THE BIRDS OF SHAKESPEARE




                              PUBLISHED BY
                   JAMES MACLEHOSE AND SONS, GLASGOW
                     Publishers to the University.

                    MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD., LONDON.

              _New York_,       _The Macmillan Co._
              _Toronto_,        _The Macmillan Co. of Canada_.
              _London_,         _Simpkin, Hamilton and Co._
              _Cambridge_,      _Macmillan and Bowes_.
              _Edinburgh_,      _Douglas and Foulis_.
              _Sydney_,         _Angus and Robertson_.

                                MCMXVI.




                              THE BIRDS OF
                              SHAKESPEARE

                                   BY
                       SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, O.M.
                         K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.


                                GLASGOW
                        JAMES MACLEHOSE AND SONS
                      PUBLISHERS TO THE UNIVERSITY
                                  1916




                GLASGOW: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
                    BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO. LTD.




                                Preface


The attentive reader of Shakespeare’s Poems and Plays can hardly fail
to notice the remarkable frequency of the Poet’s allusions to Birds,
not merely as a great Choir of songsters, enlivening the woods and
fields With their varied music, but as individual creatures, each
endowed with its own special characters. Shakespeare has drawn an
assemblage of bird-portraits to which, for extent and variety, no
equal is to be found in any other great English poet. Making ample use
of what he had himself observed about Birds in their native haunts,
and combining this personal knowledge with what he could obtain from
literature and from popular fancy or superstition, he has employed
the material thus gathered to illustrate, in many an apt simile and
striking metaphor, his vivid presentation of the great drama of human
life. If we compare him in this respect with either the poets who
preceded or those who have followed him we learn that he stands apart
from them all.

The present little volume was written as a Presidential Address to the
Haslemere Natural History Society, and was read to the members on March
9th of the present year. The approach of the Shakespeare Tercentenary
having brought the poet and his writings more closely to the mind, it
appeared to me not inappropriate that a company of naturalists should
be asked to consider how one branch of the subjects in which they are
more specially interested had been treated by the greatest poet of
all time. The Address was nearly finished when I came, for the first
time, upon the excellent and exhaustive _Ornithology of Shakespeare_,
by Mr. James Harting, published in 1871. I would gladly have availed
myself of this volume had I known of it sooner, but I gleaned from
it a few quotations which in my search through the Poems and Plays
I had missed. My object, however, was somewhat different from that
author’s. Approaching the subject from the literary rather than the
scientific side, I desired to show that Shakespeare’s delight in
birds and bird-music was not less keen than that of Chaucer and the
earlier poets, and at the same time to point out how detailed was his
acquaintance with birds, and how wide the range of similitudes which
he drew from them to the great enrichment of our literature. I have
ventured also to illustrate the change of poetic mood since his time in
regard to Nature by citing three poems on Birds by three of the great
poets of last century.

The _Cambridge Shakespeare_ of W. Aldis Wright is the text from which
my citations are made. I have to thank Messrs. Gurney and Jackson for
their courtesy in supplying some clichés taken from the illustrations
in the useful _Manual of British Birds_ by my friend the late Mr.
Howard Saunders, in which the text-figures are so faithful and at the
same time artistic.

In all humility I desire to lay this little Tercentenary offering at
the shrine of the “Sweet Swan of Avon.”

         SHEPHERDS’ DOWN,
  HASLEMERE, _1st August, 1916_.




                         List of Illustrations


                                              PAGE

                      THE EAGLE                 32

                      THE PEREGRINE FALCON      40

                      THE COMMON BUZZARD        42

                      THE KITE                  46

                      THE CORMORANT             48

                      THE BARN OWL              56

                      THE CUCKOO                58

                      THE QUAIL                 62

                      THE LAPWING               64

                      THE MALLARD               72

                      THE RAVEN                 74

                      THE CHOUGH                78

                      THE STARLING              80

                      THE MAGPIE                88

                      THE JAY                   90

                      THE TURTLE DOVE           94

                      THE SONG-THRUSH           96

                      THE WREN                 104

                      THE HOUSE-MARTIN         106

                      THE NIGHTINGALE          110

                      A FRIENDLY CHOUGH        119




                        The Birds of Shakespeare


From the infancy of mankind no tribe of living creatures has awakened
more sympathy in the human heart than the Birds of the Air. Their
pairing, their nesting, their sedulous care of their young, their
arrival in spring and disappearance in autumn, the endless variety
of their notes, and the manifold diversity of their habits and
dispositions, often so suggestive of analogies with those of human
nature, have arrested the attention of even the most unobservant men.
This wide range of attraction, appealing so directly to the poetic
instincts of humanity, has called forth hearty recognition in the
literature of every age and of every tongue. In our own literature this
recognition has been more especially ample. Chaucer, the illustrious
Father of English Poetry, struck the keynote of that passionate love of
Nature which has been maintained among us with ever-growing devotion.
“Nature, the vicar of the Almighty Lord,” to use his own expression,
filled his soul with a deep, reverential and joyous delight in the
endless beauty and charm of the outer world. This pleasure included
an ardent appreciation of bird-life, which finds vent continually in
simple but enthusiastic language all through his writings. Chaucer
was undoubtedly a bookish man, much attached to his favourite authors
and to meditation upon them. Yet, as he himself confesses, there were
times when the open country, with all its varied sights and sounds, and
especially with its exuberant life in plants and animals, had for him
even greater attraction. He tells that

[Sidenote: _Chaucer’s Love of Nature_]

    On bokes for to rede I me delyte,
    And to hem yeve I feyth and ful credence,
    And in myn herte have hem in reverence
    So hertely, that there is game noon,
    That fro my bokes maketh me to goon,
    But hit be other upon the haly-day,
    Or elles in the Ioly tyme of May
    Whan that I here the smale foules singe
    And that the floures gynne for to springe――
    Farwel my studie, as lasting that sesoun![1]

In his vivid descriptions of scenes in spring and summer, the carols of
the birds are always a prominent feature. Thus, at the very beginning
of his _Canterbury Tales_, the mere thought of April, with its sweet
showers and tender leafage “in every bolt and heath,” recalls to him
how the

      Smale foules maken melodye
    That slepen al the night with open yë.[2]

His poem on _The Parlement of Foules_ represents the various birds of
the air coming in a crowded throng from all quarters to choose their
mates. As he enumerates our familiar birds he couples with their names
epithets that express the popular estimation of them. The scene is laid
in a garden where

    On every bough the briddes herde I singe
    With voys of aungel in hir armonye.[3]

Again, in his quaint and humorous verses on the _Cuckow and the
Nightingale_, the poet transports us into the very heart of the woods
to hear a discourse between these two harbingers of summer. For the
nightingale he had a fondness which is lovingly expressed in the
_Flower and the Leaf_, where we find the picture of a woodland of oaks
whose new leaves

    Sprongen out ayein the sonne shene,
    Some very rede, and some a glad light grene;
    Which, as me thought, was right a plesaunt sight,
    And eek the briddes songes for to here
    Would have rejoised any erthly wight;
    And I, that couth not yet, in no manere,
    Here the Nightingale of al the yeare,
    Ful busily herkned with herte and ere,
    If I her voice perceive coud any-where.[4]

This simple delight in the voices of the birds, so prominent in the
poems of the author of the _Canterbury Tales_, was maintained among
his successors in English poetry. By Elizabethan times, however, it
had become enlarged and enriched by the growth of a more observant and
contemplative habit. The spontaneous and irresistible joy of the human
soul in the varied beauty of Nature, and not least in the bird-music
of the fields and woods, is as marked in Shakespeare’s works as it
was in those of Chaucer; but it is now combined with more thought
and reflection. The appreciation of life in all its divers forms has
grown closer, more sympathetic and more intimately linked with human
experience.

[Sidenote: _Surroundings of his Boyhood_]

Shakespeare had the good fortune to be born in one of the pleasantest
and most varied districts of England, in the midst of fields and
gardens, as well as wide tracts of woodland and heath, among sturdy
farmer-folk, and simple peasantry. The face of open Nature lay spread
out around him, and his earliest poems bear witness to the range
and acuteness of his faculty of observation amid the fields and
forests, the beasts and birds of his home. The extent and accuracy
of his acquaintance with law have been claimed as proof that he had
passed through some legal training. There is sounder evidence that
his remarkable familiarity with objects of natural history could not
have been derived at secondhand from books, but was acquired from his
own personal observation. His youthful surroundings in Warwickshire
furnished him with ample opportunity of acquiring and cultivating this
knowledge. Nor should it be forgotten that the London in which he
spent the active years of his middle life, was a comparatively small
town. Open country lay within a short walking distance from any part
of it. Heaths and woodlands, with all their riches of animal life,
extended almost up to its outskirts. So that even in the height of his
busy theatrical career the dramatist could easily, at any interval of
leisure, renew his acquaintance with the face of Nature which he dearly
loved.

An attentive study of Shakespeare’s dramas supplies probable
indications of some of his early observations among natural history
objects. When, for instance, he makes Benedick assert that Claudio had
committed

     the flat transgression of a school-boy, who, being
     overjoyed with finding a bird’s nest, shows it his
     companion, and he steals it,[5]

he probably could remember incidents of that kind among the boys at
the grammar school of Stratford. At all events, that he himself had
known the excitements of bird-nesting may be fairly inferred from the
following passage:

    Unreasonable creatures feed their young;
    And though man’s face be fearful to their eyes,
    Yet, in protection of their tender ones,
    Who hath not seen them, even with those wings
    Which sometime they have used with fearful flight,
    Make war with him that climb’d unto their nest,
    Offering their own lives in their young’s defence?[6]

As a concomitant of his love of outdoor life it was natural and almost
inevitable that the future dramatist should become a sportsman. There
does not appear to be any good reason to question the truth of the
tradition that in his youth he joined his Stratford companions in
poaching Sir Thomas Lucy’s deer in Charlecote Park. When he wrote
the following lines we can well imagine that he had some of his own
escapades in mind:

    What, hast not thou full often struck a doe,
    And borne her cleanly by the keeper’s nose?[7]

[Sidenote: _Bird-Capture_]

Both the Poems and the Plays show him to have been well-versed in all
the arts then in vogue for the capture of birds dead or alive――the
use of bird-lime for the smaller kinds, the fixing of springes and
gins, the spreading of nets, the employment of decoys in the shape of
caged birds or of painted fruit and flowers, as well as the ordinary
weapons for shooting――birding-pieces, bows and arrows, and crossbows
and bolts. More especially does he appear to have mastered the whole
craft of falconry, then so much in vogue; for his writings are full
of the vocabulary of its technical terms. The frequency and detail of
the poet’s allusions to the various methods of bird-capture suggest
the experience of one who speaks from personal practice. He is fond
of introducing these allusions in illustration of the plots and wiles
of man with regard to his fellow-men. So many of these methods of
capture have gone out of fashion that the modern reader is apt to
be surprised at the constant recurrence of references to them in
Shakespeare’s writings, and to forget how much more they would appeal
to the imagination in the days of Elizabeth than they can do now. A
few illustrations may be quoted here. Thus Lady Macduff, musing on the
future of her little son, but all unsuspicious of the fate immediately
impending on him, tells him

    Poor bird! thou’ldst never fear the net, nor lime,
    The pitfall, nor the gin.[8]

Again, the Duke of Suffolk, having to inform the Queen of King Henry
VI. regarding the steps which he has taken about the Duchess of
Gloucester, conveys his news in the language of the bird-catcher:

    Madam, myself have limed a bush for her,
    And placed a quire of such enticing birds,
    That she will light to listen to the lays,
    And never mount to trouble you again.[9]

[Sidenote: _Similes from Bird-Capture_]

The King in _Hamlet_, torn with compunction for his crime, exclaims

    O wretched state! O bosom black as death!
    O limed soul, that struggling to be free
    Art more engaged.[10]

The supposed experience of a bird that has once been nearly caught is
transferred by the poet to the human heart. King Henry VI. laments his
fate in this wise:

    The bird that hath been limed in a bush,
    With trembling wings misdoubteth every bush;
    And I, the hapless male to one sweet bird,
    Have now the fatal object in my eye
    Where my poor young was limed, was caught and kill’d.[11]

On the other hand, the innocent assurance of a blameless soul is
likened to that of a bird that has never known the treacherous arts of
the fowler.

    For unstain’d thoughts do seldom dream on evil;
    Birds never limed no secret bushes fear.[12]

We find reference to “poor birds deceived with painted grapes,” and to
“poor birds that helpless berries saw.”[13] There is a graphic force
in the exclamation

             Look how a bird lies tangl’d in a net,[14]

and in the simile applied to Lucrece,

             Like a new-kill’d bird she trembling lies.[15]

But it is from the sport of falconry that Shakespeare draws most
frequently his allusions to bird-capture. Some of these I shall quote
in connection with his references to hawks and hawking. The poet does
not confine his similes to birds in the wild state, but draws them also
with effect from birds in confinement, as where he represents King
Henry VI. thanking the Lieutenant of the Tower for courtesy shown to
him during his imprisonment:

          I’ll well requite thy kindness,
    For that it made my imprisonment a pleasure;
    Ay, such a pleasure as incaged birds
    Conceive, when after many moody thoughts,
    At last, by notes of household harmony,
    They quite forget their loss of liberty.[16]

[Sidenote: _His feeling for Nature_]

It will be remembered, also, how touchingly the same comparison appears
in the scene wherein Cordelia and Lear are led off the stage guarded.
When she asks her father, “Shall we not see these daughters and these
sisters?” Lear impatiently answers,

    No, no, no, no. Come, let’s away to prison:
    We two alone will sing like birds i’ the cage;
    When thou dost ask me the blessing, I’ll kneel down
    And ask of thee forgiveness: so we’ll live,
    And pray, and sing, and tell old tales, and laugh
    At gilded butterflies, …
    And take upon’s the mystery of things.[17]

Shakespeare’s feeling for Nature and love of outdoor life are nowhere
more fully and admirably expressed than in his delightful Play of _As
You Like It_. Pervaded by the very breath of the country and the charms
of rural life and sylvan peace, the chief scenes of this drama are
laid in a landscape that was doubtless based on recollections of his
youthful home, and he appropriately named it after his own “Forest
of Arden” in Warwickshire. He transports us to a green woodland,
interspersed with copses of hawthorns and brambles, revealing grassy
glades among venerable trees, where flocks of sheep and goats are
pasturing, while here and there we catch sight of a quiet herd of deer.
We meet, too, with shepherds and foresters, and come upon a cottage
near the rank osiers by a murmuring stream. Now and then our attention
is drawn to some specially picturesque feature in the timber of the
forest, such as “an oak whose antique root peeps out upon the brook
that brawls along the wood.”[18] Or we are halted

    Under an oak, whose boughs were moss’d with age,
    And high top bald with dry antiquity.[19]

And there are smooth-stemmed beech-trees, on the massive trunks of
which a love-sick swain may carve the name of his beloved.

[Sidenote: _His picture of English Landscape_]

Into this essentially English scenery the poet introduces a fence
of olive-trees around the sheep-cote, likewise “a green and gilded
snake,” together with a “hungry lioness” that lies crouching on the
ground, ready to spring upon a man when he awakes from sleep. But these
productions of other climes were, from the dramatist’s point of view,
no more out of place in his forest, than was the presence of a banished
duke with his company of lords and attendants. He had created an ideal
landscape out of his own Forest of Arden, and he might clothe it with
such vegetation and people it with such beings as he thought that the
claims of his art allowed.

Among the first sounds that greet our ears after we enter this land of
enchantment are those of an invitation to hear the bird-music:

    Under the greenwood tree
    Who loves to lie with me,
        And turn his merry note
        Unto the sweet bird’s throat,
    Come hither, come hither, come hither.
                Here shall he see
                No enemy
    But winter and rough weather.[20]

And in nearly the last strains that reach us before the drama closes,
the carol of the birds comes in again:

      In the spring time, the only pretty ring time,
    When birds do sing, hey ding a ding, ding:
    Sweet lovers love the spring.[21]

It will be remembered that the contemplation of the woodland peace and
happiness of the Forest of Arden inspired the poet with one of the most
pregnant passages to be found in his works. Though the quotation has
become rather hackneyed from constant use, it deserves to be treasured
in the heart of everyone to whom the study of Nature is dear:

    And this our life, exempt from public haunt,
    Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks,
    Sermons in stones, and good in everything.[22]

[Sidenote: _His Sympathy with Life_]

In this pastoral drama, and throughout his Poems and Plays, Shakespeare
manifests the keen pleasure with which the face of Nature filled his
soul. The beauty and fragrancy of flowers and woods, the movements and
music of birds were a joy to him. But he combined with this enjoyment
a feeling of pity for the frailty and suffering of living things. A
recent and most able writer on Shakespeare has stated as his opinion
that “the wild creatures of the fields and woods, because they have
never run the risk of familiarity with man, are outside the circle of
Shakespeare’s sympathetic observation.” I venture to think that a more
mistaken judgement could hardly have been pronounced. Shakespeare was
not a man of science, but he obviously had some of the best qualities
of a naturalist――quickness and accuracy of eye and sympathy with life,
not of man only, but of every creature that lives and feels. This
sympathy shows itself in his allusions to birds, but is displayed also
in his references to animals both higher and lower in the scale of
being, which “have never run the risk of familiarity with man.” In the
remarkable Play which we have just been considering it is conspicuously
prominent. The banished Duke in the Forest of Arden asks his companions
if they will go with him to kill some venison, but before their answer
comes, he immediately adds, on reflection:

    And yet it irks me the poor dappled fools,
    Being native burghers of this desert city,
    Should in their own confines with forked heads
    Have their round haunches gored.[23]

This commiseration is expressed much more forcibly by one of his
“co-mates and brothers in exile,” the melancholy Jaques, who had been
overheard, as he lay under an oak near the brook, lamenting the fate
of a wounded stag that had come to languish at the same spot. As he
watched the creature

[Sidenote: _The Wounded Deer_]

            weeping into the needless stream;
    ‘Poor deer,’ quoth he, ‘thou makest a testament
    As worldlings do, giving thy sum of more
    To that which had too much;’ then, being there alone,
    Left and abandon’d of his velvet friends;
    ‘’Tis right,’ quoth he; ‘thus misery doth part
    The flux of company:’ anon, a careless herd,
    Full of the pasture, jumps along by him
    And never stays to greet him; ‘Ay,’ quoth Jaques,
    ‘Sweep on, you fat and greasy citizens;
    ’Tis just the fashion: wherefore do you look
    Upon that poor and broken bankrupt there?’
    Thus most invectively he pierceth through
    The body of the country, city, court,
    Yea, and of this our life; swearing that we
    Are mere usurpers, tyrants and what’s worse,
    To fright the animals and to kill them up
    In their assign’d and native dwelling-place.[24]

More detailed and even more full of commiseration is the poet’s vivid
description of the hunting of “the purblind hare.”

    Mark the poor wretch, to overshoot his troubles,
    How he outruns the wind, and with what care
    He cranks and crosses with a thousand doubles.[25]

When he has for a little succeeded in throwing the hounds off the scent,

            Poor Wat, far off upon a hill,
    Stands on his hinder legs, with listening ear,
    To hearken if his foes pursue him still:
    Anon their loud alarums he doth hear,
    Then shalt thou see the dew-bedabbled wretch
    Turn, and return, indenting with the way;
    Each envious brier his weary legs doth scratch,
    Each shadow makes him stop, each murmur stay.[26]

The poet’s feeling of pity descends even to small and fragile forms of
living things, to which most people are indifferent or even hostile.
Perhaps he may sometimes have credited these feeble creatures with
greater sensitiveness to pain than a modern naturalist would allow, as
where Isabella in _Measure for Measure_ tells her brother that

      The poor beetle, that we tread upon,
    In corporal sufferance finds a pang as great
    As when a giant dies.[27]

[Sidenote: _Pity for the humblest Creatures_]

Shakespeare elsewhere alludes to our prevalent insensibility towards
the insect world, from our youth upward.

    As flies to wanton boys, are we to the gods;
    They kill us for their sport.[28]

In maturer life men will do “a thousand dreadful things as willingly
as one would kill a fly.”[29] But the poet’s pity extended even to
the fly. In a spirited picture of a superb charger he tells how the
animal proudly “stamps and bites the poor flies in his fume.”[30]
The most detailed and remarkable expression of this commiseration
in the whole of Shakespeare’s works, however, is to be found in the
unpleasing tragedy of _Titus Andronicus_, which, though printed among
his dramas, is doubtless mainly the work of another writer. Yet it
contains passages of great power and beauty which are not unworthy of
Shakespeare and probably came from his pen. Among these passages I
would include the singular scene in which Titus is sitting at table
with his brother Marcus, who strikes the dish with his knife, whereupon
the following dialogue ensues:

  _Titus._ What dost thou strike at, Marcus, with thy knife?

  _Marc._  At that that I have kill’d, my lord――a fly.

  _Tit._   Out on thee, murderer! thou kill’st my heart;
           A deed of death done on the innocent
           Becomes not Titus’ brother: get thee gone;
           I see thou art not for my company.

  _Marc._  Alas! my lord, I have but kill’d a fly.

  _Tit._  ‘But’! How if that fly had a father and mother?
           How would he hang his slender gilded wings
           And buzz lamenting doings in the air!
           Poor harmless fly!
           That, with his pretty buzzing melody
           Came here to make us merry! and thou hast kill’d him.

  _Marc._  Pardon me, sir; it was a black ill-favour’d fly
           Like to the Empress’ Moor; therefore I kill’d him.

  _Tit._   O, O, O.
           Then pardon me for reprehending thee,
           For thou hast done a charitable deed.
           *     *     *     *     *     *     *
           I think we are not brought so low,
           But that between us we can kill a fly
           That comes in likeness of a coal-black Moor.[31]

[Sidenote: “_The poor harmless Fly_”]

The mind of Titus, broken down by a succession of crushing calamities,
had by this time become unhinged, and the extravagance of his language
is doubtless designed to show this derangement, though it may perhaps
also express the poet’s own underlying pity with even “the poor
harmless fly.” Modern science, however, has recently discovered that
the house-fly is far from harmless, and that its ruthless extirpation
from human habitations, as a dangerous carrier of disease, should be
regarded as really what Titus called “a charitable deed.”

Not less effectively than his forerunner Chaucer, does Shakespeare
enliven his pictures of day and night and of the seasons of the year by
introducing the voices of the birds. He loves the

                  summer bird
    Which ever in the haunch of winter sings
    The lifting up of day.[32]

He tells how “The birds chant melody on every bush,”[33] and recounts
where

    As it fell upon a day
    In the merry month of May,
    Sitting in a pleasant shade
    Which a grove of myrtles made,
    Beasts did leap and birds did sing,
    Trees did grow and plants did spring;
    Everything did banish moan.[34]

He leads us where we may

    See the shepherds feed their flocks
    By shallow rivers, by whose falls
    Melodious birds sing madrigals.[35]

The movement of spring and the renewal of the activity of the birds are
well pictured in the song at the end of _Love’s Labour’s Lost_:

    When shepherds pipe on oaten straws,
      And merry larks are ploughmen’s clocks,
    When turtles tread, and rooks, and daws,
      And maidens bleach their summer smocks.

The sadness and silence of the woods in autumn when the birds are dumb,
are recorded in these musical lines:

[Sidenote: _In Winter and Storm_]

    That time of year thou mayst in me behold
    When yellow leaves, or none, or few, do hang
    Upon those boughs which shake against the cold,
    Bare ruin’d choirs, where late the sweet birds sang.[36]

Again, in a song from which I have just quoted, a graphic picture of
winter shows the changed aspect of the birds at that season:

    When all aloud the wind doth blow,
      And coughing drowns the parson’s saw,
    And birds sit brooding in the snow,
      And Marian’s nose looks red and raw.[37]

Or we are presented with a storm in which we see

              A flight of fowl
    Scattered by winds and high tempestuous gusts.[38]

In many passages, to some of which I shall presently allude, the poet
heightens the gloom of night by allusion to the nocturnal birds which
screech or moan in the dark, or he lightens its eeriness with the
pensive melody of the nightingale.

Shakespeare was keenly alive to the strong contrasts so continually
placed in juxtaposition by Nature――what he calls

    Melodious discord, heavenly tune harsh-sounding,
    Ear’s deep-sweet music, and heart’s deep-sore wounding.[39]

He recognised contrasts of this kind both in the animate and the
inanimate creation, and not least where the birds are involved:

    Unruly blasts wait on the tender spring;
    Unwholesome weeds take root with precious flowers;
    The adder hisses where the sweet birds sing,
    What virtue breeds iniquity devours.[40]

He makes the Bishop of Ely account for the reformation of the Prince
of Wales by calling attention to the association in Nature of what is
baneful with what is profitable.

    The strawberry grows underneath the nettle,
    And wholesome berries thrive and ripen best
    Neighbour’d by fruit of baser quality:
    And so the Prince obscured his contemplation
    Under the veil of wildness; which, no doubt,
    Grew like the summer grass, fastest by night,
    Unseen, yet crescive in his faculty.[41]

[Sidenote: _Contrasts in Nature_]

The co-existence of pleasure and pain, of joy and sorrow, met the poet
even among the tender creatures in whose songs he delighted. He saw
that the grief or suffering of one single songster in no perceptible
degree quieted the carolling of the rest of the choir.

    All thy fellow-birds do sing,
    Careless of thy sorrowing:
    Even so, poor bird, like thee,
    None alive will pity me.[42]

He realised, as many another poet has also found, that there are times
in which the joyous songs of birds may even sound harshly to human ears
when the heart is bowed down with affliction. Thus he wrote of Lucrece:

    The little birds that tune their morning’s joy
    Make her moans mad with their sweet melody:
    For mirth doth search the bottom of annoy.
      *     *     *     *     *     *     *
    ‘You mocking birds,’ quoth she, ‘your tunes entomb
    Within your hollow-swelling feather’d breasts,
    And in my hearing be you mute and dumb:
    My restless discord loves no stops nor rests;
    A woeful hostess brooks not merry guests.’[43]

While Shakespeare, like his poetical predecessors and contemporaries,
regarded the whole tribe of birds as a great vocal assemblage, a
delightful section of animated Nature, that gives life and charm to the
countryside, his Poems and Plays stand apart for the remarkable extent
to which he singles out individual birds by name, often with such
detailed reference to their habits as to show that he well knew them in
their native haunts. The birds thus distinguished by him amount to some
fifty in number, as given in the following list:

[Sidenote: _Birds mentioned by Him_]

  Eagle
  Falcon
  Kestrel
  Sparrowhawk
  Buzzard
  Kite
  Osprey
  Vulture
  Parrot
  Ostrich
  Cormorant
  Pelican
  Loon
  Owl
  Cuckoo
  Woodcock
  Pheasant
  Partridge
  Snipe
  Quail
  Lapwing
  Wild Duck
  Dabchick
  Raven
  Crow
  Rook
  Chough
  Jackdaw
  Magpie
  Jay
  Starling
  Domestic Cock
  Goose
  Turkey-cock
  Swan
  Peacock
  Dove and Pigeon
  Turtle-dove
  Lark
  Blackbird
  Thrush
  Wren
  Wagtail
  Bunting
  Redbreast
  Finch
  Halcyon or Kingfisher
  Hedge-Sparrow
  House-Sparrow
  Swallow
  House-Martin
  Nightingale.

Of a few of them he makes only a single mention, but most of them are
more frequently cited, in some cases, indeed, as often as forty or
fifty times. Recognising in these creatures traits that remind him of
the feelings and actions of mankind, he makes varied and effective use
of them as symbols and illustrations with which to enrich his vivid
picture of the great drama of human life. The naturalist, interested
in noting the attitude of the greatest poet of all time towards living
creatures, feels no surprise that Shakespeare’s knowledge of natural
history is sometimes inaccurate, or that he should have taken on trust
some of the fabulous legends in that subject, which were current in
his day. The scientific study of Nature had not yet been seriously
undertaken.

I propose to enumerate here the birds individually selected by
Shakespeare for special comment, and to cite a few passages from his
works in illustration of the various ways in which he makes use of each
of them. It will be convenient to take them in groups.

[Sidenote: _The Eagle_]

We may begin with BIRDS OF PREY, following the precedent set by
Chaucer, who in his long list tells that “the fowles of ravine were
hyest sette.” The EAGLE is cited some forty times. The two birds of
this kind native to Britain, the Golden Eagle, and the White-tailed or
Sea-eagle, now so restricted in number, were doubtless more abundant
in his day. He may have occasionally seen examples of each of them on
the wing, though his allusions hardly suggest any personal familiarity
with the birds. Recognising the lofty rank of the eagle and its
acknowledged dignity above the other birds of prey, he makes the birds
themselves, in the arrangements for the obsequies of the Phoenix and
Turtle, admit this supremacy.

    From this session interdict
    Every fowl of tyrant wing,
    Save the eagle, feather’d King.[44]

The powerful vision which from time immemorial has been ascribed to
the eagle[45] is often referred to by the poet, who makes one of his
personages even claim that kings of men have eyes like the king of
birds. As Richard II. stood on the battlements of Flint Castle the Duke
of York pointing to him, exclaimed,

    Yet looks he like a king; behold! his eye,
    As bright as is the eagle’s, lightens forth
    Controlling majesty.[46]

The future King Edward IV. was taunted by his brother Richard thus:

    Nay, if thou be that princely eagle’s bird,
    Show thy descent by gazing ’gainst the sun.[47]

With delightful hyperbole, Biron, in _Love’s Labour’s Lost_, discovers
a power of vision beyond that of an eagle, when he is persuading
himself and his friends to abjure their foolish vow “to fast, to study,
and to see no woman.” Enlarging on the potency of “love first learned
in a lady’s eyes” he declares that it

    Gives to every power a double power,
    Above their functions and their offices.
    It adds a precious seeing to the eye:
    A lover’s eyes will gaze an eagle blind;
    A lover’s ear will hear the lowest sound,
    When the suspicious head of theft is stopp’d.[48]

Again, in the same Play, the comparison becomes even more grotesquely
exaggerated, for the same lover in praising his lady-love demands to
know

    What peremptory eagle-sighted eye
      Dares look upon the heaven of her brow,
    That is not blinded by her majesty?[49]

[Illustration: THE EAGLE]

The eagle was credited not only with a wonderful strength of vision,
but also with a remarkable length of life. This belief is alluded to by
the churlish philosopher who demands of Timon

              Will these moss’d trees,
    That have outlived the eagle, page thy heels,
    And skip where thou point’st out?[50]

Shakespeare, when he likens the orders of human society to the various
grades among the birds, compares the leaders to eagles, and the
commonalty to birds of a less reputable kind. The haughty Coriolanus
stigmatises the Roman plebs as a rabble that

                        Will in time
    Break ope the locks o’ the Senate, and bring in
    The crows to peck the eagles.[51]

Pandarus, not less contemptuous of the populace of Troy, affirms that
“the eagles are gone,” and that there are left only “crows and daws,
crows and daws.”[52] The same kind of similitude is applied to the
political condition of England. The future Richard III. asserts:

    I cannot tell: the world is grown so bad
    That wrens make prey where eagles dare not perch.[53]

And Hastings in the same Play remarks

    More pity that the eagle should be mew’d
    While kites and buzzards prey at liberty.[54]

Among Shakespeare’s political allusions in which the eagle appears
there is one of some interest as a reminiscence of a far-off unhappy
time in our history when the southern half of the island could be
likened to the king of birds, while the northern portion was compared
to a destructive kind of vermin.

    Once the eagle, England, being in prey,
    To her unguarded nest the weasel Scot
    Comes sneaking, and so sucks her princely eggs,
    Playing the mouse, in absence of the cat,
    To tear and havoc more than she can eat.[55]

The contemplation of the various misfortunes that may befall even the
king of birds leads to the reflection:

    Often, to our comfort, shall we find
    The sharded beetle in a safer hold
    Than is the full-wing’d eagle.[56]

The last line of this quotation recalls another passage in which, as if
the writer had watched the bird on the wing, the majestic sweep of its
flight is pictured:

              The course I hold
    Flies an eagle flight, bold and forth on,
    Leaving no tract behind.[57]

The eagle has been credited with a nobility of nature in keeping with
his regal rank:

    The eagle suffers little birds to sing,
    And is not careful what they mean thereby,
    Knowing that with the shadow of his wings
    He can at pleasure stint their melody.[58]

Shakespeare may have seen an eagle in confinement, for his description
of its manner of feeding seems as if drawn from actual observation:

    Even as an empty eagle, sharp by fast,
    Tires with her beak on feathers, flesh and bone,
    Shaking her wings, devouring all in haste,
    Till either gorge be stuff’d or prey be gone.[59]

Whether in captivity or in stuffed specimens, the dramatist had
evidently set eyes on the bird close at hand, so as to be able to put
so whimsical a comparison into Falstaff’s mouth:

     My own knee! When I was about thy years, Hal, I was not an
     eagle’s talon in the waist; I could have crept into any
     alderman’s thumb-ring.[60]

[Sidenote: _Hawks and Hawking_]

Shakespeare’s acquaintance with the family of HAWKS was manifestly of
the most intimate kind. These birds were common natives of the country,
and in great request for the sport of falconry. His writings prove him
to have had a detailed knowledge of the terminology of this sport, and
he was probably himself a keen falconer in his early years, if not
throughout his life. His Plays are full of the technical language of
hawking, which he employs by way of similitude in matters of a wholly
different nature. As an example of this habit no better illustration
can be given than Petruchio’s description of the method he meant to
employ to tame his ill-tempered wife. In the approved lingo of the
practical falconer he remarks to himself:

    Thus have I politicly begun my reign,
    And ’tis my hope to end successfully.
    My falcon now is sharp and passing empty;
    And till she stoop she must not be full-gorged,
    For then she never looks upon her lure.
    Another way I have to man my haggard,
    To make her come and know her keeper’s call,
    That is, to watch her, as we watch these kites
    That bate and beat and will not be obedient.
    She eat no meat to-day, nor none shall eat;
    Last night she slept not, nor to-night she shall not;
    As with the meat, some undeserved fault
    I’ll find about the making of the bed;
    And here I’ll fling the pillow, there the bolster,
    This way the coverlet, another way the sheets:
    Ay, and amid this hurly I intend
    That all is done in reverend care of her.[61]

The extent to which falconry and its language had taken hold of the
society of Elizabeth’s time is well illustrated in the scene in
Capulet’s garden where Romeo and Juliet make their declaration of
mutual attachment. She has twice retired, but again returns to the
window for one last word. He has slowly and reluctantly crept back into
the darkness, but a voice from above recalls him:

    Hist! Romeo, hist! O, for a falconer’s voice
    To lure this tassel-gentle back again!
    Bondage is hoarse and may not speak aloud.[62]

The actual array of hawking is brought before us in the gay scene in
the second part of _King Henry VI._ where the King and Queen, with
their company and falconers halloing, appear on the stage after a
morning’s sport.

  _Queen._      Believe me, lords, for flying at the brook,
                I saw not better sport these seven years’ day:
                Yet, by your leave, the wind was very high;
                And, ten to one, old Joan had not gone out.

  _King._       But what a point, my lord, your falcon made,
                And what a pitch she flew above the rest!
                To see how God in all His creatures works!
                Yea, man and birds are fain of climbing high.

  _Suffolk._    No marvel, an it like your majesty,
                My lord Protector’s hawks do tower so well;
                They know their master loves to be aloft,
                And bears his thoughts above his falcon’s pitch.

  _Gloucester._ My lord, ’tis but a base ignoble mind
                That mounts no higher than a bird can soar.

  _Cardinal._   … Believe me, cousin Gloucester,
                Had not your man put up the fowl so suddenly
                We had had more sport.[63]

Under the general designation of HAWKS most of our larger birds of prey
were employed for purposes of sport, and it is mainly with reference
to this use of them that they are mentioned by Shakespeare. FALCON,
the name most frequently used by him, may include several distinct
species.[64] He evidently admired their flight. He speaks of

    A falcon towering in her pride of place.[65]

Again, he makes Bolingbroke boast that he would fight Mowbray

    As confident as is the falcon’s flight
    Against a bird.[66]

He notes how

                A falcon towering in the skies,
    Coucheth the fowl below with his wings’ shade,
    Whose crooked beak threats if he mount he dies.[67]

The falcon generally employed in hawking was the female Peregrine,
which was held to be more adapted for the purposes of sport than the
male. The KESTREL is referred to by Shakespeare, under the local name
of _Staniel_ in the scene in _Twelfth Night_, where Malvolio, gulled
by Maria, picks up and begins to guess at the meaning of the clever
letter, Sir Toby and Fabian watching in concealment:

[Illustration: THE PEREGRINE FALCON]

  _Malvolio._ ‘M. O. A. I. doth sway my life.’ Nay but first, let me
                 see, let me see, let me see.

  _Fabian._   With what dish o’ poison has she dressed him!

  _Sir Toby._ And with what wing the staniel checks at it![68]


[Sidenote: _The Sparrow-Hawk_]

The SPARROW-HAWK (_Musket_) is only once alluded to in the Plays, and
then as a kind of pet name applied by Mrs. Ford to little Robin, the
page:

            How now, my eyas-musket! what news with you?[69]


The BUZZARD is mentioned several times by Shakespeare, and always
in a more or less depreciatory sense. It is a large handsome bird,
but compared with the falcon is slow and heavy in flight. So in
the encounter of wits between Petruchio and Katharine, he in his
characteristic falconer’s language asks her:

    O slow-winged turtle, shall a buzzard take thee?[70]

In a passage already cited the buzzards are coupled with the
disreputable kites. Professor Newton remarks that “in the old days
of falconry, buzzards were regarded with infinite scorn, and hence
in common English to call a man a ‘buzzard’ is to denounce him as
stupid.”[71]

[Illustration: THE COMMON BUZZARD]

[Sidenote: _The Kite_]

In the time of Elizabeth the KITE (or _Puttock_), now one of the rarest
of our birds, was quite common in this country. It was particularly
abundant in London, where it fed on the garbage of the streets,
and even of the Thames, and where, together with the raven, it was
protected by law as a useful scavenger without pay. The frequency of
Shakespeare’s allusions to this bird is good evidence of how familiar
it must then have been. It is always referred to in some disparaging
way. The “hungry kite” did not scruple to carry off any living creature
it could overcome even from the very farm-yard. When Warwick mentions
to the Queen his suspicions of foul play in Duke Humphrey’s death, he
tells her:

    Who finds the partridge in the puttock’s nest
    But may imagine how the bird was dead,
    Although the kite soar with unbloodied beak?
    Even so suspicious is this tragedy.[72]

In an earlier part of the same Play York asks:

    Were’t not all one, an empty eagle were set
    To guard the chicken from a hungry kite,
    As place Duke Humphrey for the King’s protector?

to which the Queen replies:――“So the poor chicken should be sure of
death.”[73] In _Winter’s Tale_, when Antigonus is sent on his task to
carry the child to some distant desolate spot, he takes it up, saying:

                            Come on, poor babe:
    Some powerful spirit instruct the kites and ravens
    To be thy nurses! Wolves and bears, they say,
    Casting their savageness aside, have done
    Like offices of pity.[74]

But it was more especially as feeders on carrion or on weakly animals
that the kites were held in disrepute. Cassius, before the battle of
Philippi, recognises the forerunners of carnage in the foul birds that
hovered above him:

                      Ravens, crows and kites
    Fly o’er our heads and downward look on us,
    As we were sickly prey: their shadows seem
    A canopy most fatal, under which
    Our army lies, ready to give up the ghost.[75]

At the battle of St. Albans York declares that

    The deadly-handed Clifford slew my steed;
    But match to match I have encounter’d him,
    And made a prey for carrion kites and crows
    Even of the bonny beast he loved so well.[76]

The thievish propensities of the kite when building its nest led
it to plunder all sorts of garments that might be bleaching on the
hedge,――pieces of rag, old hats, and bits of paper. This habit is
sympathetically referred to by Autolycus, who was himself, as he
confesses, another “snapper-up of unconsidered trifles.”――“My traffic
is sheets; when the kite builds, look to lesser linen.”[77] The very
name of kite became an epithet of contempt and hatred. When Goneril
announced to her father in peremptory terms that he must “disquantity
his train,” poor old Lear’s indignation was in response hurled at her
in these words, “Detested kite.”[78]


The OSPREY, now almost extirpated as a native of these islands, was
probably not uncommon in the time of Elizabeth. It is once mentioned by
Shakespeare. Aufidius, the General of the Volscians, alluding to the
regard of the Roman people for the banished Coriolanus, reluctantly
confesses:

                  I think he’ll be to Rome
    As is the osprey to the fish, who takes it
    By sovereignty of nature.[79]

It would almost seem that the poet had himself watched the bird plunge
into some clear lake or pond in southern England, and, with unerring
stroke, seize in its talons the unsuspecting fish which its keen eyes
had detected from aloft.

[Illustration: THE KITE]


[Sidenote: _The Vulture_]

The VULTURE, not infrequently mentioned by Shakespeare, is not a
British bird, though at rare intervals it has appeared as a migrant in
this country. The poet most likely never saw one, his allusions to it
being obviously based on its reputation for voracity, and partly also
on the legend of Prometheus and the eagle. In one passage a speaker
asserts “there cannot be that vulture in you to devour so many.”[80]
The expressions “vulture thought” and “vulture folly” are used in the
Poems.[81] A favourite observation of the braggart Pistol was “let
vultures vile seize on his lungs.” Sir William Lucy speaks of “the
vulture of sedition that feeds in the bosom of great commanders.”[82]
“The gnawing vulture of the mind” is referred to in _Titus Andronicus_.
But the most touching allusion in which this bird is used is that where
King Lear, wounded to the quick by Goneril’s unkindness, exclaims to
her sister, as he raises his hand to his heart,

                      O Regan, she hath tied
    Sharp-tooth’d unkindness like a vulture here.[83]

[Illustration: THE CORMORANT]


[Sidenote: _Parrots and Popinjays_]

Reference may be made to two other exotic birds mentioned by
Shakespeare――the Parrot and the Ostrich. As one result of the many
voyages of discovery in his day, both in the Old and the New World,
the PARROT had become a familiar bird in England. Its loud and harsh
clamour, its docility, its clever imitation of human speech, but at the
best, the paucity of its vocabulary, are duly noted by our dramatist.
In one scene we are told how Falstaff was pleased to have “his poll
clawed like a parrot,”[84] in another, a lady declares that in her
jealousy she will be “more clamorous than a parrot against rain.”[85]
Again we hear of

    Some that will evermore peep through their eyes
    And laugh like parrots at a bagpiper;[86]

also of an indiscreet officer who in his tipsy fits would “speak
parrot, and squabble, swagger, swear and discourse fustian with his own
shadow.”[87] Nor must we forget the drawer at the Boar’s Head Tavern
in Eastcheap who had only two words of reply to any call, and of who
the merry Prince remarked, with a sly hit at the fair sex: “That ever
this fellow should have fewer words than a parrot, and yet the son of
a woman!”[88] The parrot was also known by the name of popinjay, a
word sometimes applied to a foppish dandy. It is used in this sense by
Hotspur with reference to

            A certain lord, neat and trimly dress’d
    Fresh as a bridegroom; and his chin new-reap’d
    Show’d like a stubble-land at harvest-home.
      *     *     *     *     *     *     *
    I then, all smarting with my wounds being cold,
    To be so pester’d with a popinjay,
    Answer’d neglectingly I know not what.[89]

The same word was used of the stuffed bird or other mark set up to be
shot at in a competition of marksmanship. This kind of sport in archery
continues to be kept up in Scotland, or was only recently abandoned. It
has been described by Scott in _Old Mortality_. I have myself attended
the summer festival of the “Papingo” at Kilwinning where it is said to
have been held ever since 1488. The stuffed bird is there suspended
from the end of a pole fastened on the steeple at a height of 100 feet
from the ground.

The OSTRICH or ESTRIDGE was doubtless an unfamiliar bird in England
in the reign of Elizabeth, though its feathers were in repute. When
Hotspur asked after “the nimble-footed, madcap Prince of Wales” and his
comrades, he was told by Sir Richard Vernon that they were

                All furnished, all in arms;
    All plumed, like estridges that with the wind
    Baited like eagles having lately bathed,
    Glittering in golden coats, like images.[90]

Among the marvels told of this bird, it had the credit of digesting
iron for the sake of its health. This reputation is alluded to in Jack
Cade’s defiance in Iden’s garden, when he vowed to the honest owner
that

       I’ll make thee eat iron like an ostrich, and swallow my
     sword like a great pin, ere thou and I part.[91]

[Sidenote: _The Cormorant and Pelican_]

Three large water-birds, the Cormorant, Pelican and Loon are
disparagingly noticed by Shakespeare. The CORMORANT, so well-known
along all our rocky shores, was described by Chaucer as “full of
glotonye,” and by the dramatist as the symbol of a rapacious voracity.
Thus, vanity is described as an “insatiate cormorant”; we are told of
“cormorant devouring Time,” of the “cormorant belly” and of

    Wounds, friends, and what else dear that is consumed
    In hot digestion of this cormorant war.[92]

The PELICAN is alluded to in the Shakespearian drama in connection with
a popular fable that this bird nourishes its young with its own blood.
Laertes in _Hamlet_ affirms that to his father’s friends

    Thus wide I’ll ope my arms,
    And, like the kind life-rendering pelican,
    Repast them with my blood.[93]

When Lear, in the storm on the open heath, sees the disguised Edgar at
the entrance of the hovel, he will not be persuaded that the poor man
could have been so beggared save by his unkind daughters, and he asks
Kent

    Is it the fashion that discarded fathers
    Should have thus little mercy on their flesh?
    Judicious punishment! ’twas this flesh begot
    Those pelican daughters.[94]

The word “Loon” or “Lown” is employed by the poet to denote a rogue
or low fellow. A messenger of evil tidings is called by Macbeth a
“cream-faced loon.”[95] In the play of _Pericles_ we hear of a company
that would include “both lord and lown”;[96] and in _Othello_ Iago
sings part of a north-country ballad in which the same word occurs:

[Sidenote: _The Loon_]

    King Stephen was a worthy peer,
      His breeches cost him but a crown;
    He held them sixpence all too dear,
      With that he called the tailor lown.[97]

The name of Loon or Loom is a popular appellation which includes three
distinct families of water-birds, all remarkable for their clumsy gait
on land. Whether this name was applied to them after it had first been
in use as an uncomplimentary epithet for a man, or was originally
their own common designation which came eventually to acquire a human
application, remains in doubt. More probably the bird was first owner,
and the word may belong to the group of bird-names like goose, snipe,
kite, hawk and others which have become disparaging epithets for human
subjects. In Lincolnshire the word is in use as the common name of the
Great Crested Grebe. Though now obsolete in conversational English as
an epithet for a rogue it is still in common use in Scotland in that
sense.[98]

[Sidenote: _The Owl_]

The OWL plays a large part in Shakespeare’s references to bird-life.
He does not discriminate between the different members of the large
family probably included under this name, though he distinguishes some
of their respective cries. He heightens the feeling of the eeriness
of night by introducing the remarkable sound of the owl’s voice, and
most effectively when some deed of villainy is on foot, or as one of
the signs popularly supposed to portend coming disaster. He includes
the owl also in that fairy world which he has made so real. It will be
enough to cite a few examples of these different usages in his works.

Traces are said still to linger in Gloucestershire of a legend that
had become long ago attached to the owl, and which was known to the
great dramatist. He makes use of it in the scene where Ophelia appears
distraught from her father’s death. In her incoherent talk she exclaims
“they say the owl was a baker’s daughter.”[99] The tradition ran that
our Lord one day entered a baker’s shop and asked for bread, which
was grudgingly and sparingly given by the baker’s daughter who was
thereupon turned by Christ into an owl. There has long been a popular
feeling that something specially uncanny and mysterious hangs about
this bird.

In the Poems night is pictured in these words:

    Look, the world’s comforter, with weary gait,
    His day’s hot task hath ended in the west;
    The owl, night’s herald, shrieks, ’tis very late;
    The sheep are gone to fold, birds to their nest.[100]

The time chosen by Bolingbroke for the incantation scene in
Gloucester’s garden was

    Deep night, dark night, the silent of the night,
    The time when screech-owls cry, and ban-dogs howl,
    And spirits walk, and ghosts break up their graves.[101]

In a view of winter the owl is made to play its part:

    When icicles hang by the wall,
      And Dick the shepherd blows his nail,
    And Tom bears logs into the hall,
      And milk comes frozen home in pail,
    When blood is nipp’d and ways be foul,
    Then nightly sings the staring owl,
                          Tu-whit;
    Tu-who, a merry note,
    While greasy Joan doth keel the pot.[102]

[Illustration: THE BARN-OWL]

The poet has noted “the night owl’s lazy flight,”[103] and the
predatory habits of the “mousing owl.”[104] He has increased the
glamour of the night-scenes in the tragedy of Macbeth by the
introduction of this bird. When Lady Macbeth, alone and on the alert
for the perpetration of the murder, hears a sound, she exclaims in
anxious suspense:

        Hark!――Peace!
    It was the owl that shriek’d, the fatal bellman
    Which gives the stern’st good-night.[105]

Her husband, too, after he has done the deed, emerges to her with the
eager question “Didst thou not hear a noise?”; to which she replies,
“I heard the owl scream and the crickets cry.” Next morning before the
fatal news had become known it was reported that, through the midst of
a storm,

              The obscure bird
    Clamour’d the livelong night.[106]

The appearance of the owl by day was unusual enough to be considered an
evil omen. Among the portents that preceded the assassination of Julius
Caesar it was reported that

              The bird of night did sit,
    Even at noon-day, upon the market-place
    Hooting and shrieking.[107]

When Richard II. realises the machinations of his enemies, and is asked
to come down to the base-court to meet Bolingbroke, he exclaims

    In the base-court? Come down? Down, court! Down, king!
    For night-owls shriek where mounting larks should sing.[108]

The hooting or screeching of the owl was often looked upon as a
foreboding of death. Among the nocturnal sounds recounted by fairy
Puck, he tells that

    Now the wasted brands do glow,
      Whilst the screech-owl, screeching loud,
    Puts the wretch that lies in woe
      In remembrance of a shroud.[109]

Even at a babe’s nativity the sound of this bird’s note might be taken
as a bad omen. King Henry VI. tells Gloucester:

    The owl shriek’d at thy birth――an evil sign:
    The night-crow cried, aboding luckless time.[110]

Among its mysterious relationships, the owl was believed to be
connected with some of the machinations of witchcraft. It will be
remembered that the miscellaneous ingredients which went to the making
of the hell-broth of Macbeth’s “midnight hags” included “a lizard’s leg
and howlet’s wing.”[111]

Shakespeare’s introduction of the owl into his fairy-land was a
dexterous artistic stroke, for it connected a well-known but somewhat
mysterious bird with his world of sprites, and gave to that world a
further touch of realism. Alike in the _Tempest_ and the _Merry Wives_
this conjunction may be seen. The “dainty Ariel,” Prospero’s “tricksy
spirit,” sings:

    Where the bee sucks, there suck I,
    In a cowslip’s bell I lie;
    There I couch when owls do cry.[112]

Titania, the Queen of the fairies, when she disperses her train on
their several quests, bids

                            Some keep back
    The clamorous owl, that nightly hoots and wonders
    At our quaint spirits.[113]

The popular association of owls with supernatural beings is again noted
in the _Comedy of Errors_, where poor Dromio of Syracuse, utterly
bamboozled by the confusion of Dromios and Antonios, exclaims:

    This is the fairy-land: O land of spites!
    We talk with goblins, owls and sprites;
    If we obey them not, this will ensue,
    They’ll suck our breath, or pinch us black and blue.[114]


[Illustration: THE CUCKOO]

The CUCKOO receives nearly as much notice from Shakespeare as the Owl.
In the bright song at the end of _Love’s Labour’s Lost_ both birds
appear as symbolical, the one of spring, the other of winter.

[Sidenote: _The Cuckoo_]

    When daisies pied and violets blue,
      And lady-smocks all silver-white,
    And cuckoo-buds of yellow hue
      Do paint the meadows with delight:
    The cuckoo then, on every tree,
    Mocks married men; for thus sings he
            Cuckoo, cuckoo, cuckoo.[115]

In Bottom’s song in _Midsummer Night’s Dream_ the bird is styled “the
plain-song cuckoo gray,” as if its music were as dull as the colour of
its coat. When Portia comes back from her memorable trip to Venice and
re-enters her home, Lorenzo, who is eagerly expecting her return, says
to Jessica:

            That is the voice,
    Or I am much deceived, of Portia.

Whereupon Portia, overhearing him, remarks to Nerissa:

    He knows me, as the blind man knows the cuckoo,
    By the bad voice.[116]

As summer advances, the cuckoo’s note, having grown familiar, no longer
attracts the notice of the country-folk, as it did when the bird first
appeared in April. King Henry IV. avails himself of this common
observation when he lectures his son on his misdoings, and compares the
Prince’s career to that of “the skipping king” of the previous reign,
who lost the respect of the people, and

    Was but as the cuckoo is in June,
    Heard not regarded.[117]

The habit of this bird to lay its egg in another’s nest is naturally
made much of in the Plays. We are told that “the cuckoo builds not for
himself,”[118] and the poet puts questions which still await an answer:

    Why should the worm intrude the maiden bud?
    Or hateful cuckoos hatch in sparrows’ nests?[119]

The very name of the bird could be used as a term of reproach, as where
Falstaff, in retort to the repeated gibes of the Prince of Wales, calls
him, “Ye cuckoo.”[120]

[Illustration: THE QUAIL]


[Sidenote: _The Woodcock_]

As might be anticipated, the birds which are treated as game take their
place in the Shakespearian dramas, as well as the birds of prey that
hunted them. The WOODCOCK, for example, is referred to by name nine
times, generally in connection with the gin or springe with which in
those days it was taken, and in reference to some trick or contrivance
by which somebody is caught or deceived. When, for instance, the Duke
of York, seized by Queen Margaret and her lords, struggles to free
himself from their hands, he is taunted by two of the lords, who both
make use of the language of sport. Clifford tells him:

    Ay, ay, so strives the woodcock with the gin;

to which Northumberland, with equal sarcasm, adds:

    So doth the cony struggle in the net.[121]

Ophelia, when cross-questioned by her father as to the attentions paid
to her by Hamlet, answers how the Prince

    Hath given countenance to his speech
    With almost all the holy vows of heaven;

whereupon Polonius abruptly breaks in with the unfeeling comment:

    Ay, springes to catch woodcocks; I do know.[122]

Again, in the tricking of Malvolio, as the steward picks up the letter,
Fabian, from the lurking-place where Sir Toby and he are watching every
movement, exclaims

    Now is the woodcock near the gin.[123]

[Illustration: THE LAPWING]

[Sidenote: _The Pheasant and Partridge_]

The PHEASANT is only once mentioned by Shakespeare, and in a ludicrous
way. When the Shepherd and the Clown in _The Winter’s Tale_ are
accosted by Autolycus on their errand to the king, the following
conversation ensues:

  _Aut._  I command thee to open thy affair.

  _Shep._ My business, sir, is to the king.

  _Aut._  What advocate hast thou to him?

  _Shep._ I know not, an’t like you.

  _Clown_ [_aside_] Advocate’s the court-word for a pheasant: say you
              have none――

  _Shep._ None, sir; I have no pheasant, cock nor hen.

  _Aut._  How blessed are we that are not simple men!
          Yet nature might have made me as these are;
          Therefore I will not disdain.[124]

We find the PARTRIDGE referred to twice in the dramas, once as part of
the game in a puttock’s nest, in the passage already cited, and the
second time in the encounter of wit between Beatrice and Benedick at
the masked ball when she, pretending not to recognise him, heaps all
manner of ridicule upon him, ending with the taunt that if he should
hear what she has been saying about him,

     He’ll but break a comparison or two on me; which peradventure
     not marked or not laughed at, strikes him into melancholy;
     and there’s a partridge wing saved, for the fool will eat no
     supper that night.[125]

The SNIPE is only once mentioned and the name is used as a contemptuous
epithet. Iago, as he soliloquises after an interview with the “gulled
gentleman” Rodrigo, affirms

    I mine own gain’d knowledge should profane
    If I would time expend with such a snipe,
    But for my sport and profit.[126]

[Sidenote: _The Quail and Lapwing_]

The QUAIL is likewise referred to in two of the Plays dealing with
Greek and Roman history. Antony, comparing his chances in life with
Octavius Caesar’s, confesses to himself

    The very dice obey him: if we draw lots he speeds;
    His cocks do win the battle still of mine;
    His quails ever beat mine, inhoop’d, at odds.[127]

Thersites speaks thus slightingly of a great warrior:

     Here’s Agamemnon, an honest fellow enough, and one that
     loves quails; but he has not so much brain as ear-wax.[128]

In both these quotations the reference seems to be to a practice of
training quails to fight after the manner of cock-fighting.

The allusions to the LAPWING indicate that the dramatist was acquainted
with some of the characteristics of the bird. The tactics of the male
bird to entice a passer-by away from his nest are expressed in the line

    Far from her nest the lapwing cries away.[129]

When the plot is laid to get Beatrice to accept Benedick as her lover,
and the plotters see her “couched in the woodbine coverture,” Hero
urges:

                            Now begin;
    For look where Beatrice, like a lapwing, runs
    Close by the ground, to hear our conference.[130]

Lucio, the Euphuist, in _Measure for Measure_, confesses

                    ’Tis my familiar sin,
    With maids to seem the lapwing, and to jest,
    Tongue far from heart.[131]

The WILD DUCK or MALLARD is taken by Shakespeare as a symbol of
cowardice and uxoriousness. Falstaff, after robbing the travellers on
the highway, without the help of the two chief members of the gang,
declares,

     An the Prince and Poins be not two arrant cowards, there’s
     no equity stirring: there’s no more valour in that Poins
     than in a wild duck.[132]

In the description of the flight of Cleopatra from the battle of
Actium, the conduct of her Roman lover is thus given:

    The noble ruin of her magic, Antony,
    Claps on his sea-wing, and like a doting mallard,
    Leaving the fight in height, flies after her.[133]

[Sidenote: _The Dabchick and Raven_]

The DABCHICK, DIVE-DAPPER or LITTLE GREBE is portrayed in a dainty
little vignette in the _Venus and Adonis_, which brings the bird
before our eyes, as it may be seen on many a stream or lake in this
country and even on artificial waters, such as those of St. James’s
Park. The passage represents Venus vowing to her unresponsive mortal
“by her fair immortal hand”:

    Upon this promise did he raise his chin
    Like a dive-dapper peering through a wave
    Who, being look’d on, ducks as quickly in.[134]

The birds of the CROW family are well represented in Shakespeare’s
works. Chief among them comes the RAVEN, to which frequent and
effective allusion is made. The remarkably dark hue of the bird,
including even his bill and his feet, has made his name proverbial as
a type of the deepest blackness in Nature. In one of the Sonnets it is
said that

    In the old age black was not counted fair,
    Or if it were, it bore not beauty’s name;
    But now is black beauty’s successive heir:
      *     *     *     *     *     *     *
    Therefore my mistress’ eyes are raven black.[135]

With pardonable exaggeration, Juliet, as she stood alone in the orchard
awaiting her lover, gave vent thus to her longing:

    Come, night; come, Romeo; come, thou day in night;
    For thou wilt lie upon the wings of night
    Whiter than new snow on a raven’s back.[136]

The blackness of this bird in contrast to the pure whiteness of a dove,
supplies an image to Lysander, mistakenly bewitched by the mischievous
Puck:

    Not Hermia but Helena I love:
    Who will not change a raven for a dove?[137]

[Sidenote: _The Raven_]

The Raven has long had the evil reputation of not only killing the
smaller wild animals but, in common with the crows and kites, of
watching for and attacking those of larger size that look enfeebled by
disease or accident. Thus we read that

                Vast confusion waits,
    As doth a raven on a sick-fallen beast,
    The imminent decay of wrested pomp.[138]

With less justice, the bird has also been credited with savageness of
disposition――a character which Shakespeare has sometimes attributed
to persons who may outwardly seem to be gentle and kindly. These are
said to have “a raven’s heart within a dove.”[139] Juliet expands the
simile――

    Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!
    Dove-feather’d raven! wolvish-ravening lamb!
    Just opposite to what thou justly seem’st.[140]

Yet there was a belief that the Raven can show a wholly different
nature:

    Some say that ravens foster forlorn children,
    The whilst their own birds famish in their nests.[141]

The Raven comes into one of the Scriptural allusions in the Plays where
the faithful old Adam, pressing upon Orlando the thrifty savings of his
lifetime, consoles himself with the prayer

          He that doth the ravens feed,
    Yea, providently caters for the sparrow,
    Be comfort to my age![142]

But the most frequent reference made by Shakespeare to this bird has
regard to its supposed boding power. It is called the “fatal raven.” A
messenger of ill news is said to “sing a raven’s note.” When Othello
has the first suspicions craftily suggested to him by Iago, he exclaims

            O, it comes o’er my memory,
    As doth the raven o’er the infected house,
    Boding to all.[143]

Again, when the king is approaching the Castle at Inverness, we hear
from Lady Macbeth the ominous words:

            The raven himself is hoarse
    That croaks the fatal entrance of Duncan
    Under my battlements.[144]

[Illustration: THE MALLARD]


[Sidenote: _The Crows_]

Under the general name of CROWS Shakespeare seems to group the Carrion
Crow, the Hooded Crow and the Rook, though the last-named is plainly
distinguished in the description of evening when Macbeth tells his wife

          Light thickens, and the crow
    Makes wing to the rocky wood.[145]

Like the Raven, the Crows are often contrasted with something pure and
white. Thus, in a striking simile, we learn that

    The ornament of beauty is suspect,
    A crow that flies in heaven’s sweetest air.[146]

The simile is sometimes reversed, as where Romeo, on seeing Juliet for
the first time, exclaims:

    Beauty too rich for use, for earth too dear!
    So shows a snowy dove trooping with crows,
    As yonder lady o’er her fellows shows.[147]

Although it is usually with the dove that the contrast is drawn,
another bird is sometimes chosen:

    The crow may bathe his coal-black wings in mire,
    And unperceiv’d fly with the filth away;
    But if the like the snow-white swan desire,
    The stain upon his silver down will stay.[148]

Again, when Benvolio presses Romeo to come with him to Capulet’s feast,
where he will see his Rosaline among the admired beauties of Verona, he
challenges him, “with unattainted eye,” to

    Compare her face with some that I shall show
    And I will make thee think thy swan a crow.[149]

[Illustration: THE RAVEN]


[Sidenote: _The Chough_]

In Shakespeare’s day the CHOUGH must have been a much commoner bird
in our islands than it is now. At present it is not known to breed on
the south coast of England further east than the cliffs of Dorset.
Three hundred years ago, however, it seems to have been abundant about
the chalk headlands of Kent. That it was a familiar English bird may
be inferred from various passages in our poet’s writings. The most
striking scene depicted by him, wherein this bird plays a conspicuous
part, is his picture of Dover cliffs, drawn so vividly, as from an
actual visit to the place:

                                How fearful
    And dizzy ’tis to east one’s eyes so low!
    The crows and choughs that wing the midway air
    Show scarce so gross as beetles: half way down
    Hangs one that gathers samphire, dreadful trade!
    Methinks he seems no bigger than his head:
    The fishermen that walk upon the beach
    Appear like mice; and yond tall anchoring bark
    Diminish’d to her cock; her cock, a buoy
    Almost too small for sight: the murmuring surge,
    That on the unnumber’d idle pebbles chafes,
    Cannot be heard so high.[150]

It is interesting to notice that while birds are here taken as a help
to the eye in estimating the height of the precipice as seen from the
summit, a bird is again used as a guide to gauge the height as seen
from below:

    Look up a-height; the shrill-gorged lark so far
    Cannot be seen or heard.[151]

The habits of the chough were not unknown to the poet, since he chose
the bird as a symbol for a certain courtier of whom it was said that
“it was a vice to know him”:

     ’Tis a chough, but, as I say, spacious in the possession
     of dirt.[152]

The chough’s continuous and unmusical chatter is more than once
contemptuously invoked to describe the talk of some men. When Antonio
in _The Tempest_ tempts Sebastian to assassinate the honest old
Counsellor Gonzalo, he speaks of

            Lords that can prate
    As amply and unnecessarily
    As this Gonzalo; I myself could make
    A chough of as deep chat.[153]

In a passage in _All’s Well that Ends Well_ where the ambush party
are concocting some sort of gibberish to deceive the vainglorious
Parolles, they agree to talk “Choughs’ language, gabble enough and
good enough.”[154] When Puck recounts to Oberon what happened to the
rustics when Bottom reappeared among them wearing the ass’s head, he
gives an excellent description of the effect of the discharge of a
fowling-piece at a bird-haunted cliff:

                    When they him spy,
    As russet-pated choughs, many in sort,
    Rising and cawing at the gun’s report,
    Sever themselves and madly sweep the sky:
    So, at his sight, away his fellows fly.[155]

The Chough together with the other members of the Crow family was
thought to have a supernatural prophetic gift, and a faculty of
revealing hidden deeds. Macbeth’s evil conscience was troubled with the
thought that

    Stones have been known to move and trees to speak;
    Augures and understood relations have
    By maggot-pies and choughs and rooks brought forth
    The secret’st man of blood.[156]

[Illustration: THE CHOUGH]


The STARLING is mentioned only once by Shakespeare, in a passage which
shows that in his time this bird, which has so remarkable a power of
imitation, was taught to say some words. The fiery Hotspur declares
that although the King had forbidden him to speak of Mortimer he would
find his Majesty

                  When he lies asleep,
    And in his ear I’ll holla ‘Mortimer!’
    Nay,
    I’ll have a starling shall be taught to speak
    Nothing but ‘Mortimer,’ and give it him,
    To keep his anger still in motion.[157]

[Sidenote: _The Jackdaw and Magpie_]

The JACKDAW appears occasionally in the dramas as obviously a familiar
bird, but no outstanding characters are assigned to it, except that it
was common and looked upon as somewhat stupid. Reference has already
been made to the comparison of the lower orders of society to “crows
and daws.” When, in the Temple Garden, the Earl of Warwick was asked
to decide a legal point between the supporters of the White Rose and
those of the Red Rose, he replied, that if the question had been one of
hawks, sword-blades, horses or merry-eyed girls,

    I have perhaps some shallow spirit of judgement;
    But in these nice sharp quillets of the law,
    Good faith, I am no wiser than a daw.[158]

The MAGPIE or Maggot-pie has already been alluded to. Macbeth
associates it with choughs and rocks as a prophet or discoverer of
evil. It is named by King Henry VI. among the boding portents that
attended the birth of his murderer Gloucester:

    Dogs howl’d, and hideous tempest shook down trees;
    The raven rook’d her on the chimney’s top,
    And chattering pies in dismal discords sung.[159]

The JAY is referred to five times by Shakespeare. In the enchanted isle
Caliban offers to guide the drunken Trinculo and Sebastian to some of
the dainties of the place:

    I with my long nails will dig thee pig-nuts:
    Show thee a jay’s nest, and instruct thee how
    To snare the nimble marmoset.[160]

[Illustration: THE STARLING]

The name of the bird is used as an uncomplimentary epithet for some
women, as where Mrs. Ford, in reference to Falstaff’s addresses,
declares “we’ll teach him to know turtles from jays,”[161] and where
Imogen affirmed, “Some jay of Italy hath betrayed him.”[162] But
perhaps the most interesting appearance of the bird in the Plays occurs
in the scene of the _Taming of the Shrew_, where after the tailor has
been sent about his business, taking with him the cap and gown which
had been ordered for Katharine, and with which she was well pleased,
her husband addresses her thus:

    Well, come, my Kate; we will unto your father’s
    Even in these honest mean habiliments:
    Our purses shall be proud, our garments poor;
    For ’tis the mind that makes the body rich;
    And as the sun breaks through the darkest clouds,
    So honour peereth in the meanest habit.
    What is the jay more precious than the lark
    Because his feathers are more beautiful?
    Or is the adder better than the eel,
    Because his painted skin contents the eye?[163]


[Sidenote: _Birds of the Farm-yard_]

The various BIRDS OF THE FARM-YARD have received due attention from
the great dramatist. Chief among them, the cock is frequently cited,
especially as a recognised chronometer of the morning hours, for in
Elizabethan days this mode of indicating time had not gone out of
popular use. We all remember the unhappy experience of the carrier
in the inn at Rochester “since the first cock.”[164] We also recall
how Capulet, bustling among his household, gave them a three-fold
indication of the time:

    Come, stir, stir, stir! the second cock hath crow’d,
    The curfew-bell hath rung, ’tis three o’clock.[165]

Shakespeare brings the cock’s shrill clarion even into his fairyland,
for Ariel’s song breaks off at this signal:

    Hark, hark! I hear
    The strain of strutting chanticleer
    Cry, Cock-a-diddle-dow.[166]

But the most detailed and impressive reference to this familiar bird
occurs in the memorable scene on the platform before the Castle of
Elsinore. The ghost had just appeared to Hamlet’s friends and

[Sidenote: _The Cock and Goose_]

        Was about to speak when the cock crew.
    And then it started like a guilty thing
    Upon a fearful summons. I have heard,
    The cock, that is the trumpet to the morn,
    Doth with his lofty and shrill-sounding throat
    Awake the god of day, and at his warning,
    Whether in sea or fire, in earth or air,
    The extravagant and erring spirit hies
    To his confine: and of the truth herein
    This present object made probation:
    It faded on the crowing of the cock.
    Some say that ever ’gainst that season comes
    Wherein our Saviour’s birth is celebrated,
    The bird of dawning singeth all night long:
    And then, they say, no spirit dare stir abroad,
    The nights are wholesome, then no planets strike,
    No fairy takes, nor witch hath power to charm;
    So hallowed and so gracious is the time.[167]

The GOOSE, so frequently alluded to in the Plays, usually appears
there as the recognised symbol of human stupidity and cowardice. How
far this character, if really deserved by the bird, is the result
of domestication and association with man for many centuries, is a
question for ornithological psychologists. There can be no doubt that
the wild-goose does not deserve the reputation attributed to his
degenerate kinsman in the farm-yard. Shakespeare was aware how active
and vigilant that bird was among the fens which it haunted. He refers
to the sudden uprise and flight of

    The wild geese that the creeping fowler eye,[168]

and to the autumnal movement of these fowl to the larger waters, a fact
known even to Lear’s fool, who remarks:

    The winter’s not gone yet if the wild geese fly that way.[169]

The rapidity with which these birds disappear when they take wing was
likewise familiar knowledge. The melancholy Jaques claims that if a man
whom he censures does not deserve reproof,

    Why then my taxing, like a wild goose, flies,
    Unclaim’d of any man.[170]

The difficulty of circumventing the bird is conveyed in the proverbial
expression “a wild-goose chase,” which was well known in the time of
Elizabeth. Mercutio retorts to Romeo:

     Nay, if thy wits run the wild-goose chase, I have done; for
     thou hast more of the wild-goose in one of thy wits than, I
     am sure, I have in my whole five.[171]

[Sidenote: _The Swan_]

The SWAN, perhaps in Shakespeare’s day more abundant in this country
than it is now, was then regarded as a “Bird Royal” which nobody could
keep without a licence from the Crown, and provision for making a
certain mark on the bird’s bill to denote its ownership. Our Sovereigns
still maintain the Royal Swans on the Thames, and the young birds are
regularly taken up in summer to receive the mark. To this bird full
recognition has been paid by our dramatist. He places it before us in
its usual watery domain, where its nest serves as a symbol of Britain
set in the midst of the sea, “like a swan’s nest in a great pool.”[172]
He lets us see

          The swan her downy cygnets save,
    Keeping them prisoner underneath her wings.[173]

We watch the bird’s ungainly gait on land and are told that

                All the water in the ocean
    Can never turn the swan’s black legs to white,
    Although she lave them hourly in the flood.[174]

The perfect stillness of the surface of a sheet of water is marked by

                  The swan’s down-feather,
    That stands upon the swell at full of tide
    And neither way inclines.[175]

Again, we watch

                                A swan
    With bootless labour swim against the tide
    And spend her strength with overmatching waves.[176]

The time-honoured legend that the “death-divining swan” utters a
musical note or wail at the time of dying is repeatedly alluded to
by the poet, and sometimes as if it were a reality. Lucrece, at her
approaching death, like a

                Pale swan in her watery nest,
    Begins the sad dirge of her certain ending.[177]

Prince Henry, son of King John, when told that his dying father had
been singing, muses thus:

        ’Tis strange that death should sing:
    I am the cygnet to this pale faint swan
    Who chants a doleful hymn to his own death.[178]

In the scene wherein Othello discovers the double-dyed villainy of
Iago, a touching incident is the wandering language of the faithful
dying Emilia, whose mind goes back to her beloved mistress:

                  What did thy song bode, lady?
    Hark, canst thou hear me? I will play the swan,
    And die in music. [_Singing_] Willow, willow, willow.[179]

More cheerful is the use of the legend by Portia when Bassanio stands
before the caskets, and she, deeply interested in the result, commands

    Let music sound while he doth make his choice;
    Then, if he lose, he makes a swan-like end,
    Fading in music.[180]

[Sidenote: _The Turkey-cock and Peacock_]

The TURKEY-COCK, introduced into Europe from the New World in the
early part of the sixteenth century, had become quite naturalised in
the farm-yards of England by the time of Elizabeth. It is several
times alluded to by Shakespeare, sometimes as a symbol of conceited
ostentation, and also as an article of food. When in _King Henry V._
Gower sees Pistol approaching, he exclaims to Fluellen “Here he comes,
swelling like a turkey-cock,” to which the Welshman, who had resolved
to make the braggart eat the leek, replies, “’Tis no matter for his
swellings nor his turkey-cocks.”[181] Not less appropriately is the
comparison used of Malvolio, who, as Maria said, had been “yonder i’
the sun practising behaviour to his own shadow this half hour.” As the
three concealed onlookers watch him strutting down the walk, talking
to himself, they can scarcely restrain themselves. Fabian entreats
silence:

     O, peace! Contemplation makes a rare turkey-cock of him:
     how he jets under his advanced plumes.[182]

[Illustration: THE MAGPIE]

It will be remembered that among the produce on its way to London in
the carts of the two carriers at the Rochester inn there was a pannier
of live turkeys.[183]

The PEACOCK is alluded to several times in the Plays as the accepted
personification of pride. Joan of Arc is represented as counselling the
Princes:

    Let frantic Talbot triumph for a while
    And like a peacock sweep along his tail;
    We’ll pull his plumes and take away his train.[184]

Thersites says of Ajax that he “goes up and down the field asking
for himself; he stalks up and down like a peacock――a stride and a
stand.”[185] When King Henry V. mingles incognito among his soldiers
in France, one of them tells him:

     That’s a perilous shot out of an elder-gun, that a poor
     and a private displeasure can do against a monarch! you may
     as well go about to turn the sun to ice with fanning in his
     face with a peacock’s feather.[186]

“‘Fly pride,’ says the peacock,” is a pithy proverb put into the mouth
of Dromio of Syracuse.[187]

[Illustration: THE JAY]

[Sidenote: _Doves and Pigeons_]

The DOVE and the PIGEON are often mentioned in Shakespeare’s writings,
without any essential distinction being drawn between them. Thus, we
read in one passage that “Venus yokes her silver doves,”[188] while
in another place the birds appear as “Venus’ pigeons.”[189] Again,
in a less poetical sphere, they are even interchanged as articles of
food. On the one hand we find Justice Shallow ordering “some pigeons”
and any other “pretty little tiny kickshaws” for the entertainment
of Falstaff,[190] and on the other hand, we note that old Gobbo, when
he wanted Bassanio to take his son into service, presents to that
gentleman “a dish of doves.”[191]

The Dove is typically pure white, and stands as the recognised emblem
of gentleness, purity and innocence. Yet in direst emergencies this
timid bird may show fight in defence of its young. We are told that

    The smallest worm will turn being trodden on,
    And doves will peck in safeguard of their brood.[192]

It was believed that when “frighted out of fear” the dove would peck
the ostrich,[193] and it had probably been actually observed in hawking
experience, that as

    Cowards fight when they can fly no further
    So doves do peck the falcon’s piercing talons.[194]

The TURTLE-DOVE, long the accepted symbol of conjugal affection and
loving tenderness, has an honoured place in Shakespeare’s pages.[195]
We there read of “a pair of loving turtle-doves that could not live
asunder day or night.”[196] Florizel takes Perdita’s hand in _Winter’s
Tale_, with the significant assertion:

              So turtles pair
    That never mean to part.[197]

And at the end of the same Play, the widowed Paulina, when all around
her has at last ended happily, desires to retire into solitude:

                        I, an old turtle,
    Will wing me to some wither’d bough and there
    My mate, that’s never to be found again,
    Lament till I am lost.

[Illustration: THE TURTLE-DOVE]


The Pigeon is not only presented as an article of food; but is
sometimes slightingly alluded to, with reflections on its mode of
feeding and its timidity. Of the “honey-tongued Boyet” it was remarked

    This fellow pecks up wit as pigeons pease
    And utters it again when God doth please.[198]

And Hamlet, reflecting on his slowness to avenge his father’s murder,
reproaches himself as “pigeon-liver’d and lacking gall.”[199]


[Sidenote: _The Smaller Birds_]

I have reserved for the last section of this Essay the smaller birds,
including the songsters, as these are noticed in Shakespeare’s Poems
and Dramas. A number of them are grouped together by Bottom in the
ditty, singing which he wakes the sleeping Fairy Queen:

    The ousel-cock so black of hue,
    With orange-tawny bill,
    The throstle with his note so true,
    The wren with little quill;

    The finch, the sparrow, and the lark,
    The plain-song cuckoo gray,
    Whose note full many a man doth mark
    And dares not answer nay.[200]

[Sidenote: _The Lark_]

Of the birds recounted in this song, Shakespeare’s favourite, if we may
judge from the frequency and appreciation with which he mentions it,
was the LARK. He makes this bird a rival to Chanticleer in the honour
of setting the day agoing. He calls it “the morning lark,” “the herald
of the morn,” specially associated with the brightness and glory of
dawn.

    Lo, here the gentle lark, weary of rest,
    From his moist cabinet mounts up on high,
    And wakes the morning, from whose silver breast
    The sun ariseth in his majesty.[201]

Again

                            The busy day,
    Waked by the lark, hath roused the ribald crows.[202]

The blithe sound of the bird’s carol is commemorated in the line

                The merry larks are ploughmen’s clocks.

How joyfully does this feeling find expression in the exquisite song in
_Cymbeline_:

    Hark, hark! the lark at heaven’s gate sings,
      And Phoebus ’gins arise,
    His steeds to water at those springs
      On chaliced flowers that lies;
    And winking Mary-buds begin
      To ope their golden eyes;
    With every thing that pretty is,
      My lady sweet arise:
        Arise, arise![203]

The bird-melodies of night and morning were never more delicately
commingled than in the garden scene where Juliet, from her window
above, would fain persuade her lingering lover that it was not yet near
day:

  _Jul._ Wilt thou be gone? it is not yet near day:
         It was the nightingale, and not the lark,
         That pierced the fearful hollow of thine ear;
         Nightly she sings on yond pomegranate-tree:
         Believe me, love, it was the nightingale.

  _Rom._ It was the lark, the herald of the morn,
         No nightingale; look, love, what envious streaks
         Do lace the severing clouds in yonder east:
         Night’s candles are burnt out, and jocund day
         Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain-tops:
         I must be gone and live, or stay and die.

  _Jul._ Yond light is not day-light, I know it, I:
         It is some meteor that the sun exhales,
         To be to thee this night a torch-bearer,
         And light thee on thy way to Mantua:
         Therefore stay yet; thou needst not to be gone.

  _Rom._ Let me be ta’en, let me be put to death;
         I am content, so thou wilt have it so.
         I’ll say yon grey is not the morning’s eye,
         ’Tis but the pale reflex of Cynthia’s brow.
         Nor that is not the lark, whose notes do beat
         The vaulty heaven so high above our heads:
         How is’t my soul? let’s talk: it is not day.

  _Jul._ It is, it is: hie hence, be gone, away!
         It is the lark that sings so out of tune.
           *     *     *     *     *     *     *
         Some say the lark and loathed toad change eyes;
         O, now I would they had changed voices too![204]

[Illustration: THE SONG-THRUSH]


[Sidenote: _The Ouzel and Throstle_]

The BLACKBIRD or OUZEL, depicted in Bottom’s song as “so black of hue,
with orange-tawny bill,” though one of our most melodious songsters,
receives no commendation from Shakespeare. It is only once again
mentioned by him, when its name is used with a rather uncomplimentary
meaning. When Justice Shallow enquires of his brother magistrate
regarding his god-daughter, Silence replies, “Alas, a black ousel,
cousin Shallow.”[205] It is a pity that the old and distinctive name
ouzel for this bird has become obsolete, though it may still be heard
in use in Scotland. On the other side of the Tweed, also, where so
many linguistic relics of the old alliance with France still remain,
the blackbird is likewise known by its French name of merle, while the
common name of the thrush is _mavis_, likewise from the French _mauvis_.

The THRUSH or THROSTLE, another of our most musical warblers, is cited
thrice by Shakespeare without any further comment on his voice than the
compliment in Bottom’s song――“with his note so true.” The bird comes
into one of Autolycus’ songs:

    The lark, that tirra-lyra chants,
      With heigh! with heigh! the thrush and the jay,
    Are summer songs for me and my aunts,
      While we lie tumbling in the hay.[206]

Our great dramatist refers to the WREN no fewer than nine times in his
different Plays. Its small size is noticed, and the bird is credited
with an amount of courage disproportionate to its stature. When Macduff
flees to England his wife bitterly complains that he should have left
her and his children without his protection:

                          He loves us not;
    He wants the natural touch; for the poor wren,
    The most diminutive of birds, will fight,
    Her young ones in her nest, against the owl.[207]

When Imogen, recovering in the cave, hardly knows where she is, she
muses With herself and prays:

    I tremble still with fear: but if there be
    Yet left in heaven as small a drop of pity
    As a wren’s eye, fear’d gods, a part of it![208]

Shakespeare hardly does justice to the notes of the wren, which are
louder, sweeter and more varied than might have been looked for in so
tiny a bird. Portia thought that if the nightingale sang by day it
would be thought no better than the wren.[209] And, in another passage,
words of consolation “from a hollow breast” are likened to “the
chirping of a wren.”[210]

[Sidenote: _The Wagtail and Bunting_]

The WAGTAIL is alluded to once by the poet, when its name is used in
contempt by Kent towards Goneril’s steward:

     Thou zed! thou unnecessary letter! I will tread this
     unbolted villain into mortar. Spare my gray beard?――you
     wagtail![211]

There is one reference by Shakespeare to the BUNTING, probably the
common corn-bunting or bunting-lark, which is not unlike the lark, and
further resembles that bird in nesting on the ground. In _All’s Well
that Ends Well_, the old lord Lafeu, when assured by Bertram that he
had mistaken the character of Parolles, remarks; “Then my dial goes not
true; I took this lark for a bunting.”[212]

The REDBREAST or RUDDOCK is most fully referred to in _Cymbeline_.
Arviragus enters, bearing in his arms Imogen, seemingly dead, and as he
lays the body down he thus addresses it:

                    With fairest flowers,
    Whilst summer lasts, and I live here, Fidele,
    I’ll sweeten thy sad grave: thou shalt not lack
    The flower that’s like thy face, pale primrose, nor
    The azured harebell, like thy veins; no, nor
    The leaf of eglantine, whom not to slander
    Out-sweetened not thy breath: the ruddock would
    With charitable bill,――O bill, sore shaming
    Those rich-left heirs that let their fathers lie
    Without a monument!――bring thee all this;
    Yea, and furr’d moss besides, when flowers are none,
    To winter-ground thy corse.[213]

The list of signs whereby Speed knows that his master Valentine is
in love begins thus: “first, you have learned, like Sir Proteus,
to wreathe your arms, like a male-content; to relish a love-song,
like a robin-redbreast; to walk alone, like one that had the
pestilence.”[214] When Hotspur presses his wife to sing and she twice
refuses, his only remark is, “’Tis the next way to turn tailor, or be
redbreast-teacher.”[215]

[Sidenote: _The Hedge-sparrow and Finch_]

The only allusion to the HEDGE-SPARROW occurs in _King Lear_. When
Goneril has gone some way in her recrimination of her father, the Fool,
who had just before called the old king “a shealed peascod,” breaks
into the conversation with these lines:

    The hedge-sparrow fed the cuckoo so long
    That it had it head bit off by it young.[216]

The FINCH, included in Bottom’s song, is not elsewhere mentioned by the
poet, though the epithet “finch-egg,” as a term of reproach, is hurled
by Thersites at Patroclus.[217] Of the various English finches we may
suppose that the bird intended was the common chaffinch.

The familiar HOUSE-SPARROW, though often mentioned by Shakespeare,
receives little commendation from him. He twice connects it with
evidence of the care of Providence, in obvious allusion to passages in
Holy Writ. Hamlet observes that “there is special providence in the
fall of a sparrow.”[218] Reference has already been made to the trust
expressed by Orlando’s faithful old Adam in Him “that providently
caters for the sparrow.”[219] The bird comes also into the presentation
of classical deities in _The Tempest_, where Iris tells how Venus’

            Waspish-headed son has broke his arrows,
    Swears he will shoot no more, but play with sparrows
    And be a boy right out.[220]

Thersites, who had been soundly thrashed by Ajax, takes his own method
of revenge by declaring

     I have bobbed his brain more than he has beat my bones;
     I will buy nine sparrows for a penny, and his pin mater is
     not worth the ninth part of a sparrow.[221]

[Sidenote: _The Swallow_]

The SWALLOW is cited in the Plays for the swiftness of its flight, and
for its annual migration.[222] When Richmond gives the order to march
for Bosworth Field, he adds,

    True hope is swift, and flies with swallow’s wings;
    Kings it makes gods, and meaner creatures kings.[223]

The rapidity with which this bird can pursue its course, even close to
the ground, had not escaped the poet’s notice. Titus, in praise of his
stud, affirms

        I have horse will follow where the game
    Makes way, and run like swallows o’er the plain.[224]

When Falstaff was rebuked for his dilatory journey to the field of
battle, he justified himself thus:

     I never knew yet but rebuke and check was the reward of
     valour. Do you think me a swallow, an arrow, or a bullet?
     Have I, in my poor and old motion, the expedition of
     thought? I have speeded hither with the very extremest inch
     of possibility.[225]

The arrival of the swallow with spring is charmingly brought before us
in this little picture of vernal flowers:

                            Daffodils,
    That come before the swallow dares, and take
    The winds of March with beauty; violets dim,
    But sweeter than the lids of Juno’s eyes
    Or Cytherea’s breath; pale primroses,
    That die unmarried, ere they can behold
    Bright Phœbus in his strength, a malady
    Most incident to maids; bold oxlips and
    The crown imperial; lilies of all kinds.[226]

The regular disappearance of the bird on the approach of autumn is
taken as a symbol of human constancy. Timon of Athens is assured by his
associates:――“The swallow follows not summer more willing than we your
lordship.”[227]

[Illustration: THE WREN]

[Sidenote: _The House-Martin_]


For the HOUSE-MARTIN or MARTLET Shakespeare seems to have had a special
regard. He had noted the courageous way in which the bird places its
nest, and the social instinct which leads it to build in companies
where it can find convenient settlements. In one passage we are told:

                          The martlet
    Builds in the weather on the outward wall,
    Even in the force and road of casualty.[228]

When King Duncan arrives at the Castle of Inverness, and is delighted
with the situation of the building and the pleasantness of the air,
Banquo calls his attention to the numerous nests of the house-martin as
evidence of the salubrity of the climate:

                      This guest of summer,
    The temple-haunting martlet, does approve,
    By his loved mansionry, that the heaven’s breath
    Smells wooingly here: no jutty, frieze,
    Buttress, nor coign of vantage, but this bird
    Hath made his pendent bed and procreant cradle:
    Where they most breed and haunt, I have observed
    The air is delicate.[229]


[Sidenote: _The Nightingale_]

I have reserved for the last place in the list of Shakespeare’s
birds his references to the NIGHTINGALE. These are numerous and may
be divided into two groups. In one of them the style is somewhat
artificial in tone, reflecting not the poet’s own experience of the
bird, but the legendary interpretation of its song that had been handed
down from remote antiquity. In the other group, the nightingale takes
its natural place as one of our familiar English songsters. There was a
Greek myth that Philomela, the daughter of an Attic King, after being
cruelly treated by her brother Tereus, was compassionately changed by
the gods into a nightingale, and that thereafter she spent her life
among woods lamenting in mournful notes the fate that had befallen her.
Her name came to be given to the bird. Shakespeare, following this
legend, introduces the bird as Philomel into his separate Poems and
into the lyrics included in his dramas. In the ordinary dialogue of the
Plays, however, dropping the Greek name and legend, he uses the common
English appellation of the bird, and, like ancient and modern poets,
speaks of the bird as feminine, although it is the male alone that
sings.

[Illustration: THE HOUSE-MARTIN]

Along with the ancient myth about Philomela he intertwined another
and probably much more recent, but equally unfounded belief that the
nightingale, when it sings, leans against a thorn that pierces its
breast. This combination of ignorant fancies is most fully expressed in
the following passage:

    Every thing did banish moan,
    Save the nightingale alone:
    She, poor bird, as all forlorn,
    Lean’d her breast up-till a thorn,
    And there sung the dolefull’st ditty,
    That to hear it was great pity:
    ‘Fie, fie, fie,’ now would she cry;
    ‘Tereu, tereu!’ by and by;
    That to hear her so complain,
    Scarce I could from tears refrain;
    For her griefs, so lively shown,
    Made me think upon my own.[230]

The same artificial note of sadness runs through the other allusions to
Philomel. In _Lucrece_ we read:

    By this, lamenting Philomel had ended
    The well-tuned warble of her nightly sorrow.[231]

Again in the _Sonnets_:

    As Philomel in summer’s front doth sing,
    And stops her pipe in growth of riper days:
    Not that the summer is less pleasant now
    Than when her mournful hymns did hush the night,
    But that wild music burthens every bough,
    And sweets grown common lose their dear delight.[232]

The poet has brought Philomel into his fairy-land, and has for the
moment left out any reference to the alleged mournfulness of her music:

        Philomel, with melody
        Sing in our sweet lullaby;
    Lulla, lulla, lullaby, lulla, lulla, lullaby:
          Never harm,
          Nor spell, nor charm,
      Come our lovely lady nigh;
      So, good night, with lullaby.[233]

In the Plays it is pleasant to find the bird with its English name
and in natural surroundings. When Valentine, one of the Two Gentlemen
of Verona, was banished from Milan and from the lady of his love, he
pictured to himself among the woes that lay in front of him:

    Except I be by Silvia in the night
    There is no music in the nightingale.

And when afterwards, through stress of circumstances, he found himself
compelled to become the captain of a band of outlaws, he found
consolation in this wise:

    How use doth breed a habit in a man!
    This shadowy desert, unfrequented woods,
    I better brook than flourishing peopled towns:
    Here can I sit alone, unseen of any,
    And to the nightingale’s complaining notes
    Tune my distresses and record my woes.[234]

It will be recollected that among the tantalising tricks played off by
the lord and his servants upon Christopher Sly, he was asked

    Wilt thou have music? Hark! Apollo plays
    And twenty caged nightingales do sing.[235]

Nor can we forget the magnanimous offer of Bottom when he wanted to
play the part of the lion, and the danger of his frightening the
duchess and the ladies was pointed out to him:

     But I will aggravate my voice so, that I will roar you as
     gently as any sucking dove; I will roar you an ’twere any
     nightingale.[236]


[Illustration: THE NIGHTINGALE]

The romance of the nightingale’s song was never more thoroughly
discarded than by Portia when she returned from her memorable trip to
Venice and found a light and music in her hall. She remarked to Nerissa
that by night music sounds much sweeter than by day, and received in
reply the explanation that “Silence bestows that virtue on it, madam.”
Portia, however, with her ingenuity of a barrister, insisted in a
passage already referred to:

    The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark,
    When neither is attended; and I think
    The nightingale, if she should sing by day,
    When every goose is cackling, would be thought
    No better a musician than the wren.[237]

[Sidenote: _Progress of English Poetry_]

The lapse of two centuries from the time of Chaucer witnessed a change
in the mood of English poetry in regard to its treatment of birds. The
simple and unaffected joy in the voices of the grove, so conspicuous
in the poems of the author of the _Canterbury Tales_, had not become
less, but it had been accompanied by the growth of a more observant
and contemplative spirit. While bird-music was as much appreciated as
ever, a much wider field of interest in the feathered tribes had been
entered upon. Greater familiarity with bird-life had been attained, and
much more was known about the habits of birds. Of this knowledge use
was made by way of simile and illustration in regard to human life.
How often and how vividly, for instance, does Shakespeare, by means
of an analogy from the world of birds, portray the depth of man’s
feelings,――his joy, his sorrow and his suffering!

[Sidenote: _Birds in later Poetry_]

The law of evolution, which has been so supreme in the history of
organised life on the globe, does not leave the human mind outside
of its influence. If there was proof of progress in poetic insight
between the days of Chaucer and those of Shakespeare, we may expect
to find on examination that other two centuries did not pass without
leaving some evidence of change in the tone of our poetry. To test this
inference, some typical examples may be taken from the poetry of the
nineteenth century where it deals with birds, for comparison with the
quotations which have been cited from our great dramatist. The subject
is obviously far too wide to be fully entered upon here; but it may be
briefly illustrated by selecting three well-known poems by three of the
most illustrious of the English poets of the nineteenth century――the
“Ode to the Cuckoo” of Wordsworth, the “Ode to the Nightingale” of
Keats, and the “Ode to the Skylark” of Shelley.

Coming anew to these poems from a prolonged perusal of Shakespeare,
we are first struck by the fact that although so distinct from each
other in thought as well as in music, they are akin in being not mere
references to the birds, but actual addresses to particular members
of the feathered tribes. In each case the ode is no cold description,
but a monologue, glowing with appreciation and love, and spoken as
it were directly to the subject itself. The birds are recognised
as, like ourselves, “travellers between life and death.” Instead of
being regarded as “unreasonable,” that is, devoid of any reasoning
faculty, and gifted only with what is called “instinct,” they are felt
to be linked with us by the possession of many qualities that are
closely akin to some of the purest virtues of humanity. And they are
acknowledged to be fellow-creatures, partners with us in the great
mystery of life. They are communed with as if man’s longings could be
made known to them, and as if they in turn might be brought to feel the
reality and depth of his affectionate interest in them, or even perhaps
be induced to reveal to him the secret of their careless happiness.
The poets in their mystic rapture idealise these songsters until they
almost seem to cease to be corporeal beings. Thus Wordsworth:

    O Cuckoo! shall I call thee Bird,
    Or but a wandering voice?
      *     *     *     *     *     *     *
    Even yet thou art to me
    No bird, but an invisible thing,
    A voice, a mystery.

Shelley’s ethereal melody becomes even more ecstatic in his address to
the Skylark:

[Sidenote: _Wordsworth, Shelley and Keats_]

    Hail to thee, blithe spirit――
      Bird thou never wert――
      *     *     *     *     *     *     *
    Teach us, sprite or bird,
      What sweet thoughts are thine.

To the modern poet the voices of the birds seem to express more
directly and simply than any other kind of music the pure _joie de
vivre_. Shelley wrote of his Skylark:

              Sound of vernal showers
                On the twinkling grass,
              Rain-awakened flowers,――
                All that ever was,
    Joyous and clear and fresh,――thy music doth surpass.
          *     *     *     *     *     *     *
              Yet, if we could scorn
                Hate and pride and fear,
              If we were things born
                Not to shed a tear,
    I know not how thy joy we ever should come near.

Keats recognised the same joyous feeling in his Nightingale:

    ’Tis not through envy of thy happy lot,
      But being too happy in thy happiness,――
        That thou, light-winged Dryad of the trees,
              In some melodious plot
      Of beechen green, and shadows numberless,
        Singest of summer in full-throated ease.

Each poet seeks to interpret for himself the meaning of the song of the
bird and the sources of its inspiration. To Wordsworth the Cuckoo seems
to be

        Babbling to the vale
    Of sunshine and of flowers.

To Keats the Nightingale was singing of “summer.” Shelley asks the
Skylark:

            What objects are the fountains
              Of thy happy strain?
            What fields, or waves, or mountains?
              What shapes of sky or plain?
    What love of thine own kind? What ignorance of pain?

Again, to the poet’s ear the bird-music awakens memories of the past.
To Wordsworth the notes of the Cuckoo brought “a tale of visionary
hours” in his boyhood when, in his endeavour to set eyes upon the bird,
he would

            Often rove
    Through woods and on the green;
    And thou were still a hope, a love;
    Still longed for, never seen.

To Keats the vista unfolded of the past reached far beyond his own time:

    The voice I hear this passing night was heard
      In ancient days by emperor and clown;
    Perhaps the self-same song that found a path
      Through the sad heart of Ruth, when sick for home,
        She stood in tears amid the alien corn;
            The same that oft-times hath
      Charmed magic easements, opening on the foam
        Of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn.

The modern poet finds in the varied notes of the birds not the bodings
and portents, superstitiously associated in the olden time with such
cries as those of the raven and the owl, but high and solemn thoughts
of death and the hereafter. Shelley wrote of his Skylark:

                Waking or asleep,
                  Thou of death must deem
                Things more true and deep
                  Than we mortals dream,
    Or how could thy notes flow in such a crystal stream?

And Keats found his heart attuned by the voice of the Nightingale to
the contemplation of his own dissolution:

    Darkling I listen; and for many a time
      I have been half in love with easeful Death,
    Call’d him soft names in many a mused rhyme,
      To take into the air my quiet breath;
    Now more than ever seems it rich to die,
      To cease upon the midnight with no pain,
        While thou art pouring forth thy soul abroad
            In such an ecstasy!
      Still wouldst thou sing, and I have ears in vain――
        To thy high requiem become a sod.

What the future course of English Poetry will be in this same domain
cannot be confidently predicted. Already, after the lapse of another
century since the three poems appeared which we have been considering,
a certain change in the poetic mood with regard to living Nature can
be more or less distinctly perceived. With such a splendid past to
contemplate, we may be well assured that our Poetry will continue to be
radiant with sympathy for all living things. The birds will not fail
to retain their “pride of place” in the affections of each generation
of poets, and their voices, in the future as in the past, will abide
with man as the source of some of the purest pleasure that can solace
his heart.

[Illustration: A FRIENDLY CHOUGH]


FOOTNOTES:

       [1] _Legende of Goode Women_, Prologue, 30.

              Again he declares:

                        As for myn entent
                The birdes song was more convient
                And more pleasaunt to me by many fold
                Than mete or drink or any other thing.
                                   _Flower and Leaf_, 118.

       [2] Prologue, 9.

       [3] _Parlement of Foules_, 190.

       [4] _The Flower and the Leaf_, 34. Even if this poem be
           held not to have come from the pen of Chaucer, it
           shows that he was not alone at an early time in his
           enthusiasm for birds and their song.

       [5] _Much Ado about Nothing_, II. i. 197.

       [6] _3 Henry VI._ II. ii. 26.

       [7] _Titus Andronicus_, II. i. 93.

       [8] _Macbeth_, IV. ii. 34.

       [9] _2 Henry VI._ I. iii. 86.

      [10] _Hamlet_, III. iii. 67.

      [11] _3 Henry VI._ V. vi. 13.

      [12] _Lucrece_, 87.

      [13] _Venus and Adonis_, 601, 604.

      [14] _Ib._ 67.

      [15] _Lucrece_, 457.

      [16] _3 Henry VI._ IV. vi. 10.

      [17] _King Lear_, V. iii. 8.

      [18] II. i. 31.

      [19] IV. iii. 103.

      [20] II. v. 1.

      [21] V. iii. 17.

      [22] II. i. 15.

      [23] II. i. 22.

      [24] II. i. 46. The dramatist may perhaps have been
           thinking of this scene when he afterwards put into
           Hamlet’s mouth a reiteration of the same view of the
           indifference of the crowd:

            Why, let the stricken deer go weep,
                 The hart ungalled play,
            For some must watch, while some must sleep:
                 Thus runs the world away.
                                      _Hamlet_, III. ii. 265.

      [25] _Venus and Adonis_, 680.

      [26] _Ib._ 697.

      [27] III. i. 80.

      [28] _King Lear_, IV. i. 37.

      [29] _Titus Andronicus_, V. i. 141.

      [30] _Venus and Adonis_, 316.

      [31] _Titus Andronicus_, III. ii. 52.

      [32] _2 Henry IV._ IV. iv. 91.

      [33] _Titus Andronicus_, II. iii. 12.

      [34] _Passionate Pilgrim_, xxi.

      [35] _Ibid._ xx.

      [36] _Sonnet_, lxxiii.

      [37] _Love’s Labour’s Lost_, V. ii. 908.

      [38] _Titus Andronicus_, V. iii. 68.

      [39] _Venus and Adonis_, 431.

      [40] _Lucrece_, 869.

      [41] _Henry V._ I. i. 60.

      [42] _Passionate Pilgrim_, xxi.

      [43] _Lucrece_, 1107-1125.

      [44] _Phoenix and Turtle_, 9.

      [45] Chaucer places at the head of his large company of
           feathered creatures “the royal egle that with his
           sharpe look perceth the Sonne,” _Parlement of Foules_,
           330.

      [46] _Richard II._ III. iii. 68.

      [47] _3 Henry VI._ II. i. 91.

      [48] IV. iii. 327.

      [49] IV. iii. 222.

      [50] _Timon of Athens_, IV. iii. 222.

      [51] _Coriolanus_, III. i. 136.

      [52] _Troilus and Cressida_, I. ii. 235.

      [53] _Richard III._ I. iii. 70.

      [54] _Ib._ I. i. 132.

      [55] _Henry V._ I. ii. 169.

      [56] _Cymbeline_, III. iii. 19.

      [57] _Timon of Athens_, I. i. 51.

      [58] _Titus Andronicus_, IV. iv. 83.

      [59] _Venus and Adonis_, 55.

      [60] _1 Henry IV._ II. iv. 320.

      [61] _Taming of the Shrew_, IV. i. 172.

      [62] _Romeo and Juliet_, II. ii. 158. The tassel-gentle
           or tercel-gentle was the male gos-hawk, much used in
           falconry.

      [63] _2 Henry VI._ II. i. 1-46.

      [64] Chaucer alludes to

              The gentil faucon, that with his feet distreyneth
              The Kinges hond.
                                             _Parliament_, 337.

      [65] _Macbeth_, II. iv. 12.

      [66] _Richard II._ I. iii. 61.

      [67] _Lucrece_, 506.

      [68] II. v. 102.

      [69] _Merry Wives of Windsor_, III. iii. 18. Musket
           or Musquet-hawk was an old name for the cock
           Sparrow-hawk, and ‘eyas’ meant a fledgling.

           Before passing from the subject of hawks and hawking,
           I should state that the sport is not yet wholly extinct
           in this country, and that we have at least two extant
           memorials of the time when it was a favourite pastime
           here. There is still among our King’s Court officials
           a Hereditary Grand Falconer, the office being held in
           the family of the Duke of St. Albans. In old times,
           and for many generations, the royal stud of hawks was
           kept at Charing Cross in buildings that were known as
           The Mews. In the reign of Henry VIII. these mews were
           turned into stables for horses, but the time-honoured
           name still clung to them. It became customary to call
           by this name lanes flanked with stables, and this
           practice has continued down to our own day. When we
           speak of “mews,” however, it is always horses and
           never hawks that come into our minds.

      [70] _Taming of the Shrew_, II. i. 206.

      [71] _Dictionary of Birds_, p. 67.

      [72] _2 Henry VI._ III. ii. 191. Chaucer refers to “the
           coward Kyte.”

      [73] III. i. 248.

      [74] II. iii. 184.

      [75] _Julius Caesar_, V. i. 84.

      [76] 2 _Henry VI._ V. ii. 9.

      [77] _Winter’s Tale_, IV. iii. 23.

      [78] _Lear_ I. iv. 262.

      [79] _Coriolanus_, IV. vii. 33.

      [80] _Macbeth_, IV. iii. 73.

      [81] _Venus and Adonis_, 551; _Lucrece_, 556.

      [82] _1 Henry VI._ IV. iii. 47.

      [83] _Lear_, II. iv. 132.

      [84] _2 Henry IV._ II. iv. 249.

      [85] _As You Like It_, IV. i. 134.

      [86] _Merchant of Venice_, I. i. 52.

      [87] _Othello_, II. iii. 270.

      [88] _1 Henry IV._ II. iv. 95.

      [89] _1 Henry IV._ I. iii. 33-52.

      [90] _1 Henry IV._ IV. i. 97.

      [91] _2 Henry VI._ IV. x. 27.

      [92] _Richard II._ II. i. 38. _Love’s Labour’s Lost_, I. i.
           4. _Coriolanus_, I. i. 119. _Troilus and Cressida_,
           II. ii. 6.

      [93] _Hamlet_, IV. v. 142.

      [94] _Lear_, III. iv. 71.

      [95] _Macbeth_, V. iii. 11.

      [96] IV. vi. 17.

      [97] II. iii. 82.

      [98] Thus in the song of the “Ewie wi’ the crooked horn”
           the knave that did the mischief is thus maledicted:

               O had I but the loon that did it,
               I hae sworn as well as said it,
               Though the parson should forbid it
                    I wad gie his neck a thraw.

      [99] _Hamlet_, IV. v. 40.

     [100] _Venus and Adonis_, 529.

     [101] _2 Henry VI._ I. iv. 16.

     [102] _Love’s Labour’s Lost_, V. ii. 899.

     [103] _3 Henry VI._ II. i. 130.

     [104] _Macbeth_, II. iv. 13.

     [105] _Macbeth_, II. ii. 2-4.

     [106] _Ibid._ II. iii. 57.

     [107] _Julius Caesar_, I. iii. 26.

     [108] _Richard II._ III. iii. 182.

     [109] _Midsummer Night’s Dream_, V. i. 364. Chaucer refers
           to “The oule that of dethe the bode bringeth.”
           _Parlement_, 343.

     [110] _Henry VI._ V. vi. 44.

     [111] _Macbeth_, IV. i. 17.

     [112] _Tempest_, V. i. 88.

     [113] _Midsummer Night’s Dream_, II. ii. 5.

     [114] II. ii. 188.

     [115] V. ii. 881.

     [116] _Merchant of Venice_, V. i. 110.

     [117] _1 Henry IV._ III. ii. 75.

     [118] _Anthony and Cleopatra_, II. vi. 28.

     [119] _Lucrece_, 848.

     [120] _1 Henry IV._ II. iv. 343.

     [121] _3 Henry VI._ I. iv. 61.

     [122] _Hamlet_, I. iii. 115.

     [123] _Twelfth Night_, II. v. 77.

     [124] _Winter’s Tale_, IV. iv. 727.

     [125] _Much Ado about Nothing_, II. i. 128.

     [126] _Othello_, I. iii. 379. In Shakespeare’s time the
           bird was also called snite, under which form it is
           referred to by his contemporary poet, Drayton, who
           speaks of

              The witless woodcock and his neighbour snite.

           The use of the word “snipe” as a disparaging epithet for
           an individual is not yet extinct in the north.

     [127] _Antony and Cleopatra_, II. iii. 34.

     [128] _Troilus and Cressida_, V. i. 48.

     [129] _Comedy of Errors_, IV. ii. 27. It was this instinct
           of deception that Chaucer had in mind when he wrote of
           “the false lapwing ful of trecherye.” _Parlement_, 347.

     [130] _Much Ado about Nothing_, III. i. 23.

     [131] _Measure for Measure_, I. iv. 31.

     [132] _1 Henry IV._ II. ii. 95.

     [133] _Antony and Cleopatra_, III. x. 19.

     [134] _Venus and Adonis_, 85.

     [135] _Sonnets_, CXXVII.

     [136] _Romeo and Juliet_, III. ii. 17.

     [137] _Midsummer-Night’s Dream_, II. ii. 113.

     [138] _King John_, IV. iii. 152.

     [139] _Twelfth Night_, V. i. 125.

     [140] _Romeo and Juliet_, III. ii. 75.

     [141] _Titus Andronicus_, II. iii. 153.

     [142] _As You Like It_, II. iii. 43.

     [143] _Othello_, IV. i. 20.

     [144] _Macbeth_, I. v. 35.

     [145] _Macbeth_, III. ii. 50.

     [146] _Sonnet_, lxx.

     [147] _Romeo and Juliet_, I. v. 45.

     [148] _Lucrece_, 1009.

     [149] _Romeo and Juliet_, I. ii. 86.

     [150] _King Lear_, IV. vi. 11.

     [151] _Ibid._ 58.

     [152] _Hamlet_, V. ii. 85.

     [153] _Tempest_, II. i. 254. Chaucer’s epithet for the
           Chough was “the theef.”

     [154] _All’s Well that Ends Well_, IV. i. 19.

     [155] _Midsummer-Night’s Dream_, III. ii. 19. The chough,
           by association with man, may become a companionable
           creature. At Ardkinglas, Loch Fyne, Lady Noble has
           kept for some years a couple of choughs, brought from
           Ireland, which are at liberty to fly about the woods
           and hills, but come back to the mansion house for food
           and attend their mistress or her guests along the
           pathways. They even come into the house and perch on
           the hand of any one who has the courage to invite them.

     [156] _Macbeth_, III. iv. 123.

     [157] _1 Henry IV._ I. iii. 221.

     [158] _1 Henry VI._ II. iv. 16.

     [159] _3 Henry VI._ V. vi. 46. Chaucer’s epithet for this
           bird was “the jangling pye.”

     [160] _Tempest_, II. ii. 158.

     [161] _Merry Wives_, III. iii. 34.

     [162] _Cymbeline_, III. iv. 47.

     [163] _Taming of the Shrew_, IV. iii. 165.

     [164] _1 Henry IV._ II. i. 15. Chaucer’s reference to the
           bird is “The cok, that orloge is of thorpes lyte.”
           _Parlement_, 350.

     [165] _Romeo and Juliet_, IV. iv. 3.

     [166] _Tempest_, I. ii. 384.

     [167] _Hamlet_, I. i. 147-164.

     [168] _Midsummer-Night’s Dream_, III. ii. 20.

     [169] _King Lear_, II. iv. 45.

     [170] _As You Like It_, II. vii. 86.

     [171] _Romeo and Juliet_, II. iv. 69.

     [172] _Cymbeline_, III. iv. 138.

     [173] _1 Henry IV._ V. iii. 56.

     [174] _Titus Andronicus_, IV. ii. 101.

     [175] _Antony and Cleopatra_, III. ii. 48.

     [176] _3 Henry VI._ I. iv. 19.

     [177] _Lucrece_, 1611. Chaucer had already chronicled “the
           jalous swan, ayens his deth that singeth.” _Parlement
           of Foules_, 342.

     [178] _King John_, V. vii. 20.

     [179] _Othello_, V. ii. 249.

     [180] _Merchant of Venice_, III. ii. 43.

     [181] V. i. 14.

     [182] _Twelfth Night_, II. v. 28.

     [183] _1 Henry IV._ II. i. 25.

     [184] _1 Henry VI._ III. iii. 5. Chaucer refers to

               The pecock, with his aungels fethres brighte.

     [185] _Troilus and Cressida_, III. iii. 244.

     [186] _King Henry V._ IV. i. 195.

     [187] _Comedy of Errors_, IV. iii. 74.

     [188] _Venus and Adonis_, 1190.

     [189] _Merchant of Venice_, II. vi. 5.

     [190] _2 Henry IV._ V. i. 25.

     [191] _Merchant of Venice_, II. ii. 123.

     [192] _3 Henry VI._ II. ii. 17.

     [193] _Antony and Cleopatra_, III. xiii. 196.

     [194] _3 Henry VI._ I. iv. 40.

     [195] Chaucer’s phrase is:

           The wedded turtel, with hir herte trewe.  _Parlement_, 355.

           It was the moaning croon of the bird from the high elms
           that dwelt in Virgil’s memory.

     [196] _1 Henry VI._ II. ii. 30.

     [197] IV. iv. 154.

     [198] _Love’s Labour’s Lost_, V. ii. 315.

     [199] _Hamlet_, II. ii. 572.

     [200] _Midsummer-Night’s Dream_, III. i. 114.

     [201] _Venus and Adonis_, 853.

     [202] _Troilus and Cressida_, IV. ii. 8.

     [203] II. iii. 19.

     [204] _Romeo and Juliet_, III. v. 1-32.

     [205] _2 Henry IV._ III. ii. 7. I have heard in East
           Lothian a remarkably dark-complexioned child called “a
           blacket ouzel.”

     [206] _Winter’s Tale_, IV. iii. 9.

     [207] _Macbeth_, IV. ii. 8.

     [208] _Cymbeline_, IV. ii. 304.

     [209] _Merchant of Venice_, V. i. 104.

     [210] _2 Henry VI._ III. ii. 42.

     [211] _King Lear_, II. ii. 59.

     [212] II. v. 5.

     [213] _Cymbeline_, IV. ii. 219. Chaucer speaks of “the tame
           ruddock.”

     [214] _Two Gentlemen of Verona_, II. i. 16.

     [215] _1 Henry IV._ III. i. 260.

     [216] _King Lear_, I. iv. 214.

     [217] _Troilus and Cressida_, V. i. 34.

     [218] _Hamlet_, V. ii. 212.

     [219] _As You Like It_, II. iii. 44.

     [220] _Tempest_, IV. i. 99.

     [221] _Troilus and Cressida_, II. i. 67.

     [222] Chaucer regarded this bird from another point of
           view:――

                The swalow, mordrer of the flyës smale
                That maken hony of floures fresshe of hewe.
                                                _Parlement_, 353.

     [223] _Richard III._ V. ii. 23.

     [224] _Titus Andronicus_, II. ii. 23.

     [225] _2 Henry IV._ IV. iii. 31.

     [226] _Winter’s Tale_, IV. iv. 118.

     [227] _Timon of Athens_, III. vi. 29.

     [228] _Merchant of Venice_, II. ix. 28.

     [229] _Macbeth_, I. vi. 3.

     [230] _Passionate Pilgrim_, xxi.

     [231] _Lucrece_, 1079.

     [232] _Sonnet_, cii.

     [233] _Midsummer-Night’s Dream_, II. ii. 13.

     [234] _Two Gentlemen of Verona_, III. i. 178, V. iv. 1.

     [235] _Taming of the Shrew_, Induction, Scene ii. 33.

     [236] _Midsummer-Night’s Dream_, I. ii. 72.

     [237] _Merchant of Venice_, V. i. 102.




                                 Index.

  Arden, Forest of, 14, 16, 18.

  _As You Like It_, scenery of, 13.

  Autumn and Bird-life, 24.


  Birds, varied attractions of, 1;
    modes of capture of, 9-12;
    at different seasons, 23;
    list of Shakespeare’s, 28;
    of prey, 30;
    of the Crow family, 69;
    of the Farmyard, 81.

  Blackbird, 96.

  Bunting, 99.

  Buzzard, 42.


  Chaucer, his love of Nature, 2;
    his delight in birds, 3, 4;
    on the Nightingale, 5;
    on the Eagle, 31;
    on the Falcon, 39;
    on the Kite, 43;
    on the Owl, 58;
    on the Lapwing, 67;
    on the Chough, 76;
    on the Magpie, 79;
    on the Cock, 81;
    on the Swan, 86;
    on the Peacock, 89;
    on the Turtle-dove, 92;
    on the Swallow, 103.

  Chough, 74.

  Cock, 81.

  Cormorant, 51.

  Crows, 33, 72, 94.

  Cuckoo, 60, 93, 113.


  Dabchick or Dive-dapper, 68.

  Daws, 38, 78.

  Deer-hunting, 18.

  Doves, 90.

  Duck, wild, 68.


  Eagle, 30.

  Estridge, 50.


  Falcon, 39.

  Falconer, Hereditary Grand, 41, note.

  Falconry, 36-39.

  Finch, 93.

  Flies, 20.


  Game-birds, 63.

  Goose, 83.

  Grebes, 58, 68.


  Hare-coursing, 20.

  Hawks and Hawking, 36, 39.

  Hedge-Sparrow, 101.

  House-Martin, 104.

  House-Sparrow, 101.

  Jackdaw, 78.

  Jay, 80.


  Keats’ “Ode to the Nightingale,” 113.

  Kestrel, 40.

  Kite, 42.


  Lapwing, 67.

  Lark, 93, 94, 113.

  Loon or Lown, 52.


  Mallard, 68.

  Magpie, 79.

  Martlet, 104.

  Mews, origin of, 41, note.


  Nature, contrasts in, 26.

  Newton, Prof., cited, 42.

  Night and its birds, 56, 95.

  Nightingale, 95, 106, 113.


  Osprey, 46.

  Ostrich, 50.

  Ousel, 93, 96.

  Owl, 54.


  Papingo, in Archery, 50.

  Parrot, 48.

  Partridge, 65.

  Peacock, 89.

  Pelican, 51.

  Peregrine Falcon, 40.

  Pheasant, 64.

  Philomela or Nightingale, 106.

  Pigeon, 90, 92.

  Popinjay, 49.


  Quail, 66.


  Raven, 69.

  Redbreast, 100.

  Rook, 72.

  Ruddock, 100.


  Shakespeare’s youthful surroundings, 6;
    his sports, 7, 8, 9;
    his sympathy with living creatures, 7.

  Shelley’s “Ode to the Skylark,” 113.

  Snipe, 66.

  Sparrow-hawk, 41.

  Spring and birds, 24.

  Starling, 78.

  Summer, birds in, 23.

  Swallow, 103.

  Swan, 85.


  Thrush or Throstle, 93, 97.

  Turkey-cock, 88.

  Turtle-dove, 91.


  Vulture, 46.


  Wagtail, 99.

  Wild-duck, 68.

  Wild-goose, 83.

  Winter, birds in, 25.

  Woodcock, 63.

  Wordsworth’s “Ode to the Cuckoo,” 113.

  Wren, 93, 98.




Glasgow: Printed at the University Press by Robert MacLehose and Co. Ltd.




Transcriber’s Note:

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in the text. Obsolete and alternative spellings were left unchanged.
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