Transcriber’s Notes:

  Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
    in the original text.
  Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold=
    in the original text.
  Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
  Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs.
  Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved.
  Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.




                                      THE
                                  BOMBARDIER,
                                      AND
                               _Pocket Gunner._

                                      By
                         _RALPH WILLETT ADYE_,
                               CAPTAIN,
                      ROYAL REGIMENT OF ARTILLERY.

                           First _American_,
                   from the Second _London_ Edition.

                                  PRINTED FOR
                    E. LARKIN, No. 47, CORNHILL, _BOSTON_,
                            _BY WILLIAM GREENOUGH_,
                                 CHARLESTOWN.
                                     1804.

                                    TO THE
                               _Junior Officers_
                                    OF THE
                        _Royal Regiment of Artillery_:
                              WITH A HOPE OF ALSO
                            MEETING THE APPROBATION
                                    OF THE
                       _SENIOR OFFICERS OF THAT CORPS_.
                                                       R. W. ADYE.




INDEX.


                                                                   Page.
    _PREFACE_,                                                        i
    _AMMUNITION_—For _Small Arms_—How carried,                        7
    — For Artillery, see _Artillery_.
    _AMMUZETTE_—Its Length, Weight, &c.                               8
    _APRONS_ of Lead—Weight and Dimensions of,                        8
    _ARMS, Small_—Their Weight and Dimensions,
               Balls for their Proof, Service, &c.
    _ARTILLERY_—1st. _For the Field._
      — Divided into Battalion Guns, Park and Horse Artillery,       10
      — Ammunition and Stores for one Field Piece of each Nature,    11
      — Manner of carrying the Ammunition and Stores,                15
      — Load for a common Artillery Ammunition Waggon,               16
      — Load for a Horse Artillery Ammunition Waggon,                17
      — Proportion of Artillery, Ammunition, and Carriages for
              four French Armies,                                    18
      — Proportion of Ammunition carried with French Artillery,
              and with that of other Powers,                         20
      — Movements and Positions of Battalion Guns,                   21
      — Movements and Positions of Artillery of the Park,            24
      — Line of March for Three Brigades of Field Artillery,         28
      — 2d. _Artillery and Ammunition for a Siege_—
             Considerations in estimating them,                      29
      — Proportion demanded for the Siege of Lisle,                  31
      — Arrangement and Position at a Siege,                         33
      — 3d. _Artillery and Ammunition for the Defence_
             _of a Fortified Place_—Manner
             of estimating them,                                     37
      — Arrangement of the Artillery,                                39
      — Expenditure of Ammunition,                                   42
    _AXLETREES_— Dimensions of, in Wood or Iron,                     44
    _BALLS_—of Lead—Manner of Packing them,                          45
      — Manner of finding their Diameters and Weights
    _BARRELS_ for Gunpowder; their Dimensions and Content
      — Budge do.                                                    46
    _BASKETS_, _Ballast_—Dimensions of                               46
    _BATTERIES_—Dimensions of, for Guns, Mortars, and Howitzers      46
      — For Ricochet firing,                                         48
      — For the Defence of a Coast,                                  49
      — Manner of estimating the Quantity of Materials for,          50
      — Tools required for the Construction of                       52
      — Estimate of the Quantity of Earth which may be removed
             in a given time,                                        53
    _BEDS_—Dimensions and Weight of, for Mortars and Guns,           54
    _BOXES_, for Ammunition—Dimensions and Weight of,
                  when filled and empty; and the Number of
                  Rounds contained by                                55
    _BOMB KETCH_—Instruction for the Management of a, in Action,     56
      — Proportion of Stores for,                                    58
    _BREACH_—Manner of forming one; and Time required
                   to make it practicable,                           60
    _BRIDGE_—Manner of laying one, of Pontoons;
                   Weight it will bear; and Precautions
                   required in passing over it,                      62
    _CAMPS_—Manner of laying out the front of,
                  for Infantry and Cavalry,                          65
      — Distribution of the Depth of,                                66
      — In a confined Situation,                                     69
    _CARCASSES_—Composition for,                                     70
      — Valencienne’s Composition, for making Shells
             answer the Purpose of
      — Dimensions and Weight of,                                    71
      — Manner of preventing their being destroyed
             by the Explosion
    _CARRONADES_—Dimensions and Weight of,                           72
      — Ranges with Shot and Shells from
    _CARRIAGES_—Weight of, for Field Service,                        73
      — Dimensions of Axletrees for,                                 75
      — Diameters of Wheels for,                                     76
      —Dimensions and Weight of standing                             77
    _CARTRIDGES_—Weight and Dimensions of,
                       for Guns, Mortars, and Howitzers              78
      — For Small Arms                                               79
      — For Musquets by different Nations                            79
    _CHAMBERS_—Experiments upon the best Form of, for Mortars        80
    _CHARGES_—For different Natures of Guns and Carronades           81
      — Lessened when Cylinder Powder is used                        81
      — of French Guns                                               82
    _CHEVAUX DE FRIZE_—Dimensions and Weight of                      82
    _COMPOSITIONS_—For Kitt; Fire, Smoke, and Light Balls;
                         suffocating Pots; Fire Hoops, Arrows, and
                         Lances; Cases for burning Fascine Batteries 84
      — General Precautions in mixing                                84
    _CONVOYS_—Length of Line of March of                             84
      — Rate of travelling with, and Manner of escorting             85
    _DISPART_—Of Guns                                                86
    _DISTANCES_—Practical Methods of measuring without
                      mathematical Instruments                       87
      — Cavallo’s Micrometer for measuring                           92
      — Table of Angles subtended by one Foot at different           95
    _DRAG ROPES_—Weight and Dimensions of                            95
    _EMBARKATION_—Of Ordnance and Stores                             96
      — Of Troops                                                    99
    _EXERCISE_—Of Artillery
      — Duties of the Men attached to Field Guns or Howitzers,
         with the full Complement, and with reduced Numbers         100
      — Methods of advancing and retiring Field Artillery
             _without Drag Ropes_                                   104
      — Duties of the Men in advancing and retiring
             Field Artillery _with Drag Ropes_                      109
      — Of Heavy Ordnance on a Battery with different
             Complements of Men                                     112
      — Of the Triangle Gin                                         115
      — Of the Sling Cart                                           117
    _FASCINES_—Dimensions and Uses of the different
                     Natures of, with the necessary Attentions
                     in making them                                 119
    _FIRE SHIP_—Proportion of combustible Stores for                120
      — Method of fitting out                                       122
      — New Method of fitting out, to produce more external Fire    124
    _FLINTS_—Number of, packed in a half Barrel;
                   with the Weight of, &c.                          126
    _FORTIFICATION_—Practical Maxims in building Field Works
                          with their Dimensions
      — Permanent; Observations upon the different Parts of,
             with their principal Dimensions                        131
      — Observations upon the Means of adding to the Defence of
             Places by Outworks, &c. and on defilading a Place
             from Heights                                           133
      — Principal Dimensions of, according to Vauban                140
      — Dimensions of Walls from 10 to 50 Feet high                 142
    _FUZES_—Composition for—Dimensions of                           143
      —Manner of finding the Length of, for any Range               144
    _GABIONS_—Dimensions of, and Attentions in making them          145
    _GIN TRIANGLE_—Dimensions and Weight of                         146
    _GRAVITY_—Table of specific Gravities                           146
      — Rules, to find the Magnitude of any Body from its Weight,
            and the contrary                                        147
    _GRAPE SHOT_—See _Shot_.
    _GRENADES_—Distance to which they may be thrown                 147
    _GUNNERY_—In a nonresisting Medium
      — How far it may be applied to Practice with the Help of
             good Tables of Experiments                             147
      — Upon a horizontal Plane                                     148
      — Upon inclined Planes                                        149
      — Table of Amplitudes                                         151
      — Table of Natural Sines, Tangents, and Secants               152
    _GUNS_—Calibers of English and Foreign                          153
      — Length and Weight of English Brass                          154
      — Ditto French Brass                                          155
      — Ditto English and French Iron                               155
      — Ranges with One Shot from Brass                             156
      — Ditto Two Shot                                              157
      — Ditto small Charges from                                    157
      — Effects of Case Shot from Battalion                         158
      — Ranges from Iron                                            159
      — Ditto of 5½ Inch Shells from 24 Pr.                         160
      — Ditto 4⅖ Inch Ditto 12 Pr.                                  161
      — Ranges from French                                          162
    _GUNPOWDER_—Proportion of Ingredients for,
                      by different Powers in Europe                 162
      — Manner of Proving it at Pursleet                            163
      — Marks on the Barrels, by which the different Qualities
             are distinguished                                      164
      — French Proof of                                             165
    _HAIR CLOTH_—Dimensions and Weight of                           166
    _HAND BARROW_—Ditto                                             166
    _HANDSPIKES_—Ditto                                              166
    _HARNESS_—Ditto for Horses and Men                              166
    _HORSES_—Military Gait, and other Particulars
                   respecting them                                  166
      — Manner of Regulating the Weight they ought to Draw           166
      — Number of, allowed to Artillery Carriages                   167
    _HOWITZERS_—Dimensions and Weight of English and French         168
      — Natures of and by different Powers                          169
      — Ranges from                                                 170
    _LEVELLING_—Table shewing the Difference between
                      the true and apparent Level                   172
      — Manner of applying this Table to finding Heights
             and Distances                                          172
    _LOAD_—How regulated for Artillery Carriages                    174
    _MAGAZINES_—For Powder—Dimensions of _Temporary_
                      ones for Batteries                            175
      — _Permanent_, for fortified Places                           175
    _MATCH, Slow_—Composition for, and manner of making
      — Time it will burn                                            177
      — _Quick_—of Cotton or Worsted                                178
    _MARCHING_—Rate of, for Cavalry and Infantry                    178
      — Rates paid for pressed Carriages on a March                 179
      — Rates paid to Publicans for Troops on a March               179
    _MEASURES_—Tables of English Weights and                        180
      — Old French, Do.                                             181
      — New System of, by the French, with their proportion
             to the old, and to the English                         182
      — Rules for converting French Weights and Measures
             into English                                           184
      — German, and Weights                                         184
      — Proportion between the English Foot, and Pound Avoir,
             and those of the principal Places in Europe            185
      — For Powder; their Dimensions                                185
    _MECHANICS_—The different Powers of, and the advantage
                      gained by each                                186
    _MILE_—Comparison between the Miles of different
                 Countries                                          189
    _MINE_—Rules for finding the proper Charge to produce
                 any required Excavation or Effect                  190
      — Remarks upon the Dimensions and Construction of Mines,
             and their Galleries                                    193
      — Usual System of Countermines, when prepared before hand     197
      — Temporary Mines                                             198
    _MORTARS_—Dimensions and Weight of English Brass and
                    Iron Mortars, with their extreme Ranges         200
      — Ranges from 10 Inch Sea Service, at 21°                     201
      — Ditto 13 and 10 Inch Sea Service, at 45°                    201
      — Ditto French, at 45°                                        202
      — Ditto English Land Service, at 45°                          203
      — Ditto of Iron                                               203
      — Ditto English Land Service, at 45° of Brass                 205
      — Ditto Land Service, 5½ Inch Brass, at 15°                   205
      — Ditto Land Service, 10 and 8 Inch, at 10°                   206
      — Ditto Land Service, 10 and 8 Inch, at 15°                   206
    _NAVY_—Number and Nature of Ordnance for each Ship
                 in his Majesty’s                                   207
      — Principal Dimensions of Ships Of War, Complements of Men,
             and Draught of Water                                   208
    _ORDNANCE_—Value of Brass and Iron                              209
    _PACE_—The Length of the Common and Geometrical                 210
    _PARALLELS_—See _Trenches_, and _Sap_
    _PAY_—Table of, for the Officers, non Commissioned
                Officers, and Privates of the Army                  211
    _PARK_—Its Situation and Distribution                           213
    _PENDULUMS_—How made for Artillery Purposes                     215
      — Proper Length of, for Seconds, ½ Seconds, and Quarters      215
      — Rules for Finding the proper Length to make any number
            of Vibrations in a Minute, and the Contrary             215
    _PETARDS_—Dimensions of, and Stores for                         216
    _PLATFORMS_—Dimensions of, and Materials for Gun
                      and Mortar                                    216
    _POINT BLANK_—What                                              217
    _PONTOONS_—Dimensions and Weight of, and Equipage for one       217
    _PORTFIRES_—Composition for—Time they will Burn
      —Manner of making them at Gibraltar                           218
    _PROVISIONS_—Regulations respecting Rations of, for Sea
                       and Land Service                             219
    _PROOF_ of Iron Guns, with the Limits of their Reception        219
      — Of Brass do.                                                220
      — Howitzers, Mortars, and Carronades                          221
      — By Water                                                    222
      — By assaying the Metal                                       223
      — Marks of condemned Ordnance                                 224
    _RATIONS_—Of Provisions for Land and Sea Service                225
      — Regulations respecting their Issue                          226
      — Deductions to be made from the Pay of Soldiers for          227
    _RANK_—Between Sea and Land Officers                            228
    _RECOIL_—Of Brass Guns on Field Carriages, of Iron Guns
                   on Standing Carriages, and Mortars on their Beds 229
    _RECONNOITERING_—Preparations for                               230
           Objects to be attended to in Reconnoitering—
           1 Roads—2 Fords—3 Inundations—4 Springs
           and Wells—5 Lakes and Marshes—6 Woods
           and Forests—7 Heaths—8 Canals—9 Rivers—
           10 Passes—11 Ravins—12 Cultivated Lands—
          13 Orchards—14 Bridges—15 Mountains and
          Hills—16 Coasts—17 Redoubts—18 Castles
          and Citadels—19 Villages—20 Cities not fortified—
          21 Fortified Towns—22 Positions
    _RICOCHET_—Rules for firing                                     243
    _ROCKETS_—Composition for Sky Rockets                           245
      —Table of General Dimensions of, with their Sticks            245
      —Height to which they will ascend                             246
    _ROPE_—How distinguished—Rule for finding the Weight of         247
    _SAND BAGS_—Dimensions of—Number required                       248
    _SAP_—Manner of carrying it on                                  248
    _SECANTS_—Table of Natural Secants                              248
    _SHELLS_—Dimensions and Weight of,
                   for Mortars and Howitzers                        249
      — For Guns and Carronades                                     250
      — Manner of throwing Shells from Guns though they
           do not fit the Bore                                      251
      — French and German                                           251
      — Rules to find the Weight of, and the Quantity of Powder
            they will contain                                       252
    _SHOT_—Rules to find the Number in any Pile of                  252
      — Rules for finding the Weight and Dimensions of
            Iron and Lead Shot                                      253
      — Table of Diameters of English and French Iron round Shot    255
      — Table of English Case Shot for different Services           256
      — Tables of Grape Shot for Sea and Land Service               257
      — Manner of Quilting small Shells in Grape                    257
      — Precautions in firing Hot Shot                              258
    _SINES_—Table of Natural Sines                                  259
    _SOUND_—Velocity of—Rules for computing Distances by            259
    _STOPPAGES_—From the Pay of an Artillery Soldier, weekly        260
    _TANGENTS_—Table of Natural Tangents                            261
      — Manner of making a Tangent Scale to any Piece of Ordnance   262
      — Table of Tangents to 1° for English Field Artillery         262
      — Ditto French                                                262
    _TENTS_—Weight and Dimensions of Tents
                  of different Descriptions                         262
    _TONNAGE_—Manner of finding the Tonnage of any Ship             263
      — Table of Tonnage of Ordnance Stores                         264
      — Tonnage allowed for Officers Baggage on board Transports    266
    _TRANSPORTS_—Regulations on board of                            266
    _TRENCHES_—Dimensions of Trenches of Approach at a Siege        266
      — Manner of opening, and conducting the Trenches
            and Parallels                                           267
    _TROU DE LOUP_—Dimensions of                                    269
    _TUBES_—Dimensions of, and Composition for Tin Tubes            269
    _UNIFORMS_—Principal Colours of the Military
    Uniforms of different Powers in Europe                          271
    _VELOCITY_—Principal Points ascertained respecting the
               initial Velocities of Shot from Guns of
               different Lengths, and with different Charges,
               by the Experiments at Woolwich                       272
      — Initial Velocities of English and French Artillery          273
    _VENTS_—Diameter of                                             275
    _WEIGHTS_—Table of English and French                           276
    _WINDAGE_—Of English and French Artillery                       276
    _WOOD_—Employed in making Artillery Carriages                   277




PREFACE.


A man must appear somewhat vain, who declares that he has been obliged
to reject much useful information, for fear of increasing too much the
size of his work: and yet manages to find room for a few pages of his
own, by way of Preface: but lest the objects which the compiler of this
little work has had in view should be mistaken, he finds it absolutely
necessary to say a few words in explanation of them. This small
collection of military memorandums was originally intended only for the
compiler’s own pocket; to assist him in the execution of his duty: but
it occurred to him, that many of his military friends stood in equal
need of such an aid, and would willingly give a few shillings for what
they would not be at the trouble of collecting. The compiler has seen
young men, on their first entry into the regiment of artillery, give
a guinea for manuscripts, which contained a very small part of the
information offered in this little book. From a persuasion that a very
principal part of its merit is derived from its portability, every
endeavor has been used to press much into a little compass; and it is
hoped, that this power has not been so far exerted, as to make the
whole unintelligible: but, it must be understood, that the compiler
does not propose to convey instruction to the untaught, but only to
make a few memorandums of reference to facts; which those already
versed in the military profession are supposed to have the knowledge
to apply. The totally ignorant of these matters, he has, therefore,
nothing to say to; they must consult more voluminous works. An
alphabetical arrangement is merely adopted as the best calculated for
this purpose; and as nothing like a military dictionary is intended,
all terms are omitted, not within the compiler’s plan. All reference to
plates has, likewise been avoided; as they not only very much increase
the cost, but the bulk of a book. The principal difficulty which the
compiler has had in making this little collection, has been to confine
it within the limits of his original plan. The quantity of useful
information which has pressed for admittance, has been with reluctance
rejected. Such authors only have been quoted, as are generally esteemed
the best; and every advantage has been taken of such information,
as the compiler has been able to collect from experienced friends;
but he has ventured to offer nothing whatever of his own. The French
military authors have been principally consulted, on all subjects not
immediately confined to our own system; and such notes as are given
respecting their ordnance, may be of use in drawing a comparison with
our own; and may serve as references to those in the habit of reading
their military works. The compiler has not, in any instance, attempted
to offer changes which he may have been led to imagine improvements;
or to point out what he thinks deserve the title of defects in our own
system; but he has given every information according to the present
practice in our service. He cannot, however, help expressing a hope,
that he will one day see his little book laid by as totally obsolete,
and a better built upon a system less complicated, and more applicable
to that particular nature of service which this country has in every
war the greatest reason to expect.

Our armies will never, it is to be hoped, find a field of battle but on
the other side of the water: they must therefore always be subject to
the inconveniencies attendant upon the embarkation, and the confusion,
too often the companion of a disembarkation of a quantity of ordnance
and other military stores upon an enemy’s coast: how peculiarly
necessary is it, therefore, that our military system should be the
simplest and the best arranged. The French system of artillery was
established as far back as the year 1765, and has been rigidly adhered
to, through a convulsion in the country, which has overturned every
thing else like order; and which even the government itself has not
been able to withstand. We should therefore conclude that it has merit,
and, though in an enemy, ought to avail ourselves of its advantages.
At the formation of their system, they saw the necessity of the most
exact correspondence in the most minute particulars; and so rigidly
have they adhered to this principle, that though they have several
arsenals, where carriages and other military machines are constructed;
the different parts of a carriage may be collected from these several
arsenals in the opposite extremities of the country, and will as well
unite and form a carriage, as if they were all made and fitted in the
same workshop. As long as every man who fancies that he has made an
improvement is permitted to introduce it into our service, this cannot
be the case with us.

Gunpowder has been so much improved of late years, under the direction
of Col. Congreve, that the experiments made with the old powder are now
of little service: only such tables of ranges with different natures of
ordnance have therefore been inserted, as have been ascertained since
the improved powder has been in use. As experiments are daily making
at Woolwich and elsewhere, a blank leaf may be bound up after each
nature of ordnance, in order to insert an abstract of them.

The compiler thinks it necessary to address himself to two classes
of persons in particular; perhaps they may comprise the whole of
his readers. First, those who think his little book might have been
made much more complete. Second, those who think it improper that
any information upon such matters should be offered to the public.
To the first, he acknowledges the justice of the remark, but has to
remind them, of the very great difficulties which they may themselves
have experienced, in collecting information at Woolwich. To the
second, he has but to remark, that he is well aware of the objections
urged against publications which may give information as well to our
enemies as our friends; but he does not imagine his little book to
contain matter of sufficient consequence to do such mischief: and he
is supported in an opinion by the most powerful and best organized
military nations in Europe, that such secresy is the surest mark of
ignorance.

The first edition being out of print, the compiler has endeavored to
improve this, by _every_ correction, and by _some_ of the additions
which his friends have been kind enough to suggest to him as necessary:
but if he has neglected much of the valuable information offered
him, it has not been from an insensibility of its merit, but from its
entering more into the detail of matters than his little book would
afford room to profit by; for it still professes not to instruct, but
only to remind.

The compiler has added to this edition a short alphabetical index to
the contents. This may appear to some superfluous, considering the
alphabetical arrangement of the subjects: but it has been impossible to
avoid a great deal of reference from one part of the work to another:
beside, the compiler has observed in several of the copies in the
possession of his friends, notes in manuscript, (entered on sheets
bound up for the purpose) which are also to be found in the body of
the work. This the compiler attributes to a cause which the index may
probably remedy, by enabling the reader to know, at one view, the whole
contents.




_AMMUNITION_—For small arms, in the British service, is generally
packed in half barrels, each containing 1000 musquet, or 1500 carbine
cartridges. An ammunition waggon will carry 20 of these barrels, and an
ammunition cart 12 of them: their weight nearly 1 cwt. each.


The cartouch boxes of the infantry are made of so many different
shapes and sizes, that it is impossible to say exactly what ammunition
they will contain; but most of them can carry 60 rounds. See the word
_Cartridges_; and for Artillery Ammunition, see the word _Artillery_,
for the field, for the siege, and the defence of a fortified place.

The French pack all their ammunition in wagons without either boxes or
barrels, by means of partitions of wood. Their 12 Pr. and 8 Pr. waggons
will contain each 14,000 musquet cartridges, but their 4 Pr. waggons
will contain only 12,000 each.


_AMMUZETTE_—See the word _Guns_.


_APRONS_—of lead for guns—

                                       _lbs._  _oz._
    Large—1 foot  long—10 inches wide    8      4 weight.
    Small—6 inches  ” —4½   ”     ”      1     12   ”


_ARMS_—Small

    +---------------+---------+-------+---------------------------+
    |               | Length  | Diam. |      Balls weight for     |
    |   Nature.     |   of    |  of   +-------------+-------------+
    |               | Barrel. | Bore. |   Proof.    |   Service.  |
    +---------------+---------+-------+-------------+-------------+
    |               | Ft.  In.|Inches.| oz. dr. gr. | oz. dr. gr. |
    |Wall pieces    |  4    6 | .98   |  2   8   8  |  2   5   7  |
    |Musquet        |  3    6 | .76   |  1   6  11½ |  1   1  12  |
    |Carbine        |  3    0 | .61   |  0  14  13  |  0  12  11  |
    |Pistol, common |  1    2 | .58   |  0   8  15  |  0   7   4½ |
    |   ”   carbine |  1    0 | .66   |  0  14  13  |  0  12  11  |
    +---------------+---------+-------+-------------+-------------+


_ARTILLERY._—The proportion of artillery and ammunition necessary to
accompany an army in the field, to lay siege to a fortified place,
or to defend one, must depend upon so many circumstances, that it
is almost impossible, in a small work of this kind, to lay down any
satisfactory rules as guides on the subject: the following principles
are, however, drawn from the best authorities:


1st. _ARTILLERY for the Field._

FIELD Artillery is divided into _Battalion Guns, Artillery of the
Park_, and _Horse Artillery_.

The _Battalion Guns_ include all the light pieces attached to regiments
of the line, which they accompany in all manœuvres, to cover and
support them.

The following natures of field ordnance are attached to battalions of
infantry, by different powers in Europe:

    French        two      4 Prs. per battalion.
    English       two      6  ”    ”      ”
    Danes         two      3  ”    ”      ”
    Austrians     three    6  ”    ”      ”
    Prussians     two      6 Prs. to a battalion in the first line.
       ”          two      3 Prs. to a battalion in the second line.
    Hanoverians   two      3 Prs. per battalion.

The _Artillery of the Park_ is composed of all natures of field
ordnance. It is destined to form batteries of position; that is to say,
to occupy advantageous situations, from which the greatest effect may
be produced, in supporting the general movements of an army, without
following it, like the battalion guns, through all the detail of its
manœuvres. The park of artillery attached to an army in the field
generally consists of twice as many pieces of different natures, varied
according to the country in which it is to act, as there are battalions
in the army. Gribauvale proposes the following proportion between the
different natures of artillery for the park or reserve, viz. ⅖ of 12
Prs. ⅖ of 8 Prs. and ⅗ of 4 Prs. or reserve for battalion guns. In a
difficult country he says, it may be ¼ of 12 Prs. ½ of 8 Prs. and ¼ of
4 Prs. and for every 100 pieces of cannon he allots 4 Howitzers; but
this proportion of Howitzers is much smaller than what is generally
given.

_HORSE Artillery._—The French horse artillery consists of 8 Prs. and 6
inch Howitzers.

The English of light 12 Prs. light 6 Prs. and light 5½ inch Howitzers.

The Austrian and Prussian horse artillery have 6 Prs. and 5½ inch
Howitzers.

_AMMUNITION for Field Artillery._

    _A proportion of Ammunition and Stores for each
       Nature of Field Ordnance, viz. 1 Med. 12 Pr.[1]—1
       heavy 6 Pr.—2 light 6 Prs. as they are always
       attached to Battalions of Infantry—and one 5½
       inch Howitzer; according to the British Service._

       =A= = _12 Pounders, Medium._
       =B= =  _6 Pounders, Heavy._
       =C= =  _2 Light 6 Pounders,_
       =D= = _5½ Inch Howitzers._
    +---------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    | _Proportion of Ammunition_      |   =A=  |  =B=   |   =C=  |   =D=  |
    |        _and Stores._            |        |        |        |        |
    +---------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |Shot fixed to wood bottoms—case  |    24  |   30   |    68  |   24   |
    |  ”    ”   ”    ”    ”     round |   120  |  120   |   188  |   —    |
    |Shells                     fixed |    —   |   —    |    —   |   24   |
    |  ”                        empty |    —   |   —    |    —   |  120   |
    |Carcasses                  fixed |    —   |   —    |    —   |    4   |
    +---------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |                        4 lb.    |   120  |   —    |    —   |   —    |
    |                        3½ ”     |    24  |   —    |    —   |   —    |
    |                        2¼ ”     |    —   |  120   |    —   |   —    |
    |Cartridges of           2  ”     |    —   |   30   |    —   |   —    |
    |  flannel filled        1½ ”     |    —   |   —    |   188  |   —    |
    |  with powder.          1¼ ”     |    —   |   —    |    68  |   —    |
    |                        10 oz.   |    —   |   —    |   125  |   —    |
    |                         1 lb.   |    —   |   —    |    —   |  144   |
    |                        12 oz.   |    —   |   —    |    —   |   28   |
    +---------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |Cartridges, flannel, empty       |    12  |   12   |   100  |   12   |
    |Do. of paper for burst’g 10 oz   |    —   |   —    |    —   |  120   |
    |Tubes of tin—N. P.               |   172  |  178   |   560  |  190   |
    |Portfires—long small             |    18  |   18   |    62  |   18   |
    |Fuzes—drove                      |     —  |    —   |     —  |  132   |
    |Powder, mealed   lbs.            |     —  |    —   |     —  |    ½   |
    |Travelling carriages & limbers   |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    | Aprons of lead                  |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    | Spunges, with staves and heads  |     2  |    2   |     4  |    2   |
    | Wad hooks, with staves          |     1  |    1   |     2  |    —   |
    | Handspikes—traversing           |     2  |    2   |     4  |    2   |
    | Tampions, with collars          |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    | Trucks—Hanoverian               |     —  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    | Straps for lashing side arms    |     —  |    3   |     8  |    —   |
    | Tarpaulins—gun                  |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    |      ”      limber              |     —  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    | Linstocks, with cocks           |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    | Drag ropes, with pins—Prs.      |     2  |    2   |     4  |    2   |
    | Padlocks, with keys             |     2  |    3   |     5  |    4   |
    | Match—slow—lbs.                 |    28  |   28   |    56  |   28   |
    +---------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    | Spikes   Spring                 |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    |          Common                 |     2  |    2   |     4  |    2   |
    +---------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    | Punches for vents               |     2  |    2   |     4  |    2   |
    | Barrels budge                   |     1  |    1   |     1  |    1   |
    | Couples for chain traces        |     —  |    6   |    12  |    6   |
    | Spare heads—spunge              |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    |    ”    ”  —rammer              |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    | Hammers, claw                   |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    | Priming irons—sets              |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    | Draught chains—pairs            |     2  |    1   |     3  |    2   |
    | Powder horns—N. P.              |     —  |    1   |     —  |    —   |
    | Water buckets—French            |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    | Entrench’g tools—axes, felling  |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    |     ”        ”      ”   pick    |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    |     ”        ”    handbills     |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    |     ”        ”    spades        |     2  |    2   |     4  |    2   |
    | Marline, tarred—skeins          |     1  |    1   |     1  |    1   |
    | Twine,      ”  —do.             |     —  |    1   |     —  |    —   |
    | Hambro’ line   —do.             |     1  |    1   |     1  |    1   |
    | Packthread     —lbs.            |     —  |    1   |     —  |    —   |
    | Grease     firkins              |     1  |    1   |     1  |    1   |
    |    ”       boxes                |     3  |    2   |     3  |    3   |
    | Tallow     lbs.                 |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    | Lanthorns, dark                 |     1  |    1   |     1  |    1   |
    | Jacks, lifting                  |     1  |    1   |     1  |    1   |
    |   ”    handscrew                |     1  |    —   |     —  |    —   |
    +---------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    | Waggons with hoops and          |        |        |        |        |
    |   painted covers,               |     2  |    1   |     1  |    2   |
    |   Flanders pattern              |        |        |        |        |
    +---------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    | Wad miltilts                    |     2  |    1   |     1  |    2   |
    | Tanned hides                    |     2  |    1   |     1  |    2   |
    +---------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    | Men’s harness 12 to a set sets  |     1  |    1   |     —  |    —   |
    +---------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |       New   |Rope  (6 do.) sets |     1  |    —   |     —  |    —   |
    |     pattern |Chain (6 do.) sets |     —  |    1   |     —  |    —   |
    |H H          |Trace (4 do.) sets |     2  |    1   |     1  |    3   |
    |o a  Common  | Thill             |     —  |    —   |     2  |    —   |
    |r r  pattern | Trace             |     —  |    —   |     4  |    —   |
    |s n          | Bit halters       |     —  |    —   |     6  |    —   |
    |e e   Wanties                    |     2  |    1   |     3  |    2   |
    |  s   Hemp halters               |    14  |   10   |    10  |   12   |
    |  s                              |        |        |        |        |
    +---------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    | Whips, long                     |     —  |    —   |     2  |   —    |
    |   ”  , short                    |     7  |    5   |     2  |    6   |
    | Nose bags                       |    14  |   10   |    10  |   12   |
    | Corn sacks                      |     3  |    2   |     3  |    3   |
    | Forage cords, sets              |     3  |    2   |     3  |    3   |
    | Rope, tarred—2 inch, fathoms    |     —  |    —   |    10  |    —   |
    +---------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |               Linch pins        |     2  |    1   |     1  |    2   |
    |               Clouts—body       |     4  |    2   |     2  |    4   |
    | For waggons     ”   —linch      |     4  |    2   |     2  |    4   |
    |               Clout nails, 6d.  |    64  |   32   |    32  |   64   |
    +---------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    | Spare ladle staves              |     1  |    1   |     1  |    1   |
    | Horses, for guns                |     6  |    6   |     6  |    4   |
    |   ”   , for waggons             |     8  |    4   |     4  |    8   |
    |Drivers, for guns                |     3  |    3   |     2  |    2   |
    |   ”   , for waggons             |     4  |    2   |     1  |    4   |
    |Tube boxes, with straps          |     2  |    2   |     4  |    2   |
    |Portfire sticks                  |     2  |    2   |     4  |    2   |
    |Cutting knives                   |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    |Drawing do.                      |     —  |    —   |     —  |    1   |
    |Scissars, pairs                  |     1  |    1   |     2  |    1   |
    |Worsted, ounces                  |     ½  |    ½   |     1  |    ½   |
    |Needles, large                   |     2  |    2   |     4  |    2   |
    |Cartouches of leather            |     2  |    2   |     4  |    2   |
    +---------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |               4 oz.             |     1  |    1   |     2  |    —   |
    |  Copper       2  ”              |     —  |    1   |     —  |    —   |
    |  measures     1  ”              |     1  |    1   |     2  |    —   |
    |  for powder.  4 lbs. to  ¼ oz.  |     —  |    —   |     —  |    1   |
    |                  sets           |        |        |        |        |
    +---------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |Thumb stalls                     |     2  |    2   |     4  |    2   |
    |Perpendicular                    |     —  |    —   |     —  |    1   |
    |Quadrant of brass                |     —  |    —   |     —  |    1   |
    |Diagonal scale                   |     —  |    —   |     —  |    1   |
    |Copper salting box               |     —  |    —   |     —  |    1   |
    |Pincers for draw’g fuzes, pairs  |     —  |    —   |     —  |    1   |
    |Sheepskins                       |     —  |    —   |     —  |    2   |
    |Funnels of copper                |     —  |    —   |     —  |    1   |
    |Compasses of steel, pairs        |     —  |    —   |     —  |    1   |
    |Saw, tenant                      |     —  |    —   |     —  |    1   |
    |Files, square                    |     —  |    —   |     —  |    3   |
    |Rasps, half round                |     —  |    —   |     —  |    2   |
    |Flax, oz.                        |     —  |    —   |     —  |    8   |
    |Tow, oz.                         |     —  |    —   |     —  |    4   |
    |Saw set                          |     —  |    —   |     —  |    1   |
    |Mallets of wood                  |     —  |    —   |     —  |    1   |
    |Setters do.                      |     —  |    —   |     —  |    2   |
    +---------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

[1] The 12 Prs. which have a small box on their limbers, carry 6 round
shot and 2 case shot, with 6 cartridges of 4 lbs. and 2 of 3 1-2 lbs.
of powder, more than the above proportion.

    This proportion of ammunition and stores is carried in
          the following manner:

      12 Pr. } Has no limber boxes,[2] but has two waggons
     MEDIUM, } attached to it, and the ammunition and stores
             } divided between them.

      6 Pr.  } Carries 36 round, and 14 case shot in limber
     HEAVY,  } boxes, with a proportion of the small stores;
             } and the remainder is carried in one waggon.

             } Carries 34 round, and 16 case shot on the limber,
      6 Pr   } with a proportion of the small stores for
     LIGHT,  } immediate service; and, if acting separately,
             } must have a waggon attached to it, to carry the
             } remainder. But two 6 pounders, attached to a
             } battalion, have only one waggon between them.

             } Has 22 shells, 4 case shot, and two carcasses in
    5½ HOW’R } the limber boxes, with such of the small stores
    LIGHT,   } as are required for immediate service; and has
             } two waggons attached to carry the rest.

One common pattern ammunition waggon carries the following numbers of
rounds of ammunition of each nature:

                       | No. of
       Nature.         | Rounds
    -------------------+--------
    12  Prs. Medium.   |    72
     6  Prs. Heavy.    |   120
     6  Prs. Light.    |   156
     3  Prs.           |   288
     5½ How’r.         |    72
     8  Inch How’r.    |    24
    Musquet.           | 20000[3]

The waggons, however, attached to the different parks of artillery in
England, which have not been altered from the old establishment, are
loaded with only the following number, and drawn by three horses:

[2] A small limber box has lately been added to the medium 12 Prs.
which carries 6 round shot and 6 case shot, with a small proportion of
the small stores. See note page 11.

[3] Though the waggons will contain 20,000 cartridges, it is customary
to load them with only 18 half barrels of 1000 each, and 2 half barrels
of flints.

                     | No. of
      Nature.        | Rounds
    -----------------+--------
    12 Prs. Medium.  |    66
    6 Prs. Heavy.    |   120
    6 Prs. Light.    |   138
    5½ How’r.        |    60

The horse artillery having waggons of a particular description, carry
their ammunition as follows:

    +----------------------------+------------+-------+----------+------+
    |                            |    Shot.   |       |          |Total |
    |                            +------+-----+       |          |  No. |
    |                            |Round.|Case.|Shells.|Carcasses.| with |
    |                            |      |     |       |          | each |
    |                            |      |     |       |          |Piece.|
    +----------------------------+------+-----+-------+----------+------+
    |12 Prs. light, on the limber|   12 |   4 |    4  |     —    |  92  |
    |Do. ”     ”    in one waggon|   52 |  10 |   10  |     —    |      |
    +----------------------------+------+-----+-------+----------+------+
    |6 Prs. light, on the limber |   32 |   8 |    —  |     —    | 150  |
    |Do.           in one waggon |   97 |  13 |    —  |     —    |      |
    +----------------------------+------+-----+-------+----------+------+
    |5½ In.  How’r  on the limber|    — |   5 |   13  |      —   |  73  |
    |Do.           in one waggon |    — |  10 |   41  |     4    |      |
    +----------------------------+------+-----+-------+----------+------+
    |3 Prs. heavy, curricle      |    6 |   6 |    —  |     —    | 136  |
    |Do.          ammunition cart|  100 |  24 |    —  |     —    |      |
    +----------------------------+------+-----+-------+----------+------+

_The following Proportion of Artillery, Ammunition, and Carriages,
necessary for four French Armies of different Degrees of Strength, and
acting in very different Countries, is attributed to_ GRIBAUVALE, _and
is extracted from_ DURTUBIE, _on_ Artillery.

     =(A)= = _Flanders._
     =(B)= = _Moselle._
     =(C)= = _Rhine._
     =(D)= = _Italy._
    +-----------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
    |       _ARMIES._             | =(A)= | =(B)= | =(C)= | =(D)= |
    +-----------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
    |Number of battalions         |   80  |   28  |   32  |  48   |
    |                             +-------+-------+-------+-------+
    |Battalion guns               |  160  |   56  |   64  |  94   |
    +----------+------------------+       |       |       |       |
    |          | 12 Prs.          |   32  |   12  |   12  |  16   |
    | Park or  |  8 Prs.          |   72  |   24  |   32  |  48   |
    | Reserve  |  4 Prs.          |   40  |   16  |   16  |  24   |
    |          |  6 Inch Howitzers|    8  |    4  |    4  |   8   |
    +----------+------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
    |  Total pieces of ordnance   |  312  |  112  |  128  | 192   |
    +---------------+-------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
    | Carriage for  |12 Prs.      |   36  |   14  |   14  |  18   |
    | the ordnance  | 8 Prs.      |   81  |   27  |   36  |  54   |
    | including     | 4 Prs.      |  215  |   78  |   90  | 129   |
    | spare ones    | 6 In. How’r.|    9  |    5  |    5  |   9   |
    +---------------+-------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
    |  Total ordnance carriages   |  341  |  124  |  145  | 210   |
    +-----------+-----------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
    |           |  12 Prs.        |   96  |   36  |   36  |  48   |
    |Ammunition |   8 Prs.        |  144  |   48  |   64  |  96   |
    | waggons   |   4 Prs.        |  200  |   72  |   80  | 120   |
    |           |   6 In. How’r.  |   24  |   12  |    8  |  24   |
    +-----------+-----------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
    |Waggons for musq. cartridges |  120  |   42  |   48  |  72   |
    |Large Waggons for the park   |   10  |    6  |    5  |   8   |
    |                             +-------+-------+-------+-------+
    |  Total ammunition waggons   |  594  |  216  |  241  | 368   |
    +-----------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
    |Smiths forges  Large         |   14  |    3  |    3   |   8  |
    |               Small         |    —  |    3  |    3   |   4  |
    +-----------------------------+-------+-------+--------+------+
    |  Total forges               |   14  |    6  |    6   |  12  |
    +------------------+----------+-------+-------+--------+------+
    |Waggons| Intrench-|Artillery |   27  |   10  |   12   |  16  |
    |  for  | ing tools|The army  |   20  |   10  |   12   |  16  |
    |       |   for    |          |       |       |        |      |
    +-------+----------+----------+-------+-------+--------+------+
    |       | New Iron            |    6  |    3  |    3   |   6  |
    |       | Wood for spr.       |       |       |        |      |
    | Carri-|   carri’gs          |    9  |    3  |    3   |   7  |
    | ages  +---------------------+-------+-------+--------+------+
    |  for  | Anchors, &c. for    |       |       |        |      |
    |       |   pontoons          |    4  |    2  |    2   |   4  |
    +-------+---------------------+-------+-------+--------+------+
    |  Total store carriages      |   66  |   28  |   32   |  49  |
    |                             +-------+-------+--------+------+
    |Pontoons upon their carriages|   36  |   18  |   18   |  36  |
    |Spare pontoon carriages      |    4  |    2  |    2   |   4  |
    |                             +-------+-------+--------+------+
    |  Total pontoon carriages    |   40  |   20  |   20   |  40  |
    |                             +-------+-------+--------+------+
    |     _RECAPITULATION._       |       |       |        |      |
    |                             |       |       |        |      |
    |Ordnance——pieces             |  312  |  112  |  128   | 192  |
    +-------+---------------------+-------+-------+--------+------+
    |       | Ordnance carriages  |  341  |  124  |  145   | 210  |
    |Carri- | Ammunition          |  594  |  216  |  241   | 368  |
    | ages  | Store               |   66  |   28  |   32   |  49  |
    |       | Pontoon             |   40  |   20  |   20   |  40  |
    |       | Forges              |   14  |    6  |    6   |  12  |
    +-------+---------------------+-------+-------+--------+------+
    |  General total of carriages | 1055  |  394  |  144   | 679  |
    +-----------------------------+-------+-------+--------+------+

This table contains, beside the proportion of ordnance with each army,
also the quantity of ammunition with each piece of ordnance, and the
number of rounds of musquet ammunition carried for the infantry; for
each waggon in the French Service, having its particular allotment of
ammunition and stores, it needs but to know the number of waggons of
each description, to ascertain the quantity of ammunition and stores
with an army. The following is the number of waggons usually attached
to each piece of field ordnance in the French Service, and the quantity
of ammunition carried with each.

    +--------------------------------+------------+---------- +
    |Nature of Ordnance and          |    Shot.   |Total with |
    | Number of waggons              +------+-----+each piece.|
    | attached to each.              |Round.|Case.|           |
    +--------------------------------+------+-----+-----------+
    |12 Pr. on the carriage          |   9  |   — |           |
    |3 Waggons—each containing       |  48  |  20 |    213    |
    +--------------------------------+------+-----+-----------+
    |8 Pr. on the carriage           |   9  |   — |           |
    |2 Waggons—each containing       |  62  |  30 |    193    |
    +--------------------------------+------+-----+-----------+
    |4 Pr. on the carriage           |  18  |   — |           |
    |One waggon—containing           | 100  |  50 |    168    |
    +--------------------------------+------+-----+-----------+
    |6 Inch howitzer—on the carriage |   —  |   4 |           |
    |3 Waggons—each containing       |shell |     |    160    |
    |                                |  49  |   3 |           |
    +--------------------------------+------+-----------------+

The French horse artillery waggon, called the _wurst_, carries 57
rounds for 8 pounders; or 30 for 6 inch howitzers.

The following is a proportion of ammunition for one piece of field
artillery of each nature, by different powers in Europe.

    --------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
    Nature. |  Austrians |  Prussians |   Danes.   |Hanoverians.|
            +-----+------+-----+------+-----+------+-----+------+
            |Case.|Round.|Case.|Round.|Case.|Round.|Case.|Round.|
    --------+-----+------+-----+------+-----+------+-----+------+
     3 Pr.  |  40 |  184 |  20 |   90 |  58 |  177 |  50 |  150 |
     6  ”   |  36 |  176 |  30 |  150 |  53 |  166 |  48 |  144 |
    12  ”   |  44 |   94 |  20 |  130 |  44 |  128 |  50 |  150 |
    Howitzer|  16 |   90 |  20 |   60 |  25 |   76 |  30 |  120 |
    --------+-----+------+-----+------+-----+------+-----+------+


_Of the Movements and Positions of Field Artillery._

_BATTALION Guns._—The following are the usual positions taken by
battalion guns, in the most essential manœuvres of the battalion to
which they are attached; but the established regulations for the
movements of the infantry in the British Service, take so little notice
of the relative situations for the artillery attached to it, that there
is no authority for a guide on the subject. _In review_, both guns are
to be placed, when, in line, on the right of the regiment; unlimbered
and prepared for action. The guns 10 yards apart, and the left gun
10 yards from the right of the grenadiers. Nos. 7 and 8 dress in line
with the front rank of the regiment. The officer, at open order, will
be in front of the interval between his guns, and in line with the
officers of the regiment. When the regiment breaks into column, the
guns will be limbered up and wheel by pairs to the left: the men form
the line of march, and the officer marches round in front of the guns.
In the review of a single battalion, it is usual after marching round
the second time, for one of the guns to go to the rear, and fall in at
the rear of the column. Upon the regiment wheeling on the left into
line, the guns, if separated, will be unlimbered to the right, but if
they are both upon the right, they must be wheeled to the right, and
then unlimbered; and afterwards run up by hand, as thereby they do not
interfere with the just formation of the line, by obstructing the view
of the pivots.

The usual method by which the guns take part in the firings while in
line, is by two discharges from each piece, previous to the firing of
the regiment; but this is usually regulated by the commanding officer,
before the review. Though the guns when in line with a regiment in
review, always remain in the intervals; in other situations of more
consequence, every favorable spot which presents itself, from which the
enemy can be more effectually annoyed, should be taken advantage of.
In column, if advancing, the guns must be in front; if retreating, in
the rear of the column. If in open column of more than one battalion,
the guns in the center must be between the divisions, and when the
column is closed, these guns must move to the outward flank of that
division of the column, which leads the regiment to which they are
attached. In changing front, or in forming the line from column, should
the guns be on that flank of the battalion on which the new line is to
be formed, they will commence firing to cover the formation.

In retiring by alternate wings or divisions, the guns must be always
with that body nearest the enemy. That is, they will not retire with
the first half, but will remain in their position till the second half
retires; and will then only retire to the flanks of the first half; and
when it retires again, the guns will retire likewise, but only as far
as the second half, and so on.

When in hollow square, the guns will be placed at the weakest angles,
and the limbers in the center of the square. In passing a bridge or
defile in front, the guns will be the first to pass; unless from any
particular position they can more effectually _enfilade_ the _defilé_;
and thereby better open the passage for the infantry. But in retiring
through a _defilé_, the guns will remain to the last, to cover the
retreat.

_GENERAL RULE._—With very few variations, the guns should attend in
all the movements of the battalion, that division of it, to which they
are particularly attached; and every attention should be paid in thus
adapting the movements of the guns to those of the regiment, that they
be not entangled with the divisions of the line, and never so placed
as to obstruct the view of the pivots, and thereby the just formation
of the line; but should always seek those positions, from which the
enemy can be most annoyed, and the troops to which they are attached,
protected.

If at any time the battalion guns of several regiments should be united
and formed into brigades, their movements will then be the same as
those for the artillery of the park.


_Artillery of the Park._

The artillery of the park is generally divided into brigades of 4 or 6
pieces, and a reserve, according to the force and extent of the front
of an army. The reserve must be composed of about ⅙ of the park, and
must be placed behind the first line. If the front of the army be
extensive, the reserve must be divided.

The following are the principal rules for the movements and positions
of the brigades of artillery: they are mostly translated from the _Aide
Memoire_, a new military work.

In a _defensive_ position, the guns of the largest caliber must be
posted in those points, from whence the enemy can be discovered at the
greatest distance, and from which may be seen the whole extent of his
front.

In an _offensive_ position, the weakest points of the line must be
strengthened by the largest calibers; and the most distant from the
enemy: those heights on which the army in advancing may rest its
flanks, must be secured by them, and from which the enemy may be fired
upon obliquely.

The guns should be placed as much as possible under cover; this is
easily done upon heights, by keeping them so far back that the muzzles
are only to be seen over them: by proper attention many situations may
be found of which advantage may be taken for this purpose, such as
banks, ditches, &c. every where to be met with.

A BATTERY in the field should never be discovered by the enemy till the
very moment it is to open. The guns may be masked by being a little
retired; or by being covered by troops, particularly cavalry.

To enable the commanding officer of artillery to choose the proper
positions for his field batteries, he should of course be made
acquainted, with the effect intended to be produced; with the troops
that are to be supported; and with the points that are to be attacked;
that he may place his artillery so as to support, but not incommode
the infantry; nor take up such situations with his guns, as would be
more advantageously occupied by the line. That he may not place his
batteries too soon, nor too much exposed; that he may cover his front
and his flanks, by taking advantage of the ground; and that he may not
venture too far out of the protection of the troops, unless some very
decided effect is to be obtained thereby.

The guns must be so placed as to produce a cross fire upon the position
of the enemy, and upon all the ground which he must pass over in an
attack.

They must be separated into many small batteries, to divide the fire of
the enemy; while the fire from all these batteries, may at any time be
united to produce a decided effect against any particular points.

These points are the _débouchés_ of the enemy, the heads of their
columns, and the weakest points in the front. In an attack of the
enemy’s position, the cross fire of the guns must become _direct_,
before it can impede the advance of the troops; and must annoy the
enemy’s positions nearest to the point attacked, when it is no longer
safe to continue the fire upon that point itself.

The shot from artillery should always take an enemy in the direction of
its greatest dimension; it should therefore take a line obliquely or in
flank, but a column in front.

The artillery should never be placed in such a situation, that it can
be taken by an enemy’s battery obliquely, or in flank, or in the rear;
unless a position under these circumstances, offers every prospect of
producing a most decided effect, before the guns can be destroyed or
placed _hors de combat_.

The most elevated positions are not the best for artillery, the
greatest effects may be produced from a height of 30 or 40 yards at the
distance of about 600 and about 16 yards of height to 200 of distance.

Positions in the rear of the line are bad for artillery, because they
alarm the troops, and offer a double object to the fire of the enemy.

Positions which are not likely to be shifted; but from whence an effect
may be produced during the whole of an action, are to be preferred; and
in such positions a low breast work of 2 or 3 feet high may be thrown
up, to cover the carriages.

Artillery should never fire against artillery, unless the enemy’s
troops are covered, and his artillery exposed; or unless your troops
suffer more from the fire of his guns, than his troops do from yours.

Never abandon your guns till the last extremity. The last discharges
are the most destructive; they may perhaps be your salvation, and crown
you with glory.

The parks of artillery in Great Britain are composed of the following
ordnance; 4 medium 12 pounders; 4 desaguliers 6 pounders; and 4 light
5½ inch howitzers.

_The following is the proposed line of march for the three Brigades
when acting with different Columns of Troops, as settled, in 1798._

    12 Pounders.     |   6 Pounders.    |   Howitzers.
    -----------------+------------------+----------------
    4 Guns.          | 4 Guns.          | 4 Howitzers.
                     |                  |
    8 Ammunition     | 4 Ammunition     | 8 Ammunition
      Waggons.       |   Waggons.       |   Waggons.
                     |                  |
    1 Forge Cart.    | 1 Forge Cart.    | 1 Forge Cart.
                     |                  |
    1 Store Waggon,  | 1 Store Waggon.  | 1 Store Waggon.
      with a small   |                  |
      proportion of  |                  |
      stores and     |                  |
      spare articles.|                  |
                     |                  |
    1 Spare Waggon.  | 1 Spare Waggon.  | 1 Spare Waggon.
                     |                  |
    1 Waggon to      | 1 Waggon for     | 1 Waggon with
      carry bread    |   bread and      |   bread and
      and oats.      |   oats.          |   oats.
                     |                  |
    2 Waggons with   | 2 Waggons with   | 2 Waggons with
      musquet ball   |   musquet ball   |   musquet ball
      cartridges.    |   cartridges.    |   cartridges.
    -----------------+------------------+----------------
     18 Total        | 14 Total.        | 18 Total.


2d. _Artillery and Ammunition for a Siege._

Necessary considerations in forming an estimate for this service.

The force, situation, and condition of the place to be besieged;
whether it be susceptible of more than one attack; whether lines of
circumvallation or countervallation will be necessary; whether it
be situated upon a height, upon a rocky soil, upon good ground, or
in a marsh; whether divided by a river, or in the neighborhood of
one; whether the river will admit of forming inundations; its size
and depth; whether the place be near a wood, and whether that wood
can supply stuff for fascines, gabions, &c.; whether it be situated
near any other place where a depot can be formed to supply stores for
the siege. Each of these circumstances will make a very considerable
difference in proportioning the stores, &c. for a siege. More artillery
will be required for a place susceptible of two attacks, than for the
place which only admits of one. For this last there must be fewer
pieces of ordnance, but more ammunition for each piece. In case of
lines being necessary, a great quantity of intrenching tools will be
required, and a numerous field train of artillery. In case of being
master of any garrison in the neighborhood of the besieged town, from
whence supplies can readily be drawn, this must be regarded as a
second park: and too great a quantity of stores need not be brought at
once before the besieged place. The number of batteries to be opened
before the place must determine the number of pieces of ordnance; and
on the quantity of ordnance must depend the proportion of every species
of stores for the service of the artillery.

There must be a battery to _enfilade_ every face of the work to be
besieged, that can in any way annoy the besiegers in their approaches.
These batteries, at least that part of them to be allotted for
guns, need not be much longer than the breadth of the rampart to be
enfiladed, and will not therefore hold more than 5 or 6 heavy guns;
which, with two more to enfilade the opposite branch of the covert
way, will give the number of guns for each ricochet battery. As the
breaching batteries, from their situation, effectually mask the fire of
the first or ricochet batteries, the same artillery generally serves
for both. Having thus ascertained the number of heavy guns, the rest of
the ordnance will bear the following proportion to them:

    _Mortars._—From 8 inch to 13 inch, about ⅓.
    _Small Mortars._—About ¼.
    _Heavy Howitzers._—About ⅛.

The fewer natures of ordnance which compose the demand the better,
as a great deal of the confusion may be prevented, which arises from
various natures of ammunition and stores being brought together.


_The Carriages for the Ordnance are generally as follows_:

    For 24 Prs. ⅚ the number of guns.
    For Mortars, ⁸/₉ the number of mortars.
    For Howitzers, ¾ the number of howitzers.
    For _Stone_ Mortars, ⁶/₇ the number of mortars.

           _Ammunition for the Ordnance._

    24 Prs.——At 1000 rounds per gun.
    Mortars, howitzers, and stone mortars,
      at 800 rounds per piece of ordnance.

                                    DURTUBIE.

The following proportion of artillery and ammunition was demanded by
a very able officer, for the intended siege of Lisle, in 1794, which
place was thought susceptible of two attacks.

    64—24 Prs. with carriages complete, at 50 _round
        shot_ per gun, per day, for the whole siege;
        half of them _en ricochet_, with 2lbs. of
        powder; the other half with the full charge of 8lbs.

       _Case_ and _Grape_ shot, at one round per
        gun, per day, of each: 6lbs. per charge.

       _Shells_ for guns, two rounds do.

       _Flannel cartridges_, for the case, grape,
           and shells.

       _Tin_ tubes for the case and grape.

       _Quill_ tubes for the round shot.

       _Spare_, ⅒.

    28—10 Inch mortars, on iron beds, at 50 shells each
          per day, for the whole siege. 3lbs. of powder
          charge—2lbs. 10 oz. for bursting.

       _Pound shot_—100 to a charge; 50 rounds per
        mortar each day for 10 mortars 7 days; 2 lbs. of
        powder each.

       _Hand grenades_—25 to a charge; the same as the pound shot.

       _Carcasses, round_—1 per mortar, per day.

    8— 8 Inch howitzers, on travelling carriages

    30 _Shells_ for each per day, during the siege.

       _Case shot_—5 rounds per day each.

       _Carcasses_—1 per day each.

       _Powder_—1 lb. per charge; 1 lb. 14 oz. for bursting.

    20—5½ Inch mortars, on wooden beds.

    50 _Shells_ for each, per day, for the whole
        siege; charge 8 oz.—12 oz. for bursting.

       _Flannel cartridges_, for ⅓ the number of rounds.

       _Tin_ tubes in the same proportion.

       _Portfires_, ½ the number of rounds with tubes.

       _Fuzes_, ⅒ to spare.

       _Match_, 50 cwt.

    Spare carriages for 24 Prs. seven.
      2  Devil carriages.
      6 Sling carts.
      6 Block carriages.
      3 Forge carts.
      3 Store waggons, with iron and coals.
      3 Triangle gins, complete.
      6 Laboratory tents.
      2 Small petards.
      4  Grates for heating shot.


_Of the Arrangement of Artillery at a Siege._

The first arrangement of the artillery at a siege is to the different
batteries raised near the first parallel, to enfilade the faces of the
work on the front attacked, which fire on the approaches. If these
first batteries be favorably situated, the artillery may be continued
in them nearly the whole of the siege; and will save the erection of
any other gun batteries, till the besiegers arrive on the crest of
the glacis. It however frequently happens, from local circumstances,
that the besiegers cannot avail themselves of the most advantageous
situations for the first batteries. There are four situations from
which the defences of any face may be destroyed; but not from all
with equal facility. The best position for the first batteries, is
perpendicular to the prolongation of the face of the work to be
enfiladed. If this position cannot be attained, the next that presents
itself is, on that side of the prolongation which takes the face in
reverse; and under as small an angle as possible. From both these
positions the guns must fire _en ricochet_. But if the ground, or
other circumstance, will not admit of either of these being occupied
by ricochet batteries, the battery to destroy the fire of a face must
be without the prolongation, so as to fire obliquely upon the outside
of the face. The last position, in point of advantage, is directly
parallel to the face. From these two last positions the guns must fire
with the full charges.

The second, or breaching batteries at a siege, are generally placed
on the crest of the glacis, within 15 or 18 feet of the covert way;
which space serves as the epaulment: but if the foot of the revetment
cannot be seen from this situation, they must be placed in the covert
way, within 15 feet of the counterscarpe of the ditch. These batteries
must be sunk as low as the soles of the embrazures, and are in fact but
an enlargement of the sap, run for the lodgement on the glacis or in
the covert way. In constructing a battery on the crest of the glacis,
attention must be paid that none of the embrazures open upon the
traverses of the covert way. These batteries should consist of at least
four guns; and if the breadth between the traverses will not admit of
this number, at the usual distances, the guns must be closed to 15 or
12 feet from each other.

The mortars are generally at first arranged in battery, adjoining
the first gun batteries, or upon the prolongation of the capitals of
the works; in which place they are certainly least exposed. Upon the
establishment of the half parallels, batteries of howitzers may be
formed in their extremities, to enfilade the branches of the covert
way; and upon the formation of the third parallel, batteries of
howitzers and stone mortars may be formed to enfilade the flanks of the
bastions, and annoy the besieged in the covert way. In the lodgement on
the glacis, stone and other mortars may also be placed, to drive the
besieged from their defences. A great object in the establishment of
all these batteries, is to make such an arrangement of them, that they
mask the fire of each other as little as possible; and particularly
of the first, or ricochet batteries. This may very well be prevented
till the establishment on the crest of the glacis, when it becomes in
some degree unavoidable: however, even the operations on the glacis
may be so arranged, that the ricochet batteries be not masked till the
breaching batteries be in a great state of forwardness: a very secure
method, and which prevents the soldiers in trenches being alarmed by
the shot passing over their heads, is to raise a _Parados_, or parapet,
in the rear of the trenches, at such parts where the fire from the
besieger’s batteries crosses them. For further details on this subject,
and for the manner of constructing batteries, see the word _Battery_;
also the words _Ricochet_, _Breach_, _Magazine_, _Platform_, &c.


3d. _Artillery and Ammunition for the Defence of Fortified Place._

_It is usual in an Estimate of Artillery and Ammunition for the Defence
of Fortified Places, to divide them into Eight Classes, as follows_:

    +-----------------------+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
    |CLASSES.               |  1  |  2  | 3  | 4  | 5  | 6  | 7  | 8  |
    +-----------------------+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
    |Garrisons              |12000|10000|8000|5000|3500|2500|1600| 400|
    |Cannon                 |  100|   90|  80|  70|  60|  50|  40|  30|
    |Triangle Gins          |    4|    3|   2|   2|   2|   1|   1|   1|
    |Sling Carts            |    4|    3|   2|   2|   2|   1|   1|   1|
    |Jacks of Sizes         |    4|    3|   2|   2|   2|   1|   1|   1|
    |Truck Carriages        |    6|    6|   4|   4|   2|   2|   2|   2|
    |Ammunition Carts, &c.  |   12|   12|  12|   6|   6|   6|   2|   2|
    |Tools for Pioneers     | 9000| 6000|5000|4000|3500|3000|1000|1000|
    |  ”    ”  Miners       |  300|  200| 100| 100| 100| 100|  50|   5|
    +----------+------------+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
    |Tools for | ⅓ Axes     |     |     |    |    |    |    |    |    |
    |  Cutting | ⅔ Billhooks| 1200|  900| 600| 500| 450| 300| 150| 150|
    +----------+------------+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
    |Forges, complete       |    6|    4|   2|   2|   2|   2|   1|   1|
    +-----------------------+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+

The guns will be of the following calibers: ⅓ of 18 Prs.—⅓ of 12
Prs.—and ⅓ of 24, 9, and 4 Pounders in equal proportions. If the place
does not possess any very extraordinary means of defence, it will be
very respectably supplied with 800 rounds of ammunition per gun for the
two larger calibers, and 900 for each of the others.

_Gun Carriages_—⅓ more than the number of guns.

_Mortars_—About ¼ the number of guns in the three first classes; and ⅕
or ⅙ in the other classes. Of these ⅖ will be 13 or 10 inch mortars,
and the rest of a smaller nature.

_Howitzers_—¼ the number of mortars.

_Stone Mortars_—⅒ the number of guns.

_Shells_—400 for each of the 10 and 13 inch mortars, and 600 for each
of the smaller ones.

_Beds_ for mortars—⅓ to spare.

_Carriages_ for howitzers—⅓ to spare.

_Hand Grenades_—4 or 5000 for the two first classes; 2000 in the three
following classes; and from 1500 to 600 in the three last classes.

_Rampart Grenades_—2000 for the first class; 1000 for the four
following classes; and 500 for the sixth class; none for the two last.

_Fuzes_—¼ more than the number of shells.

_Bottoms_ of wood for stone mortars—400 per mortar.

_Sand Bags_—500 for every piece of ordnance in the large places, and ¼
less in the small ones.

_Handspikes_—10 per piece.

_Tackle Falls_ for gins—1 for every 10 pieces to spare.

_Musquets_—1 per soldier, and the same number to spare.

_Pistols_, pairs—½ the number of musquets.

_Flints_—50 per musquet, and 10 per pistol.

_Lead_ or _Balls_ for small arms—30 pounds per musquet.

_Powder for Small Arms_—5 pounds for every musquet in the garrison,
including the spare ones.

The above proportions are taken from Durtubie’s Manuel De l’Artilleur.

The following method of regulating the management of the artillery, and
estimating the probable expenditure of ammunition in the defence of a
fortified place, is extracted from a valuable work on fortification
lately published at Berlin. It is particularly applied to a regular
hexagon; the siege is divided into three periods, _viz._

1st. From the first investiture to the first opening of the trenches,
about 5 days.

2d. From the opening of the trenches to the effecting a lodgement on
the glacis, about 18 days.

3d. From this time to the capitulation, about 5 days.

_First Period._ Three guns on the barbette of each bastion and on
the barbettes of the ravelins in front of the gateways, half 24 Prs.
and half 18 Prs.[4] three 9 Prs. on the barbette of each of the other
ravelins.

Twelve 12 Prs. and twelve 4 Prs. in reserve.

One 13 inch mortar in each bastion.

Six of 8 inch in the salient angles of the covert way.

Do. in reserve.

Ten stone mortars.

[4] For 16 Prs. in the French work, the compiler has said 18 Prs.—for 8
Prs. 9 Prs.—for 12 inch mortars, 13 inch; to which they nearly answer.

The 12 Prs. in reserve, are to be ranged behind the curtain, on
whichever side they may be required, and the 4 Prs. in the outworks;
all to fire _en ricochet_ over the parapet. By this arrangement, the
whole of the barbette guns are ready to act in any direction, till the
side of attack is determined on; and with the addition of the reserve,
49 pieces may be opened upon the enemy the very first night they begin
to work upon the trenches.

The day succeeding the night on which the trenches are opened, and the
side to be attacked determined, a new arrangement of the artillery
must take place. All the 24 and 18 Prs. must be removed to the front
attacked, and the other bastions, if required, supplied with 12 Prs.
The barbettes of the bastions on this front may have each 5 guns,
and the 12 18 prs. may be ranged behind the curtain. The six mortars
in reserve must be placed, two in each of the salient angles of the
covert way of this front, and with those already there, mounted as
howitzers,[5] to fire down the prolongations of the capitals. Three
4 pounders in each of the salient places of arms of the ravelins on
the attacked fronts, to fire over the palisading, and five 9 Prs.
in the ravelin of this front. This arrangement will bring 47 guns,
and 18 mortars to fire on the approaches after the first night; and
with a few variations will be the disposition of the artillery for
the second period of the siege. As soon as the enemy’s batteries are
fairly established, it will be no longer safe to continue the guns _en
barbette_, but embrazures[6] must be opened for them; which, embrazures
must be occasionally masked, and the guns assume new directions, as the
enemy’s fire grows destructive; but may again be taken advantage of,
as circumstances offer. As the enemy gets near the third parallel, the
artillery must be withdrawn from the covert way to the ravelins, or to
the ditch, if dry, or other favorable situations; and, by degrees,
as the enemy advances, to the body of the place. During this period
of the siege, the embrazures must be prepared in the flanks, in the
curtain which joins them, and in the faces of the bastions which flank
the ditch of the front ravelins. These embrazures must be all ready to
open, and the heavy artillery mounted in them, the moment the enemy
attempts a lodgement on the glacis.

[5] Our iron mortars, on iron beds, all admit of being fired at low
angles.

[6] A German author proposes that the mounds of earth which enable
the guns to fire _en barbette_, should be so arranged, that the
embrasures may be opened between them; and when the guns descend to the
embrazures, the barbettes will serve as traversers.

Every effort should be made to take advantage of this favorable moment,
when the enemy, by their own works, must mask their former batteries,
and before they are able to open their new ones.

The expenditure of ammunition will be nearly as follows:

    _First period_ of the siege—5 rounds per gun, per
       day, with only half the full charge, or ⅙ the weight
       of the shot, and for only such guns as can act.

    _Second period_—20 rounds per gun, per day, with
       ⅙ the weight of the shot.

    _Third period_—60 rounds per gun, per day, with
       the full charge, or ⅓ the weight of the shot.

    _Mortars_—At 20 shells per day, from the first
       opening of the trenches to the capitulation.

    _Stone Mortars_—80 rounds per mortar, for every
       24 hours, from the establishment of the demi
       parallels to the capitulation; about 13 days.

    _Light_, and _Fire balls_—Five every night,
       for each mortar, from the opening of the trenches to
       the eighth day, and three from that time to the end

    These amount to about  700 for guns.
                           400 for mortars.
                          1000 for stone do.

This proportion and arrangement is however made upon a supposition,
that the place has no countermines to retard the progress of the
besiegers, to a period beyond what is abovementioned; but the same
author estimates, that a similar place, with the covert way properly
countermined beforehand, and those countermines properly disputed,
may retard a siege at least 2 months; and that if the other works be
likewise effectually countermined and defended, the siege may be still
prolonged another month.

The above proportion is therefore to be further regulated, as the
strength of the place is increased by these or any other means. These
considerations should likewise be attended to, in the formation of an
estimate of ammunition and stores for the siege of a fortified place.
See _Carriage, Platform, Park_, and the different natures of artillery,
as _Gun, Mortar, Howitzer_, &c.

The small arms ammunition is estimated by this author as follows:

    ¼ of a pound of gunpowder, or 10 rounds per day,
         per man, for all the ordinary guards.

    1¼ lbs. or 50 rounds per man, per 12 hours, for
         all extraordinary guards.

    ⅝ of a pound, or 25 rounds for every man on
         picket, during the period of his duty.


_AXLETREES_—See the word _Carriages_.




_BALLS_—of lead, of different natures.


    +--------------+--------+----------+--------------+
    |              | Number | Diameter |  Number made |
    |   Nature.    | to one |   in     | from one ton |
    |              | Pound. | Inches.  |   of Lead.   |
    +--------------+--------+----------+--------------+
    |Wall pieces   |   6¾   |   .89    |    14,760    |
    |Musquets      |  14½   |   .68    |    32,480    |
    |Carbine       |  20    |   .60    |    44,800    |
    |Pistol        |  34    |   .51    |    78,048    |
    |7 Barrel guns |  46½   |   .46    |    104,160   |
    +--------------+--------+----------+--------------+

Lead balls are packed in boxes containing each 1 cwt. About 4 pounds of
lead in the cwt. are generally lost in casting. See _Shot_.


_BARRELS for powder_--Their dimensions.

    +--------------------+----------+----------+----------+
    |                    |  Whole   |   Half   | Quarter  |
    |                    | Barrels. | Barrels. | Barrels. |
    |                    +----------+----------+----------+
    |                    | Ft. In.  | Ft. In.  | Ft. In.  |
    +--------------------+----------+----------+----------+
    |Depth               |  1  9.61 |  1  5.13 |  1  2.25 |
    |Diameter at top     |  1  3.61 |  1  0.37 |     9.35 |
    |   ”     at bulge   |  1  5.36 |  1  2.   |    10.71 |
    |   ”     at bottom  |  1  3.51 |  1  0.31 |     9.41 |
    +--------------------+----------+----------+----------+

The whole barrels are made to contain 100 pounds, and the half barrels
50 pounds of powder; but of late only 90 pounds have been put into the
barrels, and 45 into the half barrels; which, by leaving the powder
room to be shifted, preserves it the better.

_Budge Barrels_ contain 38 lbs.

    Weight of barrel—copper hooped—10 lbs.
      ”         ”     hazle hooped—6
    Length of barrel               10½ inches.
    Diameter                        1 foot 1 inch.


_BASKETS._—Ballast, ½ bushel—weight, 5 lbs. Diameter, 1 foot 6
inches—length, 1 foot.


_BATTERY._—_Dimensions of Batteries._

1. _Gun Batteries._—Gun Batteries are usually 18 feet per gun. Their
principal dimensions are as follow:

    _Ditch._—Breadth    12 feet.
             Depth       8

NOTE. These dimensions give for a battery of two guns 3456 cubic feet
of earth; and must be varied according to the quantity required for the
epaulment.

    _Epaulment._—Breadth at bottom     23 feet.
                    ”    at top        18
                 Height  within         7
                    ”    without        6 ft. 4 in.
                 Slope,  interior     ²/₇ of height.
                    ”    exterior       ½ of height.

NOTE. The above breadths at top and bottom are for the worst soil; good
earth will not require a base of more than 20 feet wide, which will
reduce the breadth at top to 15 feet; an epaulment of these dimensions
for two guns will require about 4200 cubic feet of earth, and deducting
300 cubic feet for each embrazure, leaves 3600 required for the
epaulment. In confined situations the breadth of the epaulment may be
only 12 feet.

    _Embrazures._—Distance between  }      18 feet.
                    their centers   }
                  Openings, interior       20 inches.
                     ”      exterior        9 feet.

Height of the sole above the platform 32 inches.

NOTE. Where the epaulment is made of a reduced breadth, the openings of
the embrazures are made with the usual breadth within, but the exterior
openings proportionally less. The embrazures are sometimes only 12 feet
asunder, or even less when the ground is very confined. The superior
slope of the epaulment need be very little, where it is not to be
defended by small arms. The slope of the sole of the embrazures must
depend upon the height of the object to be fired at. The _Berm_ is
usually made 3 feet wide, and where the soil is loose, this breadth is
increased to 4 feet.

2. _Howitzer Batteries._—The dimensions of howitzer batteries are
the same as those for guns, except that the interior openings of the
embrazures are 2 feet 6 inches, and the soles of the embrazures have a
slope inwards of about 10 degrees.

3. _Mortar Batteries_—Are also made of the same dimensions as gun
batteries, but an exact adherence to those dimensions is not so
necessary. They have no embrazures. The mortars are commonly placed 15
feet from each other, and about 12 feet from the epaulment.

NOTE. Though it has been generally customary to fix mortars at 45°,
and to place them at the distance of 12 feet from the epaulment, yet
many advantages would often arise from firing them at lower angles;
and which may be done by removing them to a greater distance from the
epaulment, but where they would be in equal security. If the mortars
were placed at the undermentioned distances from the epaulment, they
might be fired at the angles corresponding:

    At 13 feet distance for firing at 30 degrees.
       21         ”            ”      20
       30         ”            ”      15
       40         ”            ”      10
    over an epaulment of 8 feet high.

A French author asserts, that all ricochet batteries, whether for
howitzers or guns, might be made after this principle, without the
inconvenience of embrazures; and the superior slope of the epaulment
being inwards instead of outwards, would greatly facilitate this mode
of firing.

If the situation will admit of the battery being sunk, even as low as
the soles of the embrazures, a great deal of labour may be saved. In
batteries without embrazures, this method may almost always be adopted;
and it becomes in some situations absolutely necessary in order to
obtain earth for the epaulment; for when a battery is to be formed on
the crest of the glacis, or on the edge of the counterscarpe of the
ditch, there can be no excavation but in the rear of the battery.

4. _Batteries on a Coast_—generally consist of only an epaulment,
without much attention being paid to the ditch: they are, however,
sometimes made with embrazures, like a common gun battery; but the guns
are more generally mounted on traversing platforms, and fire over the
epaulment. When this is the case, the guns can seldom be placed nearer
than 3½ fathoms from each other. The generality of military writers
prefer low situations for coast batteries; but M. Gribauvale lays down
some rules for the heights of coast batteries, which place them in such
security, as to enable them to produce their greatest effect. He says
the height of a battery of this kind, above the level of the sea, must
depend upon the distance of the principal objects it has to protect or
annoy. The shot from a battery to ricochet with effect, should strike
the water at an angle of about 4 or 5 degrees at the distance of 200
yards. Therefore the distance of the object must be the radius, and the
height of the battery the tangent to this angle of 4 or 5°; which will
be, at the above distance of 200 yards, about 14 yards. At this height,
he says, a battery may ricochet vessels in perfect security; for their
ricochet being only from a height of 4 or 5 yards, can have no effect
against the battery. The ground in front of a battery should be cut
in steps, the more effectually to destroy the ricochet of the enemy.
In case a ship can approach the battery so as to fire musquetry from
her tops, a few light pieces placed higher up on the bank, will soon
dislodge the men from that position, by a few discharges of case shot.
It is also easy to keep vessels at a distance by carcasses, or other
fire balls, which they are always in dread of.

DURTUBIE estimates, that a battery of 4 or 5 guns, well posted, will be
a match for a first rate man of war.


_To estimate the Materials for a Battery._

Fascines of 9 feet long are the most convenient for forming a battery,
because they are easily carried, and they answer to most parts of the
battery without cutting. The embrazures are however better lined with
fascines of 18 feet. The following will be nearly the number required
for a fascine battery of two guns or howitzers:

90 fascines of 9 feet long.

20 fascines of 18 feet—for the embrazures.

This number will face the outside as well as the inside of the
epaulment, which if the earth be stiff, will not always be necessary;
at least not higher than the soles of the embrazures on the outside.
This will require five of 9 feet for each merlon less than the above.

A mortar battery will not require any long fascines for the lining
of the embrazures. The simplest method of ascertaining the number of
fascines for a mortar battery, or for any other plain breast work, is
to divide the length of work to be fascined in feet, by the length of
each fascine in feet, for the number required for one layer, which
being multiplied by the number of layers required, will of course give
the number of fascines for facing the whole surface. If a battery be
so exposed as to require a shoulder to cover it in flank, about 50
fascines of 9 feet each will be required for each shoulder.

    Each fascine of 18 feet will require 7 pickets.
      ”     ”     ”  9 feet   ”     ”    4    ”

12 workmen of the line, and 8 of the artillery, are generally allotted
to each gun.

If to the above proportion of materials, &c. for a battery of two
guns, there be added for each additional gun, 30 fascines of 9 feet,
and 10 of 18 feet, with 12 workmen, the quantity may easily be found
for a battery of any number of pieces.

The workmen are generally thus disposed; one half the men of the line
in the ditch at 3 feet asunder, who throw the earth upon the berm;
one fourth upon the berm at 6 feet asunder, to throw the earth upon
the epaulment, and the other quarter on the epaulment, to level the
earth, and beat it down. The artillery men carry on the fascine work,
and level the interior for the platforms. This number of workmen may
complete a battery in 36 hours, allowing 216 cubic feet tn be dug and
thrown up, by each man _in the ditch_ in 24 hours.


_Tools for the Construction of a Battery._

_Intrenching_—1½ times the number of workmen required; half to be pick
axes, and half shovels or spades, according to the soil.

_Mallets_—3 per gun.

_Earth Rammers_—3 per gun.

_Crosscut Saws_—1 to every two guns.

_Handbills or Hatchets_—2 per gun.

This estimate of tools and workmen, does not include what may be
required for making up the fascines, or preparing the other materials,
but supposes them ready prepared. For these articles, see the words
_Fascine_, _Gabion_, _Platform_, &c. and for the construction of field
magazines for batteries, see the word _Magazine_.

NOTE. The following estimate of the quantity of earth which may be
removed by a certain number of workmen in a given time, may serve to
give some idea of the time required to raise any kind of works. 500
common wheel barrows will contain 2 cubic toises of earth, and may be
wheeled by one man, in summer, to the distance of 20 yards up a ramp,
and 30 on a horizontal plain, in one day. In doing which he will pass
over, going and returning, about 4 leagues in the first case, and 6 in
the last. Most men, however, will not wheel more than 1¾ toise per day.
Four men will remove the same quantity to four times the distance.

In a soil easy to be dug, one man can fill the 500 barrows in a day;
but if the ground be hard, the number of fillers must be augmented, so
as to keep pace with the wheel barrow man.


_BEDS for Mortars._

    +------------+-------------+--------------+-------+-------+-------+
    |Nature.     |    Weight.  |    Tonnage.  | Len.  |  Bre. |  Ht.  |
    +------------+-------------+--------------+-------+-------+-------+
    |            |cᵂᵗ. qʳˢ. lb.| tⁿˢ. cᵂᵗ. qʳ |ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.|
    |            |             |              |       |       |       |
    |   Sea      | 38    3  13 |  3    3   2  |       |       |       |
    +--+---------+-------------+--------------+-------+-------+-------+
    |13|Land Wood| 21    2   7 |  1    6   0  | 7   0 | 2   6 | 2   3 |
    |  |  ”  Iron| 50    0   0 |  2   10   0  | 6   3 | 3   1 | 1   6 |
    +--+---------+-------------+--------------+-------+-------+-------+
    |   Sea      | 32    2  14 |  2    2   2  |       |       |       |
    +--+---------+-------------+--------------+-------+-------+-------+
    |10|Land Wood| 10    0  20 |  0    4   2  | 6   6 | 1   8 | 1  10 |
    |  |  ”  Iron| 23    0   0 |  1    3   0  | 4   8 | 2   4 | 1  1½ |
    +--+---------+-------------+--------------+-------+-------+-------+
    |8 |Land Wood|  6    0  20 |  0    7   2  | 4   2 | 1   7 | 1  7½ |
    |  |  ”  Iron| 12    0   0 |  0   12   0  | 4   0 | 1  11 | 0  11 |
    +--+---------+-------------+--------------+-------+-------+-------+
    | 5½ Wood    |  1    0  22 |  0    2   0  | 2   9 | 1   4 | 0  10 |
    | 4⅖ Wood    |  0    3  11 |  0    1   2  | 2   4½| 1   2 | 0   9 |
    +------------+-------------+--------------+-------+-------+-------+
                    _Stool Beds for Guns._
    +------------+-------------+--------------+-------+--------+------+
    |            |             |              |       |  Inch. |  In. |
    |42 Pounders |  0    1  20 |  0    1   0  | 2  10 |11 to 8¾| 3¾   |
    |32    ”     |  0    1  14 |  0    1   0  | 2  10 |10    5½| 3¼   |
    |24    ”     |  0    1  14 |  0    1   0  | 2   9 |10¼   6½| 4    |
    |18    ”     |  0    1  12 |  0    1   0  | 2   8 | 9½   6½| 3¾   |
    |12    ”     |  0    1  10 |  0    0   2⅔ | 2   8 |10    6½| 4    |
    | 9    ”     |  0    1   4 |  0    0   2  | 2   7 | 9½   5¾| 3½   |
    | 6    ”     |  0    1   0 |  0    0   1¾ | 2   6 | 9    4¾| 3½   |
    | 4    ”     |  0    1   0 |  0    0   1  | 2   6 | 8¼   5¼| 3    |
    +------------+-------+-----+--------------+-------+--------+------+


_BOXES for Ammunition._—The dimensions of the common ammunition boxes
vary according to the ammunition they are made to contain, in order
that it may pack tight: this variation, however, is confined to a few
inches, and does not exceed the following numbers.


_Table of general Dimensions of Ammunition Boxes._

    +-------+---------------------------------------+--------+
    |       |               Exterior.               | Weight |
    |       +------------+------------+-------------+  when  |
    |       |   Length.  |   Breadth. |    Depth.   | empty. |
    +-------+------------+------------+-------------+--------+
    |       | feet inch. | feet inch. | feet inch   |   lbs. |
    | From  |   2   2    |   0   10   |   0   8½    |    20  |
    | To    |   2   9    |   1    6   |   1   6     |    30  |
    +-------+------------+------------+-------------+--------+

Weight when filled, and Number contained in each.

    +---------------------------+-----------------+---------------+
    |                           |   Weight of     | No. of Rounds |
    |                           |   Boxes when    | contained in  |
    |    Nature of Ammunition.  |   filled with   | each Box.     |
    |                           |   Ammunition.   |               |
    +---------------------------+-----------------+---------------+
    |                           | cᵂᵗ.  qʳˢ.  lb. |      No.      |
    +---+--------+-------+------+-----------------+---------------+
    |   |        |12 Prs.|Round |  1     1    10  |       8       |
    |   |        |       |Case. |  0     3    15  |       6       |
    |   | Shot   +-------+------+-----------------+---------------+
    |   | fixed  | 6 Prs.|Round |  1     2     7  |      12       |
    |   | with   |       |Case  |  1     0    15  |      12       |
    |   | powder.+-------+------+-----------------+---------------+
    |   |        |       |Round |  0     2    25  |      16       |
    |   |        | 3 Prs.|Case  |  0     2    23  |      14       |
    |   +--------+-------+------+-----------------+---------------+
    | B |        |24 Prs.|Round |  1     1    26  |       6       |
    | o |        |       |Case  |  2     0     0  |       6       |
    | x |        +-------+------+-----------------+---------------+
    | e |        |12 Prs.|Round |  1     2    20  |      12       |
    | s |  Shot  |       |Case  |  1     2    22  |       8       |
    |   | fixed  +-------+------+-----------------+---------------+
    |   | to wood|       |Round |  1     2    20  |      24       |
    |   | bottoms| 6 Prs.|Case  |  1     1    12  |      18       |
    | f | without+-------+------+-----------------+---------------+
    | o | powder.|       |Round |  1     1    0   |      30       |
    | r |        | 3 Prs.|Case  |  1     1    0   |      30       |
    |   |        +-------+------+-----------------+---------------+
    |   |        |How’r. | 8    |  1     2    2   |       3       |
    |   |        | Case. | 5½   |  1     2   12   |      10       |
    |   |        |       | 4⅖   |  1     2   22   |      20       |
    |   +--------+-------+------+-----------------+---------------+
    |   |        |       |   f  |                 |               |
    |   |        |How’r  |8  i  |  1     2    2   |       3       |
    |   | Shells.|Shells.|5½ x  |  1     2   12   |      10       |
    |   |        |       |4⅖ e  |  1     2   22   |      20       |
    |   |        |       |   d  |                 |               |
    +---+--------+-------+------+-----------------+---------------+

The common ammunition waggon will hold from 9 to 13 of these boxes in
one tier.

The tonnage of ammunition in boxes is equal to its weight: about 12
boxes make one ton.


_BOMB Ketch._ The bomb ketches upon the old establishment carry one 13
inch and one 10 inch mortar; with eight 6 pounders, beside swivels,
for their own immediate defence. The modern bomb vessels carry two 10
inch mortars, four 68 pounders, and six 18 pounders carronades; and the
mortars may be fired at as low an angle as 20 degrees; though these
mortars are not intended to be used at sea, but on very particular
occasions; their principal intention, at these low angles, being to
cover the landing of troops, and protect our coast and harbours. A bomb
ketch is generally from sixty to seventy feet long from stem to stern,
and draws eight or nine feet water. The tender is generally a brig, on
board of which the party of artillery remain, till their services are
required on board the bomb vessel.

_Instructions for their Management and Security in Action._

1. A Dutch pump, filled with water, must be placed in each round top,
one upon the forecastle, one on the main deck, and one on the quarter
deck; and furnished with leather buckets, for a fresh supply of water.

2. The booms must be wetted by the pumps before the tarpaulins and
mortar hatches are taken off; and a wooden skreen, 5 feet square, is to
be hung under the booms, over each mortar, to receive the fire from the
vents.

3. The embrazures being fixed and properly secured, the port must
be let down low enough to be covered by the sole of the embrazure.
Previous to its being let down, a spar must be lashed across it, to
which the tackles for raising it again must be fixed: this spar serves
to project the tackles clear of the explosion.

4. The mortars must not be fired through the embrazures at a lower
angle than 20 degrees, nor with a greater charge than 5 lbs. of powder.

5. Previous to firing, the doors of the bulkhead, under the quarter
deck, must be shut, to prevent the cabin being injured by the explosion.

6. The bed must be wedged in the circular curb, as soon as the mortar
is pointed, to prevent reaction; the first wedge being driven tight
before the rear ones are fixed, in order to give the full bearing on
the table, as well as the rear of the bed. The holes for dog bolts must
be corked up, to prevent the sparks falling into them.

7. When any shells are to be used on board the bomb, they must be
fixed on board the tender, and brought from thence, in boxes in her
long boat; and kept along side the bomb ship till wanted, carefully
covered up.

8. In the old constructed bomb vessels it is necessary to hoist out the
booms; and raft them along side previous to firing; but in these new
ones, with embrazures, only the boats need be hoisted out; after which
the mortars may be prepared for action in 10 minutes.

_Proportion of Ordnance and Ammunition for a Bomb Ship, carrying two 10
Inch Mortars, to fire at low Angles, and at 45 Degrees, Four 68 Prs.
and Six 8 Prs. Carronades._

    +----------------------------------+------------+---------+--------+
    |           _NATURE._              | _In the_   |_Tender._|_Total._|
    |                                  |_Bomb Ship._|         |        |
    +----------------------------------+------------+---------+--------+
    | Mortars, sea service with Beds,  |            |         |        |
    |    &c. 10 inch                   |     2      |    —    |   2    |
    |----------------------------------+------------+---------+--------+
    | Quoins for do.—2 for 45°—2       |            |         |        |
    |    for 20° elevation,          } |     4      |    —    |   4    |
    |----------------------------------+------------+---------+--------+
    | Capsquares, with keys, &c. spare |     2      |    —    |   2    |
    | Handspikes, large                |     4      |    —    |   4    |
    | Spunges, with rammer heads       |     4      |    —    |   4    |
    | Handscrews, small                |     2      |    —    |   2    |
    | Handcrow levers—6 feet           |     4      |    —    |   4    |
    | Handspikes, common               |     6      |    —    |   6    |
    | Linstocks, with cocks            |     4      |    —    |   4    |
    | Powder horns, new pattern        |     4      |    —    |   4    |
    | Match       cwts.                |     1      |    —    |   1    |
    | Marline     skeins               |     —      |   12    |  12    |
    | Budge barrels, copper hooped     |     1      |    1    |   2    |
    | Lanthorns, Muscovy               |     2      |    2    |   4    |
    |     ”      dark                  |     2      |    2    |   4    |
    | Carronades, 68 Prs.              |     4      |    —    |   4    |
    |     ”       18 Prs.              |     6      |    —    |   6    |
    |   having sliding carriages,      |            |         |        |
    |    elevating screws,             |            |         |        |
    |   spunges, rammers               |            |         |        |
    |   &c. complete.                  |            |         |        |
    | Gun tackles, complete for        |            |         |        |
    |    traversing mortars, 12 Prs.   |     4      |    —    |    4   |
    | Wads, 68 Prs.                    |   270      |  270    |  540   |
    |   ” , 18 Prs.                    |   480      |  180    |  660   |
    | Musquets  { Bright               |    32      |    —    |   32   |
    |           { Black                |     8      |    —    |    8   |
    | Pistols, pairs                   |    15      |    —    |   15   |
    | Swords                           |    40      |    —    |   40   |
    | Pole axes                        |     6      |    —    |    6   |
    | Pikes                            |    40      |    —    |   40   |
    | Musquetoons                      |     2      |    —    |    2   |
    | Flints, musquet                  |   900      |    —    |  900   |
    |   ”     pistol                   |   150      |    —    |  150   |
    | Ball Cartridges, musquet         |  2000      |    —    | 2000   |
    |   ”      ”       pistol          |  2000      |    —    | 2000   |
    | Shot, musquet, cwts. qrs. lbs.   | 1.0.0      |    —    |1.0.0   |
    |   ”   pistol,   ”     ”    ”     | 0.1.1      |    —    |0.1.1   |
    | Round Carcasses, fixed, 10 inch  |    48      |  152    |  200   |
    | Empty Shells, 10 inch            |    48      |  352    |  400   |
    | Iron Shot, 1 lb.                 |  1000      | 4000    | 5000   |
    | Fixed Shells, 10 inch            |    48      |    —    |   48   |
    | Case Shot, 68 Prs. Carronades    |    20      |   20    |   40   |
    | Empty Shells,8 in. for Carronades|    52      |  100    |  152   |
    | Shot, round, 68 Prs.             |    50      |   50    |  100   |
    | Carcasses, do. 68 Prs.           |    96      |  104    |  200   |
    +----------------------------------+------------+---------+--------+
    |Shot, round,          18 Prs.     |   300      |    —    |  300   |
    |Case Shot,            18 Prs.     |    30      |   30    |   60   |
    |Carcasses, do. fixed, 18 Prs.     |   150      |  150    |  300   |
    |Hand Shells, fixed, sea service   |     —      |  150    |  150   |
    |Fuzes for do. spare               |     —      |   15    |   15   |
    |Paper Covers for cart’ges, 10 in. |   106      |  609    |  715   |
    |  ”     ”     ”     ”    , 68 Pr. |   293      |  301    |  594   |
    |  ”     ”     ”     ”    , 18 Pr. |   258      |  198    |  726   |
    |                                  |            |         |        |
    |Flannel Cartridges,}              |            |         |        |
    |  empty, for 10 in.} to hold 5lbs.|   106      |    —    |  106   |
    |  mortars          }    do. 10lbs.|     —      |  609    |  609   |
    |                                  |            |         |        |
    |Flannel Cartridges, }             |            |         |        |
    |  empty, for 68 Prs.} to hold 5lbs|   293      |  151    |  594   |
    |  carronades        }     do. 4lbs|     —      |  150    |        |
    |                                  |            |         |        |
    |Flannel Cartridges, empty, for  } |            |         |        |
    |  18 Prs. to hold 1½ lbs.       } |   528      |  148    |  726   |
    |                                  |            |         |        |
    |Paper Cartridges, for bursting, } |            |         |        |
    |  10 inches, empty              } |     —      |  352    |  352   |
    |                                  |            |         |        |
    |Paper Cartridges, for bursting, } |            |         |        |
    |  8 inches, empty               } |     —      |  100    |  100   |
    |Do. filled with 2lb. 10 oz.       |            |         |        |
    |    for 10 in.                    |    48      |    —    |   48   |
    |Do. filled with 1 ”  14 ”         |    52      |    —    |   52   |
    |    for 8 in.                     |            |         |        |
    |Fuzes, drove, 10 inch             |    57      |  388    |  445   |
    |  ”       ”    8   ”              |    57      |  110    |  167   |
    |----------------------------------+------------+---------+--------+
    |   Valencience composition        |            |         |        |
    |        200 for 10 in. shells,    |            |         |        |
    |            at 14 oz. each, lbs.  |     —      |  175    |  175   |
    |        768 for 10 in. shells,    |            |         |        |
    |            at 9 oz. each, lbs.   |     —      |   42    |   42   |
    |----------------------------------+------------+---------+--------+
    |Tube Boxes, tin                   |    12      |    —    |   12   |
    |Fuze composition, for priming }   |            |         |        |
    |  carcasses, lbs.             }   |     —      |   10    |   10   |
    |                                  |            |         |        |
    |Powder bags                       |     —      |    6    |    6   |
    |Portfires                         |     —      |  200    |  200   |
    |Quick Match, cotton, lbs.         |     —      |   20    |   20   |
    |Spirits of Wine, gals.            |     —      |    4    |    4   |
    |Kitt                    lbs.      |     —      |   80    |   80   |
    |Bottoms of wood, 10 inch.         |    10      |   40    |   50   |
    |Signal Rockets, 1 lb.         doz.|     —      |    2    |    2   |
    |Blue Lights,                   ”  |     —      |    3    |    3   |
    |Gunpowder for the mortars and }   |            |         |        |
    |  carronades, half barrels    }   |    72      |  150    |  222   |
    |Powder for priming,  do.          |     —      |    1    |    1   |
    |Powder for bursting, do.          |     —      |   28    |   28   |
    |  with all the small articles     |            |         |        |
    |  which usually attend mortars    |            |         |        |
    |  on every service, and the       |            |         |        |
    |  articles necessary for the      |            |         |        |
    |  service of carronades at sea.   |            |         |        |
    |Laboratory Chests, 4 feet         |     —      |    2    |    2   |
    |     ”        ”  , 3 feet         |     —      |    2    |    2   |
    |Handpumps for wetting the         |            |         |        |
    |       rigging, &c.               |    6       |    —    |    6   |
    |Leather Buckets                   |   24       |    —    |   24   |
    +----------------------------------+------------+---------+--------+


_BREACH._—The batteries to make a breach, should commence by marking
out as near as possible, the extent of the breach intended to be
made; first, by a horizontal line within a fathom of the bottom of
the revetement in a dry ditch, and close to the water’s edge in a wet
one; and then by lines perpendicular to this line, at short distances
from each other, as high as the cordon; then, by continuing to deepen
all these cuts, the wall will give way in a body. The guns to produce
the greatest effect should be fired as near as possible in _salvos_ or
vollies. The breach should be ⅓ the length of the face, from the center
towards the flanked angle. When the wall has given way, the firing must
be continued to make the slope of the breach practicable.

Four 24 Pounders from the lodgement in the covert way will effect a
breach in 4 or 5 days, which may be made practicable in 3 days more.

Another way of making a breach is by piercing the wall sufficiently to
admit two or three miners, who cross the ditch, and make their entry
during the night into the wall, where they establish two or three small
mines, sufficient to make a breach.—See _Artillery at a Siege_; see
also _Battery_.


_BRIDGES.—Manner of laying a Pontoon Bridge across a River._

The bank on each side, where the ends of the bridge are to be, must
be made solid and firm, by means of fascines, or otherwise. One end
of the cable must be carried across the river; and being fixed to a
picket, or any thing firm, must be drawn tight by means of a capstan,
across where the heads of the boats are to be ranged. The boats are
then launched, having on board each two men, and the necessary ropes,
&c. and are floated _down_ the stream, under the cable, to which they
are lashed endwise, by the rings and small ropes, at equal distances,
and about their own breadth asunder; more or less, according to the
strength required. If the river be very rapid, a second cable must be
stretched across it, parallel to the first, and at the distance of the
length of the boats; and to which the other ends of the boats must be
lashed. The spring lines are then lashed diagonally from one boat to
the other, to brace them tight; and the anchors, if necessary, carried
out, up the stream, and fixed to the cable or sheer-line across the
river. One of the chesses is then laid on the edge of the bank, at each
end of the bridge, bottom up; these serve to lay the ends of the baulks
upon, and as a direction for placing them at the proper distances, to
fit the chesses that cover the bridge. The baulks should then be laid
across the boats, and keyed together: their numbers proportioned to
the strength required in the bridge. If the gangboards are laid across
the heads and sterns of the boats from one side of the river to the
other, they will give the men a footing for doing the rest of the work.
Across the baulks are laid the chesses, one after another, the edges to
meet; and the baulks running between the cross pieces on the under side
of the chesses. The gangboards are then laid across the ends of the
chesses on each edge of the bridge.


_Precautions for passing a Bridge of Boats._

Whatever size the bridge may be, infantry should never be allowed to
pass at the same time with carriages or cavalry. The carriages should
always move at a certain distance behind each other, that the bridge
may not be shook, by being overloaded. The horses should not be allowed
to trot over the bridge; and the cavalry should dismount and lead their
horses over. Large flocks of cattle must not be allowed to cross at
once.

For the dimensions, weight, and equipage of a pontoon, see the word
_Pontoon_.

When bridges are made to facilitate the communication between different
parts of the approaches at a siege, they should, if possible, be placed
above the town; or the besieged will take advantage of the current
to float down large trees, or other bodies, in order to destroy the
bridge. Two of such bridges should always be placed close to each
other, in order to prevent the confusion of crossing and recrossing on
the same bridge; the one being intended to pass over one way, and the
other to return. Pontoon bridges will generally not support a greater
weight than 4 or 5,000 pounds. Pontoons, when united as a bridge, will
no doubt bear more in proportion, than when acted upon separately: but
the weight which a pontoon will bear may be easily ascertained, by
loading it with water till it sinks to any required depth, and then by
calculating the number of cubic feet of water it contains, ascertain
the number of pounds required to sink it to that particular depth.


_CAMP._—With some trifling variations, camps are formed after the same
manner in all countries. This principle seems general, that there
should not be more ground occupied by the camp of a body of men, in
front, than the extent of their line when drawn out in order of battle.
Intervals are however generally left between battalions of infantry
of about one eighth their front, and between squadrons of cavalry of
thirty or forty paces. An army is sometimes encamped in two lines, and
sometimes in three; the distance between the lines varies according to
the face of the country, from 200 to 600 yards, or more.

In the distribution of the front of a camp, two feet are generally
allowed for every file of infantry, and three feet for each file of
cavalry. When the ground will admit of it, the infantry are usually
arranged in rows perpendicular to the front; each row containing the
tents of one company; and the cavalry in the same position, each
perpendicular row containing the horses of a troop.

The grenadiers and light infantry are usually placed in single rows on
the flanks, and the battalion companies in double rows.

A single row, or one company, occupies in front, nine feet; and a
double row, or two companies, twenty one feet, if formed of the old
pattern rectangular tents, which hold only five men each. But if the
new bell tents are used, 15 feet must be allowed for a single row, and
30 feet for a double row in front.

In the cavalry, a row or troop occupies in front as follow:

                            Old Tents.  New Tents.
    Tent                    3 yards,    5 yards.
    From the front pole  }
      of the tent to     }  3           3
      picket rope        }
    For the horse           6           6
    For the dung            2           2
                           ——          ——
                           14 yards.   16 yards.

The breadth of a row in front, whether of infantry or cavalry, being
multiplied by the number of rows, and the product subtracted from the
whole extent of front for a battalion of infantry, or a squadron of
cavalry, will leave the space for the streets, which are generally
divided as follows:

    For the infantry, 59½ feet each.
    For the cavalry,  30 feet each between the tents.
     ”   ”     ”       46 feet  ”     ”    horses.


_The following is the Distribution of the Depth of a Camp of Infantry
or Cavalry, when the Ground permits._

         _Distribution of the Depth of a Camp._  |_Infantry._|_Cavalry._
     --------------------------------------------+-----------+----------
                                                 |   Yards   |   Yards
                                                 |           |
     From the quarter-guard parade to the        |           |
       line of parade of battalion               |     62    |
                                                 |           |
     From this first line of parade to the       |           |
       front of the  {Serjeant’s tents           |     16    |
                     {quarter master’s           |      —    |     24
       _N. B. These tents open to the front._    |           |
                                                 |           |
     To the first picket of horses               |      —    |      5
                                                 |           |
     Infantry: for every tent in depth           |           |
         ”     old pattern, 9 feet               |           |
         ”     new pattern, 15 feet              |           |
                                                 |           |
     Cavalry: for every horse, 3 feet            |           |
                                                 |           |
       _The soldiers tents for the infantry open_|           |
       _to the streets. The cavalry tents front_ |           |
       _to the horses heads._                    |           |
                                                 |           |
     Suppose infantry 12 tents deep  } o. pat.   |     36    |     60
        ”    cavalry, 60 horses      }           |           |
                                                 |           |
     From the last tent of infantry, or the      |           |
       last horse of the cavalry, to the front   |           |
       of the subalterns’ tents                  |     15    |     12
                                                 |           |
             _These tents open to the rear._     |           |
                                                 |           |
     To the front of the line of captains        |     15    |     15
     _These open to the front. The captains, and_|           |
     _subalterns in the rear of their troops or_ |           |
     _companies._                                |           |
                                                 |           |
     To the front of the field officers          |     10    |     15
       _Open to the front, opposite the outside_ |           |
        _street of the battalion._               |           |
                                                 |           |
     To the colonel’s                            |     10    |     10
       _Opens to the front, opposite the main_   |           |
        _street of the battalion._               |           |
     --------------------------------------------+-----------+---------
     To the staff officers                       |     10    |     14
       _Open up the streets next the main street_|           |
     To the first row of batmen’s tents          |     10    |
       _The batmen’s tents front their horses._    |           |
     To the first row of pickets for bat         |           |     15
       horses                                    |      2    |
     To the second row of ditto                  |     10    |
     To the second row of batmen                 |      2    |
     To the front of the grand sutler’s tent     |     10    |
     _The grand sutler is in the rear of_        |           |
          _the colonel._                         |           |
     --------------------------------------------+-----------+---------
     To the center of the kitchens               |     15    |     20
     _The kitchens are 16 feet in diameter._     |           |
                                                 |           |
     To the front of the petty sutlers           |     15    |     15
    _Directly in the rear of the kitchens: there_|           |
       _are allowed 6 yards in front by 8 deep._ |           |
                                                 |           |
     To the rear guard                           |     15    |     15
     _Opens to the rear._                        |           |
                                                 +-----------+---------
                    Total depth required Yards   |    253    |    220

If the ground on which the camp is to be formed will not, from a swamp
in the rear, or any other circumstance, admit of each troop or company
being formed in one row perpendicular to the front; the distribution of
the front of a battalion or squadron must be more contracted than the
above, and laid out as follows: Find how many perpendicular rows will
be required, by dividing the number of men in the battalion or squadron
by the number the ground will admit of in one row; then the number
of rows being multiplied by the breadth of one in front, will give
that part of the front to be occupied by the rows; and the difference
between it and the whole front allowed for the battalion or squadron,
will be left for the streets; which, if the streets are to be equal,
must be divided by their number, to find the breadth of each; or is
otherwise easily divided into streets of unequal breadths. When two
guns are attached to a battalion, they are posted on the right in the
following order: from the right of battalion to the center of the first
gun, four yards—from this to the second gun, 6 yards.—The muzzles of
the guns in a line with the serjeants’ tents.

The subaltern of artillery, if any, in a line with the subalterns of
infantry.—The rear of the gunner’s tents in a line with the rear of the
battalion tents.

For the proper positions for camps, see the word _Reconnoitering_; and
for the encampment of a park of artillery, see the word _Park_.




_CARCASSES.—Composition._


    Saltpetre      50 parts.
    Sulphur        25
    Antimony        5
    Rosin           8
    Pitch           5

Valencienne’s composition, so called, from its having been used by the
Austrians at the siege of that place, has the effect of making shells
answer the purpose of carcasses after they burst:

    Saltpetre                 50 parts.
    Sulphur                   28
    Antimony                  18
    Rosin, or Swedish pitch    6

This composition is cast in copper cylindric moulds of 6 inches long,
and of different diameters according to the shell in which it is to be
used. It must be put in along with the bursting powder in pieces as
large as the shell will admit, without preventing the fuze being driven
down.


_CARCASSES._—Their Dimensions and Weight, 1796.

    +--------------+----------------------------------------+---------+
    |              |                  Weight.               | _Time_  |
    |              +------------+------------+--------------+ _each_  |
    |     Nature.  |    Empty.  |     Of     |  Complete.   | _will_  |
    |              |            |Composition.|              | _burn._ |
    +--------------+------------+------------+--------------+---------+
    |_Round_, for  |lbs. oz. dr.|lbs. oz. dr.|lbs.  oz.  dr.|   Min.  |
    |Mortars    13 |194  10  11 | 18  14   — |213    8   16 |    11   |
    |and        10 | 89  13  11 |  7   8  11 | 97    6   11 |     8½  |
    |How’rs.     8 | 44   9   5 |  4   4  11 | 48   14    — |     5½  |
    +--------------+------------+------------+--------------+---------+
    |           42 | 27   3   — |  2   7  11 | 29   10   11 |     5   |
    |  For      32 | 20  13   5 |  1  14   5 | 22   11   11 |     4½  |
    |  Guns     24 | 14  12   — |  1   9  11 | 16    5   11 |     4   |
    |           18 | 11  13  11 |  1   1   5 | 12   15    — |     4   |
    +--------------+------------+------------+--------------+---------+
    |           68 |  —   —   — |  —   —   — |              |         |
    |   For     42 | 26   —   — |  2   7   — | 28    7    — |     4½  |
    |Carronades 32 | 21  10   — |  1  13   — | 23    7    — |     4   |
    |           24 | 14   5   — |  2   5   — | 16   10    — |     3½  |
    |           18 | 10   4   — |  1   2   — | 11    6    — |     3   |
    +--------------+------------+------------+--------------+---------+
    |_Oblong_, for |            |            |              |         |
    |Mortars    10 | 36   7   5 | 35  10   — | 72    1    5 |    12   |
    |  and       8 | 16   5   5 | 18   2   — | 34    7    5 |    10   |
    |How’rs.    5½ |  1  12   2 |  6  15   — |  8   11    3 |     6   |
    |           4⅖ |  1   0   6 |  3  11   7 |  4   11   13 |     4   |
    +--------------+------------+------------+--------------+---------+

NOTE. It being found at the siege of Quebec, that the quantity of
powder requisite for throwing the carcasses into the town, always
destroyed them, the method of filling the interval between the powder
and carcass with turf was adopted; and found to preserve the carcass,
and to produce every desired effect.


_CARRONADES._—Their Weight and Dimensions.

    +----------+---------+----------------+------------+---------------+
    |          |Diameter |   Length in    |   Weight.  | _Proportion   |
    | Nature.  |of Bores.+---------+------+------------+betw’n the Shot|
    |          |         |Ft. In.  |Calib.|cwt. qr. lb.|and Carronade._|
    +----------+---------+---------+------+------------+---------------+
    |68   Prs. |  8.05   | 5  2    | 7.702| 36   —   — |    59 to 1    |
    |      ”   |         | 4  0    | 5.962| 29   —   — |               |
    +----------+---------+---------+------+------------+---------------+
    |42    ”   |  6.84   | 4  3½   | 7.518| 22   1   — |    58 to 1    |
    |32    ”   |  6.35   | 4  0½   | 7.679| 17   —  14 |    62 to 1    |
    +----------+---------+---------+------+------------+---------------+
    |24    ”   |  5.68   | 3  7½   | 7.656| 13   —   — |    56 to 1    |
    |          |         | 3  0    | 6.336| 11   2  25 |               |
    +----------+---------+---------+------+------------+---------------+
    |18    ”   |  5.16   | 3  3    | 7.587|  9   —   — |    56 to 1    |
    |          |         | 2  4    | 5.447|  8   1  25 |               |
    +----------+---------+---------+------+------------+---------------+
    |12    ”   |  4.52   | 2  2    | 5.778|  5   3  10 |    56 to 1    |
    +----------+---------+---------+------+------------+---------------+

_N. B._ Carronades have not so much windage as guns. See _Windage_.

Ranges with Carronades, 1798. The charge is ¹/₁₂ the weight of the shot
and with one shot and one wad. The line of fire from 6 to 9 feet above
the level of the water.

    +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |Nature. |   68   |   42   |   32   |   24   |   18   |   12   |
    +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |Charge. |5lb 8oz |3lb 8oz |2lb 10oz|  2lb   |1lb 8oz |1lb 10oz|
    +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |        | Yards  |        |        |        |        |        |
    |P. Blank|  450   |  400   |  330   |  300   |  270   |  230   |
    |1 Degree|  650   |  600   |  560   |  500   |  470   |  400   |
    |2   ”   |  890   |  860   |  830   |  780   |  730   |  690   |
    |3   ”   | 1000   |  980   |  900   |  870   |  800   |  740   |
    |4   ”   | 1100   | 1020   |  970   |  920   |  870   |  810   |
    |5   ”   | 1180   | 1170   | 1087   | 1050   | 1000   |  870   |
    +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

NOTE.—The highest charge for carronades is ⅛ the weight of the shot;
the lowest ¹/₁₆.

Ranges with 8 inch shells, from 68 Pr. carronades.

    +---------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+
    |  Shells |       |       |          |First |Extreme|
    |  Weight |Charge.|Flight.|Elevation.|graze.|range. |
    +---------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+
    |         | 3 lbs.|  1½   |   P. B.  |  302 |  1365 |
    |lbs. oz. | 3  ”  |   —   |  5 Deg.  | 1140 |       |
    | 43  11  | 4  ”  |  1½   |  1  ”    |  358 |  1843 |
    |         | ”  ”  |  5    |  5  ”    | 1137 |  1250 |
    |         | ”  ”  |  ”    | 11½ ”    | 1767 |       |
    +---------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+


_CARRIAGE._—Weight of Field Carriages at present in use.

      _Horse Artillery Carriages._          cwts. qrs. lbs.|cwts. qrs. lbs.
    -----------------------------------------+-------------+------------
    12 Prs. gun and carriage complete for    |             |
       service, with two men, and their      |             | 45   0   14
       their appointments on the limber,     |             |
       and 16 rounds of ammunition.          |             |
    -----------------------------------------+-------------+------------
    Ammunition waggon for do.                |             |
      complete, with two men on the limber   |             | 33   3    0
      and 1 spare  wheel, 2 spare shafts,    |             |
      78 rounds of ammunition                |             |
    -----------------------------------------+-------------+=-----------
    6 Prs. equipped as above, with 42 rounds |             | 34   1   21
    Ammunition waggon as above, 108 rounds   |             | 39   0   21
    -----------------------------------------+-------------+------------
    5½ Inch howitzer, equipped as above,     |             |
       with 20 rounds                        |             | 35   3    0
    -----------------------------------------+-------------+------------
    Ammunition waggon for do.                |             |
      as above, with 52 rounds               |             | 39   2    0
    -----------------------------------------+-------------+------------
    Forge waggon, complete for travelling    |             | 19   2   14
    Large tilted baggage waggon, empty       |             | 18   3    0
    Equipage to be carried                   |             | 12   0    0
    12 Prs. Med. gun, carriage, without boxes| 16    1  21 |
    Limber to do.                            |  7    2  14 | 42  —    7
    Gun                                      | 18    —   — |
    -----------------------------------------+-------------+------------
    12 Pr. light gun                         | 12    —   — |
    Carriage complete                        | 12    3   7 | 36   2   21
    Limber, with empty boxes                 | 12    3  14 |
    -----------------------------------------+-------------+------------
    6 Prs. Desaguliers                       | 12    —   — |
    Carriage complete                        | 11    —  14 | 34   1   13
    Limber, to do. empty boxes               | 11    —  27 |
    -----------------------------------------+-------------+------------
    6 Prs. light battalion gun               |  6    —   — |
    Carriage without boxes, iron axletrees   |  9    2   — | 24   1   21
    Limber, with empty boxes                 |  8    3  21 |
    -----------------------------------------+-------------+------------
    5½ Inch howitzer, light                  |  4    3   7 |
    Carriage, without boxes                  | 10    —   7 | 24   —   14
    Limber, with empty boxes                 |  9    1   — |
    -----------------------------------------+-------------+------------
    24 Prs. platform travelling carriage     | 22    3   — |
    Standing carriage for do. iron trucks,   |             |
      and tackles of the carriage            | 13    3  16 | 84   2   16
    Iron gun                                 | 48    —   — |
    -----------------------------------------+-------------+------------
    Ball cartridge waggon, Duke of Richmond’s|             |
      pattern, with spare pole and swingle   | 16    1  17 |
      trees                                  |             | 36   1   17
    Charge of musquet ammunition             | 20    —   — |
    -----------------------------------------+-------------+------------
    Common pattern ammunition waggon, altered| 16    2   — |
    Charge of ammunition                     | 20    —   — | 36   2    —
    -----------------------------------------+-------------+------------
    New infantry ammunition cart             |  9    1  14 |
    Charge of ammunition                     | 12    —   — | 21   1   14
    -----------------------------------------+-------------+------------
    Common sling cart, complete              | 17    1  14 |
    Common truck carriage                    | 12    2  21 |
    Common hand cart                         |  4    1   — |
    Forge waggon, complete                   | 13    2  14 |

Dimensions of certain parts of carriages, the knowledge of which
may prevent many mistakes in arranging the different pieces for
disembarkation, or in other similar situations.


_Axletrees._—Most of the field carriages are now made with _iron_
axletrees; the dimensions of which are as follows:

    +--------------------+----------------+--------------------------+
    |                    |   Diameter of  |                          |
    |  Iron Axletrees.   |    the arm.    |      Length of arm.      |
    |                    +---------+------+---------+------+---------+
    |                    |         |      | Box, or |      | Total   |
    |                    | At the  |At the|   Nave  |Washer|length to|
    |                    |Shoulder.|Point.|   part. | part.|linchpin.|
    +--------------------+---------+------+---------+------+---------+
    |                    |   Inch. | Inch.|   Inch  | Inch |   Inch. |
    |6 Pr. Light         |         |      |         |      |         |
    |3 Pr. Heavy         |         |      |         |      |         |
    |5½ Inch Howitzer    |         |      |         |      |         |
    |Ammuni. Waggon      |         |      |         |      |         |
    |Ball cartridge do.  |         |      |         |      |         |
    |  whether horse     |   2¾    |  1¾  |    13   |  ⅝   |    13⅝  |
    |  artillery or the  |         |      |         |      |         |
    |  park, whether     |         |      |         |      |         |
    |  limber or carriage|         |      |         |      |         |
    +--------------------+---------+------+---------+------+---------+
    |Light 12 Pounder    |         |      |         |      |         |
    |  and limber        |   3¼    |  2¼  |    16   |  ¾   |  16¾    |
    +--------------------+---------+------+---------+------+---------+
    |Medium 12 Pr.       |   3½    |  2½  |    16   |  ¾   |  16¾    |
    |Limber to do.       |   2¾    |  2   |    13   |  ⅝   |  13⅝    |
    +--------------------+----------------+---------+------+---------+

    +----------------+-----------------------++------------------------+
    |                |        Carriage.      ||         Limber.        |
    |      Wood      +-----------------------++------------------------+
    |    Axletrees.  |   Di. of arm.  |Length||    Di. of arm.  |Length|
    |                +---------+------+  of  |+---------+-------+  of  |
    |                |   At    | At   | Nave.||   At    |  At   | Nave.|
    |                |Shoulder.|Point.|      ||Shoulder.| Point.|      |
    +----------------+---------+------+------++---------+-------+------+
    |                |  Inch.  | Inch.| Inch ||  Inch   | Inch. | Inch.|
    |24 Prs. Heavy   |  7      | 4.9  | 18   ||  6      | 3.3   | 16   |
    |12 Prs. Med.    |  6      | 4    | 16   ||  6      | 4     | 12   |
    |6 Prs. Des’rs.  |  5½     | 3½   | 13½  ||  5½     | 3½    | 13½  |
    |6 Prs. Light    |  5      | 3    | 13   ||  5      | 3     | 13   |
    |3 Prs. Des’rs.  |  2½     | 1¼   |      ||  2½     | 1¼    |      |
    |3 Prs. Light    |         |      |      ||         |       |      |
    |Howitzer, 8 In. |  6½     |      | 17   ||  5½     |       | 15   |
    |   ”    , 5½ In.|  5½     |      | 13   ||  4¼     |       | 11½  |
    |   ”    , 4⅖ In.|  4½     |      | 12   ||  4      |       | 10   |
    +----------------+---------+------+------++---------+-------+------+
    |                |          Fore         ||           Hind         |
    +----------------+---------+------+------++---------+-------+------+
    |Ammunition      |         |      |      ||         |       |      |
    |  waggon, with  |  5      | 2.9  | 14   ||  5      | 2.9   | 13   |
    |  folding sides |         |      |      ||         |       |      |
    +----------------+---------+------+------++---------+-------+------+
    |Close bodied    |         |      |      ||         |       |      |
    |  ammunition    |  5      | 3.3  | 14   ||  5      | 2.9   | 14   |
    |  waggon        |         |      |      ||         |       |      |
    +----------------+---------+------+------++---------+-------+------+


_Diameter of the Wheels of the Field Carriages at present in Use_:

                                                Diameter.
    All the horse artillery carriages, limbers,
      and waggons; the heavy 6 Prs. and long
      3 Prs. and their limbers; the carriage
      of a 6 Pr. battalion gun, and a light     5 feet
      5½ inch howitzer; the hind wheels of a
      common ammunition waggon

    Limber to light 6 Pr. and 5½ howitzer,      4 ft.  8 in.
    Med. 12 Pr.—limber, 4 ft. 6 in.—carriage,   4 ft.  8 in.
    Sling cart                                  5 ft.  8 in.
    Fore wheels of an ammunition waggon,        4 feet.


    Pontoon carriage          Fore              3 feet.
                              Hind              5 ft.  6 in.

    8 Inch Howitzer           Limber            4 feet.
                              Carriage          5 feet.

    Ball Ammunition Cart                        5 feet.

    24 Prs. Platform Carriage Fore              4 feet.
                              Hind              4 ft.  2 in.


_Dimensions and Weight of Standing Gun Carriages._

    +--------------------+------+------+------+-----+--------+------+
    |      Nature.       |  32  |  24  |  18  |  12 |   9    |  6   |
    +--------------------+------+------+------+-----+--------+------+
    |                    |Ft.in.|Ft.in.|Ft.in.|Ft.in|Ft.in.  |Ft.in.|
    |Axletrees,}         |      |      |      |     |        |      |
    |  length  }         | 4  9 | 4  7 | 4  3 | 3  9| 3  6½  | 3  4 |
    |                    |      |      |      |     |        |      |
    |Side pieces,}       |      |      |      |     |        |      |
    |  length    }       | 6  4 | 6  0 | 5  9 | 5  6| 5  3   | 5  0 |
    |                    |      |      |      |     |        |      |
    |Whole heighth     } |      |      |      |     |        |      |
    |  to trunnion beds} | 2  9 | 2  7 | 2  6 | 2  3| 2  1   | 2  0 |
    |                    |      |      |      |     |        |      |
    |Weight of carriage,}|ct.qr.|ct.qr.|ct.qr.|ct.qr|ct.qr.  |ct.qr.|
    |  bed & coins      }| 9  0 | 8  0 | 7  0 | 6  0| 3  3   | 2  3 |
    +--------------------+------+------+------+-----+--------+------+

_Carriages_ on a march. See _Marching_.

For wood of which carriages are made, see the word _Wood_.


_CARTRIDGES_ for guns.

    +-----------------+--------------+----------+---------------+
    |                 |   Weight of  |          |    Tonnage.   |
    | Of paper        |     one      | Length.  | Nᵒ. packed in |
    |                 |    Dozen.    |          |   ¾ Ton Vat.  |
    +-----------------+--------------+----------+---------------+
    |    Pounders.    | lbs. oz. dr. | Ft. In.  |  Number.      |
    | 42    ”         |  3    0   0  |  2   4   |    1000       |
    | 32    ”         |  3    0   0  |  2   4   |    1100       |
    | 24    ”         |  3    0   0  |  2   4   |    1400       |
    | 18    ”         |  2   14   0  |  2   4   |    1500       |
    | 12    ”         |  2    4   0  |  2   4   |    1600       |
    |  9    ”         |  2    4   0  |  2   4   |    1800       |
    |  6    ”         |  1    5   0  |  2   0   |    2000       |
    |  4    ”         |  1    1   0  |  1   7   |    2200       |
    |  3    ”         |  1    1   0  |  1   7   |    2200       |
    |    Of Flannel.  |              |          |               |
    | 42 and 32       |  2    2   0  |  2   3   | The tonnage   |
    |     { Heavy     |  1   12   0  |  1  10   | of flannel    |
    | 24  { Medium    |  1    6   0  |  1   5   | cartridges is |
    |     { Light     |  1    1   8  |  1   0   | ⅕ more than   |
    | 18  ——          |  1    6   0  |  2   3   | that of paper.|
    |     { Heavy     |  1    3   0  |  1   6   |               |
    | 12  { Medium    |  0   11   0  |  1   2   |               |
    |     { Light     |  0    8   0  |  0  10   |               |
    |  9  ——          |  0   10   0  |  1   4   |               |
    |     { Heavy     |  0   14   0  |  1   1   |               |
    |  6  { Medium    |      ——      |    ——    |               |
    |     { Light     |  0    5   0  |  0   9½  |               |
    |  3  ——          |  0    6   0  |  0   8   |               |
    | 13 Inch Mortar  |  1    2   8  |  1   6   |               |
    | 10   ”    ”     |  0   10   8  |  1   1½  |               |
    |  8   ”    ”     |  0    7   0  |  1   0   |               |
    |  5½  ”    ”     |  0    4   0  |  0   9   |               |
    |  4⅖  ”    ”     |  0    3   0  |  0   7   |               |
    |  8  In. Howitzer|  0   10   8  |  1   1½  |               |
    |  5½  ”     ”    |  0    4   8  |  0   9½  |               |
    |  4⅖  ”     ”    |  0    4   0  |  0   9½  |               |
    +-----------------+--------------+----------+---------------+


_Cartridges_ for small arms.

    =(A)= = Powder contained in each Cartridge.
    =(B)= = Nᵒ. of each tied in one Bundle.
    +-----------+-----+-----+--------------+-------------------+-------+
    |           |     |     |Nᵒ. contained |   Weight of one   |1 Sheet|
    |   Nature  |     |     |in one Barrel.|   Barrel filled   |  of   |
    |           |=(A)=|=(B)=+------+-------+-----------+-------+ Paper |
    |           |     |     |Whole.| Half. |   Whole.  | Half. | makes |
    +-----------+-----+-----+------+-------+-----------+-------+-------+
    |           | drms|  Nᵒ.| Nᵒ.  | Nᵒ.   |Ct. qr. lb.|qr. lb.| Nᵒ.   |
    |           |     |     |      |       |           |       |       |
    |Wall pieces| 10  |   6 | 1400 |  500  | 2   2  19 | 3  24 |   6   |
    |Musquet    |  6  |  10 | 2100 | 1000  | 1   3  10 | 3  24 |  12   |
    |Carbine    |  4  |  10 | 2853 | 1500  | 1   3   7 | 3  26 |  16   |
    |Do. pistol |  3  |  10 | 4400 | 1500  | 1   3  17 | 3  21 |  24   |
    |Com. pistol|  3  |  10 |      | 2000  |           | 3  11 |  24   |
    |7 Bar. guns|  1½ |  14 |      | 1000  |           |       |       |
    |           |     |     |      |in kegs|           |       |       |
    +-----------+-----+-----+------+-------+-----------+-------+-------+


Musquet _Cartridges_, by different powers in Europe.

    +----------+---------------------------+
    |          |         Weight of         |
    |          +-------------+-------------+
    |          |    Powder   | Cartridges, |
    |          |             |  complete   |
    +----------+-------------+-------------+
    |          | oz. dr. gr. | oz. dr. gr. |
    |English.  |  0   6   0  |  1   9  11  |
    |Hessian.  |  0   7  10  |  1   7   2  |
    |Austrian. |  0   6  13  |  1   6   4  |
    |Dutch.    |  0  10  10½ |  1  12   4  |
    |French.   |  0   7   4½ |  1   6   0  |
    +----------+-------------+-------------+


_CASE SHOT._ See _Shot_.


_CHAMBERS._—In 1787 and 1789 experiments were made at Woolwich with an
8 inch mortar, with four shifting chambers, to ascertain which form
gives the longest range.

The chambers were all of the same capacity, viz. 63.7 cubic inches, and
contained two pounds of powder. Their forms were:

1st. Common conical chamber with the circular bottom.

2d. The same reversed.

3d. The cylindric chamber with circular bottom.

4th. The spheric chamber.

The ranges were the medium of 6 rounds; from them it appears, that when
the spheric chamber is filled with powder, it has the advantage in
point of range; but when smaller charges are used, its ranges are found
to be shorter than those of other forms. The conical (No. 1.) chamber
of the present establishment gives the longest range under other
circumstances.


_CHARGES._


_Charges for Field Guns._

                                             lbs.
    12 Prs. Medium and Heavy for Round Shot   4
     ”  ”     ”     ”    ”    ”  Case   ”     3½
    12 Prs. Light             ”  Round  ”     3
     ”  ”     ”               ”  Case   ”     3
    6 Prs. Desaguliers        ”  Round  ”     2¼
    ”  ”         ”            ”  Case   ”     2
    6 Prs. Medium             ”  Round  ”     2
    ”  ”     ”                ”  Case   ”
    6 Prs. Light              ”  Round  ”     1½
     ”  ”    ”                ”  Case   ”     1¼
    3 Prs. Heavy              ”  Round  ”     1
    ”  ”     ”                ”  Case   ”
    3 Prs. Light              ”  Round  ”    12 oz.

The charge for battering guns is ⅓ the weight of the round shot, for
round shot, and ¼ of it for case shot.

The charge for carronades is usually ¹/₁₂ the weight of the shot. The
highest is ⅛, and the lowest ¹/₁₆.

By the experiments made at Woolwich in March 1801, it is recommended,
that when cylinder powder is used on service, the charges of field
ordnance with round shot, shall be reduced to the usual quantities
for case shot. The same experiments recommend, that the thickness or
length of the wood bottom be varied, in order to change the position of
the shot, and thereby save the bore; and that the paper cap which is
usually thrown away on service, shall be put over the shot before it is
introduced into the piece.

For charges for small arms see the word Cartridges.


_Charges of French Guns in French Weights._

             lbs.
    24 Prs.   8  } Siege
    16 Prs.   5½ }

    12 Prs.   4  }
     8 Prs.   2½ } Field   { ¼ less for
     4 Prs.   1½ }         { Case Shot.


_CHEVAUX DE FRIZE._—The _body_ or _beam_ of a chevaux de frize is
generally made 9 feet long, and 6 inches square, and weighs 41 lbs. The
_spears_ are 33 in number, weighing 2 lb. each, are 5 feet long, and 1¼
inches square. They are placed 9½ inches asunder.


_COMPOSITION._—For the composition of fuzes, portfires, tubes,
carcasses, see those words.

    _Composition for Kitt.    For Fire Balls_, 1794.
              lbs.                            lbs. oz.
      Rosin    9               Rosin           5   8
      Pitch    6               Sulphur         3   0
      Beeswax  6               Allum powder    1   8
      Tallow   1               Starch, ”       0   8
                               Saltpetre       4   6
                               Mealed powder   8   0
                               Linseed oil     ¼ pint.
                               Oil of spike    1 pint.

      _Bengal Lights._

    _First_ Composition.
                 lbs.  oz.
    Saltpetre     7     0
    Sulphur       1    12
    Red orpiment  0     8

    _Second_ Composition.

               lbs.  oz.
    Saltpetre   2     4
    Sulphur     0     8
    Antimony    0     4
    Orpiment    0     1½


    _Light Balls._

    Nitre    40 parts
    Sulphur  15
    Antimony  3
    Pitch     3

This composition to be carefully fused, and cast into the shape of
balls, which when cold will be sufficiently hard to be fired from a
small mortar.

    Composition for _Suffocating Pots_.

        Sulphur  6 parts
        Nitre    5

This composition when intimately mixed, to be rammed into wooden boxes,
and primed in the usual way.

This composition will answer for fumigation.

    _Chinese_ or _White Light_.

    Nitre from  50 to 60 parts
    Sulphur     16 to 20
    Antimony     5
    Orpiment     8 to 10

    For _Smoke Balls_.

                  lbs.
    Corned powder  10
    Saltpetre       2
    Pitch           4
    Seacoal         3
    Tallow          1

    For _Fire Hoops, Fire Arrows_, and _Fire Lances_.

                     lbs. oz.
    Mealed powder     1    0
    Saltpetre         3    0
    Flour of sulphur  0    8
    Linseed oil       ½ pint.

     _Composition_ to fill cases for
    _setting fire to Fascine Batteries_.

                  lbs.  oz.
    Mealed powder  1     4
    Saltpetre      6     0
    Sulphur        1     8

All dry compositions must be well mixed; first by the hands, and then
passed several times through fine hair sieves, that the ingredients may
be thoroughly incorporated. In mixing compositions which require fire,
the greatest precautions are necessary; particularly in those where
gunpowder enters. The dry parts of the composition may in general be
mixed together first, and put by degrees into the cauldron, while the
other ingredients are fluid, being well stirred all the time of putting
in. When the dry ingredients are inflammable, the cauldron must not
only be taken off the fire, but the bottom must be dipt in water, to
prevent the possibility of accidents while mixing them.

                                                    R. LAB.


_CONVOYS._—A waggon with four horses occupies about sixteen paces;
a mile will therefore hold about 117 waggons: but allowing a short
distance between, each waggon in travelling, a mile may be said to
contain 100 waggons. Waggons in convoy may travel from one to two
miles _per_ hour, according to the roads and other circumstances. A
great object in convoys is to preserve the horses as much as possible
from fatigue. For this purpose, if the convoy amounts to many hundred
waggons, they must be divided into divisions of not more than 500
each. Should it consist of thousands, it will be adviseable to divide
them into _grand_ divisions, and then again into subdivisions of 500
each: by this means, and the time of departure being calculated by the
following rules, each division may remain at rest, till just before its
time of movement; and which will prevent the necessity of the latter
part of a large convoy being harassed for a considerable time before
its turn to move.

RULE 1. _To find the time in which any number of waggons may be driven
off_: Divide the number of waggons by 100, and multiply by the time of
travelling one mile.

RULE 2. _To find the time in which any number of waggons will drive
over any number of miles_: To the time they take in driving off, add
the time any one of the waggons takes to travel the distance.

The different divisions of the convoy should be numbered, and obliged
each day to change the order of their marching.

Whenever the progress of a train of waggons is arrested by the breaking
down of any one of them, or other delay, all the waggons in the rear of
the stoppage, should immediately drive up into the first open space, to
as great a number as the open space will hold; this keeps the convoy
together and better under the care of the escort.

The escort for a convoy should be divided into front, center, and rear
guards; beside the divisions for the flanks, which should never be
beyond musquet shot, or at most 400 yards from each other. The whole
escort, should never be so separated that they could not be collected
in an hour. Under proper precautions against an enemy, a convoy of any
size cannot travel more than five or seven miles per day.

                                                 TEMPLEHOFT.




_DISPART._—The dispart of a gun is the half difference between the
diameter of the gun at the base ring, and at the swell of the muzzle.
The general dispart of all guns is about the ¹/₅₆ part of their length.
See the disparts of French and English guns under the word _Tangent
Scale_.

[Illustration: _Fig. 1._]


_DISTANCES._—Inaccessible distances may be found several ways; the
most correct of which of course is by means of proper mathematical
instruments; which, however, are not always to be had in the field.

The following different methods are laid down by several authors, where
instruments cannot be had.

I. Wishing to know the distance of the object A from B—(fig. 1.) place
a picket at B and another at C, at a few fathoms distance, making A
B C a right angle, and divide B C into 4, 5, or any number of equal
parts: make another similar angle at C, in a direction from the object,
and walk along the line C D till you bring yourself in a line with the
object A, and any of the divisions, (say _o_) of the line B C. Then, as
C_o_ : CD :: B_o_ : BA.

                                                          VAUBAN.

[Illustration: _Fig. 2._]

II. To gain the distance between two objects C and D (fig. 2) from
any point A, taken in the line C D, erect the perpendicular A E: on
which set off from A to E, 1 or 200 feet, more or less, according to
the distance between the points C and D; set off from E to G in the
prolongation A E, ⅛ or ⅒ of A E; at G raise the perpendicular G F, and
produce it towards I; plant pickets at E and G, then move with another
picket on G F till it becomes in a line with E and D; and on the
prolongation of the perpendicular F G place another picket at I in the
line with E and C; measure F I, and it will be as GE : AE :: FI : CD.

[Illustration: _Fig. 3._]

                               LANDMAN’S
                  _Practical Geometry on the Ground_.

III. To gain the inaccessible length A B, (fig. 3.) of the front of
a fortification; plant a picket at C, from whence both points may be
seen: find the lengths C A and C B by the method just given (Nᵒ 1.)
make C E ¼, or any part of C B, and make C D bear the same proportion
to C A: measure D E, then it will be as CD : DE :: CA: AB.

NOTE. Nearly after the same manner may be ascertained the distance from
B to A when the point B is accessible; for having measured the line C
B, and made the angle C E D equal to C B A, it will be, as CE : DE:: CB
: BA.

IV. The distance of a battery, or other object, may be ascertained by
the tangent scale on the breach of a gun. It is however necessary in
this case to know the height of the object, the distance of which is
required. Lay the gun by the upper line of metal for the top of the
object, then raise the tangent scale till the _top_ of the scale and
the notch at the muzzle are in a line with the bottom of the object,
and note what length of tangent scale is required: then say, as the
length of the scale above the base ring of the gun is to the length
from the base ring to the swell of the muzzle, so is the height of the
object to its distance from the muzzle of the gun.

    LOMBARD’S TABLES.

V. The breadth of a river, or other short distance, may be taken
thus:—take two pickets of different lengths, drive the shortest into
the ground close to the edge of the bank; measure some paces back
from it, and drive in the other till you find, by looking over the
tops of both, that your sight cuts the opposite side.—Then pull up
the first picket, measure the same distance from the second, in any
direction the most horizontal, and drive it as deep in the ground as
before.—Consequently, if you look over them again, and observe where
the line of sight falls, you will have the distance required.

    TEILK.

VI. The following simple method of ascertaining the breadth of a river
may be sufficiently correct for some cases: Place yourself at the edge
of one bank, and lower one corner of your hat till you find the edge
of it cuts the other bank; then steady your head, by placing your hand
under your chin, and turn gently round to some level spot of ground,
and observe where your eyes and the edge of the hat again meet the
ground; your distance from that point will be nearly the breadth of the
river.

    TEILK.

VII. Distances ascertained by the difference between the true and
apparent level.

    See _Levelling_.

VIII. Distances measured by sound.

    See _Sound_.

IX. The following simple micrometer may be so usefully applied
to military purposes, that I shall extract it verbatim from the
Philosophical Transactions for 1791, where it is described by Cavallo.
This micrometer consists of a thin and narrow slip of mother of
pearl, finely divided, and placed in the _focus_ of the eye glass
of a telescope, just where the image is formed.—It is immaterial
whether the telescope be a reflector, or a refractor, provided the eye
glass be a _convex_ lens and not a _concave_ one, as in the Galilean
construction.—The simplest way to fix it, is to stick it on the
diaphragm, which generally stands within the tube, and in the focus of
the eye glass.—When thus fixed, if you look through the eye glass, the
divisions on the scale will appear very distinct, unless the diaphragm
is not exactly in the focus; in which case the scale must be placed
exactly in the focus, by pushing the diaphragm, backwards or forwards,
when this is practicable; or else the scale may be easily removed
from one surface of the diaphragm to the other, by the interposition
of a circular bit of paper or card, or a piece of sealing wax.—This
construction is fully sufficient when the telescope is always to be
used by the same person; but when different persons are to use it, then
the diaphragm, which supports the micrometer, must be so constructed
as to be easily moved backwards or forwards, though that motion need
not be greater than about the tenth or eighth of an inch. This is
necessary, because the distance of the focus of the same lens appears
different to the eyes of different persons; and therefore whoever is
going to use the telescope for the mensuration of an angle, must first
unscrew the tube which contains the eye glass and micrometer, from the
rest of the telescope, and, looking through the eye glass, place the
micrometer where the divisions of it may appear most distinct to his
eye. The mother of pearl scale may be about the 24th part of an inch
broad; its length is determined by the aperture of the diaphragm; its
thickness that of writing paper. The divisions on it may be the 200th
of an inch, which may reach from one edge of the scale to about the
middle; and every fifth and tenth division may be a little longer,
the tenths going quite across. When the telescope does not magnify
above 30 times, the divisions need not be so minute. For the sake of
those not conversant in trigonometry, the following is an easy method
of determining the value of the divisions on the scale. Mark upon a
wall or other place, the length of 6 inches; then place the telescope
before it so that the 6 inches be at right angles to it, and exactly
57 feet 3½ inches distant from the object glass of the telescope. This
done, look through the telescope, and observe how many divisions of the
micrometer are equal to it, and that same number of divisions will be
equal to half a degree, or 30´; and this is all that need be done to
ascertain the value of the scale. The reason on which it is founded is,
that an extension of six inches at the distance of 57 feet, 3½ inches,
subtends an angle of 30´, as is easily calculated by trigonometry. To
save the trouble of calculation, a scale may be made requiring only
inspection. Thus, draw a line equal to the diameter of the field of the
telescope, and divide its under side into the same number of parts as
are on your micrometric scale, and, by the above operation on the wall,
having determined the value of 30´, which we will suppose to correspond
with 16 divisions on the scale, mark 30´ on the opposite side of the
line, opposite 16 on the lower; 15 opposite 8, and so on.

By the following table the results may be ascertained by inspection
only: thus, suppose an extension of 1 foot is found by the table to
subtend an angle of 22′, the distance will be 156.2: and suppose at the
distance of 171.8 an object subtends an angle of 20′, its height will
be found to be 1 foot; or, suppose an object of 6 feet high to subtend
an angle of 20′, the distance is 1030.8, by multiplying 171.8 by 6.


_Table of Angles subtended by 1 Foot, at different Distances._

    +--------+------------++--------+------------+
    |Minutes.|  Distances ||Minutes.|  Distances |
    |        |  in feet.  ||        |  in feet.  |
    +--------+------------++--------+------------+
    |    1   |   3437.7   ||   31   |    110.9   |
    |    2   |   1718.9   ||   32   |    107.4   |
    |    3   |   1145.9   ||   33   |    104.2   |
    |    4   |    859.4   ||   34   |    101.1   |
    |    5   |    687.5   ||   35   |     98.2   |
    |    6   |    572.9   ||   36   |     95.5   |
    |    7   |    491.1   ||   37   |     92.9   |
    |    8   |    429.7   ||   38   |     90.4   |
    |    9   |    382.0   ||   39   |     88.1   |
    |   10   |    343.7   ||   40   |     85.9   |
    |   11   |    312.5   ||   41   |     83.8   |
    |   12   |    286.5   ||   42   |     81.8   |
    |   13   |    264.4   ||   43   |     79.9   |
    |   14   |    245.5   ||   44   |     78.1   |
    |   15   |    229.2   ||   45   |     76.4   |
    |   16   |    214.8   ||   46   |     74.7   |
    |   17   |    202.2   ||   47   |     73.1   |
    |   18   |    191.0   ||   48   |     71.6   |
    |   19   |    180.9   ||   49   |     70.1   |
    |   20   |    171.8   ||   50   |     68.7   |
    |   21   |    162.7   ||   51   |     67.4   |
    |   22   |    156.2   ||   52   |     66.1   |
    |   23   |    149.4   ||   53   |     64.8   |
    |   24   |    143.2   ||   54   |     63.6   |
    |   25   |    137.5   ||   55   |     62.5   |
    |   26   |    132.2   ||   56   |     61.4   |
    |   27   |    127.3   ||   57   |     60.3   |
    |   28   |    122.7   ||   58   |     59.2   |
    |   29   |    118.5   ||   59   |     58.2   |
    |   30   |    114.6   ||   60   |     57.3   |
    +--------+------------++--------+------------+


_DRAG ROPES_—

                        weight       length
          5 pins    6 lbs. 8 oz.     21 feet.
    With  4   ”     5      6         13
          3   ”     5      0         12




_EMBARKATION._


1. _Of Ordnance and Stores._—The first thing necessary is to prepare a
list of all the articles to be embarked, with the weight of each. This
list must have a large column for remarks. The tonnage required for
bulky articles will be generally ⅓ more than their actual weight; but
the tonnage of ordnance, shells, shot, _&c._ will be equal to their
weight. If vessels be paid according to the tonnage they carry, the
masters will of course stow away as much as the ships will hold; but
if, by the voyage, they will be averse to loading their ships too much;
a naval officer should therefore always attend to see that the ships
are properly stowed.

Ordnance and stores may be embarked either for the purpose of merely
transporting them to another situation, or for a military expedition.
In the first case, each ship must be stowed with as much as it will
carry, and every article that relates to one particular species of
service or ordnance, must be put on board the same ship; that in case
one ship be lost, the others may remain in themselves complete. This
principle must of course be likewise attended to in an embarkation
for an expedition; but a more particular distribution must take place
of the stores when on board. With each piece of ordnance must be
placed every thing necessary for its service; its side arms, carriage,
limber, ammunition, _&c._ so as to be readily come at, when required
to be disembarked. If it be an embarkation of ordnance, _&c._ for a
siege, not only every thing necessary for the service of the pieces of
ordnance should be arranged with them; but also every thing necessary
for the construction of the battery on which they are mounted. It will
be adviseable in this case, to put different natures of ordnance in the
same ship, in proportions according to the service required of them. In
general it will be best to put the heavy articles in first, and every
thing that is light, easy to be removed, or likely to be first wanted,
on the top. Previous to embarkation, the guns, carriages, waggons,
_&c._ must be dismounted, but first numbered as follows: and the
number of each article marked in the list, in the column of remarks.
Give each piece of ordnance and its carriage the same number. Give the
ammunition and other carriages, different numbers from the ordnance
carriages. Then give every limber, whether of ordnance carriage,
ammunition carriage, or waggon, the number of its respective carriage.
If for a simple transport, arrange the small stores, side arms, _&c._
according to their several natures; but if for an expedition, every
thing belonging to each particular piece of ordnance must be collected
together, and the cases or chests in which they are put, marked with
the number of the piece of ordnance to which they belong, their natures
and description. If there be any doubt of the different parts of the
carriages, being made with that uniformity, so essentially necessary,
every part which is separated, must bear the number of its carriage.
This precaution at any rate may be a good one, if the same vessel
contain different natures of ordnance or carriages.

The axletrees need not be taken off the carriages, if the vessel be
of a sufficient size to admit them when fixed, as they are not easily
replaced without workmen and a tedious operation. When a carriage is
dismounted, all the small articles, such as elevating screws, linch
pins, drag washers, cap squares, _&c._ must be carefully collected, and
secured in a box, marked with the description of stores, and number of
the carriage to which they belong. All carriages or waggons embarked
with their axletrees fixed, must be arranged in the ship, side by side,
and alternately front and rear, that their axletrees may not interfere
with each other, and take too much room. Every transport or other
vessel employed in carrying troops or stores for an expedition, should
be numbered on the quarters and on the bows, with figures as large as
2 or 3 feet, and on the sails, that they may be known at a distance.
The number of the ship, her name and tonnage, and the master’s name
must be entered in the list of the stores which she carries.

In disembarking ordnance and stores, they must be landed exactly
in order, the reverse of what they were shipped. The carriages and
waggons must be mounted as soon as possible, and every nature must be
arranged as far from the shore as possible to prevent confusion. If the
disembarkation take place in the presence of an enemy, the vessels of
course must be loaded accordingly; and the field ordnance, with their
carriages, ammunition, _&c._ must be so arranged as to be first landed,
and with the greatest ease possible. In this case, the entrenching
tools must also be kept in the greatest readiness.—_Aide Memoire._

2. _Of Troops._—All transports taken into His Majesty’s service, are
under the direction of the Transport Board, and of their agents at the
different ports at home and abroad. No troops or other persons can be
put on board them, or victualled, but by an order from this Board, or
one of its agents. Troops embarked on board transports or ships of
war (except as marines) are only allowed ⅔ of a seaman’s allowance
of provisions. (See the word _Ration_.) It is therefore necessary to
divide the men into messes of 6 each. Six women to 100 men embarked
on foreign service, are allowed provisions; and 10 women to 100 men
on home service. The births on board transports, are usually made 6
feet square, and each admits 4 men at a time; but agreeable to the
regulations for the army for 1799, one third of the men are always to
be on deck; therefore 6 men (or one mess) are told off to each birth,
⅓ of whom are always on watch. The commanding officer of the troops on
board a transport, has a right to peruse the charter party of the ship,
which points out every different article, as firing, candles, boats,
utensils, _&c._ which the ship is engaged to find for the use of the
troops on board. It likewise expresses the part of the ship allotted to
the officers, to the master, the mate, and the agent, should there be
one on board.


_EXERCISE of Artillery._—_With 9 men to a field gun._

When 15 men are attached for the service of a gun in the field, they
are numbered from 1 to 15; but when the gun is not to be advanced by
men, the first six numbers are left out, and the remaining nine men are
numbered from 7 to 15. The exercise of field guns of a heavy nature
varies but little from the light ones. Though different duties done by
the men attached to the one, should, as nearly as possible, be kept
up at the other; as thereby is prevented that confusion which must
arise when men removed from a light gun to a heavy one, change their
numbers, though their duties at each be the same. The following will
be the position of 9 men, for field ordnance of all natures, in the

1. _Line of March._

Numbers 7, 9, 12, and 15, on the left of the gun; 8, 10, 13, 14, and
11, on the right; numbers 7 and 8 opposite the muzzle of the gun; 9 and
10 opposite the breech; 12 and 13 opposite the trail; 14 opposite the
axletree of the limber; 11 opposite the shafts; 15 leads the limber
horse; the driver leads the front.

2. _Position and Duties of 9 men when prepared for Action._

_Light Guns._—7 spunges, 8 loads, 9 serves the vent, 10 fires, 11
commands, 12 carries the match and water bucket, 13 serves 8 with
ammunition from 14, who carries a cartouch and a pair of drag ropes; 15
holds the limber horse, and carries a cartouch.

_Positions._—7 between the right wheel and the muzzle; 8 between the
left wheel and the muzzle; 9 clear of the rear of the right wheel;
10 clear of the left wheel, both in a line with the vent; 11 on the
left of the handspike; 12 on his right, clear of 9; 13 covers the left
wheel, 5 yards in the rear; 14 covers the right wheel, 10 yards in the
rear. The limber is 25 yards directly in the rear of the gun.

_Heavy Guns._—This is the same as with the light guns, except that
7 and 8 stand outside the wheels, and 8 assists 7 to ram home, if
necessary.

_Howitzers._—Positions are the same as the heavy guns, but the duties
different. 7 spunges, uncaps the fuze, and puts in the shell; 8 takes
the sheepskin out of the piece, lays it on the ground, with the woolen
side up, loads with cartridge, wipes the bottom of the shell, (when 7
holds it up) puts in the sheep skin again, and pulls it out with his
left hand on the word _Ready_: He stops the muzzle with it immediately
that the piece is fired; 9 serves the vent; 10 fires; 11 commands;
12 carries the match and bucket; 13 serves 8 with cartridges from a
cartouch; 14 serves 7 with shells from the limber, which he lays on the
sheep skin; 15 attends the limber. As from unavoidable accidents the
number of men attached to a gun, may be reduced, it will be necessary
if the vacancies happen amongst those doing the most essential duties,
to immediately replace them by those doing the most subordinate duties.

_The following method of distributing the duties amongst a smaller
number of men, will be equally applicable to all natures of field
ordnance._

    +-------+-------+---------------------------+----------------------+
    |  Nᵒ.  |Nature.|     Numbers retained.     |    The vacancies,    |
    |of men.|       |                           |     how supplied.    |
    +-------+-------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------+
    |   9   |Gun    | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10| 11| 12| 13| 14| 15|  complete.   |
    |       |Howr   | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10| 11| 12| 13| 14| 15|              |
    +-------+-------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------+
    |       |Gun    | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10| 11| 13| 14| 15| Nᵒ. 12 being     |
    |   8   |       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | dropt, Nᵒ. 11    |
    |       |Howr   | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10| 11| 13| 14| 15| does his duties. |
    +-------+-------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------------+
    |       |       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | Nᵒ. 14’s pouch is    |
    |       |Gun    | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10| 11| 13| 15| laid on the ground;  |
    |       |       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | 13 carries it when   |
    |       |       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | moving.              |
    |   7   +-------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----------------------+
    |       |Howr   | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10| 11| 14| 15| Nᵒ. 8 serves himself |
    |       |       |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | with cartridges      |
    +-------+-------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----------------------+
    |       |Gun    | 7 | 8 | 9 | 11| 13| 15| Nᵒ. 9 serves the vent    |
    |   6   |       |   |   |   |   |   |   | with his left hand,      |
    |       |Howr   | 7 | 8 | 9 | 11| 14| 15| faces about and fires.   |
    |       |       |   |   |   |   |   |   | Tube box on left side.   |
    +-------+-------+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------------------+
    |       |Gun    | 7 | 8 | 11| 13| 15| Nᵒ. 11 does all the duties   |
    |   5   |       |   |   |   |   |   | of 9, as in the last         |
    |       |Howr   | 7 | 8 | 11| 14| 15| change, his own duties,      |
    |       |       |   |   |   |   |   | and those of 12.             |
    +-------+-------+---+---+---+---+---+------------------------------+
    |   4   |Gun    | 7 | 8 | 11| 15| Nᵒ. 8 fetches his own ammunition;|
    |       |Howr   | 7 | 8 | 11| 15| 7 serves his own shells.         |
    +-------+-------+---+---+---+---+----------------------------------+
    |       |Gun    | 7 | 11| 15| Nᵒ. 7 serves and loads all the       |
    |   3   |       |   |   |   | ammunition.—Nᵒ. 7 & 15 must          |
    |       |Howr   | 7 | 11| 15| change duties occasionally.          |
    +-------+-------+---+---+---+--------------------------------------+

3. _To Limber up._—_Light Guns and Howitzers._

The whole of the men face towards the gun; 11 unships his traversing
handspike; the limber is brought up by 15, rather to the right of the
gun, and then turned to the left about; 12 and 13 raise the trail, and
place it on the limber, in which they are assisted by 7 and 8 bearing
down on the muzzle, and 9 and 10 at the wheels; 11 chains the limber.

_Heavy Field Guns, or Howitzers._—The only difference from the above
is, that 9 and 10 assist 12 and 13 to raise the trail, and 14 and 15
stand to the gun wheels.

4. _To unlimber._—_Light Guns and Howitzers._

The whole face towards the gun; 11 unchains the limber; 12 and 13 lift
the trail off the pin tail, and set it on the ground, in which they
are assisted, as in limbering up, by 7, 8, 9, and 10; 11 ships the
traversing handspike, and the whole assume the position for action. The
limber is led by 15, and the driver, 25 yards to the rear, and there
turned to the left about. The leading horse is unhooked by the driver,
and tied to the rear of the limber.

_Heavy Field Guns, and Howitzers._—The same as the light ones, except
that 9 and 10 assist 12 and 13 to raise the trail, and 14 and 15 stand
to the gun wheels. The heavy guns have generally mounted riders, in
which case the leading horses are not unhooked.

It must be understood, that simply to _limber up_, or to _unlimber_,
means that the gun is to be placed upon its limber, or lifted off,
without changing its direction; but guns may be limbered up to the
_front_, to the _right_, or to the _left_, according as it is intended
to advance in any one of those directions; and unlimbered to the _rear_
to prepare for action to the _front_, to the _left_ for action to the
_right_, and to the _right_ for action to the _left_. To limber up, or
to unlimber, in any of these situations, is exactly the same as those
already given, except that in the first, previous to limbering up, the
trail is thrown round by No. 11, assisted by 12, if necessary, into the
direction specified by the word of command, and the limber is brought
up to that side to meet it; and in the second, the trail, after being
taken off the limber, is carried round to the _rear_, _right_, or
_left_, according as the word of command expresses, before it is put to
the ground, and the limber goes round to the rear of the gun.

It must be here remarked, that the _front_ of a gun, or line of guns,
or column of guns, is that to which the men at the gun front, without
any respect to the situation of the gun or carriage. The trail of
the carriage, when moved round to the rear or the contrary, whether
in limbering up or unlimbering, must always be carried round to the
_right_, and the limber, or a horse, when brought up to advance or
retire a gun, must always be brought up on the _right_ side, and go
off on the _left_; and whenever the limber is turned about, it must be
to the _left_ about. By attending to these precautions the greatest
confusion is avoided.

_Other Methods of advancing Guns._

5. The gun being in the position for action, _prepares to advance
slow_; 7 and 8 step outwards, 3 yards; 9 and 10 place themselves in
line with the axletree, leaving room for 12 and 13, (who each bring a
drag rope from 14) to pass between them and the wheels; 12 and 15 as
they pass give the chain ends of the drag ropes to 9 and 10, who hook
them to the washers; 12 and 13 man the Front pins, 7 and 8 the center,
and 9 and 10 the rear.

This is only practised with light guns.

_Prepare for Action._—7, 8, 9, and 10 quit their pins; 12 and 13 go to
the rear; 9 and 10, as soon as 12 and 13 have passed them, unhook the
drag ropes; 12 and 13 carry them to 14; 13 gets his ammunition.

6. _Prepare to advance with a Horse._

_Light Pieces._—7 gives his spunge to 9; 7 and 8 unhook the chain
traces from the breast of the carriage, and lay them over the spokes
of the wheels; the driver brings up a horse to the front, by the
right; 7 and 8 unhook the horses traces from the back band, and hook
them to the short gun traces, and then take post outside the wheels; 7
takes his spunge.

_Heavy Pieces._—This is done with two horses, one before the other; 7
and 8 hook the horse, the driver rides to the rear horse, and 9 and 10
hook the rear horse to the short gun traces.

_Prepare for Action._—The different numbers exactly undo what they have
just done.

7. _Prepare to advance with a Limber._

The only difference between this, and advancing with a horse, is that
the limber is brought up to the front; and 15 brings up a drag rope,
the center of which he lays over the pin tail, and 7 and 8 hook the
ends to the short drag chains of the carriage.

_Methods of retreating Guns._

8. _Prepare to retreat slow._—7 and 8 place themselves in a line, with
the axletree of the carriage on each side; 9 and 10 in a line with the
trail; 12 and 13 get each a drag rope from 14, and give the chain ends
to 7 and 8, who hook them to the drag washers; 7 and 8 man the rear
pins: 9 and 10 the center-pins; 12 and 13 the front; 10 carries the
linstock; 15 turns the limber. This is only done with light pieces.

_Prepare for Action._—7 and 8 unhook; 9 and 10 quit their pins; 12 and
13 carry back the drag ropes to 14; 14 gets his ammunition; 15 turns
the limber to the front; the whole resume their places in action.

9. _Prepare to retreat with a Horse._

_Light Pieces._—7, 8, 9, and 10 place themselves as in retreating slow;
13 gets a drag rope from 14, and gives it to 9 and 10, who lay the
center of it across the top of the traversing handspike, and then under
the trail hooks; 12 and 13 hook the traces of the horse brought up by
the driver to the ends of the drag rope; 15 turns the limber.

_Heavy Guns._—This is done in the same manner, but with two horses; 9
and 10 hook on the rear horse, and 12 and 13 the leader.

_Prepare for Action._—The same numbers undo what they have just done.

10. _Prepare to retreat with a Limber._

The limber is brought up to the trail of the carriage; 12 and 13 bring
up each a drag rope, and hook the chain ends to the limber; while 9 and
10 hook the other ends to the trail hooks.

11. _Prepare to fire retreating with a Horse._

This is done exactly as in the article _Retreating with a Horse_,
except that _two_ drag ropes are brought by 12 and 13, who hook the
chain ends to the horses traces, while 9 and 10 hook the other ends to
the trail hooks.

12. _Prepare to fire retreating with a Limber._

The limber in this case is fixed exactly as in retreating with a
limber; but at the distance of two drag ropes length: this therefore
employs two _pair_ of drag ropes. In firing and retreating, if the
gun retreat loaded, 10 is not to light his port fire, nor 11 to point
till ordered. Upon the word _Halt_, Nᵒ 7 must ram home the cartridge,
and the whole face about. In preparing for action from any of these
positions, the same numbers undo exactly what they have just done, and
immediately fall into their places for action; and the duties are the
same with the heavy field pieces as with the light ones.

_Exercise of a Field Gun with 15 Men._

When a light gun has 6 drag rope men attached to it, the duties of
the standing numbers, that is, the numbers from 7 to 15 continue the
same in all the exercises just mentioned; but they assist also in the
movements of the gun by drag ropes.

In the _line of march_, 1, 2, and 3, are on the left of the gun in the
rear of 7; and 4, 5, and 6 on the right, in the rear of 8.

In the _position for action_, 1, 2, and 3, hold the right drag rope,
and 4, 5, and 6 the left, and dress in a line with the axletree. On the
word _Load_, 3 and 4 unhook the drag ropes from the drag washers, 3
holds the hook in his left hand, and 4 in his right; and they hook on
again at the word _Cease firing_.

On the word _Prepare to advance quick_, 2, 3, 4, and 5, slip under the
drag ropes; 2 and 5 man the loop ends on the inside; 3. and 4 the first
pins on the inside; 7 and 8 move to the second pins on the inside; 1
and 6 remain at their pins: 9 and 10 move to the second pins on the
outside; and 12 and 13 to the rear pins on the outside; 14 assists 11
at the traversing handspike; 13 lifts up the trail for 11 to put in the
truck; and 12 gives his match to 10.—Then the word,

_Prepare for Action._

2, 3, 4, and 5, slip back again under the drag ropes, and the whole
resume their places for action.

_Word—With two pair of Drag Ropes, prepare to retreat quick._

3 and 4 unhook from the drag washers, and march to the rear; 2 and 5
follow, and 1 and 6 hook the loop ends of the drag ropes to the trail
hooks. 12 sticks his linstock in the ground, and with 13 brings the
spare drag ropes from 14, and gives the chain ends to 7 and 8 to hook
to the drag washers; 7, 9, and 12, man the right drag rope, and 8, 10,
and 13, the left. To resume the position for action, on the

_Word—Prepare for Action._

7 and 8 unhook the spare drag ropes, and 12 and 13 carry them back to
14; 1 and 6 unhook from the trail, and 3 and 4 hook the other ends to
the drag washers.

_Word—Prepare for Action retreating._

The drag rope men change as in retreating. Upon the word _Load_, 1 and
6 unhook from the trail, and hook on again at the word _Cease firing_.

It must be here remarked, that in the exercise with 15 men, only the
additional duties have been detailed; the duties of the standing
numbers in action, advancing or retreating, being still the same as
without drag rope men. In limbering and unlimbering, the drag rope men
have no duties, but are ready to assist with the drag ropes. The truck
is always put on in all movements with the drag ropes, and thrown off
at the word _Load_.


_Exercise with Heavy Ordnance in a Battery._

    _32, or 42 Pounder._

            _10 Men._
     1 spunges; 2 loads.
     3 and 5 run the gun up.
     4 and 6 run up and elevate.
     7 serves the vent, traverses, primes and runs up.
     8 runs up, traverses, and fires.
     9 brings cartridges.
    10 points and commands.

             _9 Men._
     1 spunges, 2 loads.
     3 and 5 run up.
     4 runs up and elevates.
     6 brings cartridges, runs up, and elevates.
     7 serves the vent, runs up, traverses, and primes.
     8 runs up, traverses, and fires.
     9 points and commands.

             _8 Men._
     1 spunges; 2 loads and runs up.
     3 runs up.
     4 and 5 run up and elevate.
     6 brings cartridges, runs up, and traverses.
     7 serves the vent, runs up, traverses, and primes.
     8 points, fires, and commands.

             _7 Men._
     1 spunges and runs up.
     2 loads and runs up.
     3 runs up and elevates.
     4 brings cartridges, runs up and elevates.
     5 serves the vent, runs up, traverses, and primes.
     6 runs up, traverses, and fires.
     7 points and commands.

             _6 Men._
     1 spunges and runs up,
     2 loads, runs up, and elevates.
     3 runs up and elevates.
     4 brings cartridges, runs up and traverses.
     5 serves the vent, runs up, traverses and primes.
     6 runs up, points, fires, and commands.

        _24 Pounder_, &c.

            _8 Men._
    1 spunges, 2 loads.
    3 and 4 run up and elevate.
    5 serves the vent, runs up, traverses, and primes.
    6 runs up, traverses, and fires.
    7 brings cartridges.
    8 points and commands.

             _7 Men._
    1 spunges, 2 loads.
    3 runs up and elevates.
    4 brings cartridges, runs up, and elevates.
    5 serves vent, traverses, and primes.
    6 runs up, traverses, and fires.
    7 points and commands.

            _6 Men._
    1 spunges, runs up, elevates.
    2 loads, runs up, and elevates.
    3 serves the vent, runs up, traverses, and primes.
    4 runs up, traverses, fires.
    5 brings cartridges.
    6 points and commands.

            _5 Men._
    1 spunges, runs up, elevates.
    2 brings cartridges, loads, runs up, and elevates.
    3 serves vent, runs up, traverses, and primes.
    4 runs up, traverses, fires.
    5 points and commands.

            _4 Men._
    1 spunges, runs up, points.
    2 brings cartridges, loads, runs up and elevates.
    3 serves vent, runs up, traverses, elevates, and primes.
    4 runs up, traverses, fires.

            _3 Men._
    1 spunges, runs up, points, and fires.
    2 brings cartridges, loads, runs up, elevates, traverses.
    3 serves vent, runs up, elevates, traverses, and primes.

_4⅖, or 5½ Inch Mortar._

              _2 Men._
    1 spunges, runs up, brings shells, puts them in,
               traverses, and primes.
    2 serves the vent, runs up, brings cartridges,
               puts them in, points, and fires.

               _3 Men._
    1 spunges, runs up, traverses, brings shells, and puts them in.
    2 brings cartridges, puts in, serves the vent, runs up, primes,
             and fires.
    3 points, elevates, and commands.

_8 Inch Mortar, or Howitzer._

             _5 Men._
    1 spunges, runs up, dredges.
    2 runs up, brings cartridges and puts them in.
    3 runs up, brings shells, puts them in, traverses, primes.
    4 runs up, traverses, fires.
    5 serves vent, points, and commands.

             _4 men._
    1 spunges, runs up, dredges.
    2 runs up, brings cartridges, and puts them in.
    3 serves the vent, brings shells, and puts them in,
             runs up, traverses,  and fires.
    4 runs up, points, commands.

_10, or 13 Inch Mortar._

            _10 Men._
    1 spunges, runs up, puts in shells, and dredges.
    2 runs up, brings cartridges, puts them in, and puts in the shells.
    3 brings cartridges.
    4 and 5 bring shells.
    6, 7, 8, and 9, run up, and traverse.
    8 serves vent and primes.
    9 fires, 10 points, and commands.

             _6 Men._
    1 spunges, runs up, puts in shells, dredges, and traverses.
    2 runs up, brings cartridges, and puts them in, puts in shells,
         and traverses.
    3 and 4 run up, bring, shells, and traverse.
    5 runs up, serves vent, and primes.
    6 runs up, points, fires, and commands.


_Exercise of the Gin._

The complement of men for a gin is usually 1 noncommissioned officer
and 10 men; they are numbered from 1 to 10, the noncommissioned officer
being 11.

_To carry a Gin._

1 and 2 carry the prypole, 3 and 5 the right cheek, 4 and 6 the left,
7 the windlass and fids, 8 and 9 the blocks and tackles, 10 the
handspikes, &c.

_To Set up a Gin._

1 and 2 put a common handspike through the ring, near the foot of the
prypole, at which they lift; 3 and 4 steady the cheeks, by placing each
a handspike against the lower cross bar; 5, 7, and 9 lift the right
cheek; 6, 8, and 10 the left cheek; 11 gives directions. The tackles
must be hooked on before the gin is raised.

_To work a Gin._

1 and 3 man the right handspikes of the gin; 2 and 4 the left; 5, 6,
7, and 8 hold on the fall, and pull in the slack; 9 and 10 steady the
gun, 9 at the muzzle, 10 at the breach. The tackle hook must be fixed
directly over the dolphins, if any, or a little behind the trunnions.

In heaving, when the ends of 1 and 4 handspikes come as low as their
knees, 2 and 3 put theirs into the upper holes of the windlass, and
3 gives the word _Fetch_, upon which 1 and 4 clear their handspikes
from the windlass, and 1 gives the word _Heave_; 2 and 3 then bear
down their handspikes, and remain fast till 1 and 4 having taken their
fresh purchase, 1 gives the word _Fetch_, when 2 and 3 clear their
handspikes, and 3 gives the word _Heave_; and so on alternately, till
the gun is at its proper height, when the handspikes in the upper
holes are made to rest against the upper cross bar, and 5 makes fast
the fall to the lower cross bar; and if required to lower the gun,
eases the fall off from the windlass; 5, 6, 7, and 8 move the carriage,
as required, under the gun.


_Exercise of the Sling Cart._

The men for the service of the sling cart are numbered from 1 to 7; the
noncommissioned officer being No. 7; No. 1 and 2 sling the gun. The gun
must be laid with 1 trunnion touching the ground, and the sling passes
diagonally round the gun; being before one trunnion, and behind the
other; and that end of the sling which goes round the lower side of the
gun must be the end to be acted on by the windlass; as by that means
the trunnions become horizontal when the gun is raised; No. 1, 3, and 5
man the right lever; 2, 4, and 6 the left lever; and upon the word from
the noncommissioned officer they heave together: the noncommissioned
officer then directs _left hand lever hold on, right lever fetch_; the
right lever takes a fresh purchase: then, _right lever hold on, left
lever fetch_; the left lever takes a fresh purchase; they then heave
together again. When the gun is high enough, 7 puts in the pall; 1
and 2 take out the levers, and put in the prypole; 3 and 4 raise the
breech of the gun with two common handspikes, and 5 and 6 lash it to
the prypole: 1 and 2 then lay their levers along side the prypole, and
3 and 4 their handspikes on the top of them, which 5 and 6 lash all
fast together.




_FASCINES_—have different names, according to their size and use.


1. _Saucissons_ are usually made 18 feet long, and from 10 to 12 inches
in diameter; and are used for the revetement of embrazures, or for the
corners of the parapet.

2. _Battery Fascines_—are made from 8 to 12 feet long, and from 10 to
12 inches thick; used for the revetement of the parapet, &c.

3. _Trench Fascines_—from 4 to 6 feet long, and from 4 to 9 inches
thick; used at sieges.

4. _Water Fascines_—6 feet long, from 1 to 2 feet thick; used to cover
marshy and wet situations; they must be loaded with stone to make them
sink.

5. _Covering Fascines_—are used to form the tops of magazines or saps.
They ought therefore to be composed of the strongest branches, with the
addition of a few poles, that they may bear a considerable weight.

6. _Sap Faggots_—3 feet long, 8 inches thick.

_Attentions in making Fascines_—The bands must be from 10 to 12 inches
asunder, of birch, hazle, or other pliant wood, well twisted. The
fascines must be drawn close with a choke rope, previous to being tied.

In laying the wood to form the fascines, the shortest and smallest
pieces should be laid inside. Three men are usually employed at each
trestle, with two to collect the stuff.

In general a saucisson of 18 feet may be finished at each trestle in
half an hour.

Birch and fir are the bell woods for this work.

Fascines are sometimes bent so as to coincide with the angles of the
battery. The Prussians double some of the fascine stuff, so as to make
a loop at the end of the fascine, which being laid over one another at
the corners, and a stake driven through the loops, are very strong.


_FIRE SHIP._—_Proportion of combustible Stores for a Fire Ship of 150
Tons._

                                              Nᵒ.
    Fire barrels, filled with composition      8
    Iron chambers, to blow open the ports     12
    Composition for priming, barrels           3½
    Quick, match,               ”              1
    Curtains, dipped                          48
    Reeds, long, single dipped               150
      ”    short, { double dipped             75
                  { single dipped             75
    Bavins, single dipped                    250

The fire barrels are about 2 feet 4 inches high, and 1 foot 6 inches
diameter. Each barrel must have four holes of about 6 inches square
cut in its sides; and these holes must have a square piece of canvass
nailed over them quite close. They are then filled with the same
composition as for carcasses, and 4 plugs of about 1 inch diameter and
3 inches long, and well greased, are thrust into the top, and then left
to dry. When dry, these plugs are taken out, and the holes driven with
fuze composition, and quick match at the top; which goes from one hole
to the other: after this the top is smeared over with mealed powder
mixt up with spirits of wine. When dry again, a sheet or two of brown
paper is laid over the top, and then one of the canvass covers, which
is made secure by the upper hoop of the barrel.


_Composition for dipping Reeds, Bavins, and Curtains._

                            lbs.
    Rosin                   120
    Coarse sulphur           90
    Swedish pitch            60
    Tallow                    6
    Mealed powder            12

This proportion will dip about 100 reeds and 25 bavins.

Each curtain contains 1 square yard of barras.

Each cover for fire barrels 1 do. of sacking.

Immediately that the curtains, covers, &c. are dipped, they are to be
strewed over with fine brimstone, before the composition grows cold.

The iron chambers, for blowing open the ports, hold from 9 to 11 ounces
of powder. They are fixed in such a manner as to prevent their recoil,
and to ensure the ports being blown open. The vents are generally
corked up, and covered with a piece of barras, till required to be
primed.

_To fit out a Fire Ship._—The whole breadth of the fire room is to be
divided into 9 parts, and troughs laid the whole length of the room.
Cross troughs, of communication are laid between them, about 20 in each
row, perpendicular to the long troughs. These troughs are usually
4 inches wide, and 4 deep. There are two fire trunks and two fire
scuttles on each side, under which the eight fire barrels are to be
placed.

The reeds and bavins are to be tied down in the troughs. The curtains
are to be nailed up to the beams, equally through the fire room. The
ship is not to be primed when fitted out, but only when intended to be
fired.

_To Prime._

_Composition for Priming._

    Saltpetre pulverized      22 lbs.   8 oz.
    Rosin                      2       11
    Sulphur                   18       —
    Mealed powder             45       —
    Linseed oil                1 pint.

All the reeds and bavins are to be taken up, and a little of the above
composition sprinkled in the bottom of the troughs; the reeds, &c. to
be then gently tied down again. Quick match of 6 or 8 threads doubled
must be laid along on the tops of all the reeds &c. and the priming
composition strewed over it, and over all the fire room. The covers of
all the fire barrels must be cut open, and made to hang down on the
sides of the barrels. Leaders of strong quick match must be laid from
the reeds to the barrels and to the chambers; and must be tied down to
the vents to insure its not falling off. Strong leaders of quick match;
4 or 5 times doubled, must be laid from the reeds to the sally ports;
and the sally ports must be connected by quick match, that the whole
may take fire at once.

The following method is now adopted of producing an external fire, in
addition to the internal fire, before gained by the fire room.

Fire boxes filled with the carcass composition, are distributed in the
following manner, in a ship of three masts:

    1 Suspended from each of the catheads and davits,
          on each side the bow                                 4
    8 Slung across the bowsprit                                8
    4 Across each of the outriggers abaft                      8
    2 From the graplins of each of the lower yardarms         12
    1 From the deadeyes on each side of the three round tops   6
    1 From the middle of the inside of the main, fore,
          and mizen shrouds                                    6
                                                              ——
                                                              44

The boxes are suspended by chains and hooks, and those slung across
the bowsprit and outriggers, are fixed by staples. The two inner ones
are laid with leaders of quick match, which fire instantly, or with
portfires, which burn a given time; they communicate with the outer
ones by reeds, which are tied down on the bowsprit and outriggers. The
boxes hanging from the deadeyes and shrouds, are fired by curtains
suspended from the shrouds, the lower one of which hangs immediately
over one of the large fire barrels. The two boxes on each yardarm are
hung one over the other; the upper one having a leader of quick match
carried along the yard from the shrouds; and in burning will no doubt
fire the lower one. Besides the boxes, there are fire barrels arranged
as follows; 2 half barrels on the forecastle; 2 abaft the main deck,
and 4 on the main deck; 2 in each roundtop, placed against the masts;
and 4 large fire barrels under fire trunks, to convey fire to the
curtains on the shrouds. All these fire barrels and boxes are to be
fired by separate leaders of quick match or portfire, in order that
any part of the ship may be fired to cover its approach by the smoke;
and the remaining part instantaneously upon quitting the ship. It has
been found by experiment, that two men with lighted portfires can set
fire to the whole of the leaders on the deck, bowsprit, catheads,
outriggers, &c. in less than a minute; therefore the risk of trusting
to one main leader to the whole, may be avoided.

The leaders are laid in painted canvass hose made for the purpose.


_FLINTS_—are usually packed in half barrels.

                                                 Weight.
                                               Qrs.   lbs.
                             {Musquet, 2000     2     14
    One half barrel contains {Carbine, 3000     2     10
                             {Pistol,  4000     2     15

The most transparent and free from veins are esteemed the best flints.

                                    cwts. qrs.
    28 kegs of musquet flints take   18    0 in tonnage
    10 kegs of pistol     ”    ”      3    2      ”


_FORTIFICATION.—Practical Maxims in building Field Works._

1st. The spot on which works are to be constructed should determine
their figure; nor should any attention be paid to preserve a regular
form which does not occupy the ground to advantage.

2d. Every line must be so disposed, that the slope of hills all around
even to the very bottom, be open to the small arms of the garrison; and
every part should be discoverable to the distance of at least 500 paces.

3d. Works thrown up for the defence of a defile, should always be
within musquet shot of it, which must not be more than 200 yards.

4th. The best defence in works that are flanked, or where one side is
defended by the fire of another, is that formed by right angles.

5th. A salient angle should never be less than 60, and a re-entering
angle than 90 degrees; nor greater than 120 degrees.

6th. The entrance to the work should always be made in the part least
exposed to attack, and if possible in a re-entering angle.

7th Endeavor to present, if possible, a larger front to the enemy than
he can occupy in making the attack.

8th. Avoid all ground commanded by an eminence, either in front, flank,
or rear.

9th. Never leave the rear of a work so exposed that the enemy may turn
it.

10th. Always make the angles of a work in the directions least exposed
to attacks, and consequently always present a front to the most exposed.

11th. The garrison should never be drawn up more than two deep; and an
ordinary pace of two feet is usually allowed for each file, and from 6
to 8 paces from each piece of ordnance.

12th. If a work is so large as to be defended by a battalion or two, a
reserve should be allowed of about one sixth of the number.

13th. The space within a work should always be sufficient for the men
to move and lie down. Every soldier will require at least 18 square
feet, and every field gun at least 216 square feet.

14th. Provided the line is not made too extensive, the more inward
space there is the better.

15th. A parapet to resist cannon shot should never be less than 12 feet
thick; and for musquet shot not less than 6 feet.

16th. The height of the parapet must be regulated by the situation of
the work, and of the adjoining ground; with this consideration, that
its height above the banquette does not exceed 4½ feet.

17th. The depth and breadth of the ditch must be regulated by the
quantity of earth required, for the parapet and banquette.

18th. A tete de pont, or work to cover the embarkation of troops, or
the passage of a river, should, if possible, be made where the line of
the river or coast forms a kind of re-entering angle; that the flanks
of the corps, as well as those of the works, may be covered.

_To carry on the Work._—The number of workmen must be proportioned to
the time allotted for carrying on the work, the quantity of labour,
and the number of hands capable of being employed at the same time.
When the ditches are broad, the workmen may be posted in two rows; but
if narrow, only in one. In the first case, the earth will be thrown
by those who are on the outward edge of the ditch to the second row,
and by them upon the parapet; for which reason the second row, to
keep pace with the first, ought to be twice as numerous. The workmen
should never be placed nearer than 2 paces, or 4 feet, from each other;
and two men with shovels should be preceded by one with a pickaxe. If
more than usual expedition be required, one man with a wheel barrow,
or basket, may be added to six or eight with shovels. Another row of
workmen should also be placed upon the parapet, to spread the earth and
beat it down, as it is thrown up.

In fixing the fascines, three men will be sufficient for every 24 feet
of the work, who should be provided with two mallets, a saw, and a
handbill, or hatchet.

In order to form some idea of the time in which a field work may be
completed, compute the number of cubic feet of earth to be excavated,
thus; multiply half the sum of the breadth of the ditch at top and at
bottom, by the depth, for the number of square feet in the profile;
and this multiplied by the distance between the workmen in feet, will
give the number of cubic feet each man has to dig: or being multiplied
by the length of the ditch, gives the cubic contents of the ditch.
Now, one man is supposed to be able to move 216 cubic feet of earth
in a day, during the summer; but this is not always the case. If a
field work be completed in 24 hours, it will be as much as the most
diligent workmen are capable of. This time is generally allowed for
the formation of a weak profile; 48 hours for that of a stronger, with
a revetement of fascines; and 72 for the strongest.

The different slopes for the works must depend upon the nature of the
soil, and the materials of which the work is composed. The interior
slope of the parapet, though it be fascined, should be ⅙ of its height;
exterior about ⅔ its height. The slope of the banquette equal to its
height. The slope of the scarpe or counterscarpe of the ditch, should
be from half its height to its full height, according to the soil. The
superior slope of the parapet must entirely depend upon the situation
of the work, and that of the surrounding country. The interior slope of
the parapet is generally lined with fascines, to keep up the earth; but
it is not absolutely necessary to fascine the exterior slope, if the
soil be pretty stiff. The embrazures are generally made 20 inches wide
on the inside, and 9 feet on the outside; they must always be lined
with something to retain the earth; turf is generally preferred, as
fascines are so apt to take fire.

The manner of making the materials for field works, may be seen under
the heads _Fascines_, _Gabions_, _Hurdles_, &c. and the manner of
estimating the quantity of materials for works of this kind, may be
seen under the word _Battery_.


_Fortification—Permanent._

A _parapet_, to resist cannon, should never be less than 18 feet thick
in earth, and 8 or 9 in masonry. A wall need only be two feet thick
in masonry, to resist musquetry. The parapet should always be 4½ feet
above the banquette, and 7½ or 8 feet above the rampart, or terre plein.

The _Rampart_ should always be sufficiently wide to allow for the
platform, and for two carriages passing each other; about 9 fathoms
at top. A parapet of earth, though it takes more room, is always
preferable to one of masonry, when it can be raised; though the only
objection to the masonry is the number of splinters it produces.

Entire _Revetements_ of masonry are not advantageous for the same
reason. The masonry of revetements should not be so high as to be seen
or battered from a distance: earth parapets are battered in vain, as
the earth forms a natural slope.

The best _Escarpe_ is made of masonry, either in wet or dry ditches, be
the earthen one ever so well fraized or palissaded. The earthen one may
be stormed without making a breach. The escarpe should be 30 or 35 feet
high.

The _Counterscarpe_ should also be of masonry, and not less than 12
feet high. The inconveniences of an earth or low counterscarpe, are
the impossibility of defending to the last the covert way; as the
enemy may descend into the ditch, and again mount the covert way, and
so get in the rear of the traverses. The enemy may find his way along
the natural slope of an earth counterscarpe, and is not delayed by a
tedious operation of getting into the ditch. Besides, the natural slope
of the end of an earth traverse prevents its effectually covering the
covert way.

_Ditches_ are generally 15 or 18 toises wide. Dry ditches are always
preferable to wet ones, on account of the shelter they afford the
troops, and the ready communication with the outworks, without the
constant trouble and danger of bridges.

The _Covert way_ should be 5 toises wide; less would crowd the troops,
and more would allow room for the enemy to erect batteries in it.

The whole of the glacis should be seen, not only from the crest of the
parapet, but from the embrazures in the parapet.

The _Tenaile_, must not be so high as to prevent the flank guns in one
bastion seeing the breach that may be made in the collateral one.

_Ravelins_ are best without flanks; their faces directed to 10 toises
from the shoulders of the bastions.

The crest of the parapet of the body of the place should be 8 feet
above the crest of the glacis, to command it across a ditch of 15 or 20
toises.

The crest of the parapet of the ravelin is 3 feet lower than that
of the body of the place, in order that it may be more effectually
commanded from the place; and therefore to enable the parapet of the
ravelin to command its own glacis, the ditch is only made 10 toises,
and this glacis is a foot lower than that of the body of the place.

There must be an equilibrium of defence established through every
front of a fortified place; for it will be needless to strengthen any
particular front, if the others from their weakness be left exposed.
The following remarks may enable an observer to appreciate the value of
particular works, in the proper application and arrangement of which
that equilibrium consists.

_Intrenchments_ within the works add much to their defence. In
large bastions with obtuse flanked angles, the best intrenchment is
formed of the front of a fortification, or of two demi bastions and
a curtain, connecting the angles formed by the flank and curtain. If
this intrenchment be advanced to the shoulders of the bastion, so as
to include its flanks, as is often the case, it will be subject to be
taken in the rear, by the fire from the counter batteries opposed to
the flanks. But in bastions with acute flanked angles, which do not
afford sufficient space for this kind of intrenchment, Cormontaigne
proposes one in the form of a cavalier, whose faces and flanks are
parallel to those of the bastion. The first kind of intrenchment does
not operate in the defence of the place, till after the passage of the
ditch; till which time it remains entire, and then capable of a very
great defence. The second kind becomes a support to the bastion from
the first commencement of the siege; but it is therefore subject to
have its defences destroyed at a distance. Nor is its defence equal to
that of the other form.

_Counterguards_ should possess the three following properties: 1st.
They must cover effectually the principal work before which they are
placed; at least that part of it, which can be battered in breach. 2d.
They must be lower than the work which they cover; but not so low as to
permit its revetement to be seen. 3d. They must be so narrow as not to
afford room for the besiegers to erect batteries in them, against the
work which they cover, and therefore not leave the besiegers a choice
of positions. The counterguards in Coehorn’s system are only of earth,
through which it is necessary to make an opening, before the capital
work can be battered.

_Horn_ or _Crown Works_, unless to occupy some important point, to
strengthen some weak side, or to afford more room for a confined
garrison, are rather a weak than a strong arm to a place. This is
particularly the case when they are constructed with smaller, and
consequently weaker fronts, than that part of the body of the place
which they cover; as they facilitate, when taken, the approaches to
the body of the place. This is remedied by constructing their fronts
of the same strength as the front or fronts which they cover. They
also facilitate the taking of the place, by exposing the revetement
of the work on which their branches are directed, to be battered in
breach, along the ditches of those branches. This is a great evil,
even to an outwork, but is of serious consequence if they rest upon
the body of the place. This defect has been remedied by placing these
works altogether outside of the covert way, and allowing their ditch no
communication with those in the rear. In this case their gorge must be
made very secure to prevent its being turned.

An _Advanced Covert_ way, is esteemed amongst the best means of adding
to the defence of places. Besides the advantages common to the usual
covert way, it has many peculiar to itself. It however seems necessary
to ensure to it the many advantages of which it is susceptible,
(beside being properly palissaded,) that it should be secured in the
rear by a wet ditch, as the only means of giving it an inaccessible
counterscarpe, and at the same time keeping it under the fire of the
musquetry of the place. This kind of covert way is generally supported
by redoubts upon the capitals of the bastions and ravelins; which from
their position cannot mask the fire of the place; and being mounted
with artillery, oblige the besiegers to commence their attack at a
great distance, and very much to extend their operations; and as their
establishment upon this covert way must effectually mask the fire of
their first batteries, it must greatly increase their labour. The
retreat from these redoubts must be secured by an underground passage.

_Countermines_ are undoubtedly one of the first means of strengthening
places. For this article we refer to the word _Mines_.

_Detached Redoubts_, when circumstances of situation favour them, are
employed with great success. They are usually detached and totally
unconnected with any of the works of the place, by any covert way or
other aboveground work; and have for objects, either the opposing an
additional obstacle to the besiegers at the point they occupy, or
the rendering the adjoining fronts inaccessible, by an enfilade or
reverse fire upon the approaches. They also afford at their gorge, a
most excellent rendezvous and retreat for sorties; upon the level of
the country, and without the difficulty of filing troops through the
barrier of a covert way.

But in order to insure to the detached work or works, all these
advantages, it is necessary that they should be either totally
inaccessible to the besiegers, by reason of the natural difficulties
of their situation, as in an inundation, morass, &c. or be made secure
by art, from being taken by storm, and only attackable by regular
approaches. They should be under cover of the fire of the place; but
if their distance be too great for that, an intermediate work must be
established to give them support. Their best form is that of a bastion
with retired flanks; and a strong system of countermines the most
effectual way of prolonging their resistance.

_General Remarks._—The larger the flanked angles of works, the more
direct will be their fire, and that of their covert way, upon the
approaches; the greater extent will they oblige the besiegers to occupy
in their parallels and batteries; and the more will they oblige the
besiegers to expose themselves to the fire of the fronts collateral to
the one attacked. Faces of works directed to inaccessible situations,
such as rivers, lakes, &c. from whence they cannot be enfiladed by
ricochet batteries, add greatly to the strength of a front.

If the flanked angle of a ravelin be so advanced as to see in reverse
any battery erected upon the crest of the glacis, or in the covert
way of the bastions, it will increase the strength of that front;
because it will oblige the besiegers to gain possession of the ravelin,
before they can make any lodgement, from which they can batter the
bastions. This is the case in Cormontaigne’s system: and a place thus
fortified, obliges the besiegers to attack and gain two ravelins, to
get at the bastion between them. Beside, if this system be applied to
a right line, or to a polygon of many sides, the prolongations of the
faces of the bastions, will be intercepted by the flanked angle of
the ravelins, and consequently make the establishment of enfilading
batteries against them very difficult. A work which admits of a breach
being made in it (particularly the body of the place) at a distance,
very much facilitates its being taken. The ditch of the ravelin affords
an opening through which the besiegers may make a breach in the face
of the bastion, from the glacis, opposite the flanked angle of the
ravelin, and is therefore subject to this defect. A counterguard before
the bastion, lessens this evil, by transferring the breach from the
body of the place to the ravelin; but it requires a counterguard also
before the ravelin, effectually to cure it. A crown or horn work also
produces this evil; its remedy was given, in speaking of those works.

The direction of the flanks or faces of a work is not so material
as relating to the fire of artillery, as to that of musquetry; for
artillery is never fired without being pointed, but musquetry is fired
mechanically, and perpendicular to the parapet, without much attention
to the object to be struck.

A work in the neighbourhood of a height must be defiladed[7] from
that height, that is, instead of being built upon a horizontal plane,
it must be erected upon an imaginary inclined plane, passing from
somewhere in the interior of that work, over the most commanding points
of the height: and every part of the works must bear the same relation
to this inclined plane, that they would do, to a horizontal plane in a
level country.

A work is not therefore always to be condemned, because it is in the
neighbourhood of a height; for if it be properly defiladed from that
height, it will receive a great advantage over the approaches of the
besiegers, carried on down an inclined plane towards it. But a work
to be properly constructed in the neighbourhood of heights, must
not uniformly preserve the same distance from those heights, unless
their summits be all upon the same level; but must approach them at
their lowest parts, and recede from them as they rise; thus will the
necessary plane of defilement preserve nearly the same degree of
obliquity throughout.


_The Dimensions in the following Table of Vauban, are thus applied_:

The _Fort_ is mostly for squares.

The _Little_ for citadels, commonly pentagons.

The _Mean_ for all fortifications from the hexagon and upwards.

The _Great_ is seldom used but in irregular fortifications, and
particularly on rivers.

[7] The compiler must here apologize for coining the word _defiladed_,
which he is obliged to do, never having seen this subject treated of
in English. But the French use the word _defile_ in a contrary sense
to _enfile_; and as we admit the words enfilade and enfiladed from the
latter, we cannot refuse the terms defilade and defiladed from the
former.


_Principal Dimensions of Fortifications, according to_ VAUBAN.

    +-----------------+-------+-------------+--------+----------+
    |                 |Side of| Length of   |Faces of|Capital of|
    |                 |Polygon|Perpendicular|Bastions|Ravelins  |
    +-----------------+-------+-------------+--------+----------+
    | Forts.          |   80  |     10      |    22  |    25    |
    |                 |   90  |     12      |    25  |    28    |
    |                 |  100  |     12½     |    28  |    30    |
    |                 |  110  |     14      |    30  |    35    |
    |                 |  120  |     15      |    33  |    38    |
    |                 |  130  |     16      |    35  |    40    |
    |                 |       |             |        |          |
    | Little          |  140  |     20      |    40  |    45    |
    | Fortification.  |  150  |     21      |    42  |    50    |
    |                 |  160  |     23      |    45  |    50    |
    |                 |  170  |     25      |    47  |    52    |
    |                 |       |             |        |          |
    | Mean.           |  180  |     30      |    50  |    55    |
    |                 |  190  |     31      |    53  |    55    |
    |                 |       |             |        |          |
    | Great.          |  200  |     25      |    55  |    60    |
    |                 |  260  |     22      |    60  |    50    |
    +-----------------+-------+-------------+--------+----------+


_Dimensions of Walls and their Counterforts, from 10 to 50 Feet high,
having a Slope of ⅕ their Height._

    +--------------------------------++-----------------------------+
    |              Wall.             ||        Counterforts.        |
    +--------+-----------+-----------++--------+---------+----------+
    |        |           |           ||Distance|         |          |
    |        | Thickness |Thickness  ||between |         |          |
    |Height. |  at Top.  |at Bottom. || them.  | Breadth.|  Length. |
    +--------+-----------+-----------++--------+---------+----------+
    |Feet.   |Feet. Inch.|Feet. Inch.||  Feet. |Feet. In.| Feet. In.|
    |10      |  4    0   |  6    0   ||    8   |  2    8 |   4    — |
    |15      |  4    3   |  7    3   ||   10   |  3    4 |   5    — |
    |20      |  4    6   |  8    6   ||   12   |  4    0 |   6    — |
    |25      |  4    9   |  9    9   ||   14   |  4    8 |   7    — |
    |30      |  5    0   | 11    0   ||   16   |  5    4 |   8    — |
    |35      |  5    3   | 12    3   ||   18   |  6    0 |   9    — |
    |40      |  5    6   | 13    6   ||   20   |  6    8 |  10    — |
    |45      |  5    9   | 14    9   ||   22   |  7    4 |  11    — |
    |50      |  6    0   | 16    0   ||   24   |  8    0 |  12    — |
    +--------+-----------+-----------++--------+---------+----------+

The heights in the above table are taken only from the bottom of the
ditch, and do not include the foundations.

When the rampart is partly walled and partly turfed; then ⅕ of the
height of the turfed part must be added to the breadth of the wall at
the top given in the table.

The bases of all inward slopes of earth should be equal to their
height, if not more.

The bases of all outward slopes of earth ⅔ of their height.

The superior slopes of all parapets ⅙ of their breadth.

The slope of all walls, or revetement ⅕ of their height.

Though the above principles given for the erection of field works may
assist an officer’s recollection who may be employed on that duty,
the memorandums given respecting _permanent_ fortification pretend
to no such object: but may serve to remind an officer, if he should
visit a fortification, of its essential requisites; and may assist his
observations in passing round the works.


_FUZES.—Composition._

    Saltpetre      3 lbs.  4 oz.
    Sulphur        1       —
    Mealed powder  2      12

    +--------+------------------------+-------------------------+------+
    |Nature. |      Fuze Diameter.    |       Composition.      |Drove |
    |        +--------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+by one|
    |        | below  |at the | at the|Diameter.|Length.|Time it|man in|
    |        |the cup.|bottom.|  cup. |         |       |burns. |1 day.|
    +--------+--------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+------+
    |Inches. |  Inch. |Inches.|Inches.|  Inch.  | Inch. |   ″   |  Nᵒ. |
    | 13     |   2.1  | 1.575 | 2.49  |   .5    |  8.4  |   35  |   25 |
    | 10     |   1.8  | 1.35  | 2.13  |   .438  |  7.2  |   33  |   25 |
    | 8      |   1.3  | 1.25  | 1.78  |   .375  |  6.37 |   29  |   30 |
    | 5½     |   1.1  |  .825 | 1.3   |   .275  |  4.4  |   18  |   50 |
    | 4⅖     |   1.0  |  .75  | 1.18  |   .25   |  3.5  |   15  |  700 |
    |Grenades|   0.8  |  .6   |  .9   |   .2    |  2.25 |       | 1000 |
    +--------+--------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+------+

Diameter inside the cup is 3 diameters of the bore.

    Depth of the cup           1½ do.

Thickness of wood at bottom of the bore, 2 diameters.


_To find the Length of Fuzes for any Range._

The 13 and 10 inch fuzes of the same length burn so nearly equal, that
one common length answers both, as do the 8 inch, 5½ and 4⅖. Therefore,
to find the length of fuze for any range, multiply the time of flight
by .22 for the 13 and 10 inch, and by .24 for the 8, 5½, and 4⅖; which
is the decimal part of an inch a fuze burns in a second. Fuzes are
thought to keep better by being painted; and for field service, are
often marked off by black lines into seconds and ½ seconds.




_GABIONS._—Small gabions of 3 feet high, and 2 feet diameter, are made
with least trouble, and are easiest carried. The pickets for them must
be 1½ or 2 inches thick, and 4 feet long. Large gabions are 6 feet
high, and 3 feet in diameter; and require two men to carry them. The
smallest gabions or baskets are formed of pickets, 1 inch in thickness,
and 1 foot long: they are 12 inches in diameter at top, and 10 at
bottom. The small gabions have 7 or 8 pickets, the large ones 9 or 10.

_To make them._—The pickets are first to be fixed in the ground in a
circle, the size of the bottom of the intended gabion; then a few twigs
are to be wove through the upper ends, to keep them from flying out;
afterwards the work must be begun at the bottom and continued upwards;
and the whole being well driven down with a mallet, the edges must be
secured by twigs, wattled up and down. The twigs of willow, birch,
hazle, alder, poplar, and beech are proper for this purpose. The top
of the gabion must be made very even, because that becomes the bottom
when finished. Four men are usually employed on each gabion, with a
billhook, a mallet, a spade, and two axes. Two collect the wood, while
the other two form the gabion. A 3 foot gabion ought to be made in half
an hour.


_GIN Triangle._—Length of arms of the gin 16 feet 4½ inches. Roller,
6 feet long. Tackle fall, 78 feet of 3 inch white rope. Sling, 6 inch
white rope.

For the different exercises of the gin, see the word _Exercise_.


_GRAVITY.—Table of the Specific Gravity of several Solid and Fluid
Bodies._

    Platina                 23400    Nitre                    1900
    Fine gold               19640    Ivory                    1825
    Standard gold           18888    Brimstone                1810
    Quicksilver             11325    Solid gunpowder          1745
    Fine silver             11091    Sand                     1520
    Standard silver         10535    Coal                     1250
    Copper                   9000    Boxwood                  1030
    Copper halfpence         8915    Sea water                1030
    Gun metal                8784    Common water             1000
    Cast brass               8000    Oak                       925
    Steel                    7850    Gunpowder, close stacken  937
    Iron                     7645        ”      in loose heap  836
    Cast iron                7425    Ash                       800
    Tin                      7320    Maple                     755
    Crystal glass            3150    Elm                       600
    Marble                   2700    Fir                       550
    Common green glass       2600    Charcoal
    Flint                    2570    Cork                      240
    Common stone             2520    Air                     1.232
    Clay                     2160
    Brick                    2000
    Common earth             1984

The several sorts of wood are supposed dry.

This table also contains the weight of a cubic foot of each body in
avoirdupois ounces; from whence results the following rules:


1. _To find the Magnitude of any Body from its Weight._

    As the tabular specific gravity of the body
    Is to its weight in avoirdupois ounces,
    So is one cubic foot, or 1728 cubic inches,
    To its content in feet or inches respectively.

2. _To find the Weight of a Body from its Magnitude._

    As one cubic foot, or 1728 cubic inches,
    Is to the content of the body,
    So is the tabular specific gravity
    To the weight of the body.


_GRAPE SHOT._—See the word _Shot_.


_GRANADES._—Hand granades may be thrown to the distance of 13 fathoms.
For their dimensions, see the word _Shell_.


_GUNNERY._—By the assistance of good tables of practice, and the tables
of amplitudes, sines, tangents, and secants, all the cases in gunnery
in a nonresisting medium may be easily solved; and perhaps the solution
may be sufficiently correct for practice, if the initial velocity
of the projectile be not so great as to make the air’s resistance
considerable.

For the tables of ranges with ordnance, see the different natures, as
_Gun_, _Mortar_, &c. and for the tables of amplitudes, sines, tangents,
and secants, see pages 151 and 152.


_Upon Horizontal Planes._

1. The greatest range is at 45° nearly.

2. The ranges with different elevations with the same charge, are as
the double sines of the angles of elevation.

3. Any angle and its complement give the same range nearly.

4. The times of flight, are as the sines of the angles of elevation.

5. The altitude of the curve, at any elevation, is found by this
proportion: as

    Radius : tangent of angle of elevation :: range : altitude.
                                              -----
                                                4

6. The time of flight at 45° is equal the square root of the range in
feet, divided by 4, or more nearly = √(quotient)² of the range in feet,
divided by 16.1, or the space passed through in the first second by
gravity.

Having the first graze with a given elevation and charge, to determine
the charge for any other first graze and elevation, multiply the known
charge and elevation into the proposed first graze; also the proposed
elevation into the known first graze, and divide the first product by
the last, for the charge required.


_Upon inclined Planes, at 45° Elevation._

_Case 1st. Given the charge and inclination of the plane, to find the
range._

Multiply the horizontal range with this given charge, (found in the
tables of ranges) by the number found opposite the angle of inclination
of the plane, in the first column of multipliers, in the table of
amplitudes, under the head _Ascents_, if it be inclined above the
horizon; and _Descents_, if below the horizon, for the range required.

_Case 2d. Given the range and inclination of the plane, to find the
charge._

Multiply the number found in the abovementioned table opposite the
angle of inclination of the plane, in the second column of multipliers,
under the head _Ascents_, or _Descents_, according as it is above or
below the horizon, by the given range; for the range on a horizontal
plane at 45°, the charge for which may be found from the tables of
ranges.

_Upon Inclined Planes, at any Elevation._

There are always two elevations with which any range, (less than the
greatest) may be made; and these elevations are always the complements
of each other. The greatest range upon a horizontal plane is at 45°;
or when the direction bisects the angle formed by the horizontal and
vertical plane; also the greatest range upon any plane is made with
that direction which bisects the angle between the plane and the
zenith; and all other directions which make equal angles with this
direction, (on each side of it) will also make equal ranges on the said
plane; for the direction that bisects the angle between any plane and
the zenith is the same with respect to that plane as the direction at
45° is with respect to the plane of the horizon.

_Rules._—1st. The elevation which gives the greatest range on a given
ascent, is equal to half the sum of 90° added to the ascent.

2d. The elevation which give equal ranges on a given ascent, are the
complements of each other added to the ascent.

3d. The elevation which gives the greatest range on a descent, is equal
to half the complement of the descent.

If the range and inclination be given, the least charge that will
reach the object, may be found as follows: multiply the tangent of
the proper elevation into the proposed range, for the horizontal range
whose charge is required.

    WILLIAMS’S _Gunnery_.


_Table of Amplitudes._

    +--------+-----------------+---------------+
    |Degrees.|     Ascents.    |   Descents.   |
    |        |   Multipliers.  |  Multipliers  |
    +--------+--------+--------+--------+------+
    |        |1st.cl. | 2d.cl. |1st.cl. |2d.cl.|
    |   1    |  .983  |  1.02  |  1.02  | .983 |
    |   2    |  .966  |  1.03  |  1.04  | .966 |
    |   3    |  .949  |  1.06  |  1.05  | .950 |
    |   4    |  .932  |  1.07  |  1.07  | .932 |
    |   5    |  .916  |  1.09  |  1.09  | .916 |
    |   6    |  .900  |  1.11  |  1.11  | .900 |
    |   7    |  .884  |  1.13  |  1.13  | .884 |
    |   8    |  .868  |  1.15  |  1.15  | .868 |
    |   9    |  .852  |  1.18  |  1.17  | .853 |
    |  10    |  .836  |  1.20  |  1.19  | .836 |
    |  11    |  .821  |  1.22  |  1.22  | .821 |
    |  12    |  .805  |  1.24  |  1.24  | .805 |
    |  13    |  .789  |  1.27  |  1.27  | .789 |
    |  14    |  .774  |  1.29  |  1.29  | .774 |
    |  15    |  .758  |  1.32  |  1.31  | .763 |
    |  16    |  .742  |  1.35  |  1.34  | .745 |
    |  17    |  .726  |  1.38  |  1.37  | .730 |
    |  18    |  .711  |  1.40  |  1.39  | .720 |
    |  19    |  .693  |  1.45  |  1.42  | .704 |
    |  20    |  .677  |  1.48  |  1.45  | .690 |
    |  21    |  .660  |  1.52  |  1.48  | .675 |
    |  22    |  .643  |  1.56  |  1.52  | .662 |
    |  23    |  .625  |  1.60  |  1.55  | .645 |
    |  24    |  .607  |  1.64  |  1.58  | .633 |
    |  25    |  .589  |  1.70  |  1.62  | .617 |
    |  26    |  .570  |  1.76  |  1.66  | .603 |
    |  27    |  .550  |  1.82  |  1.69  | .592 |
    |  28    |  .530  |  1.86  |  1.73  | .578 |
    |  29    |  .510  |  1.96  |  1.78  | .562 |
    |  30    |  .488  |  2.05  |  1.82  | .549 |
    |  31    |  .466  |  2.14  |  1.87  | .534 |
    |  32    |  .442  |  2.26  |  1.92  | .526 |
    |  33    |  .418  |  2.41  |  1.97  | .508 |
    |  34    |  .393  |  2.55  |  2.02  | .495 |
    |  35    |  .366  |  2.73  |  2.08  | .488 |
    |  36    |  .338  |  2.96  |  2.13  | .470 |
    |  37    |  .309  |  3.24  |  2.20  | .455 |
    |  38    |  .278  |  3.60  |  2.26  | .443 |
    |  39    |  .245  |  4.09  |  2.33  | .430 |
    |  40    |  .210  |  4.80  |  2.40  | .417 |
    |  41    |  .173  |  5.78  |  2.48  | .404 |
    |  42    |  .134  |  7.46  |  2.56  | .390 |
    |  43    |  .092  | 10.90  |  2.64  | .380 |
    |  44    |  .045  | 22.22  |  2.73  | .370 |
    |  45    |  .000  |infinite|  2.83  | .360 |
    +--------+--------+--------+--------+------+


_Table of Natural Sines, Tangents, and Secants._

    +--------+------+---------+--------+
    |Degrees.|Sines.|Tangents.|Secants.|
    +--------+------+---------+--------+
    |    1   | .018 |   .018  |  1.000 |
    |    2   | .035 |   .035  |  1.000 |
    |    3   | .052 |   .052  |  1.001 |
    |    4   | .070 |   .070  |  1.002 |
    |    5   | .087 |   .087  |  1.004 |
    |    6   | .105 |   .105  |  1.006 |
    |    7   | .122 |   .123  |  1.008 |
    |    8   | .139 |   .141  |  1.010 |
    |    9   | .156 |   .158  |  1.012 |
    |   10   | .174 |   .176  |  1.015 |
    |   11   | .191 |   .194  |  1.019 |
    |   12   | .208 |   .213  |  1.022 |
    |   13   | .225 |   .231  |  1.026 |
    |   14   | .242 |   .249  |  1.031 |
    |   15   | .259 |   .268  |  1.035 |
    |   16   | .276 |   .287  |  1.040 |
    |   17   | .292 |   .306  |  1.046 |
    |   18   | .309 |   .325  |  1.051 |
    |   19   | .326 |   .344  |  1.058 |
    |   20   | .342 |   .364  |  1.064 |
    |   21   | .358 |   .384  |  1.071 |
    |   22   | .375 |   .404  |  1.079 |
    |   23   | .391 |   .424  |  1.086 |
    |   24   | .407 |   .445  |  1.095 |
    |   25   | .423 |   .466  |  1.103 |
    |   26   | .438 |   .488  |  1.112 |
    |   27   | .454 |   .510  |  1.122 |
    |   28   | .469 |   .532  |  1.133 |
    |   29   | .485 |   .554  |  1.143 |
    |   30   | .500 |   .577  |  1.155 |
    |   31   | .515 |   .601  |  1.167 |
    |   32   | .530 |   .625  |  1.179 |
    |   33   | .545 |   .649  |  1.192 |
    |   34   | .559 |   .675  |  1.206 |
    |   35   | .574 |   .700  |  1.221 |
    |   36   | .588 |   .727  |  1.236 |
    |   37   | .602 |   .754  |  1.252 |
    |   38   | .616 |   .781  |  1.269 |
    |   39   | .629 |   .810  |  1.287 |
    |   40   | .643 |   .839  |  1.305 |
    |   41   | .656 |   .869  |  1.325 |
    |   42   | .669 |   .900  |  1.346 |
    |   43   | .682 |   .933  |  1.367 |
    |   44   | .695 |   .966  |  1.390 |
    |   45   | .707 |  1.000  |  1.414 |
    |   46   | .719 |  1.036  |  1.440 |
    |   47   | .731 |  1.072  |  1.466 |
    |   48   | .743 |  1.111  |  1.494 |
    |   49   | .755 |  1.150  |  1.524 |
    |   50   | .766 |  1.192  |  1.556 |
    |   51   | .777 |  1.235  |  1.589 |
    |   52   | .788 |  1.280  |  1.624 |
    |   53   | .799 |  1.327  |  1.662 |
    |   54   | .809 |  1.376  |  1.701 |
    |   55   | .819 |  1.428  |  1.743 |
    |   56   | .829 |  1.483  |  1.788 |
    |   57   | .839 |  1.540  |  1.836 |
    |   58   | .848 |  1.600  |  1.887 |
    |   59   | .857 |  1.664  |  1.942 |
    |   60   | .866 |  1.732  |  2.000 |
    |   61   | .875 |  1.804  |  2.063 |
    |   62   | .883 |  1.881  |  2.130 |
    |   63   | .891 |  1.963  |  2.203 |
    |   64   | .899 |  2.050  |  2.281 |
    |   65   | .906 |  2.145  |  2.366 |
    |   66   | .914 |  2.246  |  2.459 |
    |   67   | .921 |  2.356  |  2.559 |
    |   68   | .927 |  2.475  |  2.669 |
    |   69   | .934 |  2.605  |  2.790 |
    |   70   | .940 |  2.747  |  2.924 |
    |   71   | .946 |  2.904  |  3.072 |
    |   72   | .951 |  3.078  |  3.236 |
    |   73   | .956 |  3.271  |  3.420 |
    |   74   | .961 |  3.487  |  3.628 |
    |   75   | .966 |  3.732  |  3.864 |
    |   76   | .970 |  4.011  |  4.134 |
    |   77   | .974 |  4.331  |  4.445 |
    |   78   | .978 |  4.705  |  4.810 |
    |   79   | .982 |  5.145  |  5.241 |
    |   80   | .985 |  5.671  |  5.759 |
    |   81   | .988 |  6.314  |  6.392 |
    |   82   | .990 |  7.115  |  7.185 |
    |   83   | .993 |  8.144  |  8.206 |
    |   84   | .995 |  9.514  |  9.567 |
    |   85   | .996 | 11.430  | 11.474 |
    |   86   | .998 | 14.301  | 14.336 |
    |   87   | .999 | 19.081  | 19.107 |
    |   88   | .999 | 28.636  | 28.654 |
    |   89   | .999 | 57.290  | 57.299 |
    |   90   | 1.000|infinite.|  ————  |
    +--------+------+---------+--------+


_GUNS.—Calibers of English and Foreign Guns, expressed in English
Inches._

    +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
    |English. | French. | Spanish | Dutch.  | Russian.| Portug. |
    +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
    |Pr. Inch.|Pr. Inch.|Pr. Inch.|Pr. Inch.|Pr. Inch.|Pr. Inch.|
    |42 |7.018| — | —   | —  |—   | — | —   |36 |6.86 |48 |7.49 |
    |32 |6.41 |36 |6.9  |36 |6.84 |32 |6.4  |30 |6.47 |36 |6.8  |
    |24 |5.823|24 |6.03 |24 |6.03 |24 |5.92 |24 |6.   |24 |5.93 |
    |18 |5.292|16 |5.26 |18 |5.52 |18 |5.45 |18 |5.45 |18 |5.4  |
    |12 |4.623|12 |4.78 |12 |4.8  |12 |4.76 |12 |4.76 |12 |4.7  |
    | 9 |4.200| 8 |4.18 | 9 |4.2  | 8 |4.13 | 8 |4.17 | 9 |4.3  |
    | 6 |3.668| — |  —  | — |  —  | 6 |3.78 | 6 |3.78 | 6 |3.75 |
    | 4 |3.204| 4 |3.315| — |  —  | — |  —  | — |  —  | — |  —  |
    | 3 |3.913| — |  —  | — |  —  | — |  —  | — |  —  | — |  —  |
    | 1 |2.019| — |  —  | — |  —  | — |  —  | — |  —  | — |  —  |
    +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+


_Length and Width of English Brass Guns._

    +-----------------------+-----------------+-------------+
    | Nature.               |    Length in    |   Weight.   |
    +-----------------------+-----------------+-------------+
    |                       |Calib’rs.|Ft. In.|Ct. qrs. lbs.|
    | 42  Pounders          | 16.244  | 9   6 | 66   —    — |
    | 32     ”              | 18.721  |10   0 | 55   2    — |
    +----+------------------+-----------------+-------------+
    |    |Heavy             | 19.574  | 9   6 | 53   0    9 |
    |    |Medium            | 16.483  | 8   0 | 41   3    2 |
    | 24 |Light             | 10.302  | 5   0 | 16   3   13 |
    |    |  ”     new       | 13.000  | 6   3 | 24   0    — |
    +----+------------------+-----------------+-------------+
    | 18 |Light    ”        | 13.000  | 5   9 | 18   0    — |
    +----+------------------+-----------------+-------------+
    |    |Heavy             | 24.659  | 9   0 | 31   2    8 |
    |    |Gen. Desagulier’s | 19.468  | 7   6 | 22   1   21 |
    | 12 |Medium, old       | 16.872  | 6   6 | 21   3    — |
    |    |Medium, new‡      | 16.872  | 6   6 | 18   —    — |
    |    |Light             | 12.978  | 5   0 |  8   3    4 |
    |    |  ”     new‡      | 13.000  | 5   0 | 12   —    — |
    +----+------------------+-----------------+-------------+
    |    |Heavy             | 26.112  | 8   0 | 19   1    6 |
    |    |Gen. Desag. Med.‡ | 22.876  | 7   0 | 12   —   24 |
    | 6  |Med. new          | 18.500  | 6   0 |  8   3   27 |
    |    | ”   reduced      | 17.000  | 5   6 |  8   0   22 |
    |    |General Belford’s‡| 16.342  | 5   0 |  5   2   21 |
    |    |Light, common     | 14.706  | 4   6 |  5   —   18 |
    +----+------------------+-----------------+-------------+
    |    |Heavy             | 28.836  | 7   0 | 11   3   19 |
    |    |Gen. Desagulier’s‡| 24.717  | 6   0 |  6   —    — |
    |  3 |Light, common‡    | 14.418  | 3   6 |  2   2   27 |
    |    |Light infantry    | 12.358  | 3   0 |  1   3   16 |
    |    |General Pattison’s| 12.358  | 3   0 |  1   2   19 |
    +----+------------------+-----------------+-------------+
    | 1  | Pr. Amuzette     | 29.7    | 5   0 |  2   2   12 |
    |    | Do.              | 35.6    | 6   0 |  3   0   11 |
    |    | Do.              | 41.5    | 7   0 |  3   1   12 |
    +----+------------------+-----------------+-------------+

NOTE. The guns marked (‡) are the only ones now used on general
service.


_Length and Weight of French Brass Guns, in their own Weights and
Measures._

    +---------------------+-----------------------+------+
    |       Nature.       |      Length in        |Weight|
    +---------------------+---------+-------------+------+
    |                     |Calibers.| Ft. In. Li. | lbs. |
    | 24 Prs. Siege       |   —     |  9  11   5  | 5628 |
    | 16  ”               |   —     |  9   7   —  | 4111 |
    +---------------------+---------+-------------+------+
    | 12  ”   Garrison    |   —     |  —   —   —  | 3184 |
    |  8  ”               |   —     |  —   —   —  | 2175 |
    +---------------------+---------+-------------+------+
    | 12  ”               | 18.0    |  6   6   —  | 1808 |
    |  8  ”   Field       | 18.     |  5   8   —  | 1196 |
    |  4  ”               | 18.     |  4   6   —  |  590 |
    +---------------------+---------+-------------+------+
    |  1  ”               |  —      |  —   —   —  |  266 |
    +---------------------+---------+-------------+------+


_Length and Weight of English Iron Guns._

        +----------+-----------------+---------+---------------+
        |          |                 |         |  Proportion   |
        |  Nature. |    Length in    | Weight. | between shot  |
        |          |                 |         |  and gun.[8]  |
        +----------+---------+-------+---------+---------------+
        |          |Calibers.|Ft. In.| Ct.  Qr.|               |
        |          |         |       |         |               |
        | 42 Prs.  | 17.098  | 10  — |  67   — |               |
        |          | 16.244  |  9  6 |  65   — |      170      |
        |          |         |       |         |               |
        | 32  ”    | 18.721  | 10  — |  58   — |               |
        |          | 17.725  |  9  6 |  55   — |      193      |
        |          |         |       |         |               |
        |          | 20.604  | 10  — |  52   — |               |
        | 24  ”    | 19.574  |  9  6 |  49   2 |      231      |
        |          | 18.542  |  9  — |  47   2 |               |
        |          |         |       |         |               |
        | 18  ”    | 21.542  |  9  6 |  42   — |               |
        |          | 20.408  |  9  — |  40   — |      249      |
        |          |         |       |         |               |
        |          | 24.659  |  9  6 |  34   — |               |
        | 12  ”    | 23.361  |  9  — |  32   — |               |
        |          | 22.063  |  8  6 |  31   2 |               |
        |          | 19.468  |  7  6 |  29   1 |      294      |
        |          |         |       |         |               |
        |  9  ”    | 21.4    |  7  6 |  24   2 |      305      |
        |          | 19.9    |  7  — |  23   — |               |
        |          |         |       |         |               |
        |  6  ”    | 26.2    |  8  — |  22   — |               |
        |          | 19.6    |  6  — |  16   2 |      411      |
        |          |         |       |         |               |
        |  4  ”    | 22.4    |  6  — |  22   1 |      343      |
        |          | 20.6    |  5  6 |  11   1 |               |
        |          |         |       |         |               |
        |  3  ”    | 18.6    |  4  6 |   7   1 |      270      |
        +----------+---------+-------+---------+---------------+

    [8] This column expresses the number of pounds of metal in the guns, to
each pound in the shot.


_French Iron Guns, in English Weights, &c._

    +---------------+-------------------+------------+
    |    Nature.    |      Length in    |   Weight.  |
    +---------------+----------+--------+------------+
    |               |Calibers. |Ft. In. |Ct. Qr. lbs.|
    |               |          |        |            |
    | 36 Pounders   |  16.18   | 9   8  | 74   3   — |
    +---------------+----------+--------+------------+
    | 24    ”       |  18.18   | 9   1½ | 51   —   — |
    +---------------+----------+--------+------------+
    |               |  21.01   | 9   7  | 42   —   — |
    | 16    ”       |  18.45   | 8   4  | 43   2   — |
    |               |  16.92   | 7   8½ | 35   —   — |
    +---------------+----------+--------+------------+
    |               |  21.54   | 8   7  | 31   2   — |
    | 12    ”       |  20.5    | 8   2  | 20   3   — |
    |               |  17.14   | 6  10  | 28   —   — |
    +---------------+----------+--------+------------+
    |  8    ”       |  24.64   | 8   7  | 24   1   — |
    |               |  17.22   | 6   —  | 16   —   — |
    +---------------+----------+--------+------------+
    |  4    ”       |  17.19   | 4   9  |  —   —   — |
    +---------------+----------+--------+------------+


_Ranges of Brass Guns, with one Shot. 1793._

    +----------------------+--------+-------------------------------+
    |                      | Charge |To the first graze of the Shot.|
    |         Nature.      |        +-----+----+----+----+----+-----+
    |                      |        |P. B.| 1° | 2° | 3° | 4° | 5°  |
    +----------------------+--------+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+
    |                      | lb.oz. | Yds.|Yds.|Yds.|Yds.|Yds.|Yds. |
    +----------------------+--------+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+
    |   Heavy              |  8  0  |  473| 781|1032|1405|1585|1710 |
    |24 Medium             |  8  0  |  488| 757|1103|1425|1557|1745 |
    |   Light              |  3  0  |  162| 364| 606| 722|    |1390 |
    +----------------------+--------+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+
    |   Heavy              |        |     |    |    |    |    |     |
    |12 Medium             |  4  0  |     | 705| 973|1189|    |     |
    |   Light              |  3  0  |     | 601| 816|1063|    |     |
    +----------------------+--------+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+
    |   Desagulier’s       |  2  0  |     | 646| 966|1325|    |     |
    |   6 Feet             |  2  0  |     | 683| 948|1327|    |     |
    | 6 5 : 6 Medi.        |  2  0  |     | 775|1003|1444|    |     |
    |   5 : 6 Red’d.       |  2  0  |     | 642| 976|1150|    |     |
    |   5 Feet             |  1  8  |     | 587| 825| 950|    |     |
    |   4 : 6 Feet         |  1  8  |     | 628| 804| 991|    |     |
    +----------------------+--------+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+
    | 3 Desagulier’s       |  1  0  |     | 679| 883| 918|    |     |
    |   Ammuzette of 5 feet|  0  8  |     | 604| 800|    |    |     |
    |      ”      of 7 feet|  0  8  |     | 656| 830|1000|    |     |
    +----------------------+--------+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+


_Ranges from Brass Guns, with Two Shot. 1793._

    +-------------------+--------+----------+--------------------+
    |     Nature.       |Charge. |Elevation.| Medium first Graze.|
    +-------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+
    |                   |lbs. oz.|  1° 30′  | 1st Shot.| 2d Shot.|
    |                   |        |          |          |         |
    |12 Pounder, Medium | 4    — |  1  30   |   607    |   706   |
    | 6 : Desagulier’s  | 2    — |  1  30   |   621    |   739   |
    | 6 : of 5 feet     | 1    8 |  1  30   |   586    |   732   |
    | 3 : Desagulier’s  | 1    — |  1  30   |   523    |   638   |
    +-------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+


_Ranges from Brass Field Guns, with small Charges. 1798._

  +-------+------+----------------------------------+------------------+
  |       |      |         First Graze with         |                  |
  |Nature.|Charge|      different Elevations.       |  Extreme Range.  |
  +-------+------+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+------------------+
  |       |      | 1°| 2°| 3°| 4°| 5°| 6° | 7° | 8° |                  |
  +-------+------+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+------------------+
  |12 Pr. |10 oz.|199|290|390|385|597| 716| 695| 788|From  800 to 1000.|
  |       | 1 lb.|280|416|729|777|966|1090|1054|1295|From 1200 to 1500.|
  +-------+------+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+------------------+
  | 6 Pr. | 5 oz.|111|222|376|432|618| 625| 650| 788|From  800 to 1000.|
  |       | 8 oz.|277|401|754|826|925| 980|1103|1100|From 1000 to 1300.|
  +-------+------+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+------------------+

=N. B.= The above was a 12 Pr. Medium, and a 6 Pr. Desagulier’s. The
Distances are given in Yards.


_Effects of Case Shot from a Battalion Gun.—Light 6 Pr. Length 5
feet—Weight 5 cwt. 3 qrs. 21 lbs. against a Target 8 feet high, and 90
feet long._

    +--------+-----------------+----------+------------+------------+
    |Distance|                 |          |Nᵒ. put     |Nᵒ. put     |
    |   of   |                 |          |into the    |into the    |
    | Target.|Nature of Charge.|Elevation.|height of 6 |height of 8 |
    |        |                 |          |feet, or the|feet, or the|
    |        |                 |          |height of   |height of   |
    |        |                 |          |_Infantry_. |_Cavalry_.  |
    +--------+-----------------+----------+------------+------------+
    | Yards. |                 |   Deg.   |            |            |
    |        |12 Balls, 8 oz.  |    1     |     3      |     3      |
    |  500   |  each, 3 in a   |    1½    |     3      |     4      |
    |        |  tier, 1¼ lb.   |          |            |            |
    |        |  powder.        |    2     |     3      |     4      |
    +--------+-----------------+----------+------------+------------+
    |        |                 |    1     |     6      |     6      |
    |  400   |Same Charge.     |    1½    |     4      |     5      |
    |        |                 |    2     |     4      |     5      |
    +--------+-----------------+----------+------------+------------+
    |        |                 |    ½     |     6      |     7      |
    |  300   |Same Charge.     |    1     |     3      |     3      |
    |        |                 |    1½    |     4      |     6      |
    +--------+-----------------+----------+------------+------------+
    |        |34 Balls, 3 oz.  |  P. B.   |    10      |    12      |
    |  400   |  each, 7 in a   |    ½     |     9      |    10      |
    |        |  tier, 1¼ lb.   |    1     |     6      |     8      |
    |        |  powder.        |          |            |            |
    +--------+-----------------+----------+------------+------------+
    |        |                 |  P. B.   |    11      |    13      |
    |  300   |Same Charge.     |    ½     |    12      |    15      |
    |        |                 |    1     |     7      |     9      |
    +--------+-----------------+----------+------------+------------+

=N. B.= There were three rounds fired at each change, but they were all
so nearly alike that it has been thought necessary to put down only one
of them.—1802.


_Ranges with Sea Service Iron Guns. 1796._

    +------------------------------------------------------------------+
    |             Nature of Guns 32, 24, and 18 Pounders.              |
    +----------+----------+------------------------------------+-------+
    |Elevation.|Proportion|          Nature of Shot.           | Range.|
    |          |of powder.|                                    |       |
    +----------+----------+------------------------------------+-------+
    |   Deg.   |          |                                    |Yards. |
    |    2     |    ⅓     |With single Shot to the first graze.| 1200  |
    |    2     |    ¼     |    Do.        Do.                  | 1000  |
    |    2     |    ¼     |2 Shot, ranged close together, to   |  500  |
    |    4     |    ⅓     |Single Shot                         | 1600  |
    |    4     |    ¼     |    Do.                             | 1500  |
    |    7     |    ⅓     |    Do.                             | 2150  |
    |    7     |    ¼     |    Do.                             | 2020  |
    +----------+----------+------------------------------------+-------+
    |          |          |One round shot, and 1 round         |       |
    |    2     |    ¼     |  of grape, will range with         |  600  |
    |          |          |  effect together, to               |       |
    +----------+----------+------------------------------------+-------+
    |    4     |    ¼     |One round of grape shot, alone, to  | 1000  |
    +----------+----------+------------------------------------+-------+
    |          |          |One double headed, or bar shot,     |       |
    |    2     |    ¼     |   will range to the first graze    |  800  |
    +----------+----------+------------------------------------+-------+


_Ranges with 5½ Inch Shells, from a 24 Pounder Iron Gun, Length of Gun
9½ Feet—Weight 49 ct. 26 lbs._

    +----------+-----------------------++-----------------------+
    |          |       2 Pounds.       ||     2 lbs. 8 oz.      |
    |          +-------+---------------++-------+---------------+
    |          |       |   Range to    ||       |   Range to    |
    |Elevation.|Flight.+------+--------+|Flight.+------+--------+
    |          |       |First |Extreme.||       |First |Extreme.|
    |          |       |Graze.|        ||       |Graze.|        |
    +----------+-------+------+--------++-------+------+--------+
    |  Deg.    |  Sec. |Yards.| Yards. || Sec.  |Yards.| Yards. |
    |   1      |  1    |  213 |  1139  || 2¾    |  562 |  1456  |
    |   2      |  1¾   |  384 |  1267  || 1½    |  442 |  1413  |
    |   3      |  2¾   |  565 |  1413  || 2½    |  647 |  1553  |
    |   4      |  2¼   |  750 |  1479  || 3¾    |  896 |  1639  |
    |   5      |  3¾   |  836 |  1670  || 4     |  915 |  1510  |
    |   6      |  4    |  896 |  1495  || 5     | 1140 |  1657  |
    |   7      |  6½   | 1180 |  1492  || 6     | 1205 |  1481  |
    |   8      |  6¾   | 1305 |  1526  || 6½    | 1259 |  1544  |
    |   9      |  7½   | 1329 |  1527  || 7     | 1341 |  1561  |
    |   9½     |  6¾   | 1229 |  1453  ||  —    |  ——  |   ——   |
    +----------+-------+------+--------++-------+------+--------+
    |          |       3 Pounds.       |
    |          +-------+---------------+
    |          |Flight.|   Range to    |
    |Elevation.|       +------+--------+
    |          |       |First |Extreme.|
    |          |       |Graze.|        |
    +----------+-------+------+--------+
    |  Deg.    | Sec.  |Yards.| Yards. |
    |   1      | 1     |  277 |  1424  |
    |   2      | 1¾    |  526 |  1464  |
    |   3      | 2¼    |  740 |  1600  |
    |   4      | 3½    |  880 |  1679  |
    |   5      | 5     | 1182 |  1733  |
    |   6      | 6¼    | 1384 |  1787  |
    |   7      | 6¼    | 1410 |  1749  |
    |   8      | 7     | 1520 |  1744  |
    |   9      | 7¾    | 1722 |  1938  |
    |   9½     | 8½    | 1748 |  1881  |
    +----------+-------+------+--------+


_Ranges with 4⅖ Shells from a 12 Pounder, Medium._

    +----------+-----------------------++-----------------------+
    |          |       8 Ounces.       ||       12 Ounces.      |
    |          +-------+---------------++-------+---------------+
    |Elevation.|Flight.|First |Extreme ||Flight.|First |Extreme |
    |          |       |Graze.| Range. ||       |Graze.| Range. |
    +----------+-------+------+--------++-------+------+--------+
    |  Deg.    | Sec.  |Yards.| Yards. || Sec.  |Yards.| Yards. |
    |   1      |  1½   | 156  |        ||       |      |        |
    |   2      |  2    | 293  |        ||  2½   |  350 |        |
    |   3      |  2½   | 363  |  From  ||  3½   |  355 |  From  |
    |   4      |  3½   | 462  |   800  ||  4    |  679 |  1100  |
    |   5      |  4    | 587  |   to   ||  3½   |  641 |   to   |
    |   6      |  4    | 621  |  1200  ||  5    |  941 |  1300  |
    |   7      |  4½   | 898  |        ||  6    | 1020 |        |
    |   8      |  5    | 781  |        ||       |      |        |
    +----------+-------+------+--------++-------+------+--------+
    |          |      1 lb. 8 oz.      |
    |          +-------+---------------+
    |Elevation.|Flight.|First |Extreme |
    |          |       |Graze.| Range. |
    +----------+-------+------+--------+
    |  Deg.    | Sec.  |Yards.| Yards. |
    |   1      |       |      |        |
    |   2      |       |  707 |        |
    |   3      |       |  758 |  From  |
    |   4      |       |  849 |  1400  |
    |   5      |       | 1075 |   to   |
    |   6      |       | 1150 |  1600  |
    |   7      |       | 1300 |        |
    |   8      |       |      |        |
    +----------+-------+------+--------+


_Ranges with French Brass Field Guns, with Round Shot._

    +-------+----------+-----------------------+-------+
    |       |          |       Elevation.      |       |
    |       |          +-------------+---------+ Range |
    |Nature.|  Charge. |  Lines of   |         |   in  |
    |       |          |Tangt. Scale.|Deg. Min.|Toises.|
    +-------+----------+-------------+---------+-------+
    |       |          |    L. M.    |  —   58 |  300  |
    |       |          |       2     |  1    3 |  350  |
    | 12 Pr.| 4 lbs.   |      10     |  1   39 |  400  |
    |       |          |      14     |  1   49 |  450  |
    |       |          |      16     |  1   56 |  480  |
    +-------+----------+-------------+---------+-------+
    |       |          |    L. M.    |  —   58 |  300  |
    |       |          |       6     |  1   24 |  350  |
    | 8 Pr. | 2½ lbs.  |      12     |  1   51 |  400  |
    |       |          |      16     |  2    8 |  450  |
    |       |          |      20     |  2   24 |  480  |
    +-------+----------+-------------+---------+-------+
    |       |          |    L. M.    |  —   58 |  250  |
    |       |          |       4     |  1   20 |  300  |
    |       |          |       8     |  1   40 |  350  |
    | 4 Pr. | 1½ lbs.  |      12     |  2    — |  400  |
    |       |          |      16     |  2   20 |  450  |
    |       |          |      18     |  2   40 |  480  |
    +-------+----------+-------------+---------+-------+

The above are in French weights and measures.


_GUNPOWDER.—Proportions of the different Ingredients for making
Gunpowder, by different Powers in Europe_:

    +---------+------+--------+------+--------+--------+--------+
    |         | Eng. | France.| Swed.| Poland.| Italy. | Russia.|
    +---------+------+--------+------+--------+--------+--------+
    |Saltpetre|  75  |  75    |  75  |   80   |  76½   |  70    |
    |Sulphur  |  10  |   9½   |   9  |    8   |  12½   |  11½   |
    |Charcoal |  15  |  15½   |  16  |   12   |  12½   |  18½   |
    +---------+------+--------+------+--------+--------+--------+
    |  Pounds | 100  | 100    | 100  |  100   | 100    | 100    |
    +---------+------+--------+------+--------+--------+--------+


_Proofs of Powder._—The first examination of powder in the king’s
mills, is by rubbing it in the hands to find whether it contains any
irregular hard lumps. The second is by blasting 2 drams of each sort
on a copper plate, and in this comparing it with an approved powder;
in this proof it should not emit any sparks, nor leave any beads or
foulness on the copper. It is then compared with an approved powder, in
projecting an iron ball of 64 lbs. from an 8 inch mortar, with a charge
of 2 ounces. The best cylinder powder generally gives about 180 feet
range, and pit 150; but the weakest powder, or powder that has been
redried, &c. only from 107 to 117 feet.

The merchants’ powder, before it is received into the king’s service,
is tried against powder of the same kind made at the king’s mills;
and it is received if it gives a range of ¹/₂₀ less than the king’s
powder with which it is compared. In this comparison both sorts are
tried on the same day, and at the same time, and under exactly the same
circumstances.

The proof of fine grained, or musquet powder, is with a charge of 4
drams from a musquet barrel, to perforate with a steel ball a certain
number of ½ inch wet elm boards, placed ¾ inch asunder, and the first
39 feet 10 inches from the barrel: the king’s powder generally passes
through 15 or 16, and restoved powder from 9 to 12. The last trial
of powder is by exposing about 1 pound of each sort, accurately
weighed, to the atmosphere for 17 or 18 days; during which time, if the
materials are pure, it will not increase anything material in weight,
by attracting moisture from the atmosphere.

In this exposure 100 lbs. of good gunpowder should not absorb more than
12 oz. or somewhat less than one per cent.


_Powder Marks._—The different sorts of powder are distinguished by the
following marks on the heads of the barrels.

    --------+-------------+-----------------------
    Nᵒ. ½   |             |
    L   G   |    Cylinder |
    --------+-------------+
    Nᵒ. 2   |             |
    S   G   |    Cylinder |  Marked in Red.
    --------+-------------+
    Nᵒ. 3   |             |
    F   G   |    Cylinder |
    --------+-------------+-----------------------
    S A—The dust from Nᵒ. 3, and F G cylinder.
    R A—For rifle arms.
    ----------------------------------------------
    ⁴/₇ Cylinder       mixed—Marked white L G.
    ³/₇ Restoved

    L G or F G in blue, is powder made of pitcoal.

    RS Nᵒ. ½ L G   Marked in yellow,
       Nᵒ. 3 F G    is restoved.

The _red_ L G, F G, or S G, denotes powder entirely made of the
cylinder charcoal, and is that which is now always used on service.
The white L G being a mixed powder, is not so uniform as the other,
and is therefore generally used in filling shells, or for such other
purposes as do not require much accuracy. All powder for service is
mixed in proportions according to its strength, so as to bring it as
much as possible to a mean and uniform force.

_French Gunpower._—The French proof ball is of brass, and weighs 60
lbs. French: the diameter of the mortar 7 inches 9 points, or ¾ of a
line, and has one line of windage. The chamber holds exactly 3 ounces;
and their best powder must give a range of 90 toises, and their
restoved powder a range of 80 toises, to be received into the service.
But the powder they now make, when new, will give a range of 100 and
120 toises; and Mr. Lombard calculates all his tables from experiments
made with powder giving 125 toises with the eprovette.—The above
dimensions and weights are all of French standard.


_GUN METAL_—is composed of 8 or 10 lbs. of tin to 100 lbs of
copper.—The largest proportion of tin is used for mortars.


_HAIRCLOTH._—Weight 30 lbs.—length 15 feet—breadth 11 feet.


_HAND BARROW._—Weight 13 lbs.—length 5 feet 4 inches.


_HANDSPIKES._—Common, weight 11 lbs. length 6 feet.


_HARNESS._—For men, one set, 26 lbs. length, 12 feet.—Wheel harness for
a pair of horses, such as is used in the service of artillery, about 1
cwt.


_HORSES._—An allowance of 3 feet is generally made for the breadth of
each horse standing at picket; and about 9 feet for the length of a
horse.

A light dragoon horse, mounted and accoutered complete, carries about 2
cwt. 1 qr. and 14 lbs. without forage.

Horses in the service of artillery should not be made to draw above 3
cwt. each, besides the weight of the carriage.

Horses for this service should never be lower than 14¾ hands. The
contractor is obliged to furnish them of this height for government.—A
horse is generally supposed equal to five men.

Military horses _walk_ about 400 yards in 4½ minutes.

_Trot_ the same distance in 2 minutes 3 seconds, and _gallop_ it in
about 1 minute.

With great burthens, less weight must be allowed for each horse to
draw, than with medium burthens; as it cannot be supposed that, of a
team of 8 horses, the leaders can draw so much as the horses nearer the
carriage; and this disadvantage must increase as the team lengthens. A
team of

     4 horses may draw  6  cwt. each—Total  24 cwt. } including
     6    ”    ”    ”   5   ”    ”      ”    30  ”  }    the
     8    ”    ”    ”   4½  ”    ”      ”    36  ”  } carriages.
    12    ”    ”    ”   4   ”    ”      ”    48  ”  }
                                  See also the word _Load_.

It is usual in heavy carriages to reckon all their weight exceeding 12
cwt. as part of the load.


_Horses allowed for drawing Field Artillery Carriages._

All the horse artillery carriages are drawn by 4 horses each, except
12 prs. which have 6 each. _Park Carriages_—12 pr. medium, and 6
pr. heavy, 6 horses each—6 pr. light, and 5½ howitzer, upon the new
construction, are allowed each 4 horses, but upon the old only 3 each.

    Ammunition waggon, common pattern,   3 horses.
         ”       ”     Flanders pattern, 4   ”
    Forge cart,                          2   ”
    Ammunition cart,                     2   ”


_HOWITZERS._—_Dimensions and Weight of Brass Howitzers._

    ---------+-------+-----------+------+-------------------------------
             |       |           |      |        Chamber.
             |       |           |Length+------+-------------+---------
     Nature. |Length.|  Weight.  |  of  |      |   Diameter. | Powder
             |       |           | Bore.|Length+------+------+contained
             |       |           |      |      |at top|bottom|   in
    ---------+-------+-----------+------|------+------+------+---------
     Inch.   |Ft Inch|cwt qrs lbs|Inches|Inches|Inches|Inches|lbs oz
     diam.   |       |           |      |      |      |      |
     10      |3  11½ | 25  3  14 | 29.9 | 12.6 | 5.776| 4.12 | 7   0
      8      |3  1   | 12  3  12 | 24.7 |  8.61| 4.6  | 3.40 | 3   8
     5½ Heavy|       | 10  0   0 |      |      |      |      | 3   0
     5½ Light|2  2¾  |  4  0   2 | 18.47|  6.02| 3.2  | 2.45 | 1   0
     4⅖      |1  10  |  3  0  13 | 15.21|  4.52| 2.73 | 2.24 | 0   8
    ---------+-------+-----------+------+------+------+------+---------

_French Howitzers, in their own Weights and Measures._

                          Ft. In.         lbs.          lbs. oz.
    8 Inches            |               | 1110        |  1   12 charge.
    6 Inches  diameter. | 2   3 length. |  670 weight.|  1   12 full.


_Table containing the Natures of Howitzers used by different Powers in
Europe._

    +----------+------------+--------+
    | Nations. | Natures.   | Shells.|
    +----------+------------+--------+
    |          |            |   Wt.  |
    |          |            | (lbs.) |
    |          |  25 Pr.[9] |   62   |
    | Prussian |  10  —     |   27   |
    |          |   7  —     |   14   |
    +----------+------------+--------+
    | Danish   |  18  —     |   36   |
    |          |  10  —     |   20   |
    +----------+------------+--------+
    | Saxon    |  16  —     |   32   |
    |          |   8  —     |   16   |
    +----------+------------+--------+
    | Hanover  |  30  —     |   61   |
    |          |  16  —     |   33   |
    +----------+------------+--------+
    |          |  4⅖ Inch   |    8   |
    |          |  or 4 Pr.  |        |
    |          +------------+--------+
    | English  |  5½ Inch   |   16   |
    |          |  or 8 Pr.  |        |
    |          +------------+--------+
    |          |  8 Inch    |   46   |
    |          |  or 23 Pr. |        |
    +----------+------------+--------+
    |          |  6 Inch    |   23   |
    |          |  or 12 Pr. |        |
    | French   +------------+--------+
    |          |  8 Inch    |   43   |
    |          |  or 22 Pr. |        |
    +----------+------------+--------+

[9] See the word _Shell_ for the principle on which the Germans class
them in pounders.


_Ranges with a light 5½ inch Howitzer. 1798._

    +----------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
    |          |        4 Ounces.      |        8 Ounces.      |
    |          +--------+------+-------+--------+------+-------+
    |Elevation.| Flight.|Range |Extreme| Flight.|Range |Extreme|
    |          |        |  to  |Range. |        |  to  |Range. |
    |          |        |first |       |        |first |       |
    |          |        |graze.|       |        |graze.|       |
    +----------+--------+------+-------+--------+------+-------+
    |   Deg.   | Sec.   |Yards.|       | Sec.   |Yards.|       |
    |   P. B.  |        |      |       |  1     |  96  |       |
    |    1     |  1     |  66  |       |  1½    | 143  |       |
    |    2     |  1     |  85  | From  |  1½    | 184  | From  |
    |    3     |  1½    | 100  | 400   |  2     | 258  | 700   |
    |    4     |  1½    | 110  |  to   |  2½    | 307  |  to   |
    |    5     |  2     | 115  | 600   |  2½    | 376  | 1000  |
    |    6     |  2     | 168  | yards.|  3     | 408  | yards.|
    |    7     |  2     | 194  |       |  3½    | 529  |       |
    |    8     |  2½    | 226  |       |  4½    | 630  |       |
    |    9     |  2½    | 282  |       |  5     | 645  |       |
    |   10     |  2½    | 279  |       |  5     | 642  |       |
    |   11     |  2½    | 260  |       |  5½    | 697  |       |
    |   12     |  3     | 315  |       |  5½    | 715  |       |
    +----------+--------+------+-------+--------+------+-------+
    |          |       12 Ounces.      |       1 Pound.        |
    |          +--------+------+-------+--------+------+-------+
    |Elevation.| Flight.|Range |Extreme| Flight.|Range |Extreme|
    |          |        |  to  |Range. |        |  to  |Range. |
    |          |        |first |       |        |first |       |
    |          |        |graze.|       |        |graze.|       |
    +----------+--------+------+-------+--------+------+-------+
    |   Deg.   | Sec.   |Yards.|       | Sec.   |Yards.|       |
    |   P. B.  |  1½    |  140 |       |  1     |  159 |       |
    |    1     |  2     |  334 |       |  1½    |  325 |       |
    |    2     |  2     |  351 | From  |  2     |  490 | From  |
    |    3     |  2½    |  506 | 1000  |  3     |  668 | 1100  |
    |    4     |  3     |  500 |  to   |  4     |  728 |  to   |
    |    5     |  3     |  509 | 1350  |  5½    |  918 | 1400  |
    |    6     |  3½    |  581 | yards.|  5     |  823 | yards.|
    |    7     |  5     |  872 |       |  6     |  975 |       |
    |    8     |  6½    |  975 |       |  7     | 1044 |       |
    |    9     |  7     |  911 |       |  8     | 1049 |       |
    |   10     |  7     | 1021 |       |  8     | 1104 |       |
    |   11     |  7½    | 1177 |       |  8     | 1173 |       |
    +----------+--------+------+-------+--------+------+-------+

_Ranges with a heavy 5½ inch Howitzer. 1793._

    +----------+----------------------+----------------------+
    |          |       2 Pounds.      |       3 Pounds.      |
    |          +-------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+
    |Elevation.|Flight.|First |Extreme|Flight.|First |Extreme|
    |          |       |Graze.|Range. |       |Graze.|Range. |
    +----------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+
    |  Deg.    | Sec.  |Yards.|Yards. | Sec.  |Yards.|Yards. |
    |          |       |      |       |       |      |       |
    |    1     |   2   |  453 |       |   3   |  479 |       |
    |    2     |   4   |  595 |       |   5   |  722 |       |
    |    3     |   4   |  666 |       |   5   |  921 |       |
    |    4     |   5   |  847 |       |   5   | 1000 |       |
    |    5     |   5   |  957 | From  |   7   | 1325 | From  |
    |    6     |   7   | 1173 | 1400  |   8   | 1530 | 1400  |
    |    7     |   9   | 1449 | to    |   9   | 1577 | to    |
    |    8     |   8   | 1355 | 1900  |   9   | 1721 | 2000  |
    |    9     |   8   | 1585 |       |   9   | 1801 |       |
    |   10     |  10   | 1853 |       |   9   | 1791 |       |
    |   11     |   9   | 1793 |       |  12   | 1013 |       |
    |   12     |  10   | 1686 |       |       |      |       |
    +----------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+




_LEVELLING.—Table shewing the Difference between the True and Apparent
Level._


    +---------+----------+---------+-----------+
    |Distance.|Difference|Distance.| Difference|
    |         | of level.|         |  of level.|
    +---------+----------+---------+-----------+
    |  Yds.   | Inches.  |  Mls.   |  Ft.  In. |
    |         |          |         |           |
    |   100   |  0.026   |    ¼    |   0   0½  |
    |   200   |  0.103   |    ½    |   0   2   |
    |   300   |  0.231   |    ¾    |   0   4½  |
    |   400   |  0.411   |    1    |   0   8   |
    |   500   |  0.643   |    2    |   2   8   |
    |   600   |  0.925   |    3    |   6   0   |
    |   700   |  1.260   |    4    |  10   7   |
    |   800   |  1.645   |    5    |  16   7   |
    |   900   |  2.081   |    6    |  23  11   |
    |  1000   |  2.570   |    7    |  32   6   |
    |  1100   |  3.110   |    8    |  42   6   |
    |  1200   |  3.701   |    9    |  53   9   |
    |  1300   |  4.344   |   10    |  66   4   |
    |  1400   |  5.038   |   11    |  80   3   |
    |  1500   |  5.784   |   12    |  95   2   |
    |  1600   |  6.580   |   13    | 112   2   |
    |  1700   |  7.425   |   14    | 130   1   |
    |         |          |   15    | 150       |
    |         |          |   16    | 175       |
    +---------+----------+---------+-----------+

This table will answer several useful purposes.

FIRST.—_To find the height of the apparent level above the true, at
any distance._—If the given distance be contained in the table, the
correction of level is found in the same line with it; but if the
exact distance be not found in the table, then multiply the square of
the distance in yards, by 2.57, and divide by 1,000,000, or cut off 6
places on the right, for decimals; the rest are inches: or multiply the
square of the distance in miles, by 66 feet 4 inches, and divide by 100.

SECOND.—_To find the extent of the visible horizon, or how far can be
seen from any given height, on a horizontal plane, as at sea_, &c.—The
height of the observer’s eye above the horizon being known, the extent
of his visible horizon is found in the column opposite, under the word
_Distances_.

THIRD.—_To find the distance of any object when it first comes in
sight, its height being, known._—For the distance of any object will be
the extent of the visible horizon of the observer, added to the visible
horizon of the point he observes. It is necessary in this case for the
observer to know only the height of that part of the object which is
kept from his view, by the curvilinear figure of the globe.—Knowing the
distance of an object, its height may be found in the same manner.

If the height or distance exceed the limits in the table; then, first,
if the distance be given, divide it by 2, 3 or 4, till the quotient
comes within the distances in the table; then take out the height
answering to the quotient, and multiply it by the square of the divisor
for the height required. But when the height is given, divide it by
one of these square numbers, 4, 9, 16, 25, &c. till the quotient come
within the limits of the table, and multiply the quotient by the
square root of the divisor.


_LOAD._—Artillery carriages, or waggons, are frequently loaded with
14 cwt. for 3 horses, and 20 cwt. for 4 horses. This, however it
may answer on an English road, is a great deal too much for general
service. No doubt a carriage of one construction will travel easier
than of another, with the same weight; and where the mechanical
advantage thus gained is greatest, the heaviest weight may be put,
with the same number of horses; but in the carriages usually made for
the service of artillery, 4 cwt. _per_ horse, beside the weight of the
carriage, is the utmost they ought to be allowed to draw.

The French ammunition waggons, which are drawn by 4 horses, are always
charged with 1200 pounds only.

The regulations for home service in 1798 state the load for a bread
waggon at 2400 lbs. and for a cart of entrenching tools at 400 lbs. Men
used to bear loads, such as porters, will carry from 150 to 250 pounds.

A horse will carry about 300 lbs. and a mule about 250 lbs.—See also
the word _Horses_.


_MAGAZINES._—The present practice is not to make large powder magazines
for batteries, but to disperse the barrels of powder, or cartridges
_here_ and _there_ in small magazines, about 6 or 7 fathoms, in the
rear of the battery; as it appears better to loose a small quantity
from time to time, than to run the risk of the whole being destroyed,
by a single shell falling into the magazine. These small magazines or
entrenchments, will hold about one or two tons of powder; and are about
8 or 9 feet square. They ought to be well covered from the fire of the
place, and always in the rear of one of the merlons. When they cannot
be sunk in the ground, they should be secured by sand bags or gabions.
They should be made with attention, as should the communication from
them to the battery. Two magazines of this kind will be required for a
battery of six pieces.

_Permanent Powder Magazines._—According to Vauban’s plan, powder
magazines are commonly made 10 fathoms long, and 25 feet wide, in the
clear. The foundation of the longest sides, is 9 or 10 feet thick, and
6 feet or more deep, according to the nature of the ground. The side
walls raised upon these are 8 or nine feet thick; and if there is
not to be an upper story, 8 feet will be sufficient height above the
foundation. By this means the flooring maybe raised above the ground,
free from damp, and there will remain 6 feet from the floor to the
spring of the arch. The arch is formed of layers of bricks, arched one
over the other, and ought to be 3 feet thick at the top. The exterior
surface of the arch terminates with, an angle at top, like a roof;
which angle must be of such magnitude as to make a thickness of 8 feet
over the key stone of the arch. The foundation at the gable ends is 5
feet thick, and the same depth as the sides; these ends are built up 4
feet thick, from the foundation to the top of the roof. The long sides
are supported by counterforts, 6 feet thick and 4 feet long; and placed
12 feet asunder. The ventilators are placed, one in the centre of each
space between the counterforts, and are made with a die across them of
1½ feet. These ventilators are also closed with plates of iron. The
magazine is lighted by a window in each end, high up, which are opened
and shut by means of a ladder. These windows are secured, each by two
shutters, made of plank 2 or 3 inches thick; and the outer one covered
with sheet iron, and both fastened with strong bolts. The entrance to
the is closed by two doors, one of which opens inwards, and the other
outwards; the outward one is covered with sheet iron. The entrance of
the magazine should, if possible, be placed towards the south. A wall
of 1½ feet thick, and 10 feet high, is built round the magazine, at 12
feet distance. A magazine of the above dimensions will contain about
94,800 lbs. of powder, in piles of 3 barrels each; for a greater number
piled above each other destroys the barrels, damages the powder, and
occasions accidents.


_MATCH._—The slow match used by the English is made by contract: one
yard of it will burn about 8 hours. The French slow match is usually
made by soaking light twisted white rope for three days in a strong
lye. It burns about 3 feet in 6 hours.

Slow match was made at Gibraltar, during the last siege, in the
following manner: eight ounces of saltpetre were put into a gallon of
water, and just made to boil over a slow fire; strong blue paper was
then wetted with the liquor, and hung to dry. When dry, each sheet
was rolled up tight, and the outward edge pasted down, to prevent its
opening; half a sheet, thus prepared, will burn 3 hours.


_Quick Match._

_Compositions._

      _Worsted Match._
    Worsted          10 oz.
    Mealed powder    10 lbs.
    Spirits of wine   3 pints.
    Water             3   ”
    Isinglass         ½ pint.

      _Cotton Match._
    Cotton            1 lb 12 oz.
    Saltpetre         1     8
    Mealed powder    10  —
    Spirits of wine   2 quarts.
    Water             3 pints.

The worsted or cotton must be laid evenly in an earthen or other
pan, and the different ingredients poured over it, and about half
the powder: being left a short time to soak, it is afterwards wound
smoothly on a reel, and laid to dry, remaining half of the powder is
then sifted over it; and it is ready for use when dry.

=Note.= The French have lately made their slow match by soaking the
rope in a solution of sugar of lead and rain water: in the proportion
of ¾ of an ounce of sugar of lead to one pint of water; and this, they
esteem as preferable to the old sort.


_MARCHING._—_The Quick step_, 108 paces _per_ minute, each of 30
inches; making 270 feet _per_ minute.

_Wheeling Step_, 120 _per_ minute, of 30 inches each; making 300 feet
_per_ minute.

_Side Step._—12 inches—75 _per_ minute.

_Ordinary Step._—75 _per_ minute, 30 inches each.

                                            DUNDAS.

The usual rate of marching for cavalry is 17 miles in 6 hours; but this
may be extended to 21, or even 28 miles in that time.

                                                             D’ANTONI.


_Rates to be paid for Carriages on the March._

    One shilling _per_ mile  { with 5 horses, or
    for every carriage       { with 6 oxen, or
                             { with 4 oxen and 2 horses;

Nine pence _per_ mile for any cart with 4 horses, and so in proportion
for less carriages; or a further sum, not exceeding 4d _per_ mile
for every carriage with 5 horses, or with 6 oxen, or with 4 oxen and
2 horses; or 3d _per_ mile for every cart with 4 horses; and so in
proportion for less carriages, as the same shall be fixed and ordered
by the justices of the peace. The waggons, &c. not to carry more than
30 cwt.

_Regular_ ferries are only to be paid for on the march at half the
ordinary rate.

    _Mutiny Act._


_Marching Money._—Innkeepers are obliged to furnish troops on the march
with diet and small beer, for the day of their marching in, and two
days afterwards; unless one of the two days be a market day. For which
the publican by the King’s warrant, 17th of March, 1800, is to receive
16d, and which is paid in the following manner:

    Paid by Government, Cavalry 9d.     Infantry 11d.
      ”  by the soldier    ”    6d.         ”     4d.
    Soldiers beer money    ”    1d.         ”     1d.
                                ——                ——
                  Total         16                16


_MEASURES._

                     _Long Measure._

        12 Inches               make  1 Foot.
        3 Feet                   ”    1 Yard.
        5½ Yards                 ”    1 Pole, or perch.
        40 Poles                 ”    1 Furlong.
        8 Furlongs               ”    1 Mile.
        4 Inches                 ”    1 Hand.
        6 Feet                   ”    1 Fathom, or toise.
        3 miles                  ”    1 League.
        60 Nautical, or        }
        geographical miles, or } ”    1 Degree.
        69½ statute miles.     }

                      _Square Measure._

        144 Square inches       make  1 Square foot.
        9 Square feet            ”    1 Square yard.
        30¼ Square yards         ”    1 Square pole.
        40 Square poles          ”    1 Square rood.
        4 Square roods           ”    1 Square acre.

                 _Solid, or Cubic Measure._

        1728 Cubic inches       make  1 Cubic foot.
          27 Cubic feet          ”    1 Cubic yard.
         251 Cubic inches        ”    1 Gallon, wine measure.
         281   ”     ”           ”    1 Gallon, beer measure.
        168⅗   ”     ”           ”    1 Gallon, dry measure.

                    _Dry Measure._

        8 Pints                 make  1 Gallon.
        2 Gallons                ”    1 Peck.
        4 Pecks                  ”    1 Bushel.
        4 Bushels                ”    1 Coom.
        2 Cooms                  ”    1 Quarter.
        5 Quarters               ”    1 Wey.
        2 Weys                   ”    1 Last.

                _Avoirdupois Weight._

        16 Drams                make  1 Ounce.
        16 Ounces                ”    1 Pound.
        25 Pounds                ”    ¼ of a hundred.
         4 Quarters              ”    1 Hundred.
        20 Hundred               ”    1 Ton.
    14 Pounds                    ”    1 Stone.


_French Weights and Measures._

The toise is commonly used in France for military purposes, and is
divided into 6 feet: each foot 12 inches; each inch 12 lines; each line
12 points. The pace is usually reckoned at 2½ feet.

    _Poids de Mare_, ou _de Paris_.

    24 Grains               make  1 Den’r.
    3 Den’rs                 ”    1 Gros.
    8 Gros                   ”    1 Ounce.
    8 Ounces                 ”    1 Marc.
    2 Marcs                  ”    1 Pound.

The French have lately formed an entire new system of weights and
measures: the following short account of them, and their proportion to
the old weights and measures of France, and those of English standard,
is extracted from _Nicholson’s Nat. Philosophy_.

    +---------------+---------------+
    |Proportions of | First part of |
    |the measures of| the name which|
    |each species to| indicates the |
    |its principal  | proportion to |
    |measure or     | the principal |
    |unity.         | measure or    |
    |               | unity.        |
    +---------------+---------------+
    | 10,000        | Myria         |
    |  1,000        | Kilo          |
    |    100        | Hecto         |
    |     10        | Deca          |
    |      0        |  ———          |
    |      0.1      | Deci          |
    |      0.01     | Centi         |
    |      0.001    | Milli         |
    +---------------+---------------+

    =(A)= = Proportion of the principal measures between
                   themselves and the length of the Meridian.
    =(B)= = Value of the principal measures in the ancient
                   French measures.
    =(C)= = Value in English measures.
    +-----+------------------------------------------------------------+
    |     |              PRINCIPAL MEASURES, or UNITIES.               |
    |     +------------+-----------+----------+----------+-------------+
    |     |   Length.  | Capacity. |  Weight. | Agrarian.|For Firewood.|
    |     +------------+-----------+----------+----------+-------------+
    |     |    Metre.  |   Litre.  | Gramme.  |  Are.    |  Stere.     |
    +-----+------------+-----------+----------+----------+-------------+
    |     |10,000,000th|    A      |  Weight  |100 square|  One cubic  |
    |     | part of the| Decimetre |  of a    |  metres. |    metre.   |
    | (A) | dist. from |   cube.   |centimetre|          |             |
    |     | the Pole   |           | cube of  |          |             |
    |     |  to the    |           |distilled |          |             |
    |     | Equator.   |           |  water.  |          |             |
    +-----+------------+-----------+----------+----------+-------------+
    |     |  3 feet    |1 pint and |18 grains | 2 square |1 demi voie, |
    | (B) | 11 lines   | 1-20, or a| & 841,000| perches  |or ¼ of a    |
    |     |  and ½     |litron and |  parts.  | des eaux |cord des eaux|
    |     |  nearly.   |1-4 nearly.|          | et toret.|et fore.     |
    +-----+------------+-----------+----------+----------+-------------+
    |     |   Inches   |6.083 inch,|  22,966  |  11.968  |             |
    |     |   39.383   | which is  |  grains. |  square  |             |
    | (C) |            | more than |          |  yards.  |             |
    |     |            | the wine  |          |          |             |
    |     |            | & less    |          |          |             |
    |     |            | than the  |          |          |             |
    |     |            |beer quart.|          |          |             |
    +-----+------------+-----------+----------+----------+-------------+


_Reduction of the old French Weights and Measures to English; and the
contrary._

     1st. To reduce English Avoirdupois to Paris weight:
            The avoirdupois pound of 16               }
            ounces, or 7000 troy grains.  = 8538      } Paris grains.
          The ounce                       = 533.6250  }

     2d. To reduce Paris running feet or inches into  }
                   English, multiply by               }
          ”   ”    English running feet or inches into} 1.065977
                   Paris, divide by                   }

     3d. To reduce Paris cubic feet or inches into    }
                   English, multiply by               }
         ”    ”    English cubic feet or inches into  } 1.211278
                   Paris, divide by                   }

    4th. To reduce the Paris pint to the English,     }
                    multiply by                       }
         ”    ”  the English pint to the Paris,       } 2.0171082
                    divide by                         }
                                     LAVOISIER CH.

_German Measures._—The Rhinland rood is the measure commonly used
in Germany and Holland, and in most of the northern states, for all
military purposes. It is divided into 12 feet. The Rhinland rood is
sometimes divided into tenths, or decimal feet, and the pace is made
equal to 2 decimal feet, or ²/₁₀ of a rood.


_Proportion between the English Weights and Measures, and those of the
principal Places in Europe._

    +===========+================+=================+
    |  Places.  | Foot in Parts. | Pound in Parts. |
    +-----------+----------------+-----------------+
    |London     |      1000      |       100       |
    |Paris      |      1068      |       108       |
    |Amsterdam  |       942      |        93       |
    |Rhinland   |      1033      |        96       |
    |Antwerp    |       946      |        98       |
    |Lovaine    |       958      |        98       |
    |Middleburgh|       991      |        98       |
    |Strasburgh |       920      |        93       |
    |Bremen     |       964      |        96       |
    |Cologne    |       954      |        97       |
    |Frankfort  |       948      |        93       |
    |Leipsig    |        —       |       117       |
    |Hamburg    |        —       |        95       |
    |Venice     |      1153      |       151       |
    |Prague     |      1026      |       106       |
    |Copenhagen |       965      |        94       |
    |Nuremburgh |      1006      |        94       |
    |Bavaria    |       954      |         —       |
    |Vienna     |      1053      |        83       |
    |Madrid     |      1001      |        99       |
    |Toledo     |       899      |       100       |
    |Bologne    |      1204      |       127       |
    |Naples     |       861      |         —       |
    |Florence   |        —       |       123       |
    |Genoa      |        —       |       142       |
    |Mantua     |      1569      |       143       |
    |Turin      |      1062      |         —       |
    |Dantzig    |       944      |       119       |
    +===========+================+=================+


_Measures_—for gunpowder.

    _Diameters and Heights of Cylindric Powder Measures,
             holding from 1 to 15 Ounces._

    +======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+
    |Ounces|   0   |   1   |   2   |   3   |   4   |   5   |
    +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
    |  0   |   0   | 1.256 | 1.583 | 1.811 | 1.994 | 2.148 |
    +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
    |  1   | 2.706 | 2.793 | 2.876 | 2.953 | 3.027 | 3.098 |
    +======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+

      _Diameters and Weights of Cylindric Powder Measures,
              holding from 1 to 15 Pounds._

    +=========+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+
    | Pounds. |   0   |   1   |   2   |   3   |   4   |   5   |
    +---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
    |   0     |   0   | 3.165 | 3.988 | 4.565 | 5.024 | 5.412 |
    +---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
    |   1     | 6.890 | 7.039 | 7.245 | 7.442 | 7.628 | 7.805 |
    +=========+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+

The above are in inches and decimals.


_MECHANICS._—The whole momentum or quantity of force of a moving
body, is the result of the quantity of matter, multiplied by the
velocity with which it is moved; and when the product arising from
the multiplication of the particular quantities of matter in any two
bodies, by their respective velocities are equal, their momentum will
be so too. Upon this easy principle depends the whole of mechanics; and
it holds universally true, that when two bodies are suspended on any
machine, so as to act contrary to each other; if the machine be put in
motion, and the perpendicular ascent of one body multiplied into its
weight, be equal to the perpendicular descent of the other, multiplied
into its weight: those bodies, how unequal soever in their weights,
will balance each other in all situations: for, as the whole ascent
of the one is performed in the same time as the whole descent of the
other, their respective velocities must be as the spaces they move
through; and the excess of weight in one is compensated by the excess
of velocity in the other. Upon this principle it is easy to compute the
power of any engine, either simple or compound; for it is only finding
how much swifter the power moves than the weight does, (_i. e._ how
much further in the same time,) and just so much is the power increased
by the help of the engine.

The simple machines usually called mechanic powers, are six in number,
_viz._ the _Lever_, the _Wheel and Axle_, the _Pulley_, the _Inclined
Plane_, the _Wedge_, and the _Screw_.

There are four kinds of _Levers_: 1st, Where the prop is placed between
the weight and the power. 2d, Where the prop is at one end of the
lever, the power at the other, and the weight between them. 3d, Where
the prop is at one end, the weight at the other, and the power applied
between them. 4th, The bended lever, which differs from the first in
form, but not in property.

In the first and 2d kind, the advantage gained by the lever, is as the
distance of the power from the prop, to the distance of the weight from
the prop. In the 3d kind, that there may be a balance between the power
and the weight, the intensity of the power must exceed the intensity
of the weight, just as much as the distance of the weight from the
prop exceeds the distance of the power from the prop. As this kind of
lever is disadvantageous to the moving power, it is seldom used.

_Wheel and Axle._—Here the velocity of the power is to the velocity of
the weight, as the circumference of the wheel is to the circumference
of the axle.

_Pulley._—A single pulley, that only turns on its axis, and does not
move out of its place, serves only to change the direction of the
power, but gives no mechanical advantage. The advantage gained in this
machine, is always as twice the number of _moveable_ pullies; without
taking any notice of the _fixed_ pullies necessary to compose the
system of pullies.

_Inclined Plane._—The advantage gained by the inclined plane, is
as great as its length exceeds its perpendicular height. The force
wherewith a rolling body descends upon an inclined plane, is to the
force of its absolute gravity, as the height of the plane is to its
length.

_Wedge._—This may be considered as two equally inclined planes,
joined together at their bases. When the wood does _not_ cleave at
any distance before the wedge, there will be an equilibrium between
the power impelling the wedge, and the resistance of the wood acting
against its two sides; when the power is to the resistance, as half
the thickness of the wedge at the back, is to the length of either of
its sides; because the resistance then acts perpendicular to the sides
of the wedge: but when the resistance on both sides acts parallel to
the back, the power that balances the resistance on both sides will
be, as the length of the whole back of the wedge is to double its
perpendicular height. When the wood cleaves at any distance before the
wedge, (as it generally does) the power impelling the wedge will be to
the resistance of the wood, as half the length of the back is to the
length of either of the sides of the cleft, estimated from the top, or
acting part of the wedge.

_Screw._—Here the advantage gained is as much as the circumference of
a circle described by the handle of the winch, exceeds the interval or
distance between the spirals of the screw.

There are few compound engines, but what, on account of the friction of
parts against one another, will require a third part more power to work
them when loaded, than what is required to constitute a balance between
the power and the weight.

    FERGUSON’S _Nat. Philosophy_.


_MILE._—Comparison of the different miles, in geometric paces, each of
which is equal to 5 feet French royal, 5.6719 feet Rhinland, or 6.1012
English feet.

    The mile of Sweden       = 5761 geometric paces.
     ”   ”   ”  Switzerland    4512
     ”   ”   ”  Denmark        4071
    Common, of  Germany        4000
       ”     ”  Holland        3158
    League of   France         2400
       ”    ”   Spain          2286
       ”    ”   Scotland       1500
    Mile of     Italy          1000
      ”   ”     England         868
    Werste of   Russia          575


_MINE._—The excavation formed by the blowing up of a mine is found by
experiment to be nearly a paraboloid. It was formerly supposed that
the diameter of the entonnoir, or excavation, was always equal to only
double the line of least resistance; but experiments have proved, that
the diameter of the excavation may be increased to six times the line
of least resistance; and that the diameter of the globe of compression
may be increased to eight times that line; this is called the _maximum_
of a mine, or the greatest effect that can be produced by a globe of
compression. In any mine intended to produce an effect within this
extent, the effects will be nearly as the charges.

The globes are to each other as the cubes of their radii. Their radii
are the hypothenuses of rightangled triangles, of which the line of
least resistance, and the semi-diameter of the excavation, are the
other two sides. Therefore, to find the charge to produce any required
diameter of the excavation, the following will be the rule, the radius
being found as above:

    As the cube of the radius of the globe of compression
      in the following table, (having the same line of least
      resistance as the required globe,)

    Is to the cube of the radius of the required globe;

    So is the charge corresponding in the following table,

    To the charge required.

_Table for the Charges of Mines, according to Valiere._

    +-------------+--------------++-------------+--------------+
    |  Line of    |  Charge for  ||  Line of    |  Charge for  |
    |   Least     |   the Mine.  ||   Least     |   the Mine.  |
    | Resistance. |              || Resistance. |              |
    +-------------+--------------++-------------+--------------+
    |    Feet.    |  lbs.  oz.   ||    Feet.    |   lbs.  oz.  |
    |      1      |    0    2    ||     21      |   868    3   |
    |      2      |    0   12    ||     22      |   998    4   |
    |      3      |    2    8    ||     23      |  1140   10   |
    |      4      |    6    —    ||     24      |  1296    —   |
    |      5      |   11   11    ||     25      |  1558    9   |
    |      6      |   20    4    ||     26      |  1647   12   |
    |      7      |   32    2    ||     27      |  1815    4   |
    |      8      |   48    —    ||     28      |  2058    —   |
    |      9      |   68    5    ||     29      |  2286    7   |
    |     10      |   93   12    ||     30      |  2530    4   |
    |     11      |  124   12    ||     31      |  2792    4   |
    |     12      |  162    —    ||     32      |  3072    —   |
    |     13      |  205   15    ||     33      |  3369    1   |
    |     14      |  257    4    ||     34      |  3680   12   |
    |     15      |  316    4    ||     35      |  4019    8   |
    |     16      |  384    —    ||     36      |  4374    —   |
    |     17      |  460    9    ||     37      |  4748   11   |
    |     18      |  546   12    ||     38      |  5144    4   |
    |     19      |  643    —    ||     39      |  5561    2   |
    |     20      |  750    —    ||     40      |  6000    —   |
    +-------------+--------------++-------------+--------------+

This table is calculated upon a supposition that the excavation of
the mine is a paraboloid, having a base double the line of least
resistance; and that 10 lbs. 10 oz of powder is sufficient for raising
one cubic fathom of earth, by making the line of least resistance of
the required globe only equal to the radius of the globe of compression.

The charges thus found by means of this table, being only for one
nature of soil; _viz._ light earth and sand, (that for which the table
is calculated) must be augmented according to the following table of
Vauban’s, by one, four, five, seven, or nine elevenths of the charge
found.

_Table of the Quantity of Powder required to raise a Cubic Fathom,
according to the Soil._

    1 Light earth, mixed with sand    11 pounds.
    2 Common earth                    12
    3 Strong sand                     15
    4 Clay, or fat earth              16
    5 Old and good Masonry            18
    6 Rock                            20

The following rule is however laid down by Belidor, and generally
adopted, if it be intended that the mine shall produce its maximum or
greatest effect: Multiply the line of least resistance, expressed in
feet, by 300, the product will be the charge in pounds.

In making mines of any kind, the following remarks may be of service.

The best form for the chamber would be spherical; but from the
difficulty of its construction, it is always made a cube, of one inch
larger dimensions than the box to contain the powder.

The chamber must not be made in the prolongation of the branch of the
mine, but at one side, and lower than the level of the branch, if the
soil be dry; but higher if it be wet.

One cubic foot will contain 75 lbs. of powder; upon which principle the
size of the case to contain the powder must be regulated. The auget is
generally one inch square interior dimensions, and the end of it must
reach the centre of the chamber; where the saucisson must be fastened,
to prevent its being easily pulled out.

The branch of the mine to be sprung must be closed in the strongest
manner by doors well secured by props, and must be stopped with earth
or rubbish to a distance, taken in a straight line, equal to 1½ times
the line of least resistance.

In proportioning the length of saucisson, in order that any number of
mines may be fired at the same instant, a return of a right angle is
generally reckoned equal to 4 inches in a right line.

The first step in making a mine, whether for attack or defence, is to
sink a shaft to the depth of the bottom of the gallery, having two of
its sides in the direction of the sides of the gallery. These shafts
should be where the galleries are to cross each other, or in the centre
of the length of gallery to be made. These shafts should never be
further apart than 40 or 50 fathoms; for it is found, that the air is
not fit for respiration in the larger galleries at a greater distance
from the shaft than 25 fathoms; at 20 fathoms in those of medium
dimensions; and at 15 in the smallest.

The rectangular frames used in sinking a shaft are commonly placed 4
feet asunder; and in the galleries they are only 3 feet. A gallery
intended to be lined with masonry, must be 7 feet high, and 6 feet
wide, in order that it may be, when finished, 6 feet high, and 3 feet
wide.

Temporary galleries are only made 4½ feet high, and 2½ or 3 feet wide.

The branches, at the ends of which the chambers are to be placed, are
only made 2½ or 3 feet high, and 2 feet, or 2 feet 3 inches wide.

The first of these is dug on the knees; the second sitting or lying.

The miners are divided into brigades of 4 each; and the rate of work
for each brigade is 3 feet of the temporary gallery in 4 hours. The
first brigade is relieved by a second, after having worked 4 hours, or
laid one frame; which second brigade is again relieved by the first, at
the expiration of the same time.

In the most easy ground to work, a miner may be heard to the distance
of 14 or 15 fathoms under ground; and the noise made by fixing the
frames of the galleries may often be heard as far as 20 or 25 fathoms.
A drum braced, standing on the ground, with a few peas or other
round substances on the head, will be very sensibly affected by an
approaching miner.

It is of the most essential consequence to place the entrances to the
countermines beyond the reach of any surprise from the enemy.

To prevent an enemy gaining possession of the galleries of the
countermines, they should be well secured by strong doors, at every 15
fathoms. These should be musquet proof.

A glacis, properly countermined, and every advantage taken of it to
retard the besiegers, may, with proper management, prolong a siege at
least 2 months; and if the rest of the works are also countermined,
and properly defended, they may add another month to the siege. Every
system of countermines must depend upon the system of fortification
to which they are to be adapted; the general principle for their
regulation is, that the galleries should occupy situations, from
which branches can be most readily run out under the most probable
points of the besieger’s batteries and approaches. The general system
of countermines commonly used in a place prepared beforehand, is as
follows:—The principal or _magistral_ gallery runs all round the work,
under the banquette of the covert way, and across the places of arms,
having the entrances at the re-entering places of arms. Nearly parallel
to this at 20, 25, or 30 fathoms distance is another gallery, called
the _envellope_. These two galleries are connected by galleries of
_communication_, under the gutters of the re-entering parts of the
glacis, and under the ridges of the salient parts. From the envellope
are run out about 15 or 16 fathoms, galleries, in directions parallel
to the capitals of the works, and at 23 fathoms distance from each
other. These are called _listeners_.

Sometimes, shafts are sunk from the ends of these listeners, and by
connecting these shafts, a second envellope formed. Behind the escarps
of the different works, galleries are likewise made, about the level of
the bottom of the ditch; from whence branches may be run out into or
under the foundations of the walls; and if the ditch be dry, galleries
of communication may be made from these to the magistral gallery; and
from which communications branches may be run out for chambers to annoy
the besiegers in their passage of the ditch. The entrances to the
escarpe galleries are by means of posterns, which descend from behind
the interior slope of the rampart.

If a place be not countermined before hand, a great deal may be done,
even after the investment of the place, to prolong the siege by
countermines. In this case, the first thing to be done immediately that
the place is invested, to sink a shaft in each of the places of arms
of the covert way; one in each branch of the covert way, opposite
that part of the bastion where the breach will most probably be made;
and one in the flanked angle of each bastion. Those on the covert way
will be on the banquette, and sunk to about 18 inches below the bottom
of the ditch. Those in the bastions to about 12 feet below the bottom
of the ditch. Thus prepared, the moment the side on which the attack
is to be made can be ascertained, galleries must be carried on from
these shafts on the side attacked along the capitals, in the form of
tressles; or double T; and advanced as far into the country as the time
will admit. Communication galleries may likewise be driven between
these different works on the covert way, and from them to the work in
the bastion; which will prevent the enemy gaining possession of their
entrances. All these works may be carried on after the investment of
the place; and be in sufficient forwardness by the time the enemy gains
the third parallel.

The following rules are given by Vauban for fougasses, or small mines,
having the diameter of the excavation equal to double the line of least
resistance: The side of the chamber must be exactly a sixth part of the
depth of the shaft. The side of the box to hold the powder exactly a
ninth part of the depth of the shaft.

These remarks respecting mines are principally extracted from the
General Essay on Fortification before mentioned, written in French, and
published at Berlin, 1799.


_MORTARS._—_Weight and Dimensions of English Mortars._

    +------------------+------------+---------+-----------+-------+
    |                  |            |         |  Powder   | Range |
    |      Nature.     |   Weight.  | Length. | contained |at 45°.|
    |                  |            |         |in Chamber.|       |
    |                  |            |         |   [10]    |       |
    +------------------+------------+---------+-----------+-------+
    |                  |ct. qr. lbs.| Ft. In. | lbs. oz.  |  Yds. |
    |    Brass  Sea S. |82   —    8 | 5   3   | 32   —    |  4100 |
    |    Iron          |82   1    — |         | 20   —    |       |
    | 13 --------------+------------+---------+-----------+-------+
    |    Brass  Land.  |25   —   10 | 3   7½  |  9  12    |  2100 |
    |    Iron          |36   2   12 |         |  9   8    |       |
    +------------------+------------+---------------------+-------+
    |    Brass  Sea S. |33   —    — | 4   8   | 12   8    |  3800 |
    |    Iron          |41   —    — |         | 10   —    |       |
    | 10 --------------+------------+---------+-----------+-------+
    |    Brass  Land.  |10   1   25 | 2   9   |  4  10    |  1900 |
    |    Iron          |16   —    6 |         |  4   8    |       |
    +------------------+------------+---------+-----------+-------+
    |    Brass  Land.  | 4   1    8 | 2   1¾  |  2   —    |  1600 |
    | 8  Iron          | 8   —   11 |         |  2   4    |       |
    +------------------+------------+---------+-----------+-------+
    | 5½ Brass  Land.  | 1   —   20 | 1   4¼  |  —   9    |  1200 |
    +------------------+------------+---------+-----------+-------+
    | 4⅖ Brass  Land.  | —    3  11 | 1   1½  |  —  4½    |  1000 |
    +------------------+------------+---------+-----------+-------+

[10] See the word _Chambers_, for Experiments on the best form.

_French Mortars, in their own Weights and Measures._

    +------------------+------------+---------+-----------+-------+
    |                  |    lbs.    |         |           |       |
    |12 Inches         |    2060    |         |  3   7    |  2400 |
    |10 for long Ranges|    2000    |         |  7   4    |  2800 |
    |10  ”  short  ”   |    1560    |         |  4   —    |  2200 |
    | 8  ”    ”    ”   |     595    |         |  1   4¾   |  1160 |
    |Stone Mortars.[11]|    1100    |         |  2   8    |       |
    |12 inch }         |    2750    |         | 12   —    |  2700 |
    |10  ”   } Gomers  |    2000    |         |  6   8    |  2800 |
    | 8  ”   }         |     600    |         |  2   —    |  1400 |
    +------------------+------------+---------+-----------+-------+

[11] Stone Mortars should not be fired at a greater distance than 250
yards.


_Ranges with a 10 Inch Sea Mortar, at 21 Degrees, on a Horizontal
Plane._

    +-------------+-----------+---------+----------+-------+-------+
    | Weight of   | Weight of | Charge. |Elevation.|Flight.|Range. |
    |  Mortar.    |  Shell.   |         |          |       |       |
    +-------------+-----------+---------+----------+-------+-------+
    |ct. qrs. lbs.| lbs.  oz. | lbs. oz.|   Deg.   | Sec.  |Yards. |
    |34   2   14  |  86    —  |  5   8  |   21     |  14¾  | 2335  |
    |             |  87    —  |         |          |  16   | 2510  |
    +-------------+-----------+---------+----------+-------+-------+


_Ranges with Sea Service, Iron Mortars, at 45 Degrees, upon a
Horizontal Plane. 1798_

    +--------------------------++-------------------------+
    |          13 Inch.        ||        10 Inch.         |
    +---------+--------+-------++--------+--------+-------+
    | Charge. | Flight.|Range. || Charge.| Flight.|Range. |
    +---------+--------+-------++--------+--------+-------+
    |lbs.  oz.| Sec.   | Yards.||lbs. oz.| Sec.   | Yards.|
    |  2    — | 13     |  690  ||  1   — | 13     |  680  |
    |  4    — | 18     | 1400  ||  2   — | 18     | 1340  |
    |  6    — | 21     | 1900  ||  3   — | 21     | 1900  |
    |  8    — | 24½    | 2575  ||  4   — | 24     | 2500  |
    | 10    — | 26½    | 2975  ||  5   — | 26     | 2800  |
    | 12    — | 29     | 3500  ||  6   — | 27     | 3200  |
    | 14    — | 29½    | 3860  ||  7   — | 29     | 3500  |
    | 16    — | 30     | 3900  ||  8   — | 30     | 3800  |
    | 18    — | 30½    | 4000  ||  9   — | 30¼    | 3900  |
    | 20    — | 31     | 4200  ||  9   8 | 30½    | 4000  |
    +---------+----------------++--------+--------+-------+


_Ranges with French Mortars, at 45 Degrees, in French Weights and
Measures._

    +---------------+---------------+----------------+---------------+
    |    12 Inch.   |    10 Inch,   |    10 Inch,    |    8 Inch.    |
    |               |  long Ranges. |  short Ranges. |               |
    +--------+------+--------+------+---------+------+--------+------+
    |Charge. |Range.| Charge.|Range.| Charge. |Range.| Charge.|Range.|
    +--------+------+--------+------+---------+------+--------+------+
    |lbs. oz.|Yards.|lbs. oz.|Yards.|lbs. oz. |Yards.|lbs. oz.|Yards.|
    |  1   — |  388 |  1   — |  450 |  1   —  |  658 |  —   5 |  316 |
    |  1   8 |  632 |  2   — | 1080 |  1   8  |  964 |  —  10 |  794 |
    |  2   — |  862 |  3   — | 1536 |  2   —  | 1280 |  —  15 | 1112 |
    |  2   8 |  954 |  4   — | 2070 |  2   8  | 1428 |  1   4 | 1280 |
    |  3   — | 1292 |  5   — | 2206 |  3   —  | 1432 |        |      |
    |  3   8 | 1390 |  6  2½ | 2304 |  3  10¼ | 1920 |        |      |
    +--------+------+--------+------+---------+------+--------+------+


_Medium Ranges with Land Service Iron Mortars, at 45 Degrees. 1798._

    +------------------------++------------------------+
    |          13 Inch.      ||          10 Inch.      |
    +--------+-------+-------++--------+-------+-------+
    |Charge. |Flight.|Range. || Charge.|Flight.|Range. |
    +--------+-------+-------++--------+-------+-------+
    |lbs. oz.| Sec.  | Yards.||lbs. oz.| Sec.  | Yards.|
    |  —  14 | 6½    |  245  ||  —   8 |   6½  |  235  |
    |  1   — | 7½    |  318  ||  —  10 |   8   |  358  |
    |  1   4 | 8½    |  412  ||  —  12 |   9   |  464  |
    |  1   8 | 9½    |  523  ||  —  14 |  10   |  534  |
    |  1  12 | 10½   |  613  ||  1   — |  10½  |  638  |
    |  2   — | 11    |  697  ||  1   2 |  11½  |  749  |
    |  2   4 | 12½   |  840  ||  1   4 |  13   |  873  |
    |  2   8 | 13    |  906  ||  1   6 |  13½  |  956  |
    |  2  12 | 14    | 1054  ||  1   8 |  14   | 1028  |
    |  3   — | 15    | 1132  ||  1  10 |  15   | 1123  |
    |  3   4 | 16    | 1244  ||  1  12 |  15   | 1226  |
    |  3   8 | 16½   | 1317  ||  1  14 |  16   | 1325  |
    |  3  12 | 17    | 1424  ||  2   — |  16½  | 1357  |
    |  4   — | 17    | 1490  ||  2   2 |  17   | 1480  |
    |  4   4 | 17½   | 1580  ||  2   4 |  17½  | 1532  |
    |  4   8 | 18½   | 1656  ||  2   6 |  17½  | 1571  |
    |  4  12 | 19    | 1744  ||  2   8 |  18½  | 1700  |
    |  5   — | 19½   | 1824  ||  2  10 |  19   | 1780  |
    |  5   4 | 19½   | 1900  ||  2  12 |  19½  | 1825  |
    |  5   8 | 20    | 1950  ||  2  14 |  20   | 1880  |
    |  5  12 | 20½   | 2062  ||  3   — |  20   | 1916  |
    |  6   — | 21    | 2095  ||  4   — |  25   | 2485  |
    |  7   — | 24    | 2510  ||  4   8 |  26   | 2536  |
    |  8   — | 25    | 2706  ||        |       |       |
    +------------------------++------------------------+
    |         8 Inch.        ||    5½ Inch, Brass.     |
    +--------+-------+-------++-------+--------+-------+
    |Charge. |Flight.|Range. ||Charge.| Flight.|Range. |
    +--------+-------+-------++-------+--------+-------+
    |lbs. oz.| Sec.  | Yards.||oz. dr.| Sec.   | Yards.|
    |  —   5 |  6    |  225  || 1   8 |   5½   |  155  |
    |  —   6 |  7½   |  328  || 1  12 |   6    |  198  |
    |  —   7 |  8½   |  428  || 2   — |   6½   |  255  |
    |  —   8 |  9½   |  474  || 2   4 |   7½   |  316  |
    |  —   9 | 10    |  560  || 2   8 |   8    |  380  |
    |  —  10 | 11    |  664  || 2  12 |   8½   |  426  |
    |  —  11 | 12    |  762  || 3   — |   9½   |  470  |
    |  —  12 | 12½   |  801  || 3   4 |  10    |  540  |
    |  —  13 | 13½   |  859  || 3   8 |  10½   |  590  |
    |  —  14 | 14    |  960  || 3  12 |  11    |  630  |
    |  —  15 | 14½   | 1011  || 4   — |  11½   |  725  |
    |  1   0 | 14½   | 1115  || 4   4 |  12    |  746  |
    |  1   1 | 15    | 1156  || 4   8 |  12½   |  800  |
    |  1   2 | 16    | 1262  || 4  12 |  13½   |  910  |
    |  1   3 | 16½   | 1320  || 5   — |  13½   |  935  |
    |  1   4 | 17    | 1380  || 5   4 |  14    | 1016  |
    |  1   5 | 17½   | 1446  || 5   8 |   —    |   —   |
    |  1   6 | 18    | 1530  || 5  12 |   —    |   —   |
    |  1   7 | 18½   | 1600  || 6   — |  15    | 1175  |
    |  1   8 | 19    | 1660  ||       |        |       |
    |  1   9 | 19½   | 1720  ||       |        |       |
    +--------+-------+-------++-------+--------+-------+


_Medium Ranges with Brass Mortars, at 45 Degrees. 1780._

    +----------------++----------------++----------------+
    |   13 Inch.[12]  ||    10  Inch.   ||     8 Inch.    |
    +--------+-------++--------+-------++--------+-------+
    |Charge. | Range.||Charge. | Range.||Charge. | Range.|
    +--------+-------++--------+-------++--------+-------+
    |lbs. oz.| Yards.||lbs. oz.| Yards.|| oz. dr.| Yards.|
    |  2  12 |  862  ||  1  10 |  823  || 10   8 |  580  |
    |  2  14 |  939  ||  1  11 |  852  || 11   — |  635  |
    |  3   — |  998  ||  1  12 |  783  || 11   8 |  711  |
    |  3   2 | 1003  ||  1  13 |  758  || 12   — |  708  |
    |  3   4 | 1090  ||  1  14 |  823  || 12   8 |  701  |
    |  3   6 | 1139  ||  1  15 |  888  || 13   — |  777  |
    |  3   8 | 1165  ||  2   — |  892  || 13   8 |  825  |
    |  3  10 | 1209  ||  2   1 |  940  || 14   — |  870  |
    |  3  12 | 1270  ||  2   2 |  941  || 14   8 |  853  |
    |  3  14 | 1322  ||  2   3 | 1041  || 15   — |  866  |
    |  4   — | 1309  ||  2   4 | 1128  || 15   8 |  899  |
    |  4   2 | 1331  ||  2   5 | 1103  || 16   — |  921  |
    |  4   4 | 1391  ||  2   6 | 1221  || 16   8 |  987  |
    |  4   6 | 1363  ||  2   7 | 1258  || 17   — |  987  |
    |  4   8 | 1324  ||  2   8 | 1215  || 17   8 | 1062  |
    +--------+-------++--------+-------++--------+-------+

[12] For the Ranges with the 5½ inch Brass, see the _Iron Mortars_.


_Ranges with a 5½ inch Brass Mortar, at 15 Degrees._

    +-------+-------+------------+---------+
    |Charge.|Flight.|First Graze.|Rolled to|
    +-------+-------+------------+---------+
    |oz. dr.| Sec.  |   Yards.   |  Yards. |
    | 2   8 |   3   |    209     |   303   |
    | 3   — |   3½  |    256     |   330   |
    | 3   8 |   4   |    375     |   443   |
    | 4   — |   4½  |    457     |   501   |
    | 4   8 |   5   |    530     |   600   |
    | 5   — |   5½  |    561     |   627   |
    | 5   8 |   6½  |    667     |   715   |
    | 6   — |   7   |    709     |   780   |
    +-------+-------+------------+---------+


_Medium Ranges with Land Service Iron Mortars, at 10 Degrees
Elevation.—Powder in Cartridges._

    +-------------------------------++-------------------------------+
    |             10 Inch.          ||             8 Inch.           |
    +-------+--------+------+-------++-------+--------+------+-------+
    |Flight.| Charge.|First |Extreme||Flight. |Charge.|First |Extreme|
    |       |        |graze.|Range. ||       |        |graze.| Range.|
    +-------+--------+------+-------++-------+--------+------+-------+
    | Sec.  |lbs. oz.|Yards.| Yards.|| Sec.  |lbs. oz.|Yards.| Yards.|
    |   3   |  —  12 |  198 |  415  ||   3   |  —   8 | 202  |  403  |
    |   3   |  1   — |  278 |  458  ||   3   |  —  10 | 266  |  461  |
    |   4   |  1   4 |  366 |  564  ||   3¼  |  —  12 | 351  |  614  |
    |   4½  |  1   8 |  451 |  685  ||   4   |  —  14 | 413  |  630  |
    |   4   |  1  12 |  432 |  686  ||   4¾  |  1   — | 468  |  754  |
    |   4¾  |  2   — |  559 |  938  ||   5   |  1   2 | 562  |  811  |
    |   5   |  2   4 |  602 |  798  ||   6   |  1   4 | 664  |  950  |
    |   4¾  |  2   8 |  597 |  976  ||   6½  |  1   6 | 700  | 1028  |
    |   5   |  2  12 |  664 | 1121  ||   6½  |  1   8 | 768  | 1064  |
    |   5¼  |  3   — |  764 | 1169  ||       |        |      |       |
    +-------+--------+------+-------++-------+--------+------+-------+


_Medium Ranges with the above Mortars, at 15 Degrees._

    +------------------------++-------------------------+
    |         10 inch.       ||          8 Inch.        |
    +--------+-------+-------++---------+-------+-------+
    |Charge. |Flight.|Range. ||Charge.  |Flight.|Range. |
    +--------+-------+-------++---------+-------+-------+
    |lbs. oz.|  Sec. | Yards.|| lbs. oz.|  Sec. | Yards.|
    | 1    4 |   5   |  464  ||  —   11 |   4½  |  427  |
    | 1    6 |   5½  |  543  ||  —   12 |   4½  |  485  |
    | 1    8 |   6   |  590  ||  —   13 |   5   |  513  |
    | 1   12 |   6¾  |  685  ||  —   14 |   5½  |  559  |
    | 1   14 |   7   |  765  ||  1    — |   6½  |  690  |
    | 2    — |   7   |  805  ||  1    2 |   7   |  822  |
    | 2    4 |   7½  |  884  ||  1    4 |   7   |  827  |
    | 2    8 |   7¾  |  960  ||  1    6 |   7¾  | 1004  |
    | 2   12 |   8   | 1070  ||  1    8 |   8½  | 1012  |
    | 3    — |   8½  | 1154  ||  1   10 |   8½  | 1196  |
    |        |       |       ||  1   11 |   9   | 1337  |
    +--------+-------+-------++---------+-------+-------+


_NAVY._--

_Number and Nature of Ordnance for each of the Ships in his Majesty’s
Navy._

    +--------+----+------------------------------++----------------+
    | Rates. |No. | Nᵒ. of Guns of each Nature.  ||  Carronades.   |
    |        |of  +---+---+----+---+---+---+-----++---+---+----+---+
    |        |Guns| 42| 32| 24 | 18| 12|  9|  6  || 32| 24| 18 |12 |
    +--------+----+---+---+----+---+---+---+-----++---+---+----+---+
    | 1st.   |100 | 28| — | 28 | — | 30| — | 18  ||  2|  6|  — | — |
    +--------+----+---+---+----+---+---+---+-----++---+---+----+---+
    | 2d.    | 98 | — | 28|  — | 30| 40| — |  —  ||  2| — |  6 | — |
    +--------+----+---+---+----+---+---+---+-----++---+---+----+---+
    |        | 80 | — | 26|  — | 26| — | 24|  4  ||                |
    |        | 74 | — | 28|  — | 28| — | 18|  —  ||  2   6   —     |
    | 3d.    | 70 | — | 28|  — | 28| — | 14|  —  ||                |
    |        |    |   |   |    |   |   |   |     |+---+---+----+---+
    |        | 64 | — | — | 26 | 26| — | 12|  —  || — |  2|  6 | — |
    +--------+----+---+---+----+---+---+---+-----++---+---+----+---+
    | 4th.   | 60 | — | — | 24 | — | 26| — | 10  || — | — |  — | — |
    |        | 50 | — | — | 22 | — | 22| — |  6  || — |  6|  — | 6 |
    +--------+----+---+---+----+---+---+---+-----++---+---+----+---+
    |        | 44 | — | — |  — | 20| 22| — |  6  || — | — |  8 | — |
    | 5th.   | 36 | — | — |  — | 26|  2|  8|  —  ||  8| — |  — | — |
    |        | 32 | — | — |  — | — | 26| — |  6  || — |  6|  — |—  |
    +--------+----+---+---+----+---+---+---+-----++---+---+----+---+
    |        | 28 | — | — |  — | — | — | 24|  4  || — |  6|  — | — |
    | 6th.   | 24 | — | — |  — | — | — | 22|  2  || — |  2|  6 | — |
    |        | 20 | — | — |  — | — | — | 20|  —  || — | — |  — | 8 |
    +--------+----+---+---+----+---+---+---+-----++---+---+----+---+
    | Sloops.| 18 | — | — |  — | — | — | — | 18  || — | — |  — | 8 |
    +--------+----+---+---+----+---+---+---+-----++---+---+----+---+


_Dimensions of Ships, Number of Men, and Draught of Water._

    +------+--------+--------+----------------------+----------+
    |Number| Length |Extreme |    Complement of     |Depth of  |
    |  of  | on the |Breadth.|--------+-------------|  water   |
    | Guns |Gundeck.|        |Sailors.|  Marines.   | required |
    |      |        |        |        |             |for each. |
    +------+--------+--------+--------+-------------+----------+
    |      |Ft. In. |Ft. In. |   Nᵒ.  |  Officers.  |  Feet.   |
    |  110 |190  —  | 53  —  |        |             |   24     |
    |  100 |186  —  | 52  —  |   875  |             |          |
    +------+--------+--------+--------+             +----------+
    |   98 |180  —  | 50  —  |   750  |  1 Captain. |   23     |
    |   90 |177   6 | 49  —  |        |  3 Subalt’s.|          |
    +------+--------+--------+--------+             +----------+
    |   80 |182  —  | 49   6 |        |             |          |
    |   74 |182  —  | 48   7 |   650  |             |          |
    |   74 |169  —  | 46  11 |        +-------------+   18     |
    |   64 |160  —  | 44   6 |        |1 Cap. 2 Sub.|          |
    +------+--------+--------+--------+-------------+----------+
    |   50 |146  —  | 40   6 |   420  |2 Lieuten’ts.|          |
    +------+--------+--------+--------+-------------+          |
    |   44 |140   9 | 38   8 |        |             |   16     |
    |   38 |144  —  | 39   — |   300  |             |          |
    |   36 |142  —  | 38   — |        |             +----------+
    |   32 |126  —  | 35   4 |        |             |          |
    +------+--------+--------+--------+  1 Subalt.  |   15     |
    |   28 |120  —  | 33   6 |        |             |          |
    |   24 |114   7 | 32   3 |   200  |             |          |
    |   20 |108  —  | 30   — |        |             |          |
    +------+--------+--------+--------+-------------+----------+
    |   18 |110  —  | 29   6 |   125  |  Serjeant.  |   13     |
    |   16 |106  —  | 28   — |        |             |          |
    +------+--------+--------+--------+-------------+----------+
    |=N. B.= The usual Complement of Marines is one       |
    |             for every Gun in the Ship.                   |
    +----------------------------------------------------------+




_ORDNANCE._—The value of all brass ordnance is at £84: 17_s._ _per_
ton, for the metal; that is, the weight of the gun, and 12lbs. _per_
hundred weight for waste: to which is added for casting, on the total
weight of metal used, £64 _per_ ton for light pieces; £54 for medium;
and £44 for heavy.


Iron ordnance costs £20 _per_ ton. See also the words _Guns_,
_Mortars_, _Howitzers_, &c.

For the proof of all kinds of ordnance, see the word _Proof_.




_PACE._—The common pace is of no determined length; though made use of
as a measure by most military writers.


In Germany, and amongst most of the northern powers, the pace is
considered equal to ²/₁₀ of a Rhinland rood.

In France the pace is commonly reckoned at 2½ feet.

In England it is usually reckoned at 2½ feet.

The geometrical pace is equal to 5 French royal feet; 60,000 of which
make a degree of the equator. This makes the geometrical pace equal
6.102 English feet, and 5.6719 Rhinland feet.

For the military pace, see _Marching_.


_PARALLELS_—or places of arms at a siege. See the words _Trenches_ and
_Sap_.


_PAY._—_Table of the Full Pay of the Officers, Noncommissioned
Officers, and Privates in the Army._

    +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-----------------+
    |                 |  Life  |Cavalry.|  Foot  |Infantry|    Artillery.   |
    |      Rank.      | Guards.|        | Guards.| of the +--------+--------+
    |                 |        |        |        | line.  | Horse. |  Foot. |
    +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |                 |£. s. d.|£. s. d.|£. s. d.|£. s. d.|£. s. d.|£. s. d.|
    |Colonel          | 1 16 — | 1 12 10| 1 19 — | 1  2 6 |    —   | 2  3  6|
    |Colonel en Second|    —   |    —   |    —   |    —   | 1  9  8| 1  3  9|
    |1st. Lt. Colonel | 1 11 — | 1  3 — | 1  8  6| 0 15 11| 1  5  8| — 19  9|
    |2d. Lt. Colonel  |    —   |    —   |    —   | 0 15 11|    —   | — 16 10|
    +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |1st. Major       | 1  6 — | — 19 3 | 1  4 — | 0 14  1| 1  —  9| — 14 10|
    |2d. Major        |    —   |    —   |    —   |        |    —   |    —   |
    +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |Captain          | — 16 —  |— 14 7 | — 16  6| 0  9  5| — 15  4| —  9 11|
    +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |Captain Lieut.   | 0 11 — | —  9 — | —  7 10| 0  5  8| 0 10 — | —  7 — |
    |1st. Lieut.      |        |        |        |        | 0  9 — | —  6 — |
    +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |2d. Lieutenant   |   —    |   —    |    —   |    —   | —  8 — | —  5 — |
    |Cornets          | —  8  6 |—  8 — |    —   |    —   |    —   |    —   |
    |Ensigns          |    —   |   —    | —  5 10| —  4 8 |    —   |    —   |
    |Pay Master       |    —   | — 15 — |    —   | — 15 — |    —   |    —   |
    |Quarter Master   | —  6 — | —  5 6 | —  5  8| —  5 8 | —  6 — | —  6 — |
    |Adjutant         | — 11 — | —  5 — |    —   | —  5 — | —  5 — | —  5 — |
    |Surgeon          | — 12 — | — 12 — | — 12 — | —  9 5 | — 11 10 |—  9 11|
    |Assistant Surgeon|    —   | —  5 — | —  7  6| —  5 — | —  6 — | —  5 — |
    |Veterinary   ”   |    —   | —  8 — |    —   |    —   |    —   |    —   |
    |Serjeant Major   |    —   |    —   |    —   |    —   | —  3  4| —  3  2|
    |Quarter Master ” |    —   |    —   |    —   |    —   | —  2 10|    —   |
    |Serjeant         |    —   | —  2 2 | — 1 10¾|—   1 6¾| —  2  4| —  2  2|
    |Corporal         | —  2 6¼| —  1 7¾ |— 1  4¾|—   1 2¼| —  2 2¼| —  2 2¼|
    |Bombardier       |    —   |    —   |   —    |    —    |—  2 2¼| — 1 10¼|
    |1st. Gunner      |    —   |    —   |   —    |    —   |    —   | —  1  7|
    |2d. Gunner       |    —   |    —   |   —    |    —   | —  1 5¼| —  1 3¼|
    |Private          | — 1 11¼| —  1 3 | —  1  1| —  1 — |    —   |    —   |
    |Farrier and Smith|    —   |    —   |    —   |    —   | —  3 4¾|    —   |
    +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |Collar Maker     |        |        |        |        |        |        |
    |Wheeler          |    —   |    —   |    —   |    —   | —  2 4¾|    —   |
    +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |Trumpeter        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
    |Drummer           |—  2  6| —  1  7| —  1 2¼| —  1 1¼| —  2 1¾| — 1  3¼|
    +-----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+


_PARK OF ARTILLERY_—should always be placed, if possible, within a
short distance of water-carriage, and have the most ready communication
with every part of the line of the army. Its form must depend on its
situation. Ten feet are usually allowed in front for one carriage and
its interval, and near 50 feet from the hind wheels of the front row to
the fore wheels of the second; this interval should allow sufficient
room for putting the horses to the carriages, and for a free passage
along the line. In parks not on immediate service, it is customary to
arrange the guns with their muzzles to the front; but where the guns
are likely to be wanted at a short notice, appearances must not be
studied, and the gun carriages must be parked with their shafts to
the front, ready to receive horses to them. A quarter-guard is placed
in front of the park, and the noncommissioned officers and gunners’
tents on the flanks, at about 20 paces distance and 40 paces to the
rear the subaltern officers; at 10 more to the rear the captains, and
10 more the commanding officer. The mess tent is 15 in the rear of
the officers. At a convenient distance in the rear of the whole, are
the horses, picketed in one or more lines, with the drivers on their
flanks. The horses are sometimes picketed in lines perpendicular to the
front, and on the flanks of the carriages, between the men and the
carriages. See the word _Camp_, and _Artillery in the Field_.


_PENDULUM_—Pendulums for military purposes are best made with a musquet
ball, and a piece of silk, or other small line. Their length must be
measured from the centre of the ball to the end of the loop on which
they are to swing. In a cylinder, or other uniform prism or rod, the
centre of oscillation, (from whence they must be measured,) is at the
distance of ⅓ from the bottom, or ⅔ below the centre of motion.


Pendulum’s length in latitude of London, to swing

    2 Seconds     39⅛ Inches.
    ½ Seconds      9.8
    ¼ Seconds      2.45


_Length of Pendulums to vibrate 2 Seconds at every Fifth Degree of
Latitude._

    +----------+---------+
    |Degrees of|Length of|
    |Latitude. |Pendulum.|
    |          |Inches.  |
    +----------+---------+
    |     0    |  39.027 |
    |     5    |  39.029 |
    |    10    |  39.032 |
    |    15    |  39.036 |
    |    20    |  39.044 |
    |    25    |  39.057 |
    |    30    |  39.070 |
    |    35    |  39.084 |
    |    40    |  39.097 |
    |    45    |  39.111 |
    |    50    |  39.126 |
    |    55    |  39.142 |
    |    60    |  39.158 |
    |    65    |  39.168 |
    |    70    |  39.177 |
    |    75    |  39.185 |
    |    80    |  39.191 |
    |    85    |  39.195 |
    |    90    |  39.197 |
    +----------+---------+


=Rule.=—_To find the Length of a Pendulum to make any Number of
Vibrations, and_ vice versa.

Call the pendulum, making 60 vibrations the standard length; then say,
as the square of the given number of vibrations is to the square of 60;
so is the length of the standard to the length sought. If the length
of the pendulum be given, and the number of vibrations it makes in a
minute be required; say, as the given length is to the standard length,
so is the square of 60, its vibrations in a minute, to the square of
the number required. The square root of which will be the number of
vibrations made in a minute.


_PETARDS_—are of four different sizes:—First, contain 12 lbs. 13
oz.—Second, 10 lbs. 11 oz.—Third, 1 lb. 10.—Fourth, one lb.

    Blind fuze composition { mealed powder  7 lbs.
      for Petards.         { wood ashes     3 oz.

     _Stores for One Petard._

    Hooks to hang the petard           2
    Gimblets                           2
    Brass fuze                         1
    Wrench to screw the fuze           1
    Blue paper portfires               6
    Slow match                yards    4
    Props or forks                     2
    Copper funnels                     1
    Tallow                    ounces   8
    Cartridges                         1


_PLATFORMS._—The common platforms for gun batteries require the
following materials for each:—5 sleepers or joists, 6 inches square, 14
feet long.—1 hunter, 8 or 10 inches square, 8 feet long, 14 planks, 1
foot wide, 11 feet long, 2½ inches thick.—20 pickets.

The usual slope of platforms for guns is one inch to every yard.

The platforms for mortar batteries are made with 3 sleepers 8 inches
square, and covered with about 11 timbers of the same thickness. They
are laid perfectly horizontal, about 15 feet asunder, and 12 feet from
the epaulment. This is the distance commonly practised for firing
only at 45 degrees elevation; but if the platforms be placed at the
undermentioned distances from the epaulment, the mortars may be fired
at the angles corresponding.

    At 13 feet distance for firing at 30 degrees.
       21 feet     ”     ”     ”   at 20
       30 feet     ”     ”     ”   at 15
       40 feet     ”     ”     ”   at 10
      over an epaulment of 8 feet high.

See also the word _Battery_.


_POINT BLANK._—For the point blank ranges of different pieces of
ordnance, see the different natures.

The French _point blank_ or _but en blanc_, is what the English
artillery call the _line of metal elevation_; in most guns between one
and two degrees.


    _PONTOONS._—Length at { top       21 ft. 6 in.
                          { bottom,   17     2

Width, 4 feet 9 inches. Depth, 2 feet 3 inches.

_Equipage of One Pontoon._

                   Ft. In.      Ft. In.      In.
    4 Baulks       22   8 long   1  0 wide   4   thick.
    1 Gang-board.  22   0   ”    1  0  ”     2½    ”
    6 Chesses,     11   6   ”    2  4  ”     1½    ”
    2 Oars.
    1 Anchor.
    1 Graplin.
    1 Setter.
    4 Iron bolts, with keys.
    2 Mounting bars.
    4 Binding sticks.
    4 Spring lines.
    4 Faukes.
    1 Cable
    1 Sheer-line.
    1 Boat hook.
    1 Maul.
    4 Pickets.
    1 Small pump.
    1 Windlass.
    1 Pontoon carriage, complete.

_Dimensions of Colonel Congreve’s Wooden Pontoons._

                         feet. inches.
    Length at top         26
      ”    at bottom      23
    Depth                  2     8
    Width                  2     3

The common pontoons will support a weight of 4 or 5000 pounds. They are
generally placed, in forming a bridge, about their own width asunder.
See the word _Bridge_.


_PORTFIRES._

Composition. Saltpetre, 60 parts; sulphur, 40 parts; mealed powder, 20
parts. Length of each, 16½ inches.

One will burn from 12 to 15 minutes.

Weight of one dozen, 3 lbs. 12 oz.


Portfires were made at Gibraltar in the following manner; two ounces
of nitre was dissolved in a gallon of water, and sheets of soft brown
paper dipped in the solution: these when dry were rolled up to about
the size of common portfires.


_PROVISIONS._—See the word _Ration_.


_PROOF_—of ordnance.

All natures of ordnance undergo several kinds of proof before they are
received into his Majesty’s service; _viz._ 1st, They are guaged as to
their several dimensions, internal and external, as to the justness of
the position of the bore, the chamber, the vent, the trunnions, _&c._

2d, They are fired with a regulated charge of powder and shot, and
afterwards searched to discover irregularities or holes produced by the
firing.

3d, By means, of engines an endeavour is made to force water through
them; and,

4th, They are examined internally, by means of light reflected from a
mirror.

_Iron Guns._—The guns are first examined as to their proper dimensions,
in which, in no case more than ³/₁₀ of an inch variation is allowed;
and in the diameter of the bore only ¹/₃₀ from 42 to 18 pounders, and
¹/₄₀ from 12 to 4 pounders; but in the position of the bore ½ an inch
out of the axis of a piece from a 42 to an 18 Pr. and ⅓ of an inch
from a 12 to a 4 Pr. is allowed. They are then fired twice with the
charge in the following table, with one shot and two high junk wads;
and examined with a searcher after each round. In this examination they
must not have any hole or cavity in the bore of ²/₁₀ of an inch in
depth, behind the first reinforce ring, or ¼ of an inch in depth before
this ring.

    +---------+--------------+
    | Nature. |Proof Charge. |
    +---------+--------------+
    | Prs.    |   lbs. oz.   |
    |  42     |    25   —    |
    |  32     |    21   8    |
    |  24     |    18   —    |
    |  18     |    15   —    |
    |  12     |    12   —    |
    |   9     |     9   —    |
    |   6     |     6   —    |
    |   4     |     4   —    |
    |   3     |     3   —    |
    |   2     |     2   —    |
    |   1½    |     1   8    |
    |   1     |     1   —    |
    +---------+--------------+

Iron guns are scaled with ¹/₁₂ the weight of the shot.


_Brass Guns._—From 1 pounders to 12 pounders the diameter of the bore
must not vary more than ¹/₁₀ of an inch, and in no dimensions more than
²/₁₀. The following are the established charges for their proof. The
heavy and medium guns with a charge equal to the weight of the shot,
except the medium 12 pounder, which is proved with only 9 lbs. The
light guns with half the weight of the shot. The brass ordnance have
not however been proved of late with such heavy charges, but with the
following:

     3 Prs. light, 3 times, with 1 lb. each round.
     6 Prs. light, 3 times, with 2 lbs. each.
    12 Prs. light, 2 times, with 4 lbs. each.
    12 Prs. Med.   2 times, with 5 lbs. each.

Any hole .15 of an inch deep upwards or sideways in the bore, or .1 in
the bottom, between the breach and first reinforce; or .2 of an inch
upwards or side ways, or .15 in the bottom of the bore, before the
first reinforce ring, will be sufficient to condemn them.


_Brass Mortars and Howitzers._—The exterior dimensions are in no
respect to deviate more than ¹/₁₀ of an inch in an 8 inch howitzer, and
¹/₂₀ in the royals and Coehorn mortars and howitzers. Their bores and
chambers not to deviate from their true diameters or positions more
than ¹/₄₀ of an inch.

The brass mortars and howitzers are fired twice with their chambers
full of powder, and an iron shell. The mortars on their own beds, at
about 75° elevation; and the howitzers on their carriages, at about
12°. Iron mortars are proved on their iron beds; with a charge equal to
the full chamber, and an iron shot equal in diameter to the shell.

Royals, or Coehorn mortars, having a hole .1 of an inch in depth in the
chamber, or .15 in the chase, are rejected: royal howitzers the same. 8
inch howitzers having a hole .15 of an inch in depth in the chamber, or
.2 in the chase, will be rejected.

_Carronades._—The diameter and position of their bore and chamber must
not deviate ¹/₂₀ of an inch. They are proved with two rounds, with
their chambers full of powder, and 1 shot and 1 wad. A hole of ²/₁₀ of
an inch in depth in the bore, or ¹/₁₀ in the chamber condemns the piece.


_Proof Charges._

    +--------+----+----+----+----+----+
    |68 Prs. | 42 | 32 | 24 | 18 | 12 |
    +--------+----+----+----+----+----+
    |13 lbs. |  9 |  8 |  6 |  4 |  3 |
    +--------+----+----+----+----+----+

All ordnance, after having undergone this proof, and the subsequent
searching, are subject to the water proof: this is done by means of a
forcing pump, having a pipe or hose fixed to the mouth of the piece:
after two or three efforts to force the water through any honeycombs
or flaws which may be in the bore, they are left to dry; and generally
the next day examined by the reflected light from a mirror. If the
bore contains any small holes or flaws which have not been discovered
by the former proofs, they are very readily found by this; the water
will continue to weep, or run from the holes, when the solid parts of
the bore are perfectly dry. Ordnance suspected of being bad are often
subject to a more severe proof: that of firing 30 rounds quick, with
the service charge and 2 shot; and in doubtful cases, where the purity
of the metal is suspected, recourse has been had to chemical trials and
analysis. A quantity of clean filings taken from a part of an iron gun
free from rust, are dissolved in the dilute sulphuric acid, and the
quantity of gas disengaged during the solution accurately ascertained.
The plumbago which remains after solution is also separated by
filtration, and carefully weighed. Now it is well known that the purer
the iron, the greater the quantify of inflammable gas obtained, and
the less the proportion of plumbago which remains after the solution;
from these two parts therefore a tolerable judgment may be formed of
the quality of the metal. When the plumbago exceeds 4½ _per_ cent. the
iron will always be found deficient in strength; and there has been no
instance of a gun bursting where the plumbago did not exceed 3 _per_
cent; that is, where 100 grains of the metal did not leave more than 3
grains of plumbago. The colour of the plumbago is also to be attended
to; when it is brown or reddish, it is an indication of hard metal, and
when in quantities and mixed with coals, there can be no doubt but that
the iron is too soft for cannon.

For the proof of _Gunpowder_, see that word.


_Proof of Iron Shells._—After the shells are guaged and examined as
to their dimensions and weight, they must be well scraped out, and
the iron pin at the bottom of the inside must be driven down or broken
off. They are then to be hammered all over, to knock off the scales,
and discover flaws, and no hole, in the large shells is allowed, of
more than ¾ of an inch deep. An empty fuze is then driven into the fuze
hole, and the shell is suspended in a tub of water, in such manner that
the shell be covered by the water, but that it does not run into the
fuze: in this situation the nose of a pair of bellows is put in at the
fuze hole, and several strong puffs given with the bellows; and if no
bubbles rise in the water, the shell is concluded to be serviceable.


Ordnance condemned as unserviceable for any of the foregoing reasons,
are marked as follows: =X D=, or =X S=, or =X W=. The first signifies
that they are found to be faulty in their dimensions, by Desagulier’s
instrument; the second, by the searcher; and the third, by the water
proof.




_RATION._—For an officer or soldier.


_Complete Ration of the Small Species._

    Flour, or bread     1½ lbs.
    Beef                1
    Or Pork             ½
    Peas                ¼ pint.
    Butter, or cheese   1 oz.
    Rice                1 oz.

When the small species are not issued, 1½ lbs. of flour or bread, with
1½ lbs. of beef, or 10 oz. of pork, forms a complete ration: or 3 lbs.
of beef; or 2 lbs. of cheese; or half a pound of rice, forms a complete
ration.

At sea the ration is different. The following table contains the
allowance for six soldiers, or four seamen on board of ship, for each
day in the week. Women are provisioned at ½, and children at ¼ of a
soldier’s allowance, but receive no rum.

    (A) = Beer, Gallons, or half Pints of Spirits, or Pints of  Wine.
    (B) = Pint of Oatmeal.
    (C) = lbs. of Butter.
    (D) = lbs. of Butter.
    +----------+------+---+----------+------+----+---+---+---+--------+
    |          |      |   |  Beef,   |Pork, |Pint|   |   |   |        |
    |  Days of |      |   |  Pieces  |Pieces| of |   |   |   |        |
    | the Week.|Bread.|(A)|   of     |  of  |Peas|(B)|(C)|(D)|Vinegar.|
    |          |  lb. |   |  8 lbs.  |4 lb. |    |   |   |   |        |
    +----------+------+---+----------+------+----+---+---+---+--------+
    |Sunday,   |   4  | 4 |          |   1  |  2 |   |   |   |        |
    |          |      |   |          |      |    |   |   |   |        |
    |Monday,   |   4  | 4 |          |   —  |    | 4 | ½ | 1 |        |
    |          |      |   |          |      |    |   |   |   |        |
    |Tuesday,  |   4  | 4 |   1      |   —  |    |   |   |   |        |
    |          |      |   |or 6 lbs. |      |    |   |   |   |        |
    |Wednesday,|   4  | 4 | of flour,|   —  |  2 | 4 | ½ | 1 |1 quart |
    |          |      |   |or  ½ lb  |      |    |   |   |   |a week. |
    |Thursday, |   4  | 4 |of suet,  |   1  |  2 |   |   |   |        |
    |          |      |   |& 1 lb of |      |    |   |   |   |        |
    |Friday,   |   4  | 4 |raisins   |   —  |  2 | 4 | ½ | 1 |        |
    |          |      |   |          |      |    |   |   |   |        |
    |Saturday, |   4  | 4 |   1      |   —  |    |   |   |   |        |
    |          |      |   | or as    |      |    |   |   |   |        |
    |          |      |   | above.   |      |    |   |   |   |        |
    +----------+------+---+----------+------+----+---+---+---+--------+

The above are served out by full weights and measures.

When flour, suet and raisins are put on board, they are to be served
out in equal proportions with beef, viz. half in beef; the other half
in flour, suet, and raisins, on each beef day.

4 lbs. of flour, or 3 lbs. of flour with ½ lb. of raisins, (or ¼ lb. of
currants) and ¼ lb. of suet, are equal to 4 lbs. of beef, or 2 lbs. of
pork with peas, but are not to be issued in lieu of the latter, except
unavoidable, and then the quantities must be certified.

½ lb. of rice is equal to a pint of oatmeal; ½ lb. of sugar is equal to
½ lb. of butter; and 1 lb. of rice is equal to 1 lb. of cheese; 1 pint
of oil is equal to 1 lb. of butter, or 2 lbs. of cheese, that is, a
pint of oil for the proportion of butter and cheese.

A pint of wine, or ½ pint of brandy, rum, or arrack, is equal to a
gallon of beer; 1 lb. of fresh beef is equal to 1 lb. of salt beef; and
1½ lbs. of fresh beef is equal to 1 lb. of pork.

No wine or spirits are to be issued to the troops while in port, nor at
sea, till after all the beer is expended.

The masters of transports are to produce a certificate from the
commanding officer of the troops on board, of the quantity expended. If
any doubt be entertained of the provisions being full weight, a cask
must be weighed in the presence of the commanding officer, the master
and the mate, and the master may upon the certificate of the commanding
officer, and the oath of the mate, issue as much beef and pork as will
make up the deficiency.

The weight of each must be as follows: 14 pieces of beef, cut for 8
pound pieces taken out of the cask as they rise, and the salt shaken
off, are to weigh 112 lbs. avoirdupois. 28 pieces of pork cut for 4 lb.
pieces, are also to weigh, under like circumstances, 112 lbs.


The deductions to betaken for provisions from the pay of officers,
noncommissioned officers, or men, are the same for all ranks, and in
all corps, under the like circumstances of service, when serving out
of Great Britain, on stations where provisions are supplied by the
public: also, when embarked in transports or other vessels, (except
when serving as marines) also when prisoners of war, and maintained at
the expense of Great Britain; also when in general hospitals, whether
at home or abroad, a deduction of _Six-pence per day_.

A deduction of _three-pence half-penny_ from the pay of every
noncommissioned officer and private in Jamaica, in New South Wales, or
Gibraltar. Noncommissioned officers and soldiers serving as marines
shall not be liable to any deduction from their full pay on account of
provisions.

Ration for a horse on home service in 1796: 14 lbs. of hay, 10 lbs. of
oats, 4 lbs. of straw; for which a stoppage is made of _six-pence_.

                                            _Army Regulations, 1799._


_RANK._—_Between Land and Sea Officers._

             _Navy._                      |   _Army._
    1. Admiral, or commander              |
         of his Majesty’s fleet           | Field Marshal.
    --------------------------------------+--------------------
    2. Admirals with their flags          |
         at the main-top-mast head        | Generals.
    --------------------------------------+--------------------
    3. Vice Admirals                      | Lieutenant Generals.
    4. Rear Admirals                      | Major Generals.
    5. Commodores, with broad pendants    | Brigadiers.
    --------------------------------------+--------------------
    6. Captains commanding post           |
         ships, after 3 years             | Colonels.
    --------------------------------------+--------------------
    7. All Captains commanding post ships | Lieutenant Colonels.
    8. Captains not taking post           | Majors.
    9. Lieutenants                        | Captains.

The rank and precedence of sea officers in the classes abovementioned,
are to take place according to the seniority of their respective
commissions in the sea service. Post captains commanding ships or
vessels that do not give post, rank only as majors during the time they
command those vessels.

Nothing in this shall give any pretence to land officers to command any
of his Majesty’s squadrons; nor to any sea officer to command on shore;
nor shall either have right to demand the military honours due to their
respective ranks, unless upon actual service.


_RECOIL_—_Of Field Guns on Travelling Carriages, upon Elm Planks._

    +-------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+
    |             |        | 1 Shot,  | 2 Shot   |Case Shot,|
    |  Nature.    | Charge |at 1° 30′ |at 1° 30′ |at 3° 45′ |
    |             |        |Elevation |Elevation |Elevation |
    +-------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+
    |             |lbs. oz.|  Feet.   |  Feet.   |  Feet.   |
    |             |        |          |          |          |
    |12 Pr. Medi. |  4   — |   12     |   25     |    8½    |
    | 6 Pr. Heavy |  2   — |    7     |   11     |    7½    |
    | 6 Pr. Light |  1  8  |   12     |   21     |   10     |
    | 3 Pr. Heavy |  1   — |    7     |    5     |    3½    |
    +-------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+

_Recoil of Sea Service, Iron Guns, on Ship Carriages, upon a Horizontal
Platform._

    +------------------------+----------+-------+-------+-------+
    |   Charges of Powder    |Elevation.|32 Pr. |24 Pr. |18 Pr. |
    |       and Shot.        |          |       |       |       |
    +------------------------+----------+-------+-------+-------+
    |                        |   Deg.   |Ft. In.|Ft. In.|Ft. In.|
    |                        |          |       |       |       |
    | ⅓ of Powder and 1 Shot |    2     |11  —  |11  —  |10  6  |
    | ⅓ of Powder and 2 Shot |    4     |19  6  |18  6  |18  —  |
    | ¼ of Powder and 2 Shot |    7     |11  6  |12  —  |12  —  |
    +------------------------+----------+-------+-------+-------+

_Recoil of Land Service, Iron Mortars, on Iron Beds._

                                            Ft. In.
    13 Inch, with a charge of 6 lbs.         4  2½
    10 Inch,   ”      ”       3 lbs.         2  10
     8 Inch,   ”      ”       1 lb.  9 oz.   3  10


_RECONNOITERING._—The following necessary observations to be made
in examining a country in a military point of view, are principally
translated from the _Aide Memoire_, but improved by some judicious
remarks from Mr. Landman’s introduction to reconnoitering.

Before an officer sets out to reconnoiter a country, he should trace
out from the best map he can procure, its principal features, which
will serve him as a guide in his progress through the principal parts
which are to be the subject of his observations, and enable him to
connect the whole into one grand plan.

His observations should be expressed by written remarks, and by
sketches. For this purpose he must be provided with a sketch book, on
the right hand page of which, he may express the appearance of the
country by sketches, and on the left, the remarks made on particular
parts, with the names of the towns, their distances asunder, &c. with
proper references to the sketches. The scale most proper for this
purpose is two inches to a mile; if therefore, the sketch book be made
six inches wide, and the leaves divided by lines into three equal
parts, each division will be one mile, which will be a sufficient scale
for the purpose.

1st. _Roads._—The principal points to be attended to in examining
roads for military purposes, are, their direction; the villages,
countries, and rivers, which they pass through; the roads which cross
them; their names and the seasons in which they are in best condition;
and if ever impassable, their breadth, whether variable or constant;
their bottoms, of what principally formed; their ascents and descents,
whether practicable for all kinds of carriages. The enclosures may
be hedges, ditches, walls, or fences. If the roads require repair
for the transport of artillery, and other heavy carriages, observe
if the necessary materials are at hand. If they pass over rivers,
remark whether by bridges or fords; if through marshes, whether by
causeways or otherwise. If two or more roads pursuing the same route,
and by which different columns may march, at any part join or cross
each other, it will be necessary to observe, whether the march of the
columns will be thereby impeded. If they only cross each other, it
will be sometimes possible in hollow ways, to throw a temporary bridge
across the deepest, by which one column may pass over and the other
under the bridge, without interrupting each others march.

2. _Fords._—A ford for cavalry ought not to be deeper than 4 feet; for
infantry not more than 3 feet. Observe the banks of the ford at each
side; their form, steepness, and height; their situation as to the
turnings of the river. Their bottom, whether passable for carriages.
Observe marks by which the ford may be readily found; points from which
it may be protected. Notice the rapidity of the water; whether its
height be variable; its direction, its breadth, and the means by which
the ford may be destroyed or rendered impassable.

3. _Inundations._—Learn the manner of working the sluices; the time in
which the inundation may be effected; its extent and depth. Observe how
the dam may be protected; its height and solidity; whether it can be
easily raised, or easily destroyed; whether it is commanded by distant
positions, and whether the inundation can be otherways drained. Notice
the adjacent country.

4. _Springs and Wells._—Attend to the quality and quantity of the
water; whether it will serve for the cavalry, as well as infantry, and
the manner of its being drawn. Observe the situation of the spring, and
of its source, whether it can be protected, and the enemy prevented
from cutting it off.

5. _Lakes, Marshes, and Swamps._—Learn their cause; if arising from
a moist soil, the overflowings of rivers or from springs. Observe
their situation, and the appearance of the surrounding country; the
best means of crossing them. If they are divided by causeways, notice
their breadth and condition; if not, remark if causeways can be easily
established, and whether the swamp can be drained, and whether it is
passable at any season of the year. Observe the points from which the
causeways can be defended against the passage of an enemy’s column.
Learn whether or not the swamps are subject to fogs; and at what
seasons they are most hurtful.

6. _Of Woods and Forests._—Remark their extent; their situation; their
thickness; whether the trees are lofty or low; whether there is much
underwood. Observe if the different clumps form openings or passes;
and their extent; whether their sides are formed of thick wood or
brush; whether their breadth is uniform, or widens at particular parts.
Remark whether the ground of the forest be level or hilly, swampy or
dry. Observe the nature and condition of the roads (for remarks to be
made on these, see the article _Roads_;) observe also the means the
forest affords of intrenching; of making fascines, abbatis, &c. Attend
to the face of the country round the forest, whether cultivated fields
or meadows: whether it affords positions; is intersected by rivulets,
swamps or ravines.

Remark the castles, villages, towns, &c. in the neighbourhood; and
their distance from the skirts of the wood.

Go round the wood and examine its principal débouchés; observe the
ravines, rivulets, roads, &c. issuing from it, and learn their
direction.

7. _Heaths._—Notice for what nature of troops they are best calculated.
The nature of hedges and brush wood; some form a good breast work.
Observe the directions of the rivulets, roads, and ravines. When the
ground of a heath is of the common colour, the roads are usually good:
but when it is blackish and mixed with white sand, the roads are
generally impassable in winter seasons.

8. _Canals._—For this article see also the observations on _Rivers_.
Observe their intention; the nature of the soil in which they are dug,
their breadth and depth; their locks; the craft found upon them; the
best means of protecting or destroying them: learn the countries they
pass through.

9. _Rivers._—Learn in what country they arise, and where empty
themselves; the nature of the countries they run through, and whether
they belong to us or the enemy. Learn the extent to which they are
navigable; and if they ever freeze over, whether strong enough to bear
troops and carriages. Notice the quality of the water, its course,
currents, depths, and breadths. The banks and the beds of the rivers.
Observe the nature and number of the craft that navigate them; and the
mills upon their banks, whether of wind or water. Visit the bridges and
fords; and make the proper remarks on their nature and situation. Learn
whether the rivers ever overflow their banks, and at what season; and
whether or not this causes inundations. Observe the most favourable
points for crossing, and the roads leading to these points. The
turnings and windings of the rivers, the form of their peninsulas; and
the most favourable situations for throwing over bridges. If there are
any wharves on the banks, observe what craft can lay along side of them.

If there are islands in the rivers, note their size; their banks;
whether inhabited, cultivated, woody, or barren; and whether they
command the channel.

Observe the mountains and high grounds near the rivers; remark their
distance from the banks, and the advantages, or disadvantages which
they offer. Learn what branches or confluence of other rivers there
are either above or below, the best situations for crossing. Examine
the positions which the adjoining country affords an army to protect
the passage of the river; and whether in a perpendicular or parallel
direction; and the routes by which 3 or 4 columns may arrive at the
place.

10. _Passes._—Observe their breadth, their length, their situation; the
nature of the adjacent country: the best positions to occupy to cover a
retreat; or to dispute the pass. How the troops would be best arranged;
and the number that would be required for this purpose.

11. _Ravines, Vallies._—Observe the nature of the soil; whether rocky,
or of loose flints. If the sides are rugged and steep, whether they can
be easily scarped off. The points that command them: whether storms or
floods are to be apprehended; and at what seasons most expected.

12. _Cultivated Lands._—Notice their state of cultivation: their
productions; their time of harvest. Learn what quantity of wheat, rye,
barley, oats, or other grain they produce, over and above the necessary
subsistance of the inhabitants. How much hay they yield _per_ acre.

13. _Orchards._—Observe whether they are thick planted and afford a
good cover: their enclosures, whether hedge, ditches, walls, &c.

14. _Bridges._—Remark their situation; their length and breadth; the
materials of which they are built; their strength, whether sufficient
to bear artillery: the roads leading to them: their situation, as
to the turnings of the river: their purpose; if to connect towns or
villages, the nature, direction, and breadth of the streets leading to
them. Observe the country around, whether flat or commanding: study the
best means of fortifying the bridge head; and observe the best and most
expeditious mode by which the bridge may be destroyed, if necessary.

15. _Mountains, Hills._—Amongst high mountains, such as the Alps, roads
are very rare; it is seldom more than the vallies that are inhabited
and accessible for troops: observe their slopes, if steep or rugged.
Examine the positions; means of gaining the summits; and note the state
of cultivation and general appearance of the vallies; the pasturage,
forage, cottages, villages, castles, roads, paths, and passes.
Distinguish the principal chains of hills and their direction. Their
relative heights; whether they are sufficiently extensive to form a
line of defence; their communications; their strong points; positions
proper for batteries, &c. Whether practicable for cavalry and artillery.

16. _Coasts._—Their nature; whether bordered by downs; surrounded by
rocks, which render their approach dangerous; or by shoals, which
make their access impracticable; note the points and headlands proper
for forts and batteries to defend the anchorage, ports, harbours, or
other accessible parts. If there are any adjacent isles, perhaps they
will serve for the erection of advanced batteries, to form a barrier
to the efforts of an enemy. Observe the nature of the shores, bays,
roads for shipping, &c. with the winds required to go in and out the
harbours; and whether they are of easy access: their advantages and
disadvantages, their size and depth of water. If a river empties
itself on the coast, observe the particular channel for shipping, and
whether it can be defended by any of the batteries. If the coast is
already fortified, observe all the batteries, forts, or intrenchments,
established for its defence, and the protection of the anchorage, _&c._
Examine the camps and other military posts, which cover the principal
points, and the interior of the country. Estimate all the dangers to
be run, and all the obstacles to be overcome in a descent, and point
out the means of augmenting them. Observe the time of the tide most
favourable for approaching the coast. Ascertain the number of artillery
and other troops constantly on the coast, and the force that can be
collected at a short notice; and how soon they can be drawn to any
particular point attacked. Examine the system of defence adopted, and
endeavour to improve it.

17. _Forts, Redoubts._—Remark their form, whether ancient or modern;
whether they are permanent or temporary; elevated or low; revetted or
demi-revetted, with stone, brick, or turf. Whether the ditch is wet
or dry; fraized or palissaded; natural or artificial. Observe their
situation; the face of the adjacent country; whether they effectually
command the passes, or protect the country intended. The defence they
are capable of making in their present state, and the improvements of
which they are susceptible.

18. _Castles, Citadels._—Their situation; their form; their extent;
their object; the protection they give the city; their connection and
communication with it. The present state of their defence, and the
improvements of which they are susceptible. Their _Souterraines_.

19. _Villages._—Observe their situation; ascertain the number of
families they contain; the nature of the land; the quality and quantity
of their crops; their markets; the suburbs that supply these markets;
their beasts of burthen: their flocks, herds, poultry, _&c._ The number
of their ovens; quality of the water; stile of houses, barns, stables,
and sheep walks. The situation of the church; the nature of the church
yard, and its enclosures. The wind and water mills. Observe whether
the village is surrounded by hedges, ditches, banks, or walls; whether
it can be easily intrenched. Its streets; roads leading to it; and the
face of the surrounding country.

20. _Cities not fortified._—Their situation; population; commerce;
commodities; manufactures; the succours that may be drawn from them,
as to men, horses, _&c._ Their squares and principal buildings. The
defence they are susceptible of; whether they are surrounded by walls,
old towers, ditches, _&c._ Their gates, and the roads leading to them.
The face of the surrounding country.

21. _Fortified Towns._—Their situation with respect to their position,
and with respect to other towns in the neighbourhood, whether in the
first or second line; the assistance which they can afford each other.
The succours that may be drawn from them, or that may be thrown into
them in case of a siege. The direction which such relief, whether of
men or provisions, ought to take, according to the side attacked;
whether they will serve as depots or hospitals. The state of the
fortifications (see the word _Fortification_ in the alphabet;) their
nature; the strength of each front. The rivers in the neighbourhood;
the surrounding country within the range of the guns. The form of
investment; what lines will be required considering the nature of
the country, and the positions; and the means the country affords of
executing them. The advantages which the ground would afford between
the glacis and the lines, either to the besiegers or besieged; the
means of establishing the most certain communications between the
different quarters of the army, and the means of cutting them off.

22. _Positions._—Every military position ought to possess decided
advantages of situation, and ought to be commanded in no part of its
front, flank, or rear. All commanding grounds ought to be without
the range of cannon. There are four principal objects to be attended
to in the choice of a position: 1st. The advantages of the ground;
2d. The supplies for the army; 3d. The objects to be attained; and,
4th. The communications with the rear. The front of a position should
be intersected by rivers, ravines, or broken ground, or any other
obstacles which can prevent the enemy advancing in order of battle,
and oblige him to pass through defilés; but a position becomes useless
when the front is so covered by obstacles that the army cannot advance
or move out of its camp when necessary; but no obstacles can be too
great on the flanks. All obstacles which cover a position, or passes
which lead to it, must be within the range of the artillery, or the
enemy will pass them unmolested. In a flat country, where the ground
does not afford commanding situations, a position is only more or less
eligible, as being covered or protected by obstacles; these are very
thick woods, in which there are very few roads; large rivulets which
cannot be forded or passed without bridges; narrow roads; deep and
broken ravines; ground much intersected with hedges, ditches, &c. but
it is essential that all these obstacles should be under the fire of
the artillery. It is always dangerous to occupy a position, which has
its rear so covered by swamps, crossed by rivers or ravines, &c. as
to render the retreat of the army difficult. The number of passes by
which an army can retire must be examined and secured, and should never
be less than 5 or 6. The rivers, brooks, &c. in front of a position,
should never be depended upon for a supply of water, as the enemy may
cut them off. The ground for a camp should not be too much intersected
by hedges, ditches, or ravines, which occasion great intervals in the
line, and obstruct the communications through the camp.

In an offensive position it is absolutely necessary that the army
should not be too much confined by obstacles, but be at liberty
to act in every direction; but in a defensive position, the fewer
accessible points there are the better: and if the natural difficulties
in front and flank are not sufficient to render an enemy’s attack
dangerous, they must be increased by redoubts, intrenchments, abbatis,
inundations, &c. The obstacles on the flanks, should also be of such
extent that they cannot be easily turned, without the enemy makes a
very great circuit; and consequently exposes his own flank, and weakens
his line of communication. In case the enemy detaches a body to attack
a defensive position in the rear; the front must be sufficiently strong
to enable the general to oppose the enemy’s detachment, by a strong
body from his own army. In short, the enemy must not be able by any
manœuvre to force the army to quit its position. The want of wood or
water, or other supplies absolutely necessary for an army, renders
every other advantage of a position useless; nor, can a position be
long tenable, that is far removed from its depots; and has not its
intermediate posts perfectly secure from the attacks of an enemy. For
further remarks upon positions, see the word _Artillery in the Field_.


_RICOCHET_—Firing is not confined to any particular charge or
elevation; each must vary according to the distance and difference of
level of the object to be fired at; and particularly of the spot on
which it is intended the shot shall make the first bound. The smaller
the angle is under which a shot is made to ricochet, the longer it will
preserve its force and have effect, as it will sink so much the less in
the ground on which it bounds and its tenacity will of course present
so much less resistance to the shot’s progress. In the ricochet of a
fortification of any kind, the angle of elevation should seldom be
more than 10°, to throw the shot over a parapet a little higher than
the level of the battery. If the works should be of an extraordinary
height, the piece must be removed to such situation, and have such
charge, that it can attain its object at this elevation, or at least
under that of 13° or 14°, otherwise the shot will not ricochet, and the
carriages will suffer very much. The first gun in a ricochet battery
should be so placed as to sweep the whole length of the rampart of the
enemy’s work, at 3 or 4 feet from the parapet, and the rest should
form as small an angle with the parapet as possible. For this purpose
the guns should be pointed about 4 fathoms from the face of the work
towards the interior. In the ricochet of ordnance in the field, the
objects to be fired at being principally infantry and cavalry, the guns
should seldom be elevated above 3 degrees; as with greater angles the
ball would be apt to bound too high, and defeat the object intended.
For ricochet practice see the different pieces of ordnance, as _Gun_,
_Mortar_, and _Howitzer_.

                                                      DURTUBIE.

See also the words _Platforms_ and _Battery_.


_ROCKETS._—_Composition._

          _Old Proportion._          |  _New Proportion._
                     lbs. oz.        |            lbs. oz.
    Saltpetre         4   0          |    —        4   4
    Sulphur           1   0          |    —        0  12
    Charcoal          1   8          |    —        2   0
    ---------------------------------+----------------------
      _Composition for the Stars._   |
    Mealed powder         0 lb. 8 oz.|
    Saltpetre             8     0    | Composition for rains
    Sulphur               2     0    |   to head sky rockets
    Antimony              2     0    |   is the same as the
    Isinglass dissolved   0     3½   |   above for the
    Spirits of wine       1 pint.    |   rockets.
    Vinegar               1 quart.   |
    ---------------------------------+----------------------

_General Table of Sky Rockets._

    +---------------------------+--------+---------+--------+--------+
    |                           |2 Pound.|1 Pound. |½ Pound.|¼ Pound.|
    +---------------------------+--------+---------+--------+--------+
    |                           | Inch.  | Inch.   | Inch.  |  Inch. |
    |      Exterior diameter    |  2.13  |  1.69   |  1.34  |  1.06  |
    |Case  Interior diameter    |  1.529 |  1.214  |  0.961 |  0.761 |
    |      Length before driving| 15.97  | 12.67   | 10.05  |  8.25  |
    +---------------------------+--------+---------+--------+--------+
    |Length of guage            |  1.5   |  1.25   |  1.0   |  0.75  |
    |  for the choke            |        |         |        |        |
    +---------------------------+--------+---------+--------+--------+
    |Cylinders for  Diameter    |  2.84  |  2.25   |  1.79  |  1.39  |
    |  heading      Length      |  4.26  |  3.38   |  2.68  |  2.12  |
    |Cones for      Diameter    |  2.84  |  2.25   |  1.79  |  1.39  |
    |  heading      Height      |  4.26  |  3.38   |  2.68  |  2.18  |
    +---------------------------+--------+---------+--------+--------+
    |Mallet for driving.—Weight |  4 lb. |  3 8 oz.|  2 1   |  1 10  |
    |Nᵒ. of Strokes             |   31   |   21    |   18   |   13   |
    +---------------------------+--------+---------+--------+--------+


_Copper Ladles for filling Sky Rockets._

    _Length_, 1½ the exterior diameter of the case.
    _Diameter_, equals the interior diameter of case.
    _Circumference_, ¾ the interior caliber of the case.

Sky rockets are driven with composition up to 4½ exterior diameters of
the case from the choke; and ⅕ of a diameter above the composition with
good clay. They are bored and reamed up to 3½ diameters.

_Dimensions of Sticks for Rockets._—General rules.

For rockets from ½ an ounce to one pound, the stick must be 60
diameters of the rocket in length: for rockets from one pound and
upwards fifty or fifty two diameters. Their thickness at top about ½ a
diameter, and their breadth very little more. Their square at bottom
equal to ½ the thickness at top.

    +-------------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-------+-------+
    |  Nature of  | 6 Pr. | 4 Pr.| 2 Pr.|1 Pr.| ½ Pr. | ¼ Pr. | ⅛ Pr. |
    |   Rockets.  |       |      |      |     |       |       |       |
    +-------------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-------+-------+
    |             |Ft. In.| F. I.| F. I.|F. I.| F. I. | F. I. | F. I. |
    |Distance of  |       |      |      |     |       |       |       |
    | poise from  | 4  1½ | 3  9 | 2  9 |2  1 | 1 10½ | 1  8  | 1  3  |
    | the point   |       |      |      |     |       |       |       |
    | of the cone |       |      |      |     |       |       |       |
    +-------------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-------+-------+

Rockets of between 3 and 4 inches diameter have been observed to ascend
as high as 1000 or 1200 yards; but the height of common rockets is
between 450 and 600 yards; and their flight usually short of 7 seconds.

                                              JONES, ROBINS, LAB.


_ROPE_—is always distinguished by its circumference: thus a two inch
rope means a rope of 2 inches in circumference.

_Rule for finding the Weight of Ropes._

Multiply the square of the circumference in inches, by the length in
fathoms, and divide the product by 480 for the weight in cwt. See also
_Drag Ropes_.




_SAND BAGS_—are made about 27 inches long, and 15 diameter; 250 of
these are required for each fathom of battery, or about 1680 for two
guns or mortars.—See _Tonnage_.


_SAP._—The sap generally commences about the second parallel, and
sometimes sooner; and if the fire of the besieged is much slackened,
may proceed both day and night. The sappers are usually divided into
brigades of 8, and subdivided into divisions of 4 each; being the
greatest number that can work at the sap at the same time. The leading
sapper excavates 18 inches deep, and as much wide; the second, third,
and fourth deepen the trench, each in succession 6 inches, and widen it
as much; so that the four make a trench of 3 feet wide and 3 feet deep;
after which the common workmen follow, and increase it in breadth and
depth equal to the other trenches. The sap may proceed at the rate of
80 fathoms in 24 hours. As this work is very hard, the half brigades
relieve each other every hour, and each sapper in his turn takes the
lead. The whole brigade is relieved at the end of 6 hours. It is always
customary in this dangerous work, to give the wages of those that are
killed to the survivors. Sappers are generally armed with a helmet and
breast plate. See _Trenches_, _Parallels_.


_SECANT._—See table at the end of the word _Gunnery_.


_SHELLS_—_For Mortars and Howitzers.—Their Dimensions, Weight, &c._

    +-------+-------------+-------+---------+--------+--------------+-------+
    |Nature.|    Weight.  | Diam- |  Powder | Powder |  Diameter of |Thick- |
    |       |             | eter. |contained|   for  |  Fuze Hole.  |ness of|
    |       |             |       |    in   |Burning.+-------+------+ Metal.|
    |       |             |       | Shells. |        |Outside|Inside|       |
    +-------+-------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+------+-------+
    |       |Ct.qr.lbs.oz.|Inches.| lbs. oz.|lbs. oz |Inches.|Inches|Inches.|
    |13 Inch| 1  3   2    | 12¾   |  10   4 |  6  12 | 1.837 | 1.696| 2.05  |
    |10   ” |    3   9    |  9¾   |   4   5 |  2  10 | 1.57  | 1.45 | 1.575 |
    | 8   ” |    1  11½   |  7¾   |   2  12 |  1  14 | 1.219 | 1.127| 1.2   |
    | 5½  ” |       15¼   |  5¼   |   1     |     12 | 0.894 | 0.826| 0.822 |
    | 4⅖  ” |        8    |  4⅕   |       7 |      5 | 0.832 | 0.769| 0.653 |
    +-------+-------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+------+-------+
    | Hand  |        3  11|  3.49 |         |        |       |      |       |
    | Gren. |        1  13|  2.77 |         |     1½ |       |      |       |
    +-------+-------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+------+-------+
    |        _French Shells, in French Weights and Measures._          |
    +-------+-------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+------+-------+
    |Inches.|      lbs.   |       |         |        |Lines  |Lines | Lines.|
    |       |             |       |         |        |  Po.  |  Po. |       |
    |12 Inch|      150    |   12  |  17     |  5     | 15  9 | 15   |  16   |
    |10  ”  |      100    |   10  |  10     |  3     | 15  9 | 15   |  16   |
    | 8  ”  |       43    |    8  |   4   1 |  1     | 12    | 11   |  10   |
    | 6  ”  |       23    |    6  |   2   8 |     12 | 11    | 10  6|  10   |
    +-------+-------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+------+-------+


_Dimensions of Shells for Guns and Carronades made with an equal
Thickness of Metal._

    +------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+
    |               Nature.              |42 Pr.|  32  |  24  |  18  |  12  |
    +------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+
    |                                    |Inches|Inches|Inches|Inches|Inches|
    |                            Exterior| 6.684| 6.105| 5.547| 5.04 | 4.4  |
    |      Diameter of the shell Interior| 4.404| 4.005| 3.767| 3.4  | 2.8  |
    +------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+
    |      Thickness of metal            | 1.14 | 1.05 | 0.89 | 0.82 | 0.8  |
    |Guns                        Exterior| 0.894| 0.894| 0.894| 0.832| 0.832|
    |      Diameter of fuze hole Interior| 0.826| 0.826| 0.826| 0.769| 0.769|
    +------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+
    |      Powder for bursting       oz. |  14  |  11  |  12  |   9  | 5½   |
    +------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+
    |                            Exterior| 6.64 | 6.05 | 5.48 | 4.935| 4.295|
    |        Diameter of shell   Interior| 4.36 | 3.95 | 3.48 | 3.235| 2.695|
    |                                    +------+------+------+------+------+
    |Carron- Thickness of metal          | 1.14 | 1.05 | 1.   | 0.85 | 0.8  |
    | ades   Shells Weight          lbs. |      |  22  |      |   12 |      |
    |        Contains powder         oz. |      |  12½ |      |    9 |      |
    |        Powder for bursting     oz. |      |  10  |      |    7 |      |
    +------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+


_The following Shells may also be fired from Guns._

    Hand Grenades from      6 Prs.
    4⅖ Shells       ”      12 Prs.
    5½ Shells       ”      24 Prs.
    8 Inch          ”      68 Pr. Carronades.

Shells may likewise be thrown from guns to short distances, in cases of
necessity, though the bore be not of a diameter sufficient to admit the
shell. For this purpose the gun may be elevated to any degree that will
retain the shell upon its muzzle, which may be assisted by a small line
going from the lugs of the shell round the neck of the gun. To produce
a greater effect, the space between the shell and the charge may be
filled with wads or other substance.

    LOMBARD.

Shells are likewise sometimes quilted into grape. See the word _Shot_.

For the method of proving shells. See _Proof_.


_To find the Weight of a Shell of Iron._

Take ⁹/₆₄ of the difference of the cubes of the external and internal
diameters for the weight of the shell.

_To find how much Powder will fill a Shell._

Divide the cube of the internal diameter of the shell in inches by
57.3, for the pounds of powder.

_To find the size of a Shell to contain a given Weight of Powder._

Multiply the pounds of powder by 57.3, and the cube root of the product
will be the diameter in inches.

The Germans do not name their shells from the diameter of the bore
which receives them, but from the weight of a stone ball that fits
the same bore as the shell. Thus a 7 lbs. howitzer admits a stone
ball of that weight; the shell for this weighs 15 lbs. and answers to
the English 5½ inch. The 30 lbs. howitzer shell weighs 60 lbs. and is
rather more than 8 inches in diameter.

NOTE.—Shells were till lately made thicker at the bottom than at the
fuze hole; but are now cast of the same thickness throughout, and are
found to burst into a greater number of pieces in consequence.


_SHOT._—_Rules for finding the Number in any Pile._

_Triangular Pile._

Multiply the base by the base + 1, this product by the base + 2, and
divide by 6.

_Square Pile._

Multiply the bottom row by the bottom row + 1, and this product by
twice the bottom row + 2, and divide by 6.

_Rectangular Piles._

Multiply the breadth of the base by itself + 1, and this product by 3
times the difference between the length and breadth of the base, added
to twice the breadth + 1 and divide by 6.

_Incomplete Piles._

Incomplete piles being only frustrums, wanting a similar small pile
on the top, compute first the whole pile as if complete, and also the
small pile wanting at top; and then subtract the one number from the
other.


_Rules for finding the Dimensions and Weight of Shot._

The weight and dimensions of shot or shells might be found by means of
their specific gravities; (see the word _Gravity_;) but they may be
found still easier, by means of the experimented weight of a ball of a
given size, from the known proportion of similar figures, namely as the
cubes of their diameters.

1st. _To find the Weight of an Iron Ball from its Diameter_—An iron
ball of 4 inches diameter weighs 9 lbs. and the weights being as the
cubes of their diameters, it will be as 64, (the cube of 4,) is to 9,
so is the cube of the diameter of any other ball to its weight.

2d, _To find the Weight of a Leaden Ball_.—A leaden ball of 4¼ inches
diameter weighs 17 lbs. Therefore, as the cube of 4¼ is to 17, (as 9
to 2 nearly,) so is the cube of the diameter of any leaden ball to its
weight.

3d, _To find the Diameter of an Iron Ball_.—Multiply the weight by 7¹/₉
and the cube root of the product will be the diameter.

4th, _To find the Diameter of a Leaden Ball_.—Multiply the weight by 9,
and divide the product by 2; and take the cube root of the quotient for
the diameter.


_Table of Diameters of English Iron Round Shot._

    +-------+---+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+
    |Nature.| 68|  42 |  32 |  24 |  18 |  12 |  9  |  6  |  3  |  1 |
    +-------+---+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+
    |Inches.| 8.|6.684|6.105|5.547|5.040|4.403|4.000|3.498|2.775|1.92|
    +-------+---+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+

_Diameters of French Iron Round Shot in English Inches._

    +-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
    |Nature.|  36 |  24 |  16 |  12 |  8  |  4  |
    +-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
    |Inches.|6.648|5.808|5.074|4.610|4.027|3.196|
    +-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+


_Table of English Case Shot for different Services._

    +------+--------------------------++-------------------------------+
    |      |       Sea Service.       ||         Carronades.           |
    |      +-------+-------+----------++------+-------+-------+--------+
    |Nature|Weight |Number |  Weight  ||Nature|Weight |Number | Weight |
    |      |of each|in each| of each  ||      |of each|in each|of each |
    |      | Shot. | Case. |   Case   ||      | Shot. | Case. |  Case  |
    |      |       |       |  filled. ||      |       |       | filled.|
    +------+-------+-------+----------++------+-------+-------+--------+
    | Prs. |  oz.  |  Nᵒ.  |lbs. oz.  || Prs. |  oz.  |  Nᵒ.  |lbs. oz.|
    |  32  | 8     |  70   | 33   8   ||  68  |   8   |  90   | 46   2 |
    |  24  | 8     |  42   | 22  15   ||  42  |   8   |  66   | 32   8 |
    |  18  | 6     |  42   | 16   8   ||  32  |   8   |  40   | 21   4 |
    |  12  | 4     |  42   | 11   5   ||  24  |   8   |  32   | 16   1 |
    |   9  | 3     |  44   |  8   9   ||  18  |   6   |  31   | 12   2 |
    |   6  | 2     |  40   |  5   2   ||  12  |   4   |  32   |  8   2 |
    |   4  | 2     |  28   |  4   —   ++------+-------+-------+--------+
    |   3  | 2     |  20   |  2  15   ||     Tier Shot for Field       |
    |   1  | 1¼    |  12   |  1  2¼   ||           Service.            |
    +------+-------+-------+----------++------+-------+-------+--------+
    |      Common Land Service.       ||      |  oz.  |  Nᵒ.  |lbs. oz.|
    |                                 ||12 Pr.| 18    |  15   | 18   8 |
    +------+-------+-------+----------++Med.  |  6½   |  42   | 17  11 |
    | Prs. |  oz.  |  Nᵒ.  |lbs. oz.  ||------+-------+-------+--------+
    |  24  |   4   |  84   | 21  11   ||6 Pr. |  8½   |  15   |  9   — |
    |  12  |   2   |  84   | 12   1   ||Med.  |  3½   |  42   |  8  14 |
    |   6  |   1½  |  55   |  5  10½  ++------+-------+-------+--------+
    |   3  |   1¼  |  52   |  2  14   ||3 Pr. |  4½   |  15   |  4  10 |
    |      |       |       |          ||Med.  |  1½   |  42   |  4   6 |
    |      |       |       |          ++------+-------+-------+--------+
    |      |       |       |          ||12 Pr.| 14    |  12   | 14  14 |
    |      |       |       |          ||Light |  6½   |  34   | 14  11 |
    |      |       |       |          ++------+-------+-------+--------+
    |      |       |       |          ||6 Pr. |  8½   |  12   |  7   3 |
    |      |       |       |          ||Light |  3½   |  34   |  7   7 |
    |      |       |       |          ++------+-------+-------+--------+
    |      |       |       |          ||3 Pr. |  4½   |  12   |  3  10 |
    |      |       |       |          ||Light |  1½   |  34   |  3  11 |
    +------+-------+-------+----------++------+-------+-------+--------+

    +-----------------------------------++-------------------------+
    |            For Mortars.           ||       Howitzers.        |
    +--------+-------+--------+---------++-------+--------+--------+
    | Nature.|Weight | Number | Weight  ||Weight | Number | Weight |
    |        |of each|of Shot | of Case ||of each|of Shot |of Case |
    |        | Shot. |in each.| filled. || Shot. |in each.| filled.|
    +--------+-------+--------+---------++-------+--------+--------+
    | Inch.  |  oz.  |  Nᵒ.   |lbs.  oz.||  oz.  |   Nᵒ.  |lbs. oz.|
    | 10     |   8   |  170   | 91   8  ||   —   |   —    | —   —  |
    |  8     |   6   |   90   | 38   4  ||   6   |   90   | 33   8 |
    |  5½    |   3   |   55   | 12   6  ||   3   |   55   | 12   8 |
    |  4⅖    |   2   |   55   |  8   1¼ ||   2   |   55   |  8   2 |
    +--------+-------+--------+---------++-------+--------+--------+


_Table of Grape Shot, for Sea and Land Service._

    +-------------+----------------+-------------------+
    |   Nature.   | Weight of each |  Total Weight of  |
    |             |      Shot.     |the grape complete.|
    +-------------+----------------+-------------------+
    |             |  lbs.  oz.     |    lbs.   oz.     |
    | 42 Pounders.|   4    0       |    46     6       |
    | 32    ”     |   3    0       |    34     1       |
    | 24    ”     |   2    0       |    25     5       |
    | 18    ”     |   1    8       |    19    15½      |
    | 12    ”     |   1    0       |    10    15       |
    |  9    ”     |   0   13       |     7     6       |
    |  6    ”     |   0    8       |     5     8½      |
    |  4    ”     |   0    6       |     3    14½      |
    |  3    ”     |   0    4       |     2    10½      |
    |  ½    ”     |   0    ⅗ lead  |           8¾      |
    +-------------+----------------+-------------------+

Small shells, as 4⅖ inches, and hand grenades were quilted into grape
for 13 inch mortars at Gibraltar. The fuzes were turned inwards next
the iron tampion, and leaders of quick match for communicating fire to
the fuzes were introduced through holes made in the wood bottom, and
placed as near the fuzes as possible in the center of the grape. These
answered very well for short ranges.

    SHAND.


_Hot Shot._—The powder for firing with hot shot must be in strong
flannel cartridges, without any holes, lest some grains should remain
in the bore, in putting the cartridge home. Over the powder must be
rammed a good dry wad, then a damp one, and then the hot shot; and
if the gun lays at a depression, there must be a wad over the shot,
which may be rammed home. If the above precautions be attended to, the
gun may be pointed after being loaded, without the smallest danger;
as it is well known that the shot will grow cold in the gun, without
burning more than a few threads of the wads next it. This is not the
mode usually taught of loading with hot shot, but is that which was
practised during the siege of Gibraltar. Mr. Durtubie proposes putting
the shot when heated, into a tin cannister, as an effectual method of
preventing accidents.

The grates usually made for heating shot will generally make them red
hot in ¾ of an hour.


_SINES._—See table of _Natural Sines_, at the end of the word _Gunnery_.


_SOUND._—The medium velocity of sound is nearly at the rate of a mile,
or 5280 feet; in 4⅔ seconds; or a league in 14 seconds; or 13 miles in
one minute.—But sea miles are to land miles nearly as 7 to 6: therefore
sound moves over a sea mile in 5¾ seconds nearly; or a sea league in 16
seconds.

    HUTTON.

Sound flies 1142 feet in one second.

    FLAMESTEAD.

It is a common observation, that persons in good health have about 75
pulsations at the wrist in a minute, consequently in 75 pulsations
sound flies about 13 land miles, or 11¹/₇ sea miles, which is about 1
land mile in 6 pulsations, and 1 sea mile in 7 pulses; or a league in
20 pulses.

    HUTTON.

The velocity of sound does not very much vary, whether it goes with
the wind or against it. As sound moves vastly swifter than the wind,
the acceleration it can thereby receive can be but inconsiderable;
and the chief effect we can perceive from the wind is, that the sound
will be carried to a greater distance by it. Sound will be louder
in proportion to the condensation of the air. Water is one of the
greatest conductors of sound: it can be heard nearly twice as far as on
land.

    HUTTON.


_STOPPAGES._—There shall be stopped out of the pay of an artillery
soldier, (beer money included,) the sum of 5 shillings and one penny
_per_ week, to be applied towards the expense of his mess, (including
vegetables, &c.) A sum not exceeding one shilling and six-pence _per_
week shall be retained for necessaries to be accounted for, as usual,
monthly. The remainder amounting to 3_s._ 10¾_d._ _per_ week, shall be
paid to the soldier, subject to the accustomed deductions for washing,
&c. or articles for cleaning his cloaths and appointments. Stoppages
for rations for man and horse. See the word _Ration_.




_TANGENT._—See the table of natural tangents at the end of the word
_Gunnery_.


_Tangent Scale._—.21 of an inch is the tangent of 1 degree to every
foot of a gun’s length, from the base ring to the swell of the
muzzle: Therefore if the distance in feet, between these two points
be multiplied by .21, the product will be the tangent of 1 degree;
from which the dispart being subtracted, will give the length of the
tangent scale above the base ring for one degree of elevation for that
particular gun. If the scale is to be applied to the quarter sight of
the gun, of course the dispart need not be subtracted.


_Tangent of 1 Degree to the following Ordnance._

    +-------------------+------------+-----------+--------+
    |                   |  Length.   |Tangent, 1°|Dispart.|
    +-------------------+------------+-----------+--------+
    |                   |Feet.  In.  |  Inches.  | Inches.|
    |12   Pr.  Medium   |  6    6    |   1.365   |  1.475 |
    |12   Pr.  Light    |  5    —    |   1.05    |  1.    |
    | 6   Pr.  Heavy    |  7    —    |   1.47    |  1.32  |
    | 6   Pr.  Light    |  5    —    |   1.05    |  1.    |
    | 3   Pr.  Heavy    |  6    —    |   1.26    |  1.08  |
    |10   Inch Howitzer |  3   11½   |    .84    |    —   |
    | 8     ”     ”     |  3    1    |    .64    |    —   |
    | 5½    ”  Light    |  2    2¾   |    .47    |    —   |
    | 4⅖    ”    ”      |  1   10    |    .384   |    —   |
    +-------------------+------------+-----------+--------+


_Tangent of 1 Degree to the following French Guns._

    +-------------+---------------------+---------------------+
    |   Nature    |       Siege.        |       Field.        |
    |     of      +----------+----------+----------+----------+
    |  Ordnance.  | Tangent  | Dispart. | Tangent  | Dispart. |
    |             |  of 1°   |          |  of 1°   |          |
    +-------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
    |             |In. Li. P.|In. Li. P.|In. Li. P.|In. Li. P.|
    |24 Pounder   | 2   1  5 | 1   2  4 |     —    |     —    |
    |16    ”      | 2   —  — | 1   1  — |     —    |     —    |
    |12    ”      | 1  10  6 | 1   —  — | 1   4  — | 1   3  2 |
    | 8    ”      | 1   8  3 | 1   —  — | 1   2  — | 1   2  — |
    | 4    ”      |     —    |     —    | 1   —  — | 1   —  — |
    | 6 In. How’r.|     —    |     —    | 0   5  6 |     —    |
    +-------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

As the French tangent scales are marked off in inches and lines, the
above dimensions are given in the same, for the more ready turning the
French elevations into degrees, and thereby comparing their ranges with
the English.


_TENT for Laboratory Works._—Weight complete with poles, pins, &c. 3
cwt. 24 lbs. length of ridge pole, 18 feet; length of poles, 14½ feet.

_Bell Tent_, now used for infantry or cavalry; weight, complete with
poles, 43 lbs. length of pole, 9 feet, contain 12 men each, require 40
pegs.

_Common Infantry Tent._—Length of ridge pole 7 feet; length of
standards 6 feet. They hold only 5 men each. Weight complete 27 lbs.

_Marquee._—Weight complete,1 cwt. 17 lbs. ridge pole, 7 feet; standard,
8 feet.


_TONNAGE._—The usual method of finding the tonnage of any ship is by
the following rule: Multiply the length of the keel by the breadth of
the beam, and that product by half the breadth of the beam; and divide
the last product by 94, and the quotient will be the tonnage.

Ship’s keel 72 feet: breadth of beam 24 feet.

    (72 × 24 × 12)
    ------------- = 220.6 tonnage.
         94

The tonnage of goods and stores is taken sometimes by weight and
sometimes by measurement; and that method is allowed to the vessel,
which yields the most tonnage. In tonnage by weight, 20 cwt. make
1 ton. In tonnage by measurement 40 cubic feet equal 1 ton. All
carriages, or other stores to be; measured for tonnage, are taken to
pieces, and packed in the manner which will occupy the least room on
board ship. All ordnance, whether brass or iron, is taken in tonnage
by its actual weight. Musquet cartridges in barrels or boxes; all
ammunition in boxes; and other articles of great weight are taken
in tonnage, according to their actual weight.—See also the word
_Embarkation_.

The following is the tonnage required for some of the most material
ordnance stores.


_Tonnage of Ordnance._

        Nature.                          Nᵒ. | T.  ct.   qr.
    -----------------------------------------+--------------
                          Pole          264  |  —   10    0
    Axes, complete with   Pick          100  |  —    9    0
      handles             Felling       176  |  —   14    0
    -----------------------------------------+--------------
    Barrows—Wheel packed                 20  |  2    2    0
              ”   unpacked                7  |  1    0    0
            Hand, single                 20  |  0   18    0
    Budge barrels                        32  |  1    0    0
    Bricks                             1000  |  2    5    0
    Buckets of leather                   20  |  0    2    0
    -----------------------------------------+--------------
    Pontoon and carriage complete,           | 11    0    0
      with its appurtenances                 |
    -----------------------------------------+--------------
    Carbines.—A chest with 25 stand          |
      is 11 feet cubic                       |
    -----------------------------------------+--------------
    Carriages.—Standing       42 Prs.        |  1   13    0
                              32 Prs.        |  1   10    0
                Howitzer      10 Inch.       |  1   10    0
                              24 Prs.        |  1    9    8
    -----------------------------------------+--------------
                              18 Prs.        |  1    7    0
                Howitzer       8 Inch.       |
    -----------------------------------------+--------------
                               12 Prs.       |  1    4    0
                                9 Prs.       |  1    3    0
                                6 Prs.       |  1    0    0
                                4 Prs.       |  0   17    0
    -----------------------------------------+--------------
    Carriages.—Travelling,     24 Prs.       |  5   10    0
      complete with limber     12 Prs.       |  4   10    2
      boxes, ladles, sponges    9 Prs.       |  4    7    2
      and rammers               6 Prs.       |  3    7    2
                                3 Prs.       |  2   19    0
    -----------------------------------------+--------------
                 Medium        24 Prs.       |  2    9    2
                               12 Prs.       |
    -----------------------------------------+--------------
    6  Pr. light, with ammunition boxes      |
    5½ Inch howitzer,       ”       ”        |  2    3    0
    -----------------------------------------+--------------
    5½ Howitzer of 10 cwt.                   |  3    2    0
    8  Inch Howitzer              Carriages  |  3    7    2
    -----------------------------------------+--------------
    Sling cart, complete                     |  3    0    2
    Forge cart, with limber                  |  4    0    0
    Ammunition waggon                        |  4   18    1
    Gravel cart                              |  2   16    2
    Duke of Richmond’s close bodied waggon   |  5    0    0
    Road waggon, with upright sides          |  7   10    0
    Gin; triangle                            |  0   14    0
    Grate for heating shot                   |  0    4    2
    Handspikes                          120  |  1    0    0
    Handcrow levers, of 5 feet          120  |  1    0    0
    Handscrews, large                    15  |  1    0    0
                small                    17  |  1    0    6
    Helves, pick or felling             300  |  0   14    0
       ”    sledge                      300  |  1    0    0
       ”    pinmaul                     360  |  1    0    0
    Junk                             20 cwt. |  1    5    0
    Linstocks, with cocks               600  |  1    0    0
               without cocks           1000  |  1    0    0
    Musquets.—A chest with 25 is 16 feet.    |
        ”         ”   with 20 is 11 feet.    |
    Match                             6 cwt. |  1   14    0
    -----------------------------------------+--------------
    Powder { 11 whole barrels                |  1    0    0
           { 22 half     ”                   |  1    0    0
    -----------------------------------------+--------------
    Pitch or tar.—1 barrel is 7 feet.        |
    Pistols.—A chest with 50 or 60 = 10 feet.|
    Park pickets                         40  |  0    9    1
    Pikes                               280  |  1    0    0
    Sheep Skins                    12 dozen  |  1    1    0
    Shovels  of iron                    100  |  1    0    0
    Spades                              180  |  1    0    0
    Shovels, shod with iron             138  |  1    0    0
    -----------------------------------------+--------------
                  Bushel                500  |  0   12    0
    Sand bags   ½   ”                   500  |  0    7    1
    Bales       2 Bushel                250  |  0    8    1
    -----------------------------------------+--------------

The following is the tonnage allowed to the military officers of the
ordnance embarked for foreign service, for their camp equipage and
baggage:

        For a field officer    5     tons.
        For a captain          3      ”
        For a subaltern        1½     ”
    _12th June, 1799._


_TRANSPORTS._—See the word _Embarkation_.


_TRENCHES._—A general term for all the approaches at a siege of a
fortified place.

The approaches at a siege are generally carried on upon the capitals
of the works attached; because the capitals produced are of all other
situations in the front of a work the lead exposed to the fire of
either the cannon or musquetry; and are the least in the line of fire
between the besieged and besieger’s batteries. But if, from particular
circumstances, these, or other advantages do not attend the approaches
upon the capitals, they are by no means to be preferred to other
positions.

The trenches of communication, or zig-zags, are 3 feet deep, 10 feet
wide at bottom, and 13 feet at top, having a berm of one foot, beyond
which the earth is thrown to form a parapet.

The parallels or places of arms of the trenches are 3 feet deep, 12
feet wide at bottom, and 17 or 18 feet wide at top, having a banquette
of about 3 feet wide, with a slope of nearly as much. See the word
_Sap_.

The first night of opening the trenches, the greatest exertions are
made to take advantage of the enemy’s ignorance as to the side of
attack; and they are generally carried on as far in advance as the
first parallel, and even sometimes to the completion of that work. The
workmen set out on this duty, each with a fascine of 6 feet, a pick ax,
and a shovel; and the fascines being laid so as to lap one foot over
each other, leaves 5 feet of trench for each man to dig.

The usual method of directing the trenches or zig-zags, is by observing
during the day some near object in a line with the salient parts of
the work, and which may serve as a direction in the night; or if the
night be not very dark, the angles of the works maybe seen above the
horizon; but as both these methods are subject to uncertainty, the
following is proposed, to answer every case: having laid down the plan
of attack, the exact positions of the flanked angles of the works of
the front attacked, and particularly of those most extended to the
right and left, mark on the plan the point of commencement for the
first portions of zig-zag; the point where it crosses the capital; and
the point to which it extends on the other side of the capital: this
last point will be the commencement of the second branch; then mark off
the point where this branch crosses the capital and its extent on the
other side; and this will give the commencement of the third branch;
and so on for the others. Thus provided with a plan ready marked off,
it will be very easy, even in the darkest night, to lay down the points
where the zig-zags are to cross the capital, and the points to which
they are to be produced beyond them. The first parallel is generally
run about 600 yards from the place, and of such extent as to embrace
the prolongations of the faces of all the works which fire upon the
trenches; and each end has a return of about 30 or 40 yards.

The second parallel is constructed upon the same principles, and of
the same extent as the first; at the distance of about 300 yards from
the salient angles of the covert way. This parallel is usually formed
of gabions, each workman carrying a gabion, a fascine, a shovel, and
a pick ax. After this the trenches are usually carried on by sap.—See
that word.

The half parallels are about 140 or 150 yards from the covert way,
and extend on each side sufficient to embrace the prolongation of the
branches of the covert way.

The third parallel must not be nearer than the foot of the glacis, or
it will mask the ricochet batteries. It is generally made rather wider
than the other parallels.

Cavaliers of the trenches must not be nearer than 28 yards from the
covert way, or they will be liable to be annoyed by hand grenades.

See likewise the words _Approaches_, _Sap_, and _Battery_.


_TROU DE LOUP_—A cone reversed. Diameter of the base 4 feet 6 inches;
depth 6 feet; picket 6 feet long, and from 4 to 5 inches square;
contain ¾ of a cubic fathom of earth, and are usually placed 2 in 3
fathoms.


_TUBES_—of tin plates are the best for service. Tubes must pass through
a gauge of ²/₁₀ of an inch diameter. The composition is mealed powder,
mixt up stiff with spirits of wine. They are made up in bundles of 100
each.


_Length of Tin Tubes._

    +-------+----------------------------------------------------------+
    |       |                    Nature of Ordnance.                   |
    |Length.+------+-------+------+---------+-------------+------------+
    |       |Heavy.|Medium.|Light.|Howitzer.|Land Mortars.|Sea Mortars.|
    +-------+------+-------+------+---------+-------------+------------+
    |Inches.|  Pr. |  Pr.  | Pr.  |  Inch.  |    Inch.    |   Inch.    |
    | 12.2  |   —  |   —   |   —  |    —    |      —      |     13     |
    |  8.8  |  24  |  24   |   —  |    —    |      —      |     —      |
    |  8.2  |  18  |  18   |   —  |    —    |      —      |     —      |
    |  7.75 |  12  |  12   |   —  |    —    |     13      |     10     |
    |  6.8  |   9  |   9   |   —  |    —    |      —      |     —      |
    |  6.5  |   6  |   —   |  24  |   8     |     10      |     —      |
    |  5.9  |   3  |   6   |  12  |   5½    |      —      |     —      |
    |  5.0  |   —  |   —   |   —  |    —    |      8      |     —      |
    |  4.75 |  1½  |  1½   |   6  |    —    |      —      |     —      |
    |  4.2  |   —  |   —   |   —  |   4⅖    |      5½     |     —      |
    |  3.6  |   —  |   —   |   —  |    —    |      4⅖     |     —      |
    +-------+------+-------+------+---------+-------------+------------+

=Note.=—If tin tubes get damaged by wet, the composition may be cleared
out of them, and they may be fresh filled. If spirits of wine cannot be
had, good rum or brandy will answer the purpose.




_UNIFORMS._—


_Principal Colour of the Military Uniforms of the different Powers of
Europe._

    ---------------+--------+----------+----------+------------------
       NATIONS.    |Cavalry.|Infantry. |Artillery.|   Remarks.
    ---------------+--------+----------+----------+------------------
    Imperial       |White   |White     |Grey      |
    ---------------+--------+----------+----------+------------------
    Russian        |Blue    |Green     |Green     | Black cockades.
    Danes          |  —     |Red       |  —       |
    ---------------+--------+----------+----------+---------------
    English        |Blue    |Red       |Blue      |
    French         |Blue    |White     |Blue      | Nati’l. cockades.
    Poland         |Blue    |Blue      |Blue      |
    Prussian       |White   |Blue      |Blue      | Drag. light blue.
    Sardinian      |Blue    |Blue      |Blue      |
    Sweden         |  —     |Blue      |  —       | Yellow cockades.
    Bavaria        |  —     |White     |Grey      |
    Hanover        |Blue    |Red       |mixt Blue | Green cockades.
    Mayence        |  —     |White     |   ”      |
    Palatine       |Crimson |clear Blue|  —       |
    ---------------+--------+----------+----------+------------------
    Saxon          |White   |White     |Green     | Dragoons red;
                   |        |          |          |  white cock.
    ---------------+--------+----------+----------+------------------
    Anspach        |Blue    |Blue      |Blue      |
    Bade           |  —     |Blue      |  —       |
    Brunswick      |  —     |Blue      |  —       |
    Hesse          |White   |Blue      |Blue      |
    Nassau Sarlz   |  —     |Blue      |  —       |
    Saxe Cobourg   |  —     |Blue      |  —       |
    Saxe Gotha     |Blue    |Blue      |Blue      |
    Saxe Hildburg  |  —     |Blue      |  —       |
    Saxe Meemingen |  —     |Blue      |  —       |
    Saxe Weimer    |Blue    |Green     |Green     |
    Wurtemburg     |  —     |Blue      |Blue      |
    Holland        |White   |Blue      |Blue      |
    ---------------+--------+----------+----------+------------------
                   |        |          |          | Black and red
    Berne          |Red     |Blue      |Blue      |   cockades.
    ---------------+--------+----------+----------+------------------
    Mecklenburg    |Blue    |Blue      |Blue.     |
    ---------------+--------+----------+----------+------------------




_VELOCITY._—Initial velocity of military projectiles, as ascertained by
the experiments with the Ballistic pendulum at Woolwich, in 1788, 1789,
and 1790. These experiments were made with shot of equal diameters,
powder of equal strength, and under a mean height of the barometer; and
shew,


1. That there is very little difference in the velocities of shot fired
from guns of the same length, but of unequal weights; the advantage
being sometimes in favour of one and sometimes of the other.

2. That velocities arising from firing with different quantities
of powder, are nearly in the proportion of the square roots of the
quantities or weights of powder.

3. That the velocities decrease as the distances increase, arising from
the resistance of the air, which opposes the progress of the shot,
in a proportion somewhat higher than the squares of the velocities
throughout; and only to a small variation.

4. That very little advantage is gained in point of range, by
increasing the charge more than is necessary to attain the object, the
velocities given by large charges being very soon reduced to those by
moderate charges: those for instance given by half the shot’s weight
are reduced to an equality with those by one third, after passing
through a space of only 200 feet.

5. That very little advantage is also gained by increasing the length
of guns; the velocity given by long guns of 22 calibers length of
bore, being reduced to an equality with those of the short guns of 15½
calibers with similar charges, after passing through the spaces as
follows:

    With ½ the shot’s weight   285 feet.
         ⅓       ”      ”      200
         ¼       ”      ”      150
         ⅙       ”      ”      115

6. That the resistance of the air against balls of different diameters
with equal velocities, is very nearly in the proportion of the squares
of their diameters; or as their surfaces.

7. That the velocity is not affected by compressing the charge more or
less; or by heating the piece in different degrees.

8. That a very great increase of velocity arises from a decrease of
windage; it appearing, that with the established windage; of ¹/₂₀
between ⅓ and ¼ of the force is lost.

9. It also appeared, that by firing the charge in different parts; by
varying the weight of the gun to lessen the recoil; or even by stopping
the recoil entirely, no sensible change is produced in the velocity of
the ball.

10. That though the velocity of the shot is increased only to a certain
point peculiar to each gun, (a further increase of powder producing a
diminished velocity,) yet the recoil of the gun is always increased by
an increase of charge.

11. Velocity of a light 6 Pr.—length, 4 feet 8 inches; charge, ⅓ the
weight of the shot; 1558 feet _per_ second.—6 Prs. heavy; 6 feet 8
inches; charge ⅓ = 1673 feet.

Velocity of a light 3 Pr. length, 3 feet 4 inches, charge ⅓—1371 feet
_per_ second.

Do. Heavy 3 Pr. length, 5 feet 9½ inches, charge ⅓ the shot—1584 feet.

                                                       HUTTON.


_Velocity of French Ordnance._

24 Pr. charge 8 lbs. the eprovette mortar giving 125 fathoms, the
initial velocity is 1425 feet _per_ second; with the eprovette at 90
= 1209 feet; with a charge of 12 lbs. and the eprovette at 125; the
initial velocity will be 1530.

                  Charge.   Eprovette.        Velocity.
    ---------------------------------------------------
    16 Pr.          5 lbs.     125              1415
     ”  ”           8           ”               1510
    ---------------------------------------------------
    12 Pr.          4           ”               1520
     8 Pr.          2½          ”               1418
     ”  ”           3           ”   long guns   1460
     4 Pr.          1           ”               1335
     ”  ”           1½          ”               1508
    ---------------------------------------------------
    12 Pr.          4           ”               1442
     8 Pr.          2½          ”   field guns  1422
     4 Pr.          1½          ”               1446
    ---------------------------------------------------
     8 Inch How’r.  1           ”                390
     ”   ”    ”     1 2 oz.     ”                516
    ---------------------------------------------------
     6 Inch How’r.  1           ”                532
     ”  ”     ”     1 12        ”                704
    ---------------------------------------------------
                                    _Lombard’s Tables._


_VENT._—The vents of English guns are all ²/₁₀ of an inch diameter.—See
remark 9 of the article _Velocity_.




_WEIGHTS._—See _Measures_.


_WINDAGE._—The usual windage of English guns is ¹/₂₀ of the caliber. It
appears by experiments, that ¼, or nearly ⅓ of the force of the powder
is lost by this windage.—See remark 8 of the word _Velocity_.


_Windage of Guns and Carronades._

    +--------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
    |Natures.| 68| 42| 32| 24| 18| 12|  9|  6|  4|  3|  2|  1|
    +--------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
    |Guns    | --|.33|.30|.27|.25|.22|.20|.17|.15|.14|.12|.09|
    |Carrona.|.15|.15|.15|.14|.12|.12|   |   |   |   |   |   |
    +--------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

_Windage of Mortars and Howitzers._

From the 13 to 5½ inch the windage is .15 of an inch, and that of the
4⅖ is .2 of an inch.

_Windage of French Guns._

_Field Guns._—All one line of windage; about ¹/₅₀ in an 8 pounder.

_Siege Guns._—All 1½ line; about ¹/₄₈ in a 24 Pr.

    _Mortars._—12 Inch; 4 lines          of windage.
               10 Inch; 1 line, 5 points      ”
                8 Inch; 1 line,               ”

    _Howitzers._—All;   2 lines               ”


_WOOD._—Artillery carriages are generally made of elm, ash, and oak.
The bed and house of a sea mortar are made of oak, and the bolster of
elm. The bottoms of land mortar beds are of oak, and the upper parts of
elm.

    _Carriages_—_Ship._—The cheeks, transoms, and trucks of
                                    elm; the axle trees of oak.
           ”      _Garrison._—The whole of oak; trucks, iron.

           ”       _Field._—Heavy 24 and 12 Pr. the cheeks and
                            transoms of elm; the axle trees of ash.
                            In the wheel the nave and fellies are
                            of elm; the spokes of ash; limber
                            shafts, bars, and axle trees are of
                            ash. Light guns, from 3 to 12 Prs. the
                            cheeks and transoms are of elm; the
                            ammunition boxes are of fir. In the
                            wheels, the nave is of elm, the spokes
                            of oak, and the fellies of ash. In the
                            limber the shafts and bars of ash.

THE END.