | 95  0 | 84  0 |   59  0  | 56  0 |
     | Upper side of maintopsail-yard |131  0 |114  0 |   79  0  | 72  0 |
     |   ” Crosstrees to maintopmast  |139  0 |121  0 |   85  0  | 77  0 |
     |   ” Cap to maintopmast         |148  0 |128  0 |   89  0  | 81  0 |
     | Head of topgallant rigging     |171  0 |151  0 |  104  0  | 96  0 |
     | Truck                          |187  9 |168  6 |  120  7  |112  0 |
     |    _Foremast_:                 |       |       |          |       |
     | Upper side of foreyard         | 67  0 | 51  0 |   34  0  | 34  0 |
     | Under side of foretop          | 73  0 | 63  0 |   43  0  | 41  0 |
     | Upper side of cap to foremast  | 88  0 | 76  0 |   53  0  | 50  0 |
     |   ” Foretopsail-yard           |118  0 |101  0 |   70  0  | 66  0 |
     |   ” Crosstrees to foretopmast  |127  0 |109  0 |   76  0  | 70  0 |
     |   ” Cap to foretopmast         |136  0 |116  0 |   81  0  | 75  0 |
     | Head to topgallant rigging     |157  0 |136  0 |   95  0  | 89  0 |
     | Truck                          |172  1 |152  0 |  109  6  |103  6 |
     |    _Mizenmast_:                |       |       |          |       |
     | Upper side of crossjack-yard   | 62  0 | 52  0 |   32  0  |       |
     | Under side of mizentop         | 72  0 | 62  0 |   39  0  |       |
     | Upper side of cap to mizenmast | 83  0 | 71  0 |   47  0  |       |
     |   ” Mizentopsail-yard          |108  0 | 94  0 |   56  0  |       |
     |   ” Crosstrees to mizentopmast |113  0 | 99  0 |   61  0  |       |
     | Head of topgallant rigging     |137  0 |120  0 |   74  0  |       |
     | Truck                          |150  0 |133  6 |   85  0  |       |
     +--------------------------------+-------+-------+----------+-------+


TABLE B.

Angles subtended by the Mainmasts of French ships of war, between
the water-line and the truck, also between the water-line and the
crosstrees, at distances in yards, and in cables’ length; the eye of
the observer being twenty feet above the water.

  +--------------+-----------------------------------------------+
  |              |             LINE OF BATTLE SHIPS.             |
  |  DISTANCES.  +---------------+---------------+---------------+
  |              |   120 Guns.   |    90 Guns.   |    82 Guns.   |
  +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |      |       |ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.|
  |      |       |219  9 |158  5 |201  9 |150 11 |192  5 |138  0 |
  |      |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
  |      |       | Truck | Main- | Truck | Main- | Truck | Main- |
  |      |       |  of   |topmast|  of   |topmast|  of   |topmast|
  |      |Cables’| main- | cross-| main- | cross-| main- | cross-|
  |Yards.|length.| mast. | trees.| mast. | trees.| mast. | trees.|
  +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |      |       |  °  ′ |  °  ′ |  °  ′ |  °  ′ |  °  ′ |  °  ′ |
  |  120 |    ½  | 32 14 | 24 13 | 29 59 | 23  3 | 28 47 | 21 11 |
  |  240 |   1   | 17  7 | 12 29 | 15 46 | 11 50 | 15  4 | 10 54 |
  |  360 |   1½  | 11 33 |  8 22 | 10 37 |  7 56 | 10  8 |  7 38 |
  |  480 |   2   |  8 42 |  6 17 |  7 59 |  5 57 |  7 38 |  5 29 |
  |  600 |   2½  |  6 59 |  5  2 |  6 24 |  4 46 |  6  7 |  4 23 |
  |  720 |   3   |  5 49 |  4 12 |  5 20 |  3 59 |  5  6 |  3 39 |
  |  840 |   3½  |  4 59 |  3 36 |  4 35 |  3 24 |  4 22 |  3  8 |
  |  960 |   4   |  4 22 |  3  9 |  4  1 |  2 59 |  3 49 |  2 44 |
  | 1080 |   4½  |  3 53 |  2 48 |  3 34 |  2 42 |  3 24 |  2 26 |
  | 1200 |   5   |  3 30 |  2 31 |  3 21 |  2 23 |  3  4 |  2 12 |
  | 1320 |   5½  |  3 11 |  2 17 |  2 55 |  2 10 |  2 47 |  2  0 |
  | 1440 |   6   |  2 55 |  2  6 |  2 40 |  1 59 |  2 33 |  1 50 |
  +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

      +--------------+-------------------------------+
      |              |           FRIGATES.           |
      |  DISTANCES.  +---------------+---------------+
      |              |    60 Guns.   |    44 Guns.   |
      +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
      |      |       |ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.|
      |      |       |187 9  |139  0 |168  6 |121  0 |
      |      |       |       |       |       |       |
      |      |       | Truck | Main- | Truck | Main- |
      |      |       |  of   |topmast|  of   |topmast|
      |      |Cables’| main- | cross-| main- | cross-|
      |Yards.|length.| mast. | trees.| mast. | trees.|
      +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
      |      |       |  °  ′ |  °  ′ |  °  ′ |  °  ′ |
      |  120 |    ½  | 28 11 | 21 12 | 25 37 | 18 51 |
      |  240 |   1   | 14 43 | 10 55 | 13 15 |  9 35 |
      |  360 |   1½  |  9 54 |  7 19 |  8 54 |  6 24 |
      |  480 |   2   |  7 27 |  5 30 |  6 41 |  4 48 |
      |  600 |   2½  |  5 58 |  4 23 |  5 21 |  3 51 |
      |  720 |   3   |  4 58 |  3 39 |  4 28 |  3 13 |
      |  840 |   3½  |  4 16 |  3  8 |  3 50 |  2 45 |
      |  960 |   4   |  3 44 |  2 44 |  3 21 |  2 24 |
      | 1080 |   4½  |  3 19 |  2 26 |  2 59 |  2  9 |
      | 1200 |   5   |  2 59 |  2 12 |  2 41 |  1 55 |
      | 1320 |   5½  |  2 43 |  2  0 |  2 26 |  1 45 |
      | 1440 |   6   |  2 29 |  1 50 |  2 14 |  1 36 |
      +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

          +--------------+---------------+---------------+
          |              |   CORVETTES.  |     BRIGS.    |
          |  DISTANCES.  +---------------+---------------+
          |              |    24 Guns.   |    18 Guns.   |
          +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
          |      |       |ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.|
          |      |       |120  7 | 85  0 |112  0 | 77  0 |
          |      |       |       |       |       |       |
          |      |       | Truck | Main- | Truck | Main- |
          |      |       |  of   |topmast|  of   |topmast|
          |      |Cables’| main- | cross-| main- | cross-|
          |Yards.|length.| mast. | trees.| mast. | trees.|
          +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
          |      |       |  °  ′ |  °  ′ |  °  ′ |  °  ′ |
          |  120 |    ½  | 18 50 | 13 25 | 17 31 | 12 11 |
          |  240 |   1   |  9 34 |  6 45 |  8 52 |  6  7 |
          |  360 |   1½  |  6 24 |  4 30 |  5 56 |  4  5 |
          |  480 |   2   |  4 48 |  3 23 |  4 27 |  3  4 |
          |  600 |   2½  |  3 51 |  2 42 |  3 34 |  2 27 |
          |  720 |   3   |  3 13 |  2 15 |  2 58 |  2  3 |
          |  840 |   3½  |  2 45 |  1 56 |  2 33 |  1 45 |
          |  960 |   4   |  2 24 |  1 41 |  2 14 |  1 32 |
          | 1080 |   4½  |  2  9 |  1 30 |  1 59 |  1 22 |
          | 1200 |   5   |  1 55 |  1 21 |  1 47 |  1 14 |
          | 1320 |   5½  |  1 45 |  1 14 |  1 37 |  1  7 |
          | 1440 |   6   |  1 36 |  1  8 |  1 29 |  1  1 |
          +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+


TABLE C.

Tangent practice with 8-inch Guns, weighing 65, and 60 cwt., carrying
a single shot weighing 56 lb., or a shell weighing 56 lb., and
charged with 10 lb. of powder. The line of sight is parallel to the
axis of the bore, and the gun is 5 feet 4 inches above the level of
the water.

  +---------+-------+----------+------------------------------------------+
  |         |       |Heights of|             The Points aimed at          |
  |         |       |part aimed+------------------------------------------+
  |  Eleva- | Dist- | at above | In a Line of battle |       In a         |
  |  tions. | ances.|the water.|   ship of 82 guns.  |  44 Gun frigate.   |
  +---------+-------+----------+---------------------+--------------------+
  | °  ′  ″ | yards.|  ft. in. |                     |                    |
  | 0 22 20 |  330  |  11  10  | 1 foot below the    | 1½ foot below the  |
  |         |       |          |   portsills of the  |   portsills of the |
  |         |       |          |   main deck.        |   quarter deck.    |
  | 0 35  0 |  435  |  18   7  | 7 inches below the  | 5 feet above ditto.|
  |         |       |          |   portsills of the  |                    |
  |         |       |          |   quarterdeck, and  |                    |
  |         |       |          |   forecastle.       |                    |
  | 0 47 30 |  535  |  27   6  | 2 feet above the    | Twice the height   |
  |         |       |          |   afterpart of poop |   from the water to|
  |         |       |          |   plank sheer.      |   ditto.           |
  | 1  0  0 |  630  |  38   4  | About midway between| Three times ditto. |
  |         |       |          |   the water-line,   |                    |
  |         |       |          |   and the under side|                    |
  |         |       |          |   of the maintop.   |                    |
  | 1 20  0 |  756  |  58   0  | 3 feet below the    | Upper side of the  |
  |         |       |          |   upper side of the |   mainyard.        |
  |         |       |          |   foreyard.         |                    |
  | 1 40  0 |  879  |  82   0  | Upper side of cap to| 2 ft. below the    |
  |         |       |          |   mizenmast; or, 4  |   upper side of the|
  |         |       |          |   feet above the    |   cap of the       |
  |         |       |          |   under side of the |   mainmast.        |
  |         |       |          |   maintop.          |                    |
  | 2  0  0 | 1000  | 110   0  | 2 feet below the    | 1 ft. above the    |
  |         |       |          |   crosstrees of the |   upper side of    |
  |         |       |          |   mizentopmast.     |   crosstrees of    |
  |         |       |          |                     |   foretopmast.     |
  | 2 20  0 | 1078  | 137   0  | 1 foot below the    | 1 ft. above the    |
  |         |       |          |   crosstrees of the |   head of the      |
  |         |       |          |   maintopmast.      |   topgallant rigg- |
  |         |       |          |                     |   ing foremast.    |
  | 2 40  0 | 1153  | 166   0  | 4 feet below the    | 2 feet below the   |
  |         |       |          |   head of topgallant|   truck of the     |
  |         |       |          |   rigging.          |   mainmast.        |
  | 3  0  0 | 1225  | 198   0  | 6 feet above the    |                    |
  |         |       |          |   truck of mainmast.|                    |
  | _Tangent practice with 32-pounder Gun, weighing 56 cwt., carrying     |
  |   one solid shot, charge 10 lb. The line of sight parallel to the     |
  |   axis of the bore, and the Gun 5 feet 4 inches above the water._     |
  | 0 15  0 |  343  |   9  10  | 3 feet below the    | 3 feet above the   |
  |         |       |          |   portsills of the  |   portsills of the |
  |         |       |          |   upper deck.       |   upper deck.      |
  | 0 30  0 |  435  |  16   9  | 4 feet above  ditto.| 3 feet above the   |
  |         |       |          |                     |   portsills of the |
  |         |       |          |                     |   quarter deck.    |
  | 0 41  0 |  525  |  24   0  | 1 foot below the    |About midway between|
  |         |       |          |   afterpart of poop |   the water, and   |
  |         |       |          |   plank sheer.      |   the under side of|
  |         |       |          |                     |   foreyard.        |
  | 0 52  0 |  613  |  33   0  | Midway between the  | One-third of       |
  |         |       |          |   water & upper side|   distance from the|
  |         |       |          |   of mainyard.      |   water to the     |
  |         |       |          |                     |   crosstrees of    |
  |         |       |          |                     |   mizentopmast.    |
  | 1  0  0 |  700  |  42   0  | About midway between| Midway between the |
  |         |       |          |   the water and the |   water, and cap   |
  |         |       |          |   upper side of the |   of mainmast.     |
  |         |       |          |   cap of the        |                    |
  |         |       |          |   mizenmast.        |                    |
  | 1 20  0 |  835  |  63   8  | About 2 feet below  | The under side of  |
  |         |       |          |   the upper side of |   foretop.         |
  |         |       |          |   the mainyard.     |                    |
  | 1 40  0 |  968  |  90   0  | 4 feet below the    | 4 feet under the   |
  |         |       |          |   upper side of the |   mizentopsail-    |
  |         |       |          |   cap of mainmast.  |   yard.            |
  | 2  0  0 | 1100  | 120   0  | 3 feet above the    | 1 ft. below the    |
  |         |       |          |   upper side of     |   upper side of    |
  |         |       |          |   foretopsail-yard. |   crosstrees of    |
  |         |       |          |                     |   maintopmast.     |
  | 2 20  0 | 1240  | 157   0  | 1 foot above the    | 5 feet above the   |
  |         |       |          |   head of topgallant|   truck of         |
  |         |       |          |   rigging, foremast.|   foremast.        |
  | 2 40  0 | 1378  | 198   0  | 5 feet above the    |                    |
  |         |       |          |   truck of mainmast.|                    |
  +---------+-------+----------+---------------------+--------------------+
        _Vide_—Tables of Practice, &c., pages 74, 75, 77, 79.


TABLE D.

Tangent practice with a long 24-Pr. Gun with 1 solid shot and a
charge of 8 lb. of powder, or with a long 18-Pr. charge 6 lb., from
the maindeck of a Frigate of the first class; the height of the Gun
above the surface of the water being 9 ft.

  +---------+--------+---------+-----------------------------------------+
  |         |        | Height  |                                         |
  |Distance |  Take  |of parts |         Point at the undermentioned     |
  |in yards.|  aim.  |aimed at.|        parts of Frigates of 44 guns.    |
  +---------+--------+---------+-----------------------------------------+
  |   297   |  P. B. |  ..     | At part intended to hit.                |
  |         |        |         |                                         |
  |   402   |}       |  14 ft. | At the level of the quarterdeck,        |
  |         |}       |         |   gangway, and forecastle.              |
  |   508   |}       |  22     | At bulwark rail of quarterdeck, gangway,|
  |         |}       |         |   and forecastle.                       |
  |   614   |} By    |  33     | At 4 feet below the centre of mainmast, |
  |         |} using |         |   reckoning from the deck to the        |
  |         |} sight |         |   mainyard; centre of foremast; 20 feet |
  |         |} para- |         |   below crossjack-yard.                 |
  |   720   |} llel  |  47     | At 13 feet below mainyard; 5 feet below |
  |         |} to    |         |   foreyard; 6 feet below crossjack-yard.|
  |   790   |} bore. |  61     | At under part of mainyard; 3 feet below |
  |         |}       |         |   foretop; 2 feet below mizentop.       |
  |   860   |}       |  77     | At rail of maintop-bulwark; forecap; 5  |
  |         |}       |         |   feet over mizencap.                   |
  |   930   |}       |  ..     | Point at part intended to hit.          |
  |         |        |         |                                         |
  |  1000   |}       |  35     | At 2 feet below half-way from deck to   |
  |         |}       |         |   mainyard; 2 feet above half-way from  |
  |         |}       |         |   deck to foreyard; centre of mizenmast.|
  |  1060   |}       |  51     | At 9 feet below mainyard; under part of |
  |         |}       |         |   foreyard; 1 foot below crossjack-yard.|
  |  1120   |} *By   |  68     | At 3 feet under maintop; rather better  |
  |         |} using |         |   than half-way between foretop and     |
  |         |} the   |         |   forecap; half-way between mizentop    |
  |         |} line  |         |   and mizencap.                         |
  |  1180   |}  of   |  86     | At cap of mainmast; 8 feet over forecap;|
  |         |} metal.|         |   3 feet under half-way from mizencap to|
  |         |}       |         |   topsail-yard (hoisted).               |
  |  1240   |}       | 106     | At centre-way between maincap and       |
  |         |}       |         |   topmast-crosstrees; 4 feet over       |
  |         |}       |         |   foretopsail-yard (hoisted); cap of    |
  |         |}       |         |   mizentopmast.                         |
  |  1299   |}       | 130     | At maintopmast cap; 7 feet under head   |
  |         |}       |         |   of foretopgallant rigging.            |
  +---------+--------+---------+-----------------------------------------+

  With 2 shot the elevation must be nearly double that which, with 1 shot,
  and the same charge of powder, produces the same range.

  The angles of elevation, corresponding to the ranges, increase, by
  quarter degrees, from point blank.

  * The reason for transferring the sight to the line-of-metal is,
  obviously, to use the dispart elevation for the purpose of getting a
  more direct view.

             _Vide_ Tables of Practice, &c., pages 74, 75.


TABLE E.

Tangent practice with short 24, and 18-Prs., with 1 solid shot and
a charge of ¼th the shot’s weight, from the maindeck of a 2nd class
Frigate; the height of the Gun above the surface of the water being 7
feet 6 inches.

  +--------+--------+---------+-------------------------------------------+
  |Distance|        | Height  |                                           |
  |  in    |  Take  |of parts |          Point at the undermentioned      |
  | yards. |  aim.  |aimed at.|         parts of Frigates of 44 guns.     |
  +--------+--------+---------+-------------------------------------------+
  |   221  |  P. B. | ft. in. | Point at part intended to hit.            |
  |   312  |}       |  11  6  | At 2 feet below the level of the          |
  |        |}       |         |   quarterdeck, gangway, and forecastle.   |
  |   403  |}       |  18  6  | At bulwark rail of quarterdeck, gangway,  |
  |        |}       |         |   and forecastle.                         |
  |   494  |}       |  26  6  | At 6 feet over the upper part of hammocks |
  |        |} By    |         |   stowed in quarterdeck, gangway, &c.     |
  |   582  |} sight |  37  6  | At 2 feet under centre of mainmast,       |
  |        |} para- |         |   reckoning from top of hammocks to       |
  |        |} llel  |         |   mainyard: 2 feet over corresponding     |
  |        |} to    |         |   mark in foremast.                       |
  |   644  |} axis  |  50     | At 8 feet under mainyard; 1 foot under    |
  |        |} of    |         |   foreyard; crossjack-yard.               |
  |   706  |} bore. |  62     | At 2 feet under half-way from mainyard to |
  |        |}       |         |   maintop; 1 foot under foretop; mizentop.|
  |   768  |}       |  78     | At half-way from maintop to maincap; 2    |
  |        |}       |         |   feet over forecap; 7 feet over mizencap.|
  |   832  |}       |  94     | At 10 feet over maincap or one-third up   |
  |        |        |         |   to the topmast, reckoning from cap to   |
  |        |        |         |   topsail-yard, (hoisted); 6 feet under   |
  |        |        |         |   foretopsail-yard, hoisted;              |
  |        |        |         |   mizentopsail-yard.                      |
  |   907  |  . .   |   .  .  | Point at part intended to hit.            |
  |   982  |}       |  20  6  | At upper part of the hammocks stowed in   |
  |        |}       |         |   quarterdeck, forecastle, nettings, &c.  |
  |  1057  |}       |  35  6  | At 4 feet under centre of mainmast,       |
  |        |}       |         |   reckoning from top of hammocks to       |
  |        |}       |         |   mainyard; centre of foremast.           |
  |  1133  |} *By   |  51     | At 7 feet under mainyard; foreyard;       |
  |        |} the   |         |   crossjack-yard.                         |
  |  1177  |} line  |  69     | At 1 foot under maintop; centre between   |
  |        |} of    |         |   foretop and forecap; 2 feet under       |
  |        |} metal.|         |   mizencap.                               |
  |  1221  |}       |  87     | At 3 feet over maincap; 1 foot under      |
  |        |}       |         |   centre between maincap and topsail-yards|
  |        |}       |         |   (hoisted up); 4 feet under centre of    |
  |        |}       |         |   mizentop-sail.                          |
  |  1265  |}       | 106     |At 8 feet under maintopsail-yard (hoisted);|
  |        |}       |         |   3 feet under foretopmast crosstrees; 1  |
  |        |}       |         |   foot over mizentopmast cap.             |
  |  1308  |}       | 127     | At 1 foot under maintopmast cap; 9 feet   |
  |        |        |         |   under the head of foretopgallant-       |
  |        |        |         |   rigging; 7 feet over the head of        |
  |        |        |         |   mizentopgallant-rigging.                |
  +--------+--------+---------+-------------------------------------------+

  With 2 shot the elevation must be nearly double that which, with 1 shot,
  and the same charge of powder, produces the same range.

  The angles of elevation, corresponding to the ranges, increase, by
  quarter degrees, from point blank.

  * The reason for transferring the sight to the line-of-metal is,
  obviously, to use the dispart elevation for getting a more direct view.

          _Vide_ Tables of Practice, &c., pages 74, 75.


INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE EXERCISE, AND SERVICE OF GREAT GUNS, AND SHELLS
ON BOARD HER MAJESTY’S SHIPS.

POSITIONS. (_Vide Plate._)

  Before loading.   Loading.   Training.

  _Gun Numbers._

  1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

  _Auxiliaries._

  7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, &c.

  _Handspike-men._

  9, 10.

  _Rear-men._

  12, The right rear-man. 13, The left rear-man, or the two highest
  numbers.


_Words of command._

“Prime.”—“Point.”—“Elevate.”—“Ready.”—“Fire.”—“Stop the
vent.”—“Sponge.”—“Load.”—“Run out.”


_Number of Men allowed to the following Broadside guns._

  ----------------+---------+---------+-------+----------------
   Nature of Gun. | Weight. | Length. |Number |   Carriage.
                  |         |         |of men.|
  ----------------+---------+---------+-------+----------------
                  |  cwt.   |  Feet.  |       |
      8-inch.     |   65    |   9     |   14  |} These guns
                 {|   56    |   9½    |   13  |}   are
                 {|   50    |   9     |   12  |}   mounted on
    32 Pounder.  {|   45    |   8½    |   11  |}   common
                 {|   42    |   8     |   10  |}   carriages.
                 {|   32    |   6½    |    9  |  } Mounted on
                 {|   25    |   6     |    8  |  }   Hardy’s
  32 Pr. Carronade|   17    |   4     |    7  |  }   carriages.
  ----------------+---------+---------+-------+----------------

[Illustration: POSITIONS.

  _Before Loading._      _Loading._      _Training._

  Stationary Powderman    Stationary Powderman    Stationary Powderman
                                         Extra Powderman

                                                    _J. W. Lowry, sc._]


EXERCISE WITH 13 MEN, _to a Lower deck gun_.

No.

1. The Captain;—commands, attends the breeching, bed, and quoin,
primes, points, fires, and stops the vent.

2. The second Captain;—assists No. 1, casts loose, hauls up the port,
runs out, attends the apron, and port tackle-fall, and cocks the lock.

3. Takes out the tompeon, bears out the port, loads, rams home, runs
out, and trains.

4. Takes out the tompeon, bears out the port, worms, sponges, rams
home, runs out, and trains.

5. Casts loose, hauls up the port, gives shot and wad to No. 3, runs
out, trains, and spans the breeching.

7, and 8. Cast loose, run out, and train.

9, and 10. Cast loose, run out, and attend handspikes.

11. Casts loose, runs out, and trains.

12. Casts loose, and attends train tackle.

13. Casts loose, runs out, trains, and fires with a hammer, or match.

_Note._—The duties of No. 2 for upper, or main deck guns will be the
same as that for lower deck guns, omitting the words “haul up the
port,” and “attends port tackle-fall.” The duties likewise of Nos. 3,
and 4 will be the same, substituting the words “takes off the upper
half-port,” “lets down the lower one,” or “takes out the port” (as
the case may be) for “bears out the port.” The duties also of Nos. 5,
and 6 will be the same, omitting the words “hauls up the port.”

  Handspike-men with 5, 6, or 7 men          Nos. 5, and 6
      ”          ”   8 or 9 men               ”   7, and 8
      ”          ”   10 or 11 men             ”   7, and 8
  and assistant handspike-men                 ”   9, and 2
  Handspike-men with all Nos. above 11        ”   9, and 10
  and assistant handspike-men                 ”  11, and 2

With light guns it may be advantageous, in some cases, to double man
the handspikes.

The left rear-man will always fire with a hammer, or match; and
the right rear-man will attend the train tackle, except when he is
handspikeman (when No. 2 will attend it), and in lower deck exercise
(when the left rear-man will attend it).

At the word “_Man both sides_,” each watch will repair to its
respective side, the odd numbers standing to the left of the left
guns; even numbers to the right of the right guns.


“MAN BOTH SIDES.”

  _Left guns._—No. 3 remains 3; 5 becomes 4; 7—6; 9—5; 11—2; 13—7;
  1 remains 1.

  _Right guns._—No. 4 remains 4; 6 becomes 3; 8—6; 10—5; 12—2; 2—1.

_Note._—The left guns are odd starboard, and even port. The right
guns are even starboard, and odd port. The odd numbered guns’ crews
are taken from the starboard watch; the even numbered from the port
watch.

Guns’ crews always man, and powder boys always supply adjacent guns,
when clearing for action, or when fighting both sides.

_Note._—With a crew of 11 men, and upwards, and both sides manned,
No. 2 is _always_ to attend the train tackle.

When casualties occur at the guns, those holding the highest numbers,
or those _last_ placed, will be the first to move to fill up the
vacancies, excepting that where both captains are removed, the
officer will name the most fitting person to become No. 1, filling up
the vacancy as above. For instance; if there should be 13 men at the
gun, and Nos. 3, 6, and 9, are ordered to “fall out,” Nos. 5, and 7,
move up, becoming Nos. 3, and 5; No. 11, moves up, and becomes No. 7;
No. 13,—No. 9; No. 8 moves up, and becomes No. 6; No. 10,—No. 8; and
No. 12,—No. 10.[32]


EXERCISE WITH 7 MEN, _to a 32-pounder carronade_.

No.

1. The Captain; commands, attends the breeching, primes, points,
fires, and stops the vent.

2. The second Captain; assists No. 1, casts loose, runs out,
attends the apron, and elevating screw, cocks the lock, and attends
train-tackle.

3. Takes out the tompeon, takes off the upper half-port, lets down
the lower one, loads, rams home, runs out, and trains.

4. Takes out the tompeon, takes off the upper half-port, lets down
the lower one, worms, sponges, rams home, runs out, trains, and
attends compressor, when the gun is out.

5. Casts loose, gives shot, and wad to No. 3, runs out, trains, and
spans the breeching.

6. Casts loose, gives sponge, rammer, and worm to No. 4, runs out,
trains, spans the breeching, and attends compressor, when the gun is
in.

7. Casts loose, runs out, trains, and fires with a hammer, or match.

_Note._—Handspikes are used with all guns, and sometimes with
carronades.

The duties with 9 men at the 32 cwt., and 8 men at the 25 cwt. guns
are the same as with the 32-pounder carronade, except that No. 8
attends the compressor, instead of No. 6.


ARRANGEMENT FOR FIGHTING BOTH SIDES.

When ordered to quarters, each watch will take its respective side;
when the crew will assume the Nos. to which the several duties,
prescribed for working the guns, are assigned.

In the event of being attacked on both sides, at the same time, the
following distribution is to be made, where 6 men, and upwards,
besides the powderman, can be allowed to each gun, and its opposite,
viz.:—


FIGHTING BOTH SIDES.

  +---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
  |  With 6 men,  |  With 8 men,  |  With 10 men, |  With 12 men, |
  | and powderman.| and powderman.| and powderman.| and powderman.|
  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 |
  |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |
  |  ‖┃‖  |  ‖┃‖  |  ‖┃‖6 |  ‖┃‖6 | 5‖┃‖6 | 5‖┃‖6 | 5‖┃‖6 | 5‖┃‖6 |
  |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |
  |  ‖┃‖  |  ‖┃‖  |  ‖┃‖  |  ‖┃‖  |  ‖┃‖  |  ‖┃‖  |  ‖┃‖2 |  ‖┃‖2 |
  |   1   |   1   |   1   |   1   |   1   |   1   |   1   |   1   |
  |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
  |Powder-|Powder-|Powder-|Powder-|Powder-|Powder-|Powder-|Powder-|
  |  man. |  man. |  man. |  man. |  man. |  man. |  man. |  man. |
  |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
  |   1   |   1   |   1   |   1   |   1   |   1   |   1   |   1   |
  |  ‖┃‖  |  ‖┃‖  |  ‖┃‖  |  ‖┃‖  |  ‖┃‖  | 2‖┃‖  | 2‖┃‖  | 2‖┃‖7 |
  |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |
  |  ‖┃‖  | 6‖┃‖  | 6‖┃‖  | 6‖┃‖5 | 6‖┃‖5 | 6‖┃‖5 | 6‖┃‖5 | 6‖┃‖5 |
  |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |   ┃   |
  | 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃  3| 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3 |
  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |  With 7 men,  |  With 9 men,  |  With 11 men, |  With 13 men, |
  | and powderman.| and powderman.| and powderman.| and powderman.|
  +---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+

The guns are to be worked in pairs, commencing from forward; Nos. 1,
and 2 guns on each side will be pairs, and so on, up to the highest
even numbered gun on the deck; but the aftermost (if it should be an
odd numbered gun) must be worked by its own crew passing from side to
side, as necessary. When exercising, until the crews are perfect, and
steady, the orders should be given by the officer, who is in charge
of the quarters, and the left guns should be fired first. But when
the men are perfect, the guns, which are first ready, should be first
fired, and the exercise should be conducted by the captains of the
guns, having reference to the movements of the other gun of their
pairs, in order to approximate the exercise, as nearly as possible,
to action with an enemy. All shot practice at targets, with both
sides manned, is to be conducted on this plan.


_Words of command for_ FIGHTING BOTH SIDES.

“Man both sides.”—“Prime.”—“Point.”—“Muzzle to the right.”—“Muzzle
to the left.”—“Elevate.”—“Ready.”—(_Left guns._)—“Fire.”—“Sponge,
and load.”—(_Right guns._)—“Fire.”—“Sponge, and load.”—(_Left
guns._)—“Run out.”—“Fire.”—“Sponge, and load.”—(_Right guns._)—“Run
out.”—“Fire.”—“Cease firing.”

When ordered to “cease firing,” the guns are to be loaded, and run
out.[33]


EXERCISE FOR THE 10-INCH, OR OTHER REVOLVING GUN, _with a crew of 17
men_.

The crew are assembled as in the established Gun exercise; then—

  Gun.—Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

  Auxiliaries.—Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17.

  Traversing tackle-men.—Nos. 7, 8.

  Handspike-men.—Nos. 9, 10. Assistant handspike-men.—Nos. 11, 12.

  Compressor men, Nos. 13, 14.

  Rear-men.—No. 16, the right rear-man. No. 17, the left rear-man.

  No. 1. The Captain.           No. 4. Sponger.
   ”  2. Second Captain.         ”  5. Assistant loader.
   ”  3. Loader.                 ”  6. Assistant sponger.


_Words of command._

“Traverse.”[34]—“Prime.”—“Point.”—“Elevate.”—“Ready.”—“Fire.”—“Stop
the vent.”—“Sponge.”—“Load.”—“Run out.”


_Exercise with 17 men._

  No.

  1. The Captain; commands, attends the breeching, bed, and quoin,
  primes, points, fires, and stops the vent.

  2. Second Captain; assists No. 1, casts loose, runs out, attends
  the apron, cocks the lock, and attends rear bolt.

  3. Takes out the tompeon, loads, rams home, runs out, attends
  fighting bolt, shackles, and unshackles breeching, if necessary.

  4. Takes out the tompeon, worms, sponges, rams home, runs out,
  attends stop-handspike, shackles, and unshackles breeching, if
  necessary.

  5. Casts loose, runs out, traverses, and spans the breeching.

  6. Casts loose, gives sponge, rammer, and worm to No. 4, runs out,
  traverses, and spans the breeching.

  7, and 8. Cast loose, run out, attend traversing tackles, and shift
  side tackles.

  9, 10, 11, and 12. Cast loose, run out, and attend handspikes.

  13, and 14. Cast loose, run out, traverse, and attend compressors.

  15. Casts loose, runs out, and traverses.

  16. Casts loose, traverses, shifts traversing-tackle, brings up
  shot, or shell, attends stop-handspike, and train-tackle.

  17. Casts loose, traverses, shifts traversing-tackle, brings up
  shot, or shell, fires with a hammer, or match, and attends train
  tackle.

N.B. These numbers will be reduced for lighter guns, as may be
necessary, when Nos. 11, and 12, will attend compressors, and the
rear-men will do the duties of No. 16, and 17. When slide-guns are
fitted with Ferguson’s Compressor, No. 6 is to attend to it.

On coming to the gun, one, or other of these orders will follow;
viz.,—“Action on the rear bolt,” or “Action on the fighting bolt
required.”

No. 2, attends the rear, No. 3, the fighting bolt, No. 1 gives the
word “Right, or left traverse;” and when bearing on the object, or
when on the fighting bolt required “Well:” the gun is then to be
wormed, sponged, loaded, and run out, without further orders.


MORTAR EXERCISE.

  Mortars—13-inch Land service—Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
    ”      10-inch  ”      ”      ”   1, -  3, 4, 5, 6.
    ”       8-inch  ”      ”      ”   1, -  3, 4, -  6.


_Words of command._

“Point.”—“Run the mortar up.”—“Cross lift the mortar to the
right.”—“Cross lift the mortar to the left.”—“Muzzle to the
right.”—“Muzzle to the left.”—“Down.”—“Load.”—“Prime.”—“Fire.”


_13-inch Land service Mortar._

  _Duties._—No. 1. Commands, points, and serves the vent.

  2. Serves ammunition.

  3. Loads, assists to put in the shell, runs up, and trains.

  4. Sponges, wipes the bottom of the shell, uncaps the fuse, puts in
  shell, runs up, trains, and attends sheepskin.

  5. Assists to bring up shell, runs up, trains, and fires.

  6. Brings up shell, guides it into the mortar, runs up, trains, and
  primes.


_10-inch Land service Mortar._

  _Duties._—No. 1. Commands, points, and serves the vent.

  3. Serves ammunition, loads, assists to put in shell, runs up, and
  trains.

  4. Sponges, wipes the bottom of the shell, uncaps the fuze, puts in
  shell, runs up, trains, and attends sheepskin.

  5. Assists to bring up shell, runs up, trains, and fires.

  6. Brings up shell, runs up, trains, and primes.


_8-inch Land service Mortar._

  _Duties._—No. 1. Commands, primes, points, and serves the vent.

  3. Serves ammunition, loads, runs up, and trains.

  4. Sponges, wipes the bottom of the shell, uncaps the fuze, puts in
  shell, runs up, trains, and attends sheepskin.

  6. Brings up shell, and fires.


TO DISMOUNT A 13-INCH LAND SERVICE MORTAR, with any number of men,
not less than 14.

  _Duties._—No. 1. Commands.

  2. Assists No. 1, and lashes handspikes.

  3, and 4. Unlash the quoin, and place handspikes in the mortar.

  5, and 6. Bring up a drag-rope each, and place the loop ends over
  the handspikes.

All the Nos. man the dragropes, except Nos. 3, and 4, who attend with
their handspikes, and raise the mortar perpendicular; then Nos. 3,
and 4 steady the mortar, place the dragropes round the body of the
mortar, and take out the handspikes and quoin; Nos. 5, 6, 7, and
8 unscrew, and take out the cap-squares. All the numbers man the
dragropes, except Nos. 3 and 4, and throw the mortar to the rear. If
it does not fall on its face, Nos. 3, and 4 place their handspikes
under the trunnions (Nos. 5, and 6 the bight of the dragropes under
the trunnions) and raise the mortar on its face; then Nos. 3, and 4
place their handspikes on the trunnions; Nos. 5, and 6 place the loop
ends round the handspikes, and trunnions; even Nos. go to the front,
and odd Nos. to the rear, and turn the mortar round. Nos. 5, and 6
place their dragropes over the opposite bolts of the mortar bed; Nos.
3, and 4 assist with their handspikes. All the Nos., at right angles
to each other, turn the mortar bed round, and run it close up to the
mortar.


TO MOUNT THE MORTAR.

Nos. 3, and 4 place their handspikes under the trunnions, and on the
top steps of the mortar bed; Nos. 5, and 6 place their dragropes
round the trunnions, and throw the mortar into the trunnion boxes:
the mortar is raised perpendicular, as before. All the Nos. will do
what they have undone; even Nos. go to the front, odd Nos. to the
rear, and ease the mortar down.

N.B. The cap-squares are not to be shifted over till the mortar is
raised perpendicular.


INSTRUCTIONS FOR LANDING SEAMEN, AND MARINES, WITH FIELD PIECES.

_For Exercise, or Service on shore_.

1. The boats should be formed in divisions, according to the
seniority of the Captains of their respective ships, numbering from
No. 1, on the right. The seamen, and marines should be told off in
companies previous to leaving their ships, and on landing they will
form immediately in the same order.

2. Each division of boats should have a distinguishing flag. Launches
will carry two scaling ladders, intrenching tools, &c.; barges, and
pinnaces, one ladder each.

3. The boats will always land a boat’s length apart. Before leaving
the ships, two boat keepers for each boat, and an officer in charge
of each division of boats are to be told off, and are on no account
to leave them.

A fast-pulling boat with medical officers will attend in rear of the
line.

4. Should the distance from the point of landing be considerable,
the boats of each division, in tow of each other, commencing with
the lightest boats, will pull in,—the leading boat of each division
abreast, leaving space for the whole to form line abreast when
ordered.

The boats will be dressed in line, as well as circumstances will
admit. The officer in command will commence firing from the gun-boats
when he thinks fit, but no shells, Shrapnell shells, or musketry are
to be fired without orders.

5. When the commanding officer perceives the beach to be cleared (or
when he considers it proper) he will order the boats to advance; they
will pull in immediately, and land their crews, and field pieces,
the latter will be formed on the flanks of their own division, or in
batteries, according to orders; the scaling ladders in the rear until
required for service.

6. The launches’ crews may be employed in throwing up a breast-work,
and placing their guns in it, to cover their re-embarkation, should
it become necessary.

7. Should the boats be employed for the disembarkation of troops,
the same arrangement as to the divisions of boats should remain. It
will then be desirable that every boat should carry a flag similar to
that of the commanding officer of its division, and, when in large
numbers, the boats should also be painted according to the colours of
the flags, that the troops may readily know their own boats.

On these occasions, the launches, barges, and pinnaces will form a
front line, so as to clear the beach; the light boats will tow troop
boats, paddle box boats, &c., and be ready to succour any boats that
may be damaged by the enemy’s fire.

The orders, as to the firing of musketry, should be strictly
enjoined, as before, with the seamen, and marines. It would be better
that no musket should be loaded, and no knapsacks taken.


Proportion of Charges, Spare powder, &c., for a 51 Gun, screw, steam
Frigate; and 50 Gun Frigate.

           KEY:
            A = Number.
            B = Proportion for each Gun.
            C = Total number of Cartridges.
            D = Number in each case.
            E = Number of cases.

  +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |                      51 Gun, screw, steam Frigate.                   |
  +-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+
  |   Nature  |    |        |     |     |     |     |                    |
  |     of    |  A | Charge.|   B |   C |   D |   E |    Spare powder.   |
  |  Ordnance.|    |        |     |     |     |     |                    |
  +-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+
  | 68 Pr.    |  1 | Distant| 120 | 120 |   6 | 20  | 20 rounds per gun, |
  | 95 cwt.   |    |  16 lb.|     |     |     |     |   full charges, as |
  |           |    | Full   |  60 |  60 |  11 |  7  |   spare; amounting |
  |           |    |  10 lb.|     |     |     |     |   to 200 lb.       |
  |           |    |        |     |     |     |     |                    |
  | 8 in. Gun | 12 | Reduced|  20 | 240 |  15 | 16  | 20 rounds per gun, |
  | 65 cwt.   |    |  5 lb. |     |     |     |     |   reduced charges, |
  |           |    | Full   |  40 | 480 |  14 | 34½ |   as spare;        |
  |           |    |  8 lb. |     |     |     |     |   amounting to     |
  |           |    | Distant|  20 | 240 |  11 | 22  |   1200 lb.         |
  |           |    |  10 lb.|     |     |     |     |                    |
  |           |    |        |     |     |     |     |                    |
  | 32 Pr.    | 18 | Reduced|  40 | 720 |  19 | 38  | 20 rounds per gun, |
  | 58 cwt.   |    |  6 lb. |     |     |     |     |   reduced charges, |
  |           |    | Full   |  20 | 360 |  14 | 26  |   as spare;        |
  |           |    |  8 lb. |     |     |     |     |   amounting to     |
  |           |    | Distant|  20 | 360 |  11 | 33  |   2160 lb.         |
  |           |    |  10 lb.|     |     |     |     |                    |
  |           |    |        |     |     |     |     |                    |
  | 32 Pr.    | 20 | Reduced|  30 | 600 |  22 | 27½ | 20 rounds per gun, |
  | 45 cwt.   |    |  5 lb. |     |     |     |     |   reduced charges, |
  |           |    | Full   |  50 | 1000|  16 | 62½ |   as spare;        |
  |           |    |  7 lb. |     |     |     |     |   amounting        |
  |           |    |        |     |     |     |     |   to 2000 lb.      |
  | 24 Pr.    |    |        |     |     |     |     |                    |
  | Howitzer  |  2 | 2½ lb. | 174 | 348 | 20* | 17† |                    |
  | 12½ cwt.  |    |        |     |     |     |     +--------------------+
  |           |    |        |     |     |     |     |2 half-cases of     |
  | 12 Pr.    |    |        |     |     |     |     | bursters, (10 oz., |
  | Howitzer  |  2 | 1¼ lb. | 174 | 348 | 40* |  9‡ | 6 oz., 5½ oz., and |
  | 6 cwt.    |    |        |     |     |     |     | 4½ oz.,) and two   |
  |           |    |        |     |     |     |     |half-cases of fuses.|
  +-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+
    Remarks. This spare powder would amount to 5560 pounds, and would be
    packed in 15 pound bags, 8 in a case, and would stow in 47 cases.

        * In a half-case.
        † Half-cases, and a quarter-case.
        ‡ Half-cases.

  +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |                            50 Gun Frigate.                           |
  +-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+
  |   Nature  |    |        |     |     |     |     |                    |
  |     of    |  A | Charge.|   B |   C |   D |   E |    Spare powder.   |
  |  Ordnance.|    |        |     |     |     |     |                    |
  +-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+
  | 8 in. Gun |  8 | Reduced|  20 | 160 |  15 |  11 | 20 rounds per gun, |
  | 65 cwt.   |    |  5 lb. |     |     |     |     |   reduced charges, |
  |           |    | Full   |  40 | 320 |  14 |  23 |   as spare;        |
  |           |    |  8 lb. |     |     |     |     |   amounting to     |
  |           |    | Distant|  20 | 160 |  11 |  15 |   800 lb.          |
  |           |    |  10 lb.|     |     |     |     |                    |
  |           |    |        |     |     |     |     |                    |
  | 32 Pr.    | 22 | Reduced|  40 | 880 |  19 |  46 | 20 rounds per gun, |
  | 56 cwt.   |    |  6 lb. |     |     |     |     |   reduced charges, |
  |           |    | Full   |  20 | 440 |  14 |  32 |   as spare;        |
  |           |    |  8 lb. |     |     |     |     |   amounting to     |
  |           |    | Distant|  20 | 440 |  11 |  40 |   2640 lb.         |
  |           |    |  10 lb.|     |     |     |     |                    |
  |           |    |        |     |     |     |     |                    |
  | 32 Pr.    | 20 | Reduced|  30 | 600 |  22 |  27½| 20 rounds per gun, |
  | 45 cwt.   |    |  5 lb. |     |     |     |     |   reduced charges, |
  |           |    | Full   |  50 | 1000|  16 |  62½|   as spare;        |
  |           |    |  7 lb. |     |     |     |     |   amounting to     |
  |           |    |        |     |     |     |     |   2000 lb.         |
  | 24 Pr.    |    |        |     |     |     |     +--------------------+
  | Howitzer  |  2 | 2½ lb. | 174 | 348 | 20* | 17† |2 half-cases of     |
  | 12½ cwt.  |    |        |     |     |     |     |  bursters, (10 oz.,|
  |           |    |        |     |     |     |     |  6 oz., 5 oz., and |
  | 12 Pr.    |    |        |     |     |     |     |  4½ oz.,) and 2    |
  | Howitzer  |  2 | 1¼ lb. | 174 | 348 | 40* |  9‡ |  half-cases of     |
  | 6 cwt.    |    |        |     |     |     |     |  fuses.            |
  +-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+
        * In a half-case.
        † Half-cases, and a quarter-case.
        ‡ Half-cases.


ON NAVAL BOMBARDMENTS.[35]

“The attack of fortresses, and powerful land batteries with a
naval force only, must ever be a hazardous, and perhaps desperate
undertaking. But if skilfully combined with a military force
sufficiently strong to make good its landing, to invest the place,
or the batteries on the land side, to take the defences in reverse,
and so open the way to the attack by sea, the object of the attack
will in general be successful. But this mode of proceeding can only
be applied when the place to be attacked occupies a position, insular
or otherwise, of such extent as to admit of being attacked by land as
well as by sea. When the place, fortress, or arsenal to be attacked
is covered and protected by isolated points of defence, mutually
protecting each other, and when no previous military operation can
be made, those points or outposts should be attacked in detail,
and successively reduced; after which the fleet may arrive at, and
attack the main position. This must evidently be a protracted and
difficult process, even with such means: with ships alone, it cannot
be effected without severe loss, and damages: and it should always
be remembered that many of the attacking ships would be severely
injured, probably disabled, in the attempt, whilst the enemy’s fleet
would remain untouched, and in reserve. It would, therefore, follow
that the attacking fleet must be exposed to a very disadvantageous
action with the enemy, in the event of the latter subsequently
leaving his place of shelter.

“When the fortress, or arsenal to be attacked is situated on a
coast which may be approached from the open sea in any direction,
steam-ships may avoid the danger of a direct attack, end-on, or
oblique, by approaching the place on either, or perhaps on both
sides; and, having gained the proper proximity, clear of raking, or
diagonal fire, range quickly up in parallel order, to attack the
place in line, or lines; as in steam warfare, ship against ship, or
fleet against fleet, direct advances upon the broadside batteries
of ships, may, upon the same principle be avoided, and the enemy
attacked in parallel order, by ranging up to him, and forced to fight
if the attacking ships are superior in speed.

“But when the fortress, arsenal, or place to be attacked is only
approachable by a narrow and intricate channel, through which ships
can only pass singly, or nearly so, there can be no manœuvering for
position. There is no way of avoiding being met by direct, then
oblique, and ultimately raking fire from the batteries that defend
the channel, and steam can only perform its office of propulsion
into or through those intricacies under these disadvantageous,
and hazardous circumstances. Steam-ships might, indeed, run past
advanced, or covering batteries at full speed, without being much
damaged; but it would be extremely perilous to leave such forts
unsilenced in their rear, and, unless the daring enterprise should
succeed, like Nelson’s, at Copenhagen, to produce a cessation of
hostilities, the fleet, or at least any disabled ships, could never
get out again.

“However successful a naval attack of a fortress, or arsenal may be,
the work of destruction can never be effectually accomplished by
ships. The sea defences may be silenced, guns dismounted, parapets
ruined, magazines blown up by mortar shells, and habitations
devastated by the cruel process of bombardment; but no substantial
demolition of the defences, or material destruction of public
works and property, can be effected, unless the partial and rather
temporary than permanent damages inflicted by the attacks of ships
be followed up and completed, by having actual possession of the
captured place for a sufficient time to ruin it entirely. No naval
operation, however skilfully planned, and gallantly executed, can, in
this way, reap the fruits of its own victory.

“In the desultory operations of small active steamers employed to
shell, with their pivot guns, open towns, roadsteads, harbours, and
slender buildings, magazines, stores, &c., &c., or to shell bodies
of troops on shore, the attacking vessels should never anchor, but
having given their end-on fire, go off at speed to reload, and
prepare to take up the fire in turn with others, whenever they regain
a favourable position for a good effect. To hit a steamer running
with speed across a line of fire is no easy matter (Arts. 331, 341);
and when in the end-on position, she presents but a small target to
hit at a long range.”




PART IX.

BATTERIES, AND FORTIFICATION.


BATTERIES.

_A battery_, in respect to its profile, may be either elevated, half
sunken, or sunken; and it is usually reveted with gabions, fascines,
sand-bags, &c.

_An elevated battery_ has its whole parapet raised above the natural
surface of the ground, and, to procure the mass of earth required, a
ditch is usually dug directly in front of the parapet.

_A half-sunken battery_ has its interior space, or terreplein, sunk
some inches below the natural surface, and its parapet is composed
of the earth thus obtained, and of that taken from a narrow ditch in
front.

_A sunken battery_ has the whole of the earth taken from the interior
space to form the parapet; and it must therefore be lowered from 2
feet to 3 feet 6 inches, according to the height of the gun carriages
to be used.

_The half-sunken battery_ is constructed the quickest, as the diggers
can work both in front and rear, at the same time. In a sunken
battery, the diggers are as much crowded as in an elevated one,
but, since the mass of parapet to be raised is smaller, it may be
completed in much less time.

_Casemates, or vaulted batteries_, are made bomb-proof, and the
embrazures are cut through the revetment.

_Barbet batteries_ have no embrazures, the guns being placed on
traversing platforms to enable them to fire over the parapet.

_A direct fire_ from a battery is when the line of fire is
perpendicular to the parapet, and an _oblique fire_ when it is
oblique. The direct fire being preferable, the battery should be
placed parallel to the object against which the fire is to be
directed.

_The line of fire_ is an imaginary line drawn through the centre of
an embrazure, in the direction of the object against which a battery
is constructed.

_Embrazures_ are openings cut through parapets, flanks of bastions,
&c., for guns to fire through.

_The neck of the embrazure_ is the inward, or narrowest part of it.

_The mouth of the embrazure_ is the outward, or widest part of it.

_The sole of the embrazure_ is the bottom, or space, between the
cheeks or sides.

_The sill_ is the front of the sole.

_The genouillere_ is that part of the parapet which is immediately
beneath the embrazures.

_The merlon_ is the portion of the parapet contained between two
embrazures.


_The following dimensions are requisite to be proof,_

  _Against musketry._—3 feet          when of earth.
                      6 inches           ”    stone.
                     12 inches           ”    fir.
                      5 inches           ”    oak.
                      9 inches           ”    brick.

  _Against cannon._—4 feet,                      when of wood, or brick.
                    6 feet against 6-pounders,   when of earth.
                    9       ”      9-pounders,        ditto.
                   14       ”     12-pounders,        ditto.
                   18       ”     18 & 24-pounders,   ditto.

_Note._—A 6-pounder shot, with a charge of one pound, will penetrate
a _mass of ice_ to the depth of 4½ feet, at the distance of
twenty-one yards.


GENERAL DIMENSIONS OF AN ELEVATED GUN BATTERY,

_reveted with fascines_.

                                                                  ft.  in.
  Space from the centre of one embrazure to that of the next,
    without traverses                                             18    0
  Ditto, with traverses                                           22    0
  Slope of the interior revetment, per foot (one-fourth
    its height)                                                    —    3
  Fall of the superior slope,       ditto   (one-twelfth,
      ditto)                                                       —    1
  Interior width of embrazures, measured on the sill               2    0
  Exterior ditto, measured on the sole, at 12 feet from the sill   7    0
  Slope of the cheeks of embrazures at the neck, per foot,
    (one-sixth of their height)                                    —    2
  Ditto, at the mouth, per foot (one-fourth their height)          —    3
  Distance from the centre of an embrazure to the foot of the
    slope of an adjoining traverse                                 7    6
  Distance from the centre of an embrazure to the foot of the
    slope of an adjoining epaulment                                5    0
  Height of the sill                                      about    3    0


DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING A BATTERY.

Batteries at sieges are generally traced in the dusk of the evening.

_Detail of men, and tools required:_

_Tracers.—1 non-commissioned officer, and 2 privates._

_Tools.—1 ground-square. 1 measuring tape._

_1 white tracing-line. 2 ten-feet rods. 1 bundle of pickets. 1
mallet._

_Directions._—The tracing-pickets, and mallet, are carried in
a sand-bag, and a few long pickets are necessary to mark the
embrazures. A line should be stretched about 40 feet in the direction
of the object against which the battery is to be erected; this
will show _the line of fire_. By means of a ground-square, a line
may be laid down at right angles to the former, touching the first
placed picket. This will be the interior base line. Another line must
be placed parallel to this, at a distance equal to the sum of the
breadth of the base of the parapet, breadth of the berm (if any),
and breadth of the slope of the ditch (viz., about 27 feet), which
line will represent the reverse slope of the ditch. A picket is then
driven in on the interior base line, where it is intended to have one
extremity of the battery, and as many long pickets (18 feet apart),
measuring from this end, as there are guns, which will mark the
centre of the embrazures. Then one more picket, 18 feet distant from
the last, will show the other extremity. For the embrazures, drive
in a picket at the distance of one foot on each side of the centre
of the embrazures, for the width of the neck. Set off, and drive in
pickets 3 feet 6 inches on each side of, and perpendicular to the
line of fire, for the width of the mouth.


WORKING PARTY; TOOLS; AND MATERIALS REQUIRED

_for each gun; mortar; traverse; or epaulment; in an elevated fascine
battery_.

_2 sappers, with 6 assistants_, to revet the work.

_12 infantry_, to excavate the ditch, and form the parapet.

_9 pickaxes, 15 shovels, or spades, 14 fascines, 18 feet long, 1
bundle of 50 pickets to 6 fascines, 3 mauls, 3 rammers, 1 saw_ to
every two guns, _1 hatchet_ per gun, _1 bill-hook, 1 field-service
level, 1 six-feet rod, 1 bundle of matches_ to every three guns, _1
lantern_, do., 1 lb. _of candles_, do., _1 bundle of gads_ to each
gun, _1 tape of 50 feet in length_ per battery.

A battery will seldom be completed in less than 24 hours, when
executed by inexperienced workmen; but by those inured to hard
labour, and with proper reliefs, in about 10 hours. In light soil,
that can be easily dug without the aid of a pickaxe, a man can, in
8 hours, load from 19 to 20 cubic yards of earth on barrows. If a
pickaxe be required, 2 men will do the same quantity of work. A man
can wheel 20 cubic yards of earth per day to a distance of 30 yards
on level ground, or 20 yards on a ramp. Twenty cubic yards of earth
will fill 500 wheelbarrows. When near the surface, in soil requiring
but little the use of the pickaxe, an excavation of 6 cubic yards in
a day of 8 hours would be a fair task for a soldier, who in general
is little accustomed to working with the pickaxe and shovel.


SHELTER FROM AN ENEMY’S FIRE.[36]

The following method of sheltering the workmen from the enemy’s fire
was used with great success during the construction of the batteries.
It was towards the end of the siege that Lieutenant Néandre received
orders to construct a battery 130 paces from the counterscarp,
the covered way being strongly occupied by the enemy. Foreseeing
the difficulties that would occur, Lieutenant Néandre provided 120
common platform planks, and, when the gabions were in their places,
arranged the planks outside them, in such a manner as to present an
inclined plane, (one end of the plank being supported on the gabion,
and the other end resting on the ground towards the enemy): the
gabions were then half filled with earth, and the pickets driven in.
At this moment the enemy threw some fire balls, and fired a few shot,
all of which went over. Soon after, the workmen were assailed with
a well-sustained fire of musketry; but, on the balls striking the
epaulment, they ricocheted and passed over the workmen, so that not a
single man was hit. The battery was finished in a few hours, when the
planks were drawn in, and used for the platforms.

A portable framework might be rapidly made, and used instead of the
gabions, to obtain immediate cover from musketry fire; and, for
sapping, the framework, with the planks fixed thereon, might be
readily moved on trucks, as a substitute for the present sap roller.


EPAULMENTS.

Batteries at sieges are generally secured on one flank at least, by a
parapet called an epaulment, forming an obtuse angle with that of the
battery. Their use is to secure the reverse of the terreplein from
any flanking fire, and they are not in general made so thick as the
parapet, being seldom subject to a direct fire.


ELEVATED SAND-BAG BATTERIES.

The base of the interior slope of a battery reveted with sand-bags is
rather broader than that of one reveted with fascines, being about
one-third the height of the parapet. _Bushel sand-bags_ are now the
only kind in use, and _when filled are of the following dimensions_:

  Length 20 inches, breadth 10 inches, depth 5 inches.
  Number required per gun,—for the interior revetment       262
      Ditto     Ditto       for the cheeks                  360
                                                            ---
                                            Total           622

_Sand-bags_ are laid _header_, and _stretcher_, as in masonry; the
ends which are tied being always hid. As the sand-bags near the neck
of the embrazure would be destroyed after a few hours’ firing, and
constantly require repairing, gabions, or casks should be substituted
for them.

_Howitzer batteries_ are similar to those for guns, except that the
interior openings of the embrazures are 2 feet 6 inches, and the
soles are raised, towards the front, about 10°, in order to cover the
gunners as much as possible.

_Mortar batteries_ are constructed with the same dimensions as gun
batteries (the parapet being generally 8 feet high, and from 18 to
22 feet thick), but, as they have not embrazures, the ditch of
elevated batteries is made two feet deeper to obtain the requisite
quantity of earth. A preference would in general be given to the
sunken, or half-sunken profile for a mortar battery, on account of
its requiring less time for its construction, and it being of no
consequence whether the platforms are sunken, or otherwise. Mortars
are placed at the distance of 15 feet from centre to centre of each
other, where no traverses intervene; and the parapet has the same
profile as a gun, or howitzer battery.

  When fired at 45° they are placed 12 feet from the revetment.
    Ditto       30°     ditto       13          ditto
    Ditto       20°     ditto       21          ditto
    Ditto       15°     ditto       30          ditto
    Ditto       10°     ditto       40          ditto


HALF-SUNKEN BATTERIES.

The sill is about half its total height above the natural surface of
the ground; the most convenient depth to which the terreplein may be
sunk is 2 feet. The height of a sill for a travelling carriage will
be 18 inches, and for a garrison carriage one foot above the natural
level. The profile of the parapet is the same as in an elevated
battery.

  Number of sand-bags required for reveting one merlon       180
        Ditto     ditto        for cheeks of embrazures      360
                                                             ---
                                            Total            540

In forming the epaulment of a half-sunken battery, the earth is taken
from a ditch in front, six feet wide, and about five feet deep.


SUNKEN GUN BATTERIES.

The soles of the embrazures are on a level with the natural ground,
therefore the terreplein is sunk a sufficient depth for the solid,
and, the merlons are formed of the excavated earth. The height of the
solid depends on the nature of gun carriage to be used. The first
operation is to trace out the embrazures. The profile is the same as
in the elevated battery. Should there be traverses, all the earth
excavated from the interior will be required; if not, the overplus
may be scattered in the rear.


RICOCHET BATTERIES.

_Ricochet firing_ is the art of projecting shot, or shell, with a
certain velocity, and in such a direction as to ensure its striking
the ground at any spot that may be required; afterwards making
several grazes upon the earth, and destroying, or striking all that
may oppose its progress. The piece of ordnance is loaded with a
diminished charge of powder, and the elevation is from 3° to 10°,
which causes the shot to bound or hop along the ground. The smaller
the angle under which the shot is made to ricochet, the longer it
will preserve its force, and have effect, as it will sink in the same
proportion so much less into the ground on which it bounds. In the
ricochet of a fortress, or field work, the elevation should seldom
exceed 10° to throw the shot over the crest of the parapet; but in
the field, the objects to be fired at being principally infantry, and
cavalry, the guns need seldom be elevated above 3°; as, under greater
angles, the shot would be apt to bound too high, thereby defeating
its intended purpose.

_Ricochet batteries_ should, if possible, be at a distance of 400
yards, or not exceeding 600 yards; as, from the uncertainty of the
fire at a greater distance, at least two-thirds of the ammunition
might be expended without producing any good effect.

_The best elevation to enfilade a work_ being from 6° to 9° measured
above the parapet, the charge should be regulated accordingly, which
varies from one-half, to one-tenth the service charge.

_Ricochet firing_ is very efficacious in dismounting the guns on the
faces, or flanks of bastions, &c., the batteries for this purpose
being erected on the prolongation of these works, and as nearly as
possible perpendicular thereto, by which their whole length will be
exposed to the effects of plunging, and destructive ricochet fire.

_Vide Tables of Ricochet practice_, pages 73, 79, 80.


FASCINES.

_Fascines_ are bundles of wood of various lengths, according to the
purposes to which they are to be applied.

_Fascines_ for a revetment should be strong, and well bound. When
small brushwood is used, _they are made 6 feet long, and 7 inches in
diameter_, and are firmly bound with four or five withes, or gads.

_The gads_ are made of tough twigs, first twisted until the fibres
separate, the smaller end is then turned round, so as to form a loop,
or noose. To make a fascine 6 feet long, the workmen set up three
fascine horses on the same level, and in a right line.

(_A fascine horse_ is formed with two pickets, each 5 feet long,
driven about 1 foot obliquely into the ground, so as to cross each
other at right angles 2 feet above the surface of the earth; and they
are fastened together at their point of meeting, with cord, three or
four-thread spun yarn, or gads.) The brushwood, stripped of all its
leaves and smaller branches, and which should be from half to one
inch in diameter, and 5 or 6 feet long, is then laid on the fascine
horses, the thick ends being placed alternately at each end. The
large stuff must be used to form the exterior, and the smaller twigs
the interior of the fascine. Before binding the fascine, it must be
compressed with a _fascine choaker_, which consists of a cord, or
chain, equal in length to one and a half times the circumference
of the fascine, fastened at one end to a lever 5 feet long and 2½
inches in diameter, with a loop at the other end, into which, after
passing the chain round the fascine near the part to be bound, a
lever, similar to the one already described, is inserted, and the
brushwood is squeezed tightly together until the gad is tied. The
fascine must be compressed in a similar manner before each gad is
fastened. _The weight of the fascine_ is about 33 lb. _Three men can
make a 6 feet fascine in twenty minutes._ Two of the workmen place
the brushwood, while the third prepares the gads. If large brushwood
can be procured, the fascines should be 18 feet long, the strength of
the revetment being materially increased by diminishing the number
of joints. _When the fascines are 18 feet long_, they are made nine
inches in diameter, and the gads are placed 18 inches apart, the
fascine horses being one yard apart. _This fascine weighs_ about 2
cwt. _Four men can make an 18 feet fascine in two hours_, or, if the
wood be cut and brought to them, they can make four fascines in that
time. _They require 3 bill-hooks, 1 saw, 1 fascine choaker (each
lever about 6 feet long), and 6 fascine horses._ Three men prepare
the brushwood, and lay it on the horses, while the fourth makes the
gads.

The revetment is formed in proportion as the parapet is raised,
the first fascine being half buried in the banquette, with three
pickets driven vertically through it, each picket being from 3 to
4 feet long, and from 1¼ to 1½ inches in diameter at the thickest
end. The second row of fascines is then laid a little in front of
the first, so as to form the required slope, and three pickets
are driven through each fascine; the extreme pickets through the
fascine previously laid in the direction of the slope, the other
perpendicular to the slope.

_The joints of the different rows of fascines_ should be so broken,
that no two adjoining joints may be in the same line, and the ends
of the fascines at the angles should alternately be flush with, and
be inserted in the parapet; care being taken to lay the fascines so
that the ties of the gads may be concealed in the parapets. Six rows
of large fascines are sufficient to form the revetment of a parapet,
the upper row being covered with a layer of sods, the grass upwards.
When fascines of seven inches in diameter are used, eight rows are
required.


GABIONS.

_Gabions_ are cylindrical baskets open at both ends, and are very
commonly used to revet parapets. For the interior of parapets they
should be _3 feet in height, and diameter_. _The common gabions are 2
feet in diameter, and 2 feet 9 inches high._

_To make them._—A directing circle consisting of two hoops, kept
apart by bits of wood, to which both the hoops are secured with
packthread, is first made. The diameter of the hoops must be such
as to permit of the pickets for the gabion being driven between the
exterior of the one, and the interior of the other. The directing
circle is then laid on a level piece of ground, and from seven to
twelve pickets are driven at equal distances apart, between the
hoops; the number of pickets depending on the size of the rods, or
brushwood with which the basket-work is to be made. The circle is
then raised, and fastened to the middle of the pickets, and the web
is made above it, two or three rods being used at the same time; the
workman twisting them round each other while he interlaces them with
the pickets, striking down the web from time to time with a stick.
The _randing_, or _basket-work_, is continued to near the top of the
pickets, where it is secured with four gads, each one passed round
one of the pickets and four or five of the rods, which should be from
8 to 10 feet long, and not more than half an inch in diameter. The
gabion is then pulled up, the finished end is placed on the ground,
and the directing circle being removed, the remainder of the web is
completed and secured as before described.

_Two men can make a gabion_ in three quarters of an hour, using about
80 rods for each gabion.

In forming the revetment, the gabions are placed touching each other
with a slope of one quarter the height; the first row is surmounted
with two rows of fascines side by side, and a second row of gabions
rests on them.


SOD, OR TURF.

A revetment is sometimes made with sods of unequal sizes, called
_headers_, and _stretchers_.

_The headers are 1 foot 6 inches long, 1 foot wide, and about 4½
inches thick._

_The stretchers are 1 foot wide, and long, and about 4½ inches thick._

Sometimes the sods are first cut all of the same dimensions—viz.,
1½ foot long and 1 foot wide; this sod is then cut diagonally,
across, so as to form two, and they are then all laid as headers.
This saves nearly half the turf, and labour. The sods should be cut
from good meadow land, previously mown, and watered; but the sods
should not be laid or built when wet, because they would shrink in
dry weather, and all the joints would open. The sod-work is laid with
the grass downwards, either alternately headers, and stretchers, or
two stretchers to one header; care being taken that the joints of no
two rows fall immediately over one another, which is termed breaking
joint. If the layers of sods are laid perpendicular to the slope,
they will answer better than if laid horizontally. Each sod should
have two or three pegs driven through it, to secure it to the work
beneath. When the revetment is completed, the whole should be cut off
smooth to the proper slope; a pair of hedge-clippers, or a cutting
knife, will answer well for this purpose.

_One man can lay 19 square yards of sod-work in eight hours_, when
the sods are brought to the spot, and require no previous trimming.


PLATFORMS.

To facilitate the working of a gun, it must be placed on a platform
of stone, or timber and plank: but, as a temporary measure, when
required to fire only in one direction, timbers to take the wheels
will suffice. The usual inclination given to platforms, from the rear
to the front, is half an inch per foot. Platforms on barbettes should
be perfectly level, and their dimensions must depend on the extent of
the lateral range which may be required.

_In laying a gun platform_, the first thing to be done is to fix
the _hurter_, which may be a piece of timber 7 or 8 feet long,
and 7 inches square, or a strong fascine 9 feet in length may be
advantageously used. The hurter is intended to take the wheels, or
trucks of the carriage when the gun is run out, and to prevent their
damaging the interior slope of the parapet. The position of the
hurter necessarily depends therefore on the steepness of the interior
slope. The hurter should be placed perpendicular to the axis, or
central line of the embrazure. Three, four, or five sleepers of from
6 to 8 inches square, are then laid, their upper surface on a level
with the bottom of the hurter, and they are covered with two-inch
planks, nailed down when three sleepers are used; but if there be
four or five sleepers, the planks may be confined by two _ribbands_
(which are pieces of wood of the same length, but weaker scantling
than the sleepers) and the platform racked down with _rack lashings_
at the proper intervals.

_A rack lashing_ consists of a piece of 2-inch rope about 9 feet
long, which is fastened to a stick 15 inches long, 2 inches wide at
the head, with a hole in it to receive the lashing, and tapering to
a blunt point: it is passed round the timber, and sleeper beneath,
then twice round itself. The end of the stick is then put into
the loose gromet so formed, and twisted round until the whole is
firmly secured, when the stick is turned flat on the upper piece of
scantling.

The gun, and mortar platforms for sieges are now made rectangular:
the dimensions of the former are 15 feet long by 10 feet 6 inches
broad; those of a mortar platform are 7 feet 6 inches long by 6 feet
6 inches broad. Mortar platforms are laid exactly horizontal, the
front part being placed 5 feet within the foot of the interior slope
of the parapet.

_Madras platforms_ consist of two stout planks about 12 feet long;
they are supported on two sleepers, having a transom in front. The
planks are secured with a moveable bolt, or pivot to the front
transom, slide freely on the sleepers, and are connected together
in rear by two cross pieces parallel to the rear sleeper, one in
front, and the other in rear of it. To the centre of these two cross
pieces is bolted another 12-feet plank, called the trail-piece, of a
width equal to the distance between the cheeks of a siege-carriage,
which is supported on a sleeper in the rear. When the gun is to be
traversed, the whole platform is moved on the sleepers on the pivots
in front. These platforms are chiefly intended for a direct fire. Two
wedges are required for this platform to form inclined planes for the
wheels, in running the gun on, or off the platform. Each wedge is of
elm, 3 inches thick, 2½ feet long, and 1 foot wide, with a block to
give the requisite height, the block being 12 inches long, 4 thick,
and 7 in extreme height.


_Alderson’s platform._

The platform invented by Colonel Alderson, R.E., is 15 feet long, by
9 feet wide; and is composed of 46 similar pieces of timber (baulks)
each measuring 9 feet × 5 inches × 3½ inches. Of these, ten are
used as sleepers, and the remainder as planking. The weight of the
platform (when 15 feet long and 9 feet wide) for guns is 15 cwt. 2
qrs. 14 lb. By addition of the small beams, this platform may easily
be extended from 15 to 18 feet.


_Dimensions, and weight of Platforms, for Guns, &c._

  +--------------------------+----+--------+--------+--------+-----------+
  | Nature of Platform, and  |Num-|        |        | Thick- |           |
  |     articles required.   |ber.| Length.|Breadth.|  ness. |  Weight.  |
  +--------------------------+----+--------+--------+--------+-----------+
  |                          |    | ft. in.| ft. in.| ft. in.|cwt.qr. lb.|
  |     GUN, AND HOWITZER.   |    |        |        |        |           |
  | Sleepers                 |  5 | 15     |      5 |      5 |  4  2   1 |
  | Planks                   | 20 | 10   6 |      9 |      2 |  7  3  22 |
  | Ribbands                 |  2 | 15     |      4 |      4 |  1  0  18 |
  | Rack-sticks, and lashings|    |        |        |        |        10 |
  |                          |    |        |        |        |-----------|
  |       _Total weight_     |    |        |        |        | 13  2  23 |
  |                          |    |        |        |        |-----------|
  |           MORTAR.        |    |        |        |        |           |
  |_Covered with oak planks._|    |        |        |        |           |
  | Sleepers                 |  7 |  7   6 |      6 |      6 |  3  3   7 |
  | Planks                   | 10 |  6   6 |      9 |      3 |  5  1  22 |
  | Ribbands                 |  2 |  7   6 |      4 |      4 |     2  10 |
  | Rack-sticks              | 10 |  1   3 |        |        |        15 |
  |                          |    |        |        |        |-----------|
  |       _Total weight_     |    |        |        |        |  9  3  26 |
  |                          |    |        |        |        |-----------|
  |   _Made entirely of fir._|    |        |        |        |           |
  | Sleepers                 |  7 |  7   6 |      6 |      6 |  3  3   7 |
  | Planks                   |  8 |  6   6 |    11¼ |      4 |  4  2  18 |
  | Ribbands                 |  2 |  7   6 |      4 |      4 |     2  10 |
  | Rack-sticks              |  8 |        |        |        |        12 |
  |                          |    |        |        |        |-----------|
  |     _Total weight_       |    |        |        |        |  9  0  19 |
  |                          |    |        |        |        |-----------|
  |           MADRAS.        |    |        |        |        |           |
  |        _Wood work._      |    |        |        |        |           |
  | Side-pieces              |  2 | 12   6 |  1   0 |      4 |  3  0  18 |
  | Trail-piece              |  1 | 12     |  1   4 |      4 |  1  1   3 |
  | Fore transom             |  1 |  7     |      6 |      6 |     2  19 |
  | Hind transoms            |  2 |  6   6 |      9 |      3 |     2  20 |
  | Sleepers                 |  3 |  9     |      6 |      6 |  2  0  16 |
  | Wedges                   |  2 |        |        |        |     2   7 |
  |                          |    |        |        |        |           |
  |        _Iron work._      |    |        |        |        |           |
  | Long bolts, ⅞in. diameter|  2 |    11½ |        |        |         6 |
  | Short bolts, ditto       |  6 |     7½ |        |        |        11 |
  |                          |    |        |        |        |-----------|
  |     _Total weight_       |    |        |        |        |  8  2  16 |
  +--------------------------+----+--------+--------+--------+-----------+


GUN, AND HOWITZER PLATFORM.

_For carrying this platform_, two men are required for each sleeper;
one man for each plank, and ribband. The non-commissioned officer
carries the rack-sticks.

_A platform may be laid down_ in an hour by expert men, and may be
dismantled in three minutes.


MORTAR PLATFORM.

_Detailed as above._ One non-commissioned officer, and seventeen men
carry the platform. _Time required for laying down, and dismantling_,
similar to the above.


MADRAS PLATFORM.

_In an elevated battery, the platform may be laid down_ by expert men
in half an hour, _and may be dismantled_ in three minutes.


BREACH.

_The best place for making a breach_, in ravelins, bastions, &c., is
about thirty yards from their salient angles. The batteries should
commence by marking out by their fire the extent of the breach
intended to be made, first by striking out a horizontal line as near
the bottom of the revetment as possible, and afterwards two others
perpendicular to, and at the extremities of this line. Should the
breach be required to be extensive, it will be necessary to form
intermediate lines. Then, by continuing to deepen these two or more
cuts, and occasionally firing salvoes at the part to be brought down,
the wall will give way in a mass. The guns must, however, at first
fire low, and gradually advance upwards until the breach is effected;
and when the wall has given way, the firing should be continued until
the slope of the breach is made practicable.


TO BURST OPEN GATES OF FORTRESSES, ETC.

A leathern bag, containing about 50 lb. of powder, should be hooked
upon the gate, as near the centre as possible (or be laid on the
ground, close to the bottom of the gate, and tamped with sods, &c.),
and be fired by means of a piece of portfire, or match, passed
through a hole in the bottom of the bag.


FORTIFICATION.

_Offensive fortification_ is the art of conducting a siege.

_Defensive fortification_ comprehends military architecture, and is
the art of securing, or protecting a place by works, to resist a
siege.

_Natural fortification_ consists of obstacles, such as marshes,
mountain passes, &c., which are found in some countries, and should
be taken advantage of to impede the approaches of an enemy.

_Artificial fortification_ comprises those works which are
constructed to defend a place.

_Permanent fortification_ is the art of putting towns, &c., into such
a state as at all times to be prepared to resist the attack of an
enemy.

_Field fortification_ is the method of fortifying a camp, or
position, buildings, &c., and it includes the construction of
redoubts, entrenchments, &c. Works of this nature are considered as
temporary.

_Irregular fortification_ is the art of fortifying a place of an
irregular figure, situated where the country does not admit of giving
to the several works their due proportion according to rule.

_A Command_ is the vertical elevation of one work above another, or
above the country.

_A Command in front_ is when an eminence is directly facing the work
which it commands.

_A Command in the rear_, or reverse, is when any eminence is directly
behind the work which it commands.

_A Command by enfilade_ is when an eminence is situated in the
prolongation of any line of a work, and a considerable part of it may
be seen from thence; this line will be subject to enfilade, and such
a command is the most dangerous.

_The Rampart_ (A T R) is an elevation of earth, obtained from the
excavation of the ditch; and is that part of the fortification
which is situated between the ditch, and the town, consisting of an
interior slope, terreplein, banquette, parapet, and exterior slope or
escarp.—(_Vide Plate._)

_The Interior slope_ (A) is the inclination of earth nearest to the
town.

_The Terreplein_ (T) is the upper part of the rampart, which remains
after having constructed the parapet.

_The Parapet_ (R) is a mass of earth elevated on the terreplein of
the rampart, on the side towards the country; being from 18 to 22
feet thick, and from 6 to 8 feet high. The top is formed with a
slight declivity towards the country, which is called the _superior
slope_.

_The Banquette_ is an elevation of earth, or step, on which the
soldiers stand to fire over the parapet.

_The Revetment_ is the masonry which retains the earth of the rampart
on its exterior side. It is about 5 feet thick at the top, and its
slope is one-fifth, or one-sixth its height.

_The Berm_ is a space, or path, sometimes left between the exterior
slope of the rampart, and the ditch. It serves as a communication
round the works, and prevents the earth falling into the ditch.

_The Tablette_ is a flat coping-stone, on the exterior of the top of
the escarp of whole revetment.

_The Cordon_ is a semicircular projection of stone, whose diameter is
about one foot, placed at the top of the slope of the revetment of
the escarp.

_The Escarp_ (a) is the exterior slope, or wall of the rampart.

_The Counterscarp_ (b) is the wall, or slope of the ditch, opposite
to the escarp.

_The Faces_ of a work (p q) are those parts which form a salient
angle, projecting towards the country.

_The Flank_ (q G) is the part of a work so disposed as to defend
another; joining the face of a bastion to the curtain, &c.

_The Bastion_ (M L) is a work composed of two faces, and two flanks.
Bastions are joined by curtains, and are constructed salient, and
with flanks, in order that the whole escarp may be seen, and that a
reciprocal defence may be obtained.

_Bastions are of various kinds_—viz., full (M), empty (L), also flat,
detached, demi, and tower bastions.

_A Full bastion_ (M) is when the terreplein occupies all the interior
space of the bastion. From the description of this bastion, that of
all the others may be ascertained.

_The Curtain_ (G R H) is that part of the rampart which lies between
two bastions, and joins the flanks thereof.

_A Front of fortification_ consists of two half bastions, and a
curtain.

_The Ditch_ (B) is an excavation from 12 to 24 feet deep, and from
90 to 150 feet broad, surrounding the rampart. The side of the ditch
nearest the place forms the escarp (a); and the opposite part, the
counterscarp (b) is made circular opposite to the salient angles of
the works.

_The Covered way_ (V) is a space of about 30 feet broad, extending
round the counterscarp of the ditch, being covered by a parapet from
7 to 9 feet high, with a banquette.

_The Glacis_ (X) is the superior part of the parapet of the covered
way, forming a gentle slope towards the country, and terminating at
from 120 to 180 feet; it covers the revetment of the body of the
place.

_The Places of arms_ of the covered way are spaces contrived in the
salient, and re-entering angles of it; those (c) in the re-entering
angles flank the branches of it, and contain troops for sallies, and
its defence; and those (P) in the salient angles serve for assembling
the Troops destined for the defence of the covered way.

_The Sally-ports_ are openings cut in the glacis, at the faces of the
re-entering places of arms, and at the branches of the covered way.
They are used in making sallies from the covered way.

_The Traverses_ (n) in the covered way, are parapets which cross the
breadth of it at the salient, and re-entering places of arms, &c.
They cover the troops who are drawn up behind the parapet of the
covered way, from the enfilade fire of the enemy. There are passages
cut in the parapet of the covered way, close to the traverses, in
order to form a communication from one part of the covered way to
another: these passages are about 6 feet wide, and are provided with
gates.

_A Citadel_ is a fortress joined to the works of a place, and is
fortified both towards the town, and country. It should always
be situated on the most commanding ground, serving to keep the
inhabitants in awe, and, should the town be taken, it becomes a
retreat for the garrison.

_The Esplanade_ is a space of even ground, clear of buildings,
situated between the town, and citadel.

_The Body of the place_ (or _Enceinte_) consists of the works next
to, and surrounding the town, in the form of a polygon, whether
regular, or irregular.

_Outworks_ are those works which are constructed beyond the body of
the place, such as tenailles, ravelins, &c.

_The Tenaille_ (D) consists of two faces, and a small curtain. It
is constructed between the flanks of the bastions in front of the
curtain, and has a terreplein, parapet, and banquette.

_The Ravelin_ (P) is constructed opposite the curtain, (in front
of the tenaille,) is composed of two faces, which form a salient
angle towards the country, and of two demi-gorges formed by the
counterscarp.

_A Horn-work_ is composed of two half bastions, and a curtain, with
two long sides directed upon the faces of the bastions, or ravelins,
so as to be defended from them.

_A Crown-work_ is composed of a bastion between two curtains, which
are terminated by half bastions. It is joined to the body of the
place by two long sides.

_Lunettes_, and _Tenaillons_ are works constructed on each side of
ravelins, consisting of two faces.

_A Flèche, or Arrow_, is constructed along the foot of the glacis
before the re-entering, and salient places of arms. It consists of
a parapet, whose faces form a salient angle, and are about 120 feet
long, and it has a communication with the covered way, cut through
the glacis.

_The Caponiere_ (Y) is a work intended to cover a passage across the
ditch. That from the tenaille to the gorge of the ravelin is a road
about 30 feet wide, covered on each side by a parapet 7½ feet high,
its superior slope terminating in a glacis about 60 feet wide.

_A Cunette_ is a small ditch made in the middle of a dry ditch, to
drain off the water from the place, &c.

_A Batardeau_ (e) is a solid piece of masonry, 7 or 8 feet thick,
crossing the whole breadth of the ditch opposite the flanked angles
of the bastions. It retains the water in those parts of the ditch
which require to be inundated.

_A Ramp_ (t) is a road cut in the interior slope of the rampart,
forming a communication from the town, &c., to the terreplein.

_A Cavalier_ is a work constructed upon the terreplein of a
full bastion, being from 8 to 12 feet above the rampart, with
a parapet 6 feet high. Its use is to command some rising ground
within cannon-shot, and to serve as a traverse for preventing the
neighbouring curtains from being enfiladed.

_Parallels, or Places of arms_, thrown up at sieges, are trenches
formed to connect together the several approaches to a besieged place.

_Zig-zags, or Boyeaux of communication_, are trenches made for
the approaches from the parallels to the besieged place. They are
generally 3 feet deep, and have a parapet, and banquette.

_A Redan_ consists of two faces forming a salient angle (which should
not be less than 60°) with parapet, &c.[37]

_A Lunette_ has two faces, similar to the redan, and also two
flanks.[37]

_A Redoubt_ is a square, polygonal, or circular field fort.[37]

_A Star fort_ consists of a succession of salient, and re-entering
angles, formed on the sides of a polygon. These forts are usually
constructed on a triangle (when they have six salient points), or a
square (having eight salient points).[37]

_Têtes de pont, or Bridge heads_, consist of redans, &c., which are
constructed upon the banks of rivers, to protect the passage across
them.[37]

_Lines_ are formed for the entrenchment of armies, and are composed
of a succession of redans, &c., joined by curtains, which should not
be more than 120 yards distant from each other, to afford mutual
protection, and defence.[37]

_An Epaulment_ is an elevation of earth thrown up to cover troops
from a flanking fire.

_Loop-holes_ are oblong holes, from 15 to 18 inches long, 6 inches
wide within, and 2 or 3 without. They are cut through timber, or
masonry, for the services of small arms.

_Palisades_ are stakes of strong wood, 8 or 9 feet long, and 6 inches
thick, fixed about 3 feet in the ground, and 3 or 4 inches asunder.

_Fraises_ are a kind of palisades, placed horizontally, or obliquely
in the exterior slope of ramparts.

_Chevaux de frise_ consist of a piece of timber from 9 to 12 feet
long, and about six inches in diameter, into which staves are
inserted cross-ways, about 9 inches asunder, about 2 inches thick, 6
feet long, and pointed at the end, if not shod with iron. Their use
is to stop up a breach, defend a passage, or form an entrenchment
against cavalry. Chevaux de frise are sometimes made entirely of iron.

_Abattis_ consist of trees with their branches shortened, and
sharpened at the ends; they are used instead of chevaux de frise on
an emergency.

_Hurdles_ are about 3 feet high, and 2 broad, and are used in sieges
to stop up breaches, &c.

_Trous de loup_ are holes dug in the ground in the form of an
inverted cone, about 6 feet deep, and 4½ in diameter at the top,
having a picket fixed in the centre of the bottom, 6 feet long, and
4 or 6 inches square, the point being on a level with the upper
surface of the ground. These pits are used to prevent the approach of
bodies of cavalry.


PERMANENT FORTIFICATION.


_Remarks, and general rules._

The ground plan, and relief of bastioned fortifications are mutually
dependent on each other; and, as a variety of causes occur to
influence both according to the various sites occupied, it is
impossible to give them any fixed arrangement, and dimensions,
applicable under all circumstances. However, under the supposition
that the site to be fortified is a horizontal plane, a great number,
and variety of systems have been proposed at different times; almost
every author, who has treated of fortification, having invented one,
at least, of his own. Notwithstanding this diversity of opinion, as
to the best system, all agree that the following general principles
should not be lost sight of in the construction of fortifications.

1. Salient angles should be as large as possible, and never less
than 60°. The larger they are the smaller will be the space in front
undefended by direct fire. If less than 60°, the salients of earth
are too acute to stand firmly for any length of time; and the angles
of masonry are easily damaged; besides which the space within the
parapets becomes too restricted to admit of a gun being worked near
the angle.

2. Angles of defence should be right angles, or slightly obtuse.
If less than right angles, the fire from the flanking works might
injure the defenders of the works they flank; as troops generally,
and more particularly at night, fire in a direction perpendicular to
the parapet; and if too obtuse the fire might be directed wide of its
object. Besides, embrazures should be cut as direct as possible; as
the more they are oblique, the more they weaken the parapet.

3. The length of the lines of defence shall be such, that the works
defended may be within the effective range of the projectiles used.

4. The works should be so disposed that the assailants may not be
able to obtain cover in any part of the exterior, within range of the
projectiles of the defenders.

5. The escarps of the body of the place should be of such height, or
construction, as to be secure against escalade.

6. The masonry should be sufficiently covered from the view of the
enemy, to prevent his making a practicable breach from a distance.

7. The interior of every work should be completely covered from the
view of an enemy outside it; so that he may not be able to fire
directly into any part of it. Interior works should therefore have
a command over those in front of them, at least equal to the height
which a besieger can give to the parapets of his lodgments, and which
is seldom less than 3 feet.

8. Every opportunity should be seized of so directing the faces of
works that an enemy may not have it in his power to enfilade them by
ricochet fire.

9. In the general construction of fortifications the salients should
be few, and sufficiently prominent to force the besieger to take them
before he can attack the re-entering parts. The object of this is to
reduce the number of points of attack, as, the fewer they are, the
less advantage an assailant derives from his numerical superiority.

10. Permanent fortifications must be considered very incomplete
without a sufficiency of casemated cover for the sick, and wounded,
and for the portion of the garrison off duty. The magazines of
ammunition and provisions, should also be secure from the effects of
shells; and the supply of water ample, and certain.

11. Small enclosed works, in which the defenders must be crowded,
without cover from vertical fire, should never be employed in
permanent fortification. The strength they impart can never make up
for the loss the garrison must suffer by them.

12. Outworks, and detached works should have easy communications with
the main work, to admit of their garrisons receiving reinforcements,
or supplies, when necessary; and to enable them to retreat, when the
works are no longer tenable.

13. Every enclosed defensive work of importance should, if possible,
be provided with a keep, or citadel, or interior retrenchment, to
which the garrison may retire when the main enclosure (or enceinte)
is forced.

14. Outworks, and detached works near the body of the place, should
be so constructed that the enemy, when he has taken them, may not be
able to use them as defensive works.

15. Outworks, and detached works, should always be of sufficient
strength to force the enemy to make _regular_ attacks on them.
Advanced works of a weak construction are likely to do more harm
than good; for the troops of the garrison seeing them taken with
comparative facility, would naturally lose confidence in the strength
of their remaining defences, while that of the assailants would be
increased by early success.

16. All fortifications should be provided with means of egress, and
ingress, to enable the garrison to assume the offensive, whenever
opportunities offer; and to admit reinforcements into the fortress.

17. There are very few fortified places that agree with any published
system, though some resemble one or other of the systems, or consist
of combinations, or modifications of them. The systems which have
been wholly, or partly carried into execution are, of course, the
most interesting, and form valuable subjects of study. A knowledge
of their advantages, and defects, and the best methods of attacking,
and defending them, will enable the military student properly to
appreciate works which have been, or are to be constructed; and the
operations by which fortresses have been, or may be captured.


VAUBAN’S FIRST SYSTEM.[38]


_To describe three Fronts of fortification, on a hexagon._—_Vide
Plate._

With a radius of 360 yards, the length of the exterior side of
the fortification (taken from a scale of equal parts), describe a
semicircle, which divide into three equal parts, and draw lines to
the points of division; thus forming _three exterior sides_. Bisect
each of these by perpendiculars drawn to the centre of the polygon,
on which set off ⅙th of the exterior side, (if a hexagon,)[39]
through which points draw _the Lines of defence_; on these set off
2/7ths of the exterior side, from the angles of the circumference,
for the length of the faces of the bastions; with radius of the
distance between the two faces describe arcs joining the lines of
defence, and draw the cord of these arcs for _the flanks of the
bastions_; a line joining the interior extremities of the flanks will
give the length of _the curtains_.


  _Or, to describe one Front of fortification._

  For the exterior side, draw a line 360 yards in length, at the ends
  of which, lines are to be directed to the centre of the polygon, at
  the angle required; (_vide_ PRACTICAL GEOMETRY—_To find the angles
  at the centre, and circumference of a regular polygon_,) then
  bisect the exterior side, and draw the perpendicular, &c., &c., as
  described for the construction on a hexagon.

[Illustration: Vauban’s 1^{st} System.

                                                    _J. W. Lowry, sc._]


_Main ditch._

From the salient angles of the bastions, with 38 yards as a radius,
describe arcs, to which draw tangents, directed to the angles of the
shoulders of the bastions.


_The Tenaille._

Draw lines parallel to the lines of defence, at the distance of
16 yards, for the faces of the work; its flanks, and curtain are
constructed parallel to the flanks of the bastions, and curtain, at
the distance of 11 yards.


_The Ravelin._

From the re-entering angle of the counterscarp, make the capital of
the ravelin 80 yards in length, and from its summit draw lines to
points, on the faces of the bastions, 11 yards from the angle of the
shoulder; the junction of these lines, and the counterscarp of the
main ditch will determine the length of the faces of the ravelin. The
gorge is formed by drawing lines 24 yards from the re-entering angle
of the counterscarp to the intersection of the perpendicular, and the
exterior side. From the salient angle of the ravelin, with a radius
of 24 yards, describe an arc, to which draw tangents parallel to the
faces, for the breadth of the ditch.

From the outline of the works draw the following parallels inwards:—


_Rampart._

  1. At the distance of 6 yards, for the thickness of the parapet.

  2. From which 12 yards, for the breadth of the terreplein.

  3. From which 6 yards, for the breadth of the interior slope.


_Tenaille._

Draw lines parallel to the faces, at the distance of 6 yards, for the
parapet.


_Ravelin._

To the faces of the work draw the following parallels:—

  1. At the distance of 6 yards, for the parapet.

  2. From which 8 yards, for the terreplein.

  3. From which 5 yards, for the interior slope.


_Covered way._

Draw lines parallel to the counterscarp, at the distance of 11 yards,
for the breadth of the covered way.


_Salient places of arms._

These are formed by the salients of the branches of the covered way.


_Re-entering places of arms._

Set off 40 yards on each side of the re-entering angle of the
counterscarp for their demi-gorges, from which points draw their
faces at an angle of 100 degrees.


_Glacis._

For its breadth, draw parallels to the branches of the covered way,
and the re-entering places of arms, at the distance of 50 yards.


_Traverses._

Those at the re-entering places of arms are erected perpendicular to
the covered way; those at the salient places of arms are formed on
the prolongation of the faces of the bastions, and ravelins, across
the covered way; all the traverses are 6 yards thick at the top. The
passages, cut out of the glacis, to enable the troops to pass round
the traverses, are 4 yards wide.


_Ramps._

Flank of the empty bastion.—Set off 42 yards, from the angle of the
flank of the interior slope, diagonally along the slope, for the
length of the ramp, to which draw a parallel line 5 yards distant,
for their breadth, which mark by a perpendicular, prolonging it,
and setting off 6 yards for the interior slope; to which point,
from the end of the ramp, draw a line; and also from the same point
draw another line parallel to the side of the ramp, and joining the
interior slope of the face of the bastion.

Flanked angle of the empty bastion.—From the angle of the interior
slope set off 16 yards on each side, from which points draw lines 42
yards in length diagonally along the interior slope for the length
of the ramps; to which draw parallels, 4 yards distant, for their
breadth; erect perpendiculars from the points (16 yards from the
angle) until they intersect each other, from which point as a centre,
with radius of the distance between the ramps, describe an arc
joining the head of the ramps of the two faces; concentric to which,
with a radius 6 yards less than the former, describe another arc, to
which draw tangents from the termination of the ramps, representing
their slopes.

Gorge of the full bastion.—From the angle of the interior slope, set
off 16 yards on each side, from which points draw lines 42 yards in
length diagonally along the interior slope; draw parallels to these
at the distance of 5 yards, for the breadth of the ramps; erect
perpendiculars at their head, from the intersection of which as a
centre, with radius of the distance between them, describe an arc,
parallel to which, with radius 6 yards less, describe another arc, to
which draw tangents, completing the interior slope of the ramps.

Ravelin.—From the angle of the interior slope, set off 12 yards
on each side; from these points draw lines 30 yards in length,
diagonally along the interior slope, for the length of the ramps;
to which draw parallels 4 yards distant for their breadth; erect
perpendiculars at the commencement of the ramps, and from their
intersection, as a centre, with radius of the distance from the
ramps, describe an arc joining the two ramps; also from the junction
of the perpendiculars draw lines to the termination of the ramps, for
their slopes.


_Caponniere._

Make the passage of this work 30 feet wide, including the banquette
on each side; the superior slope of each parapet terminates at 20
yards’ distance.


_Bridges, and communications._

These are about 14 feet wide.


_Stairs, or Pas de souris._

These steps of masonry are made at the gorges of the several works,
and at the salient, and re-entering angles of the counterscarp. Those
at the salients are generally 24 feet long, and at the re-entering
angles 30 feet; they are 5 feet wide, and their steps 1 foot distant
from each other.


_Sally-ports._

These passages, cut through the glacis, are about 12 feet wide, and
18 feet long.

[Illustration: Profile of Vauban’s 1^{st} System.

                                                    _J. W. Lowry, sc._]


PROFILE, OR SECTION OF VAUBAN’S FIRST SYSTEM.

_Construction._

The interior slope of the rampart has a base of 18 feet, and a
perpendicular height of 17 feet 6 inches.

The terreplein has a breadth of 25½ feet, its height being 18 feet
sloping to 17 feet 6 inches, the height of the interior slope.

The banquette is 3 feet in height, the tread 4 feet wide, and the
slope 5 feet wide.

The parapet is 4 feet 6 inches higher than the banquette, its
interior slope is 18 inches, its thickness 18 feet, and its superior
slope has a declivity of 3 feet; the revetment is 3 feet thick.

The escarp has a perpendicular height of 36 feet, measuring from the
cordon to the bottom of the ditch.

The tablette, or coping-stone, at the top of the revetment, has a
projection of 6 inches square.

The cordon is semicircular, its radius being 6 inches.

The slope of the escarp is 6 feet, the thickness of its revetment at
the top 5 feet, and at the bottom 11 feet.

The counterfort joins the escarp; it is 1 foot lower than the top
of it, 9 feet wide, and it extends to the bottom of the foundation,
which is 3 feet below the bottom of the escarp; the retreat, or
lessening, has a width of 1 foot.

The ditch is 38 yards wide, from the salient angle of the bastion.

The counterscarp is 17 feet 6 inches in perpendicular height, its
slope being 3 feet, and its thickness at top 3 feet, the bottom,
therefore, having a thickness of 6 feet; the foundation is 3 feet;
and the retreat 1 foot.

The terreplein of the covered way is 20½ feet wide, and its slope is
6 inches. The banquette is 3 feet high, its tread 5 feet, and its
slope 6 feet. The parapet is 4 feet 6 inches above the banquette, and
its interior slope is 18 inches. The glacis, which forms the superior
slope of the parapet of the covered way, is 50 yards in breadth.

The counterfort of the counterscarp is 5 feet in thickness, being 1
foot lower than the top of the counterscarp, and extending as low as
the foundation of it.

The counterforts of the escarp, and counterscarp are 15 feet distant
from centre to centre of each other, those of the escarp being at
the end adjoining it 5 feet 6 inches, and at the termination 3 feet
8 inches thick; those of the counterscarp being in thickness at the
larger part 3 feet 6 inches, and at the smaller 2 feet 4 inches.


_Vide Plate._

MODERN SYSTEM.

  A          Interior slope.
  T          Terreplein of rampart.
  R          Parapet of rampart.
  A T R      Rampart.
  a a a a    Escarp, or exterior slope of rampart.
  M          Full bastion.
  L          Empty bastion.
  p q        Face of bastion.
  q G        Flank of bastion.
  K o p q G  Outline of bastion.
  G H        Curtain.
  t          Ramps.
  B          Ditch.
  D          Tenaille.
  Y          Caponniere.
  e          Batardeau.
  F F F      Ravelin.
  S          Redoubt in ravelin.
  b          Counterscarp.
  n          Traverses in covered way.
  c          Re-entering places of arms.
  W          Redoubt in ditto.
  P          Salient places of arms.
  V          Covered way.
  X          Glacis.

[Illustration: FORTIFICATION.

Modern System.]


FIELD FORTIFICATION.

REMARKS, AND GENERAL RULES.

1. The size of a work depends in general upon the number of men who
are to defend it. If labour is the sole object of attention, the
advantage must necessarily be the greater in proportion as the size
of the work is less; but if the accommodation of the troops is only
to be considered, the advantage depends greatly upon occupying much
ground.

2. The form of the work should be such as to contain the greatest
surface with the least perimeter. By an adherence to this maxim,
we obtain the greatest accommodation for the troops with the least
labour. The form of a field work seldom depends upon choice, but
generally upon the spot where it is to be raised, the purposes for
which it is to be constructed, and the nature of the ground in the
vicinity.

3. The interior of the work ought to be so covered by the parapet,
that the men within, except when on the banquette, may not be seen
from any part without, at the distance of cannon-shot.

4. The circumjacent ground (to as great a distance as possible) ought
to be cleared, that the enemy may not conceal, or shelter himself
against the fire from behind the parapet. The nearer to the work
that the enemy can find cover, the more advantageously he can form
his dispositions; and, as his attacks may consequently be made with
greater vigour, and be more readily supported, the success will be
the more probable.

5. The flanking parts ought to be sufficiently capacious to contain
all the men required for the defence of the flanked portions of the
work.

6. The flanking parts ought to have nearly a direct view of those
flanked; that is, the defence should be nearly at right angles, the
most advantageous angle being 100 degrees.

7. The parts flanked ought to be within musket fire of their flanking
parts.

8. The fire ought to be equally distributed, that every part of the
work may be equally defended.

9. The work ought to be equally strong in all its parts, that it may
everywhere equally resist the assaults of the enemy; and the parapet
should be thick enough to withstand the shot fired against it.

10. The dimensions of the parapet should not only be sufficient to
secure, and cover the troops within the work, but ought also to
be of such a form as to afford a full view of the enemy in his
approach; and at the same time discover, as little as possible, the
men employed for its defence.


_Capacity of Field works._

The perimeter of a work, and the number of men to defend it, should
bear a just proportion to each other, one yard being allowed for each
man, or for each file of men, according to the nature, and object of
the work.

In calculating the area of enclosed field works, 10 square feet may
generally be estimated for each man, and 324 square feet for each
gun, and its stores.


_Content of Field works._

In square redoubts, or works having salient angles, if the areas of
the sections of the parapet, and ditch, are made nearly equal, there
will be too much earth; were the angles of the plan re-entering,
instead of salient, the result would be reversed. Bearing this in
mind, previous to commencing the excavation of the ditch, a correct
calculation must be made to prevent any excess, or deficiency of
earth for the parapet, and banquette.


_Rules._

1. _To find the quantity of earth_ required for the parapet, and
banquette of a field work, &c.

Divide the parapet, and banquette into trapezoids, and triangles;
compute the contents of each separately (_by the rules in_
MENSURATION OF PLANES) and the sum of them will be the superficial
content of a section of the parapet, and banquette. Multiply this by
the length of the periphery of the redoubt, battery, &c., for the
solid content of the parapet, and banquette.

2. _To find, rapidly_, the quantity of earth required for a parapet,
and banquette.

Multiply the height of the crest of the parapet, into the sum of
the bases of the superior, and exterior slopes; which will give the
superficial content, very nearly.

3. _To compute the superficial content of the ditch._

Multiply the depth into the breadth at bottom, to which product add
the areas of the escarp, and counterscarp, for the content required.

4. _To find the breadth of the ditch_, of the usual form.

Divide the area of the section of the parapet by the intended depth
of the ditch, and the quotient will be the mean breadth of the ditch;
to this add half the sum of the bases of the slopes of the escarp,
and counterscarp, for the breadth at top, and deduct the same for the
breadth at bottom.

5. _To find the breadth of the ditch_, having a triangular section.

Divide the area of the section of the parapet by half the given depth
of the ditch, and the quotient will be the required breadth at the
top.


_Construction of Field works._—_Vide Plate._


_Fig. 1. The redan._

Draw a base line, 60 yards, from the centre of which erect a
perpendicular, 40 yards; join the terminations of the base, and
perpendicular, which will form the crest of the parapet of the work.


_Fig. 2. The lunette._

Construct a redan (_vide No. 1_), base 80 yards, perpendicular 50
yards: make the faces of the lunette 45 yards in length, and draw the
flanks to points on the base line, 30 yards, from the perpendicular.


_Fig. 3. The square redoubt._

Construct a square, each side 40 yards (_vide_ PRACTICAL GEOMETRY).
To form additional faces when required, bisect the side of the
square, draw perpendiculars inwards equal to ⅛th of the side, and
join the termination of the perpendiculars, and the sides of the
square, thus forming a double number of faces.


_Fig. 4. The pentagonal redoubt._

Describe a circle, radius 30 yards, and construct a pentagon in the
circle (_vide_ PRACTICAL GEOMETRY), thus forming the crest of the
parapet of the redoubt.


_Fig. 5. The hexagonal redoubt._

Describe a circle, radius 30 yards, and construct a hexagon within it
(_vide_ PRACTICAL GEOMETRY); the sides of which form the crest of the
parapet of the work.


_Fig. 6. The circular redoubt._

Describe a circle, radius 30 yards, which will form the crest of the
parapet of the redoubt.


_Fig. 7. The star fort, with six points._

Construct an equilateral triangle, and divide each side, 75 yards,
into three equal parts, form also an equilateral triangle on the
central portion of each side, 25 yards, and the crest of the parapet
of the fort will be traced.


_Fig. 8. The star fort, with eight points._

Construct a square: divide each side, 60 yards, into three equal
parts, and on the central portion, 20 yards, describe an equilateral
triangle: the periphery of the fort will thus be obtained.


_Fig. 9. The field fort, with bastions, and half bastions._

Construct a square; from the centre of each side, 120 yards, drop a
perpendicular equal to one-eighth of the side, through the extremity
of which, from the angles of the square, draw the lines of defence;
make the faces of the bastions, and half bastions, two-sevenths
of the exterior side, and draw the flanks perpendicular to their
respective lines of defence.

[Illustration: FIELD FORTIFICATION.

                                                    _J. W. Lowry, sc._]


_Fig. 10. The bridge head, or tête du pont._

Construct a redan, base 50 yards, perpendicular 30 yards, at an
appropriate distance from the bridge, 50 yards; draw flanks, 20
yards, perpendicular to the faces, and from their termination draw
lines to the river parallel to the capital of the work. To strengthen
the defence of the tête du pont, construct a flèche, faces 20 yards
each, and 10 yards in front of the bridge, 4 yards wide.

In the construction of bridge heads, the foregoing Figures may be
employed when expedient; the simplest form, the redan, being for
light bridges, and the more perfect defence, the bastioned front, or
fronts, for bridges of material consequence.


_Fig. 11, 12, 13. Lines._—_Vide Plate._


_Fig. 11._ Construct a redan, base 40 yards, perpendicular 30 yards;
which join by a curtain 100 yards, to a queue d’aronde.


_Fig. 12._ Side of square, 35 yards, and lines drawn from summit to
points on the curtains 10 yards. To increase the defence of the next
curtain, 100 yards, bisect it by a perpendicular, 15 yards, and draw
the two faces. Lengthen the lines by cremaillères.


_Fig. 13._ Base 100 yards; crochet, base 5 yards; perpendicular 20
yards.

_Lines, continuous_, are formed by a modification of redans,
lunettes, curtains, &c., dependent on the nature of the ground, and
the means of defence.

_Lines, with intervals_, are formed by detached redans, lunettes,
&c., within range of each other; the rear works flanking those in
front.

_Bridges, and passages_ into field works are from 6 feet, to 12 feet
wide, according to the requirements.

_Traverses_ are placed about 9 feet from the slope of the banquette,
their length being so regulated as to exclude from the view of the
enemy the interior of the field work.

The nature, and form of the field work, or lines, required for the
defence of a post, &c., &c., having been determined, the perimeter
may be laid down, in conformity to the construction detailed in
the foregoing figures: after which the requisite dimensions of the
parapet, ditch, &c., (dependent, of course, on the nature of the
enemy’s ordnance) must be taken into consideration, and the quantity
of earthwork computed by the _Rules_, page 245, or by those in
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. The following Table will, however, in many cases
be found useful; and, by a judicious adaptation of it, much time may
be saved in the computation, and construction of field works.


TABLE,

showing the dimensions, in feet; and the superficial content of earth
of banquettes, parapets, and ditches, of field works.

          Key:
          A = Number.
          B = Base of slope.
          C = Tread.
          D = Height.
          E = Base.
          F = Superficial content.
          G = Berm.
          H = Breadth at top.
          I = Escarp slope.
          J = Counterscarp slope.
          K = Depth.

  +----+-----------------+----------------------------------------+
  |    |    BANQUETTE.   |               PARAPET.                 |
  |    +---+---+---+-----+---------+---------+---------+----------+
  |    |   |   |   |     | Interior| Superior| Exterior|          |
  |    |   |   |   |     |  slope. |  slope. |  slope. |          |
  |    |   |   |   |     +----+----+----+----+----+----+          |
  |  A | B | C | D |  F  | D  | E  | D  | E  | D  | E  |    F     |
  +------------+---+-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----------+
  |  1 | 6 | 5 | 3 | 24  | 7½ | 1½ | 7½ | 15 | 5½ | 5½ |  120½    |
  |  2 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 21  | 7½ | 1½ | 7½ | 15 | 5  | 5  |  113⅞    |
  |  3 | 6 | 5 | 3 | 24  | 7½ | 1½ | 7½ | 12 | 5½ | 5½ |  101     |
  |  4 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 21  | 7½ | 1½ | 7½ | 12 | 5  | 5  |   98⅜    |
  |  5 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 21  | 7½ | 1½ | 7½ |  9 | 5½ | 5½ |   81½    |
  |  6 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 21  | 7½ | 1½ | 7½ |  9 | 5½ | 5½ |   81½    |
  |  7 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 19½ | 7½ | 1½ | 7½ |  6 | 6  | 6  |   66⅜    |
  |  8 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 19½ | 6  | 1  | 6  |  6 | 4½ | 4½ |  44-6/8  |
  |  9 |   |   |   |     | 8  | 1½ | 8  | 12 | 5½ | 5½ |  102⅛    |
  | 10 |   |   |   |     | 7½ | 1  | 7½ |  9 | 5½ | 5½ |   78     |
  | 11 |   |   |   |     | 6  | 1  | 6  |  6 | 4½ | 4½ |   44⅝    |
  | 12 |   |   |   |     | 6  | 1  | 6  |  3 | 5¼ | 5¼ | 33-15/16 |
  | 13 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 18  | 7½ | 1  | 7½ |  4 | 5½ | 5½ |   44¾    |
  +----+---+---+---+-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----------+

          +---+-----------------------+
          |   |         DITCH.        |
          +   +----+----+---+---+-----+
          |   |    |    |   |   |     |
          |   |    |    |   |   |     |
          |   |    |    |   |   |     |
          | G |  H |  I | J | K |  F  |
          +---+----+----+---+---+-----+
          | 3 | 26 |  3 | 3 | 6 | 138 |
          | 3 | 20 |  4 | 4 | 8 | 128 |
          | 3 | 23 |  3 | 3 | 6 | 120 |
          | 3 | 17 |  4 | 4 | 8 | 104 |
          | 3 | 19 |  3 | 3 | 6 |  96 |
          | 3 | 16 |  4 | 4 | 8 |  96 |
          | 2 | 18 |  3 | 3 | 6 |  90 |
          | 2 | 15 | 10 | 5 | 8 |  60 |
          | 3 | 19 |  3 | 3 | 6 |  96 |
          | 2 | 16 |  4 | 4 | 6 |  72 |
          | 2 | 12 |  4 | 3 | 6 |  51 |
          | 2 |  9 |  6 | 3 | 8 |  36 |
          | 2 | 15 | 10 | 5 | 8 |  60 |
          +---+----+----+---+---+-----+


SIMPLE METHODS OF TRACING FIELD WORKS, ON THE GROUND.

_1. Square redoubt._

Place pickets in a line (in length conformable to the side of the
intended work), at each end of which erect perpendiculars equal in
length to the side first marked out, and join the termination of
these lines; which will complete the perimeter of the redoubt.

_Note._—A perpendicular is raised on a given line, with a chain or
cord, by forming a right-angled triangle from the numbers 3, 4, and
5, or any multiples thereof, and extending the cord, &c., so that
the base may correspond with the base line of the pickets, and the
perpendicular be in the direction of the side required.—_Vide_
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.


_2. Pentagonal redoubt._

With a chain, tape, or cord, construct, and lay down with pickets
five similar, and contiguous triangles, having their bases, which
form the sides of the pentagon, in the proportion of 47 to the other
two equal sides, the length of each of these being 40.


_3. Hexagonal redoubt._

From a central point with a chain, or line, construct, and lay down
with pickets six equilateral, and contiguous triangles, the bases of
which will form the required hexagon.


_4. Octagonal redoubt._

Construct a square (_vide_ No. 1), from the centre of each side
of which erect perpendiculars outwards, in length proportional to
the side as 13 to 60 (nearly 1 to 5); join the extremities, or
termination of the perpendiculars, to the angles of the square, which
will determine the sides of the octagon.

_Note 1._—The directions for the construction of the pentagonal,
and hexagonal redoubts are on a small scale; but the redoubts may
be increased by the equal extension of the interior sides of the
triangles, until the bases are sufficiently long for the periphery of
the work required.

_Note 2._—By means of the pocket sextant, prismatic compass, or
reconnoitring protractor, the pentagonal, hexagonal, and octagonal
redoubt may be thus traced on the ground. From a central point
place pickets at the requisite distance from each other, and in the
direction of lines drawn from the angle of the centre of the intended
work. (_Vide_ PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. _To find the angles at the centre,
and circumference of a polygon._) Extend these radii equally until
the relative distances between them are of the length required to
form the sides of the proposed equilateral redoubt.


_5. Front of fortification, for a Field fort._

Place pickets in a straight line, of the length required for the
front of the proposed field work; from the centre of which drop a
perpendicular inwards, making it for a square, pentagon, hexagon,
or octagon, respectively one-eighth, one-fifth, one-fourth, or
one-third of the exterior side. Direct the lines of defence from the
termination of the exterior side to the end of the perpendicular,
making the faces of the bastions two-sevenths of the exterior side,
and constructing the flanks perpendicular to, and joining the lines
of defence. Other fronts are traced by laying down the exterior
sides, at the angle of the circumference of the intended polygon
(_Vide_ PRACTICAL GEOMETRY) by means of the prismatic compass, &c.,
and then proceeding as directed for the former front.




PART X.

BRIDGES, AND PONTOONS.


BRIDGES.

_To find the number of planks required to form a float, to support a
given weight._

1st. Find the content of one plank (_vide Practical Geometry, Part
12_), and multiply it by the specific gravity of the wood; the
product will be the _weight of the timber_.

2nd. Multiply the same solid content by the specific gravity of
water: the product will be the _weight of an equal bulk of water_.

Then take the difference of these two products, or weight, and it
will be the weight one piece of timber will support without sinking.
_Hence by Proportion_, the number required to support the given
weight may be found.


_To find the number of casks required to form a raft to support a
given weight._

1st. Find the solid content of one cask in cubic inches (_vide
Practical Geometry_), and multiply it by the specific gravity of
water; the product will be the weight of a quantity of water of equal
bulk with the cask.

2nd. From this product, or weight, subtract the weight of the cask,
and the remainder will be the weight it will support without sinking.
_Then by Proportion_, the number required for the formation of the
raft may be found.


_To find the number of boats, or pontoons, required to support a
given weight._

The burthen a boat, or pontoon, will support without sinking beyond a
given depth (the form of the boat, or pontoon being known) must first
be found, thus—

1st. Find the solid content of the part to be sunk, in cubic feet
(_vide Practical Geometry, Part 12_), and multiply it by the specific
gravity of water (_vide Gravity, Part 12_).

2nd. Subtract this product from the weight of the boat, or pontoon,
and the remainder will be the burthen it will support without sinking
beyond the required depth.

_Then by Proportion_, the number required to support the given weight
may be computed.

  _Note._—In the construction of bridges, should a rope require to
  be extended across a rapid river, the coil should be placed in the
  boat (instead of on shore) and be paid out as the boat advances.


PONTOONS.

Those called Blanshard’s (from their inventor, Colonel Blanshard,
Royal Engineers) are of two descriptions.


1.—LARGE PONTOONS.

_Displacement of water_, 97½ cubic feet, equals 6088 lb., or 54½ cwt.

_The buoyant power_ of a raft of two pontoons, its own weight
deducted, is 77 cwt., about one-half of which is a safe load. Each
raft, or one carriage load, forms 2 bays, or 20 ft. 8 in. of bridge:
its own weight will sink it about 7 or 8 inches. The crew of a raft
consists of 6 rowers, and 1 steersman.

_At open order_ the bridge will pass cavalry, field artillery, or
infantry, with closed files.

_At close order_ the bridge will pass any part of a heavy train.


_Dimensions, and weight of cylindrical pontoons, manufactured in the
arsenal at Woolwich._

  +-------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+
  |                         | Extreme | Diameter. | Weight. |
  |                         | length. |           |         |
  |                         +---------+-----------+---------+
  |                         | ft. in. |  ft. in.  |   cwt.  |
  |   LARGE PONTOON,        |         |           |         |
  | with hemispherical ends |  22  3  |    2  8   |    4    |
  |   SMALL PONTOON,        |         |           |         |
  | with conical ends       |  15  0  |    1  8   |   1¼    |
  +-------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+


ONE CARRIAGE LOAD.

  +---------------------+-------+--------------------------+------------+
  |                     |       |        Dimensions.       |            |
  |                     |       +--------+--------+--------+            |
  |                     |Number.|Length.*|Breadth.| Depth. |  Weight.   |
  |                     +-------+--------+--------+--------+------------+
  |                     |       | ft. in.| ft. in.| ft. in.|cwt.qrs. lb.|
  | Pontoons            |    2  |  22    |  2  7  |  2  7  | 9   1    9 |
  | Baulks              |   12  |  14  2 |     5  |     3  | 5   1    1 |
  | Chesses             |    8  |  12    |  1  2  |    1½  | 1   3   19 |
  | Half-chesses        |    4  |  11  5 |        |    1½  | 1   3    0 |
  | Gunnels             |    2  |  12    |  1  2  |     4  | 1   3   19 |
  | Side-pieces         |    5  |  10  4 |     5  |    2½  | 1   1    0 |
  | Anchor              |    1  |        |        |        |     3    1 |
  | Buoy                |    1  |        |        |        |          3 |
  | Cable (20 fathoms)  |    1  | 168    |     3  |     3  |     1   18 |
  | Oars                |    7  |  14    |        |        |     3   14 |
  | Boat-hook           |    1  |  14    |        |        |          7 |
  |          { Body     |    3  |   8  9 |     4  |        |         20 |
  | Lashings { Gunnel   |    4  |  15    |     1  |     1  |}         8 |
  |          { Carriage |    4  |  22    |     1  |     1  |}           |
  | Rack-sticks, and    |       |        |        |        |            |
  |   lashings          |    8  |        |        |        |         14 |
  | Buoy-line           |    1  |  60    |    1½  |    1½  |          5 |
  | Breast-line         |    1  |  60    |    1½  |    1½  |          5 |
  |                     |       +--------+--------+--------+------------+
  |                     |       |        |        |        | 31  1    0 |
  | Weight of Carriage  |    1  |        |        |        | 13  3   20 |
  |                     |       |        |        |        +------------+
  |       Total         |       |        |        |        | 45  0   20 |
  +---------------------+-------+--------+--------+--------+------------+
            * The length includes the hemispherical ends.


2.—SMALL PONTOONS.

Five pontoons, with their appurtenances, form the load of one
carriage. Length, 15 feet; diameter, 1 foot 7 inches; displacement,
27½ cubic feet; buoyancy, 1718 lb., or 15¼ cwt., from which deduct 2
cwt. for the weight of pontoon, and share of superstructure. A bridge
of this nature is so light that it may be made on shore, and carried
by hand entire. It will support as many men as can be placed on it,
and, by removing the chesses over the gunnels, it may be bent so as
to be passed without difficulty down a steep bank, or counterscarp.


ONE CARRIAGE LOAD.

  +-----------------------+-------+--------------------------+-----------+
  |                       |       |        Dimensions.       |           |
  |                       |       +--------+--------+--------+           |
  |                       |Number.|Length.*|Breadth.| Depth. |  Weight.  |
  |                       +-------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+
  |                       |       | ft. in.| ft. in.| ft. in.|cwt.qrs.lb.|
  | Pontoons              |    5  | 15     |  1   7 |  1   7 | 5   0   0 |
  | Gunnels               |    5  |  8   4 |      9 |      3 |     3  12 |
  | Baulks                |   30  |  6   6 |      3 |     1½ | 1   1   9 |
  | Chesses               |   20  |  8     |  1   4 |     1½ | 4   0  20 |
  | Paddles, used as      |       |        |        |        |           |
  |   side-pieces         |    5  |        |        |        |     1  27 |
  | Rack-sticks, and      |       |        |        |        |           |
  |   lashings            |   10  |        |        |        |         6 |
  | Carriage lashings     |    2  |        |        |        |         5 |
  | Anchor, and cable     |    1  |        |        |        |     2   0 |
  |                       |       +--------+--------+--------+-----------+
  |                       |       |        |        |        | 12  1  23 |
  | Weight of the Carriage|    1  |        |        |        |  9  0   0 |
  |                       |       |        |        |        +-----------+
  |       Total           |       |        |        |        | 21  1  23 |
  +-----------------------+-------+--------+--------+--------+-----------+
            * The length includes the ends.


SCALING LADDERS.

Scaling ladders are made in portions, 12 feet, and 7½ feet long;
which are joined together by placing the end of one portion into
staples at the end of another, and securing them together with a
lashing of rope. Four men are sufficient to carry an 18 feet scaling
ladder.




PART XI.

FIREWORKS.


CANDLES, ROMAN.

When the case has been properly finished, and the end secured with
strong twine, ram in a little dry clay, then put in a small quantity
of corned powder, and over this a small piece of paper; after which
as much of the composition is to be put in as will, when rammed
down, fill the case about one-sixth of the length. Over this a piece
of paper is placed, covering about two-thirds of the diameter,
on which a little powder is laid, and then a ball, or star. Some
more composition is then poured in, and pressed lightly down till
the case is about one-third full, when it is to be rammed down by
gentle strokes; after which, put in another small piece of paper,
powder, and star, over which pour in some more composition, ram down
gently, and continue thus until the case is filled, when it will
contain about five stars; after which it is capped, and primed. Roman
candles should be placed in rows on a stand, some of them being
perpendicular, and others at angles, not, however, exceeding 45
degrees.


_Compositions._

1. Mealed powder, ½ lb. Sulphur, ½ lb. Saltpetre, 2½ lb. Glass dust,
½ lb.

2. Mealed powder, 1 lb. Charcoal, ½ lb.

3. Signal rocket composition.


CANDLES, BLUE.

Saltpetre, ¼ oz. Powder, ½ oz. Sulphur, 1 oz.


CRACKERS.

The case is made of cartridge paper, the dimensions required being
15 inches by 3½ inches. First fold down one edge, about ¾ of an inch
broad, then turn down the double edge about ¼ of an inch, and bend
back the single edge over the double fold, so as to form within a
channel, which is to be filled with mealed powder, not ground very
fine; the powder is then to be covered by the folds on each side, and
the whole is to be pressed by a flat ruler; and the part containing
the powder is to be folded into the remainder of the paper, every
fold being pressed down. The cracker is then doubled backwards, and
forwards in folds about 2¼ inches, which are pressed quite close, and
a piece of twine is passed twice round the middle across the folds,
and the joinings secured by causing the twine to take a turn round
the middle at each fold successively; one of the ends of the folds
may be doubled short under, which will produce an extra report; the
other must project a little beyond the rest for the purpose of being
primed.


EARTHQUAKE, ARTIFICIAL.

Mix together four pounds of iron sand, and four pounds of sulphur;
and after making it into a paste with water, bury it a little depth
in the ground. In ten or twelve hours, if the weather be warm,
the earth will swell up, and burst; flames will also issue out,
scattering around a yellow and black dust.


FIRES OF VARIOUS COLOURS.

_White fire_ is made by mixing powder with iron sand, or filings.

_Red fire_ is made by mixing powder with iron sand of the first order.

_Silver colour_ is made by introducing raspings of ivory.

_Pale white colour_ is made by mixing camphor with the composition.

_Lemon colour_ is produced from raspings of yellow amber.

_Russet colour_ is produced from crude antimony.

_Red flame_, inclining to brown, is produced by Greek pitch.

_Dusky flame_ is produced by black pitch.

_Bluish flame_ is produced by introducing sulphur in a moderate
quantity.

_Green flame_ is made from the introduction of sal ammoniac, and
verdigris.

_White flame_: saltpetre, sulphur, mealed powder, and camphor; the
saltpetre must be the chief part.


WILDFIRE, WHICH BURNS UNDER WATER.

Mix well together equal quantities of sulphur, naphtha, bitumen,
pitch, and gum.


GERBES.

Gerbes consist of strong cylindrical cases of thick paper, filled
with brilliant composition, and sometimes with balls, or stars.
Gerbes throw up into the air luminous and sparkling jets of fire;
and when arranged in a circular manner, as the radii of a circle,
they form what is called a fixed sun. The thickness of the cases for
brilliant fire must be a fourth part of the diameter, and for Chinese
fire a sixth part. The case is loaded on a nipple, having a point
equal in length to the same diameter, and in thickness to a fourth
part of it; but as it generally happens that the mouth of the jet
becomes larger than is necessary for the effect of the fire, the case
should be first charged by filling it to a height equal to a fourth
part of the diameter, with clay, which must be rammed down. When the
charge is completed with the composition, the case should be closed
with a tompeon of wood, and then choked. The train, or match, must
be of the same composition as that employed for loading, otherwise
the jet would be subject to burst. Charged cases may be pierced with
two holes near the neck, in order to have three jets; or, if a top
pierced with a number of holes be added to them, they will imitate
a bubbling fountain. Jets intended for representing sheets of fire
ought not to be choked. They must be placed in a horizontal position,
or inclining a little downwards.


_Composition for Gerbes, or jets of fire._

        Key:
      S  = Saltpetre.
      P  = Pulverized powder.
      Su = Sulphur.
      C  = Charcoal.

  +-------------------------+------+------+----+----+--------------------+
  |                         |      |      |    |    |                    |
  |         JETS.           |   S  |   P  | Su | C  | Iron sand, or      |
  |                         |      |      |    |    |   filings.         |
  +-------------------------+------+------+----+----+--------------------+
  |                         |lb.oz.|lb.oz.| oz.| oz.|                 oz.|
  | ·4 of an inch or less   |      |      |    |    |                    |
  |   interior diameter     |      |      |    |    |                    |
  |        { Chinese fire   | 1    | 1    |  8 |  2 |                    |
  |        { White fire     | 1    |    8 |  3 |  2 | Sand, 1st order  8 |
  |                         |      |      |    |    |                    |
  | ·5 to 1 inch diameter   |      |      |    |    |                    |
  |        { Brilliant fire |      | 1    |    |    | Filings          5 |
  |        { White fire     | 1    |      |  8 |  2 |                    |
  |        { Chinese fire   | 1  4 |      |  5 |  5 | Sand, 3rd order 12 |
  |                         |      |      |    |    |                    |
  |                       { | 1  4 |      |  7 |  5 | Mixed sand      12 |
  | 1·1 to 1·5 diameter   { |      | 1  8 |    |  5 |                    |
  |                       { | 2    | 2    |    |  8 |                    |
  +-------------------------+------+------+----+----+--------------------+

The saltpetre, powder, and charcoal, are three times sifted through
a hair sieve; the iron sand is besprinkled with sulphur, after being
moistened with spirits of wine, that the sulphur may adhere to it,
and they are then mixed together. The sulphuretted sand is then
spread over the first mixture, and the whole is mixed with a ladle
only, for if a sieve were employed, it would separate the sand from
the other materials.

When sand larger than the 2nd order is used, the composition is
moistened with spirits of wine, so that it forms itself into balls,
and the jets are then loaded with them.


IRON FILINGS.

These filings must be quite clean, and free from rust. They must be
thoroughly mixed with the compositions of which they form one of the
ingredients; which, however, will not afterwards keep in good order
longer than a week, as the moisture contracted by saltpetre rusts the
filings, and destroys the effect they are intended to produce.


IRON SAND, OR POUNDED IRON.

Having broken a cast-iron plate, or iron pot, to pieces, on an anvil,
pulverize the fragments till the grains are not larger than radish
seed, then sift them through six graduated sieves to separate the
different sizes; and preserve these six different kinds in a very dry
place, in closely-corked bottles. The grains which pass through the
first or finest sieve, are called _Sand of the 1st order_, and those
that pass through the second sieve, _Sand of the 2nd order_, &c.
Compositions into which iron filings, or sand, are introduced, must
not be driven hard, for fear of accidents by explosion.


LEADERS, OR PIPES OF COMMUNICATION.

These are small tubes of paper, of lengths adapted to the distances
to which they are to extend. The paper is cut into slips two or three
inches broad, or sufficient to go four times round the formers, which
are about one-fourth of an inch diameter. Brass wire formers are the
best, and should be oiled to prevent the paper sticking. Quick match
is inserted in these tubes, but must be made to go in easily. The
quick match should project an inch beyond each end of the leader, and
should be inserted into the mouths of the cases of the fireworks with
a small quantity of mealed powder. The leaders must not be placed too
near, or cross each other so as to touch, as it may happen that the
fire from one may communicate to another, and destroy thereby the
intended arrangements.


MARROONS.

Marroons are boxes containing from 1 to 6 ounces of powder. They are
made either on a square, or round former, and the ends of the paper
are pasted down, and well welded round with kitted twine worked over
cross-ways. A hole is bored into the case, and a match inserted.


MEALING GUNPOWDER.

A small quantity of powder being placed on a table with a rim round
it, is rubbed down with a scored wooden mealer until all the grains
are broken, and it becomes sufficiently fine to pass through a lawn
sieve.


PASTE FOR REPRESENTING ANIMALS, ETC., IN FIRE.

Reduce sulphur to an impalpable powder, and having formed it into
a paste with starch, cover with it the figure intended to be
represented on fire, which must, however, have been previously coated
over with clay, to prevent it from being burnt. When covered with
the paste, besprinkle it, while still moist, with mealed powder; and
when perfectly dry, arrange some matches on the principal parts, so
that fire may be speedily communicated to every part of it. The same
paste may be employed to form festoons, garlands, &c., the flowers of
which might be imitated by fires of different colours, and could be
formed on the frieze of a piece of architecture, covered with clay to
preserve the stone, or wood from the effect of the fire. The Chinese
imitate grapes exceedingly well, by mixing powdered sulphur with the
pulp of the jejube, instead of flour-paste or starch.


PORTFIRES FOR ILLUMINATIONS.

The cases are made of three or four rounds of thin paper, the last
round being pasted; they are from two to five-eighths of an inch in
diameter, and from two to six inches long; they are pinched close
at one end, and left open at the other. In filling them, a small
quantity of the composition must be put in at a time, ramming it
lightly, so as not to break the case.


_Compositions._

  1. Saltpetre, 1 lb.; sulphur, 8 oz.; mealed powder, 6 oz.

  2. _Amber lights_: Mealed powder, 9 oz.; amber, 3 oz.

  3. Saltpetre, 2 lb.; sulphur, 3 lb.; antimony, 1 lb.

  4. Saltpetre, 3½ lb.; sulphur, 2½ lb.; mealed powder, 1 lb.;
  antimony, ½ lb.; glass dust, 4 oz.; brass dust, 1 oz.

_Note._—_Compositions_ No. 3, and 4, driven 1¼ inch in a one ounce
case, will burn one minute.


RAIN, GOLD, AND SILVER.

Fill small paper cases, or goose quills, with the composition, and
place upon the mouth of each some moist powder, both to keep in the
composition, and to serve as a match. If the head of a rocket be
loaded with these cases or quills, a shower of fiery rain will be
produced at the extreme range of the rocket.


_Compositions._

_Gold rain._

  1. Saltpetre, 1 lb.; mealed powder, 4 oz.; sulphur, 4 oz.; brass
  dust, 1 oz.; sawdust, 2¼ oz.; glass dust, 6 drs.

  2. Mealed powder, 12 oz; saltpetre, 2 oz.; charcoal, 4 oz.

  3. Saltpetre, 8 oz.; sulphur, 2 oz.; glass dust, 1 oz.; antimony, ¾
  oz.; brass dust, ¼ oz.; sawdust, 12 drs.

_Silver rain._

  1. Saltpetre, 4 oz.; sulphur, mealed powder, and antimony, each 2
  oz.; sal prunella, ½ oz.

  2. Saltpetre, 8 oz.; sulphur, 2 oz.; charcoal, 4 oz.

  3. Saltpetre, 1 lb.; antimony, 6 oz.; sulphur, 4 oz.

  4. Saltpetre, 4 oz.; sulphur, 1 oz.; powder, 2 oz.; steel dust, ¾
  oz.


ROCKETS, LINE.

Any rocket which is not very large, may be made to run along an
extended rope. For this purpose affix to the rocket an empty case,
and introduce therein the rope which is to carry it, placing the head
of the rocket towards that side to which it is intended to move. Two
rockets with an empty case may be similarly used, and may be made
to move in a retrograde direction by placing them with their heads
reversed, and a leader to communicate from the head of the rocket to
be first ignited to the tail of the second.


ROCKETS, SIGNAL.

_Composition._

Pulverized saltpetre, 4 lb.; sublimated sulphur, 1 lb.; dogwood
charcoal, 1 lb. 8 oz.

The charcoal is first pounded fine enough to pass through a wire
sieve (No. 3). The saltpetre and sulphur are each separately passed
through a fine hair sieve, then mixed well together with a copper
slice, and passed three times through the hair sieve. The charcoal is
then spread on a tray, and the saltpetre and sulphur sifted a fourth
time on it, and the whole being carefully mixed with a hard brush, is
afterwards passed four times through the wire sieve.

To each ladleful of composition, 25 blows are given for the pound,
and 21 for the half-pound rocket.

Twenty-eight ladlesful of composition (7½ oz.) are required to
complete the pound, and twenty-five (5 oz.) the half-pound rocket.

To prevent accidents in driving rockets, &c., the workman should keep
his body erect, the drift being well cleaned after each ladleful; and
while driving, it should be moved backward, and forward by a pair of
holders.

Rockets are driven 3½ calibres hollow, 1 calibre solid, and ½ calibre
with clay.


_Moulds._

                                Length.     Diameter.
  1 Pounder     Exterior       14 inches      3·9
                Interior       10·5 ”         1·7
  ½ Pounder     Exterior       11·6 ”         2·3
                Interior        8·5 ”         1·3

_Spindles._

                             Diameter.
                   Top.    Middle.    Bottom.    Length.
  1 Pounder         ·2      ·35        ·5         6·4
  ½ Pounder         ·2      ·3         ·4         5·2

_Drifts._

                 Length.     Diameter.  Hollowed.    No.
              { 12·1 inches    1·1        6·5         1
  1 Pounder   { 10     ”       1·1        5·7         2
              {  7·3   ”       1·1        2·5         3
              {  6·8   ”       1·1        Solid       4

              {  9·3   ”        ·9        5·4         1
  ½ Pounder   {  7·1   ”        ·9        2·3         2
              {  4     ”        ·9        Solid       3

The rocket is primed with mealed powder, and spirits of wine.

When complete, the length of the pound rocket is 15½ inches; and the
half-pound 12 inches; the weight of the pound rocket and stick is 1¾
lb.; and the half-pound, 13 oz.


_Length of sticks for rockets._

  1-Pounder rocket       8 feet.
  Half-pounder           6 feet 4 inches.


_Star compositions._

          No. 1.
  Saltpetre, pulverized       8 lb.
  Sulphur, sublimated         2 lb.
  Antimony, pounded           2 lb.
  Isinglass, dissolved        3½ oz.
  Vinegar                     1 quart.
  Spirits of wine             1 pint.

2. _White stars._ Mealed powder, 4 oz.; saltpetre, 12 oz.; sulphur
vivum, 6 oz.; oil of spike, 2 oz.; camphor, 5 oz.

3. _Blue stars._ Mealed powder, 8 oz.; saltpetre, 4 oz.; sulphur, 2
oz.; spirits of wine, 2 oz.; oil of spike, 2 oz.

4. _Coloured, or variegated stars._ Mealed powder, 8 drs.; rockpetre,
4 oz.; sulphur vivum, 2 oz.; camphor, 2 oz.

5. _Brilliant stars._ Saltpetre, 3½ oz.; sulphur, 1½ oz.; mealed
powder, ¾ oz., worked up with spirits of wine.

6. _Common stars._ Saltpetre, 1 lb.; sulphur, 4 oz.; antimony, 4¾
oz.; isinglass, ½ oz.; camphor, ½ oz.; spirits of wine, ¾ oz.

7. _Tailed stars._ Mealed powder, 3 oz.; sulphur, 2 oz.; saltpetre, 1
oz.; charcoal, coarsely ground, ¾ oz.

8. _Drove stars._ No. 1. Saltpetre, 3 lb.; sulphur, 1 lb.; brass
dust, 12 oz.; antimony, 3 oz.

No. 2. Saltpetre, 1 lb.; antimony, 4 oz.; sulphur, 8 oz.

9. _Fixed pointed stars._ Saltpetre, 8½ oz.; sulphur, 2 oz.;
antimony, 1 oz. 10 drs.

10. _Stars of a fine colour._ Sulphur, 1 oz.; mealed powder, 1 oz.;
saltpetre, 1 oz.; camphor, 4 drs.; oil of turpentine, 4 drs.

The dry ingredients are well mixed, and sifted through a hair sieve:
the isinglass dissolved over a fire with vinegar, and the spirits
of wine afterwards added, and with which the dry composition is
thoroughly mixed. It is then formed on moulds, and a hole is left
in the middle to assist its ignition. Thirty-six stars are put in a
1-pounder, and twenty-two in a half-pounder rocket.

A great variety of figures may be represented in the air by attaching
to a large rocket several small rockets, or small cases filled with
the composition; or serpents may be attached to the rocket by means
of packthread.


SALTPETRE, PULVERIZED.

Sixteen pounds of refined lakepetre are put into a copper vessel, to
which four quarts of water are added. It is placed over a charcoal
fire to boil; as the water evaporates it is well stirred with
copper-shod spatulas or paddles, occasionally taking it off the fire,
until the evaporation ceases; and when brought to a fine powder it is
sifted through a hair sieve, and spread on paper to cool.


_To extract saltpetre from damaged gunpowder._

Dissolve the powder in warm water, filter the solution through fine
linen bags, and then evaporate the water by boiling it, until the
solution is of sufficient strength to crystallize.


SERPENTS, OR SQUIBS.

The case is made by rolling stout cartridge paper in slips of 6 or
8 inches in breadth three times round a former, and pasting down
the last fold. The case, having been choked at one end, is filled
about two-thirds with the composition, and a small piece of paper
is inserted, over which powder is placed, and this end is secured
with twine. At the other extremity, moist powder with touch-paper is
inserted. To introduce the composition into the case, a quill, cut
into the form of a spoon, may be employed, and the composition must
be rammed down by a few strokes of a mallet on an iron rod tipped
with brass.


_Composition._

        1.        lb. oz.   |      2.      lb. oz.
  Mealed powder    1   8    |               1   0
  Charcoal             4    |                   1
  Sulphur              1    |                   0
  Saltpetre            3    |                   1¾


SHELLS, OR AERIAL GLOBES.

These globes are made of wood, and their thickness is equal to about
a twelfth part of their diameters. The usual charge is an ounce of
powder for a shell of 4 lb. weight, and 2 ounces for a shell of 8 lb.
They may be fired from any mortars that have not a chamber.


_To form the shell._

Two wooden hemispheres (with a fuze hole) are joined firmly together,
enclosing stars, squibs, rain, &c. A small quantity of powder is
inserted to explode the shell, by means of a fuze.


SHOWERS OF FIRE.

To form a shower of fire, mould small paper cases on an iron rod,
two-tenths of an inch in diameter, and 2½ inches in length. They must
not be choked, as it will be sufficient to twist the end of the case,
and having put the rod into it, beat it to make it assume its form.
When the cases are filled (which is done by immersing them in the
composition) fold down the other end, and then apply a match. They
must be fixed on a frame with leaders, to be fired simultaneously.


_Compositions._

_Chinese fire._ Mealed powder, 1 lb.; sulphur, 2 oz.; iron filings, 5
oz.

_Ancient fire._ Mealed powder, 1 lb.; charcoal, 2 oz.

_Brilliant fire._ Mealed powder, 1 lb.; iron filings, 4 oz.

The Chinese fire is the best of the above compositions.


SPECKIE.

Brilliant, and diversified displays of fireworks may be readily
exhibited by means of speckie, or lances. Illuminated designs of
figures, &c., are represented by affixing on a black board small
cases filled with various coloured compositions, to which leaders
must be attached. The cases are fastened on with glue, and red lead
mixed together.


_Compositions._

  +--------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |                    | White.|Yellow.| Blue. |Yellow.|Yellow.|
  +--------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |                    |lb. oz.|lb. oz.|lb. oz.|lb. oz.|lb. oz.|
  | Saltpetre          | 2   4 |     8 | 1   2 | 1     |     2 |
  | Sulphur            |     8 | 1     |     4 |     8 |     ½ |
  | Mealed powder      |     4 |    12 |       |    10 |     8 |
  | Antimony, crude    |     4 |       |       |       |       |
  | Gum Succum         |       |     8 |       |       |       |
  | Antimony, prepared |       |       |     8 |       |       |
  | Basket salt        |       |       |       |     6 |       |
  | Gamboge            |       |       |       |       |     3 |
  +--------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

Stars, crosses, revolving suns, &c., being fixed on the wooden frame
with the speckie, will form a brilliant display.


SPUR FIRE.


_Compositions._

        1.        lb. oz.   |      2.        lb. oz.
  Saltpetre        4   8    |                 1
  Sulphur          2        |                     8
  Lamp black       1   8    |                4 quarts.

The saltpetre and sulphur must be first sifted together, and then
put into a marble mortar with the lamp black. These ingredients must
be thoroughly mixed with a wooden pestle. The composition, if rubbed
too much, will be too fierce, and hardly show any stars; and on the
contrary, when not mixed enough, will be too weak, and throw out an
obscure smoke, and lumps of dross without any stars. This composition
is generally rammed in 1, or 2 ounce cases, about five, or six inches
long, but not driven very hard. Cases filled with spur fire may be
used in rooms without any danger of setting fire to the furniture,
&c., and some of them being placed round a transparent pyramid of
paper, and fired in a large room, make a very pretty appearance.


SUNS, OR WHEELS, FIXED, AND MOVEABLE.

None of the pyrotechnic inventions can be applied with so much
success in artificial fireworks, as suns, or wheels, of which there
are two kinds, fixed, and revolving.


FIXED SUNS.

Construct a circular piece of wood, into the circumference of which
screw 12 or 15 pieces in the form of radii, and to these attach jets
of fire, the mouth of each of which must be towards the circumference
of the frame; and leaders being affixed to all the jets, they will,
when ignited, produce the appearance of a radiated sun. The wheel is
fixed vertically. The jets may be arranged so as to cross each other
in an angular manner, in which case a _star_, or _cross of Malta_
will be formed. To produce a very brilliant effect, these suns may be
made with several rows of jets.


REVOLVING SUNS.

Provide a wooden wheel of the requisite size, and bring it into
perfect equilibrium around its centre, in order that the least
effort may make it turn round. Attach to the circumference of it
jets placed in the direction of the circumference; and affix leaders
of match to communicate the fire from jet to jet, according as may
be required. When fire is applied to one of the jets, the recoil
will immediately cause the wheel to revolve, unless it should be too
ponderous or large: therefore, when these suns are intended to be
of a considerable size, that is, when they consist of twenty jets,
fire must be communicated at the same time to the 1st, 6th, 11th, and
16th, from which it will proceed to the 2nd, 7th, 12th, and 17th, and
so on. Four jets will thus make the wheel revolve rapidly. If two
similar suns be placed one behind the other, and made to turn round
in a contrary direction, they will produce a very brilliant cross
fire.

For a sun 5 feet in diameter, the cases should be 8 oz., filled about
10 inches in length with composition.


_Compositions._

_Slow fire._

                                 oz.
  Saltpetre                       4
  Sulphur                         2
  Mealed powder                   1½

_Illumination fire._

                             lb. oz.
  Saltpetre                   1   0
  Sulphur                         8
  Mealed powder                   6

_Dead fire._

                                 oz.
  Saltpetre                      1¼
  Sulphur                         ¼
  Lapis Calemanaris               ¼
  Antimony                        ⅛

_Golden colour._

                             lb. oz.
  Mealed powder               1   0
  Charcoal, very good             2

_Brilliant fire._

                             lb. oz.
  Mealed powder               6   0
  Saltpetre                       8
  Sulphur                         2
  Iron Sand                      12

_Red Chinese fire._

                             lb. oz.
  Mealed powder               1   0
  Saltpetre                   1   0
  Charcoal                        4
  Sulphur                         4
  Iron sand 2nd   }
    and 3rd order }              14

_White Chinese fire._

                             lb. oz.
  Mealed powder               1   0
  Saltpetre                   1   0
  Sulphur                         8
  Iron sand, 2nd & 3rd order     14

_Grey colour._

                             lb. oz.
  Mealed powder               1   0
  Saltpetre                       4
  Sulphur                         2
  Charcoal                        1¼

Four ounce cases will be required for wheels of 14, or 16 inches;
if the wheels are larger, 8 oz., 1 lb., or even 2 lb. cases will be
required.

The Chinese compositions are intended for cases of nine-tenths of an
inch interior diameter, but they will be found to answer for cases as
low as four ounces.


TOUCH PAPER.

Dissolve saltpetre in spirits of wine, or water, more or less of the
saltpetre, according as the paper is to burn fast, or slow: then dip
into the solution blue paper, which, when well saturated, take out,
and dry for use. The touch-paper must be cut into slips, placed once
round the mouth of the firework, and the end of the paper outside the
case should be twisted to a point.


WHEELS, PIN, OR CATHERINE.

The pipe or case is made on a long wire former, about
three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, into which the composition
is poured through a funnel, and shaken down. The case is then rolled
round a small circle of wood about one inch in diameter, and not more
than half an inch thick, with a hole through the centre of it for a
nail, or pin. One end of the case is to be pasted round the wood, and
each half turn of it secured with sealing-wax, or a strip of paper
pasted across the wheel. The end is then primed.


_Composition._

Mealed powder, 12 oz.; saltpetre, 3 oz.; sulphur, 1½ oz.

Two ounces of iron sand, or camphor, may be added, but it keeps
better without either.




PART XII.

MATHEMATICS.


_Mathematics_ is the science which treats of all kinds of quantity
whatever, that can be numbered, or measured.

_Arithmetic_ is that part which treats of numbering.

_Fractions_ treat of broken numbers, or parts of numbers.

_Algebra_ is the art of computing by symbols.

In this science, quantities of all kinds are represented by the
letters of the alphabet.

_Geometry_ is the science relating to measurement. By the assistance
of geometry, engineers, &c., conduct all their works, take the
distances of places, and the measure of inaccessible objects, &c.


_Characters, marks, or signs_,

which are used in arithmetic, and algebra, to denote several of the
operations, and propositions:

  +  _signifies_ plus, or addition,
  -  minus, or subtraction,
  ×  multiplication,
  ÷  division,
  : :: :  proportion,
  =  equality,
  √  square root,
  ∛  cube root,
  4^2  _denotes that_ 4 is to be squared.
  4^3  _denotes that_ 4 is to be cubed.


ARITHMETIC.

REDUCTION.

_Reduction_ is the method of converting numbers from one name, or
denomination to another: or the method of finding the value of a
quantity in terms of some other higher, or lower quantity.


_To reduce from a higher to a lower denomination._

_Rule._—Multiply the given number by as many of the lower
denomination as make one of the greater;[40] adding to the product as
many of the lower denomination as are expressed in the given sum.

_Example._—In £6 15_s._ 5_d._, how many pence?

          £.  _s._  _d._
           6   15     5
          20
        ----
         135
          12
        ----
        1625  _Answer._
        ----


_To convert from a lower to a higher denomination._

_Rule._—Divide the given number by as many of the lower denomination
as are required to make one of the greater.[41] Should there be any
remainder, it will be of the same denomination as the dividend.

_Example._—Convert 1625 pence into pounds, shillings, and pence.

        12) 1625 pence
            ----
        20)  135   5
            --------
            £6  15_s._  5 _d._  _Answer._


THE RULE OF THREE, OR SIMPLE PROPORTION.

It is called the _Rule of Three_ because three numbers are given to
find a fourth. It is also called _Simple Proportion_, because the 1st
term bears the same proportion to the 2nd, as the 3rd does to the
4th. Of the three given numbers, two of them are always of the same
kind, or name, and are to be the 1st, and 2nd terms of the question;
the 3rd number is always of the same name, or kind as the 4th, or
answer sought; and in stating the question it is always to be made
the 3rd term. If the answer will be _greater_ than the 3rd term,
place the least of the other two given quantities for the 1st term;
but if the answer will be _less_ than the 3rd term, put the greater
of the two numbers, or quantities, for the 1st term.

_Rule._—State the question according to the above directions, and
multiply the 2nd and 3rd terms together, and divide this product by
the 1st, for the 4th term, or answer sought.

If the 1st and 2nd terms are not of the same denomination, they must
be reduced to it; and if the third term is a compound number, it must
be reduced to its lowest denomination before the multiplication, or
division of the term takes place.

_Note 1._—The operation may frequently be considerably abridged, by
dividing the 1st and 2nd, or the 1st and 3rd terms, by any number
which will exactly divide them, afterwards using the quotients,
instead of the numbers themselves.*

_Example._—If 2 tons of iron for ordnance cost £40, how many tons may
be bought for £360?

        As £40 : £360 :: 2 tons : 18 tons.
        (Thus 360 × 2) ÷ 40 = 18. The answer.

        * Or thus, 9 × 2 = 18. The answer.

_Note 2._—_A concise method of ascertaining the annual amount of a
daily sum of money._

_Rule._—Bring the daily sum into pence, and then add together as many
pounds, half pounds, groats, and pence, as there are pence in the
daily sum, for the amount required. For leap year, add the rate for
one day.

_Example._—Required the annual amount of 2_s._ 6_d._ per diem.

        2_s._ 6_d._ = 30_d._     30 pounds.
                                 15 = 30 half pounds.
                                      10_s._ = 30 groats.
                                       2_s._ 6_d._ = 30 pence.
                                 -----------------------------
        Annual amount (365 days) ... £45 12_s._ 6_d._

_Note 3._—To find the amount of any number of days’ pay, the daily
rate (under twenty shillings) being given.

The price of any article being given, the value of any number may be
ascertained in a similar manner.

_Rule 1._ When the rate (or price) is an even number, multiply the
given number by half of the rate, doubling the first figure to the
right hand for the shillings, the remainder of the product will be
pounds.

_Example._ Required the amount of 243 days’ pay, at 4_s._ per diem.

        4/2 = 2          243
                           2
                     -------
                      £48 12_s._ _Ans._

_Rule 2._ When the price is an odd number, find for the greatest
number as before, to which add one-twentieth of the given number for
the odd shilling.

_Example._ What is the price of 566 pairs of shoes, at 7_s._ per pair.

             566           2/0 ) 56/6
               3              -------
        --------                 28 6
         169  16_s._          -------
          28   6
        --------
        £198   2_s._ _Ans._


FRACTIONS.

_A fraction_ is a quantity which expresses a part, or parts of a
unit, or integer. It is denoted by two numbers placed with a line
between them.

_A Simple fraction_ consists of two numbers, called the numerator,
and denominator; thus,

         3 numerator,
        --
         5 denominator.

_The Denominator_ is placed below the numerator, and expresses the
number of equal parts into which the integer is divided.

_The Numerator_ expresses the number of parts of the broken unit, or
integer; or shows how many of the parts of the unit are expressed by
the fraction.

_A Compound fraction_ is a fraction of a fraction, as ⅔ of ⅘.

_A Mixed number_ consists of a whole number with a fraction annexed
to it, as 4⅖.

_An Improper fraction_ has the numerator greater than the
denominator, as 6/5.


REDUCTION OF FRACTIONS.

is bringing them from one denomination to another.


_To reduce a fraction to its lowest terms._

_Rule._—Divide the numerator, and the denominator, by any number that
exactly divides them, and the quotients by any other number, till
they can be no longer divided by any whole number, when the fraction
will be in its lowest terms.

_Example._—Reduce 4032/6048 to its lowest terms.

    Thus, (4)4032/6048 = (12)/1008/1512 = (6)/84/126 = (7)/14/21 = 2/3.
                                                           _Answer._

_To reduce an improper fraction to a whole, or mixed number._

_Rule._—Divide the numerator by the denominator, the quotient will
be the whole number; and the remainder (if any) the numerator of the
fraction, having the divisor for the denominator.

_Example._—Reduce 114/12 to a whole, or mixed number.

        12 ) 114
        --------
          9-6/12  _Answer._


_To reduce a mixed number to an improper fraction._

_Rule._—Multiply the whole number by the denominator, and add the
numerator to the product, under which place the given denominator.

_Example._—Reduce 17⅝ to an improper fraction.

         17⅝
          8
        ---
        141
        ---
          8  _Answer._


_To reduce a compound fraction to a simple fraction._

_Rule._—Multiply all the numerators together for the numerator, and
all the denominators for the denominator.

_Example._—Reduce ⅜ of ⅙ of ½ of 9 to a simple fraction.

        Numerators   3 × 1 × 1 × 9   27    9
                     -----   ----- = -- = -- _Answer._
        Denominators 8 × 6 × 2 × 1   96   32


_To reduce fractions of different denominators to equivalent
fractions, having a common denominator._

_Rule._—Multiply each numerator by all the denominators except
its own for the new numerators, and multiply all the denominators
together for a common denominator.[42]

_Example._—Reduce ⅜, ⅔, and ⅘ to fractions having a common
denominator.

  3 × 3 × 5 =  45
  2 × 8 × 4 =  80
  4 × 8 × 3 =  96
  8 × 3 × 5 = 120  _Answer_, 45/120, 80/120, and 96/120


ADDITION OF FRACTIONS.

_Rule._—Bring compound fractions to simple fractions; reduce all
the fractions to a common denominator, then add all the numerators
together, and place their sum over the common denominator. When mixed
numbers are given, find the sum of the fractions, to which add the
whole numbers.

_Example._—Add together ⅚, ¾, and 6½.

        5 × 4 × 2 = 40    40/48 + 36/48 + 24/48 + 6 = 8-4/48
        3 × 6 × 2 = 36    or, by cancelling, and dividing,[43]
        1 × 6 × 4 = 24    10/12 + 9/12 + 6/12 + 6 = 8-1/12. _Answer._
        6 × 4 × 2 = 48


SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS.

_Rule._—Prepare the quantities, as in addition of fractions. Place
the less quantity under the greater. Then, if possible, subtract the
lower numerator from the upper; under the remainder write the common
denominator, and, if there be whole numbers, find their difference as
in simple subtraction. But if the lower numerator exceed the upper,
subtract it from the common denominator, and to the remainder add the
upper numerator; write the common denominator under this sum, and
carry 1 to the whole number in the lower line.

        _Example._—  From 54-5/6   or 54-25/30
                     Take 25-5/15  or 25-10/30
                          -------
                          29-15/30  _Answer._


MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS.

_Rule._—Reduce mixed numbers to equivalent fractions; then multiply
all the numerators together for a numerator, and all the denominators
together for a denominator, which will give the product required.

        _Example._—Multiply ⅚, ⅜, and 2½ together.
                    ⅚ × ⅜ × (2½ or) 5/2 = 75/96 _Answer._


DIVISION OF FRACTIONS.

_Rule._—Prepare the fractions, as for multiplication; then divide the
numerator by the numerator, and the denominator by the denominator,
if they will exactly divide; but if they will not do so, then invert
the terms of the divisor, and multiply the dividend by it, as in
multiplication.

        _Example._—Divide 9/16 by 4½.
                    9/16 ÷ (4½ or) 9/2 = ⅛ _Answer._


RULE OF THREE IN FRACTIONS.

_Rule._—State the terms, as directed in “Simple proportion;” reduce
them (if necessary) to improper, or simple fractions, and the _two
first_ to the same denomination. Then multiply together the second
and third terms, and the first with its parts inverted, as in
division, for the answer.

_Example._—If 4⅕ cwt. of sugar cost £19⅞, how much may be bought for
£59⅝?

        As 19⅞ : 59⅝ :: 4⅕
        Or, 159/8 : 477/8 :: 21/5 : 12⅗ _Answer._
        8/159 × 477/8 × 21/5 = 80136/6360 = 12⅗ cwt.


DECIMALS.

_A decimal fraction_ is that which has for its denominator an unit
(1), with as many ciphers annexed as the numerator has places; and it
is usually expressed by setting down the numerator only, with a point
before it, on the left hand. Thus, 5/10 is ·5; 25/100 is ·25; 25/1000
is ·025; ciphers being _prefixed_, to make up as many places as are
required by the ciphers in the denominator.

_A mixed number_ is made up of a whole number with some decimal
fraction, the one being separated from the other by a point, thus
3·25 is the same as 3-25/100 or 325/100.

_Ciphers on the right hand of decimals_ make no alteration in their
value; for ·5, ·50, ·500 are decimals having all the same value,
each being = 5/10. But when they are placed on the left hand, they
decrease the value in a tenfold proportion; thus, ·5 is 5/10; but ·05
is 5/100.


ADDITION OF DECIMALS.

_Rule._—Set the numbers under each other, according to the value of
their places, in which state the decimal separating points will all
stand exactly under each other. Then beginning at the right hand, add
up all the columns of numbers as in integers, and point off as many
places for decimals as are in the greatest number of decimal places
in any of the lines that are added; or place the point directly below
all the other points.

_Example._—Required the sum of 29·0146, 3146·5, 14·16, and 165.

                   29·0146
                 3146·5
                   14·16
                  165·
                 ---------
        _Answer_ 3354·6746


SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS.

_Rule._—Place the numbers under each other according to the value of
their places. Then, beginning at the right hand, subtract as in whole
numbers, and point off the decimals, as in addition.

_Example._—Subtract 4·90142 from 214·81.

                 214·81
                   4·90142
                 ---------
        _Answer_ 209·90858


MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS.

_Rule._—Place the factors, and multiply them together, the same as if
they were whole numbers. Then point off in the product just as many
places of decimals as there are decimals in both the factors. But, if
there be not so many figures in the product, prefix ciphers to supply
the deficiency.[44]

_Example._—Multiply 32·108 by 2·5.

        32·108
           2·5
        ------
        160540
         64216
        -------
        80·2700 _Answer._


DIVISION OF DECIMALS.

_Rule._—Divide as in whole numbers, and point off in the quotient as
many places for decimals as the decimal places in the dividend exceed
those in the divisor. When the decimal places of the quotient are not
so many as the above rule requires, the deficiency is to be supplied
by prefixing ciphers. When there is a remainder after the division,
or when the decimal places in the divisor are more than those in
the dividend, then ciphers may be annexed to the dividend, and the
quotient carried on as far as required.

_Example._—Divide 234·7052 by 64·25.

        64·25 ) 234·7052 ( 3·65 _Answer._
                19275
                ------
                 41955
                 38550
                 ------
                  34052
                  32125
                  -----
                   1927 _Remainder._


REDUCTION OF DECIMALS.


_To reduce a vulgar fraction to its equivalent decimal._

_Rule._—Divide the numerator by the denominator, as in Division of
Decimals, annexing ciphers to the numerator as far as necessary: and
the quotient will be the decimal required.

_Example._—Reduce 7/24 to a decimal.

        24 = 4 × 6. Then 4)7·
                         -------
                        6)1·75
                         -------
                          ·291666, &c.


_To find the value of a decimal, in terms of the inferior
denominations._

_Rule._—Multiply the decimal by the number of parts in the next lower
denomination, and cut off as many places to the right hand for a
remainder, as there are places in the given decimal. Multiply that
remainder by the parts in the next lower denomination, again cutting
off for another remainder as before. Proceed in the same manner
through all the parts of the integer; then the several denominations,
separated on the left hand, will make up the answer.

_Example._—What is the value of ·775 pounds sterling.

                   ·775
                      20
                  ------
        Shillings 15·500
                      12
                   -----
        Pence      6·000 _Answer_ 15_s._ 6_d._


_To convert integers, or decimals to equivalent decimals of higher
denominations._

_Rule._—Divide by the number of parts in the next higher
denomination, continuing the operation to as many higher
denominations as may be necessary.

_When there are several numbers, all to be converted to the decimal
of the highest_—

Set the given numbers directly under each other for dividends,
proceeding from the lowest to the highest; opposite to each dividend,
on the left hand, place such a number for a divisor as will bring it
to the next higher name. Begin at the uppermost, and perform all the
divisions, placing the quotient of each division, as decimal parts,
on the right hand of the dividend next below it; so shall the last
quotient be the decimal required.

_Example._—Convert 15_s._ 9¾_d._ to the decimal of a pound sterling.

         4 |  3·
        12 |  9·75
        20 | 15·8125
             £·790625 _Answer._

_Example._—Convert 1 dwt. to the decimal of a pound, Troy weight.

        20 ) 1
            -------
        12 ) ·05 oz.
            -----------
             ·004166 lb., &c., _Answer._


RULE OF THREE IN DECIMALS.

_Rule._—Prepare the terms, by reducing the fractions to decimals;
compound numbers to decimals of the higher denominations, or integers
of the lower; also the first, and second terms to the same name. Then
multiply, and divide, as in the Rule of Three, in whole numbers.

_Example._—If ⅜ of a yard of cloth cost £⅖, what will 5/16 of a yard
cost?

                             yd.     yd.    £.             _s. d._
        ⅜ = ·375         As ·375 : ·3125 :: 4 : ·333 &c. or 6  8
                                       4
                                  ------
        ⅖ = ·4              ·375)·12500 (·3333 &c.
                                    1125     20
                                    --------------
        5/16 = ·3215                1250_s._ 6·666 &c.
                                    1125        12
                                    --------------
           _Answer_, 6_s._ 8_d._     125_d._ 7·999 &c. nearly 8_d._


DUODECIMALS.

By Duodecimals, artificers, &c., compute the content of their works.

_Rule._—Set down the two dimensions to be multiplied together one
under the other, so that feet may stand under feet, inches under
inches, &c.

Multiply each term in the multiplicand, beginning at the lowest, by
the feet in the multiplier, and set the result of each straight under
its corresponding term, observing to carry 1 for every 12, from the
inches to the feet. In like manner multiply all the multiplicand
by the inches, and parts of the multiplier, and set the result
of each term one place removed to the right hand of those in the
multiplicand: omitting, however, what is below parts of inches,
only carrying to these the proper number of units from the lowest
denominations. Or, instead of multiplying by the inches, take such
part of the multiplicand as those are of a foot.

Then add the two lines together for the content required.

_Example._—Multiply 14 feet 9 inches, by 4 feet 6 inches.

        ft. in.
        14   9
         4   6
       -------
        59   0
         7   4½
       -------
        66   4½ _Answer._
       -------


TABLES OF WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES.

TROY WEIGHT.

    24 grains   1 pennyweight.
   480         20               1 ounce.
  5760        240              12        1 pound.


AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.

          16 drams    1 ounce.
         256         16        1 pound.
        7168        448       28         1 quarter.
       28672       1792      112         4          1 hundred weight.
      573440      35840     2240        80         20         1 ton.

  _Note._—1 lb. Avoirdupois weight equals 14 oz. 11 dwts. 15½ grs. Troy.
          1 oz.   ditto                          18 dwts.  5½  do.
          1 dr.   ditto                               27·34375 do.


APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT.

    20 grains    1 scruple.
    60           3           1 dram.
   480          24           8       1 ounce.
  5760         288          96      12        1 pound.


WEIGHTS.

_To find the weight, for tonnage._

  _Cattle_—
            Divide the number by 3, for weight in tons.

  _Sheep_     Average 60 lb. each.
            Divide by 33, for weight in tons.

  _Pigs_      Average 80 lb.
            Divide by 15, for tons.

  _Beer, or Ale_—
            Barrel      3¼ cwt.
            Hogshead    5¼ cwt.

  _Oats_      Sack—24 stone.
            Divide quarters by 5, for tons.

  _Rum_—
            Divide gallons by 224, for tons.

  _Wine_    Cask—12 cwt.


_Rule for ascertaining the weight of Hay._

Measure the length and breadth of the stack; then take its height
from the ground to the eaves, and add to this last one-third of the
height from the eaves to the top: Multiply the length by the breadth,
and the product by the height, all expressed in feet; divide the
amount by 27, to find the cubic yards, which multiply by the number
of stones supposed to be in a cubic yard (viz., in a stack of new
hay, six stones; if the stack has stood a considerable time, eight
stones; and if old hay, nine stones), and you have the weight in
stones. For example, suppose a stack to be 60 feet in length, 30 in
breadth, 12 in height from the ground to the eaves, and 9 (the third
of which is three) from the eaves to the top; then 60 × 30 × 15 =
27000; 27000 ÷ 27 = 1000; and 1000 × 9 = 9000 stones of old hay.


LONG MEASURE.

     12 inches 1 foot.
     36       3        1 yard.
    198      16½    5½     1 pole, perch, or rod.
   7920     660      220        40         1 furlong.
  63360    5280     1760       320         8         1 mile.


LAND MEASURE (_Length_).

    7·92 inches                  1 link.
     100 links, or 22 yards      1 chain.
      80 chains                  1 mile.
  69·121 miles                   1 geographical degree.


LAND MEASURE (_Surface, or Superficial_).

  62·7264 square inches      1 square link.
      625 square links       1 square pole, or perch.
    10000 square links       1 square chain.
     2500 square links       1 square rood, or pole.
       10 square chains      1 square acre.
   100000 square links       1 square acre.


NAUTICAL MEASURE.

    1 nautical mile      6082·66 feet.
    3 miles              1 league.
   20 leagues            1 degree.
  360 degrees            the earth’s circumference.


SQUARE MEASURE.

      144 s. inches 1 s. foot
     1296            9         1 s. yard.
    39204          272¼       30¼      1 s. pole.
  1568160        10890      1210      40      1 rood.
  6272640        43560      4840     160      4      1 acre.


CUBIC MEASURE (_Measure of solidity_).

  1728 cubic inches      1 cubic foot.
    27 cubic feet        1 cubic yard.

_Note._—A cubic foot is equal to 2200 cylindrical inches, or 3300
spherical inches, or 6600 conical inches.


_Timber._

40 feet of round, and 50 feet of hewn timber make 1 _Ton_; 16 cubic
feet make 1 _Foot_ of wood; 8 feet of wood make 1 _Cord_.


_Water._

Maximum density 42 deg. Fahrenheit.

  1 cubic foot of water                     6¼ imperial gallons.
  1 cylindric foot do.                about 5 do.
  1 cubic foot                      weighs 62·5 lb. avoirdupois.
  1 cylindric do.                      do. 49·1
  1 lineal do. (1 in. square)          do. ·434
  12·2 imperial gallons              weigh 1 cwt.
  224    do.                           do. 1 ton.
  1·8 cubic feet                       do. 1 cwt.
  35·84 do.                            do. 1 ton.


MEASURES OF CAPACITY.

    69⅓ cubic in    2  pints 1 quart.
   277¼             8        4       1 gallon.
   554½            16        8       2        1 peck.
  2218⅕            64       32       8        4       1 bushel.
    10¼ cubic ft. 512      256      64       32       8       1 quarter.


FRENCH MEASURES.

                                      English
                                 cubic inches.

  Millilitre                            ·06103
  Centilitre                            ·61028
  Decilitre                            6·10279
  Litre, or cubic decimetre           61·02791
  Decalitre                          610·27900
  Hectolitre                        6102·79000
  Kylolitre                        61027·90000
  Myrialitre                      610279·00000
  1 litre is nearly 2⅛ wine pints.
  1 kilolitre 1 tun 12¾ wine gallons.
  1 stere, or cubic metre              35·3171

                                       English
                                         feet.

  Metre                                  3·281
    ” French feet, 3·07844
  Millimetre.                           ·03937
  Centimetre                            ·39371
  Decimetre                            3·93708
  Metre                               39·37079
  Decametre                          393·70790
  Hectometre                        3937·07900
  Kilometre                        39370·79000
  Myriametre                      393707·90000
  8 kilometres are nearly 5 miles.
  1 inch is ·0254 metre.
  100 feet are  nearly 30·5 metres.


INVOLUTION.

_Involution_ is the raising of powers from any given number, as a
root.

A _Power_ is a quantity produced by multiplying any given number,
called the _Root_, a certain number of times continually by itself.
Thus, 2 × 2 = 4, the 2nd power, or square of 2, expressed thus, 2^2.

_The index, or exponent of a power_ is the number denoting the
height, or degree of that power. Thus, 2 is the index of the 2nd
power.

Powers that are to be raised, are usually denoted by placing the
index above the root, or first power.

Thus 2^2 = 4, the 2nd power of 2.

_Example._—What is the 2nd power of 45?

        45 × 45 = 2025 _Answer._


EVOLUTION.

_Evolution_ is the reverse of Involution, being the extracting, or
finding the roots of any given powers, or numbers.

_The Root_ of any number, or power, is such a number as being
multiplied into itself a certain number of times, will produce that
power.

Thus, 2 is the square root, or 2nd root of 4, because, 2^2 = 2 × 2 =
4; and 3 is the cube root, or third root of 27. But there are many
numbers of which a proposed root can never be exactly found; by means
of decimals, however, the root may be very nearly ascertained.

_Any power of a given number, or root_, may be found exactly by
multiplying the number continually into itself.

Those roots which only approximate are called _Surd-roots_; but those
which can be found, quite exactly, are called _Rational-roots_. Thus,
the square root of 3 is a surd root, but the square root of 4 is a
rational root, being equal to 2; also the cube root of 8 is rational,
being equal to 2, but the cube root of 9 is surd, or irrational.
Roots are sometimes denoted by writing the character √ before the
power with the index of the root against it. Thus, the 3rd, or cube
root of 20 is expressed by ∛20. When the power is expressed by
several numbers with the sign + or - between them, a line is drawn
from the top of the sign over all the parts of it; thus the cube (or
third) root of 45 - 12 is ∛(45 - 12) or thus ∛(45 - 12).


TO EXTRACT THE SQUARE ROOT.

_Rule._—Divide the given number into periods of two figures each,
by setting a point over the place of units, and another over the
place of hundreds, and so on over every second figure, both to
the left hand in integers, and right hand in decimals. Find the
greatest square in the first period on the left hand, and set its
root on the right hand of the given number, after the manner of
the quotient figure in division. Subtract the square thus found
from the said period, and to the remainder annex the two figures
of the next following period for a dividend. Double[45] the root
above-mentioned for a divisor, and find how often it is contained in
the said dividend, exclusive of its right-hand figure; and set that
quotient figure both in the quotient, and divisor. Multiply the whole
augmented divisor by this last quotient figure, and subtract the
product from the said dividend, bringing down to it the next period
of the given number, for a new dividend. Repeat the same process over
again—viz., find another new divisor, by doubling all the figures now
found in the root; from which, and the last dividend find the next
figure of the root as before; and so on through all the periods to
the last.


_To extract the square root of a fraction, or mixed number._

Reduce the fraction to a decimal, and extract its root.

Mixed numbers may be either reduced to improper fractions, and the
root extracted; or the fraction may be reduced to a decimal, then
joined to the integer, and the root of the whole extracted.

_Example._—To find the square root of 29506624.

              29506624 ( 5432 The Root.
              25
              --------
        104 | 450
          4 | 416
        -------------
        1083 | 3466
           3 | 3249
        -------------
        10862 | 21724
            2 | 21724


TO EXTRACT THE CUBE ROOT.

_Rule 1._—By trials, or by the table of roots (_vide page_ 280), take
the nearest rational cube to the given number, whether it be greater,
or less, and call it the assumed cube.

2.—Then (_by the Rule of Three_),

As the sum of the given number, and double the assumed cube, is to
the sum of the assumed cube, and double the given number, so is the
root of the assumed cube, to the root required, nearly.

3.—Or as the first sum,

  is to the difference of the given, and assumed cube,
  so is the assumed root,
  to the difference of the roots, nearly.

4.—Again, by using, in like manner, the cube of the root last found
as a new assumed cube, another root will be obtained still nearer.
Repeat this operation as often as necessary, using always the cube of
the last-found root, for the assumed root.

_Example._—To find the cube root of 21035·8.

By trials it will be found _first_, that the root lies between 20,
and 30; and, _secondly_, between 27, and 28. Taking, therefore, 27,
its cube is 19683, which will be the assumed cube. Then by No. 2 of
the Rule

           19683     21035·8
               2           2
           -----    --------
           39366     42071·6
           21035·8   19683·
          ------    --------
        As 60401·8 : 61754·6 :: 27 : 27·6047 the Root, nearly.

Again for a second operation, the cube of this root is
21035·318645155832, and the process by No. 3 of the Rule will be

           21035·318645, &c.
                      2
           ------------
           42070·637290   21035·8
           21035·8        21035·318645, &c.
           ------------   ------------
        As 63106·43729 : diff. ·481355 :: 27·6047 :
                                 : the diff. ·000210560
                                             ----------
         consequently the root required is 27·604910560


TABLE OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND ROOTS.

  +----+-------+---------+------------+----------+
  | No.|  Sqr. |  Cube.  | Sqr. root. |Cube root.|
  +----+-------+---------+------------+----------+
  |  1 |     1 |       1 |  1·0000000 | 1·000000 |
  |  2 |     4 |       8 |  1·4142136 | 1·259921 |
  |  3 |     9 |      27 |  1·7320508 | 1·442250 |
  |  4 |    16 |      64 |  2·0000000 | 1·587401 |
  |  5 |    25 |     125 |  2·2360680 | 1·709976 |
  |  6 |    36 |     216 |  2·4494897 | 1·817121 |
  |  7 |    49 |     343 |  2·6457513 | 1·912933 |
  |  8 |    64 |     512 |  2·8284271 | 2·000000 |
  |  9 |    81 |     729 |  3·0000000 | 2·080084 |
  | 10 |   100 |    1000 |  3·1622777 | 2·154435 |
  | 11 |   121 |    1331 |  3·3166248 | 2·223980 |
  | 12 |   144 |    1728 |  3·4641016 | 2·289428 |
  | 13 |   169 |    2197 |  3·6055513 | 2·351335 |
  | 14 |   196 |    2744 |  3·7416574 | 2·410142 |
  | 15 |   225 |    3375 |  3·8729833 | 2·466212 |
  | 16 |   256 |    4096 |  4·0000000 | 2·519842 |
  | 17 |   289 |    4913 |  4·1231056 | 2·571282 |
  | 18 |   324 |    5832 |  4·2426407 | 2·620741 |
  | 19 |   361 |    6859 |  4·3588989 | 2·668402 |
  | 20 |   400 |    8000 |  4·4721360 | 2·714418 |
  | 21 |   441 |    9261 |  4·5825757 | 2·758923 |
  | 22 |   484 |   10648 |  4·6904158 | 2·802039 |
  | 23 |   529 |   12167 |  4·7958315 | 2·843867 |
  | 24 |   576 |   13824 |  4·8989795 | 2·884499 |
  | 25 |   625 |   15625 |  5·0000000 | 2·924018 |
  | 26 |   676 |   17576 |  5·0990195 | 2·962496 |
  | 27 |   729 |   19683 |  5·1961524 | 3·000000 |
  | 28 |   784 |   21952 |  5·2915026 | 3·036589 |
  | 29 |   841 |   24389 |  5·3851648 | 3·072317 |
  | 30 |   900 |   27000 |  5·4772256 | 3·107232 |
  | 31 |   961 |   29791 |  5·5677644 | 3·141381 |
  | 32 |  1024 |   32768 |  5·6568542 | 3·174802 |
  | 33 |  1089 |   35937 |  5·7445626 | 3·207534 |
  | 34 |  1156 |   39304 |  5·8309519 | 3·239612 |
  | 35 |  1225 |   42875 |  5·9160798 | 3·271066 |
  | 36 |  1296 |   46656 |  6·0000000 | 3·301927 |
  | 37 |  1369 |   50653 |  6·0827625 | 3·332222 |
  | 38 |  1444 |   54872 |  6·1644140 | 3·361975 |
  | 39 |  1521 |   59319 |  6·2449980 | 3·391211 |
  | 40 |  1600 |   64000 |  6·3245553 | 3·419952 |
  | 41 |  1681 |   68921 |  6·4031242 | 3·448217 |
  | 42 |  1764 |   74088 |  6·4807407 | 3·476027 |
  | 43 |  1849 |   79507 |  6·5574385 | 3·503398 |
  | 44 |  1936 |   85184 |  6·6332496 | 3·530348 |
  | 45 |  2025 |   91125 |  6·7082039 | 3·556893 |
  | 46 |  2116 |   97336 |  6·7823300 | 3·583048 |
  | 47 |  2209 |  103823 |  6·8556546 | 3·608826 |
  | 48 |  2304 |  110592 |  6·9282032 | 3·634241 |
  | 49 |  2401 |  117649 |  7·0000000 | 3·659306 |
  | 50 |  2500 |  125000 |  7·0170678 | 3·684031 |
  | 51 |  2601 |  132651 |  7·1414284 | 3·708430 |
  | 52 |  2704 |  140608 |  7·2111026 | 3·732511 |
  | 53 |  2809 |  148877 |  7·2801099 | 3·756286 |
  | 54 |  2916 |  157464 |  7·3484692 | 3·779763 |
  | 55 |  3025 |  166375 |  7·4161985 | 3·802953 |
  | 56 |  3136 |  175616 |  7·4893148 | 3·825862 |
  | 57 |  3249 |  185193 |  7·5498344 | 3·848501 |
  | 58 |  3364 |  195112 |  7·6157731 | 3·870877 |
  | 59 |  3481 |  205379 |  7·6811457 | 3·892996 |
  | 60 |  3600 |  216000 |  7·7459667 | 3·914867 |
  | 61 |  3721 |  226981 |  7·8102497 | 3·936497 |
  | 62 |  3844 |  238328 |  7·8740079 | 3·957892 |
  | 63 |  3969 |  250047 |  7·9372539 | 3·979057 |
  | 64 |  4096 |  262144 |  8·0000000 | 4·000000 |
  | 65 |  4225 |  274625 |  8·0622577 | 4·020726 |
  | 66 |  4356 |  287496 |  8·1240384 | 4·041240 |
  | 67 |  4489 |  300763 |  8·1853528 | 4·061548 |
  | 68 |  4624 |  314432 |  8·2462113 | 4·081656 |
  | 69 |  4761 |  328509 |  8·3066239 | 4·101566 |
  | 70 |  4900 |  343000 |  8·3666003 | 4·121285 |
  | 71 |  5041 |  357911 |  8·4261498 | 4·140818 |
  | 72 |  5184 |  373248 |  8·4852814 | 4·160168 |
  | 73 |  5329 |  389017 |  8·5440037 | 4·179339 |
  | 74 |  5476 |  405224 |  8·6023253 | 4·198336 |
  | 75 |  5625 |  421875 |  8·6602540 | 4·217163 |
  | 76 |  5776 |  438976 |  8·7177979 | 4·235824 |
  | 77 |  5929 |  456533 |  8·7749644 | 4·254321 |
  | 78 |  6084 |  474552 |  8·8317609 | 4·272659 |
  | 79 |  6241 |  493039 |  8·8881944 | 4·290841 |
  | 80 |  6400 |  512000 |  8·9442719 | 4·308870 |
  | 81 |  6561 |  531441 |  9·0000000 | 4·326749 |
  | 82 |  6724 |  551368 |  9·0553851 | 4·344481 |
  | 83 |  6889 |  571787 |  9·1104336 | 4·362071 |
  | 84 |  7056 |  592704 |  9·1651514 | 4·379519 |
  | 85 |  7225 |  614125 |  9·2195445 | 4·396830 |
  | 86 |  7396 |  636056 |  9·2736185 | 4·414005 |
  | 87 |  7569 |  658503 |  9·3273791 | 4·431047 |
  | 88 |  7744 |  681472 |  9·3808315 | 4·447960 |
  | 89 |  7921 |  704969 |  9·4339811 | 4·464745 |
  | 90 |  8100 |  729000 |  9·4868330 | 4·481405 |
  | 91 |  8281 |  753571 |  9·5393920 | 4·497942 |
  | 92 |  8464 |  778688 |  9·5916630 | 4·514357 |
  | 93 |  8649 |  804357 |  9·6436508 | 4·530655 |
  | 94 |  8836 |  830584 |  9·6953597 | 4·546836 |
  | 95 |  9025 |  857375 |  9·7467943 | 4·562903 |
  | 96 |  9216 |  884736 |  9·7979590 | 4·578857 |
  | 97 |  9409 |  912673 |  9·8488578 | 4·594701 |
  | 98 |  9604 |  941192 |  9·8994949 | 4·610436 |
  | 99 |  9801 |  970299 |  9·9498744 | 4·626065 |
  |100 | 10000 | 1000000 | 10·0000000 | 4·641589 |
  +----+-------+---------+------------+----------+


PILING OF SHOT, AND SHELL.

Shot, and shells, are usually piled in horizontal courses, the base
being either an equilateral triangle, a square, or a rectangle. The
triangular, and square piles terminate each in a single ball, but the
rectangular pile finishes in a row of balls.


_To find the number of balls in a complete pile._

_Rule._—Add the three parallel edges together; then one-third of the
product of that sum, and of the number of balls in the triangular
face, will be the number sought.

_Note 1._—_The parallel edges_ in a _rectangular pile_ are the two
rows in length at the base, and the upper ridge. In the _square pile_
the same, except that the upper row is only a single ball. In the
_triangular pile_, one side of the base, the single ball at top, and
that at the back, are considered the parallel edges.

_Note 2._—_The number of balls in the triangular face_ is found by
multiplying half the number in the breadth at the base, by the number
in the breadth at the base _plus_ 1.

_Note 3._—In all piles the breadth of the bottom is equal to the
number of courses. In the oblong pile, the top row is one more than
the difference between the length, and breadth of the bottom.

_Example._—To find the shot in a triangular pile, the bottom row
consisting of 12 shot.

[Illustration: (triangular pyramid)]

        Parallel edges.  { 12
                         {  1              12 ÷ 2 =  6
                         {  1              12 + 1 = 13
                                                -------
                          ---    Triangular face    78
                       3 ) 14                        4⅔
                          ---                      ----
                            4⅔                     312
                          ---                       52
                                                   ----
                                          _Answer_ 364

_Example._—To find the shot in a square pile, the bottom row
consisting of 12 shot.

[Illustration: (square pyramid)]

           12              12 ÷ 2 =  6
           12              12 + 1 = 13
            1                    -----
         ----                      78
        3 ) 25                      8⅓
         ----                    -----
           8⅓                  624
         ----                      26
                                 -----
                         _Answer_ 650

_Example._—To find the shot in an oblong pile, whose base consists of
18 shot in length, and 12 in breadth.

[Illustration: (rectangular pyramid)]

           18          18 - 12 = 6
           18                    1
            7                   --
          ----                   7
        3 ) 43
          ----
            14⅓        12 ÷ 2 =  6
          ----         12 + 1 = 13
                               ----
                                78
                                14⅓
                               ----
                               312
                               78
                                26
                              -----
                     _Answer_ 1118
                              -----


_Triangular pile._

_Rule._—Multiply the base by the base _plus_ 1, this product by the
base _plus_ 2, and divide by 6.


_Square pile._

_Rule._—Multiply the bottom row by the bottom row _plus_ 1, and this
product by twice the bottom row _plus_ 1, and divide by 6.


_Rectangular, or oblong pile._

_Rule._—Multiply the breadth of the base by itself _plus_ 1; and this
product by three times the length of the base _plus_ 1, _minus_ the
breadth of the base, and divide by 6.

_In the following formulæ let the letter_ (L) _denote the number in
the bottom row, or the length; and_ (B) _the breadth of the lowest
course_.

        _Triangular  pile_     (L × (L + 1) × (L + 2)) / 6

        _Square pile_          (L × (L + 1) × (2L + 1)) / 6

        _Oblong pile_          (B × (B + 1) × (3L + 1 - B)) / 6


_The number of shot in any pile,_

(whose base does not exceed 21) may readily be ascertained by
referring to _the following Table, page 284_.

_For the square pile._—Look for the number of shot in the base, in
the first vertical column on the left hand, and also in the diagonal
column; and at their angle of meeting will be found the content
required.

Thus 20 base gives 2870.

_For the triangular pile._—Look for the number in the base row in the
diagonal column, and opposite to it will be found the content.

Thus 18 base gives 1140.

_For the oblong pile._—Look for the number in the length of the base
in the vertical column, and the breadth of the base in the diagonal
column, and at their angle of meeting will be found the content
required.

Thus 17 length, and 12 breadth, gives 1040.


_To find the number of balls in an incomplete pile._

Compute the number in the pile considered as complete; also the
number in the upper pile, or part wanting; and the difference between
the two piles thus found will be the number in the frustrum, or
incomplete pile.


_Table for computing the Content of any Pile, whose base row does not
exceed 21 balls._

  +--+--+--------------------------------------------------------------
  | 1| 2|  4
  |     +---+
  | 2| 5|  3| 10
  |         +---+
  | 3| 8| 14|  4| 20|
  |             +---+
  | 4|11| 20| 30|  5| 35
  |                 +---+
  | 5|14| 26| 40| 55|  6| 56
  |                     +---+
  | 6|17| 32| 50| 70| 91|  7| 84
  |                         +---+
  | 7|20| 38| 60| 85|112|140|  8|120
  |                             +---+
  | 8|23| 44| 70|100|133|168|204|  9|165
  |                                 +---+
  | 9|26| 50| 80|115|154|196|240|285| 10| 220
  |                                     +----+
  |10|29| 56| 90|130|175|224|276|330|385|  11| 286
  |                                          +----+
  |11|32| 62|100|145|196|252|312|375|440| 506|  12| 364
  |                                               +----+
  |12|35| 68|110|160|217|280|348|420|495| 572| 650|  13| 455
  |                                                    +----+
  |13|38| 74|120|175|238|308|384|465|550| 638| 728| 819|  14| 560
  |                                                         +----+
  |14|41| 80|130|190|259|336|420|510|605| 704| 806| 910|1015|  15| 680
  |                                                              +----+
  |15|44| 86|140|205|280|364|456|555|660| 770| 884|1001|1120|1240|  16|
  |                                                                   +
  |16|47| 92|150|220|301|392|492|600|715| 836| 962|1092|1225|1360|1496|
  |
  |17|50| 98|160|235|322|420|528|645|770| 902|1040|1183|1330|1480|1632|
  |
  |18|53|104|170|250|343|448|564|690|825| 968|1118|1274|1435|1600|1768|
  |
  |19|56|110|180|265|364|476|600|735|880|1034|1196|1365|1540|1720|1904|
  |
  |20|59|116|190|280|385|504|636|780|935|1100|1274|1456|1645|1840|2040|
  |
  |21|62|122|200|295|406|532|672|825|990|1166|1352|1547|1750|1960|2176|
  ++--+--+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+----+----+----+----+----+----+

        15...  | 816                              ||
               +----+                             ||
        16...  |  17| 969                         ||
               |    +----+                        ||
        17...  |1785|  18|1140                    ||
                    |    +----+                   ||
        18...  |1938|2109|  19|1330               ||
                    |         +----+              ||
        19...  |2091|2280|2470|  20|1540          ||
                    |              +----+         ||
        20...  |2244|2451|2660|2870|  21|1771     ||
                    |                   +----+    ||
        21...  |2397|2622|2850|3080|3311|  22|2024||
        -------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----++


CORDAGE.

_Ropes_, _cables_, and all other descriptions of cordage are
distinguished by their circumference, thus a two-inch rope means a
rope two inches in circumference.


_To find the weight of a rope._

_First method._—Multiply the length in fathoms by the square of the
circumference, and divide the product by 480 for the weight in cwts.

_Example._—Required the weight of 110 fathoms of 3-inch rope.

        3 × 3 × 110 = 990, which divided by 480, gives 2 cwt. 7 lb.
        Weight required.

_Second method._—Divide the square of the circumference by 4, the
quotient will give the weight, in pounds, per fathom.

_Example._—What is the weight of a 3-inch rope per fathom?

        3^2 ÷ 4 = 2¼ lb. Weight required.


_To find the strength of a rope, or the weight it will support._

_First method._—Square the circumference, and divide by 5, for the
number of tons which it will bear suspended from it.[46]

_Example._—What weight will 3-inch rope of the best description
support?

        (3 × 3) / 5  = 9/5 = 1⅘ ton, or 4030 lb. Weight required.

_Second method._—Multiply the square of the circumference by 2, the
product will give the _practical weight in cwts_. that may be lifted
by it, or about half the breaking weight.

_Example._—What number of cwts. may be lifted by a 3-inch rope?

        3^2 × 2 = 18 cwts. Weight required.

  _The strain_, in pounds, _a rope will bear safely_ = girt^2 × 200}
        ”          ”       _a cable_   ”       ”     = girt^2 × 120}
                                                               nearly.


CHAINS.

_To find the weight of chains._

The square of the diameter of the link, measured in eighths of
inches, will give the weight of the chain, per fathom, in pounds.

_Example._—What is the weight per fathom of a ¾-inch chain?

        ¾-inch = 6/8; 6^2 = 36 lb. Weight per fathom.

_Or_, the weight per foot of the chain, multiplied by 24, will give
the weight per fathom of the chain, _nearly_. A chain cable with a
stay across the links will weigh about one-twelfth more than the
foregoing examples.


_To find the weight that may be safely lifted by a chain._

Divide the square of the diameter of the links, taken in eighths of
an inch by 8, and the quotient will give the number of tons that may
be lifted by the chain.

_Example._—What number of tons will a chain made of ¾-inch iron carry
with safety?

        ¾-inch = 6/8    6^2 = 36    36 / 8 = 4½ tons. Weight required.

_The safe strain_ is equal to about 8 tons, per square inch, of the
iron of which the chain is made.

_The stay across the link of a chain_ increases its strength about
one-sixth.

_When the chain is of great length_, a deduction, from the above
rules, must be allowed for the weight of it.


IRON RODS.

_To find the weight of round iron rods._

Divide the square of the diameter, in quarter inches, by 2, and the
quotient will give the weight in pounds, per yard.

_Example._—What is the weight of a yard of 1-inch round iron.

        1 inch = 4 quarters   4^2 = 16  16 / 2 = 8 lb. Weight required.


_To find the weight of square rods._

The weight of round rods, of similar diameter, divided by ·7854 will
give the weight of the square rods.


_To find the weight that may be sustained, or lifted by round iron
rods._

Find the weight in pounds, per yard; two-thirds of which will give
the safe load, in tons.

A round iron rod of average quality of iron, one inch in diameter,
will be torn asunder by 16 tons; it will be perceptibly damaged by
half this strain, or 8 tons; its safe load will be one-third, or 5·33
tons.


TIMBER.

_To find the area, or superficial content of a plank._

Multiply the length by the mean breadth.[47]

_Example._—Required the content of a board whose length is 11 feet 2
inches, and breadth 1 foot 10 inches

        ft. in.     ft. in.      ft. in.
        11   2   ×   1  10   =   20   5. Content required.


_To find the solid content of squared, or four-sided timber._

Multiply the mean breadth by the mean thickness, and the product by
the length, for the content, nearly.

_Note 1._—If the tree taper regularly from the one end to the other,
either take the mean breadth, and thickness in the middle, or take
the dimensions at the two ends, and half their sum will be the mean
dimensions; which, multiplied as by the above rule, will give the
content, nearly.

_Note 2._—If the piece do not taper regularly, take several different
dimensions, add them all together, and divide their sum by the number
of them, for the mean dimensions.

_Example._—Required the content of a piece of timber 16 feet long,
and side of square 14 inches.

        ft. in.     ft. in.      ft.      ft. in.
         1   2   ×   1   2   ×   16   =   21   9. Content required.


_To find the solidity of round, or unsquared timber._

1. Multiply the square of the quarter girt (or the square of ¼ of the
mean circumference), by the length, for the content.

_Note._—When the tree is tapering, take the mean dimensions, either
by girting it in the middle for the mean girt, or at the two
ends, taking half the sum of the two; or by girting it in several
places, then adding all the girts together, and dividing the sum
by the number of them for the mean girt. But when the tree is very
irregular, divide it into several lengths, and find the content of
each part separately.

_Example._—Required the content of a tree, whose mean girt is 3·15
feet, and length 14½ feet.

      3·15 / 4 = ·7875       ·7875 × ·7875 = ·62015625.
      ·62015 × 14·5 = 8·9922 feet of solid timber. The content required.

2. Find the mean area of a round tree, and multiply it by the length
for the content.


_To find the weight of a tree._

Find its content in feet, and multiply that by the specific gravity
of the wood.

(_Vide_ GRAVITY, _and Table of Specific Gravities_. _Page_ 318.)

_Example._—Required the weight of an elm-tree; whose mean girt is 5
feet, and length 60 feet.

        5/4 = 1·25            1·25 × 1·25 = 1·5625.
        1·5625 × 60 = 93·75.    Content in feet.


TONNAGE.

Table of Tonnage, and Weight of _one_ of the following Carriages,
Carts, Waggons, Gyns, &c., used in land service.

  +--------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------------+
  |                                      | Tonn- | Weight. |             |
  |                                      |  age. |         |             |
  +--------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------------+
  |                                      |Tons.  |Cwt.  lb.|             |
  |                                      |    ft.|   qrs.  |             |
  |                                      |       |         |} With       |
  |Carri-              {24 pounder       |  6   0|34  0  22|} bullock    |
  |ages.               { 8 inch          |  6   0|34  2  12|} pole and   |
  |      T{  {For Iron {18 pounder       |  4  39|27  2   9|} chain,     |
  |      r{  {Ordnance.{12    ” 21 cwt.  |  4   7|18  3  24|} weighing 2 |
  |      a{                              |       |         |} qrs. 19 lb.|
  |      v{            {Howitzer {10 inch|  6  17|39  0   9|             |
  | ”  { e{                      { 8  ”  |  5  37|33  2   0|  Do. do. do.|
  | ”  { l{            {12 pounder       |  5  33|22  0  10|             |
  | ”  { l{            { 9    ”          |  5   1|20  2  14|             |
  | ”  { i{For Brass   { 6    ”          |  4  21|17  3   5|             |
  | ”  { n{Ordnance.   {          {32 pr.|  5  29|23  3  13|             |
  | ”  { g{            {Howitzer  {24  ” |  5   6|21  0  17|             |
  | ”  {  {            {          {12  ” |  4  21|18  3  14|             |
  | ”  { c{Ammunition waggon             |  5  36|20  0   3| {For all    |
  | ”  { o{                              |                 | { natures.  |
  | ”  { m{Forge                         |  5  38|19  1   0|             |
  | ”  { p{Store-waggon (without spare   |  5  11|18  1  10|             |
  | ”  { l{   wheel)                     |       |         |             |
  | ”  { e{Small arm ammunition waggon   |  4  36|14  2  16|             |
  | ”  { t{Rocket  {12 pounder           |  7  33|20  2   8|             |
  | ”  { e{        { 6    ”              |  5  17|20  1  20|             |
  | ”  { .{Pontoon {Large                |  3  30|42  2  13|             |
  | ”  {  {        {Small                |       |22  2   5|             |
  | ”  {Garrison, wood, common standing }|       |         |             |
  | ”  {  for 32 pounder of 25 cwt.     }|  1   8| 8  0   7|             |
  |Capstan, crab                         |  0  31| 3  3  26|             |
  |              {Forge, cavalry         |  4  32|11  2   3|             |
  |              {Hand                   |  1  10| 4  3   4|             |
  |              {Hospital, conveyance   |  3  16|10  2  20|             |
  |Carts         {Sling                  |  3  38|16  1  17|             |
  |              {Store                  |  3  16| 9  1   0|             |
  |              {French                 |  1  32| 5  2  13|             |
  |Drugs         {Large                  |  2   7|17  1  24|             |
  |              {Small                  |  0  29| 5  0   4|             |
  |Gyns,         {Large                  |  1  23| 9  2  22|             |
  |Triangle      {Small                  |  1   2| 7  3   3|             |
  |                  {For 32 pounder     |       |         |             |
  |                  { garrison carriage}|  0 26 | 6  0  12| Fir.        |
  |          {Madras {For traversing    }|       |         |             |
  |Platform. {       { carriage with    }|       |         |             |
  |          {       { tail-piece       }|  1 23 |14  2   0| Teak.       |
  |          {Mortar, Alderson’s pattern |  0 30 | 8  1   4|             |
  |Portable forge, and pack saddle,      |                 |             |
  |  in wooden case                      |  0 17 | 2  1   3|             |
  |          {Flanders                   |  5  0 |16  1  25|             |
  |Waggons   {Platform                   |  3 16 |21  3  18|             |
  |          {Sling                      |  8 11 |31  3  26|             |
  |Waggons, hospital, Mr. Holmes’ {Large |  9 10 |21  0   0|             |
  |  pattern                      {Small.|  6 30 |18  0   4|             |
  +--------------------------------------+-------+---------+-------------+

The calculation of tonnage for baggage, stores, &c., is by
measurement: _a Ton_, consisting of 40 cubic feet; but metals, and
very heavy articles are estimated by actual weight, without reference
to bulk.


_To ascertain the tonnage of sailing vessels, the hold being clear._

_Rule._—Divide the length of the upper deck between the afterpart of
the stem, and the forepart of the stern-post, into six equal parts.

_Depths._—At the foremost, the middle, and the aftermost of those
points of division, measure in feet, and decimal parts of a foot, the
depth from the under side of the upper deck to the ceiling at the
limber strake. In the case of a break in the upper deck the depths
are to be measured from a line stretched in a continuation of the
deck.

_Breadths._—Divide each of those three depths into five equal parts,
and measure the inside breadths at the following points—viz., at
one-fifth, and at four-fifths from the upper deck of the foremost,
and aftermost depths, and at two-fifths, and four-fifths from the
upper deck of the midship depth.

_Length._—At half the midship depth measure the length of the vessel
from the afterpart of the stem to the forepart of the stern-post;
then to twice the midship depth add the foremost, and the aftermost
depths for the sum of the depths; add together the upper, and lower
breadths at the foremost division, three times the upper breadth, and
the lower breadth at the midship division, and the upper, and twice
the lower breadth at the after division, for the sum of the breadths:
then multiply the sum of the depths by the sum of the breadths, and
this product by the length, and divide the final product by 3500,
which will give the number of tons for register.

If the vessel have a poop, or half deck, or a break in the upper
deck, measure the inside mean length, breadth, and height of such
part thereof as may be included within the bulkhead; multiply these
three measurements together, and dividing the product by 92·4, the
quotient will be the number of tons to be added to the result as
above found.

In order to ascertain the tonnage of open vessels, the depths are to
be measured from the upper edge of the upper strake.


_To ascertain the tonnage of steam vessels._

_Rule._—In addition to the foregoing rules, when applied for the
purpose of ascertaining the tonnage of any ship or vessel propelled
by steam, the tonnage due to the cubical content of the engine-room
must be deducted from the total tonnage of the vessel, as determined
by either of the rules aforesaid, and the remainder will be the true
register tonnage of the said ship or vessel.


_To determine the tonnage due to the cubical content of the
engine-room._

_Rule._—Measure the inside length of the engine-room in feet
and decimal parts of a foot, from the foremost to the aftermost
bulkhead, then multiply the said length by the depth of the ship or
vessel at the midship division as aforesaid, and the product by the
inside breadth of the same division at two-fifths of the depth from
the deck, taken aforesaid, and divide the last product by 92·4, and
the quotient will be the tonnage due to the cubical content of the
engine-room.


_To ascertain the tonnage of vessels when laden._

_Rule._—Measure, _first_, the length on the upper deck between
the afterpart of the stem, and the forepart of the stern-post;
_secondly_, the inside breadth on the under side of the upper deck,
at the middle point of the length; and, _thirdly_, the depth from the
under side of the upper deck down the pump-well to the sink; multiply
these three dimensions together, and divide the product by 130, and
the quotient will be the amount of the register tonnage of such ships.


MECHANICS.

_Mechanics_ is the science of forces, and the effects they produce
when applied to machines in the motion of bodies.

_Machine, or engine_, is any mechanical instrument contrived to move
bodies.

_Equilibrium_ is an equality of action, or force, between two or more
powers, or weights, acting against each other, by which they destroy
each other’s effects, and remain at rest.

_The centre of motion_ is the fixed point about which a body moves.

_The axis of motion_ is the fixed line about which it moves.

_The centre of gravity_ is a certain point on which a body (being
freely suspended) will rest, in any position.

_The whole momentum_ or quantity of force of a moving body, is the
result of the quantity of matter multiplied by the velocity with
which it is moved.


THE MECHANICAL POWERS.

_Power is compounded of the weight, or expansive force of a moving
body multiplied into its velocity._

The power of a body, which weighs 40 lb., and moves with the velocity
of 50 feet in a second, is the same as that of another body which
weighs 80 lb., and moves with the velocity of 25 feet in a second:
for the products of the respective weights, and velocities are the
same.

        40 × 50 = 2000; and 80 × 25 = 2000.


_Power cannot be increased by mechanical means._

Power is applied to mechanical purposes—

  1. By the lever;                4. By the inclined plane;
  2. By the wheel, and axle;      5. By the wedge;
  3. By the pulley;               6. By the screw;

which are the simple elements of all machines.

The whole theory of these elements consists simply in causing the
weight, which is to be raised, to pass through a greater or a less
space than the power which raises it; for, as power is compounded of
the weight, or mass of a moving body, multiplied into its velocity, a
weight passing through a certain space may be made to raise, through
a less space, a weight heavier than itself.


THE LEVER.

_The lever_ is the most simple of all machines, being only a straight
bar of iron, wood, &c., supported on, and moveable round a prop,
called the _fulcrum_.

_Case 1._—When the fulcrum of the lever is between the power, and the
weight.

_Rule._—Divide the weight to be raised by the power to be applied;
the quotient will give the difference of leverage necessary to
support the weight in equilibrio. Hence, a small addition either of
leverage, or weight, will cause the power to preponderate.

_Example 1._—A ball weighing 3 tons is to be raised by 4 men, who can
exert a force of 12 cwt.; required the proportionate length of lever?

        3 tons = 60 cwt.; and 60/12 = 5

In this example, the proportionate lengths of the lever to maintain
the weight in equilibrio, are as 5 to 1. If, therefore, an additional
pound be added to the power, the power side of the lever will
preponderate, and the weight will be raised. But, although the ball
is raised by a force of only one-fifth of its weight, no power is
gained, for the weight passes through only one-fifth of the space.
The products, therefore, arising from the multiplication of the
respective weights, and velocities are the same.

_Example 2._—A weight of 1 ton is to be raised with a lever 8 feet in
length, by a man who can exert, for a short time, a force of rather
more than 4 cwt.; required at what part of the lever the fulcrum must
be placed?

        (20 cwt.) / (4 cwt.) = 5; that is, the weight is to the power
            as 5 to 1,
        therefore, 8 / (5 + 1) = 1 foot and a third, from the weight.

_Example 3._—A weight of 40 lb. is placed 1 foot from the fulcrum of
a lever; required the power to raise the same, when the length of the
lever on the other side of the fulcrum is 5 feet?

        (40 × 1) / 5 = 8 lb. _Ans._

_Case 2._—_When the fulcrum is at one extremity of the lever, and the
power at the other._

_Rule._—As the distance between the power, and the fulcrum is to the
distance between the weight, and the fulcrum, so is the effect to the
power.

_Example 1._—Required the power necessary to raise 120 lb., when the
weight is placed 6 feet from the power, and 2 feet from the fulcrum?

        As 8 : 2 :: 120 : 30 lb. _Ans._

_Example 2._—A beam, 20 feet in length, and supported at both ends,
bears a weight of 2 tons at the distance of eight feet from one end;
required the weight on each support?

        (40 cwt. × 8 feet) / (20 feet) = 16 cwt. on the support that is
        furthest from the weight; and (40 × 12) / (20 feet) = 24 cwt.
        on the support nearest to the weight.

_Case 3._—_When the weight to be raised is at one end of the lever,
the fulcrum at the other, and the power is applied between them._

_Rule._—As the distance between the power, and the fulcrum, is to the
length of the lever, so is the weight, to the power.

_Example._—The length of the lever being 8 feet, and the weight at
its extremity 60 lb., required the power to be applied 6 feet from
the fulcrum to raise it?

        As 6 : 8 :: 60 : 80 lb. _Ans._

_Velocity is gained at the expense of power by the lever, and wheel,
and axle._

  Note 1.—When two men are carrying a load on a pole between them,
  the strongest man should have the weight placed nearer to him than
  the other man.

  Note 2.—_To carry guns, &c._—If the burden can be carried by four
  men; after having made it fast to the middle of a large lever, fix
  the extremities of this lever on two shorter levers, and place a
  man at each of the points, C, D, E, F. _Vide plate, Mechanics, Fig.
  1._ In _Fig. 2_, the weight is equally divided between eight men,
  and in _Fig. 3_, between sixteen men.


THE WHEEL, AND AXLE.

The advantage gained is in proportion as the circumference of the
wheel exceeds that of the axle; therefore, the larger the wheel, and
the smaller the axle, the stronger is the power of this machine, but
then the weight will rise proportionally slower. A winch may be used
instead of a wheel, for in turning the winch the hand will describe
a circle, and there is no difference in the result, whether an
entire wheel be turned, or a single spoke which the winch as a lever
represents.

_Rule._—As the radius of the wheel is to the radius of the axle, so
is the effect, to the power.

_Example._—A weight of 50 lb. is exerted on the periphery of a wheel,
whose radius is 10 feet; required the weight raised at the extremity
of a cord wound round the axle, the radius being 20 inches.

        (50 lb. × 10 feet × 12 inches) / (20 inches) = 300 lb. _Ans._


THE PULLEY.

_The pulley_ consists of a grooved wheel, called _a sheave_, moveable
on an axis, or gudgeon, and enclosed in a frame, or case, called a
_block_. By passing a cord over the pulley, a man will be enabled
_to draw up_ a weight equal to that which his own body supplies in
pulling downwards.

_By combining a number of pulleys_, as many assistants are obtained
as there are wheels: thus, two pulleys will have double the power
of one, because half the weight is sustained by the frame to which
one end of the cord is attached; but then it requires _double the
time_ to do the work. As the _friction of the pulley_ is very great,
particular attention must be paid that all the turns or kinks of a
rope be taken out, before it is made use of, and it should enter
easily into the grooves of the sheaves.

_Rule._—Divide the weight to be raised by twice the number of pulleys
in the lower block; the quotient will give the power necessary to
raise the weight.

_Example._—What power is required to raise 600 lb., when the lower
block contains six pulleys?

        600 / (6 × 2) = 50 lb. _Ans._


TACKLES.

_Tackles_ are indispensable in the service of the artillery.

_The fall_ is the rope of which the tackle is composed; that end of
it which is fixed to the block is called _the standing part_, or
_end_; the other, which is pulled, or hauled on by the men, is called
_the running part_, or _end_; and the parts which pass from one block
to the other are called the _returns of the fall_.

_In all operations with tackles, the following directions should be
attended to_:—

1st. Make fastenings stronger than appears _actually_ necessary.

2nd. Examine the straps, and hooks of the blocks carefully.

3rd. Consider whether the cordage is new, half-worn, or almost worn
out.

4th. Attend to the seizings of the clinches, the sheet bends, the
_proper_ stoppering of the fall, the belaying the fall with two half
hitches.

5th. Be very distrustful of selvages applied on smooth worn rope.

6th. Do not allow ropes to be struck, or trampled on, when the weight
is suspended.

7th. The men should _stand as safe_ as the proper performance of the
various duties will permit.

8th. In pulling a rope, the men ought to place themselves in a right
line, and haul together. The most advantageous position for pulling
is down a slope, or in a descending position.


COMBINATION OF PULLEYS.

_A leading block_ is a fixed pulley, which alters the direction of
the power, but does not increase it: Power = Weight. On account of
friction the power must exceed the weight a little, in order to raise
it.

_Vide plate, Mechanics, Fig. 1._

_A whip_ is one moveable pulley, which increases the power without
altering the direction.

Power = ½ weight (or 2 to 1).—_Vide Fig. 2._

_A whip upon whip_ will afford the same purchase as a tackle having a
single and double block, and with much less friction.

_A gun tackle_ consists of two single blocks with fall fixed to the
one, then rove through the other, and then through the first. Power =
½ weight (or 2 to 1): or Power = ⅓ weight (or 3 to 1). _Vide Fig. 3,
and 4._

Two double blocks are generally used for very heavy guns.

_A luff tackle, or half watch tackle_, consists of one double and
one single block: the fall is fixed to the single, then rove through
first sheave of the double, then through sheave of single, and lastly
through second sheave of double block. Power = ⅓ weight (3 to 1): or
Power = ¼ weight (4 to 1). _Vide Fig. 5, and 6._

_A runner tackle_ is the same as a luff tackle, applied to the end
of a large rope, called a runner, which is rove through a single
block attached to a fixed point, or to a body that is to be moved, or
raised; the standing end of the runner being secured to another point.

Power is either 6 to 1, or 7 to 1, or 8 to 1.

_A gyn tackle_ consists of one triple and one double block: the fall
is fixed to the double, then rove through first sheave of triple,
then through first sheave of double, then through second sheave of
triple, then through second sheave of double, and lastly through
third sheave of triple block.

Power = ⅕ weight (5 to 1): or Power = ⅙ weight (6 to 1). _Vide Fig.
7._

If the moveable block of a tackle be strapped with a tail, it is
called a _tail_, or _jigger block_: and the tackle a _tail_, or
_jigger tackle_: a block with a hook strapped to it, and attached to
a selvage, answers the same purpose.

_Two double blocks_, with fall fixed to one of them, and then rove
through the sheaves of both blocks, will either give Power = ¼ weight
(4 to 1): or Power = ⅕ weight (5 to 1). _Fig. 8._

_Two triple blocks_, with fall fixed to one of them, then rove
through sheaves of both blocks, will either give power = ⅙ weight (6
to 1): or Power = ⅐ weight (7 to 1). _Fig. 9._

[Illustration: _System of Pullies._

Fig. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9]

[Illustration: _To carry Guns &c._

Fig. 1 2 3]

[Illustration: HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES.]

_In the system of pulleys_ (_vide plate, Mechanics_) the Power is
shown at the hooks of the moveable blocks, which are to be applied to
the bodies, or weights, requiring to be moved or raised. The strain
is also shown at the fixed blocks.

_In Fig. 3_, there are _three parts of the rope engaged_ in
supporting the weight—_viz._, _the parts marked 1, 1, 1_. Each of
them, hence, sustains _one-third_ of it, and the fall of the rope to
which the power is to be attached requires the Power = 1, if weight =
3. The same principle of calculation is applicable to all systems of
pulleys having one fixed block, any number of moveable wheels, and a
single rope over all the wheels. Hence, in such a system of pulleys,
gravity being applied, there will be an equilibrium, when the weight
is as many times the power as there are portions of the rope employed
in sustaining the weight. _For example_, in a system consisting of
six moveable sheaves, the same rope going over them all, there will
be 12 portions of the rope engaged; and to produce an equilibrium the
power must be equivalent to 1/12 the weight, no allowance being made
for friction.

From the foregoing observations, and by referring to the plate, it
will be seen that _each tackle has two applications_, differing in
power one from the other; _for example_, if the double block of a
luff tackle is fixed to a weight to be moved, and the single block
to a picket, or other fastening, _Fig. 6_, then, if _one man_ haul
on the fall, the power of _four men_ will be applied to the weight
(4 to 1), and the power of _three men_ to the picket; but if the
double block be fixed to the picket, _Fig. 5_, and the single, block
to the weight, then the force of only _three men_ will be applied
to the weight (3 to 1), and a power of _four men_ to the picket, or
fastening.

When the moveable block of one tackle is fixed to the fall of another
tackle, their respective powers are to be multiplied into each other
for the power of the combination: thus, if one luff tackle is fixed
to the fall of another luff tackle (the double blocks of both tackles
being moveable), the power will be 4 × 4 = 16 (16 to 1): in this, the
men haul through 16 feet to move the weight one foot; therefore if
the combination be increased until the men haul through 100 feet to
move the weight one foot, then the power would be 100 to 1.

The foregoing powers are, however, only true in theory, and are,
therefore, called _theoretical powers_: for owing to the great
friction of the pulleys, the stiffness of the ropes, &c., the actual
_practical powers_ are far less; so much so, that with a combination
giving a power of 48 to 1, a 24-pr. (2½ tons weight) suspended, can
scarcely overhaul the fall, the friction being so very great.


THE INCLINED PLANE.

_The inclined plane_ forms simply a gradual and sloping instead of a
sudden and perpendicular ascent, by which heavy bodies may be raised
to certain heights. The power necessary for raising a weight depends
on the difference between the length of the plane and the height to
be ascended. If the height be one-third of the length, then one pound
will lift three pounds. The force with which a rolling body descends
on an inclined plane is to the force of its absolute gravity, as the
height of the plane is to its length.

_Parbuckling a gun_ on skids unites the advantage of one moveable
pulley with that of the inclined plane.

_Rule._—As the length of the plane is to its height, so is the weight
to the power.

_Example._—Required the power necessary to raise 540 lb. up an
inclined plane, five feet long, and two feet high.

        As 5 : 2 :: 540 : 216 lb. _Ans._


THE WEDGE.

_The wedge_ may be considered as two equally inclined planes joined
together at their bases. It has a great advantage over all the other
powers, arising from the force of percussion, or blow, with which
the back is struck; which is a force incomparably greater than any
dead weight, or pressure, such as is employed in other machines. The
largest masses of timber may by this means be riven, and vessels of
war, weighing many thousand tons, are lifted from their supports
by the power of a few men, exerted by blows of mallets on wedges
inserted for that purpose.

_The power of the wedge_ increases in proportion as its angle is
acute. In tools intended for cutting wood the angle is commonly about
30°; for iron from 50° to 60°; and for brass from 80° to 90°.

_Case 1._—_When two bodies are forced from one another, by means of a
wedge, in a direction parallel to its back._

_Rule._—As the length of the wedge is to half its back, or head, so
is the resistance, to the power.

_Example._—The breadth of the back, or head of the wedge, being three
inches, and the length of either of its inclined sides 10 inches,
required the power necessary to separate two substances, with a force
of 150 lb.

        As 10 : 1½ :: 150 : 22½ lb. _Ans._

_Case 2._—_When only one of the bodies is moveable._

_Rule._—As the length of the wedge, is to its back, or head, so is
the resistance, to the power.

_Example._—The breadth, length, and force, the same as in the last
example.

        As 10 : 3 :: 150 : 45 lb. _Ans._


THE SCREW.

_The screw_ is a spiral thread or groove cut round a cylinder, and
everywhere making the same angle with the length of it. The force
of a power applied to turn a screw round is to the force with which
it presses upward, or downward, setting aside the friction, as the
distance between two threads is to the circumference where the power
is applied; or the advantage gained is as much as the circumference
of a circle described by the handle of the winch exceeds the
interval, or distance, between the spirals of the screw. Hence the
force of any machine turned by a screw can readily be computed; for
instance, in a press driven by a screw, whose threads are each a
quarter of an inch asunder, and with a handle, to turn the screw,
four feet long; then, if the natural force of a man, by which he can
lift, pull, or draw, be 150 lb., and it is required to determine with
what force the screw will press when the man turns the handle with
his whole force; the diameter of the handle (_power_) being 4 feet,
or 48 inches, its circumference is 48 × 3·1416, or 150⅘ nearly; and
the distance of the threads being one-fourth of an inch, therefore
the power is to the pressure as 1 to (150⅘ × 4) = 603⅕, but the
power is equal to 150 lb., therefore as 1 : 603⅕ :: 150 : 90480,
and consequently the pressure is equal to a weight of 90480 lb.
independent of friction.


COMPOUND MACHINES.

Though each of the mechanical powers is capable of overcoming the
greatest possible resistance in theory, yet in practice, if used
singly for producing very great effects, they would frequently be so
unwieldy and unmanageable as to render it impossible to apply them.
For this reason it is generally found more advantageous to combine
them together, by which means the power is more easily applied, and
many other advantages are obtained. In all the mechanical powers, and
their combinations, and in all machines, simple as well as compound,
_what is gained in power is lost in time or velocity_; and _vice
versâ_, or in other words, the product of the power, and the space
through which it moves, is equal to the product of the weight, and
the space through which it moves in the same plane. Suppose that a
man, by means of a fixed pulley, raises a beam to the top of a house
in two minutes, it is clear that he will be able to raise six beams
in twelve minutes; but by means of a tackle with three lower pulleys,
he will raise the six beams at once with the same ease as he before
raised one, but then he will be six times as long about it, that is,
twelve minutes; thus the work is performed in the same time whether
the mechanical power is used, or not. But the convenience gained by
the power is very great; for if the six beams are joined in one, they
may be raised by the tackle, though it would be impossible to move
them by the unassisted strength of one man. No real gain of force is
obtained by mechanical contrivances; on the contrary, from friction
and other causes, force is always lost; but by machines a more
convenient direction can be given to the moving power, and so modify
its energy as to obtain effects which it could not otherwise produce.


FRICTION.

_Friction_ arises from the irregularities of the surfaces which move
upon one another. The surfaces of bodies of the same nature are
moved with more facility over each other than those of a dissimilar
nature. In proportion as the surfaces which are to be moved upon one
another are rough, a greater force is requisite to produce motion.
The same surfaces when under a greater pressure, are subject to still
further friction. A double pressure doubles the amount of friction,
a treble pressure trebles, and so on in nearly the same proportion.
When surfaces are moving along each other in the direction of their
grains, the friction is greater than when the direction of the grains
is at right angles. Friction is little influenced by the velocity
with which bodies move upon one another. Friction may be diminished
in various ways, as will appear by the result of the following
experiment with a block of square stone weighing 1080 lb.:—

  1. In order to drag this stone along the floor of a quarry       lb.
       roughly chiselled, it required a force equal to             758

  2. Over a floor of planks, ditto                                 652

  3. Placed on a platform of wood, and dragged over a floor of
       planks                                                      606

  4. After soaping the two surfaces of wood, which slide over
       each other                                                  182

  5. Placed on rollers of three inches diameter, and moved along
       the floor of the quarry                                      34

  6. To drag it on these rollers over a wooden floor                28

  7. Mounted on a wooden platform, and the same rollers placed
       between the platform, and a plank  floor                     22

One of the most remarkable instances of the application of rollers
is the transport of the rock which now serves as the pedestal of the
equestrian statue of Peter the Great at St. Petersburg. This rock is
a single block of granite weighing 1217 tons. A railway was formed,
consisting of two lines of timber, furnished with hard metal grooves;
similar, and corresponding metal grooves were fixed to the under side
of the sledge, or frame, on which the stone was laid, and between
these grooves were placed spheres of hard brass, about six inches
in diameter. On these spheres the frame with its enormous load was
easily moved by sixty men working at capstans with triple purchase
blocks.


UNGUENTS.

Mr. G. Rennie found, from a mean of experiments, with different
unguents, on axles in motion, and under different pressures, that,
with the unguent tallow under a pressure of from 1 to 5 cwt., the
friction did not exceed 1/39th of the whole pressure; when soft
soap was applied, it became 1/34th; and with the softer unguents
applied, such as oil, hogs’ lard, &c., the ratio of the friction to
the pressure increased; but with the harder unguents, as soft soap,
tallow, and anti-attrition composition, the friction considerably
diminished; consequently, to render an unguent of proper efficiency,
the nature of the unguent must be measured by the pressure, or
weight, tending to force the surfaces together.


TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.

When a beam, of any material, is loaded, the surface in contact
with the load is _compressed_, and the opposite surface _extended_;
and there is a line between these, which is neither compressed, nor
extended, called _the neutral line_.

_If the depth of a beam be doubled_, the breadth, and length between
supports remaining the same, _its strength will be increased four
times_.

_If its breadth be doubled_, the other dimensions being as above,
_its strength will be doubled_.

By increasing the distance between the supports of any beam, its
strength is decreased in the same ratio; twice the distance between
the supports will weaken the beam one-half; half the distance between
the supports will enable it to bear twice the load.[48]

The same beam will bear twice the load, if, instead of being
concentrated in the middle, it be equally distributed over the whole
length of the beam.

If the load on a beam be placed near to one of the supports, instead
of in the middle, its effect will decrease in the ratio of its
proximity to the support.

Let S s represent the beam, W the load or weight in the middle, w the
weight near s; then the load which the beam will carry at the point
where w is placed will be found by the following proportion:—

        As S w × w s : S W × W s :: W : w.

A beam, fixed at one end, and loaded at the other, will bear half the
weight of one of the same length supported at each end.

If the end of a beam, instead of being only supported, be _fixed_,
its strength will be in the proportion of 3 to 2.

From the foregoing results it will be seen that the strength of a
rectangular beam varies, as the breadth multiplied by the depth
squared, divided by the length, (b × d^2)/l and if the breaking
weight of any material, 1 inch square, and 1 foot long, be found, it
will represent a _constant multiplier_ for the above equation.

Thus the breaking weight of a beam of Riga fir, 1 inch square, and
1 foot long (_vide following_ TABLE), is ·164 of a ton; and to find
the breaking weight of a beam of any other dimensions, the rule is
simply

        W = (b d^2)/l × ·164.

_Example._—What will be the breaking weight of a beam of Riga fir, 8
inches broad, 12 inches deep, and 20 feet long?

        (8 × 12^2)/20 = 57·6   57·6 × ·164 = 9·44 tons, breaking weight.


_Table of constants_, for beams of different materials, being the
breaking weights of such beams, 1 inch square, and 1 foot long.

  Riga fir        ·164 of a ton.      English oak        ·248 of a ton.
  Red pine        ·199    ”           Canadian do.       ·261    ”
  Pitch pine      ·242    ”           Dantzic do.        ·219    ”
  Beech           ·231    ”           Teak               ·366    ”
  Elm             ·150    ”           Cast iron, mean.  1·000    ”
  Ash             ·301    ”           Wrought do.       1·083    ”

  From the foregoing rules
              Length  = (b d^2)/W × constant.

              Breadth = (l W)/d^2 × constant.

              Depth   = √((l W)/b) × constant.

_The practical weight_ that a beam will carry _with safety_,
permanently, should only be taken at one-fourth of the above
computations.


ADHESION OF NAILS, AND SCREWS.

_The percussive force_ required to drive the common sixpenny nail
(73 to the pound) to the depth of an inch and a half into deal, with
a weight of six pounds and a quarter, is four blows, or strokes,
falling freely the space of one foot; and _the steady pressure_
to produce the same effect is four hundred pounds. A _sixpenny
nail_ driven into dry elm to the depth of one inch across the
grain requires a force of 327 pounds to extract it; and the same
nail, driven into the same wood endways, or longitudinally, can be
extracted with a force of 257 pounds.

To extract a sixpenny nail from a depth of one inch out of dry oak
requires 507 pounds, and out of dry beech 667 pounds. A sixpenny nail
driven two inches into dry oak would require a steady force of more
than half a ton to extract it.

_A common screw_ of one-fifth of an inch diameter has an adhesive
force of about three times that of a sixpenny nail.


TRIGONOMETRY.

_Plane trigonometry_ treats of the relations, and calculations of the
sides, and angles of plane triangles.

_The measure of an angle_ is an arc of any circle contained between
the two lines which form that angle, the angular point being the
centre; and it is estimated by the number of degrees contained in
that arc. Hence a right angle being measured by a quadrant, or
quarter of a circle, is an angle of 90 degrees. The sum of the three
angles of every triangle is equal to 180 degrees, or two right
angles; therefore, in a right-angled triangle, taking one of the
acute angles from 90 degrees, leaves the other acute angle; and the
sum of the two angles in any triangle, taken from 180 degrees, leaves
the third angle; or one angle being taken from 180 degrees leaves the
sum of the other two angles.


_Definitions._

_The sine of an arc_ is the line drawn from one extremity of the arc
perpendicular to the diameter of the circle which passes through the
other extremity.

_The supplement of an arc_ is the difference, in degrees, between the
arc, and a semicircle, or 180 degrees.

_The complement of an arc_ is the difference, in degrees, between the
arc, and a quadrant, or 90 degrees.

_The tangent of an arc_ is a line touching the circle in one
extremity of that arc, continued from thence to meet a line drawn
from the centre through the other extremity; which last line is
called _the secant_ of the same arc.

The _cosine_, _cotangent_, and _cosecant_ of an arc are the sine,
tangent, and secant of the complement of that arc, _the co_ being
only a contraction of the word complement.

The sine, tangent, or secant of an angle is the sine, tangent, or
secant of the arc by which the angle is measured, or of the degrees,
&c., in the same arc, or angle. _Vide also Definitions_, PRACTICAL
GEOMETRY.

_There are two Methods of resolving triangles_, or the cases of
trigonometry—viz., _Construction_, and _Computation_.

_1st method._—The triangle is constructed by making the sides from a
scale of equal parts, and laying down the angles from the protractor.
Then, by measuring the unknown parts by the same scale, the solution
will be obtained.

_2nd method._—Having stated the terms of the proposition, resolve
it like any other proportion, in which a fourth term is to be found
from three given terms, by multiplying the second and third terms
together, and dividing the product by the first.

_Note._—Every triangle has six parts—viz., three sides, and three
angles; and, in every case in trigonometry, there must be given three
of these parts to find the other three. Also of the three parts that
are given, one of them at least must be a side; because, with the
same angles, the sides may be greater, or less, in any proportion.


_Computation._

_Case 1._—_When a side and its opposite angle are two of the given
parts._

The sides of any triangle having the same proportion to each other,
as the sines of their opposite angles; then—

As any one side, is to the sine of its opposite angle; so is any
other side, to the sine of its opposite angle.

_To find an angle_, begin the proportion with a side, opposite to a
given angle; and, _to find a side_, begin with an angle opposite to a
given side.

_Case 2._—_When the three sides of a triangle are given, to find the
angles._

Let fall a perpendicular from the greatest angle, on the opposite
side, or base, dividing it into two segments; and the whole triangle
into two right-angled triangles: then the proportion will be—

As the base or sum of the segments, is to the sum of the other two
sides; so is the difference of those sides, to the difference of the
segment of the bases: then add half the difference of the segments
to the half sum, or the half base, for the greater segment; and
subtract the same for the less segment. Hence, in each of the two
right-angled triangles, there will be known two sides, and the right
angle opposite to one of them, consequently the other angle will be
found by the method in _Case 1_.


USEFUL THEOREMS, AND COROLLARIES.

1. When one line meets another, the angles, which it makes on the
same side of the other, are together equal to two right angles.

2. All the angles, which can be made at any point (by any number
of lines), on the same side of a right line, are, when taken all
together, equal to two right angles: and, as all the angles that
can be made, on the other side of the line, are also equal to two
right angles; therefore all the angles that can be made quite round
a point, by any number of lines, are equal to four right angles.
Hence also the whole circumference of a circle, being the sum of all
the angles that can be made about the centre, is the measure of four
right angles.

3. When two lines intersect each other, the opposite angles are equal.

4. When one side of a triangle is produced, or extended, the outward
angle is equal to the sum of the two inward opposite angles.

5. In any triangle, the sum of all the three angles is equal to two
right angles (180°). Hence, if one angle of a triangle be a right
angle, the sum of the other two angles will be equal to a right angle
(90°).

6. In any quadrilateral, the sum of all the four inward angles is
equal to four right angles.

7. In any right-angled triangle, the square of the hypothenuse (or
side opposite to the right angle) is equal to the sum of the squares
of the other two sides. Therefore, _to find the hypothenuse_, add
together the squares of the other two sides, and extract the square
root of that sum: and _to find one of the other sides_, subtract from
the square of the hypothenuse the square of the other given side, and
extract the square root of the remainder for the side required.

Or hypothenuse = √(base^2 + perpendicular^2)

Base = √((hypoth. + perpend.) × (hypoth. - perpend.))

Perpendicular = √((hypoth. + base) × (hypoth. - base.))


TRIGONOMETRY, WITHOUT LOGARITHMS.[49]

“In all the more elaborate, and refined operations of trigonometry,
it is not only desirable, but necessary to employ some of the larger
logarithmic tables, both to save time, and to ensure the requisite
accuracy in the results. But in the more ordinary operations, as
in those of common surveying, ascertaining inaccessible heights,
and distances, reconnoitring, &c., where it is not very usual to
measure a distance nearer than within about its thousandth part, or
to ascertain an angle nearer than within two or three minutes, it
is quite a useless labour to aim at greater accuracy in a numerical
result. Why compute the length of a line to the fourth, or fifth
place of decimals, when it must depend upon another line, whose
accuracy cannot be ensured beyond the unit’s place? Or, why compute
an angle to seconds, when the instrument employed does not ensure
the angles in the data beyond the nearest minute? In the following
Table are brought together the _natural sines, and cosines_, to every
degree in the quadrant, and this table will be found sufficiently
extensive, and correct for the various practical purposes above
alluded to. The requisite proportions must, it is true, be worked
by multiplication, and division, instead of by logarithms. Yet this
by no means involves such a disadvantage as might seem, at first
sight. For when the measured lines are expressed by three, or at
most, four figures, the multiplications, and divisions are performed
nearly as quick, and in some cases quicker, than by logarithms.
Then as to accuracy, even in cases where the computer will have to
take proportional parts for the minutes of a degree, the result may
usually, if not always, be relied upon to within about a minute.”


TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS.

_Natural sines, and cosines to every degree in the quadrant, radius
being 1·000000._

  +----+--------+--------+----++----+--------+--------+----+
  |Deg.| Sines. |Cosines.|    ||Deg.| Sines. |Cosines.|    |
  +----+--------+--------+----++----+--------+--------+----+
  |  0 | ·00000 |1·00000 | 90 ||    |        |        |    |
  |  1 | ·01745 | ·99985 | 89 || 26 | ·43837 | ·89879 | 64 |
  |  2 | ·03490 | ·99939 | 88 || 27 | ·45399 | ·89101 | 63 |
  |  3 | ·05234 | ·99863 | 87 || 28 | ·46947 | ·88295 | 62 |
  |  4 | ·06976 | ·99756 | 86 || 29 | ·48481 | ·87462 | 61 |
  |  5 | ·08716 | ·99619 | 85 || 30 | ·50000 | ·86603 | 60 |
  +----+----------------------------+--------+--------+----+
  |  6 | ·10453 | ·99452 | 84 || 31 | ·51504 | ·85717 | 59 |
  |  7 | ·12187 | ·99255 | 83 || 32 | ·52992 | ·84805 | 58 |
  |  8 | ·13917 | ·99027 | 82 || 33 | ·54464 | ·83867 | 57 |
  |  9 | ·15643 | ·98769 | 81 || 34 | ·55919 | ·82904 | 56 |
  | 10 | ·17365 | ·98481 | 80 || 35 | ·57358 | ·81915 | 55 |
  +----+--------+--------+----++----+--------+--------+----+
  | 11 | ·19081 | ·98163 | 79 || 36 | ·58778 | ·80902 | 54 |
  | 12 | ·20791 | ·97815 | 78 || 37 | ·60181 | ·79863 | 53 |
  | 13 | ·22495 | ·97437 | 77 || 38 | ·61566 | ·78801 | 52 |
  | 14 | ·24192 | ·97030 | 76 || 39 | ·62932 | ·77715 | 51 |
  | 15 | ·25882 | ·96593 | 75 || 40 | ·64279 | ·76604 | 50 |
  +----+--------+--------+----++----+--------+--------+----+
  | 16 | ·27564 | ·96126 | 74 || 41 | ·65606 | ·75471 | 49 |
  | 17 | ·29237 | ·95630 | 73 || 42 | ·66913 | ·74314 | 48 |
  | 18 | ·30902 | ·95106 | 72 || 43 | ·68200 | ·73135 | 47 |
  | 19 | ·32557 | ·94552 | 71 || 44 | ·69466 | ·71934 | 46 |
  | 20 | ·34202 | ·93969 | 70 || 45 | ·70711 | ·70711 | 45 |
  +----+--------+--------+----++----+--------+--------+----+
  | 21 | ·35837 | ·93358 | 69 ||    |        |        |    |
  | 22 | ·37461 | ·92718 | 68 ||    |        |        |    |
  | 23 | ·39073 | ·92050 | 67 ||    |        |        |    |
  | 24 | ·40674 | ·91355 | 66 ||    |        |        |    |
  | 25 | ·42262 | ·90631 | 65 ||    |        |        |    |
  +----+--------+--------+----++----+--------+--------+----+
  |    |Cosines.| Sines. |Deg.||    |Cosines.| Sines. |Deg.|
  +----+--------+--------+----++----+--------+--------+----+

“The preceding table is so arranged that for angles not exceeding
45 degrees, the sine, and cosine for any number of degrees will be
found opposite to the proposed number in the left hand column, and in
the column under the appropriate word. When the number of degrees in
the arc, or angle, exceeds 45 degrees, that number must be found in
the right hand column, and opposite to it in the column indicated by
the appropriate word at the bottom of the table. Thus, the sine, and
cosine of 36 degrees are ·58778 and ·80902 respectively, the radius
of the table being unity, or 1. The taking of proportional parts
for minutes can only be done correctly in those parts of the table
where the differences between the successive sines, &c., run pretty
uniformly. Suppose we want the natural sine of 20° 16′. The sine of
21 degrees is ·35837, that of 20 degrees is ·34202; their difference
is ·1635. This divided by 60 gives 27·25 for the proportional part
due to 1 minute, and that again multiplied by 16 gives 436 for the
proportional part for 16 minutes. Hence the sum of ·34202 and 436,
or ·34638, is very nearly the sine of 20° 16′. But the operation may
often be contracted by recollecting that 10 minutes are ⅙, 15 minutes
are ¼, 40 minutes are ⅔ of a degree, and so on. Observe, also, that
for cosines the results of the operations for proportional parts
are to be _deducted_ from the value of the required trigonometrical
quantity in the preceding degree.”


APPLICATION OF TRIGONOMETRY, WITHOUT LOGARITHMS, to the determination
of Heights, and Distances.

_Example 1._—Having measured a distance of 200 feet in a direct
horizontal line from the bottom of a steeple, the angle of elevation
of its top, taken at that distance, was found to be 47° 30′, from
hence it is required to find the height of the steeple?

By deducting 47° 30′ from 90°, the angle opposite the given side will
be found (42° 30′).

Then by _Case 1_. TRIGONOMETRY:—

        As sine ∠ 42° 30′ : 200 :: sine ∠ 47° 30′:
        Or         ·67556 : 200 :: ·73723 : 208·2, &c., height required.

_By construction_—

The triangle is constructed by making the side from a scale of equal
parts, and laying down the angles from the protractor. Then by
measuring the unknown parts by the same scale, the solution will be
obtained.

_Example 2._—Being on the side of a river, and requiring the distance
to a house on the other side, 200 yards were measured in a straight
line by the side of the river, and at each end of this base line the
angles with the house were 68° 2′, and 73° 15′—required the distance
from each end of the base line to the house?

The sum of the given angles (68° 2′ + 73° 15′) subtracted from 180°
will give the third angle (38° 43′).

Then by _Case 1_. TRIGONOMETRY:—

      As sine ∠ 38° 43′ : 200 :: sine ∠ 68° 2′
                 ·62544 : 200 :: ·92739 : 296·5 first distance required.
      As sine ∠ 38° 43′ : 200 :: sine ∠ 73° 15′
                 ·62544 : 200 :: ·95753 : 306·1 second distance required.

Similarly to the preceding examples, HEIGHTS, AND DISTANCES may
be rapidly (and for military purposes, sufficiently accurately)
computed in the field, by means of the foregoing trigonometrical
table, if proper attention is paid to the principles by which the
unknown angles of triangles may be ascertained: a base line, and
requisite angle, or angles, having been given.

It will, however, be necessary to use advantageously the methods in
Cases 1, 2 (_vide_ Trigonometry), and also the properties in the
subsequent theorems, and corollaries.[50]


TABLE,

_Showing the reduction in feet, and decimals upon 100 feet, for the
following angles of elevation, and depression._

  +--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+
  | Angle. |Reduction.| Angle. |Reduction.| Angle. |Reduction.|
  +--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+
  |  °   ′ |          |  °   ′ |          |  °   ′ |          |
  |  3   0 |   ·14    |  9   0 |   1·22   | 15   0 |   3·40   |
  |        |          |  9  30 |   1·38   | 15  30 |   3·64   |
  |  4   0 |   ·25    | 10   0 |   1·52   | 16   0 |   3·88   |
  |        |          | 10  30 |   1·68   | 16  30 |   4·12   |
  |  5   0 |   ·38    | 11   0 |   1·84   | 17   0 |   4·37   |
  |        |          | 11  30 |   2·01   | 17  30 |   4·63   |
  |  6   0 |   ·55    | 12   0 |   2·19   | 18   0 |   4·90   |
  |  6  30 |   ·65    | 12  30 |   2·37   | 18  30 |   5·17   |
  |  7   0 |   ·76    | 13   0 |   2·56   | 19   0 |   5·44   |
  |  7  30 |   ·86    | 13  30 |   2·77   | 19  30 |   5·74   |
  |  8   0 |   .98    | 14   0 |   2·97   | 20   0 |   6·08   |
  |  8  30 |  1·10    | 14  30 |   3·18   | 20  30 |   6·33   |
  +--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+

The reduction for 100 feet (from the above table) multiplied by the
number of times 100 feet measured, will give the quantity to be
subtracted from the measured length of an inclination, to reduce it
to a horizontal position.

[Illustration: _Surveying, and Reconnoitring._

  _Fig. 1._      _Fig. 2._      _Fig. 3._
  _Fig. 4._      _Fig. 5._      _Fig. 6._

                                                    _J. W. Lowry, sc._]


TABLE,

_showing the rate of inclination of inclined planes, for the
following angles of elevation_.

  +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
  | Angle. | One in | Angle. | One in | Angle. | One in |
  +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
  | °    ′ |        | °   ′  |        |  °   ′ |        |
  | 0   15 |  228   | 3  30  |   17   |  7   0 |   8    |
  | 0   30 |  114   | 3  45  |   16   |  7  30 |   7¼   |
  | 0   45 |   76   | 4   0  |   15   |  8   0 |   7    |
  | 1    0 |   56   | 4  15  |   14   |  9   0 |   6½   |
  | 1   15 |   46   | 4  30  |   13   | 10   0 |   6    |
  | 1   30 |   38   | 4  45  |   12   | 11   0 |   5¾   |
  | 1   45 |   32   | 5   0  |   11½  | 12   0 |   5½   |
  | 2    0 |   28   | 5  15  |   11   | 13   0 |   5    |
  | 2   15 |   26   | 5  30  |   10½  | 14   0 |   4½   |
  | 2   30 |   23   | 5  45  |   10   | 15   0 |   4    |
  | 2   45 |   21   | 6   0  |    9½  | 16   0 |   3¾   |
  | 3    0 |   19   | 6  30  |    9   | 17   0 |   3½   |
  | 3   15 |   18   | 6  45  |    8½  | 18   0 |   3¼   |
  +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+


SURVEYING, AND RECONNOITRING.

HEIGHTS, AND DISTANCES.

The accurate determination of heights, and distances of objects being
required in various military operations, especially for the position
of batteries, the following methods for their attainment will be
found useful when the requisite instruments are at hand; by frequent
practice, the eye should, however, be enabled to determine, _nearly_,
either the height of, or distance from any object.


HEIGHTS.

1.—BY MEANS OF A “POCKET SEXTANT,”

_to ascertain the height of an object_.

When the sextant is used for taking the height of objects, it is to
be held vertically, and the quicksilvered part of the horizon glass
will be on the left hand of the observer, or on the left part of
the transparent glass. Altitudes are measured in the same manner as
horizontal angles, for if we conceive the horizontal triangle A B
C (_vide Plate 2, Fig. 2_), to be raised on its base A C with the
angle C next to the observer, then the perpendicular A B becomes
the height of the object B; and supposing the object to stand on a
horizontal plane, then the ground and the object form the right angle
at A; therefore, _if the object is accessible_, the sextant need only
be set at any of the angles mentioned for distances (_vide Art._
DISTANCES), and walking backward on the line A C until the top of
the object is brought down to the height of the observer’s eye from
the ground, then the distance from where the observer stands to the
object will be in the same proportion to its height as the base was
to the distance. Then add the height of the eye from the ground, and
the height of the object will be ascertained. If the object is not
accessible, the angle must be taken, and calculated by trigonometry.


2.—BY MEANS OF A PORTABLE BAROMETER, AND THERMOMETER,

_to ascertain the height of an object_.

Observe the altitude (B) of the mercurial column in inches, tenths,
and hundredths, at the bottom of the hill, or other object, the
height of which is required.

Observe, also, the altitude (b) of the mercurial column at the top
of the object. Observe the temperature on Fahrenheit’s thermometer
at the times of the two barometrical observations, and take the mean
between them. Then 55000 × (B - b)/(B × b) = the height of the hill
in feet, for the temperature of 55 degrees on Fahrenheit. Add 1/440
of this result for every degree which the mean temperature exceeds 55
degrees, and subtract as much for every degree below 55 degrees. This
will be a good approximation when the height of the hill is below
2000 feet.


3.—BY MEANS OF THE RECONNOITRING PROTRACTOR,[51]

_to measure the height of an inaccessible object_.

[_Plate_, SURVEYING, AND RECONNOITRING, _Fig. 1_.]

Place yourself at a convenient distance from the object whose height
is required, taking care to have a good base line to the second
station. Hold the protractor vertically, with a steady hand, the tube
side uppermost, and bring the top of the object in a line with the
centre of the tube. Allow the arm (or index) to vibrate freely, and,
when steady, note the angular height of the object (shown by the edge
of the index on the marginal scale of degrees). By the aid of points
taken through the tube, or by pickets, then pace, or measure a base
in a direct line from the object; and, when arrived at the second
station, again note the angular height of the object.

_Construction_—

Set off the angles, and draw the respective lines, which, by their
intersection, will determine the height of the perpendicular, to
which the height of the protractor above the ground must be added
for the altitude of the object. By using the scale of the measured
base line, the height required will be ascertained, or it may be
calculated by “TRIGONOMETRY, WITHOUT LOGARITHMS.”—_Page 303._


_To measure the height of an accessible object._

[_Plate_, SURVEYING, AND RECONNOITRING, _Fig. 2_.]

At an appropriate distance from the object, take its angular height
and measure the distance to its base.

_Construction_—

Draw a line representing this distance, at one end of which
draw another line at the angle found, and at the other erect a
perpendicular; the intersection of these lines will determine the
altitude of the object.


_To measure the vertical height of a hill, or mountain._

[_Fig. 3, Plate_, SURVEYING, AND RECONNOITRING.]

From a station a short distance from the hill, take, and note down
its angular height; then select a rear position for a base line,
using the tube of the protractor to insure a straight direction;
proceed to the requisite distance on the base, and again note the
altitude of the hill.

_Construction_—

The intersection of lines drawn from each end of the base line, at
the angles found, will determine the altitude; the perpendicular
height of which, added to that of the protractor above the ground,
will give the altitude required.


_To measure the altitude of a tower, &c., on a height._

[_Fig. 4, Plate_, SURVEYING, AND RECONNOITRING.]

From the first station, near the base, take the altitude of the hill,
and also that of the tower above it, and note down these angles;
proceed to another station in a straight line with the former one,
measuring its length, and again observe the angular height of the
hill, and also that of the top of the tower.

Similarly to the previously described mode, ascertain, first, the
height of the hill; second, the height of the hill, and tower; deduct
the first calculation from the second, which will leave the height of
the tower.

In all the foregoing cases the heights may be correctly ascertained
by trigonometrical calculations (_vide_ TRIGONOMETRY, WITHOUT
LOGARITHMS, _page 303_).


4.—BY THE SHADOW OF THE OBJECT,

_to ascertain the height_.

Set up vertically a staff of known length, and measure the length of
its shadow upon a horizontal, or other plane; measure also the length
of the shadow of the object of which the altitude is required. Then,
by the property of similar triangles,

        As the length of the shadow of the staff
          is to the altitude of the staff,
        so is the length of the shadow of the object
          to the altitude of the object.


5.—WHEN THERE IS NO SHADOW,

_to ascertain the height_.

Place a staff (equal in length to the height of the observer’s eye)
vertically at such a distance from the foot of the required altitude,
that the observer, having laid himself upon his back, with his feet
against the bottom of the stick, may see the top of the staff, and
object in the same line. Then, by similar triangles, the height may
be readily ascertained.


6.—BY MEANS OF THE TANGENT SCALE OF A GUN,

_to ascertain the height of an object, the distance being known_.

Lay the gun for the top of the object the height of which is
required, then raise the tangent scale until the top of it, and the
notch on the muzzle are in line with the bottom of the object: then,
by similar triangles,

        As the length of the gun
          is to the length of the raised part of the tangent scale,
        so is the distance from the gun to the object,
          to the height required.

[Illustration: _Plate 2._

  HEIGHTS.
  _Fig. 1._ _Fig. 2._

  DISTANCES.
  _Fig. 3._ _Fig. 4._ _Fig. 5._

  PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
  _Fig. ½._ _Fig. 21._ _Fig. 22._]


7.—BY MEANS OF TWO PICKETS,

_to ascertain the height of an object_.

[_Vide 2nd Plate_, HEIGHTS, AND DISTANCES, _Fig. 1_.]

Let two pickets C D (4 feet), E F (6 feet), be placed with their
bases in the line C A passing through A the height required, and
move them nearer to, or farther from each other, until the summit
B of the object is seen in the same line as D, and F, the tops of the
rods. Then, by the principles of similar triangles,

        As D H (= C E) : F H :: D G (= C A) : B G.
        To which add A G = C D for the whole height A B.

Thus, supposing C E to be 6 feet, F H 2 feet, and C A 150 feet, the
proportion will be,

        As 6 : 2 :: 150 : 50 feet.
        Then 50 + C D will be the altitude required.


DISTANCES.


1.—BY MEANS OF THE SEXTANT,[52]

_to find the distance from an object, whose height is known_.

Let A B represent the height of the object; C your station; and C B
the distance to be found.

[Illustration: (right angle triangle A B C)]

Take the angle B C A with the sextant,[52] and note it in minutes;
then A B, in feet × 573 ÷ B C A, in minutes = A C in fathoms. Or A B
in feet × 573 ÷ B C A, in minutes × 2 = A C in yards.

573 is a constant multiple.

This method requires no table of sines, &c., the number of minutes in
the angle being used instead of the sine.


2.—BY MEANS OF A POCKET SEXTANT,

_to measure inaccessible distances_.

When used for taking the distance of objects, the sextant is to be
held horizontally, and the quicksilvered part of the glass will be
uppermost, or above the transparent part.

To ascertain the distance A B (_vide Plate 2, Fig. 2_), obtain, by
observation, the direction A C perpendicular to A B, which is thus
performed:—Set the instrument at 90°, and place yourself at the
point A, with your right towards the point B; then look through the
sextant, and direct a picket to be placed in the line A C at 100
yards, or feet, from you, so that the point B will appear right above
it. Then set the sextant at 45°, and walk along the line towards
C until you bring the points A, and B to coincide; the base and
perpendicular will then be of equal length, and A C being known,
or measured, the distance A B will also be ascertained. But if you
cannot walk far enough to find angle C 45°, find it equal to 63° 26′,
and then A C = ½ A B; at 71° 34′ = ⅓ A B; at 75° 58′ = ¼ A B; at 78°
41′ = ⅕ A B; at 80° 32′ = ⅙ A B; at 82° 52′ = ⅛ A B; and at 84° 17′
the distance will be ⅒ A B.

Should the object be far distant, it will be necessary to take a long
base, and the side A B must be calculated, therefore, by trigonometry.


3.—BY MEANS OF THE PRISMATIC COMPASS,

_to measure inaccessible distances_.

Having fixed the instrument to the stand, place it over the
station-point, spreading the legs so as to give sufficient firmness,
and observing that the card is level enough to allow it to play
freely; raise the prism by means of the slide, until the divisions of
the compass-card are distinctly seen; then look through the slit, and
turn the box round until the thread bisects the object whose distance
is required; allow the card to settle, and the division on it, which
coincides with the thread of the vane, will be the azimuth, or
bearing of the object, reckoned from the north, or south point of the
needle, when the card is divided into twice 180 degrees. The angular
distance between any two objects will, of course, be the difference
of their bearings; thus, suppose one to bear 15° N.E., and the other
165° S.E., the angular distance between them will be 150°.

In military sketching, the compass is often supported merely by the
hands, using the little spring to check the vibrations of the card.
In windy weather, the mean of these vibrations must be taken for the
bearing sought.

The directions for surveying, &c., &c., by means of “The
Reconnoitring Protractor,” apply similarly to the “Prismatic Compass.”


4.—BY MEANS OF “THE RECONNOITRING PROTRACTOR,”

_to ascertain the distance from inacessible objects_.

[_Plate_, SURVEYING, AND RECONNOITRING, _Fig. 6_.]

Select a good position for a base line; fix the protractor on the
tripod at the first station, placing the instrument in a direct line
between the first station and the point selected for the second
station. Direct the index consecutively at the objects, the relative
distances of which are to be ascertained, and note correctly their
respective angles. When the object is above the horizontal line, the
sliding-sight must be sufficiently raised to take its bearing; and,
should the object be below the level of the protractor, its angle may
be taken by observation through the upper holes of the near sight; or
the feet of the tripod may be adjusted, by raising, or sinking them
in the ground, so that the index may be correctly directed to the
object. Then proceed to the second station, measuring, or carefully
pacing the base line, at the end of which fix the protractor in
a straight line between the two stations; direct the index at
the objects previously noted at the first station, taking their
respective angles as before.

_Construction_—

Draw the base of the length required, according to the scale; from
each end of which set off the angles found, and draw the lines
required; the intersection of these will determine the position of
the several objects, and their relative distances may be ascertained
by measurement on the scale of the base line; or they may be
calculated trigonometrically.


5.—BY MEANS OF TWO PICKETS,

_to ascertain the distance from an object_.

Take two pickets of unequal lengths, drive the shortest into the
ground, say close to the edge of a river; measure some paces back
from it, and drive in the other, till you find, by looking over
the tops of both, that your sight cuts the opposite bank. Pull up
the first picket, measure the same distance from the second in any
direction the most horizontal, and drive it as deep in the ground as
before. Then, if you look over them again, and observe where the line
of sight falls, or terminates, you will have the distance required.
This method is only applicable to short distances.


6.—_To ascertain the distance of the object A from B._

[_Vide Plate 2, Fig. 3._]

Place a picket at B, and another at C at a few yards’ distance,
making A B C a right angle, or B C perpendicular to A B.[53] Divide B
C into 4, 5, or any number of equal parts, make another similar angle
at C in a direction from the object, and walk along the line C D
until you bring yourself in a line with the object A, and any of the
divisions (say O) of the line B C. Then (having measured C D)

           as C O : C D :: B O : B A.
        Or, as 10 :  53 ::  30 : 159 yards.


7.—_To find the distance between two objects_, C, _and_ D.

[_Vide Plate 2, Fig. 4._]

From any point A, taken in the line C D, erect the perpendicular A
E, in which set off from A to E 40 yards, set off from E to G, in
the prolongation of A E, 10 yards, at G raise the perpendicular G F,
and produce it towards I, plant pickets at E, and G, then move with
another picket on G F, till F is in a line with E, and D; and on the
prolongation of the perpendicular F G place another picket at I in
the line with E, and C: measure F I (54 yards), then—

            as G E : A E :: F I : C D;
         Or, as 10 :  40 ::  54 : 216 yards.


8.—_To find the inaccessible length_, A, B, _of the front of a
fortification_.

[_Plate 2, Fig. 5._]

Plant a picket at C, from whence both points may be seen; find the
lengths C A, C B (by the method in No. 5); make C E one-fourth,
or any part of C B, and make C D bear the same proportion to C A:
measure D E; then

        as C D : D E :: C A : A B.

Nearly in the same manner the distance from B to A may be
ascertained, when the point B is accessible; for having measured the
line C B, and made the angle C E D equal to C B A, the proportion
will be as C E : D E :: C B : B A.


9.—BY MEANS OF THE TANGENT SCALE OF A GUN,

_to ascertain the distance, the height of the object at the required
distance being known_.

Lay the gun by the line of metal for the top of the object; then
raise the tangent scale till the top of it and the notch on the
muzzle are in line with the foot of the object, and note what length
of scale is required.

Then,—by similar triangles—

        As the length of the raised part of the tangent scale
          is to the length of the gun;
        so is the height of the distant object
          to the distance required.

Thus, supposing the height of the object to be 9 feet, the length of
that part of the tangent scale which is raised, 3 inches, and of the
gun 6 feet, the proportion will be—

        As 3 : 72 :: 108 : 2592 inches, or 216 feet.


10.—BY MEANS OF THE PEAK OF A CAP,

_to measure the breadth of a river_.

Place yourself at the edge of one bank, and lower the peak of your
cap till you find the edge of it cut the other bank, then steady your
head by placing your hand under your chin, and turn round gently to
some level spot of ground on your side of the river, and observe
where your eyes, and the edge of the peak again meet the ground;
measure the distance, which will be _nearly_ the breadth of the river.


11.—BY THE REPORT OF FIRE-ARMS, TO ASCERTAIN THE DISTANCE OF ANY
OBJECT, _vide_ SOUND, _page 316_.

_To estimate distances, in the field._

Good eyesight recognises masses of troops at 1700 yards; beyond this
distance the glitter of arms may be observed. At 1300 yards infantry
may be distinguished from cavalry, and the movement of troops may
be seen; the horses of cavalry are not, however quite distinct, but
that the men are on horseback is clear. A single individual detached
from the rest of the corps may be seen at 1000 yards, but his head
does not appear as a round ball until he has approached up to 700
yards; at which distance white cross-belts, and white trousers may be
seen. At 500 yards the face may be observed as a light coloured spot;
the head, body, arms, and their movements, as well as the uniform,
and the firelocks (when bright barrels) can be made out. At between
200 and 250 yards all parts of the body are clearly visible, the
details of the uniform are tolerably clear, and the officers may be
distinguished from the men.

_Vide_ “UNITED SERVICE MAGAZINE.”—No. CCCXXXI.


BY MEANS OF THE RECONNOITRING PROTRACTOR,

_to traverse roads_.

[_Plate_, SURVEYING, AND RECONNOITRING, _Fig. 5_.]

Fix the protractor on the tripod at the first station, placing it so
that the side tube may be in a direct line with the intended second
station. From each end of the tube observe the objects in sight (or
place pickets) in order to secure a straight line in pacing, or
measuring, from the first to the second station. Mark the distance
between the stations, and place the protractor, by means of the
tube, in a direct line with the first station. Then select the third
station, and direct the arm or index correctly to it (using the upper
holes of the near sight for a declivity, or raising the sliding-sight
for an ascent); note the angle thus found, and notice the objects in
front, and rear (if any, if not, place pickets) for points to enable
you to pace towards, and work with accuracy at the third station.
Select station 4, place the tube in line with the third, and second
stations; note the bearing of No. 4, and pace the distance to it.
Proceed thus from station to station, entering the angles, and
distances in your note-book, as well as the offsets (which must also
be carefully measured) from the lines taken, until the survey is
completed.

_Construction_—

The day’s work will be easily plotted on paper, by setting off the
angles found, and drawing lines for the measured distances, according
to scale.


SOUND.

The movement communicated to the particles of air by the vibrations
of a sonorous body is the cause of the sensation of sound; and it is
because the particles are driven from the point of vibration in every
direction, as from a centre, that the sound is perceived at once,
everywhere within the surface of a sphere of a certain extent.

The velocity of sound; or the space through which it is propagated
in a given time, has been differently estimated by authors who have
written on this subject. Roberval states it to be at the rate of
560 feet in a second; Gassendus at 1473; Mersenne at 1474; Duhamel
at 1338; Newton at 960; Derham, in whose measure Flamsteed and
Halley acquiesce, at 1142. By accounts in the Memoirs of the Royal
Academy of Sciences, at Paris, 1738, where cannon were fired at
various distances, under many varieties of weather, wind, and other
circumstances, and where the measures of the different places had
been settled with the utmost exactness, it was found that sound was
propagated, on a medium, at the rate of 1038 French feet in a second
of time, which is equivalent to 1107 _English feet_, the French foot
being in proportion to the English as 15 to 16.

From various experiments made with great care by Dr. O. Gregory, it
has been found that sound flies through the air uniformly at the
rate of about 1100 feet per second, when the air is quiescent, and
at a medium temperature. At the temperature of freezing, or a little
below, the velocity is about 1120. The approximate velocities under
different temperatures may be found by adding to 1100 _half a foot_
for every degree on Fahrenheit’s thermometer above the freezing
point. The mean velocity may be taken at 370 yards per second, or
a mile in 4-7/9 second. Hence, multiplying any time employed by
sound in moving by 370, will give the corresponding space in yards,
or dividing any space in yards by 370 will give the time which
sound will occupy in passing uniformly over that space. If the wind
blow briskly, as at the rate of 20 to 60 feet per second, in the
direction in which the sound moves, the velocity of the sound will
be proportionally augmented; if the direction of the wind is opposed
to that of the sound, the difference of their velocities must be
employed. The velocity of sound is not affected by its intensity, the
smallest sound moving as rapidly as the loudest.


_To ascertain the distance of any object by the report of fire-arms._

(_Vide 11. Page 314._)

Multiply the number of seconds which elapse between the time of
seeing the flash, and hearing the report by 1100, and the product
will be the distance in feet, with sufficient accuracy for ordinary
purposes. If greater accuracy be required, this rule must be
modified, on account of the velocity, and direction of the wind, and
state of the thermometer.

_Sound will be louder_ in proportion to the condensation of the air.
Water is one of the greatest conductors of sound; it can be heard on
water nearly twice as far as upon land.


GRAVITY.

Gravity is downward pressure, or weight, being the natural tendency
of all bodies towards the centre of the earth. (_Vide Gravity_,
MOTION, FORCES. _Page 320._)

_Absolute gravity_ denotes the whole force with which a body tends
downwards, as when the body is in empty space.

_Specific gravity_ denotes the relative or comparative gravity of any
body, in respect to that of another body of equal bulk, or magnitude.

_Centre of gravity_ is that point in a body, or system of bodies, on
which, if rested, or suspended, the whole would remain in a state of
equilibrium about that point.

_The centre of gravity_ of a circle, regular polygon, prism,
cylinder, or sphere, is in its centre.

_The centre of gravity_ of a triangle is found by bisecting any two
of its sides, and drawing lines from the points of bisection to the
opposite angles; the intersection of these lines will be the centre
of gravity.

_Force of gravity, or gravitation_, is an accelerated velocity, which
bodies acquire in falling freely from a state of rest.

  1. The space through which a body will fall in feet, in any given
  time equals the product of the square of the time multiplied by
  16·0833.

_Example._—Required the space a falling body will pass through in
five seconds?

        16·0833 × 25 = 412·0825 feet.

  2. The velocity in feet, which a body in descending freely will
  acquire in a given time, equals the product of the time in seconds
  multiplied by 32·1666.

_Example._—What is the velocity acquired at the end of seven seconds?

        32·1666 × 7 = 225·1662 feet.

  3. The velocity in feet per second that a body will acquire, in
  falling through a given space, equals the square root of the
  product of the time multiplied by 64·3333.

_Example._—The space through which a body has fallen is 201 feet;
required its velocity at the end of the fall?

        √(64·3333 × 201) = √(12931) = 1137 feet.


SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF SEVERAL SOLID, AND FLUID BODIES.

  Air,[54] in a mean state       1·232
  Brass, cast                     8000
  Brick                           2000
  Coal[54]                        1250
  Copper                          9000
  Cork                             240
  Clay                            2160
  Earth, common                   1984
  Flint                           2570
  Gold, standard                 18888
  Gun metal                       8784
  Gunpowder—solid                 1745
      ”      loose                 868
  Granite                         3000
  Iron, cast                      7425
  Lead                           11325
  Pitch                           1150
  Sand[54]                        1520
  Silver, standard               10535
  Steel                           7850
  Stone, common                   2520
  Tin                             7320
  Water, rain                     1000
   [54] sea                       1030
  Wood—alder                       800
        ash, the trunk             845
        beech                      852
        elm, and larch             540
        fir, Riga, & maple         750
        pine, pitch & red          660
        oak                        950
        walnut                     671

These numbers represent the weight of a cubic foot (or 1728 cubic
inches) of each of the bodies in ounces (avoirdupois).


_To find the magnitude of any body from its weight._

        As the tabular specific gravity of the body
          is to its weight in avoirdupois ounces;
        so is one cubic foot (or 1728 cubic inches)
          to its content in feet, or inches, respectively.


_To find the weight of a body, from its magnitude._

        As one cubic foot (1728 cubic inches)
          is to the content of the body;
        so is its tabular specific gravity
          to the weight of the body.


_To find the specific gravity of a body._

1.—_When the body is heavier than water._

Weigh it both in water, and out of water, and take the difference:

        Then,—As the weight lost in water
                  is to the whole or absolute weight;
               so is the specific gravity of water
                  to the specific gravity of the body.

2.—_When the body is lighter than water_, so that it will not
sink, annex to it another body heavier than water, so that the mass
compounded of the two may sink together. Weigh the denser body, and
the compound mass separately, both in water, and out of it; then find
how much each loses in water, by subtracting its weight in water from
its weight in air; and subtract the less of these remainders from the
greater.

        Then,—As the last remainder
                  is to the weight of the light body in air;
               so is the specific gravity of water
                  to the specific gravity of the body.

3.—_For a fluid of any sort._

Take a piece of a body of known specific gravity, weigh it both
in, and out of the fluid, finding the loss of weight by taking the
difference of the two:

        Then,—As the whole or absolute weight
                 is to the loss of weight;
               so is the specific gravity of the solid
                 to the specific gravity of the fluid.


_To find the quantities of two ingredients in a given compound._

Take the three differences of every pair of the three specific
gravities, namely, the specific gravities of the compound, and each
ingredient, and multiply each specific gravity by the difference of
the other two:

        Then,—As the greatest product
                 is to the whole weight of the compound;
               so is each of the other two products
                 to the weights of the two ingredients.


_To find the diameter of any small sphere, or globule, whose specific
gravity is given_ (_or can be found in the Table_) _and weight known._

Divide its weight in grains by the number expressing its specific
gravity; extract the cube root of this quotient, and multiply it by
1·9612 for the diameter.


WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT OF THE FOLLOWING MATERIALS,

_in pounds_.

  Ash                      49
  Beech                    43
  Birch                    49
  Box                      60
  Cork                     15
  Elm                      36
  Fir                      30
  Mahogany, Spanish        50
  Pine, red                41
  Teak                     41
  Walnut                   41
  Coke                     46
  Clay                    125
  Earth, loose             95
  Gravel                  120
  Granite                 166
  Brick, common            98
  Chalk                   145
  Coal, Newcastle          78
  Antimony                418
  Brass, cast             525
  Copper                  538
  Gold, pure             1203
  Iron, cast, variable    444
  Lead                    717
  Silver, standard        644
  Tin                     455

By means of the foregoing table, the weight of any quantity of the
materials specified (in cubic feet) may readily be found.


MOTION, FORCES, &c.

_Body_ is the mass or quantity of matter in any material substance,
and it is always proportional to its weight, or gravity, whatever its
figure may be.

_Density_ is the proportional weight, or quantity of matter in any
body.

_Velocity, or celerity_, is an affection of motion by which a body
passes over a certain space in a certain time.

_Momentum, or quantity of motion_, is the power, or force, in moving
bodies.

_Force_ is a power exerted on a body to move it, or to stop it. If
the force act constantly, it is a _permanent force_, like pressure,
or the force or gravity; but if it act instantaneously, or for an
imperceptibly short time, it is called _impulse_, or _percussion_,
like the smart blow of a hammer.

_A motive, or moving force_, is the power of an agent to produce
motion.

_Accelerative, or retardative force_, is that which affects the
velocity only, or it is that by which the velocity is accelerated, or
retarded.

The change, or alteration of motion by any external force, is always
proportional to that force, and in the direction of the right line in
which it acts.

_If a body be projected_ in free space, either parallel to the
horizon, or in an oblique direction, by the force of gunpowder, or
any other impulse: it will, by this motion, in conjunction with the
action of gravity, describe the curve line of a parabola.

_A parabola_ is the section formed by cutting a cone, with a plane,
parallel to the side of the cone.

_Gravity_ (_vide page 316_) is a force of such a nature that all
bodies, whether light or heavy, fall perpendicularly through equal
spaces in the same time, abstracting the resistance of the air; as
lead, and a feather, which, in an exhausted receiver, fall from
the top to the bottom in the same time. The velocities acquired by
descending, are in the exact proportion of the times of descent, and
the spaces descended are proportional to the squares of the times,
and, therefore, to the squares of the velocities. Hence, then, it
follows that the weights, or gravities of bodies near the surface
of the earth are proportional to the quantities of matter contained
in them; and that the spaces, times, and velocities generated
by gravity, have the relations contained in the three general
proportions before laid down.

A body in the latitude of London falls nearly 16-1/12 feet in the
first second of time, and consequently, at the end of that time, it
has acquired a velocity double, or of 32⅙ feet.

The times being as the velocities, and the spaces as the squares of
either; therefore,

  if the times be as the Nos.
                          1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10;
  the velocities will also be as
                          1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10;
  and the spaces as their squares
                          1,  4,  9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100;
  and the spaces for each time,
                          1,  3,  5,  7,  9, 11, 13, 15, 17,  19.

Namely, as the series of the odd numbers, which are the differences
of the squares denoting the whole spaces. So that if the first series
of natural numbers be seconds of time,

  namely: the times in seconds      1        2      3         4      &c.
  the velocities in feet will be  32⅙     64⅓    96½      128⅔,     &c.
  the spaces in the whole times   16-1/12  64⅓   144¾      257⅓,     &c.
  and the space for each second   16-1/12  48¼    80-5/12  112-7/12, &c.

of which spaces the common difference is 32⅙ feet, the natural and
obvious measure of the force of gravity.

Thus, a body falling from a state of rest acquires a velocity to pass
through 9 spaces in the fifth second of time; 7 in the fourth; 5 in
the third; 3 in the second; and 1 in the first. Thus it is 9 + 7 + 5
+ 3 + 1 = 25, which shows that the whole spaces passed through in 5
seconds equal the square of 5.

_The momentum_, or force, of a body falling through the atmosphere is
the mass or weight, multiplied by the square root of the height it
has fallen through, multiplied by 8·021.

Suppose a weight of 10 tons to be raised 9 feet, and to drop thence
suddenly on a bridge; the momentum is 10 × (3 × 8·021) = 240·63 tons.
That is, a weight of 10 tons, so falling, would exert as great a
strain to break down the bridge, as the pressure of 240·63 tons of
dead weight.

Thus, a one-ounce ball falling from a height of 400 feet, would
strike the earth with a momentum of

        oz. feet.            oz.      lb.
        1 × (20 × 8·021) = 160·42 = 10·026.

By experiments to ascertain the effect of Carnot’s vertical fire, it
was found that 4-oz. balls only penetrated ½0 of an inch into deal
board, and from 2 to 3 inches into meadow ground.

_Amplitude_ signifies the range of a projectile, or the right line
upon the ground, subtending the curvilinear path in which it moves.

_The time of flight_ of different shot, and shells is equal to the
time a heavy body takes to descend freely from the highest point
described by the curve of the projectile.

_To find the time of descent_:

Divide the given height, or altitude, by 16-1/12, and the square root
of the quotient will be the time required. Thus, if the altitude is
1200 feet, and the time of descent is required,

      1200 ÷ 16-1/12 = 74·61, the square root of which is 8·637, the
      time required.

When a body is projected vertically _downwards_ with a given
velocity, the space described is equal to the time multiplied by the
velocity, together with the product of 16-1/12 by the square of the
time; but, if the body is projected _upwards_, the latter product
must be subtracted from the former.


PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

DEFINITIONS.[55]

_A line is perpendicular to another_ when it inclines not more on the
one side than on the other, the angles on both sides being equal.

_Parallel lines_ are those which have no inclination to each other,
being everywhere equi-distant, however far produced, or extended.

_An angle_ is the inclination, or opening of two lines, which meet in
a point called the _vertex, or angular point_: and the two lines are
called the _legs, or sides_ of the angle.

_The measure of an angle_ is estimated by the number of degrees
contained in the arc between its two legs.

_A rectilinear angle_ has its legs or sides, _right_, or straight
lines.

_A curvilinear angle_ has its legs _curves_.

_A right angle_ is formed by one line perpendicular to another; the
measure of which is an arc of 90°.

_An acute angle_ is less than a right angle, or than 90°.

_An obtuse angle_ is greater than a right angle.

_An oblique angle_ may be either acute, or obtuse.

_The circumference, or periphery of a circle_ is the curved line
which bounds it, being everywhere equally distant from the _centre_.
The circumference is supposed to be divided into 360 degrees (marked
thus °); each degree into 60 minutes, each minute (′) into 60 seconds
(″).

_An arc_ is any part of the circumference of a circle.

_A chord, or subtense_, is a right line joining the extremities of an
arc.

_The radius of a circle_ is a right line drawn from the centre to the
circumference.

_The diameter of a circle_ is a right line drawn through the centre,
and terminated by the circumference.

_A semicircle_ (180°) is that part of a circle which is contained
between the diameter, and half the circumference.

_A quadrant_ is the fourth part of a circle, being contained between
two radii, and an arc of 90°.

_A segment_ is that part of a circle which is cut off by a chord.

_A sector_ is that part of a circle contained between two radii, and
an arc.

_A secant_ is a line which cuts a circle, lying partly within, and
partly without it.

_A tangent_ is a line which touches a circle, or curve, without
cutting it.

_The point of contact_ is where a tangent touches an arc.

_Triangles_ are figures having three sides, and three angles.

_An equilateral triangle_ has its three sides equal.

_An isosceles triangle_ has only two equal sides.

_A scalene triangle_ has all its sides unequal.

_A rectangular, or right-angled triangle_ has one of its angles a
right one, or 90°; and the square of the side opposite the right
angle is equal to the sum of the squares of the sides containing that
angle; hence a triangle, having its sides proportional to the numbers
3, 4, 5, will be right-angled.

_The hypothenuse_ is the side opposite the right angle in a
rectangular triangle.

_An obtuse-angled triangle_ has one of its angles obtuse.

_An acute-angled triangle_ has all its angles acute.

_The three angles of any triangle_, taken together, are equal to two
right angles, or 180°.

_The difference of the squares of two sides of a triangle_ is equal
to the product of their sum and difference.

_The sides of a triangle are proportional_ to the sines of their
opposite angles.

_Quadrangles, or quadrilaterals_, are plane figures bounded by four
right lines.

_A square_ is a quadrilateral having all its sides equal, and all
its angles right angles. The _diagonal of a square_ is equal to
the square root of twice the square of its sides: and _the side of
the square_ is equal to the square root of half the square of its
diagonal.

_The diagonal_ is a right line drawn across a quadrilateral figure,
from one angle to another. The sum of the squares of the two
diagonals of every parallelogram is equal to the sum of the squares
of the four sides.

_A parallelogram_ is a quadrilateral, whose opposite sides are
parallel.

_A rectangle_ is a parallelogram having four right angles.

_A rhomboid_ is an oblique-angled parallelogram.

_A rhombus, or lozenge_, is a quadrilateral, whose sides are all
equal but its angles oblique.

_A trapezium_ is a quadrilateral, which has none of its sides
parallel to each other.

_A trapezoid_ is a quadrilateral, which has only two of its sides
parallel.

_Polygons_ are plane figures bounded by more than four sides.

_A regular polygon_ has all its sides, and angles equal.

_The perimeter_ of a figure is the sum of all its sides.

_To bisect_—is to divide into two equal parts.

_To trisect_—is to divide into three equal parts.

_To inscribe_—is to draw one figure within another, so that all the
angles of the inner figure touch either the angles, sides, or planes
of the external figure.

_To circumscribe_—is to draw a figure round another, so that either
the angles, sides, or planes of the circumscribing figure touch all
the angles of the figure within it.


LINES, ANGLES, AND FIGURES.

_To divide a given right line into two equal parts._

From the extremities of the line as centres, and with any opening
in the compasses, greater than half the given line, as a radius,
describe arcs intersecting each other above, and below the given
line. A line being drawn through these intersections will divide the
given line into two equal parts.

_An arc of a circle_ is bisected in the same manner.


_To bisect an angle._

From the angular point, measure equal distances on the two lines
(forming the angle), and from these points, with the same distance
as radius, describe arcs intersecting each other. A line drawn from
their intersections to the angular point will bisect the angle.


_To erect a perpendicular._

From the point A set off any length 4 times to C; from A as a centre
with 3 of those parts describe an arc at B, and from C with 5 of them
cut the arc at B. Draw A B, which will be the perpendicular required.
Any equimultiples of these numbers, 3, 4, 5, may be used for erecting
a perpendicular. _Plate 2_, HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES, and PRACTICAL
GEOMETRY, _Fig. ½_.


_To erect a perpendicular._

Set off on each side of the point A, any two equal distances, A D, A
E. From D and E as centres, and with any radius greater than half D
E, describe two arcs intersecting each other in F. Through A, and F
draw the line A F, and it will be the perpendicular required.

_Fig. 1.—Plate_, PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.


_To let fall a perpendicular._

From D as a centre, and with any radius, describe an arc intersecting
the given line. From the points of intersection C, and E, with any
radius greater than half, describe two arcs, cutting each other at
F. Through D, and F draw a line, and D F will be the perpendicular
required. _Fig. 2._


_To draw a line parallel to a given line._

From any point D in the given line with the radius D C, describe the
arc C E, and from C with the same radius describe the arc D F. Take
E C, and set it off from D to F. Through C, and F draw C F for the
parallel required. _Fig. 3._


_To divide an angle into two equal parts._

From B as a centre with any radius describe an arc A C. From A, and C
with any radius describe arcs intersecting each other in D. Then draw
B D, and it will bisect the angle. _Fig. 4._

[Illustration: PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

_Fig. 1-9._]

[Illustration:_Fig. 10-14._]


_To divide a right angle into three equal parts._

From B as a centre with any radius describe the arc A C. From A with
the radius A B cut the arc A C in D, and with the same radius from C
cut it in E. Then through the intersections D, and E draw the lines B
D, B E, and they will trisect, or divide the angle into three equal
parts. _Fig. 5._


_To find the centre of a circle._

Draw any chord A B, and bisect it by the perpendicular C D. Divide
C D into two equal parts, and the point of bisection O will be the
centre required. _Fig. 6._


_To describe an equilateral triangle._

From the points A, B, as centres, and with A B as radius, describe
arcs intersecting each other in C. Draw C A, C B, and the figure A B
C will be the triangle required. _Fig. 7._


_To describe a square._

From the point B, draw B C perpendicular, and equal to A B. On A,
and C, with the radius A B, describe arcs cutting each other in D.
Draw the lines D A, D C, and the figure A B C D will be the square
required. _Fig. 8._


_To inscribe a square in a circle._

Draw the diameters A B, C D perpendicular to each other. Then
draw the lines A D, A C, B D, B C; and A B C D will be the square
required. _Fig. 9._


_To inscribe an octagon in a circle._

Bisect any two arcs A C, B C of the square A B C D in G, and E.
Through the points G, and E, and the centre O draw lines, which
produce to F, and H. Join A F, F D, D H, &c. and they will form the
octagon required. _Fig. 9._


_On a line to describe all the several polygons, from the hexagon to
the dodecagon._

Bisect A B by the perpendicular C D. From A as a centre, and with A B
as a radius, describe the arc B E, which divide into six equal parts;
and from E as a centre describe the arcs 5 F, 4 G, 3 H, &c. Then from
the intersection E as a centre, and with E A as a radius, describe
the circle A I D B, which will contain A B six times. From F in like
manner as a centre, and with F A as radius, describe the circle A
K L B, which will contain A B seven times; and so on for the other
polygons. _Fig. 10._


_To inscribe in a circle an equilateral triangle._

From any point D in the circumference as a centre, and with the
radius D O of the given circle, describe an arc A O B cutting the
circumference in A, and B. Through D, and O draw D C. Then, join
A B, A C, B C; and the figure A B C will be the triangle required.
_Fig. 11._


_To inscribe a hexagon in a circle._

Bisect the arcs A C, B C in E, and F, and join A D, D B, B F, &c.,
which will form the hexagon. Or carry the radius six times round the
circumference, and the hexagon will be obtained. _Fig. 11._


_To inscribe a dodecagon in a circle._

Bisect the arc A D of the hexagon in G, and A G being carried twelve
times round the circumference, will form the dodecagon. _Fig. 11._


_To inscribe a pentagon, hexagon, or decagon, in a circle._

Draw the diameter A B, and make the radius D C perpendicular to A B.
Bisect D B in E. From E as a centre, and with E C as radius, describe
an arc cutting A D in F. Join C F, which will be the side of the
pentagon, C D that of the hexagon, and D F that of the decagon. _Fig.
12._


_To find the angles at the centre, and circumference of a regular
polygon._

Divide 360 by the number of the sides of the given polygon, and
the quotient will be the angle at the centre; and this angle being
subtracted from 180, the difference will be the angle, at the
circumference, required.


_Table, showing the angles at the centre, and circumference._

  Names.        No. of    Angles        Angles at
                sides.  at centre.    circumference.
  Trigon          3       120°             60°
  Tetragon        4        90°             90°
  Pentagon        5        72°            108°
  Hexagon         6        60°            120°
  Heptagon        7     51° 25-5/7′    128° 34-2/7′
  Octagon         8        45°            135°
  Nonagon         9        40°            140°
  Decagon        10        36°            144°


_To inscribe any regular polygon in a circle._

From the centre C draw the radii C A, C B, making an angle equal
to that at the centre of the proposed polygon, as contained in the
preceding table. Then the distance A B will be one side of the
polygon, which, being carried round the circumference the proper
number of times, will complete the polygon required. _Fig. 13._

[Illustration: _Fig. 15-20._]


_To circumscribe a circle about a triangle._

Bisect any two of the given sides, A B, B C by the perpendiculars E
F, D F. From the intersection F as a centre, and with the distance of
any of the angles, as a radius, describe the circle required. _Fig.
14._


_To circumscribe a circle about a square._

Draw the two diagonals A C, B D intersecting each other in O. From O
as a centre, and with O A, or O B, as a radius, describe the required
circle. _Fig. 15._


_To circumscribe a square about a circle._

Draw the two diameters A B, C D perpendicular to each other, through
the points A, C, B, D, draw the tangents E F, E G, G H, F H, and E G
H F will be the square required. _Fig. 16._


_To reduce a map, or plan, from one scale to another._

Divide the given figure A C by cross lines, forming as many squares
as may be thought necessary. Draw a line E F, on which set off as
many parts from the scale M, as A B contains parts of the scale
N. Draw E H, and F G perpendicular to E F, and each equal to the
proportional parts contained in A D, or B C. Join H G, and divide
the figure E G into the same number of squares as the original A
C. Describe in every square what is contained in the corresponding
square of the given figure; and E F G H will be the reduced plan
required. The same operation will serve either to reduce, or enlarge
any map, plan, drawing, or painting. _Fig. 17._


MENSURATION OF PLANES, AND SOLIDS.

_Mensuration is of three kinds_, viz., lineal, superficial, and solid.

_Lineal measure_ has reference to length only.

_Superficial measure_ (_or the surface_) includes length, and breadth.

_Solid measure_ (_or the content_) comprehends length, breadth, and
thickness.


MENSURATION OF PLANES.

_The area_ of any plane figure is the superficial measure contained
within its extremes, or bounds. This area is estimated by the number
of small squares that may be contained in it, the side of these
measuring squares being an inch, a foot, or any other fixed quantity,
and hence the area is said to be so many square inches, square feet,
&c. _Vide Table, Square measure._ _Page 275._


_To find the area of a parallelogram, whether a square, rectangle,
&c._

Multiply the length by the breadth, or perpendicular height, for the
area required.

_Example._—Required the area of a rectangle, whose length is 9 feet,
and breadth 4 feet.

        9 × 4 = 36 feet. The required area, or surface.


_To find the area of a triangle, its base, and perpendicular height
being given._

Multiply the base by the perpendicular height, and half the product
will be the area.

_Example._—Required the number of square yards contained in a
triangle, whose base is 20 yards, and perpendicular height 14 yards.

        (20 × 14) / 2 = 140 square yards. Area required.


_To find the area of a triangle, whose three sides are given._

From half the sum of the three sides, subtract each side severally;
multiply the half sum, and the three remainders together, and the
square root of the product will be the area required.

_Example._—Required the area of a triangle, whose sides are 50, 40,
and 30 feet.

        (50 + 40 + 30) / 2 = 60, half the sum of the three sides.
        60 - 30 = 30 First difference.
        60 - 40 = 20 Second difference.
        60 - 50 = 10 Third difference.
        30 × 20 × 10 × 60 = 360000.
        Square root of 360000 = 600. Area required.


_Two sides of a right-angled triangle being given, to find the third
side._

1. When the two sides forming the right angle are given, to find the
hypothenuse, or side opposite the right angle.

Take the square root of the sum of the two sides squared for the side
required.

_Example._—Required the length of the interior slope of a rampart,
whose perpendicular height is 17 feet, and the base of the slope 20
feet.

                 17 × 17 = 289
                 20 × 20 = 400
                          -----
        The square root of 689 = 26·24. The length required.

2. When the hypothenuse, and one of the perpendicular sides are given.

From the square of the hypothenuse, subtract the square of the given
side, and the square root of the remainder will be the side required.

_Example._—The hypothenuse being 5 yards, and the base 4 yards,
required the other side.

                  5 × 5 = 25
                  4 × 4 = 16
                 ------------
        The square root of 9 = 3 yards. The side required.


_To find the area of a trapezium, A B C D._

Draw the diagonal A C, upon which let fall from its opposite angles
B, and D, the perpendiculars B F, D E. Find by measurement the
diagonal A C, and the perpendiculars B F, D E, then multiply the sum
of the perpendiculars by the diagonal, and half the product will be
the area of the trapezium. _Fig. 18._

_Example._—Required the area of the trapezium, whose diagonal A C is
100 feet, and perpendiculars B F 30 feet, and D E 40 feet.

        ((30 + 40) × 100) / 2 = 3500 square feet. Area required.

Or, divide the trapezium into two triangles by a diagonal, then find
the areas of these triangles, and add them together.


_To find the area of a trapezoid, A B C D._

Multiply the sum of the parallel sides A B, D C by the perpendicular
distance E C, and half the product will be the area. _Fig. 19._

_Example._—Required the area of the trapezoid A B C D, of which
the parallel sides A B, D C are 120 feet, and 90 feet, and the
perpendicular distance E C 40 feet.

        ((120 + 90) × 40) / 2 = 4200 square feet. Area required.


_To find the area of an irregular figure, or polygon._

Draw diagonals dividing the figure into trapeziums, and triangles;
then, having found the area of each, add them together, and the sum
will be the area required.


_To find the area of a figure, having a part bounded by a curve._

Draw a right line joining the extremities of the curve, then find
the area of the trapezium. On the right line let fall as many
perpendiculars as the several windings of the curve may require. Find
their lengths, and divide their sum by the number of perpendiculars,
and the quotient will be the mean breadth; which being multiplied by
the length of the right line, will give the area of the curved part.
This area being added to that of the trapezium will give the area of
the required figure.


_To measure long irregular figures._

Measure the breadth at both ends, and at several places _at equal
distances_. Add together all these intermediate breadths, and half
the two extremes, which sum multiply by the length, and divide by the
number of parts for the area. If the perpendiculars, or breadths, _be
not at equal distances_, compute all the parts separately, as so many
trapezoids, and add them all together for the whole area.

_Example._—The breadths of an irregular figure at five equi-distant
places being 8, 2, 7, 9, 4, and the whole length 40, required the
area.

        8 + 4 = 12                    12 ÷ 2 = 6
        6 + 2 + 7 + 9 = 24
        (24 × 40) / 4 = 240. Area required.


_To find the number of square acres in any of the preceding
figures._[56]

Divide the superficial content in feet by 43560, and the quotient
will be the number required.


_To bring square chains to acres._

Of square chains strike off two decimal places to the right, and the
rest of the figures will be acres.


_To bring square links to acres._

Of square links cut off five of the figures on the right hand, for
decimals, and the rest will be acres; then multiply these decimals by
4, for roods, cutting off five figures as before; and the decimals
of these again by 40, for perches, when five figures are again to be
struck off.


_To find the area of a regular polygon._

Multiply the _perimeter_ (or sum of the sides) of the polygon by the
perpendicular drawn from its centre on one of its sides, and take
half the product for the area.

Or, multiply the area of one of the triangles by the number of sides
of the polygon, and the product will be the area of it.

_Example._—Required, the area of a regular hexagon, whose side is 40
feet, and the perpendicular 34·64 feet.

          40 × 6 = 240 the perimeter.
        (240 × 34·64) / 2 = 4156·8 square feet. Area required.


_To find the diameter, and circumference of any circle, the one from
the other._

Use either of the following proportions:

        as 7 is to 22         }      { so is the diameter
        or as 1 is to 3·1416  }      {   to the circumference.

        as 22 is to 7         }      { so is the circumference
        or, as 3·1416 is to 1 }      {   to the diameter.

or, instead of dividing the diameter by 3·1416, multiply it by ·3183,
for the circumference.

_Example 1._—Required, the circumference of a circle, whose diameter
is 20 feet.

        As 7 : 22 :: 20 : 62·857 feet. Circumference required.

_Example 2._—Required, the diameter of a circle, whose circumference
is 36 inches.

        As 22 : 7 :: 36 : 11·45 inches. Diameter required.


_To find the diameter of a circle, the area being given._

Divide the area by ·7854, and the square root of the quotient will be
the diameter required.

_Example._—Required, the diameter of a circle, whose area is 176·715
square feet.

        176·715 ÷ ·7854 = 225.
        Square root of 225 = 15 feet. Diameter required.


_To find the area of a circle._

1. Multiply half the circumference by half the diameter, or multiply
the whole circumference by the whole diameter, and take ¼ of the
product.

2. Or, square the diameter, and multiply that square by ·7854 for the
area.

3. Or, square the circumference, and multiply that square by 0·7958.

_Example 1._—Required the area of a circle, whose circumference is
55·548 inches, and its diameter 18 inches.

        55·548 / 2 = 27·774 half circumference.
        18 / 2 = 9 half diameter.
        27·774 × 9 = 249·966, square inches. Area required.

_Example 2._—Required the area of a circle whose diameter is 12 feet.

        12 × 12 = 144, square of the diameter.
        ·7854 × 144 = 113·0976 square feet. Area required.

_Example 3._—Required the area of a circle, whose circumference is 22
feet.

        22 × 22 = 484.
        484 × ·07958 = 38·51672 square feet. Area required.


_To find the area of a circular ring_,

or space included between the circumferences of two circles, the one
within the other.

1. Subtract the square of the less diameter from the square of the
greater, and multiply their difference by ·7854.

2. Or, find the area of each circle separately, and subtract one from
the other, for the area required.

3. Or, multiply the sum of the diameters by the difference of the
same, and that product by ·7854 for the area.

_Example._—Required the area of a ring, the diameters of whose
bounding circles are 10, and 20.

_By Rule 3._

        20 + 10 = 30, sum of diameters.
        20 - 10 = 10, difference of diameters.
        30 × 10 × ·7854 = 235·62. The area.


_To find the length of any arc of a circle._

1. As 360° is to the number of degrees in the arc, so is the
circumference to the length of the arc.

2. Or, multiply the degrees in the given arc by the radius of the
circle, and the product by ·01745 for the length of the arc.

_Example._—_Rule 2._—Required the length of an arc of 30°, the radius
being 9 feet.

        30 × 9 × ·01745 = 4·7115. Length of arc.


_To find the area of the sector of a circle._

Multiply the radius by the arc, and half the product will be the
area.

_Example._—Required the area of the sector, whose radius is 30
inches, and the length of the arc 36·6 inches.

        (36·6 × 30) / 2 = 549 square inches. Area required.


_To find the area of the segment of a circle._

Find the area of the sector, by the preceding rule. Then find the
area of the triangle formed by the chord of the segments, and the
radii of the sector. Then, if the segment be less than a semicircle,
subtract the area of the triangle from it; or, if the segment be
greater than a semicircle, add the area of the triangle to it; for
the area of the segment.

_Example._—Required the area of a segment less than a semicircle, the
radius being 20 inches, the chord 22·42 inches, the length of the arc
24·43 inches, and the perpendicular 16·56 inches.

      (24·43 × 20) / 2 = 244·3 square inches. Area of the sector.
      (22·42 × 16·56) / 2 = 185·6376 square inches. Area of the triangle.
       244·3 - 185·6376 = 58·6624 square inches. Area required.


_To find the area of a semicircle._

1. Multiply ¼ of the circumference by the radius, and the product
will be the area.

2. Or, multiply the square of the diameter by ·7854, and half the
product will be the area.

_Example._—_Rule 2._—Required the area of a semicircle, the diameter
being 50 inches.

        (50 × 50 × ·7854) / 2 = 981·75 square inches. Area required.


_To find the area of an ellipsis, or oval._

Multiply the longest diameter, or axis, by the shortest, then
multiply the product by ·7854 for the area.

_Example._—Required the area of the ellipse, whose diameters are 25
inches, and 18 inches.

        25 × 18 × ·7854 = 353·43 square inches. Area required.


_To find the area of a parabola, or its segment._

Multiply the base by the perpendicular height, and take two-thirds of
the product for the area.

_Example._—Required the area of a parabola, whose base is 20 feet,
and height 12 feet.

        20 × 12 = 240
        ⅔ of 240 = 160 square feet. Area required.


MENSURATION OF SOLIDS.

_A solid_ is a body containing length, breadth, and thickness.

_Solids are measured_ by cubes, whose sides are each an inch, a foot,
a yard, &c., and the solidity, capacity, or content of any figure is
computed by the number of such cubes as are contained in it.—_Vide
Cubic measure, page 276._

_A cube_ is a solid contained by six equal square sides.

_A pyramid_ is a solid whose sides are all triangles meeting together
in a point, the base being any plane figure whatever. It is called a
triangular pyramid when its base is a triangle; a square pyramid when
its base is a square, &c.

_The segment of a pyramid, cone, or any other solid_ is a part of D
E F G cut off from the top by a plane D E F, parallel to the base
A B C.—_Vide Fig. 21, Plate 2_, HEIGHTS, DISTANCES, and PRACTICAL
GEOMETRY.

_A frustrum, or trunk_, is a part A B C D E F, that remains at the
bottom after the segment is cut off.

_A cone_ is a round pyramid, of which the base is a circle.

_The axis of a solid_ is a line from the vertex (or point) to the
centre of the base, or through the centres of the two ends. When the
axis is perpendicular to the base, it is a right prism, pyramid, or
cone; otherwise it is oblique.

_A sphere_ is a solid contained under one convex surface, and is
described by the revolution of a semicircle about its diameter, which
remains fixed.

_The centre of the sphere_ is such a point within the solid as is
everywhere equally distant from the convex surface, or circumference
of it.

_The diameter_ (_or axis_) _of a sphere_ is a straight line, which
passes through the centre, and is terminated by the convex surface.

_A segment of a sphere_ is a part cut off by a plane, the section of
which is always a circle, called the _base of the segment_.

_A sector of a sphere_ is that which is composed of a segment (less
than an hemisphere) and of a cone.

_A prism_ is a solid, the sides of which are parallelograms, having
its ends equal, and similar plane figures.

_Prisms are named_ according to the number of angles in the base.

_A cylinder_ is a solid, the two ends of which are circular; and
it is described, or formed, by the revolution of a right-angled
parallelogram about one of its sides, which remains fixed.


_To find the superficies of a prism, or cylinder._

Multiply the perimeter of one end of the prism by the length, or
height of the solid, and the product will be the surface of all its
sides. To which add also the area of the two ends of the prism, when
required.

Or, compute the areas of all the sides, and ends separately, and add
them all together.

_Example._—Required the surface of a cube, whose sides are each 5
inches.

        5 + 5 + 5 + 5 = 20, perimeter of one end.
        20 × 5 = 100, surface of sides.
        5 × 5 = 25, area of one end.
        100 + 25 + 25 = 150 square inches. Surface of cube.


_To find the surface of a pyramid, or cone._

Multiply the perimeter of the base by the slant height, or length of
the side, and half the product will be the surface of the sides; to
which add the area of the base when required.

_Example._—Required the upright surface of a triangular pyramid, the
slant height being 20 feet, and each side of the base 3 feet.

        3 + 3 + 3 = 9, perimeter of base.
        (9 × 20) / 2 = 90 feet. Surface required.


_To find the surface of the frustrum of a pyramid, or cone._

Add together the perimeters of the two ends, multiply their sum by
the slant height, and take half the product.

_Example._—How many square feet are in the surface of the frustrum
of a square pyramid, whose slant height is 10 feet, each side of the
base 3 feet, and each side of the less end 2 feet.

        3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12, perimeter of base.
        2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 8, perimeter of less end.
        ((12 + 8) × 10) / 2 = 100 feet. Surface required.


_To find the solid content of a prism or cylinder._

Find the area of the base, or end, and multiply it by the length of
the prism, or cylinder. Fora cube, multiply its side twice by itself;
and for a parallelopipedon, multiply the length, breadth, and depth
together for the content.

_Example._—Required the solid content of a cube, whose side is 24
inches.

        24 × 24 × 24 = 13824 square inches. Content required.


_To find the content of the solid part of a hollow cylinder._

From the content of the whole cylinder considered as a solid,
subtract the content of the hollow part, also considered as a solid,
and the difference will be the solidity required.

_Example._—Required the content of the solid part of the hollow
cylinder whose exterior diameter is 12 inches, the interior diameter
8 inches, and height 20 inches.

        12 × 12 × ·7854 = 113·0976, area of base of cylinder.
        113·0976 × 20 = 2261·952, solidity of whole cylinder.
        8 × 8 × ·7854 = 50·2656, area of base of hollow cylinder.
        50·2656 × 20 = 1005·312, content of hollow part.
        2261·952 - 1005·312 = 1256·64 cubic inches. Solidity required.


_To find the solidity of the frustrum of a cylinder._

Multiply the area of the base by half the greatest, and the least
lengths, and the product will be the solidity.

_Example._—Required the solidity of a frustrum, whose diameter is 24
inches, the greatest length 36 inches, and the least length 20 inches.

        24 × 24 = 576. Square of the diameter.
        576 × ·7854 = 452·3904. Area of the base.
        452·3904 × (36 + 20) / 2  = 12666·9312 Cubic inches.
                                                    Solidity required.


_To find the content of a pyramid, or cone._

Find the area of the base, and multiply that area by the
perpendicular height, and take ⅓ of the product.

_Example._—Required the solidity of a square pyramid, each side of
its base being 30, and its perpendicular height 25.

        30 × 30 = 900, area of base.
        (900 × 25) / 3 = 7500, solidity required.


_To find the solidity of the frustrum of a cone, or pyramid._

Add into one sum the areas of the two ends, and the mean proportional
between them: take ⅓ of that sum for the mean area, which multiply by
the perpendicular height, or length of the frustrum.

_Note._—_To find a mean proportional._

As one of the sides of the base is to the homologous, or
corresponding side of the other end, so is the area of the base to
the mean proportional required.

_Example._—Required the number of solid feet in a piece of timber,
whose bases are squares, each side of the greater end being 15
inches, and each side of the less end 6 inches; also the length of
the perpendicular altitude 24 feet.

        15 × 15 = 225, area of the base.
         6 × 6 = 36, area of the top.
        As 15: 6 :: 225: 90, mean proportional.
        24 feet = 288 inches.
        ((225 + 36 + 90) × 288) / 3 = 33696 cubic inches
                                    = 19½ cubic feet.


_To find the surface of a sphere, or any segment._

Multiply the circumference of the sphere by its diameter, which will
give the whole surface.

        Or, square the diameter, and multiply by 3·1416.
        Or, square the circumference, and multiply by ·3183;
                                          or divide by 3·1416.

_Note._—_For the surface of the segment, or frustrum_, multiply the
whole circumference of the sphere by the height of the part required.

_Example._—Required the superficies of a globe whose diameter is 24
inches.

        24 × 24 × 3·1416 = 1809·5616 square inches.


_To find the solidity of a sphere, or globe._

1. Multiply the surface by the diameter, and take ⅙ of the product.

Or, multiply the square of the diameter by the circumference, and
take ⅙ of the product.

2. Cube the diameter, and multiply by ·5236.

3. Cube the circumference, and multiply by ·01688.

_Example._—Required the content of a sphere, whose axis is 12.

        12 × 12 × 12 × ·5236 = 904·7808. Content required.


_To find the solidity of an hemisphere._

Find the solidity of the sphere, and half the content will be that of
the hemisphere.

_Note 1._—Any sphere, or globe _twice_ the diameter of another
contains _four times_ the superficies, or area of the other, and
_eight times_ the solid content. Hence the superficies of spheres are
as the squares, and the solidity as the cubes of their diameters.

_Note 2._—The cube of the diameter of a sphere in inches, multiplied
by ·00188, will give the number of _imperial gallons it will contain_.


_To find the solid content of a spherical segment._

1. From three times the diameter of the sphere, take double the
height of the segment; then multiply the remainder by the square of
the height, and this product by ·5236.

2. Or, to three times the square of the radius of the segment’s base
add the square of its height; then multiply the sum by the height,
and the product by ·5236.

_Example._—Required the content of a spherical segment 2 feet in
height, cut from a sphere of 8 feet diameter.

        (3 × 8) - (2 × 2) = 20
        20 × 2^2 × ·5236 = 41·888 cubic feet. Content required.


_To find the diameter of a sphere, its solidity being given._

Divide the solidity by ·5236, and take the cube root of the quotient.

_Example._—The solidity of a sphere being 113·0976 solid inches, what
will be its diameter?

        113·0976 / ·5236 = 216, the cube root of which is 6 inches,
        the diameter required.


_To find the weight of an iron shot, its diameter being given._

Take ⅛ of the cube of the diameter, and ⅛ of that eighth, and the sum
of these two quotients will be the weight in pounds.

Or, as 64 is to 9 lb. so is the diameter cubed to its weight.

_Example._—Required the weight of an iron shot whose diameter is 3·5
inches?

         3·5 cubed = 42·875, cube of diameter.
        42·875 / 8 = 5·359                  5·359 / 8 = ·669
         5·359 + ·669 = 6·028 pounds. Weight required.


_To find the weight of a leaden ball, its diameter being given._

Take ⅓ of the cube of the diameter, and from it subtract ⅓ of this
third, and the remainder will be the weight, nearly.

Or, take 3/14 of the cube of the diameter.

_Example._—What is the weight of a leaden ball whose diameter is 3·3
inches?

         3·3 cubed = 35·937, cube of diameter.
        35·937 / 3 = 11·979      11·979 / 3 = 3·993
        11·979 - 3·993 = 7·986 pounds. Weight required.


_To find the diameter of an iron shot, its weight being given._

Multiply the cube root of the shot’s weight by 1·923 for the
diameter.

  Pr.  Cube root.                    Diameter.
  42    3·4760, &c.   { Multiplied }  6·684, &c.
  32    3·1748        {  by 1·923, }  6·103   ”
  24    2·8844        {  diameter  }  5·545   ”
  18    2·6207        {    of a    }  5·038   ”
  12    2·2894        {    1 lb.   }  4·401   ”
   9    2·0800        {    shot.   }  3·999   ”
   6    1·8171        {            }  3·494   ”
   3    1·4422        {            }  2·772   ”


_To find the diameter of a leaden ball, its weight being given._

To 4 times the weight add half the weight, and 3/100 of half the
weight; and the cube root of this sum will be the diameter in inches,
nearly.

_Example._—What is the diameter of a leaden ball, whose weight is 8
pounds?

        8 x 4 = 32      8 / 2 = 4      3 / 100 of 4 = ·12.
        32 + 4 + ·12 = 36·12, of which the cube root is 3·3 inches,
            nearly. Diameter required.


_To find the weight of an iron shell, its interior and exterior
diameter being given._

Take 9/64 of the difference of the cubes of the external and internal
diameters, for the weight of the shell in pounds.

_Example._—What is the weight of a shell whose exterior diameter is
12·85 inches, and interior diameter 8·75 inches?

        12·85 cubed = 2121·8241,              8·75 cubed = 669·9218.
        2121·8241 - 669·9218 = 1451·9022.
        9/64 of 1451·9022 = 204·1737 pounds. Weight required.


_To find the quantity of powder a shell will contain._

Divide the cube of the interior diameter in inches by 57·3, and the
quotient will be the weight in pounds.

Or, multiply the cube of the diameter by 11, and divide by 21 for the
quantity in half ounces.

_Example._—How much powder will fill a shell, whose internal diameter
is 7 inches?

        7 cubed = 343.
        343 / 57·3 = 6 pounds nearly. Powder required.


_To find the side of a cubical box to contain a given quantity of
powder._[57]

Multiply the weight in pounds by 30, and the cube root of the product
will be the side of the box in inches.

_Example._—Required the side of a cubical box to hold 50 pounds of
powder?

        50 × 30 = 1500, the cube root of which is 11·44, which will be
        the side of the box in inches.


_To find the quantity of powder to fill the chamber of a mortar, or
howitzer._

Multiply the content of the chamber in inches by 55, and divide the
product by 1728, and the quotient will be the quantity of powder in
pounds.

_Note._—The chamber of a mortar, or howitzer, is formed of a hollow
frustrum of a right cone, and of a hollow hemisphere.

_Example._—Required the quantity of powder to fill the chamber of a
13-inch mortar in which the diameter A B is 9·5 inches, the diameter
C E 6·5 inches, and the length D G 21·5 inches. _Vide Fig. 22. Plate
2._ HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES, and PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

The content of the chamber must be found by finding the content of
the hollow frustrum of the cone, and that of the hemisphere (_vide
preceding rules_): which in this example will be 999·9741875.

        Then (999·9741875 × 55) / 1728 = 31 pounds, nearly.


_To find the quantity of powder to fill a rectangular box._

Divide the content (viz., length × breadth × depth) of the box in
inches by 30 for the pounds of powder.

_Example._—How much powder will fill a box, the length being 15
inches, the breadth 12, and the depth 10 inches.

        15 × 12 × 10 / 30 = 1800 / 30 = 60 pounds. Number required.


_To find the quantity of powder to fill a cylinder._

Multiply the square of the diameter by the length, then divide by
38·2 for the pounds of powder.

_Example._—How much powder will the cylinder contain, whose diameter
is 10 inches, and length 20 inches?

        (10 × 10 × 20) / 38·2 = 52⅓ pounds, nearly.


_To find the size of a shell, to contain a given weight of powder._

Multiply the pounds of powder by 57·3, and the cube root of the
product will be the diameter in inches.

_Example._—Required the diameter of a shell to contain 6 lb. of
powder?

        6 × 57·3 = 343·8, the cube root of which is 7, the diameter
            required, in inches.


_To find what length of a cylinder (or bore of a gun) will be filled
by a given weight of powder._

Multiply the weight in pounds by 38·2, and divide the product by the
square of the diameter in inches, for the length.

_Example._—What length of a cylinder 8 inches in diameter will be
filled with 20 lb. of powder?

        (20 × 38·2) / (8 × 8) = 11-15/16 inches.


_To find the content, and weight of a piece of ordnance._

Divide the length of the gun into as many sections as may be found
necessary. Find the content of each (_by preceding rules_) and from
their sum subtract the content of a cylinder, whose length is equal
to that of the bore, and its diameter equal to that of the calibre of
the piece; multiply the difference (if it be a brass gun) by 5·0833,
(if an iron gun) by 4·2968, and the product will be the weight in
ounces.

  _Note._—A cubic inch of gun metal weighs 5·0833 ounces.
              Ditto     of _cast_ iron      4·2968 ounces.


_To find the content of a cask._

Multiply half the sum of the areas of the two interior circles, viz.
at the head, and bung, by the interior length, for the content.

Or, to the area of the head add twice the area at the bung, multiply
that sum by the length, and take one-third of the product.

_Example._—Required the content of a cask, its greatest interior
diameter being 24 inches, its least interior diameter 20 inches, and
the interior length 30 inches.

        24 × 24 × ·7854 = 452·3904, area of large circle.
        20 × 20 × ·7854 = 314·1600, area of small circle.
        (452·3904 + 314·1600) / 2 = 383·2752, half sum.

Then 383·2752 × 30 = 11498·256, the content; which being divided by
277¼ (the number of cubic inches in a gallon) will give the number of
gallons contained in the cask.

Thus 11498·256 / 277·25 = 41·4725, &c. Number of gallons required.

_Note._-The content of any vessel in cubic feet, multiplied by 6·232
(or if in inches by ·003607) will give the number of _imperial
gallons it will contain_.


EPITOME OF MENSURATION.

OF THE CIRCLE, CYLINDER, SPHERE, ETC.

1. The circle contains a greater area than any other plane figure,
bounded by an equal perimeter, or outline.

2. The areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their
diameters; any circle twice the diameter of another contains four
times the area of the other.

3. The diameter of a circle being 1, its circumference equals 3·1416.

4. The diameter of a circle is equal to ·31831 of its circumference.

5. The square of the diameter of a circle being 1, its area equals
·7854.

6. The square root of the area of a circle, multiplied by 1·12837,
equals its diameter.

7. The diameter of a circle, multiplied by ·8862, or the
circumference multiplied by ·2821, equals the side of a square of
equal area.

8. The sum of the squares of half the chord, and versed sine,
divided by the versed sine, the quotient equals the diameter of the
corresponding circle.

9. The chord of the whole arc of a circle taken from eight times the
chord of half the arc, one-third of the remainder equals the length
of the arc.

10. Or, the number of degrees contained in the arc of a circle,
multiplied by the diameter of the circle, and by ·008727, the product
equals the length of the arc in equal terms of unity.

11. The length of the arc of the sector of a circle multiplied by its
radius, half the product is the area.

12. The area of the segment of a circle equals the area of the
sector, minus the area of a triangle whose vertex is the centre; and
base equals the chord of the segment.

13. The sum of the diameters of two concentric circles multiplied by
their difference, and by ·7854, equals the area of the ring, or space
contained between them.

14. The sum of the thickness, and internal diameter of a cylindric
ring multiplied by the square of its thickness, and by 2·4674, equals
its solidity.

15. The circumference of a cylinder multiplied by its length, or
height, equals its convex surface.

16. The area of the end of a cylinder multiplied by its length,
equals its solid content.

17. The area of the internal diameter of a cylinder multiplied by its
depth, equals its cubical capacity.

18. The square of the diameter of a cylinder multiplied by its
length, and divided by any other required length, the square root
of the quotient equals the diameter of the other cylinder of equal
solidity, or capacity.

19. The square of the diameter of a sphere multiplied by 3·1416
equals its convex surface.

20. The cube of the diameter of a sphere multiplied by ·5236, equals
its solid content.

21. The height of any spherical segment, or zone, multiplied by the
diameter of the sphere, of which it is a part, and by 3·1416, equals
the area, or convex surface of the segment;

22. Or, the height of the segment multiplied by the circumference of
the sphere of which it is a part, equals the area.

23. The solidity of any spherical segment is equal to three times the
square of the radius of its base, plus the square of its height, and
multiplied by its height, and by ·5236.

24. The solidity of a spherical zone equals the sum of the squares of
the radii of its two ends, and one-third the square of its height,
multiplied by the height, and by 1·5708.

25. The solidity of the middle zone of a sphere equals the sum of
the square of either end, and two-thirds the square of the height,
multiplied by the height, and by ·7854.

26. The capacity of a cylinder 1 foot in diameter, and 1 foot in
length, equals 4·895 imperial gallons.

27. The capacity of a cylinder 1 inch in diameter, and 1 foot in
length, equals ·034 of an imperial gallon.

28. The capacity of a cylinder 1 inch in diameter, and 1 inch in
length, equals ·002832 of an imperial gallon.

29. The capacity of a sphere 1 foot in diameter, equals 3·263
imperial gallons.

30. The capacity of a sphere 1 inch in diameter, equals ·001888 of an
imperial gallon.

31. Hence the capacity of any other cylinder in imperial gallons is
obtained by multiplying the square of its diameter by its length; or
the capacity of any other sphere by the cube of its diameter, and by
the number of imperial gallons contained as above in the unity of its
measurement.


OF THE SQUARE, RECTANGLE, CUBE, ETC.

1. The side of a square equals the square root of its area.

2. The area of a square equals the square of one of its sides.

3. The diagonal of a square equals the square root of twice the
square of its side.

4. The side of a square is equal to the square root of half the
square of its diagonal.

5. The side of a square, equal to the diagonal of a given square,
contains double the area of the given square.

6. The area of a rectangle equals its length multiplied by its
breadth.

7. The length of a rectangle equals the area divided by the breadth;
or the breadth equals the area divided by the length.

8. The side, or end of a rectangle, equals the square root of the sum
of the diagonal, and opposite side to that required, multiplied by
their difference.

9. The diagonal in a rectangle equals the square root of the sum of
the squares of the base, and perpendicular.

10. The solidity of a cube equals the area of one of its sides
multiplied by the length of one of its edges.

11. The edge of a cube equals the cube root of its solidity.

12. The capacity of a 12-inch cube equals 6·232 gallons.


_Surfaces, and solidities of the regular bodies, when the linear edge
is 1._

  +-------------+--------------+------------+-----------+
  |No. of Sides.|  Names.      |  Surfaces. |  Solids.  |
  +-------------+--------------+------------+-----------+
  |    4        | Tetrahedron  |  1·7320508 | 0·1178513 |
  |    6        | Hexahedron   |  6·        | 1·        |
  |    8        | Octahedron   |  3·4641016 | 0·4714045 |
  |   12        | Dodecahedron | 20·6457788 | 7·6631189 |
  |   20        | Icosahedron  |  8·6602540 | 2·1816950 |
  +-------------+--------------+------------+-----------+

The tabular surface multiplied by the square of the linear edge, the
product equals the surface required:

Or, the tabular solidity, multiplied by the cube of the linear edge,
the product is the solidity required.


OF TRIANGLES, POLYGONS, ETC.

1. The complement of an angle is its defect from a right angle.

2. The supplement of an angle is its defect from two right angles.

3. The sine, tangent, and secant of an angle, are the cosine,
cotangent and cosecant of the complement of that angle.

4. The hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle being made radii, its
sides become the sines of the opposite angles, or the cosines of the
adjacent angles.

5. The three angles of every triangle are equal to two right angles;
hence the oblique angles of a right-angled triangle are each other’s
complements.

6. The sum of the squares of the two given sides of a right-angled
triangle is equal to the square of the hypothenuse.

7. The difference between the square of the hypothenuse, and given
side of a right-angled triangle is equal to the square of the
required side.

8. The area of a triangle equals half the product of the base
multiplied by the perpendicular height;

9. Or, the area of a triangle equals half the product of the two
sides, and the natural sine of the contained angle.

10. The side of any regular polygon multiplied by its apothem, or
perpendicular, and by the number of its sides, half the product is
the area.


_Table of the areas of regular polygons whose sides are unity._

  +----------+------+-----------+-----------+------------+------------+
  | Name of  |No. of|  Apothem, | Area, when| Interior   | Central    |
  | polygon. |sides.| or perpen-|side is one|  angle.    |  angle.    |
  |          |      |  dicular. | or unity. |            |            |
  +----------+------+-----------+-----------+------------+------------+
  |          |      |           |           |   °  ′     |   °  ′     |
  | Triangle |   3  | 0·2886751 | 0·4330127 |  60  0     | 120  0     |
  | Square   |   4  | 0·5       | 1·        |  90  0     |  90  0     |
  | Pentagon |   5  | 0·6881910 | 1·7204774 | 108  0     |  72  0     |
  | Hexagon  |   6  | 0·8660254 | 2·5980762 | 120  0     |  60  0     |
  | Heptagon |   7  | 1·0382607 | 3·6339124 | 128 34-2/7 |  51 25-5/7 |
  | Octagon  |   8  | 1·2071068 | 4·8284271 | 135  0     |  45  0     |
  | Nonagon  |   9  | 1·3737387 | 6·1818242 | 140  0     |  40  0     |
  | Decagon  |  10  | 1·5388418 | 7·6942088 | 144  0     |  36  0     |
  | Undecagon|  11  | 1·7028436 | 9·3656399 | 147 16-4/11|  32 43-7/11|
  | Dodecagon|  12  | 1·8660254 |11·1961524 | 150  0     |  30  0     |
  +----------+------+-----------+-----------+------------+------------+

The tabular area of the corresponding polygon multiplied by the
square of the side of the given polygon, equals the area of the given
polygon.


OF ELLIPSES, CONES, FRUSTRUMS, ETC.

1. The square root of half the sum of the squares of the two
diameters of an ellipse multiplied by 3·1416 equals its circumference.

2. The product of the two axes of an ellipse multiplied by ·7854
equals its area.

3. The curve surface of a cone is equal to half the product of the
circumference of its base multiplied by its slant side, to which, if
the area of the base be added, the sum is the whole surface.

4. The solidity of a cone equals one-third of the product of its base
multiplied by its altitude, or height.

5. The squares of the diameters of the two ends of the frustrum
of a cone added to the product of the two diameters, and that sum
multiplied by its height, and by ·2618, equals its solidity.


                              THE END.




                               LONDON:

            PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET
                          AND CHARING CROSS.




FOOTNOTES:

[1] _Vide page_ vi.

[2] The Articles omitted consist chiefly of directions, &c., or are
not generally required.

[3] NOTE. _In the “Exercise and Movements.”_

  Commander’s Words are printed in     SMALL CAPITALS.
  Executive                            Small print.
  Directions, &c.                      _Italics_.

[4] _Note._—Vide “Motion,” “Forces,” &c., Velocity, Gravity, and
Amplitude.

[5] Vide “Tables,” “Excentric Shot, Experiments.”

[6] _When a shot is jammed in a gun, and cannot be rammed home to the
cartridge_, destroy the charge by pouring water down the vent, and
muzzle until the ingredients are dissolved, and cleared out of the
bore; then introduce a small quantity of powder through the vent, and
blow out the shot.

[7] The recoil of guns on sleighs varies from four to five feet when
on rough ground or in deep snow; to twenty or thirty yards when on
glare ice. In the latter case it is of course necessary to send
the ammunition sleighs further to the rear; but the recoil may be
considerably lessened by placing a small chain round each of the
runners.

Ice of eight inches thick will bear with safety a weight of 1115 lb.
(or nearly half a ton) on the square foot.

[8] Old pattern.

[9] Further information relative to mixing the composition, and
filling combustibles, &c., &c., may be obtained from the “Aide
Mémoire,” under the head, “Pyrotechny, Military.”

[10] This will be discontinued when Shrapnell Diaphragm shells are
generally introduced into the Service.

[11] _Vide_ Practice Tables for Ranges, Elevations, &c.

[12] The composition for French cannon tubes is two parts of
fulminate of mercury and two of mealed powder, mixed together: then
formed into a paste with distilled water, slightly impregnated with
gum arabic.

[13] Extracted from “Instructions and Regulations for Field Battery
Exercise and Movements” for the Royal Regiment of Artillery: the
Sections, &c., being similarly numbered.

  Commander’s Words are printed in      SMALL CAPITALS.
  Executive                             Common type.
  Directions, &c.                       _Italics._

[14] The Sections, of which merely the heads are given, consist
chiefly of details too long for the limited size of the Manual, and
they are therefore necessarily omitted.

[15] When Guns are in action, and “CEASE FIRING” is given, all Guns
then loaded are to be fired off, and on no account is a Gun to be
limbered up, or to move whilst loaded.

[16] The Commanding officer’s Word of command is always to be
repeated by the officers.

[17] From “Field Battery Exercise.”

[18] From “Field Battery Exercise,” &c.

[19] From “Field Battery Exercise,” &c.

[20] In the transport of horses to Turkey (July, 1854,) in the
Himalaya and Simla steamers, the distance between the upright posts
was 2 feet 1 inch in the clear per horse, and the length 9 feet.

[21] “For the guidance of the Farriers of the Royal Artillery.
Suggested by Charles Percival, Veterinary Surgeon; and approved of
by the Right Honourable the Master-General, and Honourable Board of
Ordnance.”

[22] In administering draughts to horses, the greatest possible
care and attention are required; should the horse cough, or make an
attempt to do so, his head must be instantly lowered, otherwise a
portion of the drink will be apt to find its way into the trachea or
windpipe, which will produce most distressing symptoms, and often be
followed by death. In lowering the head, a can or vessel of any kind
should be held under the mouth to catch the drink as it escapes.

[23] From “INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE SERVICE OF HEAVY ORDNANCE.”—_Article
15._

[24] _Words of command_—SMALL CAPITALS.

[25] From “Instructions, and Regulations for the Service, and
Management of Heavy Ordnance, for the Royal Regiment of Artillery.”
Fourth edition. The Parts, and Articles are numbered in conformity
thereto.

[26] _Words of command_—SMALL CAPITALS.

[27] Vide PART 12, “ARTILLERIST’S MANUAL,” etc., The Mechanical
powers. The Lever.

[28] By the ballistic experiment, conducted in May, 1837, it was
found that, with a heavy 6-pounder gun, a charge of 1½ lb. gave a
velocity of 1740 feet, and a charge of 2 lb. a velocity of 1892 feet
per second. The shot employed were of a high gauge, windage only ·078
inch, and the powder was of the strongest quality; the weight of the
pendulum fired into was 58 cwt. 3 qrs. 16 lb. A light 6-pounder, two
feet shorter than the heavy 6-pounder, with similar charges, gave
velocities of about 190 feet less.

[29] Extracted from PART 2, and APPENDIX of General Sir Howard
Douglas’ highly valued work, entitled “A TREATISE ON NAVAL GUNNERY.”
3rd edition.

[30] _On wads for Heavy Ordnance._

The presence of a compressible body, between the powder and the ball,
is necessary for the preservation of the gun. The results of the
experiments at Fere, in 1844; at Ruelle in 1844, and 1846; and at
Gavres in 1848; with cast iron 30, and 24-pounders, proved that all
the pieces, fired without a thin piece of cork interposed between the
powder and the ball, burst before 500 discharges were made; whilst
those, with which this precaution was taken, sustained 1800 and 2000
discharges without any damage, except an enlargement of the vent.
_Vide_ United Service Magazine, September, 1855.

[31] _Vide_ “TREATISE ON NAVAL GUNNERY.” 3rd Edition. By General Sir
H. Douglas.

[32] _In Extreme training of a gun to the Right_: Nos. 3, 5, 7, 11,
13, are placed outside; Nos. 8, 6, inside the tackle. No. 13 keeps
the end of the fall coiled up.

_In Extreme training to the Left_: Nos 4, 6, 8, 2, are placed
outside; Nos. 13, 7, 5, inside the tackle. No. 2 keeps the end of the
fall coiled up.

[33] _In running out the right guns_, Nos. 3, 5, 5, 7, man the left
tackle; Nos. 4, 6, 6, 2, man the right tackle.

_In running out the left guns_, Nos. 3, 5, 7, 5, man the left tackle;
Nos. 4, 6, 6, 2, man the right tackle.

[34] _Note._—When the direction of the gun is to be altered, the word
“Traverse” is to be given, if the gun is in, and “Point,” when the
gun is out.

[35] _Vide_ Sir Howard Douglas’s highly-valued publication, entitled
“A TREATISE ON NAVAL GUNNERY.” Fourth edition.

[36] _Vide_—“United Service Magazine,” No. CCCVIII.

[37] _Vide_ FIELD FORTIFICATION, pages 246, 247.

[38] _Vide_ Preface.

[39] For a square, the length of the perpendicular is ⅛th the
exterior side; for a pentagon ⅐th; for the hexagon, and other
polygons, ⅙th.

[40] _Vide Tables of Weights, and Measures._

[41] _Vide Tables_ of Weights, and Measures.

[42] In reducing fractions to a common denominator, and in
multiplication of fractions, the work may be considerably diminished
by cancelling any figures, which are in all the multiples; or by
dividing a figure in each of them by any figure which can divide all
without any remainder.

[43] See Note, page 268.

[44] _To multiply decimals by 1, with any number of ciphers, as
10, 100_, &c.—This is done by only removing the decimal point so
many places farther to the right hand, as there are ciphers in the
multiplier, and subjoining ciphers, if need be.

[45] The best way of doubling the root, to form the new divisor, is
by adding the last figure always to the last divisor, as appears in
the following example.

After the figures belonging to the given number are all exhausted,
the operation may be continued into decimals, by adding any number of
periods of ciphers, two in each period.

[46] _This rule is only applicable to the very best-made new cordage.
The circumference squared should be divided by 6 instead of 5 for the
description of rope generally employed._

[47] When the board is tapering, add the breadths at the two ends
together, and take half the sum for the mean breadth. _Or else_, take
the mean breadth in the middle.

[48] _To strengthen a beam, &c. which is required to support a great
weight over a cavity, or ditch._—Place a prop, or short skid, under
the centre of the beam, and pass a strong rope, or chain, over the
beam lengthways, and under the skid, hauling it very tight, and
making fast.

[49] In Lieut.-Colonel B. Jackson’s scientific “Treatise on
Military Surveying, &c., &c., &c.,” _Portable trigonometry without
logarithms_, is thus introduced—

“The following useful application of Trigonometry, by means of the
natural sines, tangents, &c., is taken from an early number of that
valuable periodical, ‘The Mechanics’ Magazine,’ and will be found
particularly suited to the purposes of the military surveyor.”

[50] For further information on Surveying, and Reconnoitring,
reference should be made to the highly-valued publication, entitled
“A TREATISE ON MILITARY SURVEYING, INCLUDING SKETCHING IN THE
FIELD, PLAN DRAWING, LEVELLING, MILITARY RECONNOISSANCE, &c.,” by
Lieut.-Colonel Basil Jackson, containing a full account of every
surveying instrument, and the right adaptation of them.

[51] 1. The Reconnoitring protractor is not intended to supply the
place of the Theodolite, or other expensive instruments, when very
great accuracy is required in surveying, or in trigonometrical
observations; but, in the hands of officers accustomed to the use of
it, bearings may be rapidly taken, heights and distances ascertained,
roads traversed, &c., &c., with sufficient accuracy for a military
survey, or reconnoissance.

The protractor has a tripod, on which it is to be steadily fixed
for taking angles, &c.; but the instrument can nevertheless be
used without the tripod; and mounted officers may, after a little
practice, make a reconnoissance with the protractor alone, especially
if they are able to measure, or calculate the distance of base lines,
by the length of the paces of their horses.

2. A survey, &c., may be very rapidly taken in the field, by laying
drawing-paper on the face of the protractor, under the marginal
scale, fixing it firmly by means of drawing-pins in the sides, and
using, at the first station, the edge of the index as a ruler to set
off on the paper, at once, by observation through the sights, the
angles of the objects whose distance is required; drawing a base
line parallel to the tube side of the instrument, and also lines at
the angles found. At the second station, the paper must be moved a
few inches, for a base line to be drawn; at the termination of which
(the second station) the index is to be directed to the objects,
as before, and lines are to be produced until they intersect those
drawn at the first station: thus the position of the objects will be
obtained; and, by using the scale on the index for the length drawn
for the measured base line, as well as for the lines directed to the
objects, their respective distances will be ascertained.

3. The reconnoitring protractor, and all other instruments for
surveying, &c., &c. can be readily obtained from Messrs. Elliott, 56,
Strand, London.

[52] Or Reconnoitring protractor.

[53] To erect a perpendicular, _vide_ “Practical Geometry.”

[54]

  3 inch cube full of air floats 1 lb. in water.
  3 inch cube of water weighs 1 lb. in air.
  1 cubic foot of water weighs 64 lb. in air.
  1     ditto     coal  ditto  80 - 64 = 16 in water.
  1     ditto     sand  ditto  95 - 64 = 31 in water.

A suit of clothes and a pair of boots, which weigh 7 lb. in air, when
well saturated with water, only weigh in water 1 lb.

[55] _Vide also Definitions_—TRIGONOMETRY, page 301.

[56] _Gunter’s chain_ is in length 4 poles = 22 yards = 66 feet, and
is divided into 100 links. Each link is therefore 22/100 of a yard,
or 66/100 of a foot, or 7·92 inches. _Land is estimated_ in acres,
roods, and perches. _An acre_ contains 10 square chains, or as much
as 10 chains in length and 1 chain in breadth; or in yards it is 220
× 22 = 4840; or in poles it is 40 × 4 = 160 square poles; or in links
it is 1000 X 100 = 100,000 square links. An acre is divided into 4
parts called roods, and a rood into 40 parts called perches, which
are square poles, or the square of a pole of 5½ yards long, or the
square of a quarter of a chain, or of 25 links, which is 625 links.
Thus the divisions of land measure are—

  625 square links = 1 pole, or perch.
   40 perches      = 1 rood.
    4  roods       = 1 acre.

The length of lines, measured with a chain, should be set down in
links as integers, instead of in chains, and decimals. Therefore,
after the content is found, it will be in square links.

[57] 57·3 is the number of pounds of powder contained in a cubic
foot, when shaken; and 55 pounds when not shaken. According to the
first case, one pound of powder will occupy 30 cubic inches; and
according to the second case one pound will occupy 31·4182 cubic
inches.




  TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

  Footnote [37] is referenced six times from page 237;
  footnote [52] is referenced twice from page 311;
  footnote [54] is referenced four times from pages 317 and page 318.

  Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
  corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
  the text and consultation of external sources.

  Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added,
  when a predominant preference was found in the original book.

  Some { bracketing in some tables has been adjusted or removed for
  readability.

  Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
  and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.

  Pg viii: page number ‘8’ replaced by ‘48’.
  Pg xvi: Added new section ‘CONGREVE ROCKETS.’ to the ToC.
  Pg xviii: ‘Embrasures’ replaced by ‘Embrazures’.
  Pg xxi: ‘312, 313, 314’ replaced by ‘312–4’.
  Pg 61: ‘thirty ronnds of’ replaced by ‘thirty rounds of’.
  Pg 69: in the table header ‘Fore ... Diameter’ replaced by
         ‘Fore ... Hind’.
  Pg 72: in second column of the table ‘3¾’ replaced by ‘2¾’.
  Pg 80: ‘4⅗ inch Mortar’ replaced by ‘4⅖ inch Mortar’.
  Pg 85: in the table ‘5½ in c’ replaced by ‘5½ inch’.
  Pg 91: in LEVERS section ‘lb. oz.’ replaced by ‘ft. in.’
  Pg 171: in the table ‘1’ replaced by ‘10’.
  Pg 171: in the table ‘1209’ replaced by ‘1200’.
  Pg 176: ‘to facilite the’ replaced by ‘to facilitate the’.
  Pg 187: ‘assist 2 at’ replaced by ‘assists 2 at’.
  Pg 195: ‘at an elevavation’ replaced by ‘at an elevation’.
  Pg 220: the Remarks column has been moved under the table to
          conserve table space.
  Pg 222: ‘a longe range’ replaced by ‘a long range’.
  Pg 226: ‘they ricoched and’ replaced by ‘they ricocheted and’.
  Pg 226: the italic markup on the small table has been removed.
  Pg 227: ‘the same is in’ replaced by ‘the same as in’.
  Pg 234: ‘left betweeen the’ replaced by ‘left between the’.
  Pg 235: ‘placed at tho top’ replaced by ‘placed at the top’.
  Pg 238: ‘embrasures should be’ replaced by ‘embrazures should be’.
  Pg 291: ‘(5 × 1)’ replaced by ‘(5 + 1)’.
  Pg 318: the footnote in the original book ‘See note, p. 317’ was
          redundant and has been removed.
  Pg 320: ‘is is a’ replaced by ‘it is a’.

  Footnote [7]: ‘to five  eet’ replaced by ‘to five feet’.