INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL
                             SOUTH AMERICA

                     [Illustration: SOUTH AMERICA]




                       INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL
                             SOUTH AMERICA

                                   BY

                     ANNIE S. PECK, A.M., F.R.G.S.

                               AUTHOR OF

             “A SEARCH FOR THE APEX OF AMERICA,” “THE SOUTH
               AMERICAN TOUR, A DESCRIPTIVE GUIDE,” etc.

                             [Illustration]

                                NEW YORK
                         E. P. DUTTON & COMPANY

                            681 FIFTH AVENUE




                            Copyright, 1922
                       By E. P. DUTTON & COMPANY


                         _All Rights Reserved_

               _Printed in the United States of America_




                               FOREWORD


“Industrial and Commercial South America” has been prepared, as was the
descriptive guide, “The South American Tour,” with the desire to aid in
promoting acquaintance with South America and, as a natural sequence,
friendship and trade.

As far as possible the facts have been gleaned from publications of the
various Governments, in a few cases from those of our own, from high
officials of many large companies, and from a few authoritative works.
While I can hardly hope that despite all care and effort I have made
no slip anywhere, I devoutly trust that no errors will be discovered
of such magnitude as I have often noted in my reading of important
publications and that any here detected will receive lenient criticism.

The vast amount of labor involved in the collection of data and the
effort made to attain accuracy has been such that no time remained for
rhetorical embellishment unless with delayed publication.

Great pains have been taken with spelling and accents, the correct
use of the latter discovered with difficulty, as they are altogether
omitted in many works and in others by no means to be depended upon.
Yet they are most important for correct pronunciation.

In this text the spelling of some names varies by intention because
the two spellings are frequent and authorized, and should therefore be
familiar. Thus _Marowijne_ is the Dutch and _Maroni_ the English name
for the same river. So _Suriname_ is spelled with and without the _e_.

South American names ending in either _s_ or _z_ are found, the _z_
common in older publications. The _s_ is a more recent style, taking
the place of _z_ even in the middle of a word. Thus _Huaráz_ is also
written _Huarás_ and even _Cuzco_, _Cusco_. But I drew the line there,
as _Cuzco_ is too well established in English to make the new and
uglier form desirable.

My spelling of _Chilian_ is consistent throughout. Formerly so spelled
by all, _Chile_ being earlier written _Chili_, when the Spanish form
of the name was here adopted many imagined that the adjective should
be changed also. For this no reason appears, but the contrary. The
accepted ending for adjectives of this nature is _ian_, unless euphony
demands a different, as _Venezuelan_. Where the ending _ean_ is
correctly employed as in _Andean_ and _European_, also _Caribbean_,
which unhappily is often mispronounced, the _e_ is long and receives
the accent. This would be proper in _Chilean_ as the _e_ in _Chileno_
receives the accent; but as a change in our pronunciation is unlikely,
it is better to drop the final vowel and add the suffix _ian_ as is
done in many other cases; thus _Italy_, _Italian_.

The frequent writing of _maté_ in English is absolutely wrong. It is
never so printed in Spanish, though naturally in French; but to copy
their form for a Spanish word is absurd. The word of course has two
syllables, but is accented on the first; not on the last as the written
accent would imply.

_Iguassú_ in Spanish is spelled _Iguazú_, but the Portuguese form
has the right, because it is a Brazilian river, nowhere flowing in
Argentina, and for a short distance only on the boundary. The Brazilian
spelling should therefore be followed by us, and it has the advantage
that it is more apt to be correctly pronounced.

Persons not undertaking the study of Spanish should at least learn
the simple rules of pronunciation; the vowels having the ordinary
continental sounds, the consonants in the main like our own, though in
the middle of a word _b_ is generally pronounced like _v_, _d_ like
_th_ in _this_ and _ll_ like _ly_. The rules for accent are easily
remembered, names ending in a vowel being accented on the penult,
those in a consonant, except _s_, _z_, and _n_, on the ultima, unless
otherwise indicated by an accent.

The heedlessness of many Americans on such matters is notorious and
inexcusable. Knowing the correct pronunciation they continue to
mispronounce even an easy word. A notable illustration is Panamá,
which many former residents of the Canal Zone and others here persist
in calling the ugly _Pánama_ instead of the correct and agreeable
_Panamá_. Although in English the accent is not generally used on this
word or on Colón, Panamá is repeated throughout the book to emphasize
the correct pronunciation.

It is hoped that other accents given will in general be found correct.
It may however be said on Brazilian authority that the accents on
Brazilian names are less important than in Spanish.

A considerable divergence in the date of statistics may be noted, for
which there are several reasons. In some cases pre-war figures, in
others figures for 1917 or 1918, seem to afford a fairer valuation;
or they might be the only ones available. Some figures (often in the
nearest round number) are given as late as 1921, but to bring all at
the same time up to the moment was quite impossible. Great difficulty
has been experienced in choosing between conflicting statements and
figures. In one case three sets of figures of areas were presented by
the same person, before I finally secured the most accurate.

       *       *       *       *       *

My grateful appreciation is due and my hearty thanks are here expressed
to all who in any degree have helped by supplying or verifying data of
whatever nature. Officials of the various countries and of many large
companies evinced kindly interest in the work and gave freely of their
time, few being too busy to afford information. The names are too
numerous to mention, but I trust that all will feel assured that their
courtesy was recognized and that the remembrance will be cherished.




                               CONTENTS


CHAPTER                                                             PAGE

INTRODUCTION                                                          xv

I. SOUTH AMERICA AS A WHOLE                                            1


THE NORTH COAST


II. COLOMBIA: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.              7

III. COLOMBIA: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS                               14

IV. COLOMBIA: THE CAPITAL, THE STATES AND TERRITORIES,
CHIEF CITIES                                                          20

V. COLOMBIA: PORTS AND TRANSPORTATION                                 30

VI. COLOMBIA: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES                                40

VII. VENEZUELA: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.           53

VIII. VENEZUELA: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS                             59

IX. VENEZUELA: CAPITAL, STATES, TERRITORIES, CHIEF CITIES             63

X. VENEZUELA: PORTS AND TRANSPORTATION                                77

XI. VENEZUELA: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES                               86

XII. GUIANA AS A WHOLE: BRITISH GUIANA                               100

XIII. DUTCH AND FRENCH GUIANA                                        109


THE WEST COAST


XIV. ECUADOR: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.            114

XV. ECUADOR: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS                                121

XVI. ECUADOR: CAPITAL, PROVINCES, CHIEF CITIES                       130

XVII. ECUADOR: PORTS AND INTERIOR TRANSPORTATION                     135

XVIII. ECUADOR: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES                             141

XIX. PERU: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.               148

XX. PERU: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS                                   156

XXI.     PERU: CAPITAL, DEPARTMENTS, CHIEF CITIES                    162

XXII.    PERU: PORTS AND INTERIOR TRANSPORTATION                     174

XXIII.   PERU: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES                              185

XXIV.    BOLIVIA: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION,
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS                                             205

XXV.     BOLIVIA: CAPITAL, DEPARTMENTS, CHIEF CITIES                 214

XXVI.    BOLIVIA: PORTS AND TRANSPORTATION                           221

XXVII.   BOLIVIA: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES                           229

XXVIII.  CHILE: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION,
ETC.                                                                 245

XXIX.    CHILE: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS                             250

XXX.     CHILE: CAPITAL, INDIVIDUAL PROVINCES, CITIES                254

XXXI.    CHILE: PORTS AND TRANSPORTATION                             261

XXXII.   CHILE: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES                             270


THE EAST COAST

XXXIII.  ARGENTINA: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.      280

XXXIV.   ARGENTINA: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS                         287

XXXV.    ARGENTINA: THE CAPITAL, INDIVIDUAL PROVINCES
AND TERRITORIES                                                      291

XXXVI.   ARGENTINA: SEAPORTS AND INTERIOR TRANSPORTATION             301

XXXVII.  ARGENTINA: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES                         315

XXXVIII. PARAGUAY: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.       332

XXXIX.   PARAGUAY: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS                          338

XL.      PARAGUAY: THE CAPITAL AND OTHER CITIES                      341

XLI.     PARAGUAY: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES                          345

XLII.    URUGUAY: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION,
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS                                             354

XLIII.   URUGUAY: CAPITAL, DEPARTMENTS, CHIEF CITIES, PORTS          360

XLIV.    URUGUAY: TRANSPORTATION, RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES           366

XLV.     BRAZIL: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.         372

XLVI.    BRAZIL: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS                            379

XLVII.   BRAZIL: THE CAPITAL, INDIVIDUAL STATES, CITIES              390

XLVIII.  BRAZIL: TRANSPORTATION--OCEAN, RIVER AND RAILWAY            406

XLIX. BRAZIL: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES                               414

L. BRAZIL: OTHER INDUSTRIES                                          424

LI. SOUTH AMERICAN TRADE                                             434

LII. LIFE IN SOUTH AMERICA                                           454


APPENDIX I. POSTAL REGULATIONS, ETC.                                 459

APPENDIX II.  LEADING BANKS OF SOUTH AMERICA                         462

APPENDIX III. STEAMSHIP LINES TO SOUTH AMERICA                       467

APPENDIX IV. PUBLICATIONS                                            477




                             LIST OF MAPS

                                                             FACING PAGE


SOUTH AMERICA                                             _Frontispiece_

COLOMBIA                                                              10

COLOMBIA, VENEZUELA, GUIANA, ECUADOR, NORTH BRAZIL                    64

ECUADOR, PERU, BOLIVIA, SOUTHWEST BRAZIL                             152

CHILE, ARGENTINA, PARAGUAY, URUGUAY                                  254

EASTERN ARGENTINA, URUGUAY                                           308

EASTERN BRAZIL                                                       390

ENVIRONS OF SAO PAULO AND RIO DE JANEIRO                             408




                             INTRODUCTION


Our recently awakened interest in foreign trade and in world affairs
renders imperatively necessary a more accurate knowledge of other
countries and a more intimate acquaintance with their peoples. Engaged
in settling the various sections of our own country and in developing
its manifold resources, we were too long self sufficient in thought and
narrow in our activities. Yet years ago a few far-sighted statesmen
like James G. Blaine realized that a broader field of action would
soon become essential to our continued prosperity. A few manufacturers
supplemented their domestic business with a modicum of foreign trade. A
few men of affairs devoted their energies exclusively to the field of
foreign commerce.

The Spanish War, first inspiring many with the idea that the United
States had become a world power with interests beyond its boundaries,
served to arouse in others a disposition to have a share in foreign
trade. Following a gradual increase in the early years of this century,
a sudden expansion of our commerce occurred a few months subsequent to
the outbreak of the Great War. A scarcity of shipping prevented its
attaining the proportions which might otherwise have been realized.
Now that this obstacle is removed and the exactions of war service
are over, adequate preparations should be made for the conduct of our
developing commercial relations, especially with our Sister Continent
at the south.

The supposition that those individuals who are directly engaged in
foreign commerce are alone benefited thereby has unfortunately been
widespread. Under our democratic form of government it is particularly
essential that all should understand the advantages of foreign trade
for the welfare of the entire nation, that this may not be hampered
by the narrow views of local-thinking politicians, jealous of the
prosperity of other individuals or sections, or by persons who concern
themselves merely with the question of wages for a few or with other
special matters; and thus that our commerce may be fostered by our
Government according to the custom of other nations, with no purpose
of bitter rivalry or unfriendly greed, but with the natural and proper
desire of a great nation to share in the mutual benefits accruing to
all countries where suitable and honorable foreign trade is developed,
as in the case of individuals who buy and sell in the home market.

Some knowledge of other countries and peoples, of causes contributing
to their present condition, and of their prospects for future
development, while giving intelligent interest to trade and of service
in making plans for permanent rather than transitory gain, is desirable
for all who care to rise above ignorant narrow-minded provincialism,
to be better prepared for civic and political duties, and to enjoy a
broader outlook upon the entire world.

       *       *       *       *       *

The most superficial observer cannot fail to perceive the enormous
advantages which have arisen from division of labor among individuals
and nations. The personal barter of primitive days was soon superseded
by a medium of exchange, fixed locally though varying in different
regions. There followed the transport from one city to another and
from distant lands of the various products, natural or manufactured,
of those cities and countries. As many things grow only in certain
parts of the world, others we know are manufactured only in certain
districts. That in the distant future the time may come when the
entire habitable globe will be occupied, each portion produce what is
best adapted to its environment, and the fruits of the whole earth be
enjoyed by all its inhabitants, is from the physical point of view the
ideal to which we may look forward, a goal for the attainment of which
every nation may fittingly contribute.

Few are the portions of the earth where it is impossible for man to
dwell, providing for his wants from his immediate surroundings. Each
section not altogether barren produces such food and requisites for
clothing as are essential to sustain life in that locality. The only
considerable portion of the globe which is uninhabited, the Antarctic
continent, seems likely so to continue, as it appears not merely
the most unattractive spot in the world but devoid of the barest
necessities for existence.

The North Polar regions, however, support a few people who live upon
the products of the country and who probably would not survive if they
adopted the customs of civilization as we regard them, though the use
of a few articles which have been carried there may slightly ameliorate
their hard existence.

The denizens of the tropical forest, who also have adapted themselves
to their surroundings, being able to live with little labor, generally
pursue an easy life, since necessity and ambition for improvement are
lacking.

In other quarters of the globe where labor is necessary to sustain life
but where its results may be a bare existence, comfort, or luxury,
man has continually struggled for improvement, braving danger and
suffering, and toiling long hours for the future good of himself or his
children. Thus has the world made progress.

Here in the United States we might live in comfort with the products of
our broad lands only; yet we do not desire to seclude ourselves within
a Chinese Wall. We would enjoy the fruits of the whole earth, not by
imperialistic conquest, but through friendly acquaintance, the sharing
of ideas, and the exchange of products.

Some things we produce in such abundance that we have a superfluity
to barter for others things which we produce not at all or not in
sufficient quantities. In the past we have had more trade with
Europe than with other continents. In various lines of manufactures
and of artistic goods we are still unable to compete. While east and
west trade will no doubt continue indefinitely, for natural products
it would seem that the chief exchange should be north and south, a
difference in latitude causing variety in climates, and a diversity in
productions both animal and vegetable. With our expansion of shipping
facilities following the conclusion of the War, we may hope for a
continuing increase of movement from north to south on this hemisphere,
making for friendship and political harmony as well as for material
advantage.

In considering South America from a commercial and industrial point
of view it is necessary to study the physical characteristics of the
individual countries, their advantages and drawbacks; the climate and
soil; the resources, including the animal, vegetable, and mineral
products, and the water power; the character of the inhabitants
including the quality and quantity of human labor; their present needs
and wants; the future possibilities; the opportunity for investments of
various kinds and political conditions affecting these; the instruments
of exchange, banking and trade regulations; the means of communication
and transport by land and water.

In addition we should know the difficulties which have retarded
the development of countries settled earlier than our own, that
instead of a supercilious mental attitude on account of real or
fancied superiority in certain directions, we may have a sympathetic
understanding of conditions, and of tremendous obstacles, some of which
have been overcome in an extraordinary manner.

A general view of the continent as a whole may well precede a more
detailed study of the several countries.




                       INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL
                             SOUTH AMERICA




                               CHAPTER I

                       SOUTH AMERICA AS A WHOLE


PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

In the study of South America one may observe certain points of
resemblance with others of difference between that continent and North
America. The outline of each, we perceive, is roughly triangular, broad
at the north and tapering towards the south; but as the broad part of
one is not far from the Arctic Circle while that of the other is near
the equator, we find that the greater part of North America is in the
temperate zone while most of South America is in the torrid; disparity
in climate and productions follows.

The geological formation of the two continents is as similar as their
outline. There is a correspondence on the northeast between what are
called the Laurentian Highlands in Labrador and the uplands of Guiana;
on the southeast between the Appalachian system of the North and the
Serra do Mar of Brazil, each having a northeast to southwest trend and
a fair similarity in height, though the tallest peak in either range
is the Itatiaiá in Brazil, which by 3000 feet exceeds Mt. Mitchel, the
highest of the Appalachians. A difference worth noting is that the
Brazilian range is closer to the sea.

A similarity, perhaps greater, exists in the west where lie, close to
the shore, the loftier ranges of the two continents, of much later
origin than the eastern mountains, and containing many volcanic peaks.
Each system includes several chains with valleys or plateaus between;
but in the United States the system which includes the Rockies is wider
than is that of the Andes at any point. The two systems are distinct,
having neither the same origin nor the same trend, while the altitude
of the South American _massif_ greatly exceeds that of the North
American mountains.

Between the coastal regions both continents have great basins sloping
to the north, east, and south with a large river draining each:
the Mackenzie and the Orinoco flowing north, the St. Lawrence and
the Amazon east, the Mississippi and the Paraná south. Were the
two continents side by side there would be a great resemblance in
production instead of the present considerable diversity.

While in area South America is ranked as smaller than North America,
it may be a trifle larger in land surface, especially in habitable
regions, if the opinion of Humboldt is correct that the Amazon Basin
will one day support the densest population on the globe. The southern
continent, comprising no large bodies of water like Hudson Bay and our
Great Lakes, also has, save the slopes of the highest mountains, no
regions like those near the Arctic Circle, incapable of supporting more
than the scantiest population.

The outline of the continent is less irregular than that of North
America, consequently there are fewer good harbors, especially on the
west coast.


CLIMATE

As three quarters of South America lie within the tropics, the entire
north coast, and the wider part of the continent including most of
Brazil with the countries on the west as far down as the northern
part of Chile, a tropical climate and productions might here be
expected. But happily within the torrid zone of both hemispheres are
the loftiest mountain ranges of the world. These modify the climate
of large sections to such a degree that in many places there is
perpetual spring, a perennial May or June; in other districts one
may in comparatively few hours go from regions of eternal summer to
perpetual snow, finding on the way the products of every clime. Thus
the mountains and table-lands of South America are effective in causing
moderate temperatures over extensive areas within the tropics, with
accordant productions.

In comparing the climates of North and South America we must note
that while the tropical region of the latter is much the larger, in
corresponding latitudes it is in general cooler south of the equator
than north. An examination of the isothermal lines, that is _the lines
of equal average heat around the globe_, shows:

First, that the line of greatest heat, a mean temperature of 85°, is
north of the equator most of the way. In the Western Hemisphere it runs
well up into Central America; then it passes along the northeast coast
of South America to a point just below the equator and the mouth of the
Amazon, going far north again in Africa.

Second, that of the mean annual isotherms of 65°, which are regarded as
the limits of the hot belt, the one in the Northern Hemisphere runs 30°
or more from the equator, while that in South America hardly touches
the 30th parallel, and on the west coast approaches the equator to
within 12°: which means that the tropical region extends much farther
north of the equator than it does south.

Third, that of the isotherms of 50° for the warmest month, which are
considered as the polar limits of the temperate zones, the one is
much nearer to the north pole than the other is to the south. Great
masses of water, we know, have a tendency to equalize climate, as
the water heats and cools more slowly than the land; but they do not
make the average temperature higher. From the movement of the waters
of the ocean their temperature over the globe is more nearly equal,
while the stable land of broad continental masses has temperatures
more nearly corresponding to the latitude, though with greater daily
and annual extremes. But for practical purposes, that is for its
effect on vegetation, the amount of heat received in summer is of
more consequence than the extreme cold of winter. For this reason the
temperature of the warmest month instead of the annual mean is taken
as the measure; for if that month’s mean temperature is below 50°,
cereals and trees will not grow. The broad land masses in the Northern
Hemisphere have a greater summer heat than the narrow stretch of land
in extreme South America. The greater cold of winter in the north
temperate zone does no harm.

We may observe further that in the Northern Hemisphere the west coasts
of both continents are warmer in the same latitude than the east, at
least in the temperate zone, while in South America a good part of the
west coast within the tropics is much cooler than the east. In the
temperate zone the variation is slight.

In the matter of rainfall, a most important factor of climate and
production, South America is favored with a liberal supply, the arid
portions being comparatively small in area, and many of these easily
capable of irrigation and of resulting excellent crops.

Dividing the continent into tropical and temperate regions, the former
includes (lowlands only) the entire north coast, the whole of Colombia
with ports on the Pacific, and Ecuador beyond, the low interiors of
Peru and Bolivia, and around on the east the greater part of Brazil,
far beyond the mouth of the Amazon; these sections have much in common
as to climate and productions. Below Ecuador on the west coast, though
still in the torrid zone, we find cooler weather, practically no rain,
and for 1600 miles a desert region; beyond this there is a temperate
climate with gradually increasing rainfall, and at last in southern
Chile too much. On the east coast tropical weather and products
continue till we pass Santos and the Tropic of Capricorn, followed by
sub-tropical and temperate climates and production. The mountainous
regions even at the equator have cooler weather, the temperature ever
lowering with increase of altitude.


OTHER DISTINCTIVE FEATURES

In general we may say that the soil is extremely fertile and that the
country contains wonderfully rich deposits of minerals of almost every
kind. The immense store of precious metals found on this continent,
some assert the greatest in any portion of the globe, was an important
factor in its settlement; yet for true national prosperity the humbler
coal and iron are of more value. Water power is also of material
service. In these three important elements of wealth South America is
not deficient, though her resources in these lines are but slightly
developed.

Although many settlements were made in South America more than half
a century earlier than our first at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607,
the population is much smaller than that of North America, the
approximate number of inhabitants being 60,000,000 for South America
and 150,000,000 for North; manifestly the development of her countries
has been less rapid. For this there are obvious reasons.

The tropical climate of the north coast and of much of Brazil might
seem less attractive to residents of temperate Europe and less
conducive to strenuous labor on the part of those who came; the cooler
regions of the south were more remote than the lands of North America.
Moreover, the Spanish colony promising the greatest wealth, Peru, which
at the same time was the seat of government, was indeed difficult of
access, presenting besides, stupendous obstacles to interior travel. In
view of these facts it seems wonderful that so many settlements were
made on the west coast and that so great a degree of culture was there
maintained.

Growth was further hampered by heavy taxes, merciless restrictions on
trade, and other regulations by the home governments, almost until the
countries achieved their independence. During the century of their
freedom most of the Republics have suffered from revolutions and other
troubles, but in recent years several have enjoyed a rapid development
with considerable immigration. All now present opportunities of various
kinds for investment by capitalists, for general trade, and for other
forms of business. Such opportunities, as well as the conditions of
living, vary greatly in different countries and in localities of the
same country.

It has long been a source of criticism on the part of the diplomats
and residents of the various Republics that in our minds they have
been lumped together; that we often refer to those portions of the New
World which were settled by the Spanish and Portuguese as Latin America
or to all save Brazil as Spanish America. Now that we are entering
upon a period of closer relationship with our southern neighbors, it
is obviously desirable that we should differentiate among them, learn
of the diversity in productions and resources which characterize
the various countries, and something of their social and political
conditions, all of which have a bearing upon present and prospective
possibilities for commercial relations. Therefore the countries must be
studied carefully and individually.

So far as transportation and travel are concerned South America is
often divided broadly into three sections: the East, the West, and the
North Coasts, to which a fourth is sometimes added, the Amazon Basin.
We may begin with the nearest, the countries on the North Coast, follow
with those on the West, and coming up from the south conclude with
Brazil. With the Republics of the North Coast we have the greatest
percentage of trade, with those on the East the largest amount.




                            THE NORTH COAST




                              CHAPTER II

         COLOMBIA: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.


Colombia, nearest to the United States of the republics of South
America, is recognized as one of the richest and most beautiful of
the countries of that continent, containing magnificent scenery, with
extraordinary variety and wealth of natural resources. Colombia is
noted as the first producer in the world of platinum, emeralds, and
mild coffee; the first in South America of gold.


AREA, POPULATION, BOUNDARY

=Area.= Colombia is fifth in size of the countries of South America,
with an area variously given, but approximately of 464,000 square miles.

=Population.= She is probably third in population, official figures
received March, 1921, of the 1918 census being 5,847,491. 6,000,000 may
be credited to her in 1921.

=Boundary.= Colombia has the good fortune to be the only South American
country bordering upon two oceans. Having an irregular shape, with
the Isthmus of Panamá dividing the two coasts nearly in the middle,
Colombia has the Caribbean Sea on the north and northwest for a
distance of 641 miles, and the Pacific Ocean, for a stretch of 468
miles, west of the main body of the country. Measuring the outline of
all the indentations, the coast line would be two or three times as
long. On the south are the Republics of Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil; on
the east Brazil and Venezuela. The extreme length of the country, from
12° 24′ N. Lat. to 2° 17′ S., is a little over 1000 miles, as far as
from New York to St. Louis; the greatest width, from 66° 7′ to 79° W.
Long., is about 800 miles.


HISTORY

In 1502 Columbus sailed along the northern coast, a fact which may
have prompted the inhabitants to give the country his name. As early
as 1508 Alonzo de Ojeda, who in 1499 had first touched Colombian soil,
made settlements on the coast; and in 1536 Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada
explored the interior as far as the site of Bogotá, where he founded a
city after establishing friendly relations with the aborigines.

The country was first named New Granada. By the middle of the century
Spanish power was fairly established along the coast and in part of the
interior. The territory was under the authority of the Viceroy at Lima,
with a local presidency, until 1718, when a Viceroy, ruling Ecuador and
Venezuela as well, was established at Bogotá. In 1810 an insurrection
broke out against Spain, the war continuing at intervals until 1824.
During those troublous years Simón Bolívar was the chief leader, both
acting as commanding general and in 1821 becoming President. In 1819
Bolívar had inaugurated the Great Colombian Republic which united
Venezuela and Ecuador with New Granada; but in 1829 Venezuela withdrew
and in 1830, the year of Bolívar’s death, Ecuador also.

In 1831 the Republic of New Granada was established, but disorders
followed. Many changes occurred in the form of government, which was at
one time a confederation, then the United States and now the Republic
of Colombia. There have been strife and insurrections: in 1903 that
of Panamá made the United States and its people extremely unpopular
in Colombia and for some time unfavorably affected our commercial
dealings. The adoption by the Senate of the Treaty of Bogotá will
doubtless increase the already more friendly feeling on the part of
Colombians, which can but be of value for our investments and trade.


GOVERNMENT

Since 1886 Colombia has been a unitary or centralized republic, the
sovereignty of the States being abolished. The Departments, as they
are called, have Governors appointed by the President, although each
has an Assembly for the regulation of internal affairs. Besides the
Departments, there are Territories of two varieties: Intendencias,
directly connected with the Central Government and Comisarías, sparsely
settled districts depending upon the nearest Department.

The President is elected for four years by direct vote of the
people. He has a Cabinet of eight members, the heads of the various
departments: the Ministers of the Interior (_Gobierno_), Foreign
Affairs (_Relaciones Exteriores_), Finance (_Hacienda_), War
(_Guerra_), Public Instruction (_Instrucción Pública_), Agriculture and
Commerce (_Agricultura y Comercio_), Public Works (_Obras Públicas_),
Treasury (_Tesoro_).

Instead of a Vice President two _Designados_, a first and a second, are
elected annually by Congress to act as President in case of his death,
absence from the country, or inability to serve.

The National Congress consists of a Senate and a House of
Representatives. The 35 Senators are elected for four years by persons
chosen for that purpose; the 92 Representatives, one for each 50,000
inhabitants, are elected for two years by direct vote. Two substitutes
are chosen for each Member of Congress to replace them in case of
inability to serve. Congress meets annually at the Capital, Bogotá,
July 20, for 90 to 120 days. The President may call an extra session.

The Judicial Branch includes a Supreme Court of nine judges, a Superior
Tribunal for each Department and a number of minor judges.

Colombia has 14 Departments: four bordering on the Caribbean,
Magdalena, Atlántico, Bolívar, Antioquia; three on the Pacific,
El Valle, Cauca, Nariño; seven in the interior, Huila, Tolima,
Cundinamarca, Boyacá, Santander, Santander del Norte, Caldas;
Intendencias: Meta at the east; Chocó bordering on the Caribbean and
the Pacific; the Islands, San Andrés and Providencia; six Comisarías:
La Goajira, Arauca, Vichada, Vaupés, Caquetá, Putumayo.

The names of the Departments, their area, population, capitals and
population follow:

--------------------+---------+----------+-------------+----------+---------
                    |  AREA,  |          |             |          |ALTITUDE,
    DEPARTMENTS     |in square|POPULATION|  CAPITALS   |POPULATION| in feet
                    |  miles  |          |             |          |
--------------------+---------+----------+-------------+----------+---------
Magdalena           |  17,022 |  204,000 |Santa Marta  |  18,000  | [2]
Atlántico           |   1,200 |  135,000 |Barranquilla |  64,000  | [2]
Bolívar             |  25,800 |  457,000 |Cartagena    |  51,000  | [2]
Antioquia           |  27,777 |  823,000 |Medellín     |  80,000  | 4,860
El Valle            |  10,802 |  272,000 |Cali         |  45,000  | 3,400
Cauca               |   9,625 |  240,000 |Popayán      |  20,200  | 5,740
Nariño              |  11,574 |  340,000 |Pasto        |  29,000  | 8,660
Huila               |   8,873 |  182,000 |Neiva        |  25,000  | 1,515
Tolima              |   9,182 |  329,000 |Ibagué       |  30,000  | 4,280
Cundinamarca        |   8,622 |  809,000 |Bogotá       | 144,000  | 8,680
Boyacá              |   3,330 |  659,000 |Tunja        |  10,000  | 9,200
Santander           |  11,819 |  439,000 |Bucaramanga  |  25,000  | 3,150
Santander del Norte |   7,716 |  239,000 |Cúcuta       |  30,000  | 1,050
Caldas              |   3,300 |  428,000 |Manizales    |  43,000  | 7,000
  TERRITORIES:      |         |          |             |          |
Meta                |  85,000 |   34,000 |Villavicencio|  4,700   | 1,500
Chocó               |  15,000 |   91,000 |Quibdó       | 25,000   |   138
San Andrés          |         |          |             |          |
 y Providencia      |         |    6,000 |San Andrés   |  3,000   | [2]
La Goajira          |   5,000 |   22,600 |San Antonio  |  2,100   | [2]
Arauca              |   5,000 |    7,500 |Arauca       |  3,900   |   640
Vichada             |  [1]    |    5,540 |Vichada      |    540   | [1]
Vaupés              |  [1]    |    6,350 |Calamar      |    750   | [1]
Caquetá             | 187,000 |   74,000 |Florencia    |  3,200   | [1]
Putumayo            |  [1]    |   40,000 |Mocoa        |  1,200   | 2,100
--------------------+---------+----------+-------------+----------+---------

[1] No figures available.

[2] At or near sea level.

NOTE.--The figures for Meta doubtless include the area of the new
Comisaría, Vichada, and those for Caquetá the areas of Vaupés and
Putumayo.

[Illustration: COLOMBIA]


POPULATION

Colombia, ranking third of the South American Republics in population,
has about 6,000,000 inhabitants, very unevenly distributed, as is
obvious from the figures of the Departments, already given. The average
is 12 to a square mile, but in the Departments 26 to a square mile.
The smallest Department, Atlántico, is the most densely populated, 114
to the square mile. The largest Department, Antioquia, more than three
times the size of Massachusetts, has also the largest population, which
is reputed to be the most enterprising.

The character of the population is varied. According to the Colombian
statesman, Uribe, 66 per cent is composed of pure whites and of
mestizos of white and Indian and white and negro origin, who through
successive crossings during four centuries have acquired the traits
of the Caucasian race, in some cases showing no traces of the extreme
elements; the pure Indians are 14 per cent, pure black 4 per cent, and
colored mixtures 16 per cent. The tendency is towards a closer fusion
making a unique type which will give the desired national unification.
There are about 600,000 Indians, the greater number more or less
civilized; perhaps 150,000 wild Indians, some friendly, others hostile.
How many there are in the forested Amazon region is uncertain; the
recent census places the figure at a little over 100,000. Among all the
Indians one hundred or more different languages are spoken.

A great diversity in social conditions is to be expected. A large
proportion of the inhabitants dwell in the cities or smaller towns. In
a number of these may be found the culture, dress, and refinements of
European cities, splendid salons or modest drawing rooms with equal
urbanity in each. The wants of the middle and lower classes and of the
Indians would be quite different, and would depend further upon their
place of residence; the requirements of dwellers in the tropical plains
and valleys, and of those who live on or near the bleak _paramos_ are
obviously very diverse.


EDUCATION

Considerable attention is paid to education, which in the primary
grades is free but not compulsory. The percentage of illiteracy is
about 70. Bogotá has a National University with Schools of Medicine,
Law, Political Science, Engineering, and Natural Science. Connected
with it is the National Library, an Astronomical Observatory, a School
of Fine Arts, and an Academy of Music. A free institute of learning
is the Universidad Republicana; there is also a School of Arts and
Trades, giving both general and technical instruction, as in printing,
carpentry, etc.; a _colegio_ or school for secondary instruction,
La Salle Institute, the largest in Colombia, which prepares for the
University; and a Homœopathic Institute, from which at least one woman
has been graduated.

There are universities also at Cartagena, Popayán, Pasto, and Medellín;
in the last named city, a School of Mines, which is a part of the
National University. Elementary instruction is the most zealously
promoted in Antioquia, Caldas, Boyacá, and Cauca; in the other
Departments the school attendance is poor. In Colombia, Spanish is
spoken with greater purity than in most of the other Republics.

Institutions giving instruction in agriculture, in arts and trades,
and in general science are greatly needed, as also the teaching of
sanitation and hygiene.


PRESS, RELIGION, ETC.

=Press.= The Press is free, and bold in discussion.

=Religion.= The Constitution recognizes the Roman Catholic Religion as
that of the country but permits other forms of worship.

=Telegraph.= The 700 telegraph offices are connected by 13,750 miles of
line. Colombia has cable connection at Buenaventura, San Andrés, and
Barranquilla; wireless stations at Santa Marta, Puerto Colombia, and
Cartagena. An international wireless station is expected at Bogotá in
1921. Other stations will be at Barranquilla, Arauca, Cúcuta, Cali,
Medellín. There are 13,000 miles of telephone wire.[3]

[3] For postal regulations to all the countries see Appendix.

=Money.= The money of Colombia approximates our own: that is, a gold
peso is worth 97.3 cents. Five pesos equal an English sovereign. A
condor is 10 pesos; a medio condor, 5 pesos, an English pound. Silver
coins are 50, 40, and 10 centavos or cents; nickel coins are 1, 2, and
5 cents.

The =Metric System= of weights and measures is legal and official
as in all the other Republics, although to some extent in domestic
business the old Spanish measures are used; as libra, 1.10 pound,
arroba, 25 libras, quintal, 100 libras, cargo, 250 libras. The vara,
80 centimeters, and the fanega, about a bushel are other measures. The
litre is of course the standard of liquid measure.




                              CHAPTER III

                  COLOMBIA: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS


Colombia is called a very mountainous country, and the most casual
visitor would not dispute the statement. Mountains are in evidence
along both shores and on the way to interior cities; but the unseen
part, the hinterland, is of a different character. Only two fifths
of the country is mountainous, but this part extremely so. In this
section, very sensibly, most of the people live, as in the neighboring
countries; for as the mountains are near the sea the majority of the
early settlers soon found their way up into the more healthful and
agreeable highlands. The chief drawback to these is the difficulty of
access; and we can not but admire the courage and endurance of those
stout-hearted people who settled in remote places among the mountains
of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, and amid untold hardships
there preserved for centuries civilization and a high degree of culture.


MOUNTAINS

The great mountain chains of Colombia constitute the northern terminal
of the great Andean system. In northern Ecuador the Andes has become a
single massive chain; but beginning in Colombia with an irregular mass
of peaks, the mountains soon divide into three distinct ranges, the
East, West, and Central Cordilleras.

The =Central Cordillera= may be considered the main range, having the
highest peaks: three above 18,000 feet, and a number nearly 16,000.
Many of the summits are crowned with eternal snow, and many are
volcanoes, as are peaks in the southern group and in the other two
chains.

The =West Cordillera=, branching from the Central, follows the coast
line to 4° N. Lat. where it leaves a space on the west for another
coast ridge, the Serranía de Baudó, which has come down from the north
as the conclusion of the low Panamá range and terminates the North
American system. Between this and the West Cordillera are the valleys
of the Atrato and the San Juan Rivers; the former flowing north into
the Caribbean Sea, the other south, turning into the Pacific where the
low Baudó ends. On the other (east) side of the West Cordillera is the
Cauca Valley with the Central Cordillera beyond. These two Cordilleras
end in low hills some distance from the Caribbean coast.

The =East Cordillera=, with the Magdalena Valley between that and the
Central, divides into two branches: one running far north dying out at
the extremity of the Goajira Peninsula, the other more to the east,
extending into Venezuela.

Curiously, along the coast of the Caribbean, northeast of the mouth of
the Magdalena, is another seemingly independent range of mountains,
detached from the East Cordillera and quite in line with the Central:
the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, which has snow crowned summits rising
16,000-17,000 feet above the sea. The entire mountainous region of
Colombia is subject to earthquakes, which, however, are less severe
than those in Ecuador and Venezuela; in some sections there are
volcanic disturbances.


PLAINS

Between the mountain chains, besides the narrow valleys are limited
plateau regions, the latter occupying about 900 square miles; while
more than half of the country, an immense tract east of the Andes,
broadening towards the southern boundary, is a great plain slightly
inclining towards the east and south: the northern part belonging to
the Orinoco Basin, the larger section at the south to that of the
Amazon. This Amazon region has an area equal to that of the entire
State of California. Its higher portion, as well as most of the Orinoco
Basin in Colombia, where there are wet and dry seasons, is composed
chiefly of grassy plains called llanos. Nearer the Amazon, where it
rains a good part of the year, the country is heavily forested.


RIVERS

=Rivers entering the Caribbean Sea.= Most important at present as also
best known are the rivers which flow into the Caribbean Sea. Chief of
these is the Magdalena, 1020 miles long, the principal route to the
interior. The most important affluent of the Magdalena is the Cauca,
which enters it about 200 miles from the sea, after descending nearly
15,000 feet in a distance of 810 miles. The Magdalena has many other
tributaries, 500 or more, a few of which, entering from the east, are
navigable for small steamers. The Atrato River, 340 miles long, flows
north between the highlands of the West Cordillera and the Coast Range,
later turning east into the Gulf of Urabá. Of smaller streams flowing
into the Caribbean, the Sinú bears considerable traffic. Besides these,
there are the navigable Zulia, 120 miles, and the Catatumbo, 108 miles,
which by way of Lake Marcaibo in Venezuela also enter the Caribbean.

=Rivers entering the Pacific.= Into the Pacific flow many streams
carrying much water, as the rainfall of the region is excessive; but
the courses are mostly so short and the fall is so steep that few are
navigable for any considerable distance. The longest of them, the
Patía, 270 miles, is the only one which rises on the east side of the
West Cordillera. Worth noting is the fact that this river and four
others, the five belonging to three different basins, rise very near
together in the highlands of southern Colombia; the Cauca and Magdalena
going north to the Caribbean, the Putumayo and Caquetá southeast to the
Amazon. The Patía penetrates the West Cordillera by a remarkable gorge
with perpendicular walls several hundred feet in height. On the swampy
lowlands the river channels are navigable. The San Juan River, 180
miles long, is navigable for 140 miles, as it, like the Atrato, flows a
long distance parallel with the coast between the Baudó Range and the
Cordillera, until it turns west into the Pacific.

=Amazon Tributaries.= The Amazon receives two large tributaries
from the southern part of Colombia: the Putumayo, 840 miles; and
farther east the Caquetá, 1320 miles, the last also called the
Yapurá, especially in Brazil. These rivers are navigable by canoe
and by steamers of shallow draft for hundreds of miles, though with
interruptions in places from difficult rapids. The Putumayo is the
better, having been ascended a distance of 800 miles from the Amazon
in a steamer drawing six feet. (The entire length of the Hudson is 350
miles.) Smaller rivers, the Guainía and the Vaupés, unite with the
Casiquiare from Venezuela to form the Rio Negro, another important
affluent of the Amazon. These rivers have many smaller tributaries, but
the section has been little explored save for going up or down the main
stream.

=The Orinoco River=, which part of the way forms the boundary between
Colombia and Venezuela, receives several important tributaries from the
former country: the Guaviare, 810 miles long, the Vichada, 312 miles,
the Meta, 660 miles, and the Arauca, 480 miles. Though all are more
or less navigable the Meta is the most important. Joining the Orinoco
below the Maipures cataract and the Atures rapids, which higher up
obstruct the greater river, it permits continuous navigation to the
Atlantic Ocean. Where joined by the Meta the Orinoco is a mile wide.
The Meta is navigable for 150 miles above the junction, in the rainy
season 500 miles, to a point but 100 miles from Bogotá.


CLIMATE

It has already been noted that the altitude of a district as well as
its latitude affects the climate, which may be modified further by the
direction of prevailing winds and by ocean currents. The extensive and
lofty mountain ranges of Colombia therefore give the country a greater
variety of climate than it would otherwise enjoy, with temperatures
agreeable to every taste and suited to products of almost every
character. The configuration of the mountain ranges and valleys causes
a further difference in temperature and in rainfall among points at the
same altitude; the elevations being responsible not only for their own
lower temperatures, but for the greater heat of secluded valleys, and
for other variations.

In the forest region of the Amazon there is much precipitation. The
open plains of the Orinoco section have less rain, with a dry season
when the rivers, which overflow in the wet season, return to their
channels and the vegetation withers. Farther north, the Sierra de
Perija of the East Cordillera condenses the moisture of the northeast
trade winds, causing heavy rainfall on the eastern slope, but having
a dry section on the west. The Caribbean coast near Panamá has plenty
of rain, which diminishes towards the north, Goajira being quite arid.
Excessive precipitation occurs on the West Cordillera, on the Baudó
Range, and on the southern part of the Pacific Coast, where the plains
are heavily forested and unhealthful like the valleys of the San Juan
and Atrato farther north. The lower valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca,
shut off from the prevailing winds, are decidedly hot. These and other
lowland plains have the tropical climate, in general great humidity,
and many dense forests, except for the open drier llanos.

Above this region are enjoyable climates, the sub-tropical ranging
from 1500 to 7500 feet; still higher to 10,000 feet the seasons are
agreeably temperate in character. Beyond this altitude it becomes quite
cold, with bleak plains and passes, here called _paramos_, mostly
from 12,000 to 15,000 feet above the sea. Higher yet are regions of
perpetual snow.

The Santa Marta Plateau, the upper section of the Cauca Valley, the
greater part of the country traversed by the East Cordillera, and the
northern end of the Central enjoy the subtropical or the temperate
climate. Here is a large proportion of the white population, and here
the chief industries are located. In the tropical forests and in the
lower plains and valleys the annual mean temperature is from 82° to
over 90°; at Medellín with an altitude of 5000 feet it is 70°, and at
Bogotá, altitude 8600 feet, it is 57°.

In the north there are two seasons a year, a wet and a dry, though
not everywhere well defined; nearer the equator there are four, two
wet and two drier, as the sun passes overhead twice a year. On the
damp _paramos_ the moist wintry seasons are long and cold, so these
parts are unfrequented save by shepherds in the warmer periods. It
is estimated that a section of 150,000 square miles, twice the size
of England, has an elevation of 7000 feet or more, and there are few
points on the coast from which an agreeable climate could not be
reached in a few hours by automobile or train if roads were provided.




                              CHAPTER IV

    COLOMBIA: THE CAPITAL, THE STATES AND TERRITORIES, CHIEF CITIES


THE CAPITAL

=Bogotá=, the Capital of Colombia, is situated on a plateau or savanna,
a sort of shelf over 8000 feet above the sea, on the west side of the
East Cordillera. The shelf, overlooked by fine snowclad volcanoes, has
a low rim on the west and a high ridge on the east. About 70 miles long
and 30 wide, it is entirely covered with towns and farms. The city is
the largest in Colombia (population probably 150,000), on account of
its being the capital and having a good climate; the mean temperature
ranges from 54° to 64°. 600 miles from the north coast and 210 from the
Pacific, Bogotá is the most difficult of access of any of the South
American capitals. Nevertheless, the city has always been noted as
the home of culture and of intellectual tastes. It is well laid out
and covers a large area, as the houses are of only one or two stories
with interior patios or courts, as in most South American cities.
Many streets have asphalt pavements; there are hundreds of carriages
and automobiles, also 23 miles of electric tramways. Like all South
American cities, it has large plazas, open squares usually with trees
and other green in the centre, and public gardens. The Capitol is an
imposing building covering two and a half acres. Other good public
buildings include the Presidential Palace, a public library, a museum,
etc. Of course there is a cathedral and many churches, two theatres of
the first rank, several fair hotels, a large bull ring, a hippodrome,
polo grounds, etc. Here are telephones and electric lights as in all
other considerable cities. The people are industrious, intelligent, and
fond of amusement.

A more precise idea of the geography of Colombia and of the commercial
possibilities of the different sections will be gained by reviewing
them in order, beginning with the north coast, going around the
outside, and concluding with the interior.


STATES AND TERRITORIES

=The Goajira Peninsula=, a Comisaría at the northeast, is inhabited
chiefly by Indians who are practically independent. They gather forest
products such as tagua nuts (vegetable ivory), breed useful horses,
and do some trading at the port of Riohacha in Magdalena. A few savage
tribes make travel in some sections dangerous. The peninsula contains
much wet lowlands, as well as mountains, extensive forests, and fine
fertile country, with considerable mineral wealth yet unexploited:
gold, and probably extensive veins of coal. Large sections covered with
guinea grass are capable of supporting great herds of cattle.

=Magdalena=, adjoining the Peninsula, is a Department a great part of
which is low and hot. The inhabitants include many Indians, a friendly
tribe on the Sierra Nevada. Back of these mountains are rich valleys,
where white settlers have been disturbed by savage Indians who live
on the lower slopes of the East Cordillera. Among the products of the
region are coffee, cocoa, sugar, and bananas. The upper valleys are the
better settled and cultivated; mineral wealth including petroleum is
evident.

Santa Marta, the capital, an ancient city and port, founded 1525,
has recently entered upon an era of prosperity, largely due to the
enterprise of the United Fruit Company. Finely located on a good harbor
west of the Nevada of Santa Marta, some distance east of the mouth of
the Magdalena, the city is an important centre of the banana industry,
to which it owes its present development; other agricultural products
are for local consumption. The climate is hot but healthful, though the
banana zone is malarial. An excellent hospital is maintained by the
United Fruit Company. Within a few miles are regions with a delightful
temperature. A Marconi wireless, one of the most powerful in South
America, is of general service, though the property of the Fruit
Company. Their enormous banana trade is served by a 100 mile network of
railways into sections favorable to this fruit.

=Atlántico= is a small Department occupying the flat hot delta of the
Magdalena River.

Barranquilla, the capital, is a busy place with many resident
foreigners. It has quays, a large new warehouse, hotels, one of which
is said to have all conveniences, theatres, two clubs, electric lights,
trams, and telephones. In spite of the heat, which averages 82° for the
year, the deaths are less than 25 per 1000, a percentage better than in
some other tropical cities.

=Bolívar= follows, a very large Department, with the Magdalena River
for its eastern boundary. Bolívar like Atlántico has vast plains suited
to tropical agriculture and to cattle raising, now a growing industry.
The great natural resources of forest, agriculture, and mineral
products are but moderately developed. The breeding of horses, donkeys,
and mules is a profitable business followed by many. Ten gold mines are
worked.

Cartagena, the capital, is considered the most interesting city on
the Caribbean coast and one of the most picturesque in South America.
Its massive walls and fortifications were erected at great expense
nearly four centuries ago--1535. It has fine buildings both ancient and
modern, and comfortable hotels. Montería and Lorica are busy commercial
cities on the Sinú River, each with a population of 20,000 or more.

=Antioquia=, the next and largest department, has a smaller coast line.
The coast section has Bolívar on the east and the Gulf of Urabá on the
west; but the larger part is south of Bolívar, bordering at the east
on the Magdalena River, with the Departments of Santander and Boyacá
opposite. At the west is the Atrato River and through the centre the
Cauca River. All these rivers are more or less navigable by steamboats
as are some of their affluents; others at least by rafts and canoes.
Traversed also by the West and Central Cordillera Antioquia has great
diversity of character. It is the leading Department in mining, in
education, and as centre of industries; it is among the foremost
in agriculture, has the largest, most enterprising, and prosperous
population. Nearly one-fourth of the coffee exported from Colombia
comes from Antioquia, that from Medellín bringing the highest price.
The forests contain hard wood and rubber. The Department has five
cities besides the capital with a population of 20,000 or above, and 30
more with a population over 10,000.

Medellín, the capital, the second largest city of the Republic, is said
to be the wealthiest for its size of any city in South America. It has
wide streets, well built houses, many factories, and many educational
institutions. The climate is excellent, the altitude being 4600 feet.
Here is the National Mint.

=Caldas=, south of Antioquia and formerly a part of it, is a small
Department, very mountainous, with Cundinamarca east and Chocó west.
The population, mostly white, possessing sturdy qualities, is devoted
to mining, stock raising, and to agriculture of various zones. The
rivers have rich alluvium inciting to 2600 mining claims. In the
valleys the mean temperature ranges from 77° to 86°. Palm straw and
fibres are employed in making hats, cordage, and sacking.

Manizales, the capital, is an important, comparatively new city,
founded in 1846. Although distant from any river or railway at an
altitude above 7000 feet, it is growing rapidly as a distributing
centre. Sulphur and salt mines are near and thermal and saline springs;
large herds of cattle graze on the plains.

=Chocó=, the next coast region to Antioquia, is in striking contrast
to Caldas. An Intendencia bordering on Panamá and the Pacific as well
as on the Caribbean, it is rich in possibilities for mining, and for
agricultural and forest products; but the excessive rainfall and great
heat, unpleasant throughout the district, make the lowlands swampy and
unhealthful, and the whole region unattractive to settlement. Less than
one-tenth of the population is white; negroes form the great majority
of the rest, and there are some Indians. Of the latter, there are
three principal tribes in the Atrato Basin and four near the rest of
the Caribbean Coast. The Atrato Basin with that of the San Juan forms
one of the richest mining sections in Colombia, important for the
rare platinum, most of the tributaries carrying this metal with gold.
The San Juan Basin is probably the richer in platinum. Rubber, cacao,
hides, and timber are other exports. The region will be developed some
time.

Quibdó, the capital, is a busy trading centre, which within the
last ten years has increased in population fourfold in spite of the
disagreeable climate.

=El Valle=, the Department on the south, again is a striking contrast.
Although including a strip of coast with the chief Pacific port,
Buenaventura, the name of the Department indicates the part deemed
of the greatest importance; and the one that is The Valley among so
many we must expect to have especial merits. With an altitude of 3000
feet and upwards, it is a beautiful garden spot between the West and
Central Cordilleras, where plantains grow two feet long, a bunch of
bananas weighs 200 pounds, the cacao without cultivation commands a
higher price than that of Ecuador, where its culture is a specialty;
and sugar plantations are said to yield for several generations without
replanting or fertilizing. At greater altitudes grow the products
of temperate climes. Such a region must some day receive intensive
culture, although now the leading industry is cattle raising; since
the upper classes are indolent, it is said, the negro laborers also.
Yet a brilliant future is sure to come. The mining outlook is good.
Many claims for gold mines have been filed, some for platinum and
for silver, one each for emery, talc, copper, iron. There is a large
deposit of coal and of rich crystal. The rivers possess auriferous
alluvium.

Cali, the capital, is an old, but progressive and important commercial
city, with a fine climate, altitude 4000 feet, mean temperature 77°. It
has fine old buildings and new ones, poor hotels, banks, automobiles,
etc. Other busy cities farther north, are Palmira, 27,000 population,
and Cartago, 21,000.

=Cauca= follows, five times the size of El Valle but with no larger
population, of which 25 per cent is white. It extends back from the
ocean south of El Valle and of the Department Huila as well. The region
has many undeveloped coal mines, and other minerals, with vegetation
tropical and temperate in abundance. In some parts there are dense
forests. Over 4000 mining claims have been filed, and gold and platinum
are exported, but agriculture is the chief industry.

Popayán, the capital, was founded in 1536 at an altitude of nearly
6000 feet. At the foot of an extinct volcano and 17 miles from an
active one, with a good climate it has violent electric storms and
earthquakes. It has some fine old buildings, a university, and some say
that here the best Spanish in the New World is spoken.

=Nariño=, the last Department at the south, has a large settled Indian
population, with some Indians uncivilized. It contains a number of
volcanoes a few of which are active; several rivers flow into the
Pacific, the Patía the most important. Gold mines have been worked
from colonial times and gold is one of the chief exports. Other mines
exist and 2500 claims have been denounced. Rich copper has been noted;
corundum and sapphires have been found. Besides gold the chief exports
are Panamá hats, hides, rubber, coffee, tobacco, and anise.

Pasto, the capital, at an elevation of 8650 feet, at the base of the
volcano Galera, has a beautiful location, a fine climate, and a hardy
industrious people. There are 21 Indian settlements near. Barbacoas,
100 miles from the coast, is a considerable city of over 12,000
population where the making of Panamá hats is a leading industry.
Tumaco, population 15,000, is a picturesque island port with a better
climate than Buenaventura.

=Putumayo=, a Comisaría east and extending far to the southeast of
Nariño, is on the northeast boundary of Ecuador, from which it is
separated by the watershed between the river Napo and the Putumayo,
which latter separates it from Caquetá, both rivers affluents of the
Amazon. The northern part with an elevation of 3000 feet or more has a
comfortable climate.

Mocoa, the capital, is in this section, and a few small towns, several
entirely Indian.

=Caquetá=, the adjoining Comisaría, is similar in character, the higher
portion a good cattle country. The animals with other products could
easily be shipped down stream to Manaos, where they would command high
prices. The lower section is a good rubber district; cinnamon, cacao,
tagua, hides, oils, balsams, sarsaparilla, varnishes, and feathers are
other products of the region.

=Vaupés=, the next Comisaría shares the characteristics of the low,
untrodden, rainy, forest region and of the more open and agreeable
lands higher up, a promising territory for the rather distant future.
In the Vaupés section the rivers are of black water, near which are
no mosquitoes, therefore a more healthful region. Along the rivers of
white water, which are in the majority, mosquitoes are a terrible pest.
The distinction generally prevails in the countries of the north coast.

North of the Amazon region is that of the llanos belonging to the
Orinoco Basin. There is hardly a real watershed between the two; in
a number of places channels, especially in the rainy season, connect
different tributaries, besides the well known Casiquiare connection
between the Orinoco and, by way of the Rio Negro, the Amazon.

The =Meta= Intendencia, formerly separated from Vaupés by the
Guaviare, the most southern tributary of the Orinoco in Colombia,
extends to the Meta River on the north. This section with some country
farther north is similar to the llanos of Venezuela, chiefly grass
lands of inferior quality, with patches of forest. It supports some
cattle and might a great many more, although much of the pasture land
is very wet in the long rainy season, and so dry in the short dry
season that in many districts the grass practically disappears. The
Meta River in its lower part has Venezuela on the north; higher at the
northwest is the Casanare region (similar) of the Department of Boyacá.
Near the Meta River are more towns, a few cattle centres, richer soil,
with easier outlet to Venezuela, to which the few exports chiefly go.
The forests of the section teem with deer and other animals, the rivers
are full of alligators; the only entrance to Casanare safe from tribes
of wild Indians is the Cravo highway from Sogamoso, an ancient town in
Boyacá, where Chibcha priests once dwelt in palaces roofed with gold.

The =Vichada= Comisaría, so recently organized as not to appear on any
map (1921), is along the Vichada River between Vaupés and Meta.

=Arauca=, a small Comisaría, is a part of the region north of the Meta
River between Boyacá and Venezuela.

Arauca, the capital, on the river Arauca is called but three days
by water (generally seven) from Ciudad Bolívar, the eastern port of
Venezuela on the Orinoco.

=Boyacá=, west and north, except for the Casanare Province, is a
Department chiefly in the _tierra fria_ of the East Cordillera. The
population is mostly Indian and mestizo, the agriculture is mainly of
temperate character: wheat, barley, maize, alfalfa, potatoes. Mining is
actively carried on: gold, silver, copper, iron, quicksilver, marble,
have been denounced, and 157 emerald claims. Asphalt is worked; there
are salt works at Chita, an old Indian town, population 11,000.

Tunja, the capital, is called a fine old city with three public
libraries.

=Santander del Norte=, north of Santander, is also traversed by the
East Cordillera. The mean temperatures vary greatly: 46° on several
_paramos_, and 81° in the valleys of the Catatumbo and Zulia. Gold,
silver, copper, lead, coal are mined. Rio de Oro, tributary to the
Catatumbo, has rich auriferous deposits, and what is now of greater
importance, it passes through a district rich in petroleum. The varied
crops are the chief source of wealth: wheat and potatoes, coffee and
cacao.

Cúcuta, the capital, altitude 1000 feet, with a temperature of 84°, is
an important commercial city.

=Santander=, written also with Sur, south of Santander del Norte and of
Magdalena, has Boyacá on the east and south; Antioquia and Bolívar are
across the Magdalena River on the west. Similar to Santander del Norte,
it has more low plains. Gold, silver, copper, talc, asphalt are found.

Bucaramanga, the capital, has a mean temperature ranging from 64° to
84°.

=Cundinamarca=, south of Boyacá, has Meta on the east, Tolima and
Huila south, and Tolima west. Less than one-half of the population is
white; about one-third is on the high plateau, the rest on the slopes
or in the Magdalena Valley, or on the Orinoco watershed. The scattered
population is in 110 municipalities. Agriculture is most important, the
land near Bogotá being especially well cultivated. In the city many
factories are operated and a variety of trades followed. Mines are
widely distributed: iron, gold, silver, copper, lead, coal, jasper, etc.

Bogotá is the capital of the Department as well as of the country.

=Huila=, south of Cundinamarca and Tolima, has Meta and Caquetá east,
Cauca south, and Cauca and Tolima west. Half of Huila is Government
land, forest and mountain. Cattle raising is well developed. Wheat,
maize, rice, coffee, sugar, tobacco, are cultivated on a large scale.
There are four quartz mines, and gold placers receive attention.

Neiva, the capital, is practically at the head of steam navigation on
the Magdalena River. With an altitude of about 1500 feet it has an even
temperature approximating 80°.

=Tolima=, west of Huila and Cundinamarca, is a long Department with the
Magdalena River on the east and the Central Cordillera west. Cacao and
coffee are raised on the warm lowlands. Twenty-six million coffee trees
have been producing; perhaps 4,000,000 more are now in bearing. Over
2,000,000 tobacco plants grow on the foothills, other crops higher,
also cattle. Of the last there are 580,000, also 140,000 horses,
100,000 hogs, with fewer sheep and goats. The rivers are auriferous and
60 properties are worked for gold and silver.

Ibagué, the capital, is a pleasant and important city, an active
commercial town with mines and thermal springs in the neighborhood,
exporting a variety of articles, and with a considerable cattle trade.




                               CHAPTER V

                  COLOMBIA: PORTS AND TRANSPORTATION


SEA AND RIVER PORTS

Foreign commerce is carried on chiefly through five ports, Buenaventura
on the Pacific; on the Caribbean, Cartagena, Puerto Colombia, Santa
Marta, and Riohacha. Besides these are Tumaco far south on the Pacific,
and Villamizar in Santander on the river Zulia, near the boundary of
Venezuela, well situated for trade with that neighboring country.

=Puerto Colombia=, the chief seaport of the country, is situated a
little west of the mouth of the Magdalena River. Although with a
notable pier a mile in length, the place is small, merely a landing
port for the greater city on the Magdalena, to which leads a railway
17¹⁄₂ miles long.

=Barranquilla= is frequently mentioned as the port instead of Puerto
Colombia, since it contains the national custom house through which at
least 60 per cent of the commerce of the country passes. Yet it is not
a real seaport, being 15 miles up the river, which is inaccessible to
ocean steamers. When a channel is dredged through the Boca de Ceniza
so that such steamers can reach Barranquilla, it will be of great
advantage to commerce. This work, previously arranged for, but blocked
by the outbreak of the European War, may soon be accomplished.

It might have been better to make use of the “Dique,” a natural river
channel 60 miles long extending from Calamar to the sea 15 miles
south of Cartagena. This is now used in the rainy season by river
steamers, though swamps near Cartagena present difficulties. Intended
improvements in the channel from Sincerín, where there is a large sugar
plantation and refinery, will make it navigable for boats of a few
hundred tons. Beginning at the “Dique” rich agricultural land extends
south.

=Cartagena=, the port second in importance, has a fine natural harbor
and excellent wharfage facilities; the custom house depots alongside
are among the best in South America. It is less than 2000 miles to New
York (4500 to Liverpool) and 266 from Colón.

=Santa Marta=, northeast, is finely located on a good harbor. Like
the ports already mentioned, it has weekly steamers to New York, New
Orleans, and also to England.

=Riohacha=, population 10,000, still farther east, is a poor port of
much less importance. Merely an open roadstead, it is seldom visited by
steamers but is frequented by sailing vessels from Curaçao and other
points.

=Buenaventura=, the chief Colombian port on the Pacific, with a
population of 9000, is situated on an island in the Bay of the same
name, which can accommodate vessels of 24 foot draft. A new pier, 679
feet long, just completed, has twin docks and two railway approaches;
on one side water is 28-44 feet deep. The place is regularly visited by
steamers and is an important port of entry for the rich Cauca Valley.

=Tumaco=, farther south, a town of 15,000, is a port of some importance
for southern Colombia, the bay receiving ships of 21 foot draft, which
are served by lighters.

=Villamizar= on the River Zulia through that and the Catatumbo is
connected with Lake Maracaibo and the Caribbean.

=Orocué=, population 2500, on the Meta, and =Arauca= on the Arauca
River, may be reached by steamer from Ciudad Bolívar on the Orinoco and
so communicate with the sea.


INLAND TRANSPORTATION

It is evident that the physical conformation of Colombia is such as
to render extremely difficult the construction of railways or indeed
roads of any kind. Lack of capital, and internal disturbances have
contributed to retard development in this direction. The rivers
therefore have been of prime importance for inland travel and
transport. While these are supplemented by local railways and cart
roads, the greater part of transportation over this extensive territory
is, aside from the waterways, accomplished by means of pack and saddle
animals over _caminos_ or bridle paths of varying degrees of excellence.

The =Magdalena River= is the main artery of traffic, its normal
transportation being more than doubled because of the important
railways leading to or branching from the River. As its mouth is
navigable only for light launches, nearly all freight and travel comes
by rail either from Puerto Colombia to Barranquilla, 17 miles, or from
Cartagena to Calamar, 65 miles. However, Barranquilla has some traffic
with Santa Marta by means of steam launches of light draft through
channels of the delta. By the Cartagena railway freight is shipped
without cartage to Calamar within five days. At this town of 10,000,
there is a good pier, but poor hotel accommodations for the traveler,
who may be compelled to wait some time for a steamer. The river has a
width of from half a mile to a mile, and an average depth of 30 feet,
but in the dry season shoals sometimes prevent for a month the ascent
of the river by steamer. Much time is consumed in loading wood for
fuel, as well as in other calls, and part of the way is unsafe for
navigation at night. This at least has been the case, but recent and
prospective dredging both on the Magdalena and the Cauca promise much
better conditions in the future.

The Magdalena, the regular route of travel for Bogotá, is navigable
about 600 miles, to La Dorada on the west bank, for steamers of 500
tons. The facilities for comfort for the six to nine days’ journey
(which has been prolonged to three weeks in periods of low water)
include staterooms with electric lights; but passengers must now carry
their sheets, pillows, and mosquito netting; and some take food to
supplement the table fare, or make purchases en route. It is reported
that 100 eggs were bought for $2.00 in February, 1919. If the five
gliders drawing but a few inches, which have been ordered in France for
the Magdalena, prove a success, facilities for travel will be immensely
improved. A hydroplane service for passengers and mail, Barranquilla
to Girardot, is now in regular operation. Other service elsewhere is
proposed.

At La Dorada, the terminus of the sail on the lower river, a change
is made to the railway 70 miles long, which was built to Ambalema,
population 7000, to avoid the Honda Rapids. Overlooking these is the
busy town of Honda, population 10,000, in the Department of Tolima, for
300 years an important centre of trade. A suspension bridge crosses
the river from which, by a rough bridle path, until 1908 most of the
traffic went to Bogotá 67 miles distant. Some freight still goes over
this trail to Bogotá, or to Facatativá, 45 miles, a two days’ ride, as
well as a few tourists, better to enjoy the scenery, to escape the heat
of the valley, or more likely, when compelled by the upper river being
too shallow for steamer traffic.

Usually the railway is left at Puerto Beltrán, altitude 755 feet,
population 2000 (just below Ambalema), where a 100 ton steamer is taken
for the 100 miles on the shallower stream above to Girardot, a new
town, population 13,000, on the east bank, with ten hotels, and rapidly
growing in commercial importance.

From Girardot, altitude 1000 feet, to Facatativá, population 11,000,
the Colombia National Railway climbs the East Cordillera about 8000
feet in a distance of 82 miles on the way to Bogotá. Twenty-five miles
more on the Sabana Railway, a road of a different gauge, brings one to
the capital, having made six changes from the ocean steamer: first to
the railway at the port; next to a steamer on the lower river; third
to the railway at La Dorada; at Puerto Beltrán to a smaller steamer
for Giradot; fifth to the railway to Facatativá; thence to the one to
Bogotá.

Aside from the traffic to the capital, the Magdalena with its 500
tributaries is of enormous service. The boats call at many small places
(sometimes a single house) along the river, from which mule trails
(or a stream) lead to interior towns in the various Departments. The
first river port of importance, about 70 miles from Barranquilla, is
Calamar, where travelers and freight from Cartagena are taken on board.
Magangué, population about 15,000, is the next considerable town.
Between Magangué and Banco the Cauca enters the river.

Up the Cauca steamboats run 170 miles to Caceres; also on one of its
branches, the Nechi. Through most of its length the Cauca is nearly
parallel to the Magdalena, but confined in a narrow valley its course
is far less smooth. Above Valdivia navigation is prevented by a stretch
of 250 miles of narrow cañon and rapids; in the upper valley is another
navigable section of 200 miles, from Cali to a little below Cartago.
Being disconnected from the Caribbean this section must seek an outlet
on the Pacific.

The San Jorge River, nearly parallel with the lower Cauca and entering
the Magdalena a little farther down, is navigable for 112 miles.

At Banco, a town of 7700 on the Magdalena, a smaller boat may be taken
up the Cesar River coming from the northeast; at Bodega Central,
population 4000, one up the Lebrija towards Bucaramanga, to which there
is another route by way of Puerto Wilches beyond. From the latter a
railway, long ago planned and in operation for 12 miles, is now in
construction, imperatively necessary for the development of this part
of the country. The distance is 90 miles. From La Ceiba, 70 miles up
the Lebrija, a mule trail leads to Ocaña, population 20,000, as well
as one to Bucaramanga, which is also reached by a shorter route from a
point 22 miles up the shallower Sogamoso when that is practicable.

The first railway above Calamar, found at Puerto Berrío, population
1000, nearly 500 miles south of Barranquilla, leads to the important
city of Medellín. This, the oldest road in Colombia, has a break where
a 15 mile ride is necessary across the mountains. When the tunnel
contracted for is completed the entire length of the road will be 120
miles. Its prospects are excellent. A second railroad has Medellín, the
Amagá, running 23 miles south towards the rich Cauca valley, which it
will soon reach. These two roads are said to carry more freight than
any others in the country.

From Mariquita, population 6000, on the Dorada Railway, an aerial
Ropeway Line goes up to Manizales, in Caldas, an excellent service for
freight. From Manizales a railway is building towards the Cauca River;
15 miles open, 1921.

From the Magdalena River opposite Girardot, where a bridge is being
constructed, the Tolima Railway extends a distance of 99 miles to
Ibagué.

Above Girardot the steamers in high water run up to Neiva, at times a
little beyond. Here and higher, small boats and rafts are in general
use.

=Cartagena=, in addition to its connection with the Magdalena River,
has commercial relations with the surrounding districts, including the
Chocó region, which might be served directly by ocean steamers were
it not for the fact that the Atrato River is barred to them by sand
at its mouth, though navigable within, 280 miles to Quibdó. As only
boats of three or four feet draft can pass, and as there is no good
port on the Gulf of Urabá, commerce is carried on through Cartagena by
transshipment, as to cities on the Sinú River also.

From =Buenaventura=, the chief Pacific port, a railway leads over the
West Cordillera, 100 miles, to the important city of Cali. From here
the road branches south 21 miles towards Popayán, and east 16 miles to
Palmira, population 27,000, then north towards Buga, population 13,555,
and Cartago, population 21,500. From Buenaventura, steamboats run up
the San Juan River 140 miles, which with its tributaries has 300 miles
of navigable channels, for boats of 7 or 8 foot draft only, on account
of sandbars at its delta.

From =Tumaco= several steamers ply on the Patía and other rivers to
Barbacoas and other towns for many miles.

Transportation by the tributaries of the Amazon has already been
referred to, and that by the Meta and Orinoco. To Puerto Villamizar
on the Zulia, there is a railway from Cúcuta, 45 miles long. From
this road much traffic of the Department, Santander del Norte, is
transferred to steamers running down the river to Lake Maracaibo in
Venezuela.


OTHER EXISTING RAILWAYS AND PLANS

In connection with the plantation railways, one 60 miles long runs
from Santa Marta to Fundición, from which point a continuation has
been talked of to Banco on the Magdalena, at the mouth of the Cesar
tributary. At present it is thought better to extend the line 30 miles
toward Ariguani, a district with water for banana irrigation, timber,
and good cattle land; and later to Valle de Upar to tap the rich copper
and coal deposits found there.

A plan has been presented by Americans for a railway from Bahia Honda,
an excellent harbor near the end of the Goajira Peninsula, to pass
through good timber and cattle lands and Valle de Upar, ultimately to
reach Bogotá. A branch would go from Tunja to a port opposite Berrío,
and cross roads, from Cúcuta to Tamalameque and from Puerto Wílches
to Bucaramanga. The work requiring six years would be financed by
Americans.

The =Sabana Railways= are of great importance. Besides the railway to
Facatativá, two others lead from Bogotá, one south about 20 miles to
Sibate, one north about 40 miles to Zipaquirá and Nemocón, population
5000. From Zipaquirá, population 10,000, a road is being continued to
Chiquinquirá, population 22,500, in Boyacá, whence it is planned to
carry it down the Carare Valley to the Magdalena. Reaching the river
below La Dorada, handlings of freight will be saved, and the time of
the trip from Barranquilla greatly shortened.

The =Tolima Railway= it is expected to prolong to the Cauca Valley over
the Quindio Pass to Palmira on the Pacific Railway by way of Zarzal
at the foot of the Pass. Bogotá will then be connected by an all rail
route with the Pacific at Buenaventura, a distance of 210 miles.

A contract has been made for a railway, to be completed in 1923, from
Ambalema (Beltrán) to a point on the Tolima Railway, to give Tolima
direct connection with the Lower Magdalena. A railway from Beltrán to
Flandes opposite Girardot is said also to have been arranged for.

A much desired rail connection is from Cúcuta to the Magdalena.
Although a road to the river port, Tamalameque, 265 miles above
Barranquilla, would pass through a dense tropical forest with few
inhabitants save wild Indians, to avoid paying tribute to Venezuela by
bringing the freight of Santander del Norte out by Barranquilla might
prove well worth while; and a new rich forest country might thus be
opened. A cart or motor road is already under construction.

The =Pacific Railway=. Besides the cross country connection from the
Cauca Valley to the Magdalena, it is expected to prolong the existing
road from Buenaventura to Cali, farther down the Cauca Valley to the
Medellín, Amagá, Cauca Railway (Amagá, a city of 10,000), the latter
soon to be completed to the Cauca River; this link with the Magdalena
Valley may be formed first. The Cauca Valley Road now running south
towards Popayán will later be prolonged to Pasto and thence to the
Ecuadorian frontier, there to join the Pan American all rail route,
which may be concluded through Ecuador and Peru before the northern
connection is made through Panamá to Colombia.

Among other railways planned is one from Medellín to Cartagena by way
of Monteria.


ROAD TRANSPORTATION AND BUILDING

Road building in Colombia is only less difficult than railways; hence
few good roads exist. The Central Northern extends 200 miles or more
towards Bucaramanga; as far as Sogamoso, population 16,500, 140 miles,
it is used by automobiles, the best stretch of road in the Republic. A
Northeastern Road extends for some distance. The Carretera de Cambao
leads from that Port on the Magdalena 130 miles to Bogotá, thereby
avoiding the changes by way of La Dorada. A road from Bogotá to Pasto,
the Southern, is partly in use or in construction. From Pasto it is
being continued to Tumaco and may be to Ibarra in Ecuador. A road
with parts in service leads from Pasto by way of Mocoa towards Puerto
Asis on the Putumayo, important for national defense as well as for
the development of the region. A road from Pamplona, an old town,
population 14,000, in Santander del Norte, is partly made towards the
Casanare region. In Antioquia several roads diverge from Medellín.
The Cauca Valley has a few, on one of which from Palmira to Buga auto
service is established. Other roads are in various sections, as the
important highway building from Cúcuta to the Magdalena. Many bridges
have recently been constructed.

Aside from the river traffic by steamers and small boats, the greater
part of travel and transport over this extensive territory is by means
of horses and mules on _caminos_ or bridle paths of varying degrees
of excellence, many of them extremely poor, at times almost or quite
impassable; a few paths are for foot passengers only. The best known
_camino_ is from Ibagué over the Quindio Pass to Cartago in the Cauca
Valley. Another ancient way of great importance is from Neiva across
the _paramos_ of the Central Cordillera to Popayán. A network of these
_caminos_ overspreads the well settled part of the country, the meshes
greatly varying in size.




                              CHAPTER VI

                  COLOMBIA: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES


While the varied sources of Colombia’s wealth have already been
touched upon, some paragraphs follow concerning the different lines of
production and export.


AGRICULTURE

The country has such variation in altitude as well as such fertility of
soil that not only does almost every sort of vegetation thrive within
its borders, but it exists in most of the Departments. An enumeration
of all the localities where the different articles are found would be
needless repetition. Reference will be made, however, to Departments
where certain products are chiefly grown. With proper cultivation and
ample labor food stuffs might be produced to satisfy every requirement,
but many are imported from other countries more easily than they could
be carried from one section of Colombia to another.

=Coffee=, from the commercial and export point of view, is the most
important agricultural product, in quantity coming next to Brazil,
while in quality the coffee by some is considered second only to
Arabian. Preëminent for its culture are the Departments traversed by
the Central and East Cordilleras, especially Cundinamarca, Antioquia,
Caldas, Santander del Norte; also Cauca, El Valle, Tolima, and the
north slope of the Nevada de Santa Marta. In Colombia coffee grows best
at altitudes of 2000-6000 feet, the higher the milder the coffee. At
5000 feet no shade is required, though necessary when first planted
in most places where it is raised. Everywhere coffee seems to prefer
sloping ground. In Cauca, where 720 trees are planted to the acre,
they produce for 50 or 60 years. Coffee from Santander, mostly going
out by way of Maracaibo, is sold under that name. We hardly think of
coffee as a product of the temperate zone, but in Colombia it is so
classed, growing in the same altitudes as temperate fruits, vegetables,
and cereals.

=Bananas= are the most important crop of the lowlands, especially
since the exploitation of the Santa Marta district by the United Fruit
Company. Ninety per cent of the bananas raised in this section are
exported by the company under contract with private growers. Banana
land of the company is well laid out with irrigating canals, managers’
and laborers’ houses, etc. Export has increased enormously. As the
section is watered by five rivers and many brooks, it is especially
favorable for the irrigation needed. The trunks and leaves of the
plant, which might be utilized for cordage, paper, card-board and
textiles, at present go to waste. The cost of clearing and preparing
land for the industry, with 350 trees to the acre, is about $45. Within
two years the annual receipts are $40, largely profits. The Company
owns 28,000 acres of improved land (10,000 devoted to cattle) and
twice as much land unimproved. The bananas are free of export duty and
taxation. The fruit may be grown in all the lowland sections where
irrigation is practicable, which is almost everywhere. Before the War
the Germans near the Gulf of Urabá started a plantation of 12,000
acres, one third of which is under cultivation.

=Plantains= are widely raised for native use, as they form the chief
article of food for the masses in the lower districts. Higher up maize
is the staple. The plantain requires little cultivation, the crops are
heavy, and the plantations last for years. The fruit is eaten either
green or ripe.

=Sugar cane=, grown extensively on the fertile lands of the valleys,
without fertilizer and with occasional hoeing, gives crops of 80 tons
per acre, averaging 40 tons. It flourishes up to 7000 feet. Small
primitive mills are the rule, but a few with modern machinery have
been established, one near Cartagena. A brown sugar is chiefly made
in the small mills, _pantana_, which is palatable and nourishing; but
some is refined for table use and for the chocolate factories. A large
amount of sugar is used for _chicha_ (sugar syrup fermented with corn),
for denatured alcohol, and for _aguardiente_, a kind of rum; the last
is a government monopoly. The sugar production is hardly sufficient for
local needs.

=Tobacco=, which some think equal to the best Havana, is raised, mostly
for local consumption; formerly much was exported to Bremen.

=Cacao= grows wild on thousands of acres, some trees reaching a height
of 45 feet; but to give the best results it must be cultivated. It is
planted for early protection under bananas, together with other trees
which will give shade later. Local demand consumes most of the supply.
Little attention is paid to its cultivation, though the Magdalena and
Cauca Valleys are well adapted to it. Trees 60 years old are found in
bearing.

=Coconut= palms might be more largely cultivated, plantations existing
chiefly on the coast and islands. The fibres and oil are useful and
many nuts are exported.

=Rice= grows freely in rich, hot, irrigated land, but it is not largely
cultivated.

=Cotton= of excellent quality is raised from Egyptian seed on the
Caribbean coast and in Antioquia; it is found growing wild at low
and moderate altitudes all over the country. But little use is made
of it except where factories are near, these promoting its culture.
The plants, perennials, grow 12 feet high. The cotton, unrivalled for
length of fibre, is all used locally.

=Other fibrous plants= are the _Agave Americana_ or century plant,
which is cultivated as a hedge; enough is produced to satisfy most
of the home demand for fibre for ordinary rope and twine, also for
making common packing sacks, and alpargatas, sandals worn by the poorer
people. Here grow ramie and other shrubs, the fibre of which is used
for vegetable silk. Ramie on the Bogotá River yields 6 crops a year
without irrigation, the stems 6 feet long having a very tough fibre.
Most of the Magdalena land could not be better used than for raising
such plants. A recent invention to extract the fibre by a chemical
process makes its culture important. Jute in Colombia on the same soil
as ramie reaches double the height attained in its native country, and
gives two cuttings a year, the first crop three months after planting.

=Wheat= gives good crops on the highlands, and =maize= (corn) grows
everywhere, in the rich lower valleys producing three crops a year.
Potatoes and other vegetables grow in various altitudes.


FORESTRY

The natural wealth of the forests is enormous, though at present
largely inaccessible for lack of transportation facilities, a condition
which might easily be remedied so far as the forests of the Pacific
Coast and of the Atrato and Magdalena Basins are concerned. The chief
products now are rubber and tagua nuts.

The =Rubber= is of both the _caucho_ and the _hevea_ varieties, the
former of inferior quality, procured by cutting down the trees,
the _hevea_ or fine Pará by tapping. The former is obtained by the
Tolimenses from the Rio Negro section, the latter by Indians of Vaupés,
this being sent down to Manaos. Rubber also comes from Chocó, being
collected by Indians and negroes who exchange it for goods at Quibdó,
at places on the San Juan River, also at Barbacoas, back of Tumaco. A
few plantations have been started in the Atrato and Magdalena Valleys
and near Tumaco. Balatá and chicle are also exported.

=Tagua Nuts=, which have only to be picked up, are gathered in the
forests on the Pacific slope and in the Atrato and the Magdalena
Basins, the best quality from the Sogamoso tributary of the latter.
This is called vegetable ivory, from which buttons, etc., are made.

=Timber= of great value exists, a little of which is exported: Colombia
mahogany, cabinet and dye woods; but there are few saw mills, and the
great variety of trees in a small area renders their exploitation
difficult.

=Medicinal plants= are numerous: cinchona, sarsaparilla, ipecac,
balsams, etc. Many other valuable plants abound but are little
exploited.


LIVE STOCK

The =Cattle= raising industry is one of the most favorable for
immediate profit. The best quality of grass is found on the plains
of Magdalena, Bolívar, and Atlántico, where there are large areas of
planted pasture. An acre and a half supports a steer. Pará grass,
native to Brazil, is used on wet or swampy ground and guinea grass
on drier. On the eastern llanos are millions of wild cattle, with
some ranches; but the grass is generally so poor that the cattle are
sometimes brought to the Magdalena Valley to be fattened, though this
is difficult. There are 4,000,000 head in the country with 80,000
annually available for export. Modern packing houses are now being
established with important Government aid. Material and supplies for
construction are exempt from import duties; and outgo for 20 years
from export taxes. With attention to breeding and to good fodder for
fattening the production may rival that of Argentina.

In the Sinú Valley region are said to be 1,000,000-1,500,000 cattle. An
American and Colombian Company holding 75,000-100,000 acres along the
River, with a herd of 40,000 cattle, is now (1921) erecting a packing
house costing $1,750,000 on Morrisquillo Bay, 60 miles from Cartagena.
They expect soon to begin operations, slaughtering 500 head a day.
On account of proximity to the United States, the prices of Colombian
cattle could probably not be equalled here by the countries farther
south. A packing house at Cali may be desirable.

=Other Stock.= Horses. As an absolute necessity on account of the
scarcity of wagon roads, many saddle horses are raised, Andalusian
crossed with Arabian or English. Some saddle horses are imported from
Peru. Mules and donkeys are found in large numbers. Goats are numerous
in all quarters, and sheep are raised on the highlands. There is a
large exportation of hides and skins.


MINING

This is an industry of great promise, the as yet bare scratching of
the surface showing infinite possibilities for the future. Practically
every mineral of commercial value has been found, including the
rarer metals. The lack of proper transportation makes some sections
impracticable and others difficult, but important work has been carried
on in many places; opportunities lie open in many more. Gold is found
in almost all sections, both in quartz veins and in placers. There
is native silver, and some with gold and tin. Platinum ores running
from 80 to 85 per cent are found with gold and other metals. Iron is
widely distributed; also copper; often with gold, tin, and in primitive
rock formation. Manganese, lead, mercury, sulphur, zinc, antimony,
arsenic, nitre, alum, exist, but are not much worked except sulphur,
which is taken from some volcanoes. The working of the salt mines is a
government monopoly, rock salt and springs existing in large numbers.
From the Zipaquirá salt mine in Cundinamarca the Government receives a
revenue of approximately $1,000,000 a year.

=Coal= was first discovered in 1865 near Santa Marta Bay, and
subsequently other deposits. Most important just now are the beds near
Cali, which are thought to be very extensive, and to extend through
the mountains to the Pacific slope. It is said that enough coal could
be mined to supply the neighboring Republics as well as Colombia. The
probable supply is estimated at 27 million tons. The character of
coal in the country varies from lignite to bituminous. A wide vein of
cannel coal leads from the Nevada de Santa Marta towards the Goajira
Peninsula; an anthracite deposit 25 feet thick extends 50 miles north
and south near the Gulf of Urabá. Coal deposits exist for a distance of
300 miles north and south of Bogotá near the East Cordillera, others
in the formation of the Central and West Ranges. One bed near Cali in
places is 22 feet thick. Coal beds in three layers are cut by the Amagá
Railway, and the locomotives are fired on the track.

=Petroleum= exists in quantity indefinite, but hardly to be
overestimated. The great tract of country extending several hundred
miles back from the entire south shore of the Caribbean apparently
contains a collection of oil reservoirs which may exceed in magnitude
those of any other section of the Western Hemisphere. Nowhere else in
the world, it is said, is there so great a display of seepages and of
petroliferous mud volcanoes.

Colombia presents three more or less distinct regions with various
fields in which operations have been conducted; others in which the
surface indications will doubtless incite to careful examination in the
future. The three well known regions are the Caribbean, the Magdalena,
and the Maracaibo; the last two are also spoken of together as the
Magdalena-Santander Field, since an oil belt extends from Venezuela
south-southwest across Santander and the Magdalena River. But as a
mountain range separates the Maracaibo Basin from the Magdalena Valley,
the two are quite distinct.

The Caribbean Region which extends along the coast from Riohacha to the
Gulf of Urabá has 300 or more square miles of supposedly productive
territory. Many American companies have obtained concessions; more than
100 are organized for the exploitation of this and other districts.
So rapidly have sections been taken up that a considerable part of
the coastal tract west of the Magdalena is already occupied. British
interests also have acquired extensive holdings in the Republic.
Emissions of gas occur in many places, this being the first country
in South America where large amounts have been observed. Among the
petroliferous mud volcanoes is the largest known anywhere. In the
Tubara field is a well 3000 feet deep from which enormous quantities of
gas came off. It has been proposed to pipe the gas to Barranquilla for
use in the city.

The Magdalena pool or region extends along the river valley for several
hundred miles. The fields already occupied are mainly on the east
side. In this section the first oil gusher of Colombia was brought in
not far from Barranca Bermeja, about 400 miles south of Barranquilla.
A second well 2270 feet deep shot oil over the derrick several hours
before it could be capped. It was rated at from 2000 to 20,000 barrels
daily. Steady flow is estimated at 6000 to 8000 barrels daily. The oil,
which is dark with some asphalt, gives about 30 per cent gasoline,
6 of kerosene, 20 lubricating oil, and 12 asphalt. A pipe line and
wagon road are being constructed from the three wells drilled near the
Colorado River 35 miles to Barranca Bermeja where a refinery has been
erected. It is said that this is to supply Colombia with gasoline,
kerosene, and lubricants at prices not above those of New York. The
use of residual fuel oil on the river steamers will greatly facilitate
their operation. It is likely that a larger refinery will be erected at
Cartagena or as rumored on an island at the mouth of the Magdalena, but
the cost of reported pipe lines 300 or 400 miles long in this region
would be prohibitive. Tank steamers will well serve the purpose.

Higher up the river near Honda is the Tolima field where live seepages
occur and a well has been drilled. [Many locations have been secured
in a stretch of several hundred miles along the valley.] This field
includes the upper Magdalena Basin, with which are classed the
groups on the edge of the San Martín and Casanare plains east of the
Cordillera. In the Orinoco Basin oil has been seen floating on the
surface of the rivers.

The Maracaibo Basin, which is chiefly in Venezuela, has a section
running over into Colombia where the Barco concession is located. An
area of more than a million acres is occupied by an American company.
Here oil seepages include some wonderful springs. Oil from one of these
runs a small refinery which produces 25 barrels a day. The oil with a
loss of only 1.1 per cent is said essentially to match the high grade
Pennsylvania oil, selling for $4.00 a barrel at the well. Wells were
first drilled on the Venezuelan side of the Rio de Oro, tributary to
the Catatumbo; later on the Colombian side.

There is further a Pacific district extending north and south from
Buenaventura a distance of 60 or 70 miles, from Quibdó on the Atrato
to Cali on the Cauca with a small section on the coast. The probable
productive area is 18 miles but none is proved.

The location of these extensive deposits, many within 200 miles of
tide water, is of prime importance to the commercial world, especially
because of their proximity to the Panamá Canal, soon to be one of the
great shipping routes of the world. Moreover the port of Cartagena,
which already has several refineries and will serve as the chief depot
of export and supplies, is nearer to New York than is Tampico by 400
miles, than Galveston, Texas, by 50 miles. It is also much nearer
to London, to Panamá, and to our own Pacific Coast. Clearly, the
development of the petroleum deposits of Colombia is of the greatest
interest and importance to the United States. It is believed that its
oil fields will equal or surpass those of Peru.

=Platinum.= At the moment the greatest mining wealth is in gold, with a
good bit in platinum. Over $2,000,000 worth of the latter was exported
in 1917. Platinum, usually with gold, is found in rivers near the
Pacific: the Atrato, Condoto, Platina, and San Juan. Operations have
been carried on in several districts. The concessions of an American
company include a tract on the San Juan and one on its tributary
Condoto and its branches, with holdings north and east of the river
deposits. By means of a small wood burning dredge with annual capacity
of but 250,000 cubic yards, about $600,000 worth of platinum was
obtained in 1918 when the Government price was fixed at $105 an ounce.
With a second and larger dredge now operating and a third expected
soon, much greater production will be realized. In 1920 the value
fluctuated from $70 to $165 an ounce. In June, 1921, it was $75. The
value of the two tracts is estimated at $52,000,000 at the former
Government price. Costs are little greater than in the California and
New Zealand fields, and with suitable precautions taken in the way of
drainage, mosquito netting, etc., as at Panamá, and with good medical
attendance, health conditions have been made about the same as on the
Isthmus. Extraordinary platinum values have been shown; the gravel
handled in 1918 furnishing $2.50 gold and platinum per cubic yard. The
extensive use of platinum in dental work, in jewelry, and for important
though limited service in certain manufactures, in sheet, wire, and
granulated form, indicates an annual need of 165,000 ounces in the
United States alone. A unique opportunity is offered in Colombia for
the production of this valuable metal.

=Gold.= The gold of the Chocó placers has been widely known since
the Spanish Conquest. Four hundred million dollars was taken by the
Castilians from shallow waters and easily worked river banks. In recent
years a number of companies have been operating. The Pato mines cover
40,000 acres near Zaragoza, population 2700, Antioquia, where a dredge
is operated. At the Nechi mines the dredging cost is 9 cents a yard,
the return about 75 cents. In Antioquia there are 20 rivers with
gold alluvium, but operations are chiefly on the Cauca, Nechi, Pato,
and Porce. The bench gravel is very deep and can be worked profitably
(except at times by the natives) only with machinery, as is the case
generally. Therefore considerable capital is necessary for a successful
enterprise. More than 12,000 gold bearing sites are known in Antioquia;
many in Nariño, Caldas, El Valle, Tolima and Chocó. The gold production
in Colombia since the Conquest is estimated as above $600,000,000 and
that of silver as $30,000,000.

=Emeralds.= The most famous mining industry of the country is emeralds;
for nowhere else are they produced in quantity and here are the best.
The mines were worked long before the coming of the Spaniards, and
the actual labor has been performed by the Indians ever since. The
mining has been a Government monopoly. The area is a region of 4000
square miles, but the only mine recently operated is the Muzo, 92
miles northwest of Bogotá. It is now worked by the open system though
formerly by tunnel. The workers live on the ground in buildings
provided for the men and officers, with police to prevent thieving.
Present operations are in almost vertical cliffs rising from 100 to
550 feet above small valleys. The loose soil is not removed by water,
as is stated elsewhere; the emeralds are separated from the soil by a
dry method; water is used to carry away the detritus and also to wash
the residue left by material from rotten veins in order to expose small
emerald crystals. The output in normal years approaches 800,000 carats.
No attempt should be made to obtain a possible concession without
thorough investigation and ample capital. The same may well be said of
any mining venture. A concession for emerald mining has been secured by
an American company.


OTHER INDUSTRIES

=Manufacturing= is fostered by high duties on many goods; further
by concessions such as exemption from taxes, land grants, or money,
to persons establishing factories. In return the goods must be sold
lower than those imported. Some large business firms finance other
enterprises such as coffee and factories. Of manufactures textiles are
the most important. In Barranquilla there are 200 British electric
looms run by boys and women; British yarns are imported and worked
up into domestics and drills; there are other factories at Bogotá,
Cartagena, Medellín, and two for fine woolen cloth at Bogotá. Some
cotton spinning is done; two new spinning mills in Barranquilla each
have 2500 spindles. In cottages are many looms for the spinning of
wool, in which the Indians are very proficient.

In one place or another are factories of almost every kind: silk,
flour, chocolate, matches, shoes, tanneries, ice, mineral waters,
breweries, tiles, iron and steel, glass, candles, soap, etc. Bogotá has
the largest number of factories, about 40, Medellín the next; others
are well scattered over the country. Few do much more than supply local
wants, partly on account of the difficulties of transportation.

=Export.= The only manufactured product important in export is _Panamá
hats_. The principal centers of the industry are Antioquia, Nariño,
Huila, and Santander Sur. The hats are made of _toquilla_ palm, the
young leaves of which are cut off, split into thin strips by a small
wooden knife, spread out in the sun to dry, and then woven. The hats
are not made under water, but the straw must be kept very damp to avoid
breaks and splits; so weavers sometimes go into damp caves. Near Pasto,
Nariño, hats are made almost equal in fineness to those of Montecristi,
Ecuador. The industry has a bright future unless Japan by cheaper labor
drives the South American product from the market. To prevent this the
export of raw straw may be forbidden.


INVESTMENTS

Colombia obviously offers a wide and varied field for investments,
but like the other South American Republics, on account of low wages,
it presents no opportunities favorable to ordinary laborers unless in
agriculture. An immigrant may receive a free grant of land of 6175
acres, which he must within ten years cultivate over one third of the
area; or if cattle lands, two thirds must be occupied.

Various forms of agriculture may be attractive to persons of moderate
capital: sugar cane, bananas, coffee, cacao, cotton, fruits, etc., as
also agave or other fibre material. Tagua groves in _baldíos_ may be
exploited.

Discoverers of mines in _baldíos_, Government lands, have a
preferential right to 1250 acres of land adjoining the mines denounced.
The abundance of water power is of great value to investors of every
kind, being equally important for mining, factories, and agriculture.

Factories on account of high tariffs make excellent profits. Cattle
and sheep raising offer good prospects. Public works including
drainage, water supply, sewers, road and railway construction, bridges,
and development of electric power should afford many and varied
opportunities.




                              CHAPTER VII

        VENEZUELA: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.


East of Colombia is the only other Republic on the north coast of South
America, Venezuela.


AREA, POPULATION, BOUNDARY

=Area.= Next to Colombia in position, Venezuela is also next in size.
Sixth of the South American Republics in area, her territory covers
about 394,000 square miles, equal to that of California, Arizona, and
New Mexico.

=Population.= With approximately 3,000,000 inhabitants, Venezuela is
entitled to the same rank in population, for though Chile with smaller
area surpasses her in this respect, Bolivia with greater extent of
territory probably has fewer inhabitants. As neither country has
accurate statistics to consult there is some uncertainty about the
matter.

=Boundary.= Venezuela is irregular in outline, but in general her
boundary is as follows. The Caribbean Sea is on the north, the Atlantic
northeast, British Guiana east; also a part of Brazil is east of a
southern projection of Venezuela; Brazil is on the south, with Colombia
also south of a western projection; Colombia alone is on the west.


HISTORY

The land of Venezuela was sighted by Columbus in 1498; in 1499 it was
explored to some extent by Alonzo de Ojeda, who gave the country its
name (Little Venice), the Indian dwellings on piles in Lake Maracaibo
reminding him of the famous Italian city. Settlements were made
early in the 16th century, the first especially for the sake of the
rich pearl fisheries. On account of the bad faith and cruelty of the
Spaniards and the warlike spirit of the natives, many disorders and
atrocities occurred, accompanied by quarrels among the Spaniards
themselves.

In 1810 the citizens of Caracas deposed the Governor; the following
year independence was declared, but it was not secured until the
Royalists were defeated in the battle of Boyacá in 1819. The Great
Colombian Republic was then formed by General Bolívar, though the last
royalist adherents did not give up until 1823. Venezuela withdrew from
the Union in 1830; the hero and patriot Bolívar died the same year.
Many internal difficulties and changes of government have characterized
the period of independence, though comparative quiet has succeeded the
exit of Castro in 1909.


GOVERNMENT

In contrast with Colombia, the Republic is a federal and not a
centralized union. It has the usual three branches: a President with
his Cabinet forms the Executive Department; there are two Houses of
Congress; also a Supreme Court.

The twenty States have each a President and a Legislature, a Supreme
and other Courts. The two Territories and the Federal District are
administered by Governors appointed by the President, who is elected
for seven years.

The names of the States and of their capitals follow, with their
populations estimated, as until recently no census had been taken
since 1897. The new figures (December, 1921) are received only for the
Territories. The Coastal States beginning at the northwest are Zulia,
Falcón, Yaracuy, Carabobo, Aragua, the Federal District, Miranda,
Anzoátegui, Sucre, Monagas. Anzoátegui and Monagas are also Llano
States, with Guárico, Cojedes, Portuguesa, Zamora, and Apure. Táchira,
Mérida, and Trujillo are Mountain States; Lara, north of Trujillo,
almost comes into the coast region. Nueva Esparta is an Island State.
Bolívar, south of the Orinoco, lies between the two Territories, Delta
Amacuro and Amazonas.

-----------------+----------+-----------------+----------+------------
      STATES     |POPULATION|    CAPITALS     |POPULATION| ALTITUDES,
                 |          |                 |          | in Feet
-----------------+----------+-----------------+----------+------------
Zulia            | 185,000  | Maracaibo       |  50,000  |    20
Falcón           | 170,000  | Coro            |  20,000  |
Yaracuy          | 103,000  | San Felipe      |  15,000  |   808
Carabobo         | 200,000  | Valencia        |  60,000  | 1,577
Aragua           | 115,000  | Maracay         |  15,000  | 1,463
Federal District | 137,000  | Caracas         | 100,000  | 3,036
Miranda          | 173,000  | Ocumare del Tuy |  10,000  |   693
Anzoátegui       | 162,000  | Barcelona       |  16,000  |    43
Sucre            | 117,000  | Cumaná          |  15,000  |
Monagas          |  90,000  | Maturín         |  16,000  |   244
Guárico          | 221,000  | Calabozo        |  10,000  |   330
Cojedes          |  75,000  | San Carlos      |  12,000  |   495
Portuguesa       | 115,000  | Guanare         |  11,000  |   636
Zamora           |  75,000  | Barinas         |   7,000  |   594
Apure            |  30,000  | San Fernando    |   8,000  |   240
Táchira          | 133,000  | San Cristóbal   |  17,000  | 2,722
Mérida           | 115,000  | Mérida          |  15,000  | 5,415
Trujillo         | 184,000  | Trujillo        |  12,000  | 2,640
Lara             | 231,000  | Barquisimeto    |  35,000  | 1,868
Nueva Esparta    |  60,000  | La Ascunción    |   3,000  |   356
Bolívar          |  70,000  | Ciudad Bolívar  |  20,000  |   125
  TERRITORIES    |          |                 |
Delta Amacuro    |  12,258  | Tucupita        |   1,000  |  [A]
Amazonas         |   3,298  | San Fernando de |          |
                 |          |   Atabapo       |     400  |  [A]
-----------------+----------+-----------------+----------+------------

[A] Figures for the area of the States and others omitted are
unavailable.


POPULATION

The number of inhabitants, estimated as a trifle less than 3,000,000,
is about seven to a square mile. Seventy per cent of the people are
called poor, hence with a rather small purchasing power. The Federal
District has about 15 persons to the mile, the density in general
decreasing in proportion to the distance from the capital. The Guayana
region, the Delta, and Apure, supposed to have less than half a person
to a mile, are among the least populated regions of the globe.

The white population is ranked as about 10 per cent of the whole, the
mestizos, those of mixed race, as 70 per cent; the rest are Africans,
Indians, and foreigners. About ³⁄₄ of a million live in 48 towns;
75,000 are engaged in agriculture. In most of the cities are people
accustomed to European society, with a taste for European luxuries,
as well as those of simpler habits and desires. As in Colombia, the
requirements of those who live high on the mountains and those on
the llanos are very different. Attractive inducements are offered to
immigrants for colonization.

The Indians are of many tribes, some quite distinct from the others.
As a small part of the Goajira Peninsula is in Venezuela, there are
Goajiros like those in Colombia. A large proportion of the aborigines
became mingled with the Spaniards; in the mountainous sections of the
north live few Indians of pure blood. In the region of the Delta and
in the southern part of the country are many Indians of at least 16
tribes; some are dirty and stupid, others intelligent and fierce; some
are good workers and boatmen, others are timid and agricultural. The
Arawaks are gentle, industrious, and clean.


EDUCATION

Venezuela’s percentage of illiteracy has been high, but since 1912 the
system of education has been reorganized. The National Government has
established in the principal cities primary schools with six grades.
Attendance at four of these since 1919 is compulsory. The teaching of
English was then ordered. In the various capitals are 22 colegios (high
schools), several cities having also Commercial Schools, Schools of
Fine Arts, and of Arts and Trades.

There are Universities in Caracas and in Mérida, with Schools of Law,
Medicine, Philosophy and Letters, Engineering, Dentistry, Pharmacy, and
Theology.

States and Municipalities make additional provision.


PRESS, RELIGION, ETC.

=The Press= includes official gazettes in the capitals of the States,
and other periodicals devoted to scientific, literary, and other
special subjects.

=Religion.= There is freedom in religion; the State, however,
contributes to the Roman Catholic Church. Civil marriage alone is
legal; the religious ceremony generally follows, although in the rural
districts, where priests are scarce and the fees high, both ceremonies
are often omitted. Divorce is now permissible.

Venezuela belongs to the Postal Union and has parcel post; but service
to the interior is rather primitive.

The =Telegraph= service, with about 6000 miles of wire, is cheap and
called efficient; the telephone lines have double their length of
wire. At Caracas, Maracaibo, and Maracay there are wireless stations
communicating with Curaçao and so with the outside world. There is also
cable service.

=Money= is in gold, silver, and nickel coins, and there are bank notes
issued by four banks. The bolívar is the unit of money, equal to the
French franc: 19.3 cents. A dollar passes for 5 bolívars. American
money circulates near the coast, as does the English sovereign. The
natives frequently use the term peso for which they employ the $ sign.
As the peso equals but 4 bolívars this creates confusion and mistakes
must be guarded against.

The =Metric System= is official, compulsory, and in general use.




                             CHAPTER VIII

                  VENEZUELA: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS


The configuration of Venezuela is simpler than that of Colombia; the
country has four distinct sections:

First, a mountain region including the Venezuelan Andes, which is a
branch of the East Cordillera of Colombia; and a range called the
Maritime Andes extending along the coast.

Second, lying east and south of the mountains, the great plain of the
llanos occupying a large part of the Orinoco Basin.

Third, the Guiana or Guayana Highlands south of the Orinoco, extending
to the eastern and southern boundaries and occupying a great extent of
unexplored territory.

Fourth, the coastal plain around Lake Maracaibo.


FIRST SECTION

The Andes coming in from Colombia cross the northwestern portion of
Venezuela in two or more ranges, separating the great Orinoco Basin
from the lowlands lying between this chain and that part of the
Colombian East Cordillera called the Sierra de Perija. A number of the
mountains are above 13,000 feet, the highest, La Columna, is 16,522
feet. Though none of the mountains are volcanoes, earthquakes are
common. The general height of the range decreases on the south towards
Colombia, and north towards the Caribbean Sea, till at one point at the
north, near where the city of Barquisimeto is located in the valley
between the two ranges, the Rio Cojedes goes through to the Orinoco
Basin. Beyond the Cojedes River the Maritime Andes stretch along the
coast in two parallel ranges, the high valley between them being the
most densely populated part of the country. The peak above Caracas,
called the Silla de Caracas, one of the highest of this section, has an
altitude of 8650 feet; Naiguatá passes 9000. After a considerable break
at Cape Codera the mountains continue to the Gulf of Paria.

The western branch of the Venezuelan Andes, turning north, continues
towards the coast in low ranges called the Segovia Highlands, with the
Maracaibo district on the west.


SECOND SECTION

East and south of this mountainous country is the vast region, thinly
populated and not well known, of the great Orinoco Basin, occupying
three fourths of the country; first come the llanos, followed by a
forested district, with hilly, mountainous country beyond. The llanos,
covering 87,000 square miles on the north side of the great river, are
grassy plains broken by islands of trees. Near the mountains north
and west are extensive forests. The llanos are of slightly varying
altitude, in parts rising imperceptibly, but often by terraces or banks
a few feet high. In the western section there are large tracts in the
Portuguesa Valley but 300 feet above the sea; in other places the land
rises to 650 feet, and to a still greater height on the mesas which
form the watershed between the Orinoco and the rivers Unare and Aragua
flowing into the Caribbean Sea.


THIRD SECTION

South and east of the Orinoco River are the Guiana Highlands, said to
cover 200,000 square miles, for the most part a plateau 1000 feet and
upwards in elevation, from which rise several mountain chains connected
by lower hills, the Parime Range separating the Orinoco and Amazon
Basins. A few peaks rise 8000 feet; the highest known is Mt. Roraima,
8500 feet, at the southeast corner, where the boundaries of British
Guiana, Brazil, and Venezuela come together.


FOURTH SECTION

This region, much smaller, occupies the northwest part of the Republic,
which may be considered as a coastal plain. It includes the alluvial
area around Lake Maracaibo, the Coro and the Paraguana lowlands, with
open sandy hills extending along the shore of the Gulf of Venezuela
to the end of the Paraguana Peninsula, and some islands of the same
character.

The Lake district is somewhat similar to the Orinoco Delta, with many
rivers coming in at the south, and with open lagoons and swamps; it
is bordered by dense forests often inundated by rains. East and west
towards the north between the swamps are higher lands with some grassy
plains. At the west is the Sierra de Perija on the Colombian frontier.


RIVERS AND LAKES

Venezuela is said to have 72 large and more or less navigable rivers,
of which the Orinoco is the chief. Its length, variously stated, may be
1570 miles and the area of its basin 370,000 square miles.

The =Orinoco=, rising near the Brazilian boundary, first flows
northwest, then northerly forming the boundary line with Colombia, and
from the entrance of the Meta River, northeast and east to the Atlantic
Ocean. Its low forested delta covers 8500 square miles. Boca de Navios,
the largest mouth, is 20 miles wide with a depth of 17 feet at the bar.
Among the 400 or more tributaries the most important are the Caroni,
the Caura, and the Ventuari, draining the mountainous and forested
section at the south; and the Guaviare, Vichada, Meta, and Apure
coming in from the west, the first three from Colombia. The Casiquiare,
previously mentioned, connects the Orinoco with the Rio Negro.

Among other rivers of importance are the Catatumbo and the Escalante
flowing into Lake Maracaibo and the Tocuyo into the Caribbean.

Among the 205 lakes, Maracaibo, covering 8392 square miles, is
obviously the largest and most important. Other lakes are Valencia,
Zulia, Laguneta, and Camaguán, but many of the 200 are mere shallow
lagoons which serve as breeding places for mosquitoes.


CLIMATE

As might be expected, the climate of the country is similar to that
of Colombia, with corresponding variations for altitude: tropical to
about 2000 feet; above that to 7000 temperate; still higher, cold, with
mean annual temperatures ranging from 60° to zero or less on the high
mountains. The hot region, _tierra caliente_, includes the coastal
plains with the Maracaibo district, the llanos, a large part of the
Guayana Highlands, and a few of the lower mountain valleys. The islands
are the coolest, the llanos the warmest part of the tropical region;
the hottest section of the latter is south and west, the farthest
from the sea. Along the coast the temperature ranges from 64°-68°
to 93°-95°. The temperate region includes the most thickly settled
sections at moderate elevation, while the cold mountain heights have
comparatively few inhabitants. On the llanos the dry season is from
November to May, or June, the rainy following to November. The coast
has two rainy seasons, December and January, and April to July. The
Orinoco Delta and parts of the Guiana section are the most unhealthful;
the lowest death rate, rather strangely, is in the cities of the
llanos, the next lowest in the regions of the Andes and the Caribbean
Mountains.




                              CHAPTER IX

         VENEZUELA: CAPITAL, STATES, TERRITORIES, CHIEF CITIES


THE CAPITAL

=Caracas=, the capital of the Republic, founded in 1567, is a very
attractive city with a delightful climate. Only occasionally does the
temperature go below 60° or above 80°. Eight miles in a straight line
from its port, La Guaira, from which it is 23 miles by rail, the city
is at an altitude of 3036 feet on the south side of the outer Coast
Cordillera. The city is in the usual Spanish American style, with
beautiful plazas and promenades. Exceptionally, the streets, which are
at right angles, are numbered instead of named, but the old names are
in general use. Notable buildings are the Capitol covering more than
two acres, the Miraflores Palace, the Cathedral, University, National
Pantheon, Masonic Temple, called the best in South America, a beautiful
theatre, etc. A fine view is had from the hill Calvario, 200 feet
above, the slopes of which are arranged as a public garden. Caracas is
up to date in modern conveniences, water supply, street cars, etc.,
and has a good and cheap cab service. The city is near the west end
of a rich valley 12 miles long and 3 wide, which slopes towards the
southeast. The Guaire River below the city flows into the Rio Tuy.


INDIVIDUAL STATES

The COASTAL STATES follow with the Island State, and Lara, which is
neither coast, llano, nor mountain, though having some hills. The coast
line extends over 1800 miles.

=Zulia=, the large State (23,000 square miles) occupying the northwest
corner of the Republic, has Colombia on the west and northwest, the
Gulf of Venezuela northeast, Falcón, Lara, and Trujillo east, and
Mérida with a little of Táchira south. This State, of which Maracaibo
is the capital, is one of the wealthiest in the Republic, though still
sparsely inhabited. The Maracaibo Plain, the most conspicuous and
important section occupying the greater portion of the State, lies
between the two great branches of the East Cordillera. The lake itself
is a sheet of water about 150 miles long and half as wide, the water
sweet in the southern half of the lake, but brackish towards the north.
The precipitation in this district amounts to 70 inches annually. Thus
an enormous amount of fresh water from the Cordillera is continually
entering the lake through its various affluents; of these the Catatumbo
with its tributary Zulia, and the Escalante, are navigable for
steamboats. The lake has a depth of 30 feet and is served by several
lines of steamers as well as by sailing craft. A few small towns on the
lake receive agricultural products from their vicinity; along the shore
cacao is cultivated with great profit. There is a fine goat farming
district; fishing is carried on; there are many settlements of Indians
inhabiting huts on piles in the lake in the ancient fashion. North of
the city, Maracaibo, are _salinas_ or salt deposits, from which several
thousand tons are taken annually. Southwest of Maracaibo, a peculiar
tree is found in the forest, the _arbol de vaca_, or _palo de leche_,
the sap of which, though slightly thicker, may be used in every way as
cow’s milk. In the forests are valuable timber, useful creepers, and
trees which furnish various gums or resins. Around the lake are found
outcrops of coal, also petroleum and asphalt.

[Illustration: COLOMBIA, VENEZUELA, GUIANA, ECUADOR, NORTH BRAZIL]

The capital city, Maracaibo, is a busy place, and prosperous. With
some good buildings, and other ordinary requirements, it is in need
of better paving, a suitable drainage system, and a good water
supply, in order to lower its high death rate and to measure up to its
favorable location, although this may be called hot.

=Falcón=, east of Zulia, extends along the coast of the Gulf of
Venezuela (also called Maracaibo) past the Paraguana Peninsula, which
it includes, and around to the east, so far that the next coast State,
Yaracuy, is on the south together with the State of Lara farther west;
these three States include the Segovian Highlands; the first two, coast
lands also. This section is the oldest part of Venezuela except for the
town of Cumaná.

An immensely profitable industry here followed is the raising of
goats, which feed on the cactus plains. The extensive coal deposits
and _salinas_ count for little in comparison. The northern part of
the State is rather barren, but the highlands at the south are forest
clad, with fertile valleys raising a variety of agricultural products,
chiefly for home consumption. There is one considerable river, the
Tocuyo, several hundred miles long, which rises in the mountains of
Lara, flows north, then east through Yaracuy and Falcón to the sea.
With many affluents, the two of importance are the Carora and the
Baragua on the left. The Rio Tocuyo comes down through a long valley,
while many short rivers rising on the outer range descend rapidly to
the sea. The situation is excellent for the cultivation of _cocuiza_
and other aloes from which sacks and hammocks are now being made. Other
industries are soap making and cigarettes; in some sections excellent
tobacco is raised.

Coro, the capital of Falcón, the second oldest town in the Republic,
contains the first cathedral in the new world. Located on the plains at
the base of the Paraguana Peninsula, it is 8 miles from its seaport La
Vela and 200 miles west of Caracas.

The important port Tucacas is at the mouth of the Tocuyo River.

The Dutch island, Curaçao, lies not far off the coast, with which it
has close connection; some smuggling is said to be carried on.

=Yaracuy=, a small State with a very short coastal strip, is between
Falcón on the north and Carabobo southeast, with Lara southwest. It is
noted for its copper mines at Aroa.

Besides the capital, San Felipe, where a cloth factory has lately been
organized, the chief towns are Nirgua, population 3000, at the south,
amid fertile plains with varied agricultural products, and Yaritagua 20
miles west, where good tobacco is raised, as well as sugar and coffee
which grow everywhere.

=Lara=, an interior State, borders on Falcón, Yaracuy, Cojedas,
Portuguesa, Trujillo, finishing with Zulia on the west. Besides the
usual agricultural products, there is fibre from aloes, employed in
manufacturing sacks, hammocks, and bridles, for which Barquisimeto is
noted. The fertile hills and slopes, many now undeveloped, the virgin
forests of valuable timber, with areas where petroleum is indicated,
will receive attention now that better transportation is afforded.

Barquisimeto, the capital, 2000 feet above the sea, and 90 miles from
Puerto Cabello, is the most important city of this section, a centre of
traffic for the northern Andes region as well as for the State of Lara.

       *       *       *       *       *

East of the Segovia Highlands are the States belonging to the _Centro_,
the section near and including the Federal District. These are
Carabobo, Aragua, and Miranda.

=Carabobo=, east of Yaracuy, has a considerable coast line, with
Aragua east, and Guárico and Cojedes south. Carabobo, like the states
following, is traversed by the Maritime Andes, having fertile valleys
between the two ranges. At the south are grassy plains pasturing large
herds of cattle. There is virgin territory with forest products of wild
rubber, timber, and dye woods; to the east the country is more thickly
settled. The state has many agricultural and pastoral products, with
marble quarries in the hills. Near Guacara 200,000 plants of sisal hemp
are cultivated, here harvested in three years (usually in four), and
said to be superior to the best in Mexico.

Valencia, the capital, is a pleasant city, well situated in a beautiful
and fertile valley, much of which is occupied by Lake Valencia 30
miles long, with a steamboat service. Having an altitude of 1600 feet
the city has a mild climate and enterprising inhabitants. The state
contains the best port in the Republic, Puerto Cabello, linked by rail
with the capital, which has another railway connecting it with Caracas.
A small seaport, Ocumare de la Costa, is celebrated for the excellence
of the cacao grown in the vicinity.

=Aragua= stretches from the coast down to the southeast between
Carabobo and Miranda, with Guárico south. In the state is the east
end of Lake Valencia, near which is the important town of Maracay,
population 6000, in the midst of rich grazing land with pará grass;
a splendid farming and stock raising country, its dairies produce a
famous cream cheese. Goats, and excellent swine for the tropics are
also raised. 15 miles south of Maracay stands Villa de Cura, in the
main pass across the inner range to the llanos. Here are many big
ranches, the altitude being less than 2000 feet.

La Victoria,[4] the capital, on the Aragua River and also on the
Valencia-Caracas Railway, is 19 miles east of Maracay and 53 miles from
Caracas. It is a prosperous town with small factories of various kinds.

[4] Very recently Maracay has been made the capital.

=The Federal District= comprises a long stretch of coast land with
the port, La Guaira, as well as a fertile valley with fine gardens of
luscious fruits, and coffee and sugar plantations. Some of the coffee
trees are said to yield as much as 20 pounds annually, which seems a
large story; it is probably two.

=Miranda=, south of the Federal District, has a long strip of coast
land farther east. Anzoátegui is southeast, Guárico south, and Aragua
west.

Ocumare del Tuy, the capital, about south of Caracas, is on the Rio
Tuy, into which the Guaire flows at Santa Teresa. The broad Tuy valley,
here and easterly towards the coast, is full of sugar cane and cacao.
To Guapo farther east come hides and other animal products from the
llanos as well as rich agricultural produce from the vicinity. Rio
Chico, a town near the coast, is a flourishing manufacturing place.

=Anzoátegui=, east both of Miranda and Guárico, is a very large
State with a moderate coast line, but with a deep and wider interior
extending down to the Orinoco and Bolívar; the coast State of Sucre and
a long stretch of Monagas are on the east. In Anzoátegui the llanos
come up to the sea, though the mountains begin again in Sucre.

Barcelona, the capital, is quite a town by the sea, three miles up the
Neveri River, but it makes use of the port, Guanta, 12 miles distant.
Coal mines are near, owned and operated by Venezuelans, of which
fact they are proud, as many of the industries are in the hands of
foreigners. Coffee and animal products are exported.

=Sucre=, occupying the northeast corner of the Republic, is the last
State on the Caribbean; having the sea west, north, and east, and the
States of Monagas and Anzoátegui south. Here again we find the double
range of the Caribbean Hills extending across the State.

Cumaná, the capital, dating from 1513, is the oldest European
settlement on the continent; it was the birthplace of the celebrated
patriot, Antonio José de Sucre. The city is on the south side and at
the entrance of the Gulf of Cariaco, an arm of the sea 50 miles long
and 6-7 wide, which extends east and west, separated from the sea by
the narrow peninsula, Araya. In colonial days rich and prosperous, the
town, population 12,000, has now less than half as many inhabitants;
twice it has been destroyed by earthquakes. The neighborhood is famous
for its fine fruits, especially grapes, pineapples, and mangoes. The
usual products are brought from the interior for export. The waters of
the eastern, the inner end of the gulf, are covered with a variety of
wild fowls, caught by the peasants for their plumage; formerly killed
by drowning, the men diving with them under water. Slaughter of birds
for their egrets is now prohibited, other methods for taking the plumes
being practicable. On the west end of the peninsula are extensive
salinas, exporting 6000 tons of salt yearly; on the south are oil
springs.

In this State is the port Carúpano, a city of 11,000, half way between
the peninsulas, Araya and Paria, each a long point of land, the latter
together with the Island of Trinidad forming the broad Gulf of Paria.
Between the Paria Peninsula and Trinidad, celebrated for its pitch lake
100 acres in area, is the Bocas del Drago (Dragon’s Mouths) named by
Columbus, through which ships from the north or south pass to the Port
of Spain, Trinidad, and to other points on the Gulf, though for some
the way is nearer through the Serpent’s Mouth, the southern entrance
to the Gulf. Near the extremity of the finely wooded, mountainous
Peninsula of Paria is Cristóbal Colon, the most easterly port of
Venezuela, opposite the Orinoco Delta. Castro attempted to make this a
rival of the Port of Spain, but the roadstead is so poor that the money
was expended to little purpose. In Sucre a little north of the San Juan
River and near Guanoco is the great Bermudez Asphalt Lake ten times the
size of the better known Trinidad.

=Nueva Esparta=, the Island State, comprises the larger Margarita, 20
miles off shore, the smaller Cubagua, Coche half way between, and other
smaller islands. Once famous for its pearl fisheries which are still in
operation, the present production of ordinary fish, and from Coche of
salt is of equal importance.

La Asunción, the capital, founded in 1524, is in a valley at the east
end of Margarita, with a port, Pampatar, at which some European liners
call.


LLANO STATES

=Monagas=, south of Sucre and east of Anzoátegui, is a large State,
having at the east a small shore on the Gulf of Paria with the
Delta-Amacuro Territory below; on the south is the State of Bolívar.

Maturín, the capital, population 16,000, a cheerful, healthful place
with the remarkably low death rate of 12 per 1000, is on the Rio
Guarapiche, which flows into the Gulf. This, the most eastern state of
the llanos, has probably the pleasantest part around Maturín, where the
grassy plain is well supplied with streams having deep cut channels
and well wooded banks. The climate too is agreeable. The State, well
watered and wooded, its forests near the northern hills, is chiefly a
cattle country; the owners live mostly in small towns or villages near
the streams, but some in single, primitive cottages or huts. A hammock
must be carried by the traveler, though food may be procured.

=Anzoátegui=, a coast State as well as a llano, has already been
described.

=Guárico=, a very large State west of Anzoátegui and north of Bolívar
and Apure, is south of Miranda and Aragua, and has Cojedes and Zamora
west.

Calabozo, population 10,000, the capital and chief city, 125 miles
southwest of Caracas, is a hot place, but in a good grazing country.
The neighborhood is noted for electric eels.

=Cojedes=, a smaller State west of Guárico, borders on Carabobo,
Yaracuy, Lara, Portuguesa, and Zamora.

San Carlos, the capital, is said to be less flourishing than formerly.

=Portuguesa=, southwest of Cojedes, borders also on Lara, Trujillo, and
Zamora.

Near Guanare, the capital, coffee and cacao are cultivated as well as
the cattle industry.

=Zamora=, also west of Guárico, borders north, west, and south on
Cojedes, Portuguesa, the mountain States of Mérida and Táchira, and
Apure.

Barinas, the capital, is not very prosperous. Formerly there was here a
flourishing tobacco district.

=Apure=, farther south than the other llano States, is west of Bolívar;
with Guárico, Cojedes, Zamora, on the north, and a bit of Táchira at
the west; it has Colombia for a long distance on its southern boundary.

San Fernando, the capital, with a mean annual temperature of 91°, and
Calabozo, are distinguished as the two hottest places in the country.


THE ANDINE STATES

These have been called attractive and interesting, but lacking good
means of locomotion have been little visited. Residents, perhaps
returning from Europe, have been obliged to ride several days on
muleback to reach their homes. Clean, pleasant towns, fine climate and
scenery, mineral wealth, rich forest lands on the upper slopes of the
mountains, people hospitable and energetic, characterize the three
States, but with poor facilities for travel progress was impossible.
Improvement has now begun in this direction, as the need is realized.

=Táchira=, the most southern of these States, has Zulia and Mérida
north, Zamora and Apure east, and Colombia south and west.

San Cristóbal, the capital, at an altitude of 3000 feet is a
considerable commercial town. With roads from the llanos, by which
cattle are brought, and others, to San Antonio on the Colombian
frontier, to Uracá, terminus of the Táchira Railway from Encontrados,
and to Mérida, it is evidently quite a centre of trade.

=Mérida=, preëminently the Mountain State, borders on Zulia, Trujillo,
Zamora, and Táchira. Here are elevated plains, deep valleys, bleak
paramos or high passes, one reaching 14,500 feet, and loftier snowclad
mountains; the last are east of the capital, Mérida.

Mérida, situated on a plateau a mile above the sea, has another and
lower range of mountains on the west. These mountain States have the
variety of products found in some States of Colombia: tropical and
temperate fruits, with coffee, cacao, cotton, wheat, wool, etc.; in
Mérida, gold and silver also.

=Trujillo=, with lower mountains, borders on Zulia, Lara, Portuguesa,
Zamora, and Mérida. The fertile valleys produce the finest cacao,
there are large sugar estates; wheat grows higher, cattle and goats
find suitable pasturage. Northwest are forests largely unexplored; oil
springs give promise of future wealth.

Trujillo, the capital, is a busy town with roads in several directions;
it is 19 miles from the railway station at Motatán. Other towns of some
importance are Valera, Bocono, and Carache.

       *       *       *       *       *

The GUAYANA HIGHLANDS have a single State and one territory.

=Bolívar=, a great State, with an area of 90,000 square miles, twice
the size of Pennsylvania, has the Delta on the northeast; north across
the Orinoco, it has a bit of Monagas, a long stretch of Anzoátegui, and
a smaller extent of Guárico, to the point where the Apure enters the
Orinoco and the latter river turns east. There, west of the Orinoco, is
the State of Apure down to the entrance of the Meta River, below which
Colombia is west for a short space. Amazonas is south of the west part
of Bolivar, and west of the southeast part, which last has Brazil on
the south and British Guiana east. Bolívar, largely covered with virgin
forest, includes a vast extent of unexplored territory, besides a gold
region bordering on British Guiana.

Ciudad Bolívar, the capital, perhaps a trifle hotter than the coast
ports, has a lower death rate. Two hundred and twenty-five miles from
the mouth of the river, which during a great part of its course is two
miles wide in the dry season and seven in the wet, the city is located
at a point where the river is narrowed to a mile. In consequence of
this, the water is liable to rise 50 feet in the wet season, flooding
the lower and poorer part of the city.

While the capital is the official port of entry, there is a city
farther down stream known as San Felix or Puerto Tablas, just beyond
the mouth and falls of the Caroni River. These falls, famed since
first seen by Sir Walter Raleigh, are an imposing spectacle: a huge
mass of water descending over a wall of black granite to the Orinoco
below, obviously a great source of electricity in the future. East
of the Caroni, which flows from the southern boundary, are the two
most populous districts of the State. This is explained by gold. Cart
roads, by which merchandise is carried south and balatá and hides are
brought north, extend through Upata, capital of the Piar District, to
Guasipati, 125 miles; but as the time of wheel traffic may be ten days
and upwards, the traveler usually hires a mule and arrives in a few
days. Guasipati has been the centre of the balatá industry, but as the
local operators lazily cut down the trees instead of tapping them, the
main production is moving south.

The town of El Callao, 3 hours ride farther, is over the famous mine of
that name. On the border of Guiana 60 or 70 miles south, a section has
been opened accessible by water only. The high cost of transport, and
the scarcity, the high price, and the poor quality of labor, greatly
interfere with the development of this region. With wide spread
indications of gold, there is little reason to doubt the existence here
of vast mineral wealth.

Besides the forest clad hills of this section there are great stretches
of savannas occupied by or suitable for cattle ranches, while
plantations and mills for the production of sugar and rum are also
found.

Six hours east of Callao, near the forests, is the town Tumeremo, a
centre of the balatá industry, where the wholesale destruction of trees
still prevailing will end local production and the town as well. The
uplands of the Caroni River are yet unknown, but gold, and the timber
and vegetable products of the forest will doubtless one day reward the
hardy explorer, as in many other regions of the country.

Above Bolívar, on the Orinoco, there is at one point a narrow gorge
where the current is at times so strong as to drive back river
steamers. Farther on, the Caura River comes in from the south, through
savannas in the lower part and forests higher up. On a western
tributary of the Caura, the Nichare, there is said to be plenty of
good rubber. 130 miles up the Caura are falls or rapids descending 200
feet, a splendid source of power for future saw mills. Two days higher
are more rapids in a narrow gorge. The lower part of these Orinoco
tributaries are infested with mosquitoes, sand flies, etc., a torment
to explorers, but decreasing upstream. Near the Cuchivero, the next
considerable river, are many cattle ranches; its upper valley is rich
in forest products.


TERRITORIES

=The Amazonas Territory=, beginning as previously stated somewhat
below the entrance of the Meta River into the Orinoco, occupies the
entire region south to Brazil. It extends farther down than the State
of Bolívar, having that State and Brazil on the east, Colombia west,
and Bolívar also on the north. Amazonas with 101,000 square miles is
larger than Bolívar and still less known, explorers having attempted
little beyond the passage of a few streams.

San Fernando de Atabapo, the capital, is a village where the Atabapo
flows into the Orinoco and that river begins to be the boundary with
Colombia; the Atabapo being the boundary for some distance farther
south. The Orinoco coming from the southeast, in its upper reaches is
entirely in Amazonas. About the same point as the Atabapo, the Guaviare
enters the Orinoco from Colombia, the white waters of this stream
contrasting with the clear black (one writer calls it red) of the
Atabapo, which latter, it will be remembered, often indicates absence
of mosquitoes with more comfort and better health.

It is farther north, between the entrance of the Colombian rivers
Vichada and Meta, that the two great barriers to navigation on the
Orinoco occur, the Atures Rapids, the lower and the largest on the
river, and 50 miles south the Maipures. In each of these sections
the foaming river dashes among rocks and wooded islands in a fashion
magnificent to behold from the shore, but not inviting for a sail. With
the water power apparent, an electric railway connecting the service of
the lower Orinoco with that above the Maipures Rapids might not seem
too difficult; a contract has been made for the work to promote the
development of this region.

Amazonas contains a mountainous district with peaks 7000-8000 feet
high, though the greater part is rather low land. There are tribes
of Indians, some gentle and timid, others so savage as to prevent
exploration, especially the Guaharibos, also called White Indians, far
up the Orinoco beyond Esmeralda. The territory has grassy plains suited
to cattle raising, but more forest land with rubber trees of the first
class, a few of which in small sections have been tapped; there are
natural cacao patches. Mineral wealth is indicated by the reports and
specimens from the Indians.

Forty miles above the confluence of the Atabapo and the Guaviare, the
great Ventuari tributary, 300 miles long, enters the Orinoco from the
east. 150 miles higher the famed Casiquiare or Brazo leaves the Orinoco
to join the Rio Negro and Amazon. An old mission station, Esmeralda,
20 miles beyond, on the Orinoco, is the last permanent settlement of
the region. The watershed, here but a slight bank along the left of
the river, is entirely lacking where the Casiquiare leaves it, taking
a little of the water. Farther on the diverging stream unites with
the Guiania River in Colombia to form the Negro, the chief northern
tributary of the Amazon.

=The Delta Amacuro Territory= embraces the delta of the Orinoco, with
some mountainous country at the south before reaching the boundary
of British Guiana, which with the State of Bolívar is on the south;
Monagas is on the west. The coast line runs northwest southeast from
the Gulf of Paria, of which it forms the southern limit, to Guiana;
thus nearly the whole coast faces the Atlantic. Only one settlement
is found on the swampy shore, Pedernales on the Gulf, a gloomy spot
with unprepossessing inhabitants. Up the Caño Pedernales there is
beautiful foliage in the inundated forest, with higher lands back,
where live primitive wild Indians; farther on is unflooded forest,
or open savannas with rich grass for thousands of cattle; on the
banks a few scattered houses. One fine cacao ranch is passed before
reaching Tucupita, the capital, a dismal place, but with some signs of
commercial life. Soon after, the mountains of Guayana are visible, and
presently the town of Barrancas in Monagas, the lowest town and port on
the Orinoco proper.




                               CHAPTER X

                  VENEZUELA: PORTS AND TRANSPORTATION


=La Guaira=, the chief port of the _Centro_, and the best known of
Venezuela, is rivaled by Puerto Cabello, which has a better natural
harbor. La Guaira, population 18,000 including its suburbs, as the
port of the capital, Caracas, attracts more travelers and at present
more trade, much of it coming from or going to other parts of the
country. The harbor, a rather open roadstead, was improved at great
expense by port works. Though these facilitate the increasing traffic,
ships at times are still exposed to heavy swells. The town is hot and
unhealthful with a mean temperature of 84.5°, but it has good rail
connection with its pleasant suburbs, cooler and more sanitary. The
port has good piers, vessels lying alongside. The depth of water is
28-30 feet.

=Puerto Cabello=, 65 miles west, in the State of Carabobo, population
20,000, is said to have the best harbor, its depth 28 feet, on the
North Coast of South America. With a slightly lower temperature than
La Guaira, it has a higher death rate. To this port comes most of the
produce of its own State, of Yaracuy, of the Llano States Cojedes and
Portuguesa, and some from the Andes region. The enterprise of the
Venezuela Meat Syndicate, with new buildings here, promotes stock
farming and the traffic of the port. A floating dock receives vessels
of 2000 tons; a new one will accommodate ships of 4000 tons.

=Carúpano=, far to the east of La Guaira, is the only other port of
importance which is visited by large ocean steamers. Although as
warm as Puerto Cabello, it has a much more healthful climate. With no
real harbor, merely an open roadstead, serving the State of Sucre, it
is a port of call for several lines of steamers. The cargo must be
transported in lighters.

=Ciudad Bolívar=, though far up the Orinoco River, as the official
port of entry for half the country, serves an extensive region. It
communicates with the outside world by weekly steamers of shallow
draught to the Port of Spain, as also by coasting vessels. The steamers
returning cross the Gulf of Paria, follow up the Caño Macareo to the
Orinoco, and up that river to Bolívar.

=Maracaibo=, the fifth port with foreign trade, though called a seaport
is not exactly on the sea; being located on the west shore of a broad
channel 6-12 miles wide and 30 long which connects Lake Maracaibo with
the Gulf of Venezuela. The city has fine wharves on a beautiful bay,
a smooth roadstead with water 30 feet deep; but unfortunately the
sand bar at the entrance of the channel confines the passage to ships
drawing only 11 feet, with conditions growing worse. As the city is now
the second port of the country with the largest export trade including
some from Colombia, it has been proposed either to dredge one of the
entrance channels, or to make use of the fine natural harbor of Cojoro
on the Gulf, capable of accommodating the largest steamers, and to
connect this port with Maracaibo by a railway about 100 miles long. At
present the foreign trade is carried on by national, Dutch, and Spanish
steamers, and by American boats of the Red D Line. Freight not destined
for the United States is largely carried to the Dutch Island Curaçao,
where transfer is made to ships of other lines. Sailing vessels also
carry much produce.

These primary ports, except Carúpano, all have docks where ships come
alongside. A new freight and passenger service from New Orleans to
Venezuelan ports has been installed by the W. R. Grace Company.

A number of =smaller ports= are served generally by smaller craft,
steam or sailing vessels, which transfer freight to the primary ports
for ocean traffic. Some of these are: La Vela (56 miles from Curaçao),
the port of Coro, capital of Falcón; Tucacas, in the same State,
important as serving the copper mines of Aroa; Carenero, in Miranda,
east of Caracas; Guanta, long the port of Barcelona and neighboring
coal mines; Cumaná in Sucre, a mile from the mouth of the Manzanares
River; and Pampatar on Margarita Island. At Turiamo, a natural harbor
between La Guaira and Puerto Cabello, a public bonded warehouse is to
be erected, and connection will be made with the Grand Central Railway.
At Ocumare de la Costa port and harbor works are to be constructed by
the Government and a railway connecting the port with Maracay, 43 miles
distant.


INLAND TRANSPORTATION

The railway development of Venezuela is small, the longest line
being 111 miles in length, and the total mileage about 650. There is
therefore a little over a foot of railway for each inhabitant. Most of
the lines are from a port to the interior; all are of narrow gauge, but
of varying widths. Most of the existing lines were laid, 1881-1893.
Unfavorable legislation prevented further construction until after a
change in the laws; later the Great War interfered. Rates are very high
on all the railways, yet most of them are unprofitable.

=The La Guaira-Caracas Railway= is exceptional, having a large amount
of traffic, more of import freight than of export. The British-built
Railway climbs to a height of over 3000 feet to surmount the ridge on
the south side of which is Caracas, a two hours’ ride, one of intense
interest and beauty. While the tracks of the Harbor Corporation are of
the same gauge as the railway, these cars do not go to the steamer’s
side, so that much freight is unnecessarily handled twice. Railways now
electrified serve the suburbs on either side.

Caracas is served by two other railways, but these are of different
gauge.

The =Central Railway=, the station of which is two miles across the
city, runs from Caracas east and south towards Ocumare on the Tuy
River; 46 miles to San Francisco de Yare are completed; the remaining
15 are in construction. Both of these roads were difficult to build,
the many bridges, tunnels, and viaducts needed making them very
expensive. The maximum grade is about 4 per cent. The latter road
follows down the Guaire valley, passing Petare, a town of Miranda, only
seven miles from Caracas.

If the River Tuy were followed down to the east and north, one would
come to the =Carenero Railway= which connects the small port of that
name with the towns, Higuerote, Rio Chico, a flourishing manufacturing
place, and Guapo, 34 miles, on the way to the llanos of Guárico. From
the llanos come hides and other animal products to the port, and from
the vicinity rich agricultural products including cacao. The Railway
runs a steamship line to La Guaira; small schooners also serve.

The =Great Railway of Venezuela=, built by the Germans, is the other
line from Caracas, the longest and most costly in the country. It runs
west to Valencia, the second city of the Republic. Though as a whole
less difficult than some others, there is one stretch of 8 per cent
grade requiring cog wheels and there are many loops and zigzags. The
road traverses a fine farming and cattle country and passes through
the important towns of Victoria and Maracay in Aragua, previously
mentioned. 212 bridges and 86 tunnels in 111 miles may seem many for an
easier road. A branch of 2¹⁄₂ miles runs to the village of Guigüe.

The =Puerto Cabello-Valencia Railway=, 33 miles long, connects Valencia
directly with the sea, passing over the north ridge of the mountains
at a height of 2000 feet. Though the construction of the road as a
whole was less difficult than that of the La Guaira-Caracas, to shorten
it, a section 2.4 miles long has a cog rail with a maximum grade of 8
per cent.

The =Bolívar Railway=, farther west, the first in Venezuela, was built
for the especial benefit of the copper mines of the State of Yaracuy.
It runs from the port of Tucacas, northwest of Puerto Cabello, to
Barquisimeto, 100 miles. The part built first is now a branch of the
road, leading from La Hacha to the rich copper mines at Aroa eight
miles distant. Both railway and mines are British properties, the
latter bringing in handsome returns. A company steamer carries freight
to and from Puerto Cabello, as Tucacas has no custom house. Another
branch of the railway, from Palma Sola to the capital of Yaracuy, San
Felipe, 25 miles, was opened in 1916. In this State are other copper
mines unworked, and fertile hills and plains uncultivated. The Rio
Tocuyo is navigable as far as Siquisique for steamboats, but traffic is
not sufficient to make their operation profitable.

The =La Vela-Coro Railway=, 8¹⁄₂ miles long, connects Coro with its
port.

In the State of Zulia are three more railways:

The =La Ceiba=, 50 miles long, runs from that port on the Lake toward
the city of Trujillo as far as Motatán.

The =Great Railway of Táchira=, 75 miles long, goes from Encontrados
on the Catatumbo River west of the Lake, south towards the capital
of Táchira, now reaching San Felix or a little beyond. It serves
the Colombian Department of Santander as well as Táchira. The many
transfers of freight are a great disadvantage, while freshets on the
Catatumbo threaten to destroy Encontrados.

The =Santa Barbara-El Vigia Railway=, 37 miles long, is designed to
serve the city of Mérida. Santa Barbara is on the Escalante River; and
the road towards Mérida, which crosses several streams, has had much
trouble from the Chama River from inundations.

The =Guanta-Naricual Railway=, far to the east, leads from the port of
Guanta past the city of Barcelona, capital of Anzoátegui, to the coal
mines of Naricual. Guanta, though not a primary port, has an excellent
natural harbor, but the opening to navigation in 1915 of the Neveri
River on which Barcelona is situated has greatly diminished the traffic
of Guanta.

A few =private railways= exist, constructed for business purposes:

A railway 27 miles long of the Asphalt Mines of Inciarte in Zulia.

A railway of 10 miles of the Asphalt Mines of Guanoco, Sucre.

A two mile railway of Asphalt Mines of Guanipa, Monagas.

A railway 10 miles from San Lorenzo, Zulia, to oil wells of the
Caribbean Petroleum Company.

A railway 19 miles from Bobures, Zulia, to a sugar plantation.

A railway 19 miles from Rio Limón, Zulia, to coal fields 40 miles west
of Maracaibo, leased by the Caribbean Coal Company.

Considerable railway construction is talked of, but the only immediate
probability is of a road from the port of Castilletes on the Gulf of
Venezuela to a coal property near Lake Maracaibo, belonging to the
Caribbean Coal Company. A port is to be constructed admitting vessels
of 35 feet draft, the present depth being 16 feet. The railway 93 miles
long of standard gauge is to have a one way capacity of 10,000 tons
daily, with maximum freight charges lower than any at this time on
existing lines. As no port charges of any kind are to be collected, if
the construction and mining development are carried out as expected,
it will be a most important industrial development for Venezuela which
may affect the trade of Curaçao and Maracaibo. As this port will be
but 595 miles from Colon, and as the coal is said to be of the best
quality, it is important for ships making use of the Canal.

The Venezuelan Government now gives generous concessions to foreign
companies or individuals, undertaking railway construction.


OTHER METHODS OF COMMUNICATION

=Roads.= Aside from the railways, a meagre supply for a country of its
size, other means of transportation are inadequate. Street railways
exist in the chief cities: Caracas, Valencia, La Guaira, Puerto
Cabello, Maracaibo, Bolívar, Barquisimeto, Carúpano, and Cumaná.
The great water power available for electric traction and for other
purposes should be largely developed in future. Some automobile and
cart roads exist, 1636 miles at the end of 1919, but to a large extent
transportation is over bridle paths or _caminos_.

An excellent automobile road leads from La Guaira to Caracas. From
the capital such roads branch in several directions. One goes east to
Guatire, two south to Ocumare del Tuy, one of these with a branch south
from Cua. A good road leads through Maracay to Valencia; from midway,
a branch leads south through Villa de Cura to Ortiz in Guárico, from
which point construction is being continued to Calabozo, the capital,
and thence to San Fernando, capital of Apure. Another road leads from
Ocumare de la Costa to Maracay.

From Puerto Cabello one may go by auto to Valencia and to Guigüe, south
of the lake; also from the port to San Felipe and Barquisimeto.

From the city of Maracaibo a road goes north to San Rafael near the
mouth of the Channel, and one southwest to Perija, west of the centre
of the Lake, passing two petroleum sites.

From the terminus of the Táchira Railway, Uracá, a road leads to San
Cristóbal, and one to Cúcuta in Colombia. From Motatán a good wagon
road goes to Trujillo. Pack animals serve from El Vigia to Mérida. In
the east there is the long road from San Felix on the Orinoco to El
Callao and Tumeremo.

Other roads are in construction or planned for the immediate future.
From Coro a road is to go south and southwest to Trujillo and beyond,
and one near the coast to Altagracia on the Maracaibo Channel,
northeast of that city. Several roads will branch from Barquisimeto and
from Valencia, the most important, one from Valencia southwest to San
Carlos, Guanare, Barinas, and San Cristóbal. Shorter local roads will
serve Cumaná and Carúpano.

Considerable activity has recently been manifested in road building;
and bridges, long sadly lacking over mountain torrents, have been
constructed. Some deeper streams have ferries.

=River= communication and lake service are important in many sections.
Of Venezuela’s nearly 500 rivers, 74 are said to be navigable a
distance of 6000 miles, 4000 in the Orinoco Basin. Especially in
Bolívar and Amazonas communication is by river, but in other States
also it is important. The Orinoco is a natural highway 600 miles to
Pericos and the Atures Rapids. There is regular weekly service to San
Fernando de Apure. There is traffic along the Apure, Arauca, and Meta
Rivers, the last two in Colombia; but the affluents on the north side
of the Orinoco are too variable in depth to permit regular service, and
those on the south are too broken by cataracts.

On =Maracaibo Lake= are plenty of craft, both steam and sailing
vessels, two main lines of the former running from Maracaibo, one along
the west side of the Lake and up the Catatumbo to Encontrados and the
Táchira Railway, the other to La Ceiba and the Motatán Railway going
towards Trujillo on the east side; a smaller boat runs around the
south side of the Lake and up the Escalante to Santa Bárbara. From
Encontrados a line of small steamers runs up the Zulia to Villamizar.




                              CHAPTER XI

                  VENEZUELA: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES


AGRICULTURE

The Agricultural Zone, according to late statistics, covers the greater
part of that section of the Republic which lies between the sea and the
Orinoco Plains: about 100,000 square miles, only one third of which is
tilled. The section has great fertility of soil, and with its varying
elevation and climate it is adapted to the production of everything
needful for man or beast. Twenty per cent of the population is employed
in agricultural pursuits. With the introduction of new methods and
modern machinery a vast development and great wealth should ensue. At
present the chief products are coffee, cacao, and sugar, with tobacco,
cotton, corn, wheat, vanilla, etc., and a great variety of fruits and
vegetables.

=Coffee=, as in Colombia, is called a product of the temperate clime,
growing at an altitude of 1500-6500 feet but best at 3000. A tree
is said to live 50 years and to produce a quarter to a half a pound
annually. About $16,000,000 are invested in the industry; there are
approximately 260,000,000 trees. Venezuela claims to be second in
coffee production, exporting over 100,000,000 pounds in 1919.

=Cacao= needs a warmer climate than coffee, and moist air; hence it
grows well on slopes near the sea having a temperature of 80°. But it
is found and cultivated in other parts, growing wild in Guayana and
near the upper Orinoco. Where cultivated, 80 trees to the acre are
approved, of course at first shaded. After five years two crops a year,
in June and December, are expected. Trees average a life of 40 years,
with an annual production of 220-250 pounds an acre. About 16 seeds are
enclosed in a long red and yellow pod, which turns purple when ripe.
After being gathered, they are heaped in piles on the ground, left a
few days to ferment and burst, when the seeds are shelled, washed, and
housed. There are two grades here, the _criollo_ or native, of very
high grade, growing in valleys near the sea, and the _trinitario_,
imported from Trinidad. The Chuao Plantation is said to produce cacao
of a particularly sweet and fine quality, which is generally exported
to France. Over $12,000,000 are invested in the business. In production
Venezuela is third. There are more than 5000 plantations.

=Sugar.= The sugar industry is rapidly developing. New mills with
modern machinery have been erected and more acres are planted. A mill
at Maracay can crush nearly 1800 tons of cane daily, with an output of
sugar of 80 tons. Four species of cane are cultivated, the indigenous,
the _criolla_, most largely, as being sweeter and otherwise giving
good results. The reaping is arranged so that the grinding may be
constant throughout the year. The canes near Lake Valencia are longer
and thicker, with more juice but less sweetness. The best quality of
sugar is produced near Guatire, three hours by motor from Caracas; the
largest quantity on two plantations near Lake Maracaibo, each having a
daily output of 800 tons.

There are four varieties of products: sugar, brown sugar, alcohol, and
rum, all of which many large plantations are equipped to produce. Of
the two near Bobures, Zulia, one has 5000 acres under cultivation, the
other nearly as much. The total capital invested is above $10,000,000.
An increasing foreign market is expected.

=Tobacco= is grown in many sections, thriving in humid fertile soil. It
develops in six months, but requires great care. There is much variety
in the quality, some being strong and heavy, some delicate with fine
flavor and aroma. A little is exported to Havana and there mixed for
making cigarettes. The annual production, above 3000 tons, might be
increased.

=Cotton= grows wild in many parts of the country, and is cultivated
in a number of States. The average crop is about 4,000,000 pounds of
seeded cotton, half of which is raised in Aragua and Carabobo. Zulia
produces the best cotton, with longer fibre, nearly one-fifth of the
crop. Lara, Portuguesa, and the States of the East supply the rest.
The cotton is sown in June or July and harvested in the dry season,
December to March. It is freshly planted every year in connection with
vegetables, the receipts from which cover the cost except for that of
gathering; so that the industry furnishes a desirable opportunity for
immigrants with small or no capital. About $200,000 are invested in
cotton growing.

=Coconuts= are indigenous in Venezuela; and in the regions of Zulia,
Carabobo, Bolívar, Barcelona, and Cumaná, there are broad plantations.
Over $1,000,000 is invested.

=Wheat= is grown to some extent and fine crops are produced; but much
more land is available in the high table-lands and valleys of Western
Venezuela so that home consumption could easily be supplied. With
improved methods, machinery, etc., it might even become a staple export.

=Corn= is cultivated everywhere in all kinds of soil from sea level
up to 9000 feet, but it grows best between 1500 and 3000 feet. About
75,000 acres are devoted to its production; 150,000 tons are raised,
some being exported. It is the real bread plant of the country
especially in the interior.

=Beans= in large variety are produced, black beans being greatly in
demand and some exported.

=Indigo= was once cultivated and in 1802 was exported to the value of
$2,500,000, but its production was abandoned owing to higher returns
from coffee.

=Vanilla= grows well in the rich lands of Falcón, Lara, Bolívar,
Zamora, and Anzoátegui. Its cultivation might be developed.


FORESTRY

The forest resources are inexhaustible but hardly touched, the zone
comprising about half of Venezuela of which 98 per cent is virgin
territory. Nearly three-quarters of this area is public land, over
100,000 square miles. With more capital and labor, better means of
transport, and modern implements and machinery a great development will
result. The chief forest products are rubber, balatá, tonka beans,
divi-divi, and various medicinal plants. There are many dyeing and
tanning plants, and gums and resins abound. In the forests a great
amount of timber exists including the finest varieties; but as usual
these are scattered, and with present facilities, difficult to get out
with a profit. Of the 600 species of wood 5-10 per cent are marketable.
145 varieties used for ornamental purposes and 20 kinds of woods and
barks suitable for dyeing and tanning were exhibited at the Chicago
Exposition in 1893. The great mora tree, three feet in diameter, is
excellent for ship building; mahogany, rosewood, and other trees of
hard wood abound.

=Rubber=, chiefly of the hevea variety, is found and exported both from
the Casiquiare-Amazon section and more from Yuruary in East Bolívar. It
is cultivated near Ocumare del Tuy, each tree there giving 460 grams of
juice, 95 per cent pure rubber. Several million people are needed to
exploit the industry, in which $1,200,000 has been invested.

=Balatá=, procured from forest trees in a manner similar to rubber, is
allied to gutta percha, and is employed with this for many purposes.

=Divi-divi=, one of the best and cheapest plants for tannin, grows
wild throughout the country, chiefly along the coast and on the edge
of the llanos at the foot of the south slope of the Coast Mountains.
Hot lowlands with a minimum average of rain suit it best. It grows
to a height of 20-30 feet. The brown pods three inches long contain
30-40 per cent of tannin, sometimes even 50. The seeds have little.
In wet weather the tannin is liable to sudden fermentation especially
in electrical storms, when the tanning is impeded, and the leather
may be stained. Some trees 90 years old still produce a full crop.
Near Cumaná, a tree may yield 275 pounds a year, but in the west,
25-50 pounds only. It is an extremely cheap source of tannin though
not largely used. Venezuela probably has more frequent stands of this
tree than any other country. 5000 men are said to leave Ciudad Bolívar
yearly for its collection in the interior. As cultivated in Curaçao
plantations, the pods have 20 per cent more tannin and bring 25 per
cent higher price.

=The Mangrove= bark is another important source of tannin; the tree
growing in swampy ground is useful in reclaiming land at the ocean’s
edge. The bark has 22-33 per cent tannin, the leaves nearly 20, the
wood some. The stands are unlimited in number.

=The Tonka Bean=, a black almond with delicious perfume, is the fruit
of the serrapia tree. The beans are used in the preparation of chewing
tobacco and in making perfumes. The price varies from 50 cents to $5 a
pound. This is a staple of great value in the Orinoco forests, but many
gatherers die of fever or starve. A few concessions have been granted
for the cultivation of tonka trees, in the public lands of the Caura
district. In one year over $700,000 worth of the beans were exported.

=Chicle=, used to make chewing gum, comes from the sap of a tree called
_pendare_ which has a delicious fruit, _sapodilla_. The tree may be
tapped continuously 8-15 years. The sap is boiled in the forest.

=The Caoba= or mahogany tree grows from sea level to about 3000 feet.
It may be seen along the streets of Valencia. It grows to a height of
130 feet with a diameter of four feet at the base. It is exported to
Europe and to the United States.

=The Moriche Palm= grows in clumps on the llanos. From the sap the
Indians make wine, vinegar, oil, soap, starch; and from the leaves,
hats, clothes, hammocks, baskets, mats, etc.

=Fibre plants= of superior quality exist in great variety and quantity.
Among these are the cocuiza sisal called equal or superior to the sisal
(hemp) of Yucatan; ramie, _jipijapa_, flax, and other varieties.

Plants for making paper grow in profusion, desirable for use rather
than wood to save the destruction of forests. The most abundant and
desirable is bamboo, but many other plants are serviceable including
the residue from sugar cane. The by-product of three tons of sugar
would be roughly two tons of fibre, worth about $120. Bitter cane and
other rushes might be so used, either exported as pulp, or in some
localities made into paper.


CATTLE INDUSTRY

=Goats= have been spoken of as raised with great profit on the well
adapted lands near Barquisimeto, comparatively high, and on lowlands in
the regions of Coro and Maracaibo.

=Cattle.= The cattle industry has still greater possibilities. The
pastoral zone extends from Barrancas to Colombia and from the Vichada
River to the mountains in Carabobo. While a portion of the llanos like
those in Colombia suffers from severe drought in the summer, and though
in places the grass is thin, in this immense region there is room for
an enormous number of cattle where the grasses are rich. Hence stock
raising can be carried on to great advantage. There is some difficulty
in transportation, but this is gradually improving, and with the
erection of more packing and slaughter houses, and with improvements
in breeding, the industry has a sure future. Some stock raisers,
especially General Gomez, have made great efforts for improvement,
importing full blooded cattle of different breeds to produce a better
kind, perfectly adapted to the climate of Venezuela. Modern methods are
being employed, and in the valley of Maracay a large number of live
stock is fattened ready to supply the 500 cattle daily killed at Puerto
Cabello by the Refrigerating Company which exports them. A new packing
house is to be erected at Turiamo. It is reported that a contract has
been made for 200,000 acres to be colonized by Germans, who wish to
control the meat packing industry. The number of cattle in Venezuela is
estimated at 3,000,000.

=Sheep=, =horses=, =hogs= are also raised in the valley of Maracay;
acclimated specimens of special breeds have been obtained for
reproduction in other parts of the country. At present horses and mules
are raised in comparatively small numbers.


MINING

There is hardly a precious metal or valuable mineral which does not
exist in Venezuela, though little has been done to exploit them. Gold,
silver, copper, iron, lead, antimony, tin, quicksilver, asphalt,
petroleum, coal, sulphur, asbestos, platinum, diamonds, and other
precious stones are found; 25 years ago 226 deposits had been located:
62 gold, 29 coal, 14 copper, 10 iron, etc.

=Gold=, the most exported metal, while found in every State, has been
chiefly sought and profitably worked in Guayana, where in the Yuruary
region considerable mining has been done. True alluvial belts are
found, zones of shale, and quartz veins. The alluvial deposits known
are mainly near the British Guiana border in the Cuyuni and El Dorado
districts. Placer gold exists along the Caroni River and in smaller
tributaries of the Orinoco above Ciudad Bolívar. The rock formation
shows the gold to be in stingers and crystalline grains of arsenical
pyrite, from which the placers and pockets have been formed.

The quartz veins are more northerly near El Callao, where $50,000,000
are said to have been produced in thirty odd years. One mine in the
Yuruari district has yielded 35,000 ounces. Metal is found in pockets
50-100 feet deep about 150 miles from the Orinoco. An English company
has mining claims west of El Callao, where the ore is treated with
quicksilver and cyanide, yielding 1-4 ounces per ton. Another company
is working on the La Paz Bonanza, where 10,000 ounces were taken
out by crude methods from rich veinlets and pockets almost at the
surface. Several other companies are engaged, French and Venezuelan,
one along the Cicapra River, a branch of the upper Yuruari. It is
estimated that several million cubic yards with an average yield of
$1.00 each are here available at a cost of 50 cents per yard. With
better transportation and other facilities this section may come into
the front rank of gold mining districts in South America. At present
it is said to be better adapted to individual operators than to large
companies. The climate is not unhealthful if suitable precautions are
taken. The country is well wooded except near Callao. The average
yearly production of gold is 900,000 grams.

=Copper= is known to exist in several States: Falcón, Carabobo, Mérida,
Lara, a rich deposit in the northern part of Cojedes; but the only one
vigorously and very profitably operated is that of Aroa in Yaracuy,
where dividends have been 75-350 per cent. Near Nirgua in the same
State other copper mines have been worked.

=Coal= is found in various sections. Where outcroppings occur in
Táchira, Mérida, and Trujillo small operations have been carried on.
There are other deposits but the principal mines worked are in Sucre
and Falcón. Naricual, 16 miles from Barcelona, has produced the most
coal, but not of a very good quality. It is used on local steamers and
railways, and some, with pitch from Trinidad, is made into briquettes.
A little west, another mine with coal of better quality has been opened
within five miles of tide water on the bank of a river. The mines
of Falcón near Coro have been developed further and production is
increasing. Coke ovens have been established. Coal is found in several
places near Lake Maracaibo. In the deposit 60 miles northwest of
Maracaibo the coal is of high grade, better than Middle West coal and
equal to the Pocahontas; hard, bright, black, excellent for steaming.
Some veins are 8-20 feet thick, and when the railway to Castilletes is
completed the annual export is expected to reach 500,000 tons. Lignite,
bituminous, and semi-anthracite varieties are found.

=Iron= ore deposits occur in the eastern hills or mountains south
of the Delta, but in the Delta Territory at Imataca. It is 67 per
cent pure and almost free from sulphur and phosphorus. In 1914 some
Americans secured options. Iron is also found near Coro, Barinas,
Barcelona, and Cumaná.

=Salt= is found on the island of Coche, on the peninsula of Araya near
Cumaná, in the vicinity of Barcelona and of Maracaibo, and elsewhere.

=Sulphur= appears to exist in commercial quantities about 11 miles
inland from Corúpano; and other minerals have been observed in various
States.

=Diamonds and Pearls.= There are said to be diamond mines in the
Orinoco region. Pearl fishing is carried on among the islands, about
1600 persons being so engaged. Rakes are now used as diving is
prohibited. Recently $600,000 worth were exported within a few months.

=Asphalt=, found in the Bermudez Pitch Lake five miles from Guanoco
in the State of Sucre, is an important source of wealth. This lake,
the largest known deposit in the world (1100 acres), has more than ten
times the area of the famous Trinidad Lake, though it is not so deep.
It is regarded as the residue of evaporated petroleum, the asphalt
here representing the outflow of 80,000,000 barrels of oil. The flow
continues, the oil spreading over the lake and replenishing it. This
with active seepages near indicates enormous oil bearing formations
below.

The General Asphalt Company and its subsidiaries have a 30 year lease
of nearly 12,000 acres including the lake. The structure of the lake
includes faulting, folding, and fracturing of strata, with formations
of black shale, sandstone, and fossiliferous limestone, the last
supposed to be the source of the oil, and the sandstone its reservoir,
whence from pressure of gas it escapes to the surface. A narrow gauge
railway is in use. From lack of transport hardly 20,000 tons of asphalt
were shipped from Bermudez Lake in 1920 compared with over 40,000 in
1919; from Trinidad Lake, about 70,000 in 1919 and over 108,000 in
1920. In the Bermudez concession is a large asphalt deposit 100-200
yards across, on the Island of Capure in the Orinoco Delta.

In the Maracaibo Basin are other beds. One near the Lake at Inciarte,
27 miles from navigable water, is 94 per cent pure; but transportation
is difficult.

The =Petroleum= prospects of Venezuela are excellent. The chief
work accomplished is in the Maracaibo Basin, which is regarded as
one of petroleum as well as of water. Many companies are engaged in
development work. After two years of preliminary examination by 35
experienced geologists, the Caribbean Petroleum Company selected 1000
areas averaging 1250 acres each for further investigation. Of these
they now retain 250, covering 312,500 acres. With a lease concession
for 30 years, a tax of eight cents an acre is paid annually and a
royalty equal to about ten per cent on oil shipped from the country. On
one section, the Mene Grande Field, ten miles east of Lake Maracaibo to
which a road through swamps was built, about a dozen wells have been
drilled, in all of which oil has been found. The first were capped, but
with present facilities flow is permitted. The character of the oil
improves with depth. Three 55,000-barrel steel tanks have been erected,
and pumping stations on the field and at the port. A pipe line was laid
11 miles to the shore at San Lorenzo, where, 70 miles southeast of
Maracaibo, storage tanks and a refinery were built. The latter, now
in operation, will refine every grade of oil except lubricants. The
capacity is 2000 barrels daily (42 gallons each). One well is said to
rank in output with some of the Mexican. Much of the oil is now used
by some Venezuelan railways, and by industries of the country. Part of
the crude oil is carried by three barges and eight converted monitors
of 450-500 tons each to a refinery at Curaçao, which has larger storage
tanks, pumping station, etc. The refinery has been running 1000 tons
of crude oil daily, but can take care of 4000 tons. The swift current
of the Maracaibo Channel makes management of the monitors difficult.
This Company has other wells at Perija, 50 miles west of the Lake. The
first, which struck oil at 1227 feet, was shut in. One in the Limón
Field, drilled to 2752 feet, was abandoned.

Other companies have concessions for work near the Lake, at the east,
south, and southwest. One was hampered by wild Indians, compelling
the employment of armed guards, another by extremely unhealthful
conditions; but both after some unsuccessful work have found promising
wells. The Colon Developing Company, with a large property 100 miles
west of Encontrados and near the Colombian border, has struck oil at
less than 1300 feet, close to the Rio de Oro. Two thousand barrels of
high grade oil were produced within 24 hours, but as no facilities
for transport existed the well was capped. This oil is said to be of
quality superior to that east of the Lake, which is better than the
Mexican.

East of the Lake, another field, north of the Mene Grande, is owned by
the Venezuelan Oil Concessions. Wells drilled here have passed through
three oil bearing sands; the deeper, the better and lighter the oil.
One has spouted 80 feet high; another over the top of the derrick. An
area of several square miles is proved. This Company has 3000 square
miles of oil bearing land near the Lake for 50 years. In Mexico wells
producing 100,000 barrels a day are seen. The general manager of this
Company believes the Venezuelan wells will be bigger.

The Venezuelan Falcón Oil Syndicate, which has a 50 year concession of
over 2000 square miles in Falcón, expects to open up many fields. Pipe
lines could converge and refineries be installed within 50 miles of the
farthest point. The first well drilled is 37 miles from the seaboard.
Motor tractors are employed. The British Controlled Oilfields has taken
over the Bolívar Concessions, which has the right to bore in 7,000,000
acres in Falcón.

On the Island of Trinidad 362,800 barrels of crude petroleum were
produced in 1920. Near this Island, corresponding to the oil region at
the northwest of Venezuela, is one at the northeast around the Gulf of
Paria, especially at the south, and comprising the Orinoco Delta. Here
is found the heavier form of petroleum in large quantities. Some wells
have been drilled on the Peninsula of Paria with no good result. The
Guanoco Field, south, is believed to cover the axis and flanks of the
Guanoco anticlines, of which the southern is thought to be responsible
for the great oil seepages of the Asphalt Lake. The field is believed
to extend 60 miles southwest, to and beyond the San Juan River.
The first well was drilled (1912) in the Lake. Heavy oil, specific
gravity 1.02, was found under enormous gas pressure, making operations
difficult. Production of 1000 barrels a day was secured at 615 feet,
but the well was closed to avoid waste. Later it produced in three
months 50,000 barrels. Other wells have been drilled in the vicinity,
also on Pedernales Island in the Delta; the oil from the latter
of lighter gravity. For some purposes the heavy oil is of special
value. It is too heavy to pump, but the strong gas pressure makes it
available. The areas are swampy, difficult to work, and unhealthful.


MANUFACTURES

As might be expected, the manufacturing industries of Venezuela are few
in number and rely in the main on a protective tariff for existence.
The principal articles made are cotton goods, paper, glass, cement,
cordage, soap, candles, shoes, alpargatas, leather goods, cigars,
cigarettes, etc. The five cotton factories produce 80 per cent of the
ordinary cloth consumed in the country. In Mérida are woolen and hat
factories. In Caracas good furniture is made, macaroni, paper, etc.
There is a paper factory also at Maracay. Ten miles from Caracas the
waterfall of Naiguatá, over 3000 feet, makes available 30,000 horse
power, of which 9000 is used.


INVESTMENTS

Among the various opportunities for the investment of foreign capital,
including all of the industries mentioned, the safest are agriculture
and stock raising; perhaps also small factories. Land is so cheap that
little capital is needed for the agriculturist unless engaging on a
very large scale. Coffee, cacao, sugar cane, castor beans, and many
other articles may be raised with profit. Factories large or small may
be operated to advantage. Cumaná and Puerto Cabello are good places for
canning tropical fruits. Oil may be extracted for edible or industrial
purposes from coconuts, peanuts, and other fruits or vegetables.
Chocolate may be made, cotton mills established. A mill is suggested
for Margarita, where fine cotton is grown. Rope and bag factories might
employ Venezuelan _cocuiza_ or henequen to make the 2,000,000 bags
needed annually in the country. Saw mills at Cumaná, Maracaibo, La
Ceiba, Tucacas, etc., would be extremely useful.

Large capitalists may find opportunities for the construction of public
utilities such as street railways, electric light and power plants,
water works, sewers; also in bridge building, railway construction,
etc. Some might be interested in mining, especially of iron, which
is found favorably located for transportation within half a mile
of a navigable river about 50 miles from the mouth of the Orinoco.
To individuals with small capital the gold region would be more
attractive. An important development of the large deposits of bauxite
is attracting much attention.




                              CHAPTER XII

                   GUIANA AS A WHOLE: BRITISH GUIANA


The name Guiana has been applied to the entire country between the
Orinoco and the Amazon. We have observed that in Venezuela the region
south of the Orinoco is called the Guiana Highlands. We shall notice
later that the section south of the dividing mountain range and north
of the Amazon as far west as the Rio Negro is called Brazilian Guiana;
but the country which is more strictly Guiana is east and north of
these, though here, too, adjectives are applied as there are three
divisions: British, Dutch, and French Guiana, the British on the west,
the French farthest east.


AREA

The area of them all is about 170,000 square miles, of which British
Guiana has 90,000, Dutch 46,000, and French 33,000 square miles.

As these countries are colonies instead of republics their governments
are naturally different.

Although sighted by Columbus in 1498 and visited not long afterward
by traders, as there was a large Indian population, the country was
settled later than Venezuela and Colombia. After various vicissitudes
the earliest colonies were abandoned. The difficulties of the later
settlements, the changes, insurrections, massacres, wars, and troubles
of various kinds following are too numerous to recount, and we come
immediately to conditions of the present time.


PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The three divisions of Guiana are similar, having first a low marshy
coast land, rising at the back very slightly for a distance of 10 to 40
miles. A broader, more elevated tract of sandy or clayey soil follows
with a still higher region in the rear. Of the southern section the
eastern part is almost all forest, the central and southwest portions
have more grass clad savannas, which might support thousands of cattle
if there were any way to get them out. There is a vast network of
water ways, many rivers in their lower sections near the coast being
connected by _caños_. The forest varies, being dense in river bottoms
and thin on sandy soils. The longest river, the Essequibo, is about 600
miles, others a little less. At from 50 to 100 miles inland, all the
rivers are blocked by rapids, but some are accessible to large vessels
as far as these. There are various hills and mountains, the highest,
the Pacaraima Range, marking in part the boundary with Venezuela, the
Acarai Mountains with Brazil; the two form the water shed between the
Amazon, the Orinoco, and the Essequibo rivers. Mt. Roraima, altitude
8635 feet, rising as a red rock 1500 feet above the forest, is said to
have as its top a tableland of 12 square miles. Several other mountains
are from 7000 to 8000 feet high. Ranges of hills and mountains from
2000 to 3000 feet traverse the country elsewhere. In Dutch and French
Guiana are almost impenetrable forests, less explored than those of
British Guiana, especially towards the south. A splendid waterfall is
the Kaieteur, nearly five times as high as Niagara, 741 feet, with
81 feet of cataracts just below, in the midst of lovely tropical
vegetation. Many other beautiful falls of less height, and cascades
provide an immense amount of water power.

The climate is considered good in most places though there is large
rain-fall, at Georgetown averaging 93 inches a year, in some places
100; but there is no yellow fever, and other diseases except in
certain localities may be guarded against.


BRITISH GUIANA

=Area.= This colony has an area of 90,000 square miles, exceeding that
of Great Britain, a sea coast of 270 miles, and a depth varying from
300 to 535 miles.

The =Population= according to the official report of 1919 is 310,000.

=Boundary.= British Guiana has the Atlantic Ocean on the northeast,
Dutch Guiana east, the Corentyn River serving most of the way as the
boundary line; Brazil is on the south, and Brazil and Venezuela are
west.

=The Government= is practically that of a Crown Colony with a Governor
who has almost absolute power. He is assisted by a legislative council
which has no great influence.

=The Population= is mixed, East Indians and negroes forming by far the
greater proportion of the total, some mestizos, Chinese, Indians, and
10,000 whites. The large majority of the people live in the coastal
belt. Many negroes were brought from Africa as slaves, who, after their
emancipation, in large numbers refused to work on the plantations as
before. East Indians were then brought in, who though not so strong are
more industrious and have better health than those of other races; for
one reason because they dress to suit the climate, draping themselves
with a few yards of cotton cloth in a really artistic manner. The
native Indian is useful to the traveler as boatman, wood-cutter, or
huntsman, also to gold diggers, and seekers of balatá. Some of the half
civilized are fairly reliable. If they become friends they are of great
value. The wild Indians are disappearing, perhaps going farther back.

=Education= is mainly carried on by religious denominations, with
missions in outlying districts; 224 schools receive government
assistance; there is one government free school in Georgetown where
students may be prepared for English universities or for ordinary
fields of labor. Of course there is full religious liberty, but the
government subsidizes the principal churches, especially the English
and Scotch, in the country the parishes alternating. The Roman
Catholic and the Methodist churches also receive annual grants. Other
denominations are represented, but receive no assistance except in some
cases for schools.

The =Post Office= is up to date with telephone (1800 miles of wire),
telegraph (575 miles), and savings bank attachments, the last having
over a million dollars on deposit. There is cable communication with
the West Indies and wireless. British money is not in general use;
dollars and cents according to the decimal system of America are the
common currency. The weights and measures are naturally British like
our own.

=The Capital= of British Guiana, Georgetown, population 54,000, located
at the mouth of the Demerara River, is a tropical garden city with
broad streets, interesting stores, a club, a museum, a curious market.
On account of dampness the houses are all built on pillars. The city
has 50 miles of paved streets with good tramways, etc.


PORTS AND TRANSPORTATION

The chief ports of the Guianas are the three capitals, which are
connected with the outside world by the West Indies Mail Services of
the three mother countries, while other steamship lines run regularly
to London, Liverpool, and Glasgow. There is mail service with Canada
and regular steamers from New York. Coast and river steamers ply
regularly along the coast of British Guiana from the northwest
extremity to the Berbice River, at the mouth of which is the city of
New Amsterdam, called a smaller Georgetown, not very far from the
boundary of Dutch Guiana. The country has 95 miles of railway, 450 of
navigable rivers, 39 miles of canals, and 322 of good roads.

A railway 60 miles long connects Georgetown with New Amsterdam, _i.e._,
it reaches a point on the Berbice River opposite the latter city. Five
miles of this road from Georgetown to Plaisance, completed and opened
for traffic in 1848, is actually the oldest railway in South America.
Another 19 mile line goes from Vreeden Hook opposite Georgetown on the
Demerara River to Greenwich Park on the Atlantic at the mouth of the
Essequibo. Another short line running through primeval forest has been
laid from Wismar on the Demerara, 65 miles from its mouth, to Rockstone
on the Essequibo to give access to the upper part of the latter river
above extensive and dangerous rapids, and further to the Potaro and
other gold fields. The Road, besides passenger and tourist traffic
handles a variety of timber. Its owners, (Sprostons Ltd.), who employ
over 1000 men, maintain a coast and river service, and own a foundry,
lumber yard, etc. A railway to the Brazil boundary, long planned,
would open up the interior and its valuable resources. From Rockstone,
launches run 90 miles up the river to Potaro Landing. A service was to
be organized to the Kaieteur Falls on the Potaro River.

Ferries cross the mouths of the three principal rivers, the Essequibo,
the Demerara, and the Berbice. The estuary of the Essequibo River is
15 miles wide. It contains several large islands, on some of which are
plantations. Vessels drawing less than 20 feet can enter the river and
go up 50 miles. The mouth of the Demerara River, two miles wide, has a
sand bar prohibiting the entrance of vessels drawing more than 19 feet.
To such as enter, the river is navigable for 70 miles. The Berbice
River, two miles wide at its mouth, is navigable 105 miles for vessels
drawing 12 feet and 175 miles for boats drawing 7 feet. The Corentyn
River with an estuary 14 miles wide is navigable for 150 miles; this
river is the boundary between British and Dutch Guiana. Roads good
enough for automobiles and carriages, which use them, extend from the
Corentyn River along the coast some miles beyond the mouth of the
Essequibo and a few miles up the rivers.


RESOURCES

At present agriculture and mining are the leading industries.


AGRICULTURE

=Sugar=, the chief source of revenue for the colony, in slavery days
brought great wealth to the planters; but after the emancipation
some estates were divided, the negroes refused to work steadily if
at all, and production greatly declined. At length East Indians who
were imported helped to revive the industry. Of 105,000 agricultural
laborers 73,000 are East Indians. The plantations are mostly in the
coastal lowlands where 77,000 acres are cultivated. Attention to the
dams needed to keep out the sea in front and water from the morass at
the side, also to the drainage ditches, necessary on account of the
sudden rains, occasionally ten inches a day, adds much to the labor, as
they demand incessant care. The value of the product in 1916 including
sugar and rum was estimated at $15,000,000 or more. Demerara sugar has
long been famous; the soil is extremely fertile.

=Rice=, to which 60,000 acres are devoted, and which the East Indians
especially consume, is next to sugar in importance. Formerly 39,000,000
pounds were imported annually, while in 1916, about 70,000,000 pounds
were produced and 30,000,000 exported. The largest producer is an
American company. The value of the rice exported in 1916 was over
$1,000,000. The quality is superior to the East Indian.

=Coconuts.= Increasing attention is paid to raising coconuts. Thirty
thousand acres of the trees, which seem to enjoy the sea breeze, have
been planted. In one year 2,000,000 nuts and 180,000 pounds of copra,
dried coconut, were exported, also coconut oil, the value of all the
products shipped being $45,000. This will be greatly increased when all
the trees come into bearing.

=Cacao.= The culture of cacao, as yet unimportant, is increasing. It
grows well in the river bottoms of the forest region, but does not like
the sea breezes. It may, however, be protected from these on the coast
lands by a wind break of tall trees.

=Coffee= also has been neglected though about 240,000 pounds were
exported in 1914. Its quality is said to be equal to that of Trinidad
or Caracas.

=Pará rubber= is cultivated in plantations on river lands and
immediately back of the coast, more than 6000 acres being planted; but
as yet little has been exported.

The =plantain=, beloved by the negro, and praised for its food value,
is grown in enormous quantities. The unripe fruit is usually eaten
boiled, but is better fried, or roasted and buttered. Sliced, dried,
and ground, it is thought by some to be superior to arrowroot or sago.

Other tropical fruits might be grown for export, oranges, limes,
mangoes, pineapples, _sapodilla_ called luscious, guava, _cassava_
biscuit, etc. The _saouri_ nut which grows in the forest one writer
calls the most delicious nut in the world.


FORESTS

About five-sixths of the country is forest land, nearly all the
property of the government. These 78,000 square miles of timber
are largely inaccessible on account of the numerous waterfalls and
rapids of the rivers; a railway line to the remote interior is of
the utmost importance. The timber and lumber trade is slight, though
the _greenheart_, a wood of great strength, weighing 75 pounds the
cubic foot, is sought for its use in the construction of docks, heavy
flooring, etc. The trees which grow in clay soil near rivers and
creeks supply logs 18 by 24 inches, 70 feet long. Most of it is shipped
to Panamá where it was used in the locks; 40 to 60 varieties of trees
are found on an acre. The export of _balatá_ is important, only sugar,
rum, and gold preceding it in value, nearly $1,000,000 worth in a year.
It is a kind of gutta percha much used for belting. The tree is tapped
the same way as a rubber tree. Licenses are granted for certain forest
areas and the country is ranged over by prospectors and tappers. Over
1,000,000 pounds are produced. The milk resembles that of the cow, and
is sometimes used for coffee, but it is believed to be unwholesome. A
tree usually yields one gallon, which produces five pounds of balatá,
but some trees five gallons. The trees must not be tapped oftener than
once in four years.

In the forest are found various gums and balsams, the _copaiba_, the
tonka bean, the basis of many perfumes, vanilla, nutmeg, oils from
palm nuts, and most important, the _caraba_ oil which is used by
the Indians to lubricate their bodies and to dress the hair for the
purpose of warding off noxious insects and vermin. It has a strong
unpleasant odor, doubtless arising from its valuable properties. Light
woods suitable for paper are found and many others of value. There is
a variety of fibre plants, agave, pineapple, _pita_ hemp, and others,
some of which might be utilized to save the great importation of rice
and sugar bags. There is an inexhaustible supply of pulp material for
the manufacture of paper.


MINING

=Mining= is an important industry in Guiana, the mineral wealth being
chiefly in gold and diamonds, though recently _bauxite_, valuable as
a source of aluminum and for other purposes, has been found in what
promises to be paying quantities.

Gold mining was prosecuted in the 17th and 18th centuries, but not much
in the 19th till 1857 when some activity began in the Yuruán district
and later along the Cuyuni River. In the former a nugget of 180 ounces
was obtained. By 1885 the industry had become important and an American
prospector finding 275 pounds of gold created much excitement. Later a
nugget of 333 ounces, worth over $6500, was discovered at Barima. Most
of the gold has been taken, largely by Indians, from alluvial diggings;
some dredging has been successful. In 25 years nearly 3,000,000 ounces
were mined. In 1913 the output was from ten different river districts.
A good recent find was near Pigeon Island on the Cuyuni. Most of the
districts are so difficult of access that scientific mining with modern
machinery is almost impossible. In 1915 about 54,000 ounces were
produced and since 1890 over $40,000,000.

A new gold field discovered by American prospectors is between the head
of the Takutu River and the Tucurutu Mountains.

Many diamonds are found but mostly small. In 13 years from 1900 over
1,000,000 stones weighing 85,800 carats were produced; in 1915 6200
carats valued at $51,000.

The discovery of oil in several places has been rumored, the most
favorable indications being in the Waini River district. Blocks of
bitumen found off the coast seem to indicate another pitch lake, and
asphalt is said to have been located near the coast, though not yet
worked. White quartz sand suitable for glass making and _kaolin_ for
pottery exist in quantity, forming reefs and sand hills.


OTHER INDUSTRIES

Cattle raising has great possibilities but slight development. There
are 112,000 head of cattle.

The waters have several hundred species of fish, many well flavored and
worth salting. Isinglass or fish glue is exported.




                             CHAPTER XIII

                        DUTCH AND FRENCH GUIANA


DUTCH GUIANA

This country, sometimes called Suriname, about the size of New York
State, by the Peace of 1667 was conceded to the Netherlands, Great
Britain taking New York in exchange. Situated between British and
French Guiana it has the Atlantic Ocean on the north, and Brazil on the
south.

The colony has a Governor and an executive council appointed by the
Crown, a Legislature elected from the 16 districts. There are District
Courts besides a Supreme Court at Paramaribo appointed by the Crown.
The population is about 107,500, the vast majority colored, besides
negroes and Indians in the forest.

=Paramaribo=, population 37,000, the capital and the only city of
importance, is situated at the mouth of the Surinam River. Other
settlements are on or near the coast, mostly a little east or west
of the Surinam, between the Saramacca and the Commewyne rivers. Some
remarkable cross channels and the various rivers make boat navigation
possible, at least in the rainy season, all the way from the Maroni
River, the eastern boundary, to the Corentyn on the west. Like the
rivers in British Guiana those here are not navigable far up, being
likewise interrupted by rapids. Back of the low coast land are savannas
with low hills, some rising to 3000 feet, and impenetrable forests back
to the Tumac Humac Range along the Brazilian frontier. There are a long
and a short dry season with periods of heavy and lighter rain.

=Transportation.= The only port of commercial importance is the
capital. Internal communication, in addition to the rivers and
channels, is confined to a single railway extending 109 miles from
Paramaribo to Macami on the Surinam River, a gold shipping point, to
which at last accounts there was a weekly train.


RESOURCES

The natural resources of the country are practically the same as those
of British Guiana.


AGRICULTURE

=Sugar= was a source of great wealth in the days of slavery, but since
this was abolished in 1863 the industry has declined. Where once
there were 400 plantations with an export of 26,000,000 pounds in the
year 1800, there are now hardly a dozen, scarcity of labor hindering
industry. The soil is rich, and recently there has been some revival,
so that 25,000,000 pounds were produced in 1918.

=Cacao= has been cultivated from the beginning, and increasingly after
the abolition of slavery. From 1870 when 1,000,000 pounds were exported
the production increased until 9,000,000 were exported in 1895, since
when it has been declining. Some plantations were ruined by a disease
which attacked the trees. Its effects have been gradually overcome, and
the crop in 1918 was nearly 4,000,000 pounds.

=Coffee= was a large crop in the 18th century, 400 plantations
producing over 12,000,000 pounds annually; later the production
decreased to 500,000 pounds, but in 1918 was over 3,700,000.

=Balatá= for a while was first in importance, but later diminished.

=Rice= alone shows progress but though 7,500,000 pounds are raised,
some is imported, mostly from British Guiana. Some bananas are raised,
over 700,000 bunches, a few sent to Europe. The production of corn was
nearly 4,000,000 pounds; of rum over 1,000,000 litres.


MINING

=Gold= has been mined for a long time. After a large discovery in
1876 there was a rush to the field. For ten years prior to 1914 gold
production declined, but increased in 1915 when nearly $800,000 in
bullion was exported to the United States. Some European countries have
invested, but few attempts with machinery have been successful.

An American company is said to have spent recently $1,000,000 in
prospecting, in securing land, and in construction work about 100 miles
from Paramaribo. They found large areas with high grade bauxite, and
gold-quartz possibilities. Some gold was procured from hand worked
placers. Arrangements for placer working on the Marowijne River have
been made with the Dutch and French authorities. Quicksilver and high
grade iron ore are reported as existing. Great caution should be
exercised by persons disposed to enter the field.

Oil is said to have been located in three places: on the Surinam River
about 90 miles above Paramaribo; on the Marowijne, 100 miles above
Albina; and between the Surinam River and the railway, 48 miles above
the head of deep water navigation. The second field is said to offer
the best prospects, but there have been no developments.


OTHER INDUSTRIES

Dutch Guiana is rich in undeveloped resources. There are immense
untouched forests, grassy savannas capable of feeding thousands
of cattle, undeveloped mineral resources; but all these await
transportation facilities.

East Indian coolies and Javanese have been brought to the colony as
laborers, but it is said that there are not enough laborers in the busy
season and too many the rest of the time. It is hoped that the region
will again prove attractive for settlement and capital.


FRENCH GUIANA

This colony, the smallest of the three, has the Atlantic on the north
and northeast; the Oyapock River on the east and the Tumac Humac
Mountains on the south separate it from Brazil, the Marowijne River
from Dutch Guiana on the west. The population is about 26,000. The
country is governed by a Commissioner-General, and by a Privy Council;
there is an elected Council of 16 members.

The =Capital=, Cayenne, with about one half of the population, at the
mouth of the Oyack River, is the only town of importance. It is well
situated on a rocky eminence with a pleasant view of the harbor. It
might be made more attractive than Georgetown, but the colony has
always been a little behind the others, its use as a penal settlement
being a great disadvantage.

=Transportation.= Steamboat communication is had with the Safety
Islands, 35 miles, with the mouth of the Marowijne River, 80 miles,
with the coast in both directions, and with the Island of Martinique,
which has better shipping communication. Steamers of the Compagnie
Générale Trans-Atlantique call at Cayenne monthly.


RESOURCES

In physical characteristics this colony is similar to the others, but
its agriculture is of slight importance. The principal crops are corn,
rice, manioc, cacao, coffee, sugar, indigo, tobacco.

=Mining= and forest products alone are of value in export. Gold is
the chief production, more than $2,000,000 a year being generally
exported. Most of the 225 claims developed are being worked by paroled
convicts. Those who escape or are paroled often give serious annoyance
to the people in the other Guianas and are frequently a serious danger.
Most of the country is still covered with dense forest, where probably
much more gold will be found. Phosphate rock is shipped in small
quantities.

The American Company already referred to has headquarters at St.
Laurent, the site of the penal colony, a port 40 miles up the Marowijne
or Maroni River. Here they have big dredges, aeroplanes, and a wireless
station.

Traces of petroleum have been observed southeast of the Marowijne
River, but the indications are not of definite importance.

=Forest= products are second in importance, rosewood and its extract,
other hard woods, and balatá being exported; also vegetable oils,
cacao, and a few domestic animals.

Railways have been talked of, and it is expected that one will be
constructed towards the interior in the not remote future.

Aeroplane service is reported as to be installed, both freight and
passenger, from Cayenne to the gold regions of the interior.




                            THE WEST COAST




                              CHAPTER XIV

         ECUADOR: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.


South of Colombia, fortunate in its Atlantic and Pacific Coast lines,
are three exclusively Pacific countries, unless we count a rearward
communication, so to speak, with the Atlantic by the Amazon for the
first two, or note that the coast line of the third runs at the south
quite to that ocean. Ecuador, Peru, and Chile, in the order named, now
occupy the remaining Pacific coast line for the several thousand miles
from Colombia to the Horn. In the group of West Coast States, however,
Bolivia may be counted, for though nearly forty years ago she lost her
small strip of coast line, her communication with the outside world
is chiefly by way of the Pacific, and with these Republics she has
characteristics in common.


AREA, POPULATION, BOUNDARY

=Area.= First of the West Coast countries from the north, Ecuador has
an uncertain area on account of boundary disputes. That with Colombia
is lately settled, but not the one with Peru. With approximately
116,000 square miles now in her possession, she is usually ranked as
next to the smallest South American Republic, Uruguay. The country
extends from about 2° North Lat. to 6° South.

=Population.= As no official census of Ecuador has ever been taken, the
population is variously stated. A liberal estimate places the figures
at 2,000,000.

=Boundary.= Ecuador’s boundary is uncertain as to the matter of
touching Brazil. However, she has Colombia on the north and northeast,
Peru on the south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west; most maps give
Peru a section on the southeast as well, shutting Ecuador off from
Brazil.


HISTORY

From the remote past, Ecuador has been inhabited by many tribes
of Indians; one of these held sway at Quito for a thousand years
before their subjugation by the Peruvian Incas. Less than a century
later Pizarro arrived with the Spaniards. Hardly had these conquered
Peru, when in 1534, the year following the overthrow of Atahuallpa,
Pizarro dispatched Diego de Almagro and Sebastian de Benalcazar for
the conquest of Ecuador, after which a few settlements were made. In
1538, Gonzalo Pizarro, brother of the conqueror, became Governor. In
1540, with Francisco de Orellana and a large expedition, he went east,
descending through the forests to the Napo River. There a boat was
built in which Orellana with others sailed down to the Amazon, then on
to the Atlantic Ocean, thus first exploring the greatest river on the
globe to which he gave its present name.

For almost three centuries Ecuador was ruled by Spain, most of the time
under the authority of the Viceroy at Lima, until in 1822 occurred
the decisive battle of Pichincha, which assured the independence of
Ecuador. Soon after, the country joined New Granada and Venezuela in
the Colombian Federation, but in 1830 set up for itself a separate
republic. Many difficulties, insurrections, and revolutions have
occurred quite up to the present time, 11 changes of the constitution
since 1830; but settled conditions favorable to the country’s
development are now hoped for.


GOVERNMENT

Ecuador is a centralized rather than a federal republic, with the usual
three departments. The President, elected for four years by direct
vote, is ineligible for the consecutive term. Congress consists of a
Senate with 32 members and a Chamber of Deputies with 48. Suffrage
is limited to males over 21 years of age, who can read and write.
The Judiciary consists of a Supreme Court at Quito, and six others
in as many large towns, municipal and civil courts, and justices of
the peace. The Provinces are administered by Governors named by the
Executive, the Departments or Cantons by _jefes politicos_, political
chiefs, the Parishes by political lieutenants, and the municipalities
by presidents.

The Republic, the capital of which is Quito, has 15 Provinces and
two Territories. Of the former, five are along the coast, and ten
are inland occupying the mountainous section. The coastal Provinces
from the north are Esmeraldas, Manabí, Guayas, and El Oro. Los Rios,
although not touching the coast, may be counted with them, as occupying
a part of the lowlands, it shares most of their characteristics. The
mountain Provinces, beginning at the north are Carchi, Imbabura,
Pichincha, León, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Bolívar, Cañar, Azuay, Loja.
Of the two Territories, Oriente is of course the section at the east,
which belongs to the Amazon Basin, the other is the Galápagos Islands,
nearly 600 miles from the main land.

These divisions, with approximate area and population, their capitals
with population and altitude follow:


POPULATION

The population of Ecuador, approximately 2,000,000, as in all of these
tropical countries is in three principal classes: the whites, the pure
Indians, and the mestizos, those of mixed blood, here Spanish and
Indian. There are also some negroes, mulattoes, and _zambos_, the last
of negro and Indian blood. Those who in these tropical countries are
called white in most cases no doubt have a slight Indian strain, as
few women were among the earliest settlers; but no prejudice exists on
this account. Even when the Indian strain is apparent, having money
and education they enjoy the same social standing and occupy the
highest positions. Those of pure Spanish blood in most of the countries
must be few. The whites with some of the mestizos form a cultured
class with the manners and customs for the most part of such society
anywhere. The sons of wealthy families are often educated abroad and
many have traveled in Europe. Paris fashions in dress are followed and
continental customs generally. Courtesy is a marked characteristic,
possibly carried to excess.

-------------+---------+----------+----------+----------+----------
             |  AREA,  |          |          |          | ALTITUDE,
  PROVINCES  |in square|POPULATION| CAPITALS |Population| in feet
             |  miles  |          |          |          |
-------------+---------+----------+----------+----------+----------
Esmeraldas   | 5,465   |  20,000  |Esmeraldas|   6,000  |  [5]
Manabí       | 7,892   | 100,000  |Portoviejo|   8,000  |  [5]
Guayas       | 8,330   | 120,000  |Guayaquil |  94,000  |  [5]
Los Rios     | 2,296   |  32,800  |Babahoya  |   7,000  |  [5]
El Oro       | 2,340   |  35,000  |Machala   |   6,000  |  [5]
Carchi       | 1,495   |  36,000  |Tulcán    |   8,000  | 9,765
Imbabura     | 2,415   |  70,000  |Ibarra    |  10,000  | 7,298
Pichincha    | 6,217   | 200,000  |Quito     | 100,000  | 9,348
León         | 2,595   | 110,000  |Latacunga |  15,000  | 9,187
Tungurahua   | 1,686   | 107,000  |Ambato    |  14,000  | 8,554
Chimborazo   | 2,989   | 125,000  |Riobamba  |  20,000  | 9,177
Bolívar      | 1,160   |  45,000  |Guaranda  |   8,000  | 8,751
Cañar        | 1,520   |  74,000  |Azogues   |  10,000  | 8,321
Azuay        | 3,874   | 150,000  |Cuenca    |  40,000  | 8,465
Loja         | 3,706   | 100,000  |Loja      |  15,000  | 7,281
             |         |          |          |          |
 TERRITORIES |         |          |          |          |
El Oriente   |80,000   | 200,000  |Archidona |   1,000  | unknown
Galápagos    | 2,868   |   1,000  |          |          |
-------------+---------+----------+----------+----------+----------

[5] These capitals are at or near sea level.

The bulk of the population is frankly mestizo and Indian. The mestizos
may be more than one half of the population, the Indians perhaps one
quarter. The Indian population may be regarded as in three principal
classes of widely different character: those of the coast, of the
highlands, and of the Amazon Basin. The Indians of the coast region
were of various tribes speaking different languages. Superficially
christianized, most of them have become more or less amalgamated with
the whites or with negroes, but in the forests of Esmeraldas where
the Indians, living under similar conditions, closely resemble those
of the Napo district, the Cayapas retain their language and customs,
continuing to live apart from and to avoid the whites. If not molested
they are hospitable and affable with strangers.

The Indians on the uplands are similar to those on the Peruvian
Plateau, timid and distrustful of foreigners, including the native
whites. They constitute the greater part of the laboring class and
while not slaves in name they are forced to work for a pittance, and
they live as a rule in extreme poverty and ignorance. Laws for their
protection are generally ignored, and throughout the entire Andine
region they are undoubtedly in a far lower condition than when the
Spaniards invaded the country. The mestizos, instead of sympathizing
with them, generally treat them worse than do the whites, some of
whom recognize the abuses to which the Indians are subject and desire
to improve their condition. The Indians are strong and vigorous,
especially as to carrying heavy burdens for great distances. Like
many other persons they have an unfortunate weakness for alcohol. The
men wear short loose trousers or drawers of linen or cotton, a shirt,
and most important, a woolen poncho. They go much with bare feet, but
usually have sandals made of maguey fibre or rawhide. The women wear a
skirt, a cloth covering the body, and a _manta_ or shawl in which the
baby (there usually is one) or some other object is carried. With a
little education, kind, just treatment, and decent wages, these people
would be converted into a working class of far greater value than at
present, highly serviceable for the development and progress of the
various countries.

Totally dissimilar are the Indians of the Amazonian forest, of whom
there are 46 tribes north of the Marañón, though the differences among
them are ascribed to environment, rather than to diversity of race.
These wear no clothing or a loin cloth. Many are fairly light colored
and in general they are well formed. Their weapons are bows and arrows,
and the blowpipe used also by the Cayapas. Some of the tribes are
especially savage, as the Jíbaros and the Huambisa Indians. The former
in early times destroyed the Spanish colonies on the Amazon affluents,
while the latter in 1599 seized the Spanish women after sacking Sevilla
de Oro. Both of these tribes have a considerable admixture of Spanish
blood and are sometimes fair skinned. They have a reputation for
treachery and cruelty, but it is said that their savage deeds are in
retaliation for countless wrongs previously inflicted by white men, as
in the case of recent atrocities.

The mestizos who live among the whites and intermarry with them class
themselves with them whenever their economic position permits. Dwelling
in remote regions and in villages among the Indians they tend to revert
to the Indian type. Until they acquire wealth they form the artisan
element, the traders, and the shopkeepers.


EDUCATION

Primary education is free and obligatory, but the number of schools is
insufficient, and a large part of the people are indifferent. Eighty
thousand pupils are in attendance, and 4500 more in the secondary
schools. There are universities at Quito, Guayaquil, and Cuenca; six
Schools of Arts and Trades, also Schools of Agriculture, and other
institutions of a technical or professional character. The machinery
of education is equal to that of its neighbors if not in advance, but
too many professional men are found in all the countries.


PRESS, RELIGION, ETC.

=Press.= Excellent newspapers exist, notably in Guayaquil and Quito,
influencing civic progress.

=Religion.= In 1904 the Church was placed under the control of the
State, and all religions were made equal before the law. The women are
devoted to the Catholic Church, as in all the South American countries,
but the educated men are largely materialists. Civil marriage and
divorce were established in 1904.

=Telegraph.= There are several thousand telephones, mostly in
Guayaquil, and about 6000 miles of telegraph wire. The rates are
10 cents for 10 words, and 5 cents for 10 words additional. Cable
connection is made at Santa Elena on the Pacific, which has also a
wireless station.

=Money.= A condor is a gold coin equal to an English pound, and to 10
sucres. A sucre is therefore 48.6 cents. The sucre equals 100 centavos.
The sucres and some smaller coins are silver. The coinage of Peru is
similar. It is easy to remember that a sucre or a Peruvian sol is about
half a dollar, a centavo half a cent.

The =Metric System= is legal, but the old Spanish weights and measures,
as in Colombia, are much used.




                              CHAPTER XV

                   ECUADOR: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS


Ecuador, like Peru, has three longitudinal sections: the Coastal zone,
the Inter Andine region, including the mountain ranges with the plateau
or valleys between, and the Trans Andine, a part of the Amazon basin.


THE COASTAL ZONE

The coastal zone in Ecuador is much wider than at the north or south.
We have seen that in Colombia the mountain ranges are so close to the
shore as to leave little space for cities or agriculture, while in
Peru and Chile for the most part the mountains are visible from the
sea. Further, a good portion of Ecuador’s coastal zone resembles in
some respects the Amazon section, while in Peru the two are utterly
different. Ecuador is the only country favored on the Pacific side with
rivers navigable to any considerable extent, and the dense tropical
vegetation of much of the coast is in striking contrast to the Peruvian
deserts. Remembering that the equator crosses this country, it is easy
to understand that where there is much rain the lowlands have a humid
tropical climate. The coast curves slightly outward from the north to
Capes San Lorenzo and Santa Elena, the latter lacking but a few miles
of being the most western point of South America, which distinction
falls to Peru. Near these capes the waters of the cold Antarctic
current turn west towards the Galápagos Islands, the tropical waters
above and the colder current below affecting the climate of the two
sections. Just south of Cape Santa Elena begins the Gulf of Guayaquil,
the only considerable arm of the sea indenting the West Coast between
Panamá and the Island of Chiloé in Chile, a stretch of 3000 miles.
Considering the gulf as the broad triangle between Capes Santa Elena,
Ecuador, and Blanco in Peru, with the island, Puná, as inner limit, the
width is 140 miles. The boundary line of Ecuador, a little north of the
Tumbes River, leaves most of the Gulf line in that country. The Gulf
penetrates east and slightly north about 100 miles to the Guayas River
or estuary. Along the southern shore are occasional estuaries with
small river openings and mangrove swamps.


THE MOUNTAIN SECTION

The central mountainous region belongs of course to the great chain
of the Andes. As in the countries previously studied, this section
of Ecuador differs greatly from the lowlands. Happily the formation
is simpler than in Colombia. Extending from a rather confused mass
near the boundary of Peru to another jumble of peaks at the Colombian
border, a distance of 300 miles, are two parallel ranges, the East and
the West Cordillera, from 20 to 30 miles apart. The plateau region
between, which is higher at the north, is separated by two lower
transverse ridges called _páramos_ into three shallow basins or plains:
those of Quito, Ambato, and Cuenca; the first basin with an altitude
of 9500 feet, the second, 8500 feet, the third, 7800 feet. Some of the
water from these flows into the Pacific and some into the Atlantic.
East and west are the two rows of mountains in a remarkably symmetrical
arrangement, sometimes exactly opposite each other. Nowhere else in the
world are there two such rows of giants or such a collection of snow
crowned volcanoes. Of the 22 great peaks, several are active volcanoes
and more are extinct. The main range or Cordillera Real is the eastern,
with the larger number of lofty peaks; but the highest of all is in
the West Cordillera, Chimborazo, altitude 20,498 feet. This mountain,
first ascended by Edward Whymper, a celebrated English climber, in
1880, was formerly supposed by many to be the loftiest of the Andes;
but farther south at least a dozen peaks are higher, probably two or
three times as many.

The volcanic section, as we have seen, extends into Colombia; but not
into Peru. Especially noteworthy are Cotopaxi of the East Cordillera,
the highest active volcano in the world, 19,613 feet, and Pichincha,
the only one historically eruptive in the West Cordillera. The latter,
situated very near Quito, has been the source of highly destructive
eruptions. Sangay, east of the Ambato Basin, the most southern and
among the most active on the globe, does little harm as no settlements
are near. The Cuenca Basin, with no erupting volcanoes, contains
volcanic material. In the most southern province, Loja, no such signs
appear, nor in Peru for some degrees south.


ORIENTE

The country of the Oriente, with no llanos, is similar to forested
southeastern Colombia. The mountains slope down into the forests,
which cover their lower eastern declivities and the plain beyond. This
inclines toward the region of the Amazon, with slight undulations well
away from the mountains; but the nearer sections are broken by lateral
spurs from the main chain, or by low isolated ranges separating the
basins of the larger Amazon affluents.


RIVERS, AMAZON TRIBUTARIES

North of the _nudo_ or knot in the Loja province, spurs and ravines
lead off from the high mountain range. Here swift flowing streams
descend in a region called wild and savage. Those rising farthest
north reach the Amazon at a more eastern point than the streams rising
nearer, at the south; so the mention of the principal rivers of the
eastern slope will begin with the most southern and western tributary.
It may be remembered that the Amazon is formed by the union of the
Marañón and the Ucayali Rivers, both flowing northwest in Peru, the
former, the one nearer the Pacific coast. Above 6° S. Lat. the Marañón
turns sharply east, flowing with northerly and southerly deviations,
receiving in its course many tributaries before and after breaking
through the East Cordillera of Peru at the Pongo de Manseriche. Here
the waters of the previously broad river pass through an extraordinary
chasm 3 miles long and 100 feet wide. The walls are not 2000 feet
high as often stated; in one or two places they may rise 40 feet
perpendicularly, but usually they are wooded slopes, rising in a single
locality perhaps 2000 feet.[6] The principal rivers flowing from
Ecuador into the Marañón or Amazon are the Chinchipe, Santiago, Morona,
Pastaza, Tigre, Nanay, and Napo. These with the streams from Colombia
drain the northwest part of the Amazon Basin and are capable of adding
much to the economic value of the region. The few white settlements
existing are as nothing in this vast wilderness.

[6] See Geographical Journal, October, 1920

=The Chinchipe River= rises in southern Loja and after receiving many
tributaries flows into the Marañón a little below where that river runs
northeast. The lower part of the Chinchipe is navigable.

=The Santiago River= rises near the town of Loja between the two
Cordilleras. Several of its important tributaries rise in Loja, or in
the Cuenca basin farther north. One of these, the Pauta, has a branch
rising only 30 miles from the Gulf of Guayaquil, a source nearer the
Pacific than that of any other river flowing into the Atlantic unless
it be in the very south of Chile. The Santiago enters the Marañón a
little above the rapids of the Pongo Manseriche. At the mouth of the
stream was once a town, Santiago, which like Borja below the Pongo was
destroyed by savages.

=The Morona River.= Two of the many tributaries of the Morona rise in
the East Cordillera at heights above 13,000 and 14,000 feet north of
the Apuay knot. At high water the Morona is navigable for 300 miles,
at low water for 200, for steamers drawing from 2 to 4 feet, and also
two of its tributaries; but due to the tortuous course of the river the
300 miles equals but 120 in a straight line. Earlier many flourishing
missions existed in this section, but in the last century the Huambisa
Indians inhabiting the upper reaches of the Santiago and the Morona
almost exterminated the Indians who had been civilized. So recently as
February, 1913, members of the same tribe massacred the soldiers of a
Peruvian outpost. This, notwithstanding, was later re-established by
Peru.

=The Pastaza River=, rising in the basin of Riobamba at a height of
nearly 15,000 feet, flows through a little known district receiving
many tributaries. The lower part is navigable for steamers at high
water to the Huasaga branch, 120 miles, and 200 miles farther by
canoe. This fluvial system drains the basins of Latacunga, Ambato,
and Riobamba, the snows of Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, and other peaks
contributing to its waters. A spot where the unified river at an
altitude of about 6000 feet in one leap makes a splendid fall of 190
feet is said to be one of the most picturesque scenes in the Andes.

=The River Tigre= belongs to the region of the plains, though some of
its affluents rise in the East Cordillera. Although in volume not to
be compared to the Pastaza or the Napo it is quite as important, being
navigable for steamers of 4 to 8 feet draught at high water for over
400 miles, and in low water for steamers drawing 2 to 4 feet; 100 miles
more on the Corriente branch and 40 on the Pucasuro, with an additional
1260 miles by canoe on its various tributaries. The region traversed
is rich in natural products and with over 100 tributaries the river
deserves remembrance. It enters the Marañón 40 miles above the Ucayali.

=The Nanay=, a much smaller plains river with a slow current, yet with
a high bank and a healthful climate, may be ascended for 105 miles and
has some importance.

=The Napo River=, formerly part of the boundary line between Colombia
and Ecuador but now given over to Ecuador, has sources among the
Ecuadorian volcanoes, Cotopaxi, Antisana, and others. At first the
descent is rapid. At the foot of the Cordillera 100 miles from the
source, and but 1500 feet above the sea, canoe navigation begins at
the village of Napo. Sixty miles below, the Coca River comes in. This
section includes the Napo missions, a beautiful region long known and
visited by botanists and geologists. Here ends the influence of the
Roman Church and the land of the _salvajes_ or _infieles_ begins. It
was down the Coca valley that Gonzales Pizarro and Orellana came in
1540. From this point the Napo runs in forested plains, receiving
many more tributaries, the large Aguarico, and the Curaray. The Napo
is called navigable in high water for steamers from the Amazon about
200 miles up to the Curaray, some say to the Aguarico, 560 miles, and
little less at low water. At one point the Napo is but 50 or 60 miles
from the Putumayo, with which communication by canoe is possible, and
often made. The route from the Putumayo to Iquitos by way of the Napo
is much shorter for the rubber gatherers, as the Napo flows into the
Amazon not far below that city, while the Putumayo enters it several
hundred miles farther down.


RIVERS OF THE COAST

The Rivers of the Coast are with one exception of comparatively slight
importance.

=The Santiago River= (not to be confounded with the Amazon tributary
of that name), a short distance from the Colombian border, is formed
by several large streams, and has many tributaries, receiving its
waters from high in the West Cordillera. Some of the lower reaches are
navigable for canoes and steam launches.

=The Esmeraldas River=, second in importance to the Guayas, rises a few
miles north of Quito in the high plateau region, from which, breaking
through the West Cordillera, it descends to the coast. While not
navigable for steamers because of the swift current, it may be ascended
by canoes for more than 60 miles. With a great number of tributaries it
drains a very large mountain area as well as a slightly smaller region
of lowland.

The =Guayas= is undoubtedly the most important river system on the
entire west coast, and the only one admitting much navigation. It
drains and irrigates a large region, 14,000 square miles, between the
great Andes and the low coastal hills. This section has been called
the most fertile belt of tropical America. Below the Island of Puná,
the river is lost in the Gulf; above, it has much the character of an
estuary up to the city of Guayaquil, 33 miles, where it has a width of
more than a mile. Not far above the city, the river loses its name at
the confluence of the Daule and Bodegas. These two have other names, as
do their tributaries also. The principal branches of the Bodegas, which
is known also as the Babahoyo, are the Yaguachi or Chimbo, the Vinces
or Quevado, and the Calamara or Sapotal; the Daule farther west, also
called the Balzar, is about 130 miles long, not counting its windings.
In its upper part it receives the Grande and Peripe Rivers, and lower
down a number of streams and _esteros_ or canals.


CLIMATE

The climate of the several sections, as in Colombia and Venezuela,
varies chiefly on account of the altitude, though in places affected
also by other causes obvious or hidden. The coastal region is warm
with a mean temperature of 82.4°, but with variation in humidity and
rainfall. South of the equator the coast is arid with little rain,
except in the vicinity of the Gulf of Guayaquil; but farther north in
the Province of Esmeraldas there is rain and luxuriant vegetation, as
along the Colombian littoral. Towards the mountains, the climate though
warmer is agreeable in the dry season.

The mountains which approach the shore of the Gulf of Guayaquil
condense the moisture of the trade winds from the east, causing
plenty of rain, sometimes too much; the humidity is excessive.
Guayaquil, average temperature 80°, has been notoriously unhealthful.
The condition, however, was due more to lack of sanitation than to
the climate itself. We know of the wonderful change at Panamá; but
at Guayaquil, partly no doubt because of several revolutions and
financial difficulties, yellow fever and other diseases have long been
prevalent. Happily yellow fever was eradicated under the supervision of
General Gorgas, but bubonica and small pox may still exist. Recently
contracts have been placed for sanitation, sewers, paving, and other
improvements, and something is already accomplished.

In some sections there are two rainy and two dry seasons a year, in
others it is liable to rain at any time. At Guayaquil the rainy season
is from December to April inclusive, or longer, the remainder of the
year being dry. In Ecuador the dry season though the cooler is called
_verano_ or summer, while the warmer rainy months are called _invierno_
or winter.

The climate of the Ecuadorian Highlands may be called healthful, with
varying temperatures according to the altitude and exposure to the
wind. On the east side of the mountains the precipitation is greater
than on the west side, as along the entire Cordilleras, except in
southern Chile. The snow line varies from 14,000 feet to 15,650 and
more, the difference depending chiefly upon the amount of precipitation
in the various localities. As the dwellings in these regions have no
artificial heat they are uncomfortable much of the time for Americans,
accustomed to warm houses. A similar condition prevails in all the
cooler sections of South America, the natives being indifferent to a
temperature that would be discomfort to most of us. When it is really
too cold for them they put on overcoats, furs, ponchos, and even hats
in the house. In general in the Inter-Andine region between 6000 and
11,000 feet altitude the annual temperature is from 64° to 68° with
frequent variations. At any season rain in the afternoon is common,
and in the summer high winds make the _paramos_ often dangerous. The
high death rate among the working people and Indians is due more to bad
living conditions than to the climate. Leprosy is fairly common; there
is a good deal of malaria and typhoid fever. Tuberculosis is unknown
but catarrhal complaints are prevalent. Persons coming up from the
lowlands frequently suffer from mountain sickness, _soroche_, though
less than where the railroads reach a higher elevation.

In the Trans-Andine section the lower region has two wet and two dry
seasons, the most rain being from the end of February to the middle
of June, another period is from the middle of October to January; but
there is rain in every month. On the mountain slopes the dry season is
from November to April.




                              CHAPTER XVI

               ECUADOR: CAPITAL, PROVINCES, CHIEF CITIES


THE CAPITAL

=Quito=, capital of Ecuador, population 100,000, altitude 9348 feet,
has a world wide reputation as the city on or under the equator. It is
within a quarter of a degree. Interesting historically and on account
of its unusual and beautiful location, it is backward in many ways.
There are fine Government buildings and churches, hotels said to be
fair, cultured people, many Indians, recently a tramway. Lately sewers
and paving have been authorized. The climate is considered good with a
temperature of from 40° to 70°; a half day’s journey will bring one to
a sultry valley with tropical vegetation; hence every kind of fruit and
vegetable is in the market.


PROVINCES

=Esmeraldas=, the most northern of the coastal Provinces of Ecuador,
thus bordering on Colombia, has at the east Carchi, Imbabura, and
Pichincha. Although its natural riches have hitherto received less
attention than they deserve, it has excellent prospects for the future.
The region is well watered and the vegetation rich. Near the boundary,
the large bay, Ancon de Sardinas, with its estuaries is navigable for
small steamers and launches. Now difficult of access for large vessels
on account of shoals and sand banks it might with dredging afford them
safe anchorage.

Farther south at the mouth of the Esmeraldas River, Esmeraldas, capital
of the Province, population about 6000, is a port of call for some of
the steamers from Panamá to Guayaquil. A sand bar at the mouth of the
river compels them to anchor well outside. Besides coast settlements,
there are villages at the junction of the affluents with the larger
streams, and occasional _haciendas_ along the banks. The Province
extends far back into the Andean foothills.

=Manabí= on the south is more hilly than Esmeraldas, but has smaller
rivers and less humidity and rain. Part of the long stretch of sea
coast is rather dry. The lowland Province of Guayas at the south runs
up also on the east with Pichincha farther north. The Bay of Caráquez,
on which is a port of the same name, with dredging would become an
excellent harbor. A fertile country lies at the back. Just north of
Cape San Lorenzo is the Bay of Manta; the city at the south end, Manta,
is the chief port of the Province.

Portoviejo, the capital, a city of some 10,000, is 15 miles up the
Portoviejo River. At the foot of a hill 1500 feet high is Montecristi,
a village, the name of which is familiar to those conversant with the
Panamá hat industry; Jipijapa, of like reputation, is near. When a hat
purchased at Paita was called by a dealer a Montecristi, it was a high
but well merited compliment. Ivory nuts, rubber, and agriculture are
other industries.

=Guayas=, the largest of all the Provinces, borders on the Pacific
south of Manabí, as well as on the Gulf of Guayaquil. El Oro is at the
south; Azuay, Cañar, and Los Rios are east. The Province includes the
most western point of Ecuador, Santa Elena, with the bay at the north;
Ballenita on this bay, port of the town Santa Elena, is the landing
place of the West Coast cables. In this vicinity petroleum wells have
been attempted on a small scale. More important industries at present
are the agricultural, pastoral, and forestal. Panamá hats are made and
fishing is important. Plantations of cacao, coffee, and sugar cane,
and many varieties of fruit trees are found along the rivers, and some
cattle are raised. The Island Puná is included in the Province. It is
well wooded; timber and cattle raising are the chief industries of the
200 inhabitants.

Guayaquil, the capital of the Province, is the chief commercial city of
the Republic.

=Los Rios=, north and east of Guayas, and west of Bolívar, partakes of
the characteristics of the former; a lowland region with fertile cacao
lands, many rivers, and several towns busy with interior commerce.
Cattle breeding, and timber extraction are important.

=El Oro=, the most southern of the coastal provinces, thus bordering
on Tumbes, Peru, with Loja also on the south and east, and Azuay
northeast, extends into the sierra region, as here the range in Ecuador
comes nearest to the Pacific; one peak is over 13,000 feet high. Along
the shore are mangrove swamps and salt plains.

Machala, the capital, a little farther back, is near one of the
famous cacao sections. Along the many streams and _esteros_ back of
the mangrove swamps are sabanas 1-3 miles wide, excellent for cattle;
then come the cultivated lands, sandy soil overlaid by rich earth
where cacao grows wild, and where other plants like bananas and coffee
flourish. The lower slopes of the Cordillera up to 3300 feet are also
favorable to tropical culture. Fisheries are important and in the
Zaruma _Hoya_ or Basin is gold mining.

=Loja= on the east, and extending farther south, has Peru on both south
and west, the precise boundary line still uncertain; the Oriente is
on the east. Traversed by the Cordillera Real, it has hot and cold
regions, with pleasing towns and bleak spots. The capital, Loja,
altitude 7300 feet, is quite a city with 14,000 population.

=The Andean Provinces= farther north are largely similar to each other
in production and characteristics.

=Azuay=, where there are gold washings and hat making, has the ordinary
agriculture and cattle raising of the highlands.

The important town of Cuenca, altitude 8465 feet, is the capital,
with a population of 40,000, the third city in Ecuador. Seventy miles
southeast of Guayaquil, it is south of the present railway system,
carrying on its traffic with the outside world over mountain ranges by
means of bridle paths only. It has a few factories for the making of
sugar, woolen goods, pottery, hats, and cheese.

=Cañar= follows, between Guayas west and Oriente east. It includes
the great knot of Azuay and its once famous quicksilver mines, now
apparently exhausted. From these, the chief town, Azogues, near by,
population 9000, took its name.

=Chimborazo=, as might be supposed, contains Ecuador’s greatest
mountain of that name. The Province is followed at the north by
Tungurahua, Leon, Pichincha, Imbabura, and Carchi, all quite similar,
with their rows of mountains, their cattle, textile industries, growing
of cereals, and in the valleys, sugar cane and cotton.

Tulcán in Carchi, and Ibarra in Imbabura are mountain towns, which have
some commercial intercourse along the plateau with Pasto, Colombia;
with this city they will some day have rail connection.

=Bolívar=, the smallest Province, is off the line, like Los Rios, being
between that Province and Chimborazo. It has the mountainous character
and resources of the latter.


TERRITORIES

The =Galápagos Islands=, though of little importance at present, may
become valuable as a commercial focus or as a coaling station, since
the group lies almost in the path of vessels from the Panama Canal to
Australia. Thirteen in number, the Islands on or near the equator have
an area of nearly 3000 miles. Except Chaves Island they are privately
owned. The inhabitants are few: a small colony on Charles or Santa
Maria Island, others on Chatham or San Cristóbal, and on Albemarle. On
Chatham is a sugar plantation with a factory for refining sugar and
distilling alcohol. Three million pounds of sugar are produced, and
if there were a market 40,000 gallons of alcohol might be, instead of
the 3500 at present. A coffee plantation of 320,000 trees yields about
300,000 pounds of coffee yearly. Water has been piped five miles and a
Decauville railway built. Henequen plants have been set out to furnish
material for the needed bags and twine. The cattle industry and fishing
are of importance; codfish and lobsters are abundant.

The Islands are especially distinguished for the giant tortoises which
are said to live 500 years and sometimes weigh 600 pounds. None such
are on the main land. They yield excellent oil, have good flesh and
eggs, but are diminishing in numbers and should receive protection. A
proposition to lease the Islands to the United States Government in
1911 was rejected by Ecuador.

The =Oriente= embraces a large forest region, which contains the
varieties of trees and other conditions such as are found in the
forests of Peru and Colombia; but up to this time there has been
little exploitation of its resources. Quite recently the possibilities
of petroleum development have been investigated. A concession for
exploration and for the drilling of wells in an area of nearly 10,000
square miles has been granted to the Leonard Exploration Company,
American.




                             CHAPTER XVII

              ECUADOR: PORTS AND INTERIOR TRANSPORTATION


PORTS

=Guayaquil.= The most important and frequently visited place in Ecuador
is the coast city of Guayaquil, the chief port of entry through which
communication is had with most of the interior districts. The entrance
to the port from the Gulf is by way of the Jambeli Channel south of the
island, Puná, on which the quarantine station is located, and where
a pilot is taken for the 30 mile journey up the river. Guayaquil is
accessible by ordinary ocean steamers drawing no more than 22 feet of
water. Larger vessels may anchor at Puná and there transfer passengers
or cargo to boats or lighters. It is now proposed to dredge the river
as far as Guayaquil. Ships do not come to the docks, which for a mile
and a half line the water front of Guayaquil. As in general along the
entire coast, goods are transferred to lighters and passengers to
rowboats or launches in order to reach the city.

Founded in 1535, Santiago de Guayaquil has suffered many calamities:
sacked by buccaneers, more or less destroyed by conflagrations,
and shaken by earthquakes. From the water the town has a pleasing
appearance, which is constantly improving. The buildings of wood and
plaster, which appear quite massive, present the usual variety; many
contain first class shops where almost everything is purchasable.
The water supply, which is to be largely increased, coming from
the Cordillera, 53 miles, passes under the river to a reservoir on
the northern hills. There are electric lights and tramways, cable
communication by telegraph from Santa Elena, also wireless, several
manufacturing plants for local needs, such as gas, ice, chocolate,
etc., and a shipyard where vessels are built or repaired. The tide here
is swift and strong (8 knots an hour), both up and down, so that all
boats take advantage of it in going either way; the flat boats manned
by natives bring down provisions, vegetables, and fruit, or go below to
fish, without exertion on their part, and with little if any returning.
The city is on a low plain with a salt estuary at the back. This could
easily be made into an excellent quiet harbor, with docks approachable
by steamers, an advantage which would doubtless expedite the gradual
increase of commerce.

=Minor Ports= are Esmeraldas, Bahia, Manta, Cayo, Machalilla, Manglar
Alto, Ballenita.


RAILWAYS

=Guayaquil-Quito Railway.= The American built railway to Quito, 290
miles long, opened in June, 1908, begins on the opposite side of the
river at a place called Durán, to which passengers are ferried by the
company. Here are the railway offices, repair shops, and warehouses.
The railway traverses a fine country where sugar cane, coffee, cacao,
bananas, and plantains are cultivated, to Bucay, nearly 1000 feet above
the sea, at the foot of the Cordillera, 57 miles from Durán. A steep
climb here begins with at times a 4¹⁄₂ per cent grade. Above Huigra
at 4000 feet, where the upland Indian in poncho appears, is a section
where land-slides and washouts are common. Here is a famous switchback
where the train backs up the face of a precipice on a ledge cut in
the rock. At the Alausi Loop, besides a fine view of a splendid river
gorge, the system of terrace cultivation is well seen, every available
foot being thus employed up to 12,000 feet.

There is a slight descent to Riobamba, altitude 9200, where the night
is spent. On this healthful plateau wheat is cultivated, in increasing
quantity since the coming of the railway. Beyond Riobamba, which is
noted for its market, made picturesque by hundreds of Indians from the
surrounding country, the highest point of the railway is reached, the
Chimborazo Pass, 11,841 feet. A descent follows to Ambato, altitude
8550 feet. The climate is more equable than most of the other basins
enjoy, and the “Fair” held here is the most famous in Ecuador. In the
Latacunga Valley are good pasture lands with cattle, and irrigated
fields where fruits and vegetables of the temperate zone are raised. At
a height almost equal to that of the Chimborazo Pass, the road crosses
the base of Cotopaxi, from whose crest the smoke is ever curling. The
fertile valley of Machachi beyond, with its rows on right and left of
famous volcanoes, often covered with green up to the eternal snows,
presents a picture unique in all the world. The Chillo Valley near,
contains cotton and woolen mills run by water power, manufacturing
cheap cloth for the use of the natives. Quito has for some time been
the terminus of the railway. Owing to engineering difficulties its cost
was so great that it has not been a paying proposition; with settled
conditions good returns are hoped for. Wood has been used as fuel but a
change to oil is expected.

=Additional railways= are planned, and construction work is going on
at several points. The line is being prolonged from Quito to Ibarra,
105 miles, another link in the Pan American chain. Several other roads
are expected to climb to Quito from the coast. The first of these to be
completed is the Esmeraldas Railway from the port San Lorenzo 125 miles
to Ibarra. Construction is well advanced.

Another railroad of 186 miles planned from Bahia de Caráquez is now
operated to Chone, 20 miles only. Its completion may follow that of
Esmeraldas. One more is talked of from Ancon de Sardinas, all to
extend to Quito. To the east connection is planned with the Amazon
Basin by means of a railway from Ambato to San Antonio on the Curaray
River, from which steam navigation would be made by the Curaray and
the Napo to the Amazon. From Ambato 20 miles have been constructed.
From Sibambe, a little below Alausi, a railway is begun to Cuenca, 125
miles. A railway 94 miles long from Guayaquil to Santa Elena is half
finished, 1921. The Government of Ecuador is said to have authorized a
concession for the construction of a railway from Puerto Bolívar on the
Pacific to Borja, just below the Pongo de Manseriche on the Marañón.


OTHER MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

Aside from the few railways, water ways and mule trails are the means
of communication. The rivers, and the estuaries, tide water channels,
are of great importance, even streams practicable only for canoes. On
the Ecuador littoral 600 miles altogether are deemed navigable, these
at present of greater use than the Amazon tributaries, which in the
future will have a development of assured value.

On the water ways of the Pacific system the steamboat, the flat boat or
_chata_, the raft, and the canoe, all have their place. Steamboats of
from 25 to 125 tons serve the Guayas River System above Guayaquil, this
including nearly a dozen streams or estuaries, in winter penetrating to
the foot of the Cordilleras. If the natural water ways were properly
developed and a few artificial canals were opened, a much larger field
of the richest territory would be accessible. The _chatas_, boats
without sails carrying from 4 to 50 tons, are of lighter draught, the
rafts too are important. Made of bamboo and _balsa_ wood they are very
light, a single log 40 feet long being able to support 2 tons. Rafts of
20 or 30 logs, in part roofed over, carry the entire family as well as
heavy freight. Thanks to the strong tide on the rivers they float down
stream very rapidly, returning with a load up stream at turn of tide,
more slowly, but without additional propulsion, far above Guayaquil.
In this way 48 miles a day may be covered. Canoes of course have the
same advantage and steamboats also, these being often delayed at Puná
or Guayaquil to have the benefit of the tide which runs 8 miles an
hour. The canoes, which are able to carry from 500 to 50,000 pounds of
freight, bring from remote places valuable cargoes of cacao or other
stuff and return laden with supplies. Few roads or trails exist in this
section, but there are some, available in the dry season, especially in
the better populated districts of Guayas. A trail through the jungle
called a _trocha_, made with axe and machete, is soon overgrown again.

In the Andine section there is one good cart road leading from
Quito 115 miles south. The trails to the east are five in number;
the most frequented, the one from the Pichincha Province (Quito)
to the _pueblos_ or villages of the Napo (a high road is now being
constructed), one from Tungurahua farther south through Baños to
Canelas; one from Chimborazo to Macas; one from Azuay to Gualaquiza;
one from Loja to Zumba and Chita, and on to Jaen in Peru.

Between the plateau region and the coast, at the north, practically no
communication exists, but farther down there are a number of trails.
Thus there are roads to Latacunga and Ambato from the lower valleys
west, several extend to points above from Babahoya or Bodegas, the
capital of Los Rios and the chief port of the interior on the river
which also enjoys the two names. Bodegas is 36 miles up from Guayaquil
and is reached by a strong tide so that river steamers come up on the
flood in 8 hours and even go higher in winter when the rivers are full.
It is from Bodegas that interior traffic begins to points not easily
accessible from the railway.

From Naranjal and Machala, coastal towns of El Oro at the extreme
south, roads lead to Cuenca and other interior towns; other roads
farther south go to Loja, and to Tumbes in Peru. All of these roads are
merely mule or bridle trails, no wagon roads existing. In the Andine
region there are naturally additional trails from one point to another,
many reaching altitudes of 13,000 or 14,000 feet, crossing chasms or
rivers on swinging bridges three feet wide, with no more guard than a
single wire if any, and passing along slippery dangerous slopes, where
the meeting of a loaded mule train may well excite terror; a rock wall
on one side and a precipice on the other, often leaving small space for
passage. Scenes of beauty may repay some persons for the discomforts
and risks endured, but not the average tourist, nor will sufficient
business reward the commercial traveler.

The Leonard Exploration Company is to make caminos and later cart roads
into the Oriente, where its oil wells may be located.




                             CHAPTER XVIII

                   ECUADOR: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES


AGRICULTURE

The chief productions, industries, and exports of Ecuador are, as might
be expected, agricultural or forestal in character.

=Cacao.= The cultivation of cacao is by far the most important industry
of Ecuador, the amount exported in 1910 having nearly ten times the
value of any other commodity. The shrub grows wild in many tracts where
it is necessary merely to cut out other growth, leaving such tall trees
as may be desirable to shade the cacao shrubs. It remains only to weed
the land once a year, to give occasional prunings, and to harvest the
fruit. Besides these natural and irregular plantations many have been
prepared by clearing a suitable tract except for the required shade
trees. In holes two or three yards apart the fresh cacao seeds are
sowed; they sprout and grow rapidly. The plants must be sheltered from
the sun, maize or yucca serving this purpose for two years, or if the
banana plant is used it will suffice for 6 or 7 years till the cacao
comes into bearing. By this time other shade trees which may have been
planted will be large enough to serve, and the banana plants are cut
down. The plantation will then last indefinitely, for when the old
trees die at the age of 60 or 80 years a new growth will have appeared
to continue the work. The principal harvest is in March and April, but
the fruit may be gathered during the entire year. The pod containing
the seeds is left on the ground a day or two after cutting, then the
seeds are taken out and put in the sweating house for fermentation,
which gives a superior color, flavor, and aroma. Drying follows. The
cacao is rich in fats, albuminoids, caffeine, and theobromine. In
preparation for cocoa the fat is removed and used for cocoa butter;
it is retained for chocolate, which is therefore richer than cocoa
and for many persons is less digestible. A large area is now under
cultivation but more land is available. The best plantations are at an
altitude of 650-2600 feet. Twelve per cent is an ordinary return on an
investment, and at 1918 prices from 15 to 25 per cent. It is the safest
and easiest crop of the country, and foreign investors have engaged in
the industry. The districts south of Guayaquil yield especially fine
crops, though cacao flourishes on any of the hot humid lowlands. With
more scientific culture the quality might probably be improved, as it
is said to be hardly equal to the best raised elsewhere.

=Other products= are cotton, sugar, maize, tobacco, coffee, tagua,
rice, yucca (known also as cassava and mandioca), bananas, indigo,
rubber, quinine, bread fruit, etc., all growing up to 3000 feet and
some much higher, but of these tagua, rubber, 1,000,000 pounds, and
coffee, crop 7,000,000 pounds, in the order named, are the only
important exports.

=Sugar cane= grows rapidly and many sections are suited to it, as
also to rice, but not enough of either is produced to supply the home
market, though the sugar output amounts to 16,000,000 pounds and much
cane is turned into _aguardiente_ or rum. Suitable land is open in
Esmeraldas and Manabí. In the Guayas Valley large possibilities exist
for extending the rice industry.

=Tobacco= is cultivated in low lying river lands and plains; that of
the Daule River with culture might rival the Havana; that of Esmeraldas
is noted for its agreeable aroma.

For the poor people along the shore the =plantain= is the staff of
life, being eaten green, half ripe or ripe, cooked or raw. For the
Indians above, maize is the staple article of food, chiefly eaten dry
and toasted, and much used by others as a green vegetable.

=Coffee=, which grows up to 5000 feet, is raised for export on the
large plantations in the lower zone. It is said to be of quality
superior to the Brazilian and brings a high price. Tropical fruits
abound such as pomegranates, _paltas_, _chirimoias_, _granadillas_,
oranges, grape-fruit, etc., some of which are exported to Peru and
elsewhere.

On the higher lands wheat and barley are cultivated, also maize in
sheltered places as well as in the lowlands. Potatoes thrive in the
sierra, and other temperate zone fruits and vegetables. Alfalfa is
extensively raised wherever possible as fodder for traffic animals.


FORESTRY

=Tagua= and =rubber= are more forest than cultivated products, though
a few plantations of each have been set out. In Western Ecuador rubber
is produced by the _caucho_ tree, and in consequence of the destruction
of these by cutting down, they are now to be found in remote districts
only. The rubber of the finer class, the _hevea_, is obtained from the
Amazon Basin only. The forests contain many valuable plants and trees
of which little use is made save by the Indians for their huts and for
other necessities.


STOCK RAISING AND FISHERIES

The =cattle= industry is in a backward state, and the wool of the
highland sheep is poor. It is used locally, a little exported; also
hides. The quality of these is called very good. Goat and alligator
skins are also exported. The llama, so much employed as a beast
of burden farther south, is little used in Ecuador, in one or two
Provinces only. A few horses and mules are exported.

A great variety of =fish= is found along the coast including oysters
and lobsters. The industry is important, fish forming a material part
of the food supply for this region. Some pearls are found near the
island La Plata, off the coast of Manabí; the industry near Manta was
suspended on account of the ferocious sharks which infest these waters.


MINING

Ecuador, so far as is known, is the poorest in minerals of any of the
Pacific Coast countries. Copper, iron, lead, quicksilver and platinum
exist, but apparently not in commercial quantities. In the province of
Loja are copper deposits, but limited operation has been unsuccessful.

=Petroleum= has better prospects. Bituminous seams with fair quantities
of oil have been located in the north, but more favorable developments
would naturally be expected in the same line with the rich oil fields
of Peru. In El Oro near the town of Santa Rosa there is said to be
an oil field with good prospects, but the principal deposits so far
discovered are more nearly in line with the Zorritos and Lobitos
districts. The field, extending about 6 miles north and south and 20
miles inland, is close to the coast, 90 miles west of Guayaquil, in
desert country near the port of Santa Elena and 750 miles from Panamá.
A small oil fountain with considerable gas indicates that deep drilling
would bring results. The 25,000 barrels now secured annually are
obtained by digging small holes down 50 feet to a layer of impermeable
sandstone which is impregnated with oil. The life of these wells is
from 3 months to 3 years. A deep well bored by an Anglo-French Company
contains oil of a high quality. There is connection with Guayaquil by a
fairly good automobile road and by telephone and telegraph. A railway
to Santa Elena and Ballenita is in construction. Petroleum claims have
recently been denounced in the Canton of Quito, Province of Pichincha.
Indications of petroleum in the Oriente have been sufficient to
warrant the Leonard Exploration Company in securing a concession of
nearly 10,000 square miles east of the Andes from Tulcán to Riobamba in
which to explore and drill for oil.

=Gold.= Of metals, gold mines only have up to the present been
profitably worked; those of Zaruma in Southern Ecuador have long been
known and operated. In 1549 the towns Zaruma and Zamora were founded
and mining was established. Other discoveries followed attended by a
gold mining rush from Peru; but owing to the greed of the Governor of
Macas, residing at Sevilla, the Jívaros Indians rebelled, destroyed
several towns, and murdered many inhabitants, so that in later times
the mining has been limited to the placers of Esmeraldas and the lodes
of Zaruma. In recent years there have been examinations and working at
Zaruma with some mismanagement, but the values are considered proved
and shipments have been regularly made, to the extent of $250,000 in
1910. Placers have been found on the west slope of the East Cordillera
in Loja and Azuay with gravel from 3 to 6 feet deep. The Collay,
anciently worked by Indians, has alluvium 20-35 feet thick, with gold
in grains and dust but in small quantities. The placers of the small
streams are believed to be paying only as worked individually by the
patient Indian. In Esmeraldas there is platinum with the gold but in
too small quantities to be worth while. The mountain sections have good
lodes which might develop into paying propositions, but appearances are
judged less favorable than in some other quarters.

=Coal.= Beds of coal are found in several places among the mountains,
but none have yet been successfully worked. The Southern Railway has
recently consumed eucalyptus wood, well dried, in their locomotives.

=Manganese.= Deposits are said to exist near Pomasqui, from which it is
expected to ship 200 tons of ore monthly to the United States. Near San
Antonio in Pichincha a deposit from 3 to 9 feet thick covers 21,000
square feet. The ore runs from 46 to 53 per cent manganese.


INDUSTRIES

=Panamá Hats.= As might be supposed the manufactures of Ecuador are
slightly developed, with no articles save Panamá hats made for export.
In this they rank third, following cacao and tagua. The demand for the
hats has increased in recent years. They are due to the patient labor
of the natives. Made from two different kinds of plants, the _paja
toquilla_, and the _macora_, the finest hats are from the first, those
of average quality from the second, from which material fine hammocks
are also made. Both plants grow wild 6-10 feet high; but the _toquilla_
is transplanted, placed four feet apart, and kept free of weeds. The
fan shaped leaves of the _toquilla_ rise directly from the ground.
Conditions are especially favorable to the plant in Manglar Alto in
Manabí, but it grows elsewhere along the coast. The portions used for
hats are separated before the leaves open, and picked only in certain
weather conditions. The _macora_ grass grows wild on the hills and is
had for the gathering.

In Peru similar hats are made from Ecuador straw. In order to prevent
this a tax of one sucre a kilogram was placed on the export of the
straw, but without killing the Peruvian industry. The finest Ecuadorian
hats, which come from Montecristi and Jipijapa in Manabí, are sold in
Guayaquil at high prices, but far less than in New York.

A shoe factory, cotton and woolen mills, breweries, ice plants,
tanneries, flour mills, saw mills, etc., not forgetting chocolate,
are locally important. Along the coast are many maguey plants, from
the fibre of which to make bags and twine a profitable industry might
be created. For the establishment of a paper factory, the Government
proposes, it is reported, to grant valuable concessions to British
capitalists.


INVESTMENTS

From the list of Ecuador’s productions and exports, agriculture,
especially cacao, might seem to offer favorable opportunities; to some
gold mining might appeal or the possibilities of petroleum. For many
years engineering and construction work of various kinds, including
sanitation, must present openings for capitalists, and for experts in
such matters. With forests so near the coast saw mills and lumbering
would undoubtedly be profitable. Stock raising for local requirements
is a fair possibility.




                              CHAPTER XIX

           PERU: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.


More than a century ago, the distinguished scientist, Alexander von
Humboldt, declared that the country of Peru would one day become the
centre of the World’s colonization. It has been called the richest in
natural resources of any country upon the globe, containing within its
borders every variety of climate and of natural or possible production,
together with wonderful fertility of soil and marvelous wealth in
minerals. Other countries make a similar claim. To decide the question
is impossible. Without intimate acquaintance with all, even to express
an opinion would seem an impertinence.


AREA, POPULATION, BOUNDARY

=Area.= Pending the decision of certain boundary disputes, the area of
this Republic can hardly be stated with even approximate accuracy, for
figures given vary over 200,000 square miles. The territory claimed
by the Government, including Tacna and Arica, with a vast domain over
which Ecuador and Colombia have asserted a right, covers 700,000
square miles. Had all claims been decided against her, Peru would have
fifth place in area among the South American Republics; but as the
arbitrators of her boundaries with Brazil and Bolivia gave judgment
largely in her favor, she is likely to remain fourth with at least
540,000 square miles. With this figure Peru is ten times the size of
New York State, and approximates the area of the entire Atlantic slope
of the United States.

=Population.= As no census of Peru has been taken for many years the
population is merely estimated and a variety of figures is given. The
estimate of 5,800,000 appears probable; this number would place Peru in
the third or fourth rank according to the figures assigned to Colombia.

=Boundary.= The boundary of the country may be slightly affected by
the decision of arbitrators; as usually given, Peru has Ecuador and a
little of Colombia on the north, Brazil and Bolivia east, Chile south,
and the Pacific Ocean on the west.


HISTORY

The name of Peru is always a reminder of the Incas, and all but the
utterly ignorant have heard the amazing tale of the conquest of Peru by
Pizarro. A few dates may here be recalled. As early as 1527, Francisco
Pizarro, incited by rumors of prodigious wealth of gold in a country
south of Panamá, made a voyage of exploration in which he landed at
Tumbes and proceeded as far as Trujillo. Satisfied with his discoveries
he returned to Spain, to procure a royal warrant for an invasion.
In 1531, with Diego de Almagro, Hernando de Luque, a priest, and
subordinates, he set out on his career of conquest. With 180 men, 67 of
whom were cavalry, in 1532 he crossed the desert and the first mountain
range, then descending to Cajamarca. How he treacherously seized and
later slew the Inca Prince, Atahuallpa, in spite of the enormous gold
ransom which had been furnished, afterwards captured Cuzco, the Inca
capital, and in 1535 founded Lima on the banks of the Rimac is a Twice
Told Tale.

Quarrels developed soon after the conquest. Subsequently to his return
from Chile the nobler Almagro was executed by order of his associate,
Pizarro, who himself was assassinated in 1541 by former adherents
of Almagro. For centuries Lima was the seat of Spanish government in
South America and the residence of the Viceroy. Great wealth of gold
and silver had been extorted from the Incas in addition to the ransom
paid for Atahuallpa, and further riches were later obtained from mines
by forced labor of the Indians. Severe exactions and cruelties excited
one or two insurrections, but in spite of vicissitudes of various kinds
the city of Lima was the continental centre of wealth and culture for
generations.

When in 1810 the spirit of independence began to manifest itself in
the colonies, it had less opportunity for development in Peru. Not
until San Martín came with an army from Chile in 1820 did revolutionary
activity become general. Received with great enthusiasm, he was
proclaimed Protector of Peru. Her independence was declared July
28, 1821, which is the day they celebrate. General Bolívar, coming
from the north with an army, was met by San Martín. A disagreement
evidently occurred, which caused San Martín to retire to Argentina;
subsequently he withdrew to Europe. A hero of the highest patriotism,
courage, skill, unselfish devotion, and sterling character, the name
of San Martín should be honored among us as is that of Washington in
South America. The year following Bolívar’s arrival in Lima in 1823, a
battle between royalists and patriots occurred on the plateau of Junín,
altitude 13,000 feet, when the patriots gained a complete victory. In
December of the same year, 1824, General Sucre gained the hard-fought
battle of Apurimac, which ended Spanish dominion in South America.

More or less troublous times with brief intervals of harmony followed
the securing of independence, until the War of the Pacific broke out in
1879. In accordance with a secret treaty, Peru went to the assistance
of Bolivia after the Chilians had seized Antofagasta on account of a
quarrel over a nitrate tax. Following some successes, the Peruvian
fleet was destroyed; the coast was exposed to the enemy. In 1881 Lima
was captured, and held until the signing of the treaty of Ancón in
1883. In accordance with this treaty the Province of Tarapacá was ceded
to Chile. Tacna and Arica were yielded for ten years, at the end of
which time the residents were to vote whether they desired to remain
with Chile or return to their former allegiance. The fact that no vote
has yet been taken, while Chile retains possession, has for years
caused much ill feeling and friction between the two countries, which
several times have been on the verge of war.

Within the last ten years there have been several internal disturbances
in Peru and one revolution; these, however, are short lived and do
not affect the people generally or interfere with business for more
than a day or two; nor do the revolutions derange concessions or the
investments of foreign capital.


GOVERNMENT

The government is a centralized republic, based on the constitution of
1860, revised in 1920. The President is now elected for five years;
he is ineligible for immediate reëlection. The other two branches of
government are of the usual form. Congress has two Chambers, a Senate
of 35 members and Deputies 110, both elected by direct vote. Alternates
are chosen to assume office in case of vacancy. There are also three
local legislatures. The President appoints the Prefects of Departments
and the Sub-prefects of Provinces; the Prefects name the _Gobernadores_
of the Districts. The President controls the police of the country; the
supervision of education is centralized. The Judiciary has a Supreme
Court at Lima, nine Superior Courts in the chief cities, and Lower
Courts in smaller places.

Peruvian male citizens over 21 may vote, if a master employer, a real
estate owner, a tax payer, or able to read and write.

Peru has 22 separate divisions aside from Tacna, of which three
are littoral Provinces and the rest Departments; the latter are
divided into 118 Provinces, and these into 800 or more Districts.
The Departments and unattached Provinces, with approximate area and
population, their capitals, population, and altitude are as follows:

---------------------+---------+----------+---------------+----------+---------
  DEPARTMENTS        | AREA,   |POPULATION|   CAPITALS    |POPULATION|ALTITUDE
                     |in square|          |               |          |  in
                     |miles    |          |               |          | feet
---------------------+---------+----------+---------------+----------+---------
_Coastal Divisions_  |         |          |               |          |
Tumbes (Province)    |   2,000 |    8,000 | Tumbes        |    3,000 |
Piura                |  17,000 |  155,000 | Piura         |   15,000 |     167
Lambayeque           |   4,600 |   93,000 | Chiclayo      |    5,000 |      82
Libertad             |  10,000 |  188,000 | Trujillo      |   15,000 |     203
Ancash               |  16,500 |  317,000 | Huarás        |   12,000 |   9,928
Lima                 |  13,000 |  250,000 | Lima          |  175,000 |     450
Callao (Province)    |      15 |   35,000 | Callao        |   35,000 |       6
Ica                  |   8,700 |   68,200 | Ica           |   10,000 |   1,312
Arequipa             |  22,000 |  172,000 | Arequipa      |   50,000 |   7,550
Moquegua (Province)  |   1,255 |   32,000 | Moquegua      |    5,000 |   4,034
                     |         |          |               |          |
_Sierra Departments_ |         |          |               |          |
Cajamarca            | 125,000 |  333,000 | Cajamarca     |   12,000 |   9,230
Huánuco              |  14,000 |  110,000 | Huánuco       |    6,000 |   6,270
Junín                |  23,000 |  305,000 | Cerro de Pasco|   15,000 |  14,300
Huancavelica         |   9,000 |  167,000 | Huancavelica  |    8,000 |  12,400
Ayacucho             |  18,000 |  227,000 | Ayacucho      |   20,000 |   9,200
Apurimac             |   8,100 |  133,000 | Abancay       |    6,500 |   7,854
Cuzco                |  90,000 |  300,000 | Cuzco         |   30,000 |  11,445
Puno                 |  28,000 |  270,000 | Puno          |   13,000 |  12,600
                     |         |          |               |          |
_Montaña Departments_|         |          |               |          |
Amazonas             |  14,000 |   53,000 | Chachapoyas   |    4,500 |   7,635
San Martín           |  30,000 |   33,000 | Moyabamba     |    5,000 |   2,900
Loreto               | 172,000 |  120,000 | Iquitos       |   18,000 |     356
Madre de Dios        |  25,500 |   16,000 | Maldonado     |      500 |     836
---------------------+---------+----------+---------------+----------+---------

[Illustration: ECUADOR, PERU, BOLIVIA, SOUTHWEST BRAZIL]


POPULATION

As previously stated, the population is largely an estimate, but
probably approaches 6,000,000. From the above approximate figures it
is evident that it is very unevenly distributed, as it is in fact in
all of the Republics. There are three principal classes aside from
the wild or uncivilized Indians of the _montaña_: the whites, the
real governing class, chiefly of Spanish origin, some with a slight
admixture of Indian blood; the mestizos, more nearly half and half,
white and Indian, largely the artisan and tradesman class; the Indians,
most numerous in the sierra, much as in Inca days, but probably poorer
in mental and physical condition and in creature comforts than in the
earlier period. The population of the _montaña_ in the lower forest
section beyond the mountains is wild Indian except for a very small
percentage of white and Indian gold diggers or rubber gatherers.
Even now, in spite of exploration for several centuries, there are
probably thousands who have never seen a white man. The entire number
of _montaña_ Indians is estimated (it can only be a guess) at perhaps
300,000. Of the rest the proportion is very uncertain, but one writer
gives it as Indians 50 per cent, mestizos 35, whites 11 per cent, the
rest negroes, _zambos_, and Asiatics.


EDUCATION

The opportunities for higher education are relatively superior to those
for primary, though this by law is free and compulsory. But as no
schools have been provided in many Districts, not half of the children
have been able to attend, and the percentage of illiteracy is large.
At the moment, however, 1921, plans have been inaugurated to remedy
this state of affairs, and teachers have sailed from the United States
to aid in the further development of educational facilities. There are
four universities in Peru, that of San Marcos in Lima, the oldest on
this hemisphere; others of lesser scope and merit in Arequipa, Cuzco,
and Trujillo. Lima has also a School of Mines; one of Engineering,
Mechanical, Electrical, Industrial, and Architectural; one of Arts
and Trades; a Normal School, a Naval School at Callao, and a Military
Academy at Chorillos, a suburb of Lima. There are secondary schools
called _colegios_ in the principal cities, and private schools of high
grade.


PRESS, RELIGION, ETC.

=Press.= Aside from official publications, the Press includes
newspapers and periodicals of considerable variety. Lima has several
good newspapers which have a wide circulation, owing to the fact that
they are carried free of charge inside the Republic, as are literary
and scientific journals also. Some of the smaller towns have their own
newspapers.

=Religion.= The religion of the country is Roman Catholic, but other
forms of worship are permitted. Provision is made for the civil
marriage of foreigners.

=Postal and Telegraph Service.= Foreign letters and parcels for most of
the montaña region enter by way of the Amazon River and Iquitos.

Telegraph service is much employed locally, as the cost is only
40 centavos, 20 cents, for ten words to any part of the country.
The address and signature are counted, as in all of the Republics.
Additional words are at the same rate. There are about 8000 miles of
wire. The United States has cable connection with Peru by three lines.
Lima has wireless connection with Iquitos, a distance of 650 miles in a
straight line, over a mountain wall more than three miles high. Other
wireless stations are at Callao, Pisco, Chala, Ilo, Leticia, El Canto,
Orellana.

There are many telephone systems with nearly 200,000 miles of wire.

=Money= is of gold, silver, and copper. The gold Peruvian _libra_ is
the equivalent of the English sovereign, and in general they circulate
interchangeably. The _libra_ is divided into ten _soles_; a _sol_,
about 50 cents (48.6), into 100 _centavos_.

The =Metric System=, legal for weights and measures, must be employed
in the Custom Houses and in other Government offices. Old Spanish
standards are also used in Lima and quite generally in the country: the
_vara_, 33¹⁄₃ inches, the _libra_, a trifle over a pound, _arroba_, _25
libras_, _quintal_, _100 libras_, _fanegada_, a little over 7 acres,
etc.




                              CHAPTER XX

                    PERU: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS


The country of Peru has three distinct sections longitudinally: the
Coast region, the Sierra, and the _Montaña_--the first well known and
fairly settled, the second with the greater population, the third
having much the largest area, but thinly peopled chiefly by wild
Indians, and not thoroughly explored. The term _montaña_, one of the
Spanish words for mountain, in Peru is generally applied to the forest
region on the eastern slope of the Andes and the plains beyond; the
plateau and mountain section with the narrow valleys included form the
sierra.


THE COASTAL REGION

The coast of Peru is a strange one, presenting to the uninformed
traveler a series of surprises. One expects to find it hot in the
tropics, at least at sea level; but on ship-board sailing south when
3° below the equator, at least in the winter season, which it must be
remembered is during our summer, warm clothing if not heavy underwear
is necessary with blankets at night. One is amazed too to find at Paita
(for some steamers the first port of call), a real desert, in striking
contrast to the rich vegetation near the Guayas River.

The chief reason for the comparatively cool temperatures experienced on
the entire coast of Peru is found in the Humboldt or Antarctic current
which flows from the icy realms far south, with chilling effect, close
along the shore to the region of the equator, where near the most
western points of the continent it turns west across the Pacific.

The high mountains too, here quite near the shore, have some cooling
influence and are a prime cause of the existing desert. The hot moist
winds, which in the equatorial regions blow west from the Atlantic
dropping more or less of their vapor on the way, on reaching the
highest Andes lose all the rest, as every bit of the moisture is
condensed by the freezing mountain sides; the average height of the
range in Peru is above 17,000 feet. After passing the mountains the
winds descend cool and dry to the plains. The damp chilly winds which
come north with the Antarctic current, as they blow over the shore,
find this warmer than the ocean, so the moisture is not condensed.

Thus it is that the coast of Peru with that of northern Chile, being
practically rainless, is called a desert, though in Peru it is not
wholly barren. From her mountains 58 streams come down toward the
Pacific, though not all reach the ocean or last throughout the year.
In these valleys there is green, a beautiful and welcome contrast to
the desert; in most of them are irrigation and agriculture. Because the
nitrates have not been washed out of the soil by rain, where a suitable
water supply can be provided, the land constitutes one of the finest
agricultural regions on the globe.

In proportion to its length the area of the coast line is small, as
the Andes here run closer to the shore than in Ecuador, especially in
the central portion, where spurs from the main range sometimes end
in bold bluffs rising 500 feet from the sea. In general the width of
the coast land varies from 20 to 50 miles, in places reaching to 100.
Unfortunately the coast is slightly indented by gulfs and bays and
therefore has few good harbors.


THE SIERRA

In the sierra country we find the greatest development of the mountain
system of the Andes attained in its entire course. For the most part it
here consists of three ranges, the Maritime, the Central, and the East
Cordillera. The first two, near together, are regarded as of similar
origin, separated during ages by the action of water. They include
volcanoes and mineral springs; and in some parts of the lofty region
between the two, cold alpine lakes, sources of coast rivers and also of
Amazon tributaries.

=The Maritime Cordillera= is not connected with the coast ranges of
Chile, but is a continuation of that cordillera which forms the eastern
limit of the coastal Chilian desert and the western boundary of the
great Bolivian plateau. In Bolivia and Southern Peru it is a volcanic
chain with some peaks of great height, over 20,000 feet. Though
generally quiescent, one volcano in Peru south of Arequipa in the year
1700 erupted continuously for two weeks. El Misti, altitude 19,200
feet, above Arequipa is well known. From the summit a little smoke may
be seen in the depths of the crater. The volcanoes seem to have some
connection with earthquakes, with which this region is often affected.
Though the quakes are mostly slight tremors, severe shocks occur; 70 of
a destructive nature have been reported since 1570. The worst, which in
1746 completely destroyed Callao, was followed by 220 shocks within 24
hours. The city was overwhelmed by a tidal wave 80 feet high from which
not half a dozen inhabitants escaped. The earthquake of 1868, which was
felt over most of South America, half destroyed Arequipa, and tidal
waves swept over Arica and Iquique. In 1877 nearly half of the southern
ports were submerged; in 1906 a good portion of Valparaiso, Chile,
was laid in ruins, a fate within a period of 12 months shared by San
Francisco and by Kingston, Jamaica. At about 10° S. Lat. the Maritime
Cordillera separates into two ranges for a distance of 100 miles, the
Cordillera Negra, and the Cordillera Blanca, the two enclosing the
Huailas Valley; north of where the Santa River breaks through toward
the coast, the Black Range begins to subside, the Maritime continuing
to Ecuador in a single chain.

=The Central Cordillera= is the true divide, forming the continental
watershed. A single river, the Marañon, breaks through in its lower
northern part, while 20 coast streams rising in the Central cut the
Maritime range; the East Cordillera is fractured by six Peruvian
rivers, the Marañon, Huallaga, Perené, Mantaro, Apurimac, Vilcamayu,
and Paucartambo, all but the first being affluents of the Ucayali,
which some authorities call a tributary of the Marañon. Oftener these
two are said to unite to form the Amazon.

=The East Cordillera.= While the Central Cordillera is volcanic in
part, the East is of Silurian formation, older and non-volcanic except
at the edge of Lake Titicaca. The last, in Bolivia a splendid range,
is lower in Peru. It has the high plateau region on the west; east is
the Amazon Basin into which its spurs extend for varying distances. The
Central and Eastern Andes are connected by a transverse mountain knot
at Vilcanota, or Cuzco, while a similar knot occurs at Cerro de Pasco.
Farther north the Central Cordillera separates the valleys of the
Marañon and the Huallaga, while the eastern Andes is between the latter
and the Ucayali. The three ranges are clearly defined much of the way
in Peru, and back of Chimbote in the section including the Huailas
Valley there are four.


THE MONTAÑA

The third longitudinal division in Peru, the Trans-Andine, usually
referred to as the _montaña_, is the region of subtropical and tropical
forest. It is traversed by great rivers, largely navigable. Partly
in the sierra country are the Marañon, 600, and the Huallaga, 400
miles long, before their union; 150 miles beyond they are joined by
the Ucayali, a great river with a course of 600 miles, more navigable
than the other two. These three rivers with their affluents drain the
northern and the central part of Peru. The streams of the southern
portion are tributary to the Madre de Dios which flows into the Beni,
the latter uniting with the Mamoré to form the Madeira. The _montaña_
section, 800 miles from north to south, has a sub-tropical region on
the lower slopes of the Andes, the branches of which run out 60 or 80
miles towards the lowlands, and the tropical forests of the latter.
In the northern section a considerable district between the Huallaga
and the Ucayali rivers, traversed by the Andes, is composed of grassy
plains called the Pampa del Sacramento. Some of this northern region is
called the _montaña_, having its characteristics, although not east of
the East Cordillera.


CLIMATE

The climate of Peru, a country like those preceding entirely within
the tropics, has similar though greater variations from altitude, as
its mountains are higher, its table-lands more lofty and extensive.
With a larger area of temperate climate on its highlands, it has also,
in wide contrast to the others, a fairly temperate region along its
entire coast. This last, however, differs from the ordinary climate of
the temperate zone, as does that at an altitude of 6000 or 8000 feet,
in having weather which is never so hot as often in almost all parts
of the United States, and at the same time is never so cold. At Lima,
eight miles from the sea, the mean temperature is 66°; in the warm
season, December to March, the mercury occasionally climbs a little
above 80°, and in winter, June to September, it rarely falls below
50°. It is a little warmer farther north, and on the broad desert in
the sun it is hot, hotter, hottest; as I once found to my sorrow. But
comparatively few persons have occasion to travel there, and when they
do they are likely to journey in the late afternoon and night; a more
agreeable season for such cross country riding. On the deserts, too, it
is colder at night as happens the world over.

The winter season at Lima is damp and cloudy, the atmosphere raw and
chilly; with the mercury below 60° a fire would be most acceptable,
but they never have one. On account of the dampness and the evaporation
from the heat of the body, the cold is felt more than the temperature
warrants, so that overcoats and warm wraps may be donned for sitting
in the house. Conditions vary on other parts of the coast; in general
there is less fog and greater heat farther north and more fog and mist
towards the south. Mollendo is particularly damp and disagreeable.
Some shore places near Lima have much more sunshine than that city,
and 20 miles from the sea one gets beyond the fog belt into a region
of perpetual spring. Although the climate of Lima is said to be rather
enervating to permanent residents, many dwellers in the temperate zone
would prefer it to that of any other coast city within the tropics.

On the highlands the climate is widely diverse. The seasons are
opposite, as there it is the dry season from May to October, when it is
damp on the coast, while the chief precipitation above occurs during
their summer, the dry months below. At an altitude of 7000 or 8000 feet
the climate is considered agreeable, at Arequipa averaging 57°, at
Cajamarca 52°. At 12,000 to 15,000 feet it is generally cool, perhaps
bracing to those accustomed thereto, but often trying to the visitor,
who is likely to suffer from _soroche_, the name applied to mountain
sickness.

In the _montaña_ there is variation due to altitude, as in the sierra,
as this region includes the forested district from an altitude of
nearly 10,000 feet down to 1000 or less in the basin of the large
Amazon tributaries. From 3000 to 7000 feet the climate is delightful to
those who do not enjoy greater contrasts. Huánuco, altitude 6270 feet,
has an annual temperature of 74°, other places a lower temperature, and
far down, as at Iquitos, a higher. Most of the region is healthful, as
is also the sierra, for persons of sound constitution under suitable
living conditions and employing intelligent care. In some parts of
the lowlands malaria is occasional or permanent, in other parts it is
unknown.




                              CHAPTER XXI

             PERU: CAPITAL, DEPARTMENTS, AND CHIEF CITIES


THE CAPITAL

=Lima=, the capital of Peru, on the banks of the Rimac eight miles from
the port, Callao, is a city of picturesque charm. Its population, with
its suburbs 200,000, is no indication of its commercial importance or
of its elegance as a social centre. One of the three cities of the
world where the best Spanish is spoken, some impartial critics say that
in this respect it is unrivalled in the New World. Social amenities,
everywhere important, are here peculiarly requisite for agreeable and
successful business relations. Parisian elegance is seen on the narrow
streets, and in one story dwellings as well as in larger mansions. The
great cathedral is called the finest in South America.

The city takes pride in its numerous churches, its plazas, the
excellent shops on the narrow streets, its University, founded in 1551,
its museum, its new theatres, perhaps even in its bull-ring, the second
largest in the world. As in the other West Coast cities, the hotels
are inadequate (a new one is contracted for), but the old Maury long
had the reputation of being the best on the Coast, and the excellence
of its meals once rejoiced the heart even of a New York club man and
his East Indian valet. Of course the city has modern conveniences,
sky-scrapers happily excepted.


INDIVIDUAL DEPARTMENTS

The COASTAL DIVISIONS follow beginning at the north.

=Tumbes=, the Province farthest north, is distinguished from the rest
of the coast by the fact that, bordering on Ecuador and the edge of
the Gulf of Guayaquil, it partakes of the nature of that region, its
north shore being covered with vegetation. (The adjoining Department of
Piura, because of its proximity to the Ecuador forests and moisture,
receives a rare torrential shower.) Rivers crossing Tumbes permit of
irrigation where needed. The agricultural products are sugar, tobacco,
coffee, and cacao. The oil wells are of great importance. Coal and
other minerals are found.

Tumbes, the capital, on the Tumbes River, is connected by a narrow
gauge railway with its port, Pizarro, seven miles distant, where
steamers on their way to Guayaquil call every week or two.

=Piura=, the first Department south of Tumbes, is mainly desert,
with some fertile irrigated valleys. The culture of a native cotton
resembling wool is a leading industry. Other exports are Panamá hats
and hides. Near the coast are important oil wells. Paita, with one of
the best harbors on the coast, is the first port of call for some of
the express steamers from Panamá.

Piura, capital of the Department, mean temperature 78°, is in an
irrigated valley 60 miles from the desert port Paita, with which it
is connected by rail. A line of narrower gauge goes on to Catacaos,
population 20,000, six miles distant but nearer the sea, where 300,000
Panamá hats are made yearly. They may be bought at Paita for one
fourth, perhaps for one eighth of the price commonly asked for the
finer ones in New York. The main railway is to be prolonged from Piura
to the town of Moropón. Farther south, from Bayovar, a small port on
the Bay of Sechura, a railroad leads 30 miles to the sulphur mines of
Reventazón; but the sulphur, an important export, must be cleared from
the custom house at Paita.

=Lambayeque=, south of Piura, contains large estates of sugar and
rice, the chief exports. It has one of the primary coast ports, Etén
(population 3000), but a poor one, merely an open roadstead where there
is always a swell, at times so severe that debarking passengers must
be lowered in a sort of hogshead by windlass, chain, and pulley to the
launch or small boat alongside. Freight lowered to lighters is likely
here to get a particularly hard bump. An iron pier 2000 feet long is
for the use of the lighters.

Chiclayo, the capital, is 41 miles by rail from Etén. By this railway
and its branches, Ferreñafe, Lambayeque, and Patapó may also be
reached. From Pimentel, a minor port, a shorter railway runs to
Chiclayo. From the Lobos Islands off the coast much guano was formerly
taken.

=La Libertad=, the larger Department following, has two primary ports,
the first, Pacasmayo, a short sail from Etén. From Pacasmayo 85 miles
of railway lead up country to the towns Guadalupe and Chilete. From
Chilete the road should be carried over the Cordillera to the important
city of Cajamarca, 50 miles beyond, whither Pizarro marched nearly 400
years ago; but the grades would be difficult and the road awaits the
supply of more pressing needs. Another long pier serves the port of
Pacasmayo, from which are shipped sugar, rice, fruit, etc. Sixty-six
miles farther is the primary port of Salaverry, population 5000.

Trujillo, the capital of the Department, is eight miles distant;
beyond is the Chicama Valley, noted for its splendid sugar estates.
A railway 75 miles long going up the valley to Ascope, does a large
business. An extension planned to the plateau above, 12,900 feet, will
pass extensive coal fields at Huanday, and reach copper and silver
mines at Queruvilca. A maximum grade of 6¹⁄₂ per cent would make the
construction expensive. Another road from the sugar lands is being
constructed to the better port, Malabrigo. A little north of Salaverry
is the minor port of Huanchaco, which also exports much sugar, though
the chief shipment is from Salaverry.

=Ancash=, the next Department, which is still larger, has five minor
ports, one of which, Chimbote, should soon become a primary. For
this expectation there are several reasons: first, the harbor, land
locked by a long peninsula and several islands, is called the finest
on the entire West Coast below Panamá. It has an area of 36 square
miles without a rock below its placid surface. Though now with but an
ordinary iron pier for lighters, docks approachable by the largest
ships could be arranged on an island, which a bridge over a 200 yard
channel would easily connect with the main land. There are two other
entrances, one half a mile across.

The American capitalist, Henry Meiggs, the prime mover in the
construction of the South and Central Peruvian Railways, had the
foresight in the early seventies to perceive the great commercial
possibilities of this harbor. He planned a city on the shore and began
a railway to extend up the Santa River Valley to Huarás, 167 miles. The
road bed had been constructed 80 miles, the rails laid 60, when the
Chilian war broke out. The invaders, after capturing Chimbote, carried
off the rolling stock and supplies and destroyed what else they could.
Subsequently the project remained long in abeyance, the road being
operated for 35 miles only; but after several recent concessions and
delays with little work accomplished, the Government has taken over
the line and is pushing forward the extension from the point already
attained, La Limeña, 65 miles from Chimbote. Work was begun July,
1919, on a branch line to coal fields near Ancos, 15¹⁄₂ miles, which
later will pass near two copper deposits and through Huamachuco and
Cajabamba. After the first few miles the main road follows the Santa
River, which enters the ocean a few miles north of the harbor.

The Santa has the distinction of being the largest river in Peru
flowing into the Pacific Ocean. Rising among the heavily snow covered
peaks of the White Cordillera, though nowhere navigable it has a large
water supply for irrigation, made use of by the Incas. It could easily
be made available for a large district back of Chimbote. At present the
railway serves only a few sugar plantations on the lower part of the
river’s course, but its further construction will open up immense coal
fields, and farther on in the Huailas Valley great mineral deposits of
gold, silver, etc., and a fine though limited agricultural district
which already has a large population.

The Huailas Valley has on the east the Cordillera Blanca, whose
splendid snow capped summits rise to an altitude of 20,000 to 22,000
feet; on the west the Cordillera Negra reaches a height of 17,000 to
18,000 feet; the passes into the valley are above 14,000. The floor of
the valley rises from 3000 feet at the north to 10,000 at Huarás and
11,000 at Recuay. Along the way are the considerable towns of Caráz,
Yungay, Carhuaz, and Huaráz, capital of the Department, each with
populations of from 5000 to 10,000, besides the people at _haciendas_
and at mining centers on either hand. This has been called the richest
and most thickly settled portion of Peru. All sub-tropical and
temperate productions flourish here at various elevations; the mineral
riches may rival the Klondike as the scenic splendor surpasses that of
Chamonix. East of Yungay rises the magnificent twin-peaked Huascarán,
the first and only ascent of which was made by the author with two
Swiss guides, September 2, 1908; the north peak, altitude 21,812 feet,
is still, 1921, the highest point in all America yet attained by any
North or South American.

The only difficulty in the construction of the railway is where the
Santa River breaks through the Black Cordillera to turn towards the
coast, the narrow gorge being impracticable even for pedestrians.
In this region and beyond are immense coal fields. These, chiefly
anthracite and semi-anthracite, therefore non-coking, some people
believed worthless, being ignorant that for many purposes hard coal is
more valuable than soft. However there are also beds of bituminous.
The coal deposits continue in the lateral valleys, where the owners
use them merely for their own households. Samples run over 82 per cent
carbon. A quarter of a mile from Caráz (population 8000) coal may be
mined and put on trucks at $1.50 a ton. The Chuquisaca River from the
north joins the Santa just before that breaks through the Cordillera.
This Department is very mountainous. Besides the Santa, four rivers
descend to the sea, _i.e._, they do sometimes; for, rising on the west
of the Black Range, obviously so called because it has little snow on
it, these rivers are often dry, yet they serve to irrigate many sugar
plantations. At the mouth of the Santa River north of Chimbote is the
village Santa, an occasional port of call for the _caletero_ (not
express) boats, which regularly visit several ports below: Samanco, 27
miles of desert from Chimbote, Casma, after 50 miles more, and Huarmey,
55 beyond. Back of Samanco is the Nepeña River Valley with two large
sugar plantations; and high in the Black Range, Colquipocro, one of the
richest silver mines worked in Peru. Some of the selected ore ran as
high as $2000 a ton, and large quantities averaged $200 when silver was
50 cents an ounce. Samanco and Casma are the usual ports for entering
the Huailas Valley; Chimbote also serves.

=Lima.= The Departments of Lima and Ica follow, in which the mountains
come closer to the shore than in the greater part of the country, and
the rivers except at the extreme south are nearer together. Thus the
Departments exhibit much verdure, a larger proportion of the country
being devoted to agriculture. A minor port of Lima is Supe, followed by
Huacho, of more importance and connected with the capital by rail, 150
miles, passing Ancón, a frequented summer seashore resort.

=Callao=, the port of Lima and the chief port of Peru, is with its
suburbs a little Province all by itself, surrounded by the Department
of Lima except on the ocean side.

Cerro Azul is a more southern port in the Department of Lima, serving a
very mountainous section, with fertile valleys producing sugar, cotton,
vegetables, etc., and in the mountains many minerals.

=Ica= is an extremely fertile Department, raising very fine grapes and
other fruits, sugar cane and cotton; also corn, alfalfa, divi-divi,
and ají, a kind of pepper much used in Peru and other countries. Wine
making is a very important industry. Minerals exist, but are not much
worked except a silver mine.

Ica, the capital, centre of the finest grape country in the Republic,
is 46 miles by rail from Pisco, the chief port, and the most important
one between Callao and Mollendo. Lomas is a smaller port in the
Department. Ica has some good land uncultivated, but needing irrigation.

=Arequipa=, the last littoral Department, has five minor ports besides
the primary port, Mollendo, second in importance in Peru; but the
port is a very poor one, no real harbor at all. Chala is a port of
call for some steamers, but the rest are very minor: Camaná, at the
mouth of the Majes River which comes down from Mt. Coropuna, Quilca,
Matarani, and Islay, the last two not far north of Mollendo, and with
better harbors. Along here the mountains are farther back and some
have much snow, so that several rivers present good possibilities for
additional irrigation. Cotton, sugar, and grapes grow in the valleys;
corn, potatoes, and cereals higher up. There is a variety of mineral
products: the most important, silver from Cailloma; but gold, copper,
lead, coal, borax, sulphur, manganese, alum, gypsum, are found, and
some of them are exported.

The Southern Railway of Peru, leading up from Mollendo, is an important
line which will be referred to later. Back of the coastal bluffs, which
rise on irregular slopes 3000 feet or more, is a desert plateau of
especial interest, on account of the sand dunes 10-12 feet high which
move slowly over it.

=Moquegua=, a Province south, the last district held by Peru, has a
primary port, Ilo, from which a railway 62 miles long extends to its
capital, Moquegua. The soil of the Province is especially adapted to
grapes and olives, which with wine and oil are the chief exports. Many
varieties of minerals are known to exist here in quantity.


THE SIERRA REGION

This, perhaps the best populated of the three sections, comprises seven
Departments, some of which run over or down into the montaña, as most
of the Coast Departments run up into the sierra.

=Cajamarca=, bordering on Ecuador, is the first Department at the
north, a rather long one, running south back of Piura, Lambayeque, and
part of Libertad, which last is also on the south, as in its southern
part it extends over the West Cordillera and beyond the Marañon.
Cajamarca has that river on the east separating it from Amazonas.
Communication with the outside world is poor, the best by way of
Pacasmayo. An extension of the railway from this port is hoped for. The
highlands favor cattle and sheep breeding; the valleys produce cereals,
coffee, and sugar. Of course there are minerals.

Cajamarca, the capital, famed for the seizure and murder of Atahuallpa
by Pizarro and the slaughter or dispersion of his army, is an important
town and distributing centre, with many industries; leather goods,
mining, cotton and woolen cloth, etc.

=Huánuco=, the next Sierra Department, does not touch Cajamarca. East
of Ancash, it has Junín on the south, and Loreto east and north.
Traversed by the Central and the East Cordilleras, by the Marañon,
Huallaga, and Pachítea Rivers, it has the Ucayali as its eastern
boundary. At the northeast corner the Pachítea flows into the Ucayali,
both rivers being navigable. The central route from Lima to Iquitos
goes down the Pachítea. All kinds of riches are here, but communication
is too difficult to make them very valuable at the moment. Quicksilver,
coal, iron, and copper are found, gold and silver as a matter of
course, agricultural products of great variety.

Huánuco, the capital, with a good climate, is 68 miles from Cerro de
Pasco, on the Huallaga River. It is an important place with varied
industries including sugar mills.

=Junín=, south of Huánuco, a very large and rich Department, is east
of Ancash and Lima, has Huancavelica south, and Cuzco and Loreto east.
It has three important districts, better known than those in the
Departments farther north: the mountain knot and range at the west, the
plateau, and the montaña section running down to the Ucayali River,
which separates it from Loreto. Lake Junín, 36 miles long and 7 wide,
altitude 13,322 feet, is the second largest Andean Lake. Near by,
occurred the battle of August 6, 1824.

In Junín are the head waters of important rivers: in the northwest
corner the lakes which are the source of the Marañon, Santa Ana and
others; the Jauja or Mantaro flows south from Lake Junín, uniting with
the Apurimac later to form the Ené; the Perené, rising on the montaña
side of the mountain far down unites with the Ené to form the Tambo,
which soon joins the Urubamba then becoming the Ucayali. The smaller
Pichis and Palcazu unite to form the Pachítea of the Department of
Huánuco. Junín contains immense mineral wealth; among other mines the
famous ones of Cerro de Pasco; large stocks of cattle and more sheep.
Cereals, corn, potatoes, and other vegetables and fruits grow in the
valleys of the plateau, which has an altitude of 13,000 to 14,000 feet,
with a temperature of 22°-65°. In the tropical east are plantations of
coca, coffee, cacao, sugar, and fruit.

Cerro de Pasco, the capital, will be referred to later.

=Huancavelica=, a smaller Department directly south, touches Lima on
the west, has Ica west and south, and Ayacucho east. This is a Sierra
Department exclusively, all high mountains, plateau, a few alpine
lakes, but with several deep cañons in which flow the rivers, at the
north the Mantaro. Minerals are the chief wealth. Famous since they
were opened in 1566 are the quicksilver mines; but since they were
buried years ago by a cave-in not much quicksilver has been extracted
till a very recent resumption of activity.

Huancavelica, the capital, is an important mining centre though reached
with some difficulty from Huancayo or Ica. Here above 12,000 feet the
production of wool might be expected; there are cotton mills also.

=Ayacucho=, a peculiarly shaped Department twice the size of the
preceding, runs to a point on the north between the Mantaro and
Apurimac Rivers. It has Huancavelica and Ica on the west, Arequipa on
the south and southeast, and Apurimac and Cuzco east. This also is
mostly highland, with temperate zone agriculture, cattle and sheep, and
with varied mineral riches.

Ayacucho, the capital, is a considerable and important city, but a long
way to go from anywhere. Mining and other industries are engaged in.

=Apurimac=, much smaller, has Ayacucho northwest and southwest, a bit
of Arequipa south, and Cuzco southeast and northeast. The Department is
highland, but lower than at the north, with great grazing ground and
forests, with fertile soil raising temperate and sub-tropical products,
and with the inevitable minerals.

Abancay, the capital, is most accessible from Cuzco or from the port of
Chala. It is a small city, of some interest.

=Cuzco=, the largest Sierra Department, with a little of Junín has
Ayacucho and Apurimac west, Arequipa south, Puno southeast and east,
with Madre de Dios, Loreto, and Brazil on the north. The Apurimac River
to which the Urubamba is nearly parallel, forms most of its western
boundary, both rivers flowing a little west of north. The upper waters
of the Purús, and Madre de Dios flow north, south, and east. Stock
raising is carried on and there are minerals, but agriculture is the
chief industry. Cuzco is famed for the excellence of its cacao, also
for its cocoa and coffee; it has large sugar plantations as well.
Though with mountainous highlands, it has much territory lower.

Cuzco, the capital, world famed since its conquest by Pizarro, is
beautifully situated at the head of the side-valley of the Huatanay
River. Interesting from its historic associations, its massive ruins,
and its picturesque charm, it is also of commercial importance.

=Puno=, the last Department of the sierra, has Madre de Dios on the
north, Cuzco, Arequipa, and Moquegua west, Chile and Bolivia south,
and Bolivia east. The Department, mostly highland, includes the
western part of Lake Titicaca. It contains many minerals, and has a
large output of gold. The production of wool, including the alpaca and
vicuña, is highly important. Potatoes, barley, etc., are grown.

Puno, the capital, a centre of mineral and woolen activities, is the
head of Peruvian navigation on Lake Titicaca and a meeting place of
the two tribes or races, the Quichuas and the Aymarás, the latter,
residents of northern Bolivia. The town is an important centre of
traffic.


THE MONTAÑA REGION

This region comprising nearly two thirds of Peru embraces the eastern
forest country, the eastern slopes of the East Cordillera and at the
north the lower slopes of the other ranges. The region has much rain,
many large navigable rivers, and dense tropical forests rich in useful
plants, fine hard woods, and rubber trees. It has some settlements on
the river banks and on higher lands, and in the forests, Indians, some
of whom are peaceable and friendly, others who might have been so had
they not been badly treated by whites of various nationalities, others
still who have never seen the white man and do not wish to. Three of
these Departments border on Ecuador, the most western, Amazonas, with
Cajamarca on the west, La Libertad south, and San Martín east. The
last Department, more than twice the size of Amazonas, has Loreto on
the east and south. It is traversed by the Central Cordillera and by
the Huallaga River, navigable to the important port of Yurimaguas, but
for steamers not much farther. The immense Department Loreto, touching
Huánuco and Cuzco on the south, with Brazil on the east, is with Madre
de Dios naturally the least known and least populated portion of Peru.
It is traversed by the Ucayali, and by the Amazon both above and for
some distance below Iquitos, to which port ocean steamers regularly
ascend. Madre de Dios, east of Cuzco and north of Puno, has been little
explored. A few rubber and mining concessions have been slightly
worked. Its future will come with transportation.




                             CHAPTER XXII

                PERU: PORTS AND INTERIOR TRANSPORTATION


From the physical character of Peru, it is evident that inland
communication and traffic is of extraordinary difficulty. The countries
previously mentioned and most of those to follow have rivers by
which access to the interior may be gained. In Colombia the Pacific
coast barrier is not half so high, and another way is open from the
Caribbean. Venezuela presents several doorways, Ecuador also; but in
Peru, entrance by navigable rivers would be to journey over 2000 miles
from Pará in Brazil at the mouth of the Amazon, then arriving only at
the back door, remote indeed from the busy civilized life at the front.
Some few do come in and go out that way, but not many.

Peru’s front is happily 1200-1300 miles long, but then a wall! and in
places not one only; back of that another and another; between each
two a deep, deep hollow; climbs, up and down, up and down, to gain
the fertile _montaña_; or, in the central section, where it might
seem easy going after having surmounted the high wall to the lofty
plateau, there are hills if not dales, with few level spots. Do not
imagine that a table-land is like a table! The country is rolling where
not mountainous; nor is that all. The various rivers that wind about
flowing now south now north, southeast and northwest, with branches
from any direction, these are not simple little rivers, a few or many
feet deep, which require merely an ordinary bridge; but whether deep
or shallow they are liable to be and generally are at the bottom of a
cañon 300 or 3000 feet deep, the top of which may be a mile or two
across. For a railway to descend to such depths and climb up the other
side, not once but the many times needful for a road traversing the
length of Peru is for a sparsely inhabited country, governmentally
poor, quite impossible. Hence the slowness of Peru’s development
despite its wonderful riches.

When some years ago the Pan American Railway from New York to Buenos
Aires was projected, investigation was made of practicable routes
by the United States Government. The way in Ecuador is plain and in
Colombia there is little choice; but in Peru the question of highland,
low coast, or far interior was to be solved. The coast seemed less
desirable as along here one could go by water. Moreover, the Maritime
Cordillera for a long distance is so near the sea with so many spurs
coming down to the coast, or as in Southern Peru a bluff several
hundred or thousand feet high with its feet in the sea is so cut every
little way by one of those 58 streams in a very deep cañon, that it was
not more inviting than the plateau region above, where the road would
be much more serviceable. Plateau was the decision; but for the Great
War, money might soon be forthcoming; as it is, long delay is probable
before the road is completed. As for inland transportation therefore,
it may be said that it is carried on mainly by sea, which is no joke
but stern reality; accordingly coast service is well provided.


COAST SERVICE

British, Chilian, Peruvian, formerly German, and now American steamers
sail along the coast, some express from Panamá, calling at Callao and
Mollendo only; others, express also, call at the other primary ports,
Paita, Etén, Pacasmayo, Salaverry, Pisco, and Ilo; still others,
_caletero_, call at the 20 minor ports also. From many of these ports,
as we have seen, railways extend some distance into the interior,
generally as far as they can go without taking a stiff grade. Beyond
the termini and in some cases directly from the ports, freight is
carried by mules, burros, or llamas, though in but few places do the
latter come down to the sea, their use being confined chiefly to the
region of the sierra. In the old Inca days the fleet footed Indians
sped over the narrow trails, often carrying heavy burdens. Horses were
introduced by the Spaniards; riding is universal, as almost everywhere
it is the only means of travel, from the coast to the mountain region
and within that section; roads aside from bridle trails are almost non
existent. Even in the thickly settled and rich Huailas Valley there was
not a wheeled vehicle in 1908; there is no way by which they could be
carried in except in pieces. The iron horse, however, within the last
half century has begun to make its way.


CHIEF PORT

=Callao.= Although Peru has other primary ports which should be visited
by commercial men, Callao and Lima are the chief centre of commerce for
the greater part of the country. Both cities are of course provided
with good electric car service, lights, and telephones; they are
connected by an electric and a steam railway, the latter, a part of
the Central Railway of Peru, which climbs to the interior heights.
The double track electric road on a broad boulevard, the most popular
connection between the two cities, makes the ride in 28 minutes.
The site of the port, Callao, population 35,000, was chosen with
discretion, as except for Chimbote it has the best harbor below Panamá.
It ranks in traffic as the fourth American port on the entire Pacific,
following Seattle, San Francisco, and Valparaiso. Callao has been
distinguished as the only port south of Panamá with docks accessible
to large ships, though, as the accommodations are inadequate, passing
coastal steamers usually anchor half a mile away, employing lighters
for cargo; recently, steam launches serve passengers, heavy baggage
going in row boats. A floating dry dock receives ships of 8000 tons.


RAILWAYS TO THE INTERIOR

=The Central Railway.= In spite of the enormous difficulties of
making a roadbed up a steep cañon or on the face of a bluff, bridging
torrents, and tunneling side buttresses and mountain ranges, two
railroads, both monuments of skill and perseverance, climb from the
coast to the plateau, the Central, and the Southern Railways of Peru.
The first, a standard gauge line from Callao begun in 1870 by the
American financier, Henry Meiggs, was in 1876 completed as far as
Chicla, 88 miles. On account of troubles resulting from the Chilian
war, it did not reach Oroya, long the terminus, till 1893. The road
follows up the Rimac Valley, which, however, is so steep and narrow
that detours into side valleys are necessary, as into the Verrugas,
which is crossed by a bridge 225 feet high, one of 67 bridges on the
journey. Many curves, tunnels, and V’s are also needed to gain in
7¹⁄₂ hours, with no more than a 4 per cent grade, an elevation of
15,665 feet at a distance from the sea in a straight line of less than
100 miles. Frequently the floor of the cañon has room only for the
rushing stream, and the road passes high up on the slope or cliff, at
one point, 575 feet, or through one of the 57 tunnels. Some of the
cliffs are more than one third of a mile in perpendicular height. The
road is considered in some respects the most wonderful of the world’s
railways. A branch 10 miles long from Ticlio to Morococha, reaching
an altitude of 15,865 feet, a trifle above that of Mont Blanc, is
absolutely the highest railway in the world. At Ticlio, the highest
point of the main line, is entered the Galera tunnel, three quarters
of a mile long, which cuts through the continental divide. The road
then descends to Oroya, altitude 12,178 feet. In taking the trip for
pleasure or business one not absolutely sure of the soundness of his
heart should have it examined, or at least should stop over two days
at Matucana, 7788 feet, where there is a fairly comfortable hotel. Any
one is liable to suffer somewhat from _soroche_, which may be avoided
by the stop-over. In general persons of good constitution, not too
full blooded, will be troubled only by a headache, perhaps accompanied
by nausea, and those who are careful to avoid rapid walking or over
exertion of any kind for a day or two after arrival above, and who
do not overeat before setting out on the journey or afterwards may
suffer no inconvenience whatever. No liquor of any kind should be used
except in collapse from heart failure. Ammonia is desirable in case of
headache.

From Oroya, terminus of the direct line, there are branches to the
north and south over the plateau. To reach the _montaña_ interior,
which is more accessible here than from any other point in Peru, one
may go by automobile over another range a thousand feet above, and
beyond this, down, down, down into the _montaña_. Tarma at 10,000 feet
has a delightful climate, and here are trees, perhaps the first seen
in Peru, growing as it were of their own accord. The picturesque cañon
below is lined with verdure, here and there are entrances to side
valleys. Tunnels and romantic swinging bridges formerly lent variety
to the ride. The new automobile road opens up a rich and delightfully
attractive country. La Merced, altitude 3000 feet, is quite a little
town with a pleasant summer climate.

A short distance farther is the Perené, a coffee plantation, at 2500
feet, belonging to the Peruvian Corporation. The estate of 5,000,000
acres is not half cultivated, though 1¹⁄₂ million coffee trees had
been planted in 1903. At this altitude the country is still in the
foothills of the Andes with steep slopes on every hand, a narrow way
only extending along the river bank. The Perené is a considerable
stream easily navigable, an affluent of the Tambo, which flows into the
Ucayali; but the stream goes south a long distance around, and through
a region inhabited by savage Indians. It is therefore not used. The
Chunchi Indians living close by are fine looking people and friendly,
sometimes working on the plantation. This plantation is on the main and
mail route from Lima to Iquitos, capital of Loreto, to which with good
luck a journey may be made in 15 days. Seven days are spent between
Oroya and Puerto Jessup, then one in canoe to Puerto Bermudez, and 5 or
6 in steam launch to Iquitos, where a steamer may be taken to Manaos,
Pará, or New York.

A branch railway line, American owned, built by the Cerro de Pasco
Copper Company, extends north from Oroya to Cerro de Pasco, about 90
miles over a hilly country, past Lake Junín. Along the way many Quichua
Indians are seen, the chief population of the plateau region. Cerro
de Pasco, the terminus of the road from Oroya, is a town of 15,000
population at an altitude of 14,300 feet. A branch railway leads to
Goyllarisquisga, 26 miles, another to Quishuarcancha, 11 miles, to
their coal properties.

Another branch or a continuation of the Central Railway runs south on
the plateau in the valley of the Jauja River past a city of that name,
population 3000, altitude 11,050 feet, a resort for consumptives for
whom the coast is too damp. Seventy-eight miles from Oroya at Huancayo,
population 6000, the road halted some years, but lately building
has recommenced and the road is probably open some miles farther.
Construction is proceeding in the direction of Ayacucho to continue
from there to Cuzco. By the time this is accomplished a long stretch of
the Pan American Road will be completed, probably from the Callejón de
Huailas to Lake Titicaca, but the crossing of three cañons, one 3000
feet deep, makes this an expensive job.

=The Southern Railway of Peru=, also planned and partly constructed by
Henry Meiggs before he commenced the Central, begins at the port of
Mollendo; after a few miles along the beach it climbs the high bluff
on the side of projecting buttresses, winding about till it reaches
the edge of the desert plateau 3000 feet above. Then it proceeds on
the almost imperceptibly inclined desert, presently along the edge of
the Vitor Valley, 107 miles, to the beautifully situated Arequipa,
population 50,000, altitude 7550 feet.

The city is on the lower slope of El Misti, partly in the valley of
the Chili River which flows between Misti, 19,200 feet, and Chachani
a little higher. Arequipa has a fine cathedral, and cultured society,
but poor hotels. A good one, opened prematurely some years ago,
unfortunately failed; it would be a great success now. In the crater
of Misti are pure sulphur crystals, with some of which I once filled
my pocket; but other sources are more accessible. Much business is
transacted in the city, this being the centre of commerce for Southern
Peru, an immense district with many towns and mining centres on and
off the railroad. At least one night must be spent here on the way up,
and several days are desirable both for business and to become proof
against _soroche_. The city is the site of the machine shops for the
railway, which with 526 miles of track is the longest in the Republic.
From Vitor between Mollendo and Arequipa an automobile road is to be
constructed to the Majes Valley and Chuquibamba.

From Arequipa there are semi- or tri-weekly trains to Cuzco and Puno.
The road winds around the desert slopes of Chachani to the higher land
beyond. From the divide, 14,688 feet, the descent is gradual to Puno on
the shore of Lake Titicaca, 219 miles from Arequipa.

At Juliaca, 30 miles before Puno, the line branches north towards
Cuzco, 210 miles, a journey of a day and a half. Sleeping cars run from
Arequipa. The highest point on the north division is 14,153 feet. Cuzco
itself is at an altitude of 11,445 feet. The place, almost surrounded
by hills, has a more genial climate than might be expected at this
altitude. The appearance of the country is very different from that
near Cerro de Pasco with more green and a milder atmosphere. Cuzco is
said once to have had a population of 400,000, instead of the present
30,000. Some progress has been made since railway connection was
established in 1908; a decent hotel, the Pullman, has superseded the
apologies for one then available. The population is chiefly Indian,
and many come in from the surrounding country to the markets. The
Department, a very rich but undeveloped section, is on the border where
Quichuas and Aymarás mingle.

From the port of Puno, on the shore of Lake Titicaca, altitude 12,500
feet, there is, in connection with the railway, steamboat service
(an all night journey) to Guaqui, at the south end of the lake. Here
is railroad connection for La Paz, a three hours ride, all under
the management of the Peruvian Corporation, a British company which
controls also the Central Railway and most of the short lines from the
various ports; the Corporation has further among other concessions one
for the export of guano.


PROPOSED RAILWAY EXTENSION

It is evident that the railways of this great country which nowhere
touch the vast _montaña_ region and which leave destitute most of
the towns of the sierra district, are totally inadequate for its
development. However delightful the climate or rich the country in
agricultural or mineral resources, few persons in the present age
will settle in regions remote from cities in time if not in distance,
and where the interchange of products is almost impossible for lack
of means of transportation. The leaders of the Government are well
aware of this fact and are doing their utmost to promote railway
development, both through their own initiative and by their willingness
to grant favorable terms and, to some extent, guaranteed concessions to
foreign capitalists. The importance of connecting the coast and sierra
cities, and these with the Amazon Basin and river transportation to
the Atlantic is perfectly apparent. The ideal is for three or four
railways serving different sections to extend from coast ports up over
the mountains down to the navigable waters of the Amazon affluents,
and that such roads should be connected by a north and south line in
the sierra country as a part of the great Pan American system long ago
planned. Branches would diverge from all of these lines, thus opening
up large mineral deposits for operation, and the rich agricultural
lands of the _montaña_ for settlement and commerce.

For a long time several routes have been under discussion and some
concessions have been granted, which mismanagement or the difficulty
of getting capitalists to invest in so remote a field have rendered
abortive. Therefore there is still discussion; and opportunities for
construction are open.

Beginning at the north the first cross line proposed is that in the
Department Piura, continuing the road from the good port of Paita to
Puerto Molendez, Calantura, or Limón, on the Marañon River below the
Pongo de Manserriche. This plan has the great advantage of crossing the
Andes at its lowest point, 6600 feet. An important consideration is
that it would make practicable the export from Paita of rubber which is
now carried from Iquitos by way of the Amazon and Pará; the far shorter
journey by sea from Paita to New York, easily made within ten days,
would more than counterbalance the rail freight from the river port 400
miles to Paita. It would surely be a better route for business men and
offers other advantages; among these access to coal and iron mines en
route.

Another transcontinental route proposed is from some point connected
with the Central Railway which has already surmounted the divide. A
route on which much money has been spent for engineering investigation,
surveys, and otherwise is from Cerro de Pasco or Goyllarisquisga to
Pucalpa or some other point on the Ucayali. This central road for
political reasons seems extremely desirable. It would open up the
fine grazing lands of the Pampa Sacramento, and rich alluvial gold
deposits in or on several streams, as well as the forest and rubber
country. Another suggestion is to continue the road directly east from
Oroya down to the Perené River and to Puerto Wertheman; a better may
be to build 175 miles from Matahuasi, a station on the Oroya-Huancayo
Railway, to Jesus Marie on the Ené River near the mouth of the Pangoa,
where 12 feet of water would permit of commerce by large steamers by
way of the Tambo and Ucayali.

One important cross route would naturally be by the Southern Railway,
from a point on the Cuzco branch, Tirapata, Urcos, or Cuzco, the
earlier plans looking to a connection with the Madre de Dios River. But
as this route would necessitate a long roundabout journey, as well as a
passage through Bolivia and freightage on the Madeira-Mamoré Railway,
the Government has recently undertaken for itself a line from Cuzco to
Santa Ana on the Urubamba, by which the journey is greatly shortened
and will be wholly within the Republic as far as Brazil, following
down the Urubamba and Ucayali to the Amazon and Iquitos. The drawback
to this route is that only very light draught steamers can come up to
Santa Ana at any season of the year.

Lines quoted as under construction by the Peruvian Government in
1919 are that from Chimbote up the Huailas Valley to Recuay, already
referred to, which when completed will be immediately profitable, the
continuation of the road from Huancayo to Cuzco, now open 30 miles from
the former city; and the Cuzco to Santa Ana just mentioned. A short
line recently opened from Lima to Lurín, crossing the Pachacamac River,
brings two fertile valleys with their fruit and vegetables into close
connection with the capital. Lurín is but 16 miles from the suburb
Chorillos, which for some years has had railway service. The ancient
pre-Inca ruins at Pachacamac are now easily accessible.

The Longitudinal or Pan American Railway, crossing all the others,
would come in at the north from Cuenca and Loja in Ecuador, continuing
to Huancabamba, Jaen, and Cajamarca in that Department, thence down the
valley to the Santa River, there joining the railway to Recuay, which
will be prolonged to Goyllarisquisga. By this time the connection will
be complete to Cuzco, and so to La Paz, La Quiaca, and Buenos Aires.




                             CHAPTER XXIII

                    PERU: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES


AGRICULTURE

While for centuries Peru has been celebrated as a land of marvelous
mineral riches, especially of gold and silver, nevertheless, in spite
of her desert shore, her bleak table-land, and her undeveloped montaña,
like California, her chief wealth is in her agriculture. What the
figures say about the exports is easily ascertainable; but though
corroborating this statement they do not tell all the story, since most
of the mineral production is exported, while the greater part of the
agricultural stays at home. Of the latter, sugar is the leading product.

=Sugar= grows along the coast and, where opportunity offers, up to
a height of 4500 feet; in the montaña to a height of 6000 feet. At
present most of it is raised near the coast. The Chicama Valley, famed
for its splendid estates, produces more sugar than the entire Island of
Porto Rico, and this of the finest quality. In the temperate, equable
climate, the cane matures early and may be cut all the year around.
It is unusually rich in sucrose. Some estates are 15-20 miles square,
producing 15,000-30,000 tons each; 50-60 tons of cane to the acre is
quite usual. The cane is cut and ground from 18 to 24 months after
planting, and being cut throughout the year instead of during four or
five months only, the same amount of work may be done with far less
machinery and fewer laborers. In places a two months suspension is
made, when the river is full, to attend to irrigation and to clean or
repair machinery, etc.

The cane has more than 14 per cent sucrose, often 16 or 17 per cent.
The returns have nowhere been surpassed; the production to the acre is
double that of Cuba, where the average is 23-24 tons, in Peru 45-50
tons. At Cartavio, an estate of 29,000 acres in the Chicama Valley,
they once cut 79.8 long tons of cane per acre from a field of 85 acres.
This had 15.24 per cent sucrose and gave 12 tons of sugar an acre, a
probable record. The grinding capacity is 1000 metric tons in 23 hours.
In 1917 they ground 240,000 tons making 34,000 tons of sugar, mostly
white granulated. The Casa Grande in the same valley, said to be the
largest estate in the world, has a population of 11,000. Churches,
schools, hospitals, and “movies” are provided for the work people, and
the luxuries of modern life for owners and superintendents. In the
montaña sugar cane is said to grow to a height of 30 feet and once
planted to persist for a century. One writer speaks of two or three
crops from one planting, but nine years without replanting is not
unusual on the coast.

In the year 1915-16, 100,000 tons were exported from Salaverry, more
the year following; half as much from the smaller port of Huanchaco
near by. Production in Peru reached 400,000 tons in 1918. The
plantation Tambo Real, on the Santa River near Chimbote, was recently
sold for $1,750,000. Just back of the port is plenty of good sugar
land, now desert but easily irrigable. As the nitrates have never been
washed out of the land by rain, the soil is of extraordinary fertility;
with irrigation the cane receives the precise amount of water required
and at the right season. Back of Samanco are two large sugar estates,
one belonging to the British Sugar Company, which has a larger at
Cañete in the south, producing long ago 30,000 tons a year. One estate
had years ago 22 miles of tramway which was to be increased. In some
places small farmers owning or renting land sell their cane to sugar
mills. Most of the estates have the best of machinery. In 1911 $100,000
worth of sugar machinery was imported into one Department, Lambayeque.
Labor is cheaper than in Cuba, formerly 60 cents a day, but with
housing and other perquisites. Much sugar has been exported to Chile;
recently to Europe and the United States. Some years ago sugar could be
sold at a port at a profit for 1.5 cents a pound, more recently at 2.5
cents. There is still a field for investment in desert land, suitable
for those with sufficient capital to arrange for irrigation. About
600,000 acres are now devoted to sugar.

=Cotton.= Native to the country is cotton, and Peru has its own special
variety, _Gossypium Peruvianum_. It is so soft and fine that it is
called vegetable wool, and it is much used for weaving underwear,
stockings, etc., with wool, which it even improves, as the cloth
is less liable to shrinkage than all wool. This variety grows to a
height of 10-16 feet, giving a first small crop in eight months, but
not reaching its best until the sixth year. It holds out well through
drought, requiring but one irrigation yearly. The trees are planted 15
feet apart, the interspace being occupied with vegetables and corn.
No ploughing is necessary and two crops a year are obtained. With the
names full rough and moderate rough it is mixed with wool for textile
manufacture. Piura is its special habitat, but it grows well in Ica at
the south.

The Egyptian, the Sea Island, or the ordinary American are preferred
by some growers on account of their earlier development. The Egyptian
is cultivated in Ica from the shore to 60 miles inland, also in Lima;
the Sea Island and the Peruvian Mitafifi, similar to the Egyptian,
near Huacho and Supe; the smooth cotton from ordinary American seed
anywhere. The Egyptian, also called Upland, grows to about four feet,
yielding two or three years, beginning six months after sowing. It
needs several waterings, but has an advantage in being free from weevil
blight. This and the ordinary American are the most popular varieties.
Peru is twelfth among world producers, needing only more irrigated
land for greatly increased production. There is water enough but labor
and capital have been wanting. All conditions are favorable as in
Egypt. The length of the various cotton fibres is given as: Sea Island,
1.61 inches; Egyptian, 1.41; Peruvian, 1.30; Brazilian, 1.17; American
upland, 1.02; Indian, 0.8.

=Coffee.= An important product is coffee, the best said to be grown in
the sierra region; but the finest I ever drank was raised on a small
plantation back of Samanco, where it was roasted, ground, and made
within the hour, of course pulverized and dripped as universally in
South America. In the deep valleys at the east also, excellent coffee
is grown: in Puno, in the Chanchamayo and the Perené valleys, called
the _montaña_ by the sierra people, in Huánuco farther north, in the
Paucartambo valley of Cuzco south, as well as in the Pacasmayo and
other coast sections. Five hundred plants are set to the acre, 800 in
the Perené, which produce each 2 pounds annually. Even with a low price
for coffee its production is profitable there, in spite of the one
time $60 a ton freight rate to Callao; large profits are made at good
prices. After supplying home consumption there is a considerable export.

=Cacao.= The production of cacao, which grows wild in the _montaña_,
should be greatly increased. The Department of Cuzco produces a
particularly fine article with exquisite taste and aroma, which brings
a higher price than that of Brazil or Ecuador, though little known
outside of the country. In the Perené Valley a plantation of 200,000
trees has been set out. Vast tracts in the Departments of Amazonas and
San Martín and in the Province of Jaen are also suited to its growth.

=Coca.= The culture of coca is important, but more limited as to future
development since its medicinal use should not be greatly increased
and its general use not at all. The plant is a shrub, usually six feet
high, cultivated in the districts of Otuzco (the most important) and
Huamachuco (Libertad), Huanta (Ayacucho), Cuzco, and Huánuco. It grows
best in valleys of 3000 to 7000 feet altitude, where the temperature
varies from 60° to 85°, in clayey but not marshy ground, with iron but
no salt. It needs frequent rains and humidity. Three or four crops
may be picked annually, the first in 18 months; the yield continues
40 years. Care is needed in picking the leaves and in drying. A great
quantity is consumed by the Indians, and some is exported to Europe and
the United States, both as dried leaves for making wines, tonics, etc.,
and for the extraction of alkaloid; also as cocaine for the making of
which over 20 small factories exist in Peru. Chewing coca leaves is of
great service on the plateau for necessary and unusual exertion, but
injurious and stupefying when its use is continuous.

=Rice= is grown in the north in Lambayeque and in the Pacasmayo Valley
of Libertad. With one flooding and little ploughing the crops are
produced annually, 46,000 tons in 1917. A little is exported but more
is imported. The two varieties grown are Carolina and Jamaica. The
straw is not utilized.

=Fruits= of various kinds may be grown in all the coast valleys, but
south of Lima the culture, especially of grapes, is more advanced.
Even in poor years it is said that the grape crop is superior to the
European average; but too little attention has been paid to improving
and extending the industry. The vineyards are small and combined with
the other interests of a _hacienda_. The grapes are grown on stocks
about eight feet apart, supported first by canes, later by trellises
on adobe columns. Nine hundred gallons of wine an acre is an average
yield. Italia and Abilla are cultivated for white wines, Quebranta,
Moscatel, and others for red; the former of these two being most
prolific and generally grown. A pink Italia is a fine table fruit.
Wines cheap and good are manufactured to the amount of 2,200,000
gallons yearly, and 770,000 gallons of _pisco_, made from white grapes,
also quantities of alcohol. The sugar of the _montaña_ is used to
make _aguardiente_ or rum; in several coast districts a finer quality
is made from grapes and is probably what in some sections is called
_pisco_.

Peru is rich in the variety of fruit possibilities, but grapes and
olives are the only ones cultivated in a large way, with a view to
commercial profit. Olives grown in the south from imported trees are
said to excel those of Spain or California. About 70,000 pounds are
exported. The yield of oil is about 30 per cent; not enough is made for
home consumption. Large possibilities exist in this direction. Other
fruits grown are of course oranges, bananas, melons, pomegranates,
_paltas_, or _aguacates_, or as we call them, alligator pears,
fine as properly eaten, the half fruit with salad dressing inside;
_chirimoias_, when in perfection nothing better; strawberries nearly
all the year around at Lima, more like the wild fruit with delicate
flavor; prickly pears, peanuts, pears, cherries, etc.

=Vegetables= in great variety are raised, some like ours, others never
before met with. Potatoes in many varieties grow up to an altitude of
13,000 feet or more. The wild bitter tuber from which the varieties
were probably developed still grows wild. Enock says the yellow potato
(not sweet) is unrivalled for excellence, but I saw none superior to
the best of our white. Other tubers cultivated are the yam (three crops
a year), _manioc_, and others.

=Maize.= The best maize in the world, says Vivian, is grown in Peru;
but I am sure that he never ate any sweet corn in Rhode Island. Grown
in all parts of the country up to 11,500 feet, it is native, like
potatoes and cotton, and is one of the main stays of the country. Maize
and potatoes are the chief foods of the Indians. Parched corn is much
eaten on the plateau; it is most useful where bread is not to be had,
and often is to be preferred. Toasted maize is called _cancha_. Three,
sometimes four, crops are had annually. Food for man and beast, the
stalks used for fodder, it is all consumed in the country. That grown
near Cuzco is said to be of the finest quality, with grains the size of
large beans, a very thin pellicle, and very farinaceous. One district
in Lima produces 10,000 tons a year.

=Cereals= are raised, wheat, barley, and oats, from 5000 to 11,500
feet. Wheat formerly grown on the coast is now seen on the uplands,
but large importations of wheat and flour are made. Barley grows to a
greater height, 12,000 feet or more and is much used for animal fodder,
for mules and horses, taking the place of oats, which are not much
cultivated. Alfalfa, much better for fodder than barley, is largely
used, growing in sheltered places up to 12,000 feet, about the same
as maize. A specialty of Peru and Bolivia is _quinua_, which is very
prolific and grows freely in poor soil from 9000 up to 13,500 feet.
It would be well if it were widely cultivated in other countries.
Suitable conditions could be found in many places not necessarily at
such altitudes. For many purposes it seems preferable to corn meal. It
may be eaten raw with sugar or water or cooked as mush; it is called a
tonic for _soroche_. The grains are round, about the size of mustard
seed.

=Tobacco= is raised to a small extent, especially in Tumbes and
adjoining districts. It is called of superior quality, and is preferred
by some Peruvians to the imported, but it is too strong and coarse for
many; the upper class Peruvians generally prefer Havanas. Perhaps 1000
tons are produced, some of which is exported to Bolivia, Chile, and
Brazil. The Government has a monopoly of its sale, regulating price and
profits of native and imported both, and owning the cigarette factories.

Ramie grass and haricot beans produce each four crops a year, flax and
hemp, two crops; the castor oil plant is cultivated, and at the south
the mulberry with the silk-worm.


FORESTRY

Forest products except rubber have received little attention, although
the export of tagua, vegetable ivory, has greatly increased within the
last ten years. The palm grows wild in the _montaña_. The nuts are
picked up by the Indians and carried to Iquitos, thence sent to Europe.
They are also used in the forest for curing rubber, the only industry
of much importance in this section.

=Rubber= for years has been exported in considerable quantities, at
first collected from districts on the tributaries of the Marañon,
later from those of the Ucayali. Earlier the rubber gatherers called
_caucheros_ cut down the _caucho_ trees, a hole in the ground
having been previously prepared to receive the milk, which was then
coagulated by a solution of soap with the juice of a native plant
called _vetilla_. This method of cutting down the trees, which still
has some vogue in other countries, is now forbidden in Peru. The
_caucho_ here averages 100 pounds to a tree. It was exported in planks
or cakes weighing 80 to 100 pounds each. The _jebe_, rubber of the
finest quality passing for the best Pará fine, comes from the _hevea
brasiliensis_ or other species of _hevea_. These trees are found lower
down than the _castilloa elastica_ (from which comes the _caucho_)
at an altitude of about 300 feet, where it grows to a height of 60
to 70 feet. By tapping the _hevea_, about 20 pounds yearly of rubber
is obtained. Peru’s rubber export 1908-12 averaged 4¹⁄₂-5¹⁄₂ million
pounds worth 20 to 30 million dollars; but the lowering of price due
to the Ceylon plantations, and perhaps the discovery of atrocities
practiced upon the Indians in some quarters greatly diminished the
export for some years. It seems to be reviving. In 1916 $3,400,000
worth was exported. Better regulations have been made and the
possibility of arranging a system of plantations is discussed. Nearly
all the rubber is exported from Iquitos; but some from the Madre
de Dios section, the Inambari, and the Urubamba goes out by way of
Mollendo. The export duty of Peru, 8 per cent, has been much less than
that of Brazil.

Other forest products, which now receive little attention, include all
kinds of valuable timbers, medicinal plants, dye woods, etc., usual in
a tropical forest.


STOCK RAISING

=Cattle.= The cattle industry is one of large importance, pasturage
beginning in the foot-hills of the coast, and going up to 13,000 feet
or more. The large ranches are in the sierra, some having 20,000 cattle
and 500,000 sheep. Cattle are raised in Cajamarca, Junín, Ayacucho,
Cuzco, and Puno. The beef is apt to be tough, badly cut, and is better
boiled than roasted. Cross breeding with Argentine or other stock
would improve it greatly, and attention is being paid to the matter.
The pasture lands are called excellent. Hides are quite largely
exported and cattle are imported from Argentina and Chile, chiefly for
slaughter, a few for stock. Mutton is largely eaten in the sierra.

=Wool= is an important export, likely to increase, for the plateau
affords ample space, with good wild grasses. The native sheep have
rather long legs and a rough scanty fleece; crossed with merinos they
give more wool. Good stock was brought from Punta Arenas some years
ago with an experienced manager, and near Lake Junín a big ranch has
been developing on 130 square miles. There is no finer country for
sheep raising than the high valleys of the plateau. Alpacas, _vicuñas_
and llamas also afford wool, the first two of much greater value. The
_vicuña_ wool is the finest, but there are so few of the animals that
the export is small. That of alpaca, however, is greater than that
of wool, at least in value. The larger part of the world’s supply of
the genuine article comes from the Peruvian and Bolivian plateau. The
llama, the great burden bearer, has a heavy but coarse fleece, yet some
of it is exported. There are more of these three animals in Bolivia.
The Indians are expert in their care. The _guanaco_ is a larger animal,
somewhat similar, which has never been domesticated, and is hunted by
the Indians for food. The chinchilla, and the _viscacha_, the Peruvian
hare, are hunted for their skins. Many pigs are raised and lard is
exported.

=Horses.= The horses are rather small, but are very fine saddle
animals. Some have five distinct gaits. I found them more sure-footed
than mules, going up and down veritable rock stairways with ease. They
are to some extent originally of Arabian stock.

=Fish= of the finest quality of 40 or more varieties and in great
abundance are found off the coast; large lobsters, scallops, the
corbina, cod, sole, smelt, mackerel, and many others are caught.

=Guano.= There are seals on the islands and an enormous number of
sea-birds, which have made the great deposits of guano on the islands.
As there was no rain the deposits have been preserved for centuries
without loss of the nitrogen of which there is 14 per cent. The islands
occur singly or in groups along the coast, some far out beyond the
track of the steamers. All are barren and uninhabited. The Chincha
Islands had enormous deposits now exhausted. There has been much waste,
and deposits have been removed so ruthlessly as to disturb the birds;
but now there are careful regulations. Agreement was made some years
ago with the Peruvian Corporation (British) by which they were allotted
2,000,000 tons of the guano; of this they have had more than half;
operations have recently been restricted and few shipments made.


MINING

The mine fields of Peru, once famous for their production of gold
and silver, never wholly neglected, were for a time less vigorously
worked. In the days of the Spanish colonists gold and silver were the
chief objects of acquisition, but lately these metals have seemed less
fashionable than copper. The variety in Peru’s wealth in minerals is
shown to some extent by a list of her production in 1917 in millions
of pounds in round numbers: copper, 84; copper matte, 4.4; copper ore,
16.5; vanadium, 7; lead ore, 7.5; antimony ore, 3.75; silver ore,
1.76; tungsten, 1. Smaller quantities of other ores were produced:
gold, 2000 pounds; sulphur, 120,000; metallic silver, 8000; silver
concentrates, 700,000; precipitated silver, 10,000; lead bullion,
250,000; lead concentrates, 650,000; zinc ores, 640,000; lead slag,
177,000; copper cement, 145,000; molybdenum, 12,000; gold ores, 30,500.
Many other minerals exist, not exported in large enough quantities to
have been given in this list.

=Copper.= Americans were slow to become interested in mining
investments in South America as in commercial trade, but when assured
of the success of the pioneer enterprise inaugurated at Cerro de Pasco
by New York capitalists about 1900, others followed, and large sums
have now been invested in several Republics. Silver was discovered at
Cerro de Pasco in 1630 and $200,000,000 were produced in one century.
Four hundred and fifty million ounces were obtained by hand labor, the
ore being carried by llamas to primitive smelters. Little interest was
taken in copper; only ore with 25-50 per cent of the metal was formerly
exported. Here at Cerro, where is located, some say, the richest copper
deposit in the world, the titanic forces of nature cast upward a
wonderful mass of material, gold, silver, copper, etc. Here are great
open pits several hundred feet deep, worked for centuries for silver.

The Cerro de Pasco Company has spent about $30,000,000 in acquiring
properties here and at Morococha, in constructing smelters, railways,
buildings for employees, and in developing the properties, from which
handsome returns are now obtained. The property of the Cerro de Pasco
Mining Company consists of 730 mining claims and 108 coal mining
claims. The reserves exceed 3,000,000 tons of copper ore, one estimate
is 75,000,000. Nearly every claim carries ore with gold, silver,
copper, lead, zinc, and cobalt. High silver values exist to 100 feet
deep, sometimes running to thousands of ounces a ton, deeper are silver
copper ores, and lower still little silver and more copper. The old
open mines are 100-300 feet deep. The mines are very wet, especially
below 400 feet. A drainage canal begun by Meiggs in 1877 was completed
in 1907. The new workings include five shafts and two tunnels of two
miles each. The shafts have openings at four levels, the bottom 410
feet. Waste is used for filling, as timber is dear. The smelter has
five blast furnaces, each running 300 tons daily. A converter is
in another building. A hydro-electric plant completed in 1913 cost
$1,000,000. There is a 10 mile ditch and pipe line with one 750 foot
fall and a second of 200 feet. The transmission line, 70 miles, serves
Morococha and Pasco. There is a coke plant near the smelter and a
brick plant of great value. The coal mines are at Goyllarisquisga and
Quishuarcancha, 21 and 11 miles respectively. The coal is not very
good, averaging 35 per cent carbon, but answers the purpose.

The Corporation owns 12 mines at Morococha and rents others. The
deepest shaft is 750 feet. Several drainage tunnels are required.
The production, 12,000 tons a month, was expected to be increased to
16,000. The ore of the several mines runs 5, 14, 15, and in one mine
20 per cent copper continuously, the 14 per cent with 14-70 ounces
of silver per ton. The ore averages 7 per cent copper and 10 ounces
silver. The mines have produced 20,000,000 pounds of copper a year, one
third of the de Pasco Company’s output. Morococha is ten miles from
Ticlio, the highest point on the main line of the Central Railway; the
ore is sent to a smelter at Casapalca, altitude 13,600 feet, ten miles
farther down.

The property at Casapalca also is controlled by the Cerro de Pasco
Company. In one mine there, a 5000 foot adit cuts the vein 2500 feet
below the outcrop; other adits are higher. The ore is sent to the
smelter by an aerial tram. The output is 2500 tons a month, two per
cent copper, and 40 ounces silver. The Casapalca smelter has three
blast furnaces and four barrel type converters. The flue dust is
briquetted and returned. It does custom work for independent miners,
and in 1916 treated 175,000 dry tons, producing nearly 20,000,000
pounds of fine copper, 3,000,000 ounces of silver, and 3587 of gold;
the capacity is now increased 50 per cent. A new smelter has been
erected at Yauli by the Company. The Cerro de Pasco property is said to
be the most costly ever developed; the ores are refractory. With the
cost production eight cents a pound on an output of over 70,000,000
tons a year, $4.20 a share is earned on 14 cent copper, double on 20
cent copper. The Corporation’s income in 1916 was $3,676,000, about 12
per cent on the investment; about 8 per cent was paid in dividends, not
an undue amount on what was considered by many a very large risk.

Another great copper property, also owned by Americans, is at
Yauricocha, about 50 miles south of Yauli, and west of the
Oroya-Huancayo Railway. Four hundred and fifty thousand tons averaging
16 per cent copper and 2¹⁄₂ ounces of silver per ton, five per cent of
the probable ore in sight, are now ready for stoping. The smelter and
blast furnace have an output of 15-18 tons of blister copper daily.
Native labor of fair quality may be obtained at one fifth of the cost
in the United States, while the ore is said to be six times as rich
as most of that in the West. Considerable water power is available.
An automobile road has been constructed from the station Pachacayo 60
miles to the mine.

There are other rich copper deposits in Peru, in Huancavelica, Cuzco,
Arequipa, Ica, Apurimac, Junín, Ancash, Cajamarca; but as yet none of
them is in full production. Ferrobamba in the Department of Cuzco, 45
miles west of the city, at an altitude of 13,000 feet, is one of the
largest properties, with 207 claims over 225 acres. The concession
includes water rights; 120,000 horse power is available. The ore can be
worked by steam shovels. One field is estimated to contain 12,000,000
tons of ore, 6 per cent copper, 3 ounces silver and 9 grams gold. Its
inaccessibility has so far prevented extensive operations. The Anaconda
Copper Company owns a copper property in the Department of Arequipa.
Copper matte is exported from Queruvilca, Otuzco, Santiago de Chuco,
and Cajabamba.

=Coal=, contrary to earlier supposition, is now known to be widespread
in Peru. The astonishing figures of 6¹⁄₄ billion tons have recently
been given as the estimated supply, over 4 billion of these in Tumbes,
a quantity hitherto unsuspected, perhaps unverified. However, coal
deposits are certainly scattered along the great Andes Range and in
the foothills, mainly in the central and northern sections. Within
100 miles of the coast are millions of tons of anthracite coal near
Cupisnique and Huayday; millions more back of Chimbote and along the
Huailas Valley, anthracite, semi-anthracite, and bituminous with many
veins 4¹⁄₂-13 feet thick. Higher in the plateau region are deposits of
soft coal near Oyón, Cerro de Pasco, and at Jatunhuasi. The de Pasco
coal, 35 per cent carbon, must be washed before coking in the smelter.
Forty per cent of the material is rejected. The best coal is used on
the Railway. It costs $2.92 at the mine. The Company has no more than
is needed for their smelters and railway. Better coal is found at
Jatunhuasi 30 miles from Pachacayo, on the road to the copper mines
at Yauricocha, the same company owning both. This coal, 45 per cent
carbon, makes better coke which now sells at $25 a ton at Pachacayo,
previously at $40. This deposit, estimated at 40,000,000 tons, is said
to be the largest known in Peru of high grade coking coal, and the only
one capable of large scale mining without pumping.

At Paracas in the Department of Ica are veins near the sea. Capital
for working the coal mines has not hitherto been available; and land
transport a few miles by llamas has been more expensive than carriage
by sea a few thousand. The need is imperative; and foreign capitalists
should and no doubt soon will aid in the development of these rich
resources. The annual production is now estimated as 400,000 tons.

=Gold= and silver are always interesting, and there is still plenty in
Peru. In 1916 about $1,200,000 worth of gold was mined, though accurate
statistics are impossible, on account of the difficulty of estimating
the quantity got out by the Indians. A Peruvian engineer estimates the
product from the Inambari River through their primitive methods as
$100,000 yearly. They build a floor in the river, and the next season
wash out the gold sand in the crevices. There are auriferous deposits
in Puno and Cuzco; both veins and placers at Sandia and Carabaya, and
at Quispicanchis and Paucartambo. Gold coinage in 1918 amounted to
nearly $3,000,000. The Aporama Goldfields property near the Hauri Hauri
River at Sandia, Puno, has placer deposits covering 1277 acres. It was
just reaching production stage when the War opened and interfered. The
New Chuquitambo Company has 142 acres in the Cerro de Pasco Province.
The Inca Mining Company, American, has the Santo Domingo Mines on the
Inambari River, now in the Madre de Dios Department. From Tirapata on
the Juliaca-Cuzco Railway, there is a wagon road for some miles, then a
mule trail over the Aricoma Pass, 16,500 feet, and down to an altitude
of 7000 feet. Even with the difficulties attending the transportation
of machinery and supplies $8,000,000 have been produced without
exhausting the deposit. The Cochasayhuas mine in Cotabambas yields
$20,000 a month. Seventy per cent of the gold production is said to
come from Puno.

=Silver.= Of silver mines the most important is reported to be that
of the Anglo-French Company near the port of Huarmey. Dividends have
averaged from 20 to 25 per cent per annum. Possibly rivalling this, are
mines farther south at an altitude up to 16,500 feet, the reduction
works at 15,200 feet in the Cerro Quespesisa, 120 miles back of Pisco.
Less favorably located, but one of the most productive districts in
Peru, in the last 50 years it has yielded 6,000,000 ounces of silver
with crude processes and a loss of over 25 per cent. The fuel used
is _taquia_ (llama dung) of which 1500 tons a year are burned. The
temperature in the middle of the day is 45°. At that altitude there is
no great difference in the seasons in the torrid zone. Supplies are
brought from Pisco, a four and a half days’ journey.

The Morococha mines produced in 1916 (estimated) 1,500,000 ounces. The
selected ore sent from Colquipocro to a Liverpool smelter averaged for
some years $200 a ton, while the thousands of tons on the dump run $80
a ton. Silver is usually found with either copper or lead, in Peru
oftener with the latter, while gold is in veins of ferruginous quartz,
generally with other metals as silver and copper, as well as in sand,
alluvial deposits, and in nuggets. Other silver mines operated are in
Cajamarca, Ancash, at Yauli near Oroya, at Cailloma in Arequipa 100
miles north of Sumbay, and elsewhere.

=Vanadium= is found near Cerro de Pasco, the property of Americans.
From 70 to 80 per cent of the world’s supply is believed to be in Peru,
the second largest stock in Colorado. It is of great value for certain
purposes in steel construction. The Peruvian ore, roasted before
shipping, contains 25 per cent of vanadium. Three thousand five hundred
tons were exported in 1918.

=Quicksilver.= In the old mines of Huancavelica there is resumption of
work through the activity of Señor Fernandini, a prominent Peruvian
mine owner who has a smelter near that of Cerro de Pasco. He has been
clearing out old tunnels, and driving new ones across, to cut the ores
700 feet below the old surface workings. A hydro-electric plant is on
trial for the furnaces. The mines are high on the mountain above the
town Huancavelica. The ore is a bright red cinnabar, mercury sulphide,
impregnating clean sandstone uniformly, or along planes or fractures.

=Other minerals= exported are tungsten, in 1917 1500 tons with a
60 per cent basis; a deposit at Yauli gives 14 per cent zinc with
silver; a large borax lake near the city of Arequipa is likely soon
to be developed; salt, a government monopoly, is found in many places
but mainly worked in the _salinas_ of Huacho near Lima. Bismuth,
molybdenum, and antimony are found.

=Petroleum= is a very important product of Peru, the total area
of oil territory being 5000 square miles, not all proved but with
possibilities. The chief field is in Tumbes and Piura in the north,
the Titicaca so far having made slight production. The latter field
is 300 miles from the sea and eight from Lake Titicaca, near the
Bolivian frontier and extending toward Cuzco. Deposits have been found
in several provinces but the chief work was not far from the Juliaca
station where 10 wells were sunk, in 1912 producing an average of 50
barrels a day, the oil with the paraffin base. At last accounts the
work had been discontinued. In 1915 there were 524 wells in the country.

The field at the north extends 180 miles south from the town of Tumbes
to some distance beyond Paita, running east to the mountains and
perhaps including the Islands of Lobos. The field is 30 miles wide,
though some believe it may extend 150 miles. Here is practically no
rain, no vegetation, and no water, except that of the sea which is used
for all purposes. The temperature is called ideal. The wells range from
250 to over 3000 feet deep. At the north there is a slight plateau
160-500 feet high, running down towards the south.

The Zorritos field farthest north and the oldest in Peru is 24 miles
south of Tumbes, with wells four miles along the coast, drilled mostly
at the water’s edge and some in the ocean. The deepest is 3000 feet but
most are 600-2000 feet. Some wells produce 500-600 barrels a day, but
one third of those dug were failures.

The Lobitos field in Piura, 60 miles north of Paita, with a proved area
of 725 square miles the second largest in Peru, has all its wells over
2000 feet deep. One sunk to 3435 feet was a failure. A well around 3000
feet deep costs $10 per foot average, against $1.50 or $2.00 for wells
under 1500 feet. The shallower wells here are short lived. In 1915 a
new pool was opened 12 miles north.

The Negritos field is the richest, 40 miles north of Paita, with an
area of 650 square miles. The average depth of the wells is 2500-3000
feet and the most important oil deposits are below 1500 feet. Eleven
miles east is an asphalt seepage called La Brea. The oil from Negritos
is piped 16 miles north to Talara, the port where the refinery and the
wharves are situated. Besides the 6-inch pipe line there is a narrow
gauge railway. The modern refinery has a capacity of 6000 barrels
a day. With pressure stills employed the oil will give 75 per cent
benzine. The Talara port permits vessels of 28-foot draught to approach
the wharves. The International Petroleum Company, said to be controlled
by Standard Oil interests, now operates this property and has taken
over the smaller property of the Lagunitos Oil Company 11 miles from
Talara. The amount of oil production in Peru has in ten years increased
from 756,226 barrels of 42 gallons to 2,550,000 barrels in 1916, two
thirds of the last amount coming from Negritos and Lagunitos.


INDUSTRIES

While Peru does not support large manufacturing industries she has more
than some other South American countries and ample means for increase.
Scattered along the coast are more than 50 streams which, though small,
falling 10,000 feet, are capable of providing an immense amount of
electric power. The use of electricity is already widespread, electric
lights and telephones are found in many towns, in several, electric
cars; the development of this source of power is progressing.

Of factories, sugar mills take the lead, 50 _haciendas_ near the coast
having their own mills. In some of these 75 per cent of the sucrose is
extracted with the use of the best machinery. Alcohol and _aguardiente_
are made from both sugar cane and grapes, as well as wine from the
latter. There are rice mills, and factories for making soap, tallow,
lard, matches, chocolate, paper, and other ordinary articles; tobacco,
cigar and cigarette factories, flour mills, etc. Panamá hats, though
made by hand, must not be forgotten.

Of great importance is the manufacture of textiles, in which the
Indians were so proficient in Inca days that their work is said never
to have been surpassed. Now there are seven cotton factories, five of
these at Lima, making 24,000,000 yards of cloth for the home market.
Three thousand operatives are employed. Also there are five woolen
factories, at Lima, Cuzco, and Arequipa. Although the Indians are
illiterate and lacking in initiative they have a taste for mechanics
as well as for agriculture and pastoral pursuits. They still weave
and spin, making excellent ponchos and blankets. Education will be a
developer. The Indian’s patience and skill should be utilized, his
ambition roused, so that he may desire to live more comfortably. Higher
wages and more varied wants for these people will produce more business
and prosperity in all lines.


INVESTMENTS

Peru obviously offers very favorable opportunities in many lines:
railway construction and varied works of engineering, irrigation,
sanitation, development of electric power; agriculture, especially
the raising of sugar and cotton along the coast, and of a variety of
additional products in the montaña; mining of all kinds, especially
coal; stock raising; all of these in many sections with a very
desirable climate. Of stock, the raising of sheep for the export of
wool would doubtless be most profitable. The grasses of the table-land
are excellent fodder; the climate is cold enough to ensure heavy fleece
but not so extreme as to be injurious in snow storms or in fair
weather. By importing a few rams an expert in the business would be
able to conduct it with large profit.

The farmer may purchase land in the montaña at $1.00 an acre and
up, according to location, or secure it on other terms arranged
for immigrants. Rubber and timber lands are leased under special
regulations. Fruit raising and poultry might be profitable in some
places. There is an excellent chance for small factories, perhaps for
large ones. In many cities of the North and West Coasts American hotels
or boarding houses, if properly conducted, would have great success.




                             CHAPTER XXIV

         BOLIVIA: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.


One of the two inland Republics of South America, Bolivia has an
enormous area, a section of which is still unexplored in detail. Its
chief towns situated on the lofty Andean plateau or a little over
its eastern edge, it seems wonderful indeed that here in the 16th
century, prior to the existence of New York or Boston, were populous,
wealthy cities, hundreds of miles from the coast and from the seat of
the Viceroy at Lima. In the present day, such a horseback ride across
country as was then and till within a half century common, would by
most persons be considered quite a feat, while a similar descent to the
Atlantic port of Buenos Aires, then not unusual, is an expedition that
would commend itself to few; though this crossing were to the Paraguay
River only, where a steamboat would be available for the remainder of
the journey.


AREA, POPULATION, BOUNDARY

=Area.= Bolivia, with an area variously given as 515,000 to 708,000
square miles, is generally counted third in size of the Republics.
Pending the settlement of the boundary dispute with Paraguay and more
accurate surveys, probably at least 600,000 may be conceded, a larger
territory than the entire Atlantic slope of the United States. Once
possessing a small coast line which included the port of Antofagasta,
Bolivia was deprived of this in 1883 at the close of the war with Chile.

=Population.= The number of inhabitants, mainly an estimate, has been
recently given as nearly 3,000,000. With about four persons to a
square mile, it is the most sparsely peopled of American Republics.

=Boundary.= At the north and east the country borders on Brazil.
Paraguay is at the southeast, Argentina directly south, and Chile and
Peru west.


HISTORY

Known by the name of Alto Peru, the country was ruled for nearly three
centuries by the Viceroy at Lima, and by a Royal Audience of four
men at Chuquisaca, now Sucre, the nominal capital of the Republic.
La Paz is noted as the seat of the earliest effort (July, 1809) in
South America for democratic government. Though abortive, it was the
inspiration of later struggles. The battle of Ayacucho in 1824, which
ended Spanish dominion over the continent, was followed by the entrance
into La Paz of General Sucre with his victorious army, February 7,
1825. The Act of Independence is dated August 6, 1825. The Republic
was named for Bolívar, who was elected President, while Chuquisaca was
made the capital with the name of Sucre. General Bolívar, inaugurated
in November, resigned in January, 1826, and was succeeded by General
Sucre, the first President who really served. More or less troublous
times followed until a war with Chile broke out in 1879 over the export
nitrate tax. At the conclusion of peace Bolivia lost the small coast
section of nitrate land, Antofagasta, which she previously possessed.
Since that time several revolutions have occurred, one in 1920, but
none affecting her credit, her foreign contracts, or the lives of the
people generally.


GOVERNMENT

Bolivia is in form a centralized republic and has the usual three
branches. The President, who with two Vice Presidents is elected for
four years, and is ineligible for a consecutive term, exercises almost
absolute authority, although Congress meets annually on the sixth
of August. The President’s Cabinet is composed of six Ministers:
of Foreign Relations and Worship, Interior and Justice, Treasury,
Promotion (Internal Improvements), Public Instruction and Agriculture,
and War and Colonization.

The Senate has 16 members, the Chamber of Deputies 72. The
administrators of the Departments and of the 63 Provinces, the Prefects
and the Sub-prefects respectively, are appointed by the President.
Municipal Councils regulate the local affairs of the cities. Suffrage
is enjoyed by male citizens over 21 (not domestics) who can read and
write, who have a fixed income of 200 bolivians, and whose names are
registered. The Supreme Court alone of the three branches of government
is located at the nominal capital Sucre. The Judiciary has a Supreme
Court with seven Judges, a Superior Court in each Department, and
Provincial and Parochial Courts.

The Republic comprises eight Departments and three Territories as
follows:

---------------------+---------+----------+-------------+----------+---------
    DEPARTMENTS      |   AREA, |POPULATION|  CAPITALS   |POPULATION|ALTITUDE,
                     |in square|          |             |          |   in
                     | miles   |          |             |          |  feet
---------------------+---------+----------+-------------+----------+---------
La Paz               |   73,000|   734,000| La Paz      |  107,000 | 12,005
Oruro                |   27,000|   137,000| Oruro       |   31,000 | 12,178
Potosí               |   57,000|   515,000| Potosí      |   30,000 | 13,251
Cochabamba           |   36,000|   512,600| Cochabamba  |   35,000 |  8,387
Chuquisaca           |   37,000|   320,000| Sucre       |   30,000 |  9,328
Tarija               |   31,000|   160,000| Tarija      |   11,600 |  6,248
Santa Cruz           |  140,000|   327,000| Santa Cruz  |   25,000 |  1,450
El Beni              |   95,000|    50,000| Trinidad    |    6,000 |    774
                     |         |          |             |          |
   TERRITORIES       |         |          |             |          |
Colonias del Noroeste|   81,000|    50,000| Riberalta   |    3,200 |
Colonias del Gran    |         |          |             |          |
  Chaco              |   60,000|    23,000| Villa Montes|      970 |
Delegación Nacional  |         |          |             |          |
  en el Oriente      |         |          |Puerto Suarez|          |
---------------------+---------+----------+-------------+----------+---------


POPULATION

The population of Bolivia, about 2,800,000, as in Peru is in three
classes: the whites, numbering possibly 500,000, Indians and mestizos
most of the rest, the Indians largely in the majority, though there
are more than half a million mestizos. A few thousand are negroes.
Since the coming of the Spaniards centuries ago, there has been no
real immigration, the mass of the people thus continuing Indian. The
whites, many of whom have some admixture of Indian blood, are of course
the ruling class. An aristocratic society exists, the members of which
follow French fashions and customs and in considerable number have
visited Europe. A few persons have inherited or acquired by mining or
otherwise very large fortunes. Some persons of obviously mixed race or
mainly of Indian blood become educated, and acquiring wealth take part
in politics, hold office, and obtain social position; more such than in
Peru. There is a really cultured society in all towns of moderate size.

The plateau Indians are chiefly Aymarás or Quichuas, the former living
around Lake Titicaca and throughout the northern part of the plateau;
while the Quichuas, strange to say, are at the south, farther from
their kindred in Peru. The Aymarás are less prepossessing than the
Quichuas, more churlish, rather darker, similar in mode of life, though
a trifle more backward. They till the soil to some extent, act as
herdsmen, work in mines, and perform heavy labor of any kind, carrying
loads of 60-80 pounds, 20, 30, even 50 miles a day. The women are said
to be stronger than the men; both do spinning and weaving. The men
are inveterate chewers of coca, and men and women both are much given
to drunkenness. Of melancholy aspect, they seem devoid of ambition.
Generally submissive, if aroused they are revengeful and murderous.
Having received little attention from the Government they are probably
in poorer case than when ruled by the Incas; they are believed to be
diminishing in numbers. Plans have been formed for improving their
condition.

The mestizos, also called cholos, feminine cholas, are the industrial
class of the nation, artisans, shopkeepers to some extent, etc. The
men dress in second class European style; the cholas, one might say,
half and half. As a rule the cholos treat the Indians more harshly
than do the real whites, while to the latter they are rather servile.
Some cholos have distinguished themselves as writers and statesmen.
Two thirds of the population are said to live at or above 12,000 feet.
Several mining camps are at 15,000 to 16,000 feet.


EDUCATION

Education is public, official, free, or private. Primary education is
called free and compulsory. The provision, formerly inadequate, has
recently been improved in accordance with a well planned programme.
There are about 900 primary schools with 53,000 pupils, including
private and kindergarten. Fourteen _colegios nacionales_ provide
for secondary education besides private schools under government
supervision; in La Paz and Cochabamba, two under Methodist auspices
have accomplished excellent work. Teachers are trained in four normal
schools, while professional or higher education is afforded by
Universities in La Paz, Sucre, and Cochabamba, Law Schools at Oruro,
Potosí, Santa Cruz, and Tarija, a School of Theology at Santa Cruz.
There are further a Mining School, Institutes of Agronomy, Commerce,
Modern Languages, and Music; and four Schools of Arts and Trades, the
one at Cochabamba giving excellent results from instruction in weaving
wool, and in the use of native dyes. With a view to extending and
modernizing the education of women coeducation is practised in most
institutions and there are two _liceos_ for girls. Students of especial
ability are sometimes sent abroad for study, and foreign instructors
are engaged.


PRESS, RELIGION, ETC.

=Press.= The press, while important, is said to have less influence
than in the neighboring Republics, and it contains less news of the
world.

=Religion.= The religion of the State is Roman Catholic, but freedom is
now granted to other forms of worship. Civil marriage alone is legal,
but is frequently neglected by the Indians.

=Telegraphic Communication.= The Capital is in telegraphic
communication with the rest of the world and with the capitals of all
the Departments. The country has over 200 offices, and 4350 miles of
wire. A powerful wireless station at Viacha, on the plateau 15 miles
from La Paz, communicates with the Pacific Coast and with passing
ships. Other stations are at Villa Bella, Cobija, Trinidad, Santa Cruz,
Ballivián, D’Orbigny, Esteros, Riberalta, Puerto Suarez, and Yacuiba.
Telephone service exists in La Paz and Oruro.

=Money.= The unit of Bolivian money is the _boliviano_, equal to about
40 cents (.389) of our money. English and Peruvian gold pounds are
legal tender, equal to 12.50 _bolivianos_. The latter are divided into
100 centavos. Silver coins are of 20 and 50 centavos. Bank bills of one
and five _bolivianos_ and of higher denominations are in general use.

=Weights and Measures= are of the metric system, but in the interior
the old Castilian system is chiefly employed.


PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The topography of Bolivia in general is similar to that of Peru save
for the absence of a coast section. The Sierra or plateau region and
the Trans-Andine continue those at the north, though the latter differs
from the Peruvian in that its rivers reach the Atlantic Ocean, some
by way of the Amazon, others by the Paraná and La Plata, while the
_montaña_ of Peru is wholly in the Amazon Basin.

The =Plateau Region= of Bolivia, 90 miles from the Pacific, extends
from northwest to southeast about 460 miles, with an average width of
100 miles and an altitude of 12,500 feet. It is bordered on the west
by the Cordillera Occidental, containing snowclad peaks, several of
which are volcanoes, many dormant or extinct, and on the east by the
Cordillera Oriental, the northern part of which is the Real or Royal,
a name eminently deserved. The two ranges come together at the Knot of
Cuzco or Vilcanota. Northeast of Lake Titicaca is another confused mass
or knot, the _Nudo_ of Apolobamba, where are said to be some of the
highest peaks of the Andes. The central plateau, once an inland sea,
and now including Lake Titicaca, slopes slightly from the north, where
it has a height above 13,000 feet. It is broken in places by ridges and
peaks, one over 17,000 feet high, and is cut by a few cañons. In the
West Cordillera a number of peaks reach an elevation of 19,000, 20,000,
or 21,000 feet; on the east the Cordillera Real contains several above
21,000. Farther south in the lower ranges are some peaks of volcanic
character. A transverse ridge, the Serranía de Lipez, terminates the
Bolivian Plateau.

East of the southern part of the Cordillera Oriental is a mountainous
section of which the Sierra de Cochabamba on the northeast and the
Sierra de Misiones on the east form the limit. Considerably farther
east in the region of the lowlands is the Sierra de Chiquitos between
the Mamoré and Guaporé Rivers, mere hills in comparison, with one
almost attaining 4000 feet. The highland or plateau section, the only
part visited by ordinary tourists or commercial men, occupies hardly
two fifths of the territory, the less known lowlands three fifths.

The =Lowlands=, extending farther north than the Bolivian plateau,
comprise low alluvial plains, swamps, and lands often flooded,
including great forests and llanos. The great forests are at the north
in the Amazon Basin, the open plains in that of the Plata.

=Rivers.= The only rivers of consequence are those which flow towards
the Atlantic, with the exception of the Desaguadero, about 200 miles
long, the outlet of Lake Titicaca. This river flows into Lake Pampa
Aullagas or Poopo, which has no outlet unless it be by an underground
stream to the Pacific, of which there are some indications. The
principal rivers of the Plata system, the Pilcomayo and the Bermejo,
flow southeast into the Paraguay River. More numerous and important are
the streams flowing northeast belonging to the Amazon Basin, the chief
of these, the Beni, and the Mamoré, which form the Madera River. They
have many tributaries, the Beni having the Madre de Dios, the Madidi,
the Cochabamba, and others; the Mamoré receiving the great boundary
river, the Guaporé or Itenez, and many more.


CLIMATE

Bolivia, still within the tropics, has the same variety of climate
as the countries previously described, the difference in altitude
causing the variation. The portion of the table-land where the altitude
is 12,000 to 13,000 feet, called the _puna_ by the natives, has two
seasons which resemble autumn and winter, the summer is so short and
cool. The summer, the season of snows, is from October or November to
May; the winter usually has slight precipitation. Little will grow here
except potatoes, barley, and _quinua_. The higher land up to the snow
line, perhaps 17,000 feet, called the _puna brava_, is still colder,
supporting grass only, where herders alone are found with native
flocks and rare mining settlements. Higher still is eternal snow with
almost Arctic temperature, -20° I found it at night on a glacier on
Mt. Sorata. A professor once told me that at 16,000 feet he was unable
to keep warm at night however much clothing and blankets he used, but
the Indians, moderately clad and with bare feet, endure the cold with
apparent indifference.

The valleys as high as 12,000 feet, as in the case of La Paz, are
comparatively comfortable, being shielded from the bleak winds of the
plateau. From 9500 feet to 11,000 the climate is sufficiently temperate
for the raising of vegetables and cereals. In what is called the
Valley Zone, 5,000 to 9,000 feet, there is slight variation throughout
the year, perpetual summer and subtropical vegetation. Below are the
_yungas_, deep valleys with semitropical climate, and further the
tropical lowlands. Except for the last section the country as a whole
may be called healthful, diseases arising from bad habits, poverty,
ignorance, and unsanitary conditions, rather than as a necessary result
of the climate. In the lowlands, however, tropical fevers and malaria
are likely to exist, while many persons are more or less affected by
_soroche_ on ascending to the plateau from the sea. In La Paz the
weather in winter is cool, with a temperature occasionally below
freezing and ranging from 40° to 50° in the house. Snow though not
uncommon soon vanishes in the sun, and flowers like geraniums blossom
all the year in the open. In summer, with much more precipitation, it
usually rains in the valley, with snow often on the _puna_ and always
on the mountains above.




                              CHAPTER XXV

              BOLIVIA: CAPITAL, DEPARTMENTS, CHIEF CITIES


THE CAPITAL

=La Paz=, the de facto capital, population 107,000, is by far the
largest and most important city commercially. It is the highest capital
and large city in the world, also one of the most picturesque, both on
account of its location at the bottom of a cañon, 1000 feet deep, and
of its street scenes with the strangely garbed Indians and cholos, and
the droves of llamas. The city has better sanitary arrangements than
Quito, the narrow streets are remarkably clean, but some conveniences
are lacking. There are electric lights and cars, but a meagre water
supply, and too few opportunities for a bath. Good hotels are needed,
the new “Paris” and some older houses being wholly inadequate for
present necessities. The business of the city is largely in the
hands of foreigners, i.e., the best shops, and some of the banks and
importing houses. La Paz is the chief centre of trade of the country,
the Custom House here transacting by far the most business, but
supplemented by several others at the east and south.


DEPARTMENTS

=La Paz= is the most northern Department of the plateau region,
the third largest, the first in population and importance. It has
Colonias north, El Beni and Cochabamba east, Oruro south, and Chile
and Peru west. La Paz has an extremely varied landscape with a range
in altitude from 640 to 21,750 feet at the top of Mt. Sorata, though
some Bolivians give the altitude of this mountain as 24,000 feet.
Besides the Cordillera Real the Department includes Lake Titicaca,
or as much of it as does not belong to Peru. The lake is remarkable
as being the highest in the world on which steamers regularly ply,
12,500 feet is an accepted figure; 12,545 is also given. The lake has
an area of 3200 square miles; it is about 120 miles long, 34-44 wide,
and 330 feet deep, in places nearly 1000. Other figures are 145 miles
long and 69 broad, average depth 492 feet; temperature of water 48°;
annual rainfall about 78 inches. Besides the bleak table-land west of
the Cordillera Real, the Department comprises many beautiful valleys
east of the mountains. It contains, with the capital La Paz, several
important though not large cities: Corocoro, a famed copper centre;
Sorata, north, a delightful spot, at an altitude of 8000 feet, a centre
for the rubber industry and for mining; Achacachi, a big Indian town
near the Lake; Copacabana, a very sacred religious shrine, also on
the Lake; Coroicas, east in the Yungas Valley. Actual or potential
wealth of almost every kind may be found here: large flocks of llamas,
alpacas, and some vicuñas; sheep and goats, herds of cattle and horses;
vegetable products, coca, cotton, coffee, cereals, etc.; great riches
in minerals, gold, silver, tin, copper, rock crystal, berenguela, a
fine native marble, all these in fine quality and immense quantity.
The wonderfully grand and varied scenery of this Department can be
duplicated or rivalled in few quarters of the globe.

=Oruro=, directly south of La Paz, between Potosí and Chile, is the
smallest of the Departments, entirely on the plateau, thus having
a much smaller range of altitude and of climate. Its wealth is in
minerals, especially silver and tin, though gold, bismuth, borax, and
sulphur are found. Alpaca, chinchilla, and wool are other products.

The capital, Oruro, 127 miles south of La Paz, while for years
the terminus of the railway from Antofagasta, became an important
commercial and industrial centre; in addition it is one of the
busiest mining districts. Half of the mining men are foreigners; a
large proportion of the ordinary population is Indian. There is also
agreeable society, with people quite up to date in Paris fashions. The
only other city in the Department is Challapata.

=Cochabamba=, south of El Beni, east of La Paz and west of Santa Cruz,
is sometimes called the granary of the Republic. It is a particularly
delightful region, half temperate and half semitropical, with altitude
ranging from 973 to 16,777 feet. It possesses immense plains with
innumerable herds of cattle, magnificent fertile valleys, rich forests,
and minerals.

Cochabamba, the capital, is the city next in size to La Paz, 276 miles
distant; with an altitude of 8387 feet it enjoys a delightful climate,
an average temperature of 66°, and abundant rain. It has a good club,
an American Institute (a school for boys), and the least illiteracy.
The recent arrival of the railroad insures its rapid growth.

=Potosí= is another plateau Department, both east and south of Oruro,
bordering also on Chuquisaca and Tarija, and with Argentina south
and Chile west. It has for the most part a rather cold, disagreeable
climate, the altitude ranging from above 20,000 to a little over 6000
feet.

The name Potosí, for centuries famous as almost a synonym for silver,
belongs also to the capital city, at a height of 13,388 feet. In 1650,
when New York was a small village, it had 160,000 inhabitants. The city
has an excellent mint, built in 1562, also a superb old cathedral, a
good library, and a museum. Above the town 32 artificial lakes were
constructed of which 22 are still good. The temperature varies from
9° to 59°; it is said that they have the four seasons in one day.
Even here potatoes, barley, and beans will grow, but living is very
dear. The town has foundries, engineering shops, and 28 smelters. The
Department still contains enormous quantities of silver and tin in
almost every variety of combination, and more towns that are rich
mining centres than any other Department except La Paz. Uyuni is a
town of 6000 inhabitants, Colquechaca has a population of 8000 miners;
Tupiza, soon to be reached by the railway, is a pretty city in a
pleasant valley, 66 miles from the Argentine border.

=Chuquisaca=, east of Potosí and south of Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, is
much warmer, the altitude ranging from 255 to 13,450 feet. Here also
are mines of the usual varieties and petroleum too, tropical fruits and
vegetables of course, and plains with vast herds and flocks.

Sucre, the legal capital of the Republic, altitude 9328 feet, is
situated on an arm of the Pilcomayo River. Social distinctions are here
more marked, and there is an exclusive circle agreeable to those of the
right type. Sucre, Cochabamba, and La Paz are called the most cultured
cities. More than 300 miles from La Paz in a straight line and, as it
is on the east side of the Cordillera, much farther on horseback, which
until lately was the only way to journey thither, except for some miles
of staging, Sucre is now more accessible, as will be indicated later.

=Tarija=, south of Chuquisaca and southwest of Potosí, is with Potosí
the most southern of the Departments, now smaller than formerly, since
the Gran Chaco has been made a separate Territory. Like Chuquisaca it
is on the east side of the Cordillera, the greatest altitude being
12,874 feet. The climate obviously varies from temperate on the west
to hot in the lowlands, the productions varying similarly. There are
possibilities for all varieties of grain and fruit, as well as for
stock raising; the western part lies in the silver region, having gold
and copper as well.

The capital, Tarija, 80 miles east of Tupiza, is 250 miles from Sucre
and 600 by rail from La Paz, but a few days must still be spent in
stage or on horseback. Prospects for speedy rail connection are good
when rapid development will follow.

=Santa Cruz=, north of Chuquisaca and east of Cochabamba is the
largest Department of all, and the richest in wild animals and
vegetation. This Department, altitude 377-9754 feet, does not reach the
great mountains, but far to the east it has a little range of its own,
the highest summits of which are just below 4000 feet. Here are forests
and prairies, cattle, tropical fruit and vegetables; cotton grows
profusely, rice, _manioc_, coffee, _copal_, rubber, what you will. Here
too is petroleum, iron, quicksilver. The white population is said to be
of purer Spanish blood than in most of the Departments, comparatively
unmixed; but as the climate is hot the people are naturally indolent.

The capital, Santa Cruz, altitude 1400 feet, 550 miles from La Paz by
way of Cochabamba, and 330 from Sucre, was founded, only think! in
1545. It is on two of the main routes running from Bolivia to Argentina
and Paraguay. With a population of 20,000, it is quite a city, having
a variety of local industries, and being on a favored route for the
export of rubber, sugar, and coffee to Europe; but the enormous cost
and difficulty of transportation retards its progress. Three hundred
and ninety miles east near the Paraguay River is Puerto Suarez, two
hours or 11 miles by cart road from Corumbá, Brazil, to which point
steamers come from Buenos Aires. A railway too practically reaches
Corumbá from São Paulo.

=El Beni=, the last of the Departments, occupies the northeast portion
of Bolivia, being divided from La Paz by the Beni River. With an area
of 100,000 square miles the variation in altitude is slight, 465-2800
feet; hence everywhere a hot climate. It has hardly 40,000 inhabitants,
mostly Indians. Nearly all the whites are engaged in the rubber
industry, though stock raising and agriculture are slightly practised
in the higher sections.

The capital, Trinidad, 400 miles from La Paz, with a population of
5000, is the least important of the various Department capitals, though
containing many stores and trading concerns for the sale of imported
products. Some smaller places are of greater commercial consequence
and better known, on account of their location.

=Colonias.= Of the Territories of Bolivia Colonias of the Northwest
is west of El Beni, and north of La Paz. Since the settlement of the
boundary dispute between Peru and Bolivia, the area of the territory is
given as 81,600 miles. It is similar in character to El Beni, a great
wilderness, full of water courses and forests, a land of wonderful
vegetation; population 40,000, besides 15,000-20,000 wild Indians, not
to mention animals, mostly wild, gorgeous birds, snakes and insects.
The swamp fevers, it is said, may be avoided by healthy persons who use
proper precautions and live on the highlands where forest clearings
permit the free course of the wind. Rain falls from December to May,
but May, June, and July are agreeable, with night temperatures 60°-70°.
In the warmest months the range is 76°-90° in the hottest part of the
day. In September cool south winds bring sudden changes often producing
colds.

The capital, Riberalta, 920 miles from La Paz, at the confluence of the
Madre de Dios and the Beni, stands on a high bank 65 feet above the
water, which the main street faces, an unusually desirable location.
Its population, perhaps 4000, is increasing rapidly with the number of
trading houses and rubber exporters who own small steamers for river
traffic.

Villa Bella, 125 miles below Riberalta, at the junction of the Beni and
Mamoré, is on comparatively high land, facing the Brazilian town, Villa
Murtinho on the other side of the Mamoré. On account of the favorable
location for export, rubber and timber property in the vicinity is
especially valuable. The climate is better than in many other sections
of the tropical lowlands.

=El Oriente.= This Territory, uncertain as to area and boundary, is
lowland southeast of Santa Cruz, extending to the Paraguay River,
north of the region claimed by Paraguay.

The capital, Puerto Suarez, is a small place on a bayou of the Paraguay
River facing Corumbá.

=Gran Chaco.= South of Santa Cruz and southeast of Tarija, of which it
was formerly a part, is the Territory of Gran Chaco, where the boundary
with Paraguay is still undetermined. Fifty-seven thousand square miles
is given as the area. Here are low lying plains, some covered with
water in the rainy season (December to March), one or two feet deep;
also open forests with palms, willows, cedar, carobs, and quebracho;
and hilly sections occupied by wild Indians.

Yacuiba, formerly the capital, which is now transferred north to
Villa Montes, is a town 200 miles southeast of Tarija, and still the
most important place in the territory. In addition to forest riches,
are those of the plains, now harboring wild cattle, and undoubtedly
suitable for stock raising.




                             CHAPTER XXVI

                   BOLIVIA: PORTS AND TRANSPORTATION


=La Paz.= Bolivia unhappily has no seaport, but lake and river ports
are better than none; of these she has several. Nevertheless La Paz is
the chief port of entry with the principal Custom House, the terminus
of the three railways leading from the Pacific.


RAILWAYS

=Route from Mollendo.= In 1903 not a single railway reached La Paz, but
not long after, the road, which then left one on the great plateau,
arrived at the edge of the _alto_, whence by electric power the cars
are brought down the steep walls of the cañon to the picturesque
city. This route is the conclusion of the road from Mollendo, by all
means the most desirable for the traveler coming from the north. The
inconvenience suffered by many persons going from the coast directly
to the high table-land, and the real danger to those with weak hearts,
may be lessened or entirely obviated by pausing two or three days in
the pleasant city of Arequipa. Even the compulsory stay of a single
night may render the journey to Puno innocuous to the person in good
condition. Having crossed the divide, altitude 14,688 feet, one arrives
at nightfall at Puno, on the shore of Lake Titicaca, altitude 12,500
feet. The boat is there taken for the night journey of 130 miles to
Guaqui, the Bolivian port at the south end of the lake, a 14 hour sail
which no one should miss; for in the morning an inspiring vision may
be had, hardly equalled on the globe, of the magnificent Cordillera
Real, a hundred mile stretch of rugged snowclad peaks from Illampu to
Illimani with Huaina Potosí halfway. A splendid view of Illampu is had
on the left, during the three hours’ ride, 56 miles, over the almost
desert plateau, and after passing its edge a matchless view of the
cañon, the city, 1000 feet below, and Illimani towering far above.

=Arica-La Paz Railway.= The second route is from the port of Arica,
formerly in Peru, but now in the possession of Chile, which country
in accordance with the peace terms with Bolivia of 1883 constructed
the Arica-La Paz Railway as far as the frontier, the most difficult
portion, while Bolivia laid the rails for 145 miles within her own
boundaries. A branch 5 miles long leads to the important mining town of
Corocoro. This is by far the shortest route from the coast, only 281
miles, but as we have seen, this is a disadvantage to travelers rather
than a benefit; nor is there a gain in time to one coming from the
north, as the steamer arrives at Arica, a day later than at Mollendo.
As one may come up from Mollendo, including the night at Arequipa, in
48 hours, one thus arrives in La Paz a few hours before one who travels
in 22 hours from Arica. The journey from Mollendo is 534 miles. For
the more rapid climb from Arica there are 28 miles of rack railway
with a maximum grade of six per cent. The equipment of the road has
been inadequate for the business, but more has been ordered; larger
port works at Arica are needed and expected. The highest point on the
railway is 13,986 feet near the Bolivian boundary, nearly 700 feet
lower than on the road from Mollendo; but being reached in less than
half as many hours, and also at night when the effect of the altitude
is always greater, even the most robust are likely to suffer from a
headache if not worse, as is the case with persons coming up from
Antofagasta. Going down by either route there is usually no trouble,
except for those who have been a long time at the higher altitude.

=Bolivia-Antofagasta Railway.= The journey to La Paz from Antofagasta,
on the Chilian coast 400 miles below Arica, occupies two days for the
718 miles. This, the earliest of Bolivian railways, with Oruro for
years as the terminus, in 1911 was continued to La Paz, _i.e._, to
Viacha (15 miles from La Paz), where it meets the road from Guaqui,
the two forming a long link in the Pan American chain. The later road
now has its own line into the city. At Uyuni, where there is a Custom
House and a change of cars, the road turns off towards Chile. From
Ollague on the Chilian border, a 58-mile branch runs to the Collahuasi
copper mines, among the richest in the world. A Bolivian extension is
now being made along the plateau to connect with the Argentine road
from La Quiaca to Buenos Aires. Already Atocha has been reached; 60
miles remain to Tupiza, and 66 more to La Quiaca, the terminus of the
Argentine railway to the border. An automobile service is operated in
the dry or winter season from Atocha to La Quiaca, making the journey
in eight hours. The rest of the year one goes on muleback. Thus by the
weekly train from La Quiaca to Buenos Aires in 48 hours, the entire
journey, 2000 miles, may be made from La Paz much more quickly than by
way of Chile, in case one does not wish to go there. This route also
serves when the Trans-Andine is blocked by the winter snow.

=Other Argentine connections= are planned. A branch railway is to be
built from La Quiaca or possibly from Orán to Tarija, about 82 miles;
meanwhile it is expected to construct an automobile road for the
service. A railway extension from the Argentine boundary farther east,
hoped for in the near future, is from Embarcación to Yacuiba, thence to
Santa Cruz, thus opening the cattle region of the Chaco, of Chuquisaca,
and Santa Cruz for the export of cattle through Buenos Aires.

=Several Branches.= Farther north important branches to the interior
are already in operation. The first, opened in 1912, was from the
station, Rio Mulato, 130 miles south of Oruro, to far famed Potosí.
This section, 108 miles long, climbs to a height of 15,814 feet, the
second highest altitude reached by rail, following the Morococha branch
of the Central Peruvian. The cost was over $8,000,000, the maximum
grade three per cent. The trip occupies eight hours; there is weekly
service. The Oruro-Cochabamba Line was completed in 1917; its length
132 miles, its cost above $10,000,000. It crosses the Cordillera at
about 14,000 feet. This road is equally important, opening up a fine
agricultural and well populated district. Its fine scenic attractions
should allure the tourist. Food is very expensive on the plateau, but
with improved access to the warmer sections, lower prices and greater
variety of fruits and vegetables may be expected above.

A branch on the plateau long in operation is a 24 mile line from Uyuni
to the Huanchaca silver mines, the road owned by the Mining Company.
Another branch is now under construction from Machacamarca to Uncia, 57
miles, built by Simon Patiño, the wealthy owner of extremely rich tin
mines at Uncia. Thirty-eight miles are in operation.

=New Lines.= Under construction are two very important lines: one the
Potosí-Sucre Railway, 105 miles, with 40 in operation; the other, the
La Paz-Yungas Line of very difficult construction, passing over the
mountain range near La Paz at an altitude of 15,338 feet and going
down into the deep valley. One hundred and thirty-seven miles have
been surveyed. The passage has been accomplished, the road opened to
Unduavi, 16 miles, from which point it will be continued down the
valley to Coroico, later to Rurenabaque, and some time to Puerto Brais
on the Beni, the latter port being open to navigation all the year.
Already a delightful road for tourist travel and useful for bringing
fruit, vegetables, and other products to the La Paz market, has been
constructed. With the completion of the road to Puerto Brais, a more
speedy route for travel and freight to Europe will be attained. On
account of the scarcity and high cost of coal this road is operated
by electricity, for which the great fall of small streams gives ample
power. On account of transportation difficulties and increased cost
the completion of the Potosí-Sucre Railway has been delayed, but when
this is realized the road will probably be continued northeast to Santa
Cruz. From this city a road to Puerto Suarez on the Paraguay, now
talked of, will come later. Bolivia has about 1400 miles of railway
in service. A road to Santa Cruz from Cochabamba instead of Sucre is
advocated by many.


OTHER FORMS OF TRANSPORTATION

=Roads.= Automobile roads are planned and being constructed to fill as
far as possible present requirements, but in the rainy months, December
to May, traffic is generally suspended. From Cochabamba to Sucre there
is motor service for freight and passenger traffic, a more direct route
than that from Potosí for persons in La Paz. From Potosí to Sucre a
motor bus makes the journey in 12 hours. Another motor car road soon
to be available is from Riberalta to Villa Church (65 miles), opposite
Guajará-Mirím in Brazil, the terminus of the Madeira-Mamoré Railway.
From Cochabamba autos run to Totora, also from La Paz to Achacachi, and
over a spur of Illampu down to Sorata.

Aside from railways land transportation is chiefly confined to burros,
mules, and llamas; in some places there are mule wagons or ox-carts,
mules generally carrying the traveler. The cart roads, constructed
and maintained by the Government or the Municipality, are mostly very
poor; yet such as they are they extend 2000 miles. They are often if
not usually impassable in the wet season. Llamas are more extensively
employed than in any other country. In the plateau region with their
100 pound burden they wander leisurely along, cropping the coarse
grass, tended by their Indian owners or drivers, who are in no more
of a hurry than they. Along difficult mountain slopes are paths
constructed by the Indians, skirting precipices and climbing steep
inclines, where llamas, mules, and burros bear loads of minerals, coca,
coffee, or other products or imports, from one section to another.
About 5000 mules and burros pass over the La Paz-Yungas road daily.
Except in the dry season, May to October, travel either by mule or by
stage may anywhere be difficult or impossible on account of rivers
becoming impassable by reason of freshets or roads because of mud. The
importance of proper packing according to directions of goods which may
be shipped to the interior, or indeed to any destination, cannot be
overestimated.

=Lake Transport.= Aside from the railways transportation in Bolivia
cannot be called excellent either on land or water, though there is
fair steamboat service on Lake Titicaca. This with Lake Aullagas
(Poopo) and the Desaguadero River are the only waterways of the
table-land where navigation exists. On the larger lake the Railway
Company has steamers of 1500 tons or less, five in all, connecting
with the trains, and some touching at small ports on the islands and
around the Lake. Other boats are used, among them Indian balsas, built
entirely of reeds, sails and all. In the use of these the Indians are
very expert. The Desaguadero River is navigable to Lake Poopo for
steamers of 500 tons. Poopo is navigable for boats of shallow draft.

=River Transport.= Of great and increasing importance are the rivers of
the eastern slope, both those of the Amazon Basin, and to a less degree
those of the Paraguay, which river for some distance is practically the
eastern boundary of Bolivia. Its chief tributaries are the Pilcomayo
and the Bermejo. Bolivian statistics give the total length of all their
navigable rivers as nearly 12,000 miles, but these figures include
sections not conceded as within the boundaries of the Republic as well
as rivers on the boundary. Half of the distance mentioned, 6000 miles,
is said to be navigable by steamers of 4-6 feet draft.

In the Amazon Basin steamboat navigation is possible on the Acre from
the Upper Purús, the Abuna, Orton, Madre de Dios, Beni, Madidi, Mamoré,
Itenez or Guaporé Rivers, with some of their tributaries. Of the above,
the Beni and the Mamoré are the most important. On the latter, regular
steam service has recently been inaugurated from Cuatro Ojos in Santa
Cruz to Guajará-Mirím (a distance of nearly 1000 miles), the terminus
of the Madeira-Mamoré Railway. From the Department Cochabamba, boats
descend on the rivers Chaparé, Chimoré, and Iabaro to the Mamoré. The
Guaporé, though easily navigable for 1000 miles, flowing through an
uninhabited region, is little used.

Although most of the streams are more or less obstructed by rapids,
rocks, and masses of tree trunks, which last might easily be cleared
away, they are nevertheless useful for navigation. In spite of
difficulties and dangers much transport with canoes and rafts is
effected by the Indians, who are expert boatmen. On the Beni, rafts are
used from Puerto Pando 155 miles to Rurenabaque; from there steamboats
serve 573 miles to Riberalta; the Esperanza Rapids below the town
making their further passage impracticable. Hence the journey to Villa
Bella opposite Villa Murtinho on the Madeira-Mamoré Railway or to
Villa Church, higher up, opposite Guajará-Mirím must be made by land;
therefore the motor road is being constructed.

In high water the Madre de Dios is navigable by steamers far up its
tributaries, at other times by _callapos_ which consist of two or three
_balsas_ fastened side by side. The _balsa_ here is a small raft made
of several logs. It is usually 22 to 26 feet long, 5-6 wide, carries
750 pounds, and is managed by three boatmen. A _callapo_ or _monteria_
may carry 3400 pounds with a crew of from 3 to 15 highly skilful men.
They make 9 or 10 miles daily, navigating 10-12 hours. With the
return of normal conditions the development of this region will be
hastened, and greater benefits will be realized from the opening of the
Madeira-Mamoré Railway which occurred in 1912.




                             CHAPTER XXVII

                   BOLIVIA: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES


MINING

The mining industry, at present the most important in Bolivia, is
likely to continue the leader for an indefinite period, although with
easy communication and large population in the lower districts it may
ultimately have a rival in forestal and agricultural products, or in
cattle, certain to be at least a very valuable adjunct. The mineral
riches of Bolivia may equal if they do not surpass those of Peru,
though except for silver and tin they are probably less known. They
include almost every variety of the precious metals, with others not
so classed. To mention a few of these, there are gold, silver, tin,
copper, bismuth, lead, antimony, tungsten, platinum, zinc, petroleum,
with fine marbles, alabaster, malachite, opals, emeralds, jasper,
borax, salt, etc. There are thousands of known lodes, but comparatively
few are worked. The statement of the scientist, Raimondi, that the
plateau of Bolivia is a table of silver supported on columns of gold
is declared by Walle to be no exaggeration. A few of the mining belts
where some work has been carried on will be mentioned.

=Gold.= At the present time little is done in the way of gold mining,
tin and copper being more fashionable. Another reason for inactivity
in this line is that the Bolivians possess the majority of the more
favorably situated holdings, which they refuse to part with except at
prohibitive prices or possibly at all, hoping some day themselves to
be able to operate them. It is true that in the early colonial days
enormous quantities of gold and silver both were produced and exported,
although obtained by crude mining methods. It is thought that with
modern machinery excellent if not better results may yet be obtained.
In the 210 years previous to 1750 more than 12 billion dollars worth of
gold was produced in the country. There has been a falling off since
then, but one family in the last century obtained over $3,000,000 from
their property. Between 1868 and 1900 over $120,000,000 is believed
to have been produced. In many sections gold is known to exist in
abundance and with further exploration it will doubtless be discovered
in others. It is found in alluvial deposits, also in veins or lodes of
quartz, from which the deposits are the washings. Veins of antimony
which are common in Bolivia contain gold in chemical or mechanical
mixture.

There are three regions where gold is found, all of considerable
extent: the first and best known crosses the provinces of the
Department of La Paz, chiefly on the east slopes of the Cordillera
Real, continues through that of Cochabamba and runs out in Santa Cruz
towards the Rio Paraguay. In La Paz are the well known deposits of the
Tipuani River, of Chuquiaguillo, and many others. The second region
begins in the southwest corner of the country, and passing south of
Tupiza turns north through Potosí towards Santa Cruz. The third is
in the northwest part of the Republic, joining the similar section
in Peru. Although said to be the richest of all, it is practically
unexploited and unexplored.

While the opinion is held that the lack of means of communication is
all that prevents a large production of gold in Bolivia, I believe
that to Americans this is a smaller drawback than the distance of the
whole country from the United States; this objection will have less
weight in the future. Certainly the hardships of those regions and the
difficulty in reaching many of them is slight indeed in comparison
with the trials experienced by early Alaskan miners. The Tipuani,
for instance, is within a day’s horseback ride from the pretty town
of Sorata, population 8000. Chuquiaguillo, now owned by an American
company, is within easy walking distance of La Paz. Others are more
remote, most of them on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Real, to be
reached over passes of 15,000 feet or more, yet within a few days’ ride
of civilization. The single region of the Tipuani is 120 miles long.

Besides the opportunities for placer mining there are strata formed
of sand, clay, and stones, from 50 to 330 feet deep. Sometimes in
these there are veins with gold in thin flakes 98 per cent pure. Some
workings are open, others in shafts and galleries like an ordinary
mine. However, difficulty is experienced in taking machinery over the
poor trails, and also in obtaining labor. In May, 1904, a nugget was
found at Chuquiaguillo containing 47 ounces of pure gold, nearly $1000
worth. One hundred miners are employed here at 50 cents to $1.50 a
day. In the Province of Velasco, Department of Santa Cruz, is a region
considered by Walle more accessible than others, to which one would
come from the Atlantic to Corumbá on the Paraguay River or perhaps by
rail from São Paulo, and enter Bolivia across the plains. It is thought
that Bolivia may become one of the leading gold producers of the world.

=Silver.= The silver mines are better known and are now worked on a
larger scale than the gold, although 10,000 lodes are practically
abandoned or operated slightly. The suspension was not because of a
scarcity of silver but for lack of capital, means of transport, and
suitable machinery; also its lower price. A few of the largest mines
have continued to be regularly worked. With the recently higher price
of silver, greater activity has prevailed than a few years earlier. The
richest of the ores contain from 10 to 50 per cent of silver and even
80; more has from 1 to 10 per cent.

The Department of Potosí is world renowned for its silver. In the
first 40 years of colonial production more than $70,000,000 was taken
from the Cerro Potosí, a sugar loaf 16,000 feet above the sea, in which
5000 mines have been opened. Up to the present time a billion dollars,
one writer says four billion, have been realized from the silver of
Bolivia. In neighboring Provinces of the same Department, Potosí, are
many other mines, most of which now produce tin as well. The ores of
Potosí which originally contained 60 per cent or more of silver are
now poorer with more iron pyrites. The present queen of South American
silver mines, the Huanchaca-Pulacayo, east of Uyuni, consists of a
dozen groups over 8500 acres, a bed of fabulous richness. In the 28
years before 1901 it produced 4250 tons of silver. The majority of
the stock is held in France. Some years ago the Pulacayo mines were
flooded with hot water, but they have now been drained and are again
operated. On the property is a town of 10,000 people, hundreds of whom
are employed in the works, including women who first try out the ore.
In 1918 $2,622,000 worth of silver was produced.

Oruro is next to Potosí in production of silver, and in tin it stands
first. The richest silver ores, as at Huanchaca, are so exported, the
poorer are treated on the spot. Other rich mines are well known.

=Tin= mining is a more recent industry, dating from 1895. Already it
has become the leading export of the country, which now provides more
than one-third of the world’s supply. It was well known to the Spanish
colonists as much of it was mingled with the silver, but they rejected
it as rubbish, using it to fill in depressions. Large profits have
been recovered from these fillings and from the dumps. While tin is
produced in many other parts of the world, the Bolivian lodes are of
unusual extent and richness. Their production is now exceeded only by
that of the Straits Settlements. Since the development of the tin plate
industry and its use in other ways the demand for tin and the price
have enormously increased; from $350 a ton in 1898 to $900 before the
war. In 1912 tin was produced, barilla, 60 per cent pure, 37,700 tons,
worth $18,000,000; in 1918 the value of tin exported was $45,364,000.

All along the eastern part of the plateau from Lake Titicaca to the
southern boundary, tin is found in thick unbroken lodes. The three
principal districts are La Paz, Oruro, Potosí. In La Paz the best
known mines are on the slopes of the splendid mountain, Huaina Potosí
in the Cordillera Real, though many other mines are worked. Those in
the Department of Oruro are more important, producing one-third of the
output. The lodes vary in thickness from a few inches to 10, 15, or 20
feet. Rich pockets are found 30-60 feet in diameter, and veins with
stannic oxide fragments, running from 50 to 100 per cent. Cassiterite,
tin stone, or tin with stannic oxide, is frequent with 55-60 per cent
tin; this is sent to Europe as extracted. The percentage of tin in a
lode is very variable, often 6-8 per cent, sometimes 15. Veins of tin
on the Cerro Potosí penetrate the hill parallel to veins of silver;
some are united; in others tin, silver, and copper alternate or are
in union. The tin is generally in the upper part nearer the surface.
Sulphides are found at Oruro, but oxides are more frequent. All are
at an altitude of about 10,000-17,000 feet. The large Socavón Company
employs 1000 hands, has a concentrating plant, and puts out six tons
of silver and 250 tons of tin yearly. Many other mines export barilla,
some of it with 70 per cent of tin. A Bolivian, Simon J. Patiño, from
being an ordinary laborer has risen to be the Tin King, both banker and
mine owner, working his mines by modern methods and electric machinery.
His mines at Uncia are among the richest in the world, producing about
30 per cent of the Bolivian total. The Llallagua mines, the richest of
all, have still greater production.

On Huaina Potosí are placers containing with tin, gold in flakes,
bismuth, and oxide of iron; more in other locations. The Company
owning the Chlorolque Mountain and other properties, with tin as the
principal product, mines also silver, bismuth, copper, and wolfram; it
paid a 30 per cent dividend in 1917. Capital only is needed to exploit
on a much larger scale these rich and available deposits. Three hundred
to four hundred dollars a ton hardly paid the cost of production, but
with prices three times as much it is a highly profitable business.
The Guggenheims have recently purchased three tin mines located at
Caracoles on the Quimsa Cruz Range, south of Illimani, to which they
have built an automobile road 150 miles from Eucalyptus, a station on
the main line between La Paz and Oruro. The mines are at an altitude
of 16,000 to 18,000 feet, the quarters at 15,000 to 16,000. The tin
runs to 10-15 per cent. It is thought that the property will rival
the Uncia. The International Mining Company has a tin property in the
Yungas Province 52 miles from La Paz at a height of 8000 feet, a rather
more comfortable altitude.

=Copper.= Of late the copper deposits in Peru and Chile have received
more attention than those of Bolivia, but this country also has
extensive formations from Lipez at the south where white copper is
found, along the East Cordillera, past Potosí and Oruro to Corocoro
in the West, ending in the Nudo of Apolobamba. Veins occur in all the
buttresses of the Andes.

Copper is found chiefly in its native state, the deposits of Corocoro
being especially famous. The copper here occurs in powder, plates, or
nodules, in beds of reddish sandstone. One veta, or mineralized bed, is
1000 yards deep, extending several miles; another, a branch formation
above this surrounds it on the southwest and east, occupying a great
part of the Desaguadero Valley. Both formations are arseniates. One
branch 2000 yards thick extends 6 miles; in another direction a branch
runs 35 miles from Corocoro to Chacarilla, then branching south and
east. Copper generally occurs in small irregular grains with from 70
to 92 per cent copper. The native copper, the great wealth of the
mines, here ranges from microscopic grains to plates and arborescent
forms called charquis. At La Charcarilla large plates are found 3¹⁄₂
inches thick. Ores with 15-20 per cent copper are usually neglected.
As there are no good kilns, barilla is exported 80 per cent pure,
a quintal, 220 pounds, costing $3-4 for production. Except from
Corocoro the present output is insignificant. For a time these mines
were abandoned owing to the low price of copper and the difficulty of
transport. It was formerly necessary to send the barilla by carts,
mules, or llamas to the port of Arica, or else to the Desaguadero
River, to be carried in boats to Lake Titicaca and Puno, thence by rail
to Mollendo. With the great increase in the price of copper and the
opening of the Arica-La Paz Railway with a 5 mile branch to Corocoro,
these difficulties were removed and active work progressed with a
broad field for enlargement. Copper formation here is said to resemble
greatly those in Northern Michigan, such as the Copper Range, and the
Calumet and Hecla. In 1917 over 82,000,000 pounds were exported, worth
above $4,000,000.

=Lead= is found in the region of La Quiaca and some is exported by way
of Argentina. Galena, an ore of lead and silver, is widespread.

=Bismuth.= Of less used minerals bismuth may be mentioned, in the
production of which Bolivia leads the world and controls the supply. At
present, chiefly used as a drug on account of its high price, it might
be more largely employed in alloys. Bismuth ore, as carbonates, oxides,
and arsenical sulphates, is so abundant in many parts of Bolivia that
if bismuth sold at 20 cents a pound a fair profit would be realized.
With the price for years $3500 a ton, it would seem a profitable
business to engage in. Over one million pounds were exported in 1918
worth one and a half million dollars.

=Antimony= also is found in large quantities. Nearly 18,000 tons were
exported in 1916, worth approximately $5,000,000, but with high prices
and abnormal demand due to the war. Less than one per cent of the
quantity was exported in 1912. The ores are rich, often running 70 per
cent pure metal.

=Zinc= in the form of sulphides or blends is abundant, largely in
connection with silver. Such ores are sent to Europe, there to be
separated, the scarcity and almost prohibitive price of coal rendering
such a course desirable for various products, to avoid the excessive
cost of smelting; at the same time the high cost of transportation
limits the export.

=Wolfram=, an iron-manganese tungstate, is found near veins of tin and
much is exported, the production being especially in the Santa Cruz
district, at the northeast of Cochabamba. Some lodes contain no less
than 50 per cent of tungstic acid, the ores concentrated for export
running higher. About 7¹⁄₂ million pounds were exported in 1918 valued
at nearly $3,708,000.

=Coal.= The lack of good coal is the chief fault in nature’s economy
in Bolivia. Its usual cost in La Paz is $40-$50 a ton, at times $75.
It is therefore used as little as possible, although some is imported.
While Bolivia has been said to possess no coal at all, a lignite of
fair quality has been discovered in the peninsula of Copacabana, Lake
Titicaca, some of which has been used by the Guaqui-La Paz Railway
to develop electric power; but not in serious fashion, experimental
merely. Other seams are found near the Ayoapó station, which a company
has been organized to exploit. Good samples have come from Tacora on
the Arica Railway near the frontier, the coal said to be equal to that
of Coronel in Chile, the seams rich and thick. If so their exploitation
will immensely advance the industries of the country. Good coal is
reported across the mountains from Sorata and lignite is found near
Cochabamba.

On account of the enormous cost of coal, various substitutes are
in use. On the plateau there is practically no wood. For heating,
foreigners generally employ oil stoves, the natives nothing at all,
though the mercury may range from 40° to 50° in the house on a winter’s
day. In La Paz for cooking purposes a substance called _taquia_ is
employed. It looks like pecan nuts, but is the dung of llamas, which is
collected by Indians on the plateau or elsewhere. It sells generally
at about $4 a ton, but has lately risen to $7. It is the principal
fuel used at the mines of Corocoro. In some places as at Potosí,
_yareta_ is used, a vegetable or shrub which grows in a dense mass to
a height of several feet with a greater diameter. The green mass has
a woody fibre, is highly resinous, and burns like peat, giving a good
amount of heat. It grows at altitudes between 13,000 and 16,000 feet.
Another woody shrub, a species of broom called _tola_, is used, with
another, _quenua_, which like charcoal gives much heat with little ash.
Extensive peat beds exist near La Paz, estimated to yield 30,000,000
tons of briquettes with a fuel value about half that of coal. The
discovery and wide exploitation of coal and petroleum would be an
immense boon both to industry and to the householders.

=Petroleum= is now believed to exist in large quantities, sufficient
to solve the fuel problem. The best known fields are in the southeast
where seepages occur and a belt is indicated extending northwest and
southeast 150 miles from the Argentine border. Concessions covering
millions of acres have been granted to American companies. The zone
traverses the Provinces of Santa Cruz, Chuquisaca, and Tarija.
Geological investigations indicate that a petroleum belt or basin
exists along the foothills of the east side of the East Cordillera.
There are indications in the Beni district a considerable distance
north of La Paz, and beyond the Madidi in Colonias. A probable
thickness of over-lying strata in southeast Bolivia is 160-660 feet. If
so development costs will be diminished. The great difficulty is the
inaccessibility of the locations. On this account few wells have yet
been sunk. To pipe the oil up to the plateau would be an expensive,
some say an impracticable, proposition. At present approached only by
cart roads or caminos, the fields will be rendered more accessible by
the railways planned from Puerto Suarez or Pacheco and from Argentina
to Santa Cruz. The oils vary in quality, some having an asphalt base
with 4 per cent of gasoline, up to .81 specific gravity with 40 per
cent of gasoline. The heavier is in the lower sands. Along the eastern
base of the Andes the petroleum is of high grade. Samples of oil from
Espejos Spring, 12 leagues from Santa Cruz, indicate the quality
expected north to the Madre de Dios. This has 78 per cent kerosene,
17 lubricating oil, and 4 per cent coke. From indications it is
believed that gushers would come by boring to proper depth. It is said
that deposits of good quality are indicated at Calacoto on the Arica
Railway, a continuation of the Titicaca fields of Peru. These are
obviously much more accessible but less assured.

Mining properties of various kinds may be acquired and worked to good
advantage, some with a moderate outlay of capital; with larger returns,
naturally, from greater expenditure for the best equipment and more
extensive properties. There is work for centuries.


INDUSTRIES

Other than mining industries are slightly developed, being local
in character for lack of proper transportation. There is therefore
opportunity for their introduction, the needs meanwhile being supplied
by importation.

=Weaving.= The weaving industry is one for which the natives are
peculiarly adapted; the Indians and the mestizos now produce with crude
equipment goods of excellent quality for strength and often for color.
In certain Provinces good strong cotton cloth is made which, used for
sheeting, clothing, etc., lasts indefinitely. The natives make also
heavy woolen stuff from llama wool, and fine soft material from vicuña,
alpaca, and silk. But not half enough is woven to supply the demand, so
that much coarse cotton cloth and a woolen called _bayeta_ are imported
for the use of the Indians, as well as fine goods for the white
population. The llamas, estimated as numbering 500,000, are worth from
$4 to $10 each; the alpacas, about half as many, are valued at $50-75
each. There are also 500,000 goats.

=Rugs and skins= are exported in small quantities, the animals from
which these are taken growing rarer and liable to become extinct. Rugs
of _vicuña_ skin have at least doubled in price since 1906 (their
export is forbidden), as is the case also with the chinchilla. Of the
latter there are two varieties, the blue and the white. They are hunted
by the Indians as are also the vicuñas. The former are now crossed with
the _viscacha_, a rodent resembling a hare, the resulting animal being
capable of domestication. Though the skins are inferior to genuine
chinchilla they serve the purpose.

It would be a most valuable enterprise if the vicuña could be
domesticated. At present the animals are wild like the _guanaco_,
but the breeding of herds ought to be possible if the greatest care
were exercised. The _vicuña_ wool is probably the finest existing,
and if the animals could be saved from destruction and their numbers
increased, a highly profitable business would result. These animals,
like the _guanacos_, wander in small groups in remote places at high
altitudes, 14,000 to 16,000 feet, often difficult of access among the
mountains. These with the llamas and alpacas are ruminants, the two
latter domesticated and living in large herds.

The alpaca wool is much superior to that of the llama and better than
that of the sheep; if the animals were rationally bred on a large scale
the business should be extremely profitable. The animal has shorter
legs than the llama which it resembles; it is never used as a burden
bearer. The alpaca flourishes on the Titicaca Plateau and in higher,
cold and solitary mountain sections, among seed bearing grasses where
snow falls instead of rain. It requires better forage than the llama.
Pure water is an absolute essential. Their long fleece, sheared once
in two years, is always in great demand; a fleece weighs 10-15 pounds.
The alpacas, numbering probably 200,000, are tended by Indians whose
patient endurance qualify them in a measure, but who need instruction
to supervise them with more intelligent care. There are vast lands
suitable for their breeding and culture, and regions where sheep,
donkeys, goats, and cattle may be raised. None of these industries is
practised except in a small way, though land, suitable fodder, and
climate are all of the best.

=Stock raising= is carried on to a limited extent only, though
conditions for raising horned cattle are said to be ideal on the llanos
of the southeast, where vast natural prairies alternate with forests,
and many wild cattle exist. The large possibilities of this region
will undoubtedly be utilized before many years. Difficulty in reaching
markets is the great present drawback, but Argentine capitalists have
looked over the eastern lowlands and may find early means for their
exploitation. On the higher lands also are sections where the business
may be carried on to advantage. As at present only ordinary stock is
raised with no care in breeding, merely to supply local needs for meat,
there is need of imported cattle and better methods, as is the case
with sheep. Figures given for cattle are 800,000 head, of sheep 1¹⁄₂
million. Many more of the latter should be raised in some sections of
the plateau region. Mutton is more of a staple food, largely used,
dried and salted, by the Indians. Thus prepared it is called _chalona_;
dried-beef is called _charque_. The cultivation of Siberian grasses on
the plateau is suggested. Few hogs are raised, although many districts
are well adapted to them.


AGRICULTURE

In agriculture Bolivia has enormous possibilities, but at present
small production. About 5,000,000 acres are under cultivation. With
the varying altitude and climate the vegetable products are similar
to those of the preceding countries, many of these spontaneous, a few
cultivated. The latter are almost solely for internal consumption. On
the plateau grow barley, _quinua_, and potatoes, the last, when frozen
called _chuño_, are the basis of the Indians’ diet; barley is much used
for fodder; _quinua_, a very nutritious millet, easy to cultivate and
hardy, in the form of meal among the plateau Indians takes the place
of wheat and corn, which do not grow at this altitude. In the valleys
below there is plenty of corn, from which is made the Indians’ favorite
drink, _chicha_, though they will readily drink plain alcohol of poor
quality when they can get it. Wheat and rice are raised in eastern
Cochabamba, admirable coffee in the _yungas_, cacao, and coca; none in
sufficient quantity to supply the home market except coca. Some coffee
is exported but more is imported from Brazil and Peru. All needful
supplies could be provided in one or another part of the country if
population and means of transport existed.

=Other Products.= Cacao is less cultivated than coffee, though raised
in two departments. Trees are growing untended in the Rio Madidi
and Madre de Dios sections. Sugar cane is cultivated in Santa Cruz
and elsewhere, but most of it is used for making _aguardiente_, and
molasses or other syrup. More than 200,000 gallons of alcohol come
annually from Santa Cruz. Rice also is grown in this Department giving
two harvests a year. It might be cultivated in other sections. Tobacco
of excellent quality thrives in many places, but not enough is raised
for home consumption. Viticulture is slightly practised with primitive
methods. Fruits of many varieties as in Peru are raised, including
especially fine oranges. Various vegetables are grown but in these
lines the development is slight and poor.

=Coca= alone is exported among agricultural products, chiefly to Chile
and Argentina. Cultivated also in Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, the chief
centre is in the _yungas_ of La Paz. The leaf is richer in alkaloid
than the Peruvian, as I myself noted, but as yet it has not been so
much exported to Europe on account of its higher price. The plantations
are in terraces on the mountain slopes between 5000 and 7000 feet
altitude. In the _yungas_ the bushes are usually three or four feet
high, but may grow to seven or eight. A small crop may be gathered
18 months after planting, but only in four or five years are they in
full leaf. Three times a year the leaves are gathered, and with good
care the plantations will last half a century. The leaves are picked
by hand, dried, and stored in a dry place, later packed in bales and
pressed. Properly used the chewing of coca in the highlands may be a
blessing. Carried to the excess usual among the Indians it is a curse,
as it is where here used in drinks sold at the soda counter, creating
a habit as vicious as that of alcohol or opium. For the cultivation of
cotton on the lowlands there is much suitable soil and climate.


FORESTRY

Of forestal products Bolivia contains all those found in the other
sections of the Amazon basin, varieties of timber, medicinal plants,
etc.; but none at present is of commercial value for export except
quinine, manufactured from _cinchona_ bark, and rubber.

=Rubber.= The rubber industry of Bolivia is second to that of minerals.
In amount of this export the country is believed to be second in
South America to Brazil, though little has been touched of the vast
territory capable of its production. Sir Martin Conway estimated the
rubber trees of the Beni district as 50,000,000. There are four zones
of rubber producing country, one in the extreme north near the Acre
Territory of Brazil, with outlet from the port and custom house of
Cobija; second, the greater part of Colonias exporting through the
national custom house of Villa Bella, by Villa Rica at the confluence
of the Abuna and the Madeira, or by lesser ports; third, the Department
of La Paz, the rubber going out by Lake Titicaca and Mollendo; fourth,
Beni, Santa Cruz, and Cochabamba, the rubber from the north going out
by Guajará Merím or Villa Bella, that farther south by Puerto Suarez on
the Paraguay or by Yacuiba, and from the west by Oruro and Antofagasta.
The rubber of the region is chiefly that called fine _Pará_, most of
it exported through that port and being of the best quality. The latex
of the _hevea_ is the source; _sernamby_ is second quality made of the
residue of the finer quality mixed with bark. The _caucho_ from the
_castilloa elastica_ is little exploited on account of few laborers and
expensive transport. With the opening of the Madeira-Mamoré Railway in
1912 better facilities were secured, this railway having been built
a distance of 207 miles along the Brazilian shore to avoid the bad
rapids on the two rivers. The flooding of the market with Malay and
Ceylon rubber seriously affected Bolivian production and export, but
these have recently increased. With the forming of plantations in this
section, a work which an American company has undertaken, the rubber
should be better able to compete with that of Ceylon, as its superior
quality is known. The fact that the Bolivian export tax is lower than
that of Brazil gives the former an advantage.

In the Department of Cochabamba are great quantities of _maniçoba_
trees producing rubber known as _ceará_, of good quality but not the
best. It might be cultivated in hilly regions and on banks of streams
of the Yungas and other valleys in the Department of La Paz. The
lot of the _seringueiros_, the rubber workers, is bad; it may and
must be bettered if the industry is to continue. The establishing of
plantations will be a great improvement, but some amenities of life
might be made available even in the ordinary forest.


INVESTMENTS

From the description of Bolivia, it is apparent that mining presents
the most attractive field for the large capitalist. Mining experts with
less money may be tempted to investigate gold prospects or to search
for rich veins of other metals, later organizing companies for their
development or selling at a handsome profit their acquired claims, as
some persons have done hitherto. However sales are not always easily
made. Petroleum is numbered among the mining possibilities, although
the most favorably located fields may be preempted already, chiefly
by American Companies, the Braden and the Richmond Levering, in spite
of the difficulties of access and development. The petroleum procured
would find its market in Bolivia and in the neighboring countries of
the East and West Coasts where it is greatly needed. The oil with a
paraffin base is of high grade running to 45.8 Baumé.

Stock raising of various kinds would be profitable in certain
localities, and some forms of agriculture and small industries. Railway
construction, the development of electric power, the installation
of sanitary and other public works will afford many openings for
engineers.




                            CHAPTER XXVIII

          CHILE: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.


The country of Chile, the seventh in size of the South American
Republics, is frequently ranked with the two largest, Brazil and
Argentina, owing to the enterprise of its inhabitants: a natural result
of their location in the temperate zone, from 17° 57′ to 55° 59′ South
Latitude; increased perhaps by their long struggle with the Araucanian
Indians.


AREA, POPULATION, BOUNDARY

=Area.= Chile, with an extent of 290,000 square miles, is ribbon like
in shape, having a length of nearly 2700 miles, a trifle more than
Argentina; in a direct line 2140 miles, with a width of 70-248, miles
averaging about 85.

=Population.= The country with approximately 4,000,000 inhabitants is
fifth in this respect.

=Boundary.= The boundary of Chile is simple. At the north is Peru, on
the east are Bolivia and Argentina, at the south and west the Pacific
Ocean.


HISTORY

The bold Spanish invaders of Peru might reasonably have been contented
for a time with the conquest of that vast territory. But Diego de
Almagro, incited by the grant of 200 leagues south of those bestowed
upon Pizarro, and enticed by the tales of a region richer still in
gold and silver, set forth to gain possession of the allotted lands,
not long after the founding of Lima in 1535. Over the great Bolivian
Plateau and a high mountain pass into Chile, Almagro marched with his
followers, only to return disappointed after enduring untold hardships
and suffering.

A few years later a second expedition was undertaken by Pedro de
Valdivia, this one along the shore. From Arica proceeding by sea,
having landed at the mouth of the Rio Maipo, in February, 1541,
Valdivia founded the city of Santiago. Still unsatisfied he continued
south, in spite of much opposition, making settlements at Concepción,
Imperial, Villa Rica, and Valdivia; but in 1553 he was himself slain
by the warlike Araucanians, who long disputed with the invaders the
occupation of their country. For 250 years the contest continued
intermittently, with some diminution and amalgamation of the Indians,
till the Chilians rose against Spain, when a more friendly feeling was
established.

The Chilians, who convoked a national congress in 1810, regard this
event as the inauguration of their independence; though not until 1818
was it secured with the aid of San Martín and his army from Argentina.
Chile subsequently experienced many internal difficulties, but after
1861 the Government became more liberal, and since that period, except
for the revolution against Balmaceda in 1890, the country has been free
from serious internal strife.


GOVERNMENT

The government is that of a centralized republic with the usual
three branches. The President, elected for a term of five years and
not eligible at once for a second term, appoints the _Intendentes_
and _Gobernadores_ who respectively administer the 23 Provinces,
and their subdivisions, the 82 Departments. There is one Territory,
Magallanes, which includes the southern mainland and the coastal
islands. The police force is national in organization. In the Provinces
no legislative bodies exist save municipal councils with certain local
duties. The franchise is so restricted (the voters must have property
and be able to read and write) that as 25 per cent of the population
is illiterate and most of the laboring class landless, the Government
is said to be practically in the hands of a few leading families.
Senators, 37 in number, must have an income of $2000 and Deputies, 118,
one of $500. The President must not leave the country while in office.

Chile has 23 Provinces, all but five of which border on the Pacific,
and one Territory. Beginning at the north the names of the Provinces
follow with their approximate areas and population, and with the names
and population of their capitals:

-----------+---------+----------+-------------+-----------
 PROVINCES | AREA,   |POPULATION|  CAPITALS   |POPULATION
           |in square|          |             |
           |  miles  |          |             |
-----------+---------+----------+-------------+-----------
Tacna      |   9,000 |   40,000 | Tacna       |    8,000
Tarapacá   |  17,000 |  134,000 | Iquique     |   45,000
Antofagasta|  46,500 |  220,000 | Antofagasta |   66,000
Atacama    |  31,000 |   67,000 | Copiapó     |   13,000
Coquimbo   |  14,000 |  191,000 | La Serena   |   16,000
Aconcagua  |   5,400 |  140,000 | San Felipe  |   12,000
Valparaiso |   1,775 |  347,000 | Valparaiso  |  212,000
Santiago   |   5,900 |  627,000 | Santiago    |  450,000
O’Higgins  |   2,168 | 125,000  | Rancagua    |   13,000
Colchagua  |   3,900 | 163,000  | San Fernando|   10,000
Curicó     |   3,045 | 115,000  | Curicó      |   23,000
Talca      |   3,900 | 135,000  | Talca       |   42,000
Maule      |   2,800 | 125,000  | Cauquenes   |   12,000
Linares    |   4,000 | 120,000  | Linares     |    3,000
Nuble      |   3,500 | 199,000  | Chillán     |   40,000
Concepción |   3,300 | 271,000  | Concepción  |   72,700
Arauco     |   2,200 |  74,000  | Arauco      |    3,500
Bio-Bio    |   5,400 | 106,000  | Los Angeles |   14,000
Malleco    |   3,300 | 136,000  | Angol       |   10,000
Cautín     |   6,400 | 175,000  | Temuco      |   31,000
Valdivia   |   9,000 | 187,000  | Valdivia    |   26,000
Llanquihue |  35,000 | 150,000  | Puerto Montt|    8,000
Chiloé     |   7,000 | 100,000  | Ancud       |    4,000
           |         |                        |
 TERRITORY |         |                        |
Magallanes |  65,000 | 32,000   | Punta Arenas|   20,000
-----------+---------+----------+-------------+-----------


POPULATION

The population of Chile is little if any below 4,000,000, which gives
it an average of 12 or more to the square mile, the highest rate of all
the North and West Coast countries. There is considerable variation
in the different Provinces, but less than in the other Republics,
if the Territory is omitted. The most thickly inhabited region is
from Valparaiso south to Valdivia; the Province of Santiago having
the largest population and that of Valparaiso the densest. As to the
character of the population it is estimated that 40 per cent are of
white extraction, with at least 50-60 per cent mestizos; probably
50,000 Indians, including possibly 5000 in the far south, uncivilized
and dying out. The educated class as in other countries forms a small
minority of the inhabitants, but in recent years greater attention has
been paid to the diffusion of knowledge among the common people.


EDUCATION

The middle and upper classes pay much attention to education. In
Santiago there are two universities, the larger the University of
Chile, open also to women, and the Catholic University, each with
various departments; a National Institute or high school, a School
of Mines, a Normal School, a School of Arts and Trades. In La Serena
and Copiapó at the north are other Mining Schools, and in cities at
the south Schools of Agriculture; also Normal Schools. An Industrial
College is to be opened in Valparaiso. All towns have elementary
schools; in all State schools including universities education is free,
and in primary grades from 1921 compulsory. There are various private
schools, in Santiago a large and excellent one for boys (managed
for years by American Methodists), where the sons of many prominent
families have been educated, as in La Paz, Bolivia.


PRESS, RELIGION, ETC.

=Press.= The Press is free, influential, and of high character, the
_Mercurio_ of Valparaiso and Santiago having a world wide reputation,
and ranking with the best of any country. There are about 700
newspapers and journals.

=Religion.= The Roman Catholic religion is recognized as that of the
State, but freedom is permitted to others. The women generally are
very devout, though as in the other countries the men of the governing
classes are inclined to agnosticism.

=Telegraph.= Chile possesses 30,000 miles of telegraph lines and 46,000
of telephone. There are 32 wireless stations at intervals from Arica
down to Punta Arenas, with one on Juan Fernandez Island.

=Money.= A gold peso (there are no such coins) may be regarded as worth
36 cents, but the paper money which is in general use fluctuates in
value, a peso varying from 14 to 25 cents, usually 18-22. There are
silver coins of 10, 20, 40 centavos, and copper of smaller value.

The =Metric System= of weights and measures is obligatory, all others
being excluded by law.




                             CHAPTER XXIX

                    CHILE: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS


The country of Chile has an extraordinary shape, very long and narrow.
Unlike the other Republics of the West Coast, Chile has no trans-Andine
region, as the watershed of the Andes constitutes the eastern boundary
line. Thus confined between the sea and the mountain tops, while the
coast line of the country is nearly 2700 miles, as far as from Labrador
to Guiana, the width is scanty, mostly varying from 100 to 225 miles,
though at one point in the south the western boundary of Argentina is
but 26 miles from the Pacific Ocean.

Although so narrow for most of the distance, Chile has three sections
longitudinally: a very narrow coastal strip, a plateau, or a central
valley, and the mountain region. Its remarkable length from 18° S.
Lat., several degrees in the torrid zone, to 56°, well towards the
Antarctic Circle, gives it a wide range in climate arising from the
latitude, as well as the variation from the altitude which it shares
with the countries previously mentioned. From north to south also, the
Republic has three zones: the hot arid land at the north, 18°-32°,
followed by the temperate agricultural section in the centre to 42°,
and the cool, rainy, forested lands at the south; sometimes four
sections are spoken of, in which case the first is regarded as two,
dividing at 27° into the nitrate section north and a mineral, south. Of
these two the former has a plateau section between the Andes and the
sea, the latter some transverse ridges. The country has 25 per cent
in woods and forests, 7¹⁄₂ per cent in pastures, 5 irrigable land and
12¹⁄₂ per cent arable.

As already noted, the Pacific Coast south of Ecuador is a practically
rainless desert for a distance of 1600 miles along the shore of Peru
and Chile, about as far as Coquimbo. Here begins the agricultural
centre of Chile, including the rich longitudinal valley (with soil 330
feet deep), in which the capital, Santiago, is situated; the valley
extends from the Aconcagua River to the Gulf of Ancud, 620 miles. Many
populous towns and ports are in this section, among them Valparaiso.
The forest country farther south is but sparsely settled.

=Mountains.= The Cordillera of the Andes, which extends throughout the
entire length of the country, and is continued at the north by the
Cordillera of Peru, is recognized from its geological formation as
belonging to a recent epoch. It contains many volcanoes, mostly extinct
or inactive except in the south. Aconcagua, of volcanic origin, the
highest peak of the Andes and of all America so far as is yet known,
is a little north of the centre. Its summit is just over the border
in Argentina, as the watershed forming the boundary here runs west of
the line of greatest altitude. The height of Aconcagua is variously
stated, but 22,817 feet has perhaps the best authority. Other lofty
peaks are near, Mercedario and Tupungato, each over 22,000 feet. There
are 24 passes across the range at a height of 10,000 feet more or
less. Farther south the mountains diminish rapidly in height with few
summits above 10,000 feet. The range ends in Tierra del Fuego with Mt.
Sarmiento, 7000 feet.

A cordillera of the coast, geologically older, is much lower,
disappearing altogether at the north. In general quite steep towards
the sea, it slopes gradually towards the central valley or plateau.
This range continues at the south in islands, which in great numbers
fringe the coast. Here the shore is much indented with straits and
bays, resembling the fjords of Norway. Nearly all of the narrowing
point of the continent, the entire Strait of Magellan, and most of
Tierra del Fuego belong to Chile.


RIVERS

The rivers of the country are numerous except in the north, where
but two reach the ocean. Farther south to 35° they are torrential
in character, but important both for irrigation and as a potential
source of hydro-electric power; their descent from so great a height
indicating large future possibilities. Beyond 35° a number of streams
are navigable for some distance for boats of light draught, 500 miles
in all, the Bio-Bio for 100 miles, the Maule for 75. South of these
rivers are many picturesque and important lakes close to the Cordillera
where they serve as great reservoirs for the excessive precipitation
of rain and snow on the west side of the mountains. The largest are
Lakes Rauco and Llanquihue, with estimated areas respectively of 200
and 250 square miles. Lake Todos los Santos, 40 square miles, described
as of marvelous beauty, is northeast of Puerto Montt among the Andean
foothills, at a height of 500 feet.

The seaboard at the north, with few indentations, has in consequence
poor harbors, where landing in small boats may occasionally be
dangerous or impossible. In the far south are sheltered harbors, but
few cities requiring them.


CLIMATE

The climate of the country naturally is extremely varied. In the
northern section the immediate coast like that of Peru is preserved
from intense heat by the Antarctic current. A little way back on the
arid plateau the temperature is excessive by day but cool at night.
Going south from the arid section the rainfall gradually increases
until in the far south there is too much. The central regions have
a fair supply with an excellent climate, mean annual temperatures
of 50°-60°. Farther south with rain 150-170 days in the year, in
some places 80-100 inches, the climate is less agreeable. The winds
are generally west, either a little north or south. While the mean
temperatures are fairly low, the extremes are much less than at the
same latitudes in most parts of North America or on the East Coast
of Argentina. Even at the farthest south, at Punta Arenas, the most
southern city of the globe, the weather is never so cold as often
in the usual winters of New York or Boston. Until recently suitable
sanitation has been lacking in many cities and the death rate has been
high. Now the authorities are alive to these matters and with the
installation of proper sewerage, already accomplished in Santiago and
in progress in other cities, the death rate is lower. In no cities from
Guayaquil south need any tourist be apprehensive of danger.




                              CHAPTER XXX

             CHILE: CAPITAL, INDIVIDUAL PROVINCES, CITIES


CAPITAL

=Santiago=, the capital, with 450,000 inhabitants, is the fourth in
population of the cities of South America, the first three being Buenos
Aires, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo. The city is finely located in
the fertile Central Valley, on the Mapocho River. Important as the
Government and social centre, it has much commercial activity. A little
off the direct Trans-Andine line between Valparaiso and Buenos Aires,
it is equally a terminus, as special cars run to each city from Los
Andes where they connect with the narrower mountain railway. Santiago
is the centre of the north and south railway systems which traverse the
country almost from end to end.

A lack of first class hotels has been partially remedied by the
construction of a large one on modern lines, but it may be said that in
all of the capital cities and chief ports of the West Coast additional
accommodations of a higher class are desirable. In Santiago important
improvements recently accomplished include the installment of a
sewerage system and the repavement of the principal streets. Electric
lights have long been enjoyed and an excellent system of electric cars,
one feature of which New York might imitate to advantage, the numbering
of the cars to indicate the various routes. Santiago in addition to its
delightful location may well boast of its fine buildings, especially
its Capitol, the handsome opera house, and many fine residences; still
more of its parks, the far famed Santa Lucía, Parque Cousiño, and
the Quinta Normal; also of the Palace of Fine Arts, and the Cemetery,
especially beautiful in rose time. Most of the streets are narrow, but
there is one splendid broad avenue, the Alameda or Avenida de Delicias
with a central parkway ornamented with statuary.

[Illustration: CHILE, ARGENTINA, PARAGUAY, URUGUAY]


PROVINCES

A brief review of the Provinces follows, beginning at the north. Unless
otherwise stated, the Provinces extend from the coast back to the
mountains, bordering at the east on Bolivia or Argentina.

=Tacna=, formerly a part of Peru, is still claimed by that country,
though in the possession of Chile. It is separated by the Sama River
from the Peruvian Province, Moquegua. Largely mountainous, Tacna has
many peaks above 18,000 feet; the two passes to Bolivia are about
14,000 feet. Of 500,000 acres of possible agricultural land about
one tenth is irrigated, the rest is desert. Alfalfa is the chief
production; beans and maize are important with other vegetables and
fruit. The leading export is sulphur.

The capital, Tacna, is a pleasant town, connected by rail with the port
of Arica, though it is not on the road to La Paz. Arica, with a better
harbor than most of the others, is an important primary port where
all steamers call, as it is the terminus of the Arica-La Paz Railway;
one of the three Pacific outlets for Bolivia. New docks are to be
constructed.

=Tarapacá= follows on the south, this Province containing with other
minerals, extensive, hot, arid plains with nitrate fields. The sloping
coastal section has two important ports, Pisagua and Iquique, besides
smaller ones exclusively for the export of nitrates, in which the two
named are chiefly engaged.

Iquique, the capital and principal port, is of great commercial
importance for such export, and has very large imports from the fact
that these include all eatables as formerly all drinkables, even water.
Now the water comes in pipes 150 miles from the mountains. The soil too
was imported for the few plazas and gardens existing, as nothing will
grow in the native soil. It is an enterprising community with a good
proportion of pleasant British homes, clubs, theatres, etc.

=Antofagasta= comes next, separated from Tarapacá by the River Loa. On
the east it has both Bolivia and a piece of northern Argentina. The
surface descends from the Andes in a series of plateaus. Vegetation
is scanty. This Province, with Atacama on the south, shares in the
activities of the nitrate industry.

The capital city, Antofagasta, is 200 miles south of Iquique, both
ports having very poor harbors, though with enormous commerce for
places of their size. Antofagasta, the terminus of a third railway from
La Paz, the second in Chile, has much Bolivian trade besides export of
nitrates, and lately from Chuquicamata of copper. The Province contains
other ports and cities of consequence, Taltal, Tocopilla, Mejillones,
etc.

=Atacama= on the south borders exclusively at the east on Argentina,
which from here down forms the eastern boundary of Chile. The surface
of the Province is uneven, with mountains, plateaus, and ravines; in
the valleys of Huasco and Copiapó there is some agriculture. Minerals,
as gold, silver, and copper receive attention.

Copiapó, the capital, is an important railway junction.

=Coquimbo=, following, is a narrower Province, the mountains and the
Argentine boundary coming nearer the shore. There are many lofty peaks
at the east; and between spurs running down to the coast are fertile,
well watered valleys, as we now come to the central section where with
a mild climate there is moderate rainfall. Cereals, fruit, wine, and
livestock are exported.

La Serena, the capital, is a pretty town, which has tramway connection
with Coquimbo, a first class port, and a busy city.

=Aconcagua= is next, with the great peak of that name in the range at
the east. Some 15 miles south of the peak is the Uspallata Pass, for
many years the main commercial highway between Chile and Argentina. By
this Pass came Almagro, and later a division of the army of San Martín;
another division by the pass of Los Patos, a little lower and farther
north, by which cattle are often driven into Chile. The Province is
chiefly agricultural and pastoral, with crops of cereals, fruits, hemp,
and tobacco. The finest wine is produced; there are large herds of
cattle; and copper has some exploitation.

=Valparaiso=, one of the two Provinces bordering on Aconcagua at the
south, is next to the smallest in the Republic, and the first coming
from the north which does not extend across the country. With Aconcagua
on the north it has Santiago on the east and south. The surface is
mountainous with extensive valleys, the Coast Range here reaching a
height of 7000 feet. Several rivers and a number of bays are among its
favorable features. With a mild climate and sufficient rain agriculture
is the principal industry aside from the commercial interests of the
chief port of the West Coast, Valparaiso.

=Santiago=, south of Aconcagua and east of Valparaiso, extends from
Argentina on the east, south of Valparaiso to the sea, and has the two
Provinces of O’Higgins and Colchagua on the south. The Central Valley,
which occupies a great part of its area, is here a broad plain, part
of which is well watered and fertile but with some sections arid;
the foothills and valleys are well wooded. The Central Valley slopes
towards the west, having an altitude of nearly 3000 feet at the foot
of the Andes, and about 1000 feet near the hills of the Coast Range.
The highest point of the Andes, here south of Mt. Aconcagua, is less
than 20,000 feet while the Coast Range approaches 8000. Cereals,
vegetables, fruit, and wine are the chief products. Among other towns
in the Province is the port of San Antonio.

=O’Higgins=, a very small Province, occupies what may be called a jog
at the southeast corner of Santiago, which is therefore on the west and
north, while Argentina is east and Colchagua south. Although a rugged
district, irrigation is developed and large crops of cereals and fruit
are grown. Rich in mineral deposits, copper alone is exploited.

=Colchagua=, south of Santiago and O’Higgins, extends across the
country from the sea to the mountains, which have three easy passes
into Argentina. The plains of the Central Valley have a rich soil and
good rainfall, but as the summers are dry, as in Santiago, irrigation
is needful. Crops of wheat, beans, alfalfa, etc., are important, and
also the cattle industry.

=Curicó= follows across the south with similar features and productions.

=Talca= is next, also extending from the coast to Argentina. With a
temperate climate, there are greater extremes of heat and cold on
the plain. Besides the agricultural and cattle industries, the dense
forests here afford opportunity for exploitation. Two Provinces are on
the south.

=Linares=, the more eastern, has Argentina on the east, Nuble south,
and Maule west. With considerable agricultural land, along the lower
slopes of the Andes it has dense woods.

=Maule=, the coast Province south of Talca, has both Linares and Nuble
on the east, and Concepción south. The valleys of the Coast Cordillera,
which are fertile, afford opportunity for increased agriculture, but
unwise deforestation has been injurious.

=Nuble=, again an Andean Province, between Argentina and Maule, is
south of Linares and north of Concepción. Easy passes lead into
Argentina, forests are extensive, and vines and cereals are grown on a
large scale.

=Concepción=, south of Maule and Nuble, extends from the Pacific to
Argentina. Mountainous at the east, it is rather arid in the centre,
but extremely fertile near the coast. The fine crops include grapes and
excellent wine. Large forests and extensive coal deposits are a source
of wealth.

=Arauco= and Bio-Bio are on the south; Arauco along the coast, with
important agriculture and large herds of cattle, has also extensive
forests and mineral deposits, coal mines actively worked, and gold,
both alluvial and quartz.

=Bio-Bio= at the east is mountainous and well watered, as is this
region in general. Cereals are largely grown and viticulture is
practised. The cattle industry is important and the forests are
exploited.

=Malleco=, south of Bio-Bio, is peculiar in the fact that it alone
of the Provinces touches neither the Pacific nor Argentina, having a
strip of Bio-Bio and Cautín on the east and Arauco on the west. The
mountainous eastern section is heavily wooded and the fertile central
plain with a mild damp climate is celebrated for its crops of wheat.

=Cautín=, extending all the way across the country, touches three
Provinces on the north, Arauco, Malleco, and Bio-Bio. Here are plains,
mountains, and valleys, with much rainfall and luxuriant vegetation of
forest, grass, and agriculture. Excellent timber and tannin extracts,
fruit and cattle, produce wealth, and coal and gold await exploitation.

=Valdivia=, south of Cautín, also extends across the country. Here are
lower mountains, many passes into Argentina, extensive forests, several
lakes, much rain; but a healthful climate, luxuriant vegetation, with
profitable agriculture, forest products, and cattle breeding.

=Llanquihue= follows, extending south to the Gulf of Ancud and beyond.
The present southern terminus of the Longitudinal Railway is the
capital, Puerto Montt, at the head of the Gulf. This is largely a
forest region, though in the valley of the lakes are fertile lands
suited to grazing and agriculture, both of which industries are
increasingly followed. The climate is rather cool but equable.

=Chiloé=, the last of the Provinces, consists of the large island of
that name covering about 560 square miles, other islands much smaller,
and a long archipelago called Chonos extending to the peninsula of
Taitao. The island, Chiloé, is largely covered with forests which,
strange to say, have a somewhat tropical character, with fine timber,
dense undergrowth, and trailing vines; for the climate, with excessive
rainfall, is extremely mild for the latitude, which corresponds to that
of Massachusetts. Cereals, potatoes, and fruit are grown, and many pigs
are raised; though forestry, and fishing are of greater importance.

=The Territory of Magallanes= extends from the 47th parallel south
including the mainland and islands, with mountains, rivers, forest,
and plains. On the coast the climate is not severe; in the interior
it is more rigorous. Cattle and sheep raising are the most profitable
industries; whaling and forestry are important.




                             CHAPTER XXXI

                    CHILE: PORTS AND TRANSPORTATION


PORTS

Although Chile cannot boast of many excellent harbors, with her
extended coast line her ports are naturally numerous; 59 is the
official number, of which 15 are primary ports with custom houses,
while the rest are dependent, save Punta Arenas, which is proudly apart
as a free port, the only one in this part of the world. The primary
ports are not necessarily those with the best harbors, but were made
such on account of the demands of commerce.

The service along the coast is similar to that of Peru except that
the boats of the Peruvian Steamship Line do not go beyond their own
shores, while there is additional service by Chilian steamers. Before
the War 40 per cent of the engaged shipping was British. Service to and
from Europe, formerly by way of the Straits, long ended at Valparaiso,
later extending to Callao, and for one or two sailings to Panamá. The
exigencies of war interfered with the execution of plans which are now
being carried out or modified. European express service below Panamá
is likely to be confined to the ports of Callao, Mollendo, Arica,
Iquique, Antofagasta, Valparaiso, and Punta Arenas, with a possible
call for coal at Coronel. Other express service may include Coquimbo
and Talcahuano. Aside from the leading coastal lines a few companies
operate smaller ships locally; on the sea, and 843 miles on the several
navigable rivers at the south. There is also service among the southern
islands and to Juan Fernandez, 400 miles to the west.

=Valparaiso=, as the most important Pacific port south of Panama,
deserves especial attention. This rapidly growing city, population
about 200,000, to one coming from the north seems quite European, with
an atmosphere more crisp and businesslike than that of courtly Lima or
picturesque La Paz. The semicircular bay is called a good harbor except
when the north winds blow, as they are liable to do in winter. Some
years ago a British steamer lying at anchor, in an unusually strong
blow was sunk with all on board. A breakwater expected to avert such
danger, has for some time been in construction; but the depth of water
off shore has made the work difficult. Freight was formerly discharged
into lighters and people into rowboats, the steamers anchoring at some
distance from shore. Now, however, a fiscal mole 100 feet long, one
half with a depth of water of 43 feet, the rest of 36 feet, provides
all facilities. Valparaiso has fair hotels, providing insufficient
accommodation for the rapidly increasing travel and business. In many
respects the city is quite up to date, but unhappily here and in
Santiago Americans in winter suffer more with the cold when sitting
indoors than in La Paz and Lima, though for walking outside it is
comfortable enough with the temperature near freezing. As a rule
dwelling houses have no heating apparatus, no stoves, but in some
hotel dining rooms electric heaters are employed, and oil stoves may
be provided for Americans in their rooms. While Chile has coal mines,
their production is insufficient for the use of shipping and of their
varied industries, and the people are not accustomed to use either the
native or the imported article for heating purposes.

The business section of Valparaiso is on a narrow strip of shore
between the bay and the amphitheatre of hills, the level sector varying
in width from two blocks to half a mile. Climbing up the slopes and
crowning the hill tops is most of the residential district. The
business section, largely destroyed by an earthquake in 1906, has
been rebuilt in a more substantial manner, and it well compares with
other cities of its size. Ascensors run by cable on inclined planes
are in general use for the ascent of the bluffs, though paths and a
few carriage roads wind steeply upward in the cañons here and there
separating the hills, some of which rise to a height of 1000 feet. The
suburb of Viña del Mar, population 34,000, a fashionable summer resort
with a fine beach and club house, distant a half hour by rail, is much
frequented by the foreign devotees of golf, tennis, and other athletic
sports.

=Other Ports.= Of the other principal ports we have observed that Arica
is the terminus of the Arica-La Paz Railway, that Iquique is important
for nitrates, Antofagasta for nitrates, copper, and as the medium of
commerce with Bolivia by the old railway to Oruro and now to La Paz;
Coquimbo as the port of a province with both mineral and agricultural
wealth. Below Valparaiso are better harbors. Concepción, the largest
city south of Santiago, 350 miles distant, is spoken of as the outlet
of the rich Province of that name, but being 12 miles from the mouth of
the Bio-Bio River it is not a real seaport and is served by Talcahuano,
9 miles away, which has one of the best harbors on the coast. For this
reason, though a much smaller city, population 24,000, it was selected
as a military port and for the Government dry docks. A little farther
south on Arauco Bay are Coronel and Lota, both important coaling
stations, at one of which all steamers call; Lota, the larger city,
has all conveniences for shipping. At the tip of the mainland in the
Straits is Punta Arenas, not visited by the regular coasting steamers,
but a port where every passing ship is likely to make a brief call.


RAILWAYS

While the Chilians have always cultivated a taste for the sea, for
strategical more than commercial reasons railway construction has
of late been strongly favored. In this medium of traffic Chile in
proportion to her area is far ahead of the other West Coast countries.
It is true that the difficulties of topography are less. The oldest
existing line in Latin America was here constructed in 1849 by a
Bostonian, William Wheelright, who later founded the Pacific Steam
Navigation Company, the earliest giving regular steamship service
to Europe from the West Coast. This first railway line was from the
port Caldera to the mining town Copiapó. The line from Valparaiso
to Santiago, also constructed by Americans, was finished in 1863.
Government ownership is popular in Chile, and of the 8000 miles of road
in operation the State owns over 5000, with considerable extensions
planned. Unfortunately six different gauges have been used, varying
from 2 feet 6 inches on the Antofagasta Bolivia Line to 5 feet 6 inches
on the Central Railway.

=The Central Railway.= This is a Government Line connecting Valparaiso
with the capital Santiago, express trains with American parlor cars
making the run of 117 miles in four hours. The road is now to be
electrified. South along the rich Central Valley, the same Railway runs
through sleeping cars to Valdivia and to Puerto Montt, the latter city
750 miles from Santiago. This section is well worth a visit, whether
from a scenic or a business point of view. A bridge 1400 feet long and
300 above the bed of the Malleco River cost over $1,000,000.

There are many branches from the main line, some of these privately
owned; most of them to coast ports, a few towards the Cordillera.
Valdivia is the most southern ocean port to which a branch extends.
Farther north, the third city of Chile, Concepción, is favored, and
Talcahuano near by. From Concepción a coast road leads south to Lota,
Coronel, and beyond. From Talca a line goes to Constitución, of some
importance for agriculture, shipyards, and gold mining. Another branch
goes to the port Pichilemu; from Santiago one extends 72 miles to the
port San Antonio, nearer the capital than is Valparaiso but a secondary
port to be improved by the building of docks. The Central Railway
obviously forms a very important part of the real longitudinal railway,
but the section which has the name Longitudinal begins farther north.

The =South Longitudinal=. From Calera on the Valparaiso-Santiago
Railway a branch leads 45 miles to Cabildo, where begins the
Longitudinal proper. This because of construction difficulties is of
narrow gauge, one metre. On account of poor equipment and service,
and the competition of steamship lines along the coast, its traffic
is at present small; but with better facilities and increase of
population it will be of much value. At last accounts there was weekly
service to Antofagasta with two changes of cars, not counting the one
from Valparaiso or Santiago in order to reach Cabildo. Here, three
hours from Santiago, the South Longitudinal is taken to the city of
Copiapó; for the Longitudinal has two sections. The ride is through a
fairly pleasant country with varied scenery, the region being partly
agricultural and partly mineral. In this section are heavy grades,
rising to 6 per cent, requiring 28 miles of the rack system. Branches
or other connecting lines here and there reach the sea. The road passes
through the important port Coquimbo, and the adjoining Serena, at which
point, 200 miles from Valparaiso, the desert land begins; though in
river valleys there is still some verdure. From Vallenar on the main
line a branch runs 31 miles to the port Huasco. A private line from
the port Carrizal, 92 miles north of Huasco and 73 south of Caldera,
crosses the Longitudinal. At Copiapó we come to the old line from
Caldera, a fairly good port, shipping copper and doing considerable
other business, though not a port of the first class. A branch in the
other direction extends to San Antonio.

The =North Longitudinal=. At Copiapó we change to the North
Longitudinal from which there is a branch to Chañaral, about 50 miles
north of Caldera, on a large but exposed bay in one of the richest
mineral districts of Atacama, with large smelting works, and exporting
gold, silver, and copper. A private (British) railway system of 184
miles, crossing the Longitudinal, serves a nitrate district and the
port of Taltal, 100 miles south of Antofagasta; a primary port on a
well protected bay, with piers fitted with steam cranes, a centre
of the nitrate and copper industries. Taltal is a modern town with
important business houses. Besides gold, silver, and copper, the
Province has some undeveloped nitrate land.

Farther on at Aguas Blancas, a railway belonging to the
Bolivia-Antofagasta Company runs to Caleta Coloso, a port six miles
south of Antofagasta and connected by rail with that city as well as
with various nitrate properties. Farther still the Longitudinal crosses
the Antofagasta-Bolivia Railway at Baquedano, where some traffic is
exchanged. It is the intention of the Government to construct its own
line to Antofagasta and to the port of Mejillones some miles north.
Beyond this crossing, from Toco on the Longitudinal, the Anglo-Chilian
Nitrate and Railway Company’s Line branches to the port of Tocopilla.
At last Pintados, the one time terminus is reached, where connection
is made with the Nitrate Railways, which go on to Iquique and Pisagua.
But in spite of this the Government Line is now being prolonged to
the former city. It is intended ultimately to extend the main line
to Arica, 175 miles farther, a section likely to be unprofitable
commercially but desired for other reasons. From Arica there is a
railway to Tacna, near the Peruvian border, hence on completion of this
section there would be through rail service from near the northern
border to Puerto Montt in the far south, a primary port on the Gulf of
Reloncavi. The length of the road from Puerto Montt to Jazpampa the
present terminus, east of Pisagua, is 1902 miles; to Taratá, the most
northern town in the mountains, the distance is 207 miles more.

The =Antofagasta-Bolivia Railway=. The Bolivian section of the
important Antofagasta Railway has already been referred to. That in
Chile deserves further consideration. British owned, like most of the
Chilian railways not belonging to the State, it is the longest and most
important of these. Although uncommonly narrow with a 2 foot 6 inch
gauge, the sleeping cars are more comfortable than some with double
the width. The road operates 835 miles of main track to La Paz, 518 of
these in Chile. There is semi-weekly service to La Paz in practically
two days, besides local trains. One thousand, two hundred and fifty
miles of track are controlled by the Company. The climb begins at once,
the road in 18 miles getting 1800 feet above the sea. At km. 36 a
branch 70 miles long goes to the Boquete Nitrate Fields, altitude 5622
feet. At Prat, km. 59, a branch goes down to Mejillones, a new port,
opened by the Company in 1906, called the finest harbor on the coast,
capable of holding the fleets of the world (it was said when these were
smaller) and so protected that shipping suffers no inconvenience from
bad weather. Tocopilla, 37 miles north of Antofagasta, has direct rail
connection with that city by a line 43 miles long. The main Antofagasta
line, crossing the Longitudinal at km. 96, at km. 116 enters the
principal nitrate district of this region and leaves it 35 miles
beyond. In this section are 24 _oficinas_, as the nitrate plants are
called, some of them models of their kind.

Going in either direction this part is traversed at night; otherwise
one might be refreshed by the sight of a little green at Calama, 149
miles from Antofagasta, at six A.M. This was a copper mining centre
in Inca days and a smelter is here now. At this altitude some persons
stop a day, a good plan if one is not sure of his heart; though oxygen
is now carried for use in emergency. At km. 254 is a short branch,
6 miles, to Chuquicamata, to be referred to later. Just beyond the
Conchi station is a graceful viaduct with six lattice girder spans
of 80 feet each, supported on steel trestle towers. This, called the
highest viaduct in the world, is 336 feet above the water of the Rio
Loa, at an altitude of nearly 10,000 feet. Here a branch line runs to
the copper mines of Conchi Viejo. At San Pedro station, 195 miles,
at 10,600 feet altitude, are reservoirs blasted from the solid rock,
on which the Company spent $6,000,000 to supply Antofagasta, the
nitrate fields, and the railway with water. The water comes from three
different places, one of them 37 miles northeast and 14,500 feet above
the sea: this source capable of supplying 6000 tons of water daily
through 11-inch pipes.

The road now passes two snow capped volcanoes, from one of which smoke
may be rising, and crosses a stream of lava one-third of a mile wide
and several miles long, to the summit of the main line, 13,000 feet.
Soon after, a borax lake belonging to a British company may be seen;
24 miles long, it is the largest single deposit in the world and the
chief source of the world’s supply. At Ollague, where snow storms
occasionally impede traffic, is a branch to the rich copper mines at
Collahuasi. The Bolivian frontier is soon afterward crossed, and at
Uyuni a change is made to the broader gauge line to La Paz.

The =Trans-Andine Railway=. Of all the railroads of Chile, the
Trans-Andine is naturally the most famous, as a part of the only
trans-continental railway south of Panama; but financially, as yet it
is hardly a success. With post-war increase of traffic, there will
doubtless be an improvement. The Trans-Andine section of metre gauge
begins at Los Andes, altitude 2723 feet, 88 miles from Valparaiso.
A change is here made from the State Line, 5.5-foot gauge. It is a
distance of 43 miles to the tunnel, a steep climb up the Aconcagua
River Valley, with a maximum grade of 8 per cent; 20 miles of rack
railway are employed. There are 25 tunnels, and on the Aconcagua River
or its branches, 118 bridges. The scenery is wild and the journey
delightful. Sheds have been erected against snow and land slides. Up to
1916 the road was closed for several months each winter; but with an
increase of sheds and with a force of men continually digging, the road
was kept open through the years 1916, ’17 and ’18; it was seriously
blocked in July, 1919. While previously passenger traffic was the more
remunerative, in 1916 unusual efforts were made for the benefit of
important freight which it was impossible to ship by sea.

The tunnel is at a height of 10,486 feet, its length is 10,385 feet,
each practically two miles. The boundary line is near the middle, each
country building to that point; but the whole is operated as one line
from Los Andes to Mendoza. The line was opened in the Centennial year,
April 16, 1910, in time for the Exposition at Buenos Aires. The cost
of the Chilian section was about $15,000,000. Operation is at a loss,
interest being paid by the Government. The capitalization is $317,000 a
mile. Fifteen Trans-Andine projects have been put forward, most of them
for the south, one from near Puerto Montt. One in construction is from
Talcahuano to Bahia Blanca by way of Temuco. A road from Punta Arenas
to the Loreto coal fields is the most southern railway in the world, as
that is the most southern city. The early construction is expected of
an important road at the north from Salta in Argentina by Huaytiquina
on the border to Antofagasta. Of wagon roads there are said to be
20,000 miles.

The Arica-La Paz Railway is described on page 222.




                             CHAPTER XXXII

                    CHILE: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES


Although Chile is often compared to California, to which State it
has some but not a close resemblance in length, partial dryness,
earthquakes, and fruit, the specialty of Chile is not shared by
California. Chile and nitrates are almost synonymous terms. A thought
of one suggests the other. The greater part of the nitrate country
earlier belonged to Peru, some also to Bolivia; and both countries
still bewail their loss.


MINING

The =Nitrate Fields= we know are in the north, chiefly in the Provinces
of Tarapacá, Antofagasta, and Atacama. If this desert land does not
blossom as the rose, it produces the wherewithal to make other fields
blossom, and the wealth to purchase the roses. The richest deposits
are mainly along a stretch of 300 miles from Pisagua in Tarapacá, to
Coquimbo. With an average width of 2¹⁄₂ miles, the fields are at a
distance of from 10 to 80 miles back from the coast, and at a height
of 2000-5000 feet. The deposits, which are not in continuous fields,
are sometimes on the surface, but oftener overlaid with strata of
earth several feet thick. The raw material called _caliche_ contains
from 20 to 65 per cent nitrate of soda. After pickling in tanks 8-12
hours, the liquid, _caldo_, is run off, the sand and refuse dropping
to the bottom. When ready for export the article carries 15-16 per
cent nitrogen and 36 per cent sodium. Commercial nitrate is a white
cheese-like substance, which is used in manufacturing the highest
grade of gunpowder, also to produce nitric and sulphuric acid; but the
bulk of it in ordinary times is employed as a fertilizer, doubling and
tripling the harvest. Within recent years the demand and in consequence
the production has greatly varied, the partial recovery in 1920 being
soon followed by a depression.

A by-product is a yellow liquid, which being chemically treated leaves
a blue crystal, iodine, which costs as much an ounce as saltpetre per
100 pounds. Being worth $700-$800 a cask it is shipped in treasure
vaults with bullion. The nitrate establishments called _oficinas_
provide good salaries, and the best possible quarters for their
officials, and they are interesting to visit. As a mineral, the nitrate
is distinguished from guano although believed by some to have the same
origin. British companies have long been engaged in this industry.
American interests have more recently acquired holdings. The Du Ponts
have three properties covering 14,000 acres.

The chief ports of this region are Iquique and Antofagasta, Pisagua
being a smaller port visited only by the _caletero_ or the strictly
freight boats. Iquique is a more agreeable city than in former days,
when water was sometimes $2 a gallon, and people drank champagne, they
said, because water was too expensive. Now the dust of the streets is
laid by sprinklers, some people have bath rooms, a few even fountains
in patios. Antofagasta is also a desert place, unattractive to look at,
but with good shops, business houses, and fair hotels. The water comes
a distance of nearly 200 miles, the source more than two miles above
the sea.

=Potash.= In addition to nitrates Chile possesses extensive beds of
useful potash one of which is estimated to contain nearly 7,000,000
tons easy of exploitation.

=Copper.= The property of the Chile Copper Company (one of the
Guggenheim interests) at Chuquicamata is said to be the largest copper
deposit known in the world. About 2000 of the 9600 acres of the claim
are mineralized. The outcrop of copper is one and a half miles in
length. It has been proved below to a width of 1800 feet and a length
of 7500 feet. Ten of the 2080 shafts are over 1000 feet in depth, and
at 1500 feet the ore is of commercial value. Over 700,000,000 tons of
positive and probable ore have been developed, carrying an average
value of 2.12 per cent copper. The reduction plant has a capacity of
15,000 tons a day, the refinery of 180,000,000 pounds a year. With a
90 per cent extraction the yield is 96 pounds of copper per ton. At
the port of Tocopilla, north of Antofagasta, the Company has a power
station where oil from California is used to generate a power of
24,000-27,000 kilowatts needed at Chuquicamata. This is transported by
wire across country a distance of 100 miles. At normal prices the cost
of copper production with delivery in New York or Europe is $121 a ton,
or about 6 cents a pound; higher with war time conditions which still
obtain (1921). From the 15,000 ton plant in full service 175,000,000
pounds of copper would be produced annually. In 1920, 55,617,000 pounds
were produced, the largest amount from any mine in Chile. In 1916
important mines belonging to the Calama Mining Company were added to
the Chile Company’s holdings.

The Braden Copper Company, another Guggenheim interest, owns about
2300 acres in the Province of O’Higgins. They have a concentrator, a
smelting and converting plant, a hydro-electric power plant with 800
kilowatt capacity and an electric and a steam railway; the latter,
43 miles long, connecting the property with Rancagua, which is on
the Central Railway 43 miles southeast of Santiago. The ore is of
concentrating copper, a sulphide in brecciated andesite, around an
extinct volcano. It runs about 2.5 per cent, with an earlier production
cost in New York of 6.5 cents a pound, but now higher. In 1916,
1500-1800 men were employed. The plant, recently enlarged, is not
working to capacity. In 1917, 64,000,000 pounds were produced, over
77,000,000 in 1918, with diminishing demand, 40,000,000 in 1920.

Another American syndicate has acquired the Tamaya Copper Mines in
the Province of Coquimbo between Ovalle and Tongoy, the latter, a
minor port 27 miles south of Coquimbo, sheltered from north winds,
with smelting works in the place. With an efficient pumping plant and
other improvements installed, the mines are expected to yield large
production. Other companies, native, British, and French are engaged in
copper mining at Carrizal and elsewhere.

=Iron.= Coquimbo, a Province with local importance for agriculture, is
notable for its deposits of iron ore, said to amount to a billion tons.
Only one of these has been worked, a deposit located at Tofo, about
four miles east of Cruz Grande, and 30 north of the city of Coquimbo.
This property was leased in 1913 by the Bethlehem Steel Company from a
French Company which had developed the mine to some extent and produced
ore. The ore appearing as the top of a large hill will be mined by
electric shovels and transported by an electric railway to docks at
Cruz Grande. The amount of ore is very large though with exact tonnage
undetermined. The Company is still exploring the deposit at depth.

The mines and railway are completely equipped. At Cruz Grande a basin
dock has been constructed with large storage pockets into which the ore
will be discharged from the railway cars, and from which it will go
directly into the vessels. The Steel Company is constructing steamers
of 20,000 tons to carry the ore to the United States for use in their
furnaces. The ore is very pure averaging about 67.50 per cent iron.
It is a dense ore reddish black in color, a mixture of magnetite and
hematite.

The French Company formerly controlling Tofo had erected a steel plant
at Corral intending to transport the ore thither. There is no iron ore
near there and the plant is not operating.

Of the other deposits in Coquimbo and farther north some are of
considerable size, but none is located so near the coast as Tofo and
none has been developed.

=Other metals= existing in Chile are at present of less importance and
slight operation. A moderate gold output accompanies the production
of copper, and there is some placer mining, especially in the south.
Deposits are known to exist in many Provinces from Tacna to Tierra
del Fuego. Silver too exists, but its production is chiefly as a
by-product. Lead, zinc, molybdenum, and tungsten are exported in
limited quantities.

=Coal=, following nitrates, is of the first importance among ordinary
minerals, a source of large wealth though the production, about
1,700,000 tons yearly, is insufficient for the needs of the country.
Little is therefore exported and a good deal is normally imported from
Great Britain and Australia; until recently a little only from the
United States. Most of the mines in operation, owned by ten companies,
are near the ports of Talcahuano, Coronel, and Lota. The coal is not
equal in quality to the British, but it has been used by steamships,
railways, and mines with fair results. Coronel or Lota, five miles
apart on Arauco Bay, one or the other, is a regular port of call for
steamships. The Cousiño property at Lota was purchased in 1852 and
later was conducted by the son’s widow, under her administration the
greatest financial enterprise carried on by a Chilian. At her death
she was called the richest woman in the world, leaving a property of
$70,000,000. The capital of the company is $20,000,000. The mines are
one-fourth of a mile deep and extend under the sea, where there is good
rock and no drip. Here are streets, restaurants, offices, stalls for
horses, blacksmith shops, etc.

A British Company, the Arauco, in addition to coal properties operates
its own railway with 62 miles of main line and branches, besides
mining spurs. It has four daily trains from Concepción to Lota,
Coronel, and beyond, passing over the Bio-Bio River by a bridge of 1¹⁄₄
miles, the longest in South America. Of coal about 1¹⁄₂ million tons
are produced and as much more is imported.

=Petroleum= is believed by Chilians to exist in large quantities, but
the present development is infantile. It has been found in southern
Chile, on the Island of Chiloé and in the Patagonas district, as well
as in the north near the Bolivian frontier. Large quantities are
imported principally from Peru, normally about 400,000 tons a year.
Oil recently found in the Magallanes Territory is stated by experts
to be equal in quality to that found in Argentina. The extent of
the deposits seems to rival that of the famous fields of Comodoro
Rivadavia. Legislation to regulate the well drilling is proposed to
prevent inundation of deposits by subterranean streams, to restrict the
ownership to native Chilians or foreigners with Chilian families, and
to secure to the Government a 10 per cent royalty. A strong flow of
petroleum of great purity from a well about 300 feet deep has recently
been reported from Chiloé.

=Sulphur= comes from a largely producing mine at the foot of Mt.
Ollague, and from one of growing importance at Tacora on the Arica-La
Paz Railway. The deposits of Tacora are believed to contain 10 to 45
million tons of sulphur. In 1915 about 10,000 tons were produced in
Chile.

=Salt.= From various salt deposits, the salinas of Punta de Lobos and
several mountain lagoons, about $300,000 worth of salt was produced,
supplying the domestic market.

=Borax= is important, Chile furnishing about half of the world supply.


AGRICULTURE

Of large importance and value are the agricultural interests including
fruit, although the imports of such products are nearly double the
exports in value. About one eighth of the area of Chile consists of
arable land. The production should be greatly increased. Twenty million
acres are still available, and with better methods excellent results
might be secured. In 1914-15 about 25,000,000 bushels of wheat were
raised, half as many potatoes, and more than half as much hay; besides
barley, oats, beans, corn, etc. Considerable wheat is exported with
some barley, oats, rye, and legumes. Of 15,000,000 acres suitable for
wheat, only one fifth is in cultivation. It grows well from Aconcagua
to Cautín inclusive, but farther south the crops are uncertain. They
average 15-20 bushels an acre. Six hundred thousand acres are devoted
to alfalfa, which in favorable places gives three crops a year and
has roots ten feet long, a distinctive variety being formed here.
In irrigated valleys from Coquimbo north, corn gives two fine crops
annually. Potatoes flourish from Concepción south, in Chiloé yielding
250-350 bushels to the acre. Flax and sugar beets might be raised. Some
agricultural machines are now employed, in the neighborhood of 30,000.

=Fruit.= Delicious fruits of all temperate zone varieties and some of
the subtropical are raised, chiefly for home consumption, but with
export possibilities. Drying and canning of these is practised to
some extent, but might be done on a much larger and more profitable
scale. Excellent table grapes are raised; many vineyards devote their
product to wine making, the industry being especially developed in the
Provinces of Santiago, O’Higgins, and Colchagua. In the north, wine is
made of the port and sherry classes; in the central section light wines
of excellent quality, some of which are exported to the neighboring
countries. More wine however is imported of expensive varieties. The
vineyards are in general owned by natives, and according to location
are worth $200-$1000 an acre. Raisins are produced in quantity.


FORESTRY

This might become a more important industry, though now practised to a
considerable extent. It has been customary to burn a section of forest
at the close of summer, February, to get rid of the underbrush, and
later to cut down the trees, which must have suffered some injury. The
forest area is below the Bio-Bio River. On a tract of 100 square miles
extending from near Valdivia north to Temuco, the timber averages about
9000 feet to the acre. Farther south the woods are denser, as on the
Island of Chiloé. The greatest extent of forest is in Valdivia, the
next in Llanquihue and in Chiloé. On this Island a 60 mile railway was
constructed by the Government from Ancud at the northwest to Castro
south, on the east side, making a part of the forest accessible. Oak,
Chilian mahogany, laurel, ash, pine, and other hard and soft woods
are available. There are in Chile 3000 saw-mills and some pulp and
shingle mills. The first and second grades of wood, used for floors and
finished boards, bring $12-$18 per 1000 feet, ash $25; the third grade
is worth $8. Shingles are $3 per thousand. From the forests comes the
_quillay_ bark with a soapy substance for cleaning silk and fine linen,
of which $200,000 worth is annually exported to France, after being
prepared by two Chilian factories. Tannin, of which 15,000 tons are
annually used, is derived from bark of several kinds. With additional
railways planned and Government data furnished, there is opportunity
for good investments with moderate capital.


STOCK RAISING

Stock raising of various kinds is carried on quite extensively by
some large companies under British, German, or Chilian control, often
paying 20 per cent dividends. Sheep are in the lead, numbering probably
6,000,000, cattle 3,000,000, horses 725,000, half as many goats,
a third as many pigs, fewer donkeys, mules, alpacas, and llamas.
The horses are good, larger than those in Peru, and noted for their
excellent trotting, some making this as easy as a good pace or canter.
In 1916, 20,000,000 pounds of wool were produced, half of this in
Magallanes Territory not far from Punta Arenas, where there are more
than 3,000,000 sheep. The meat is of the finest quality; the farther
south the better the wool in thickness and length of staple.

The cattle are improving with the introduction of Shorthorns
and Herefords; there is some export, especially to Bolivia. The
3,000,000 at present might be increased ten fold. A British company
is constructing a frigorifico at Puerto Montt. The dairy industry
is important, with good cheese, bottled milk, and some condensed.
Goats are numerous in the mountains. Apiculture is practised and fine
honey is made. Fisheries are of great importance and value, at Juan
Fernandez, as also along the coast.


MANUFACTURING

Such industries are more developed in Chile than in any of the
countries previously considered. The 6200 manufactories with 80,000
operatives and an investment of $250,000,000 show great diversity.
There are saw mills, flour mills, breweries, sugar refineries, some
coarse sugar being imported from Peru, tanneries, furniture, and
shoe factories, with others commonly found. A cement factory pays
a quarterly dividend of 5 per cent, a brewery gave a semi-annual
dividend of 15 per cent. A new one is planned for Arica. More than
$12,000,000 are invested in the leather industries, with an output
worth $20,000,000. Twenty-two or more shoe factories are scattered in
various cities. Clothing and textiles are next in value of production,
followed by $10,000,000 worth of furniture and woodwork. Ship building
is important.


INVESTMENTS

Activities in Chile in the immediate future for which about $15,000,000
have been appropriated by the Government include work or equipment on
railways, roads, bridges, barracks, waterworks, sewer systems, building
construction, and port works. These furnish opportunities to which many
others may be added. The possibilities in agriculture, fruit raising
and canning are obvious; those in fisheries, saw mills and lumber,
development of water power, in factories of various kinds may be noted,
as well as for large capitalists in mining. A $10,000,000 contract
for the electrification and equipment of four zones of the Government
railways has been concluded with a combination of several American
interests.




                            THE EAST COAST




                            CHAPTER XXXIII

        ARGENTINA: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.


Argentina, from the south the first country on the Atlantic coast, the
second largest in South America, has been called not only the most
progressive on that continent but the richest per capita on the globe.


AREA, POPULATION, BOUNDARY

=Area.= Occupying the greater part of the southern extremity of the
continent, Argentina is nearly 2300 miles long, with an extreme width
just south of Paraguay of 930 miles. Nearly as broad in the centre, the
country below the Province of Buenos Aires narrows rapidly towards the
south. Extending from 22° to 56° S. Lat., it has an area of 1,154,000
square miles, equal to about one-third of Europe and more than
one-third of the United States: approximately that of the part east of
the Mississippi River with Texas in addition.

=Population.= In 1919 the inhabitants were reckoned as over 8,000,000.
In 1921 there may be 9,000,000, at least 8,500,000; more than seven to
a square mile. Ninety per cent of the population is found in 40 per
cent of the territory, although the rest may be the richest.

=Boundary.= While boundary disputes have occurred with her neighbors as
in the case of the other South American countries, all of Argentina’s
have been amicably settled by arbitration or agreement. Bolivia and
Paraguay, a trifle of Brazil and of Uruguay are on her northern border,
the last three are on the east; a long stretch of the Atlantic Ocean
is at the southeast; at the south is a bit of Chile, which country
extends along the entire western boundary.


HISTORY

While a few settlements were made in Argentina (the country was
discovered in 1508) from a half to a whole century earlier than those
of our own coast cities, the country was so hampered by restrictions
of immigration and commerce, exceeding those placed on the West Coast,
that its growth was stifled. After proclaiming independence it suffered
for years from internal disorders, but during the last half century its
development has been phenomenal. In 1535, the same year that Pizarro
founded Lima, Pedro de Mendoza landed on the south shore of La Plata
River and made at Buenos Aires the first settlement on this part of
the continent. But the Indians of the East Coast were more savage than
most of those on the West, and a few years later, after many colonists
had been killed, the little town was abandoned. In 1580 it was
re-established by Juan de Garay, after a number of settlements had been
made in other districts, as at Mendoza, Santiago, Tucumán, and Córdoba.
Previously attached to the great dominion ruled from Peru, in 1776 a
Viceroyalty was established at Buenos Aires.

In 1806-07, during a European war, the city was attacked by British
forces which were ultimately obliged to retreat. By reason of this
success the colonists became more self reliant, and May 25th, 1810,
they formed a junta of citizens who took from the Viceroy the control
of the Government. While this was done in the name of Ferdinand VII,
the date is regarded as the birth of their independence. July 9th,
the date of the Proclamation of Independence by an Argentine Congress
in 1816, is alike celebrated. Not being at first obliged to fight a
Spanish army in Argentina, some of the colonists under General San
Martín kindly assisted in liberating Chile and later Peru from the
Spanish yoke. Meanwhile Congress having declared independence had made
Buenos Aires the seat of government. Yet during civil strife which
for many years continued, the Province of Buenos Aires was at one time
an independent State, separated from the Argentine Federation. In 1861
matters were finally settled and reunion was established. In the latter
part of that decade occurred the Paraguayan War, which was followed
by some internal difficulties; but with many able leaders, growth and
prosperity for the most part have since prevailed.


GOVERNMENT

The Government of Argentina is that of a Federal rather than
a Centralized Republic, although in fact the President has a
preponderating influence, with certain rights of intervention in the
affairs of any Province. The constitution following quite closely that
of the United States, there are the three usual branches. The President
of the Republic, elected for a term of six years, is not immediately
eligible for reëlection. Congress has a Senate of 30 members and a
Chamber of Deputies of 158.

The Provinces have each a Governor and a Legislative Assembly of
its own choosing. The Governors of Territories are appointed by the
President. A Territory has the privilege of becoming a Province when
it has 50,000 inhabitants, but for some reason this right has not been
exercised. The Federal District, the City of Buenos Aires, is governed
by a Mayor and a Council elected by tax paying residents.

Male citizens have the right of suffrage at the age of 18. The passage
of a law, at the initiative of President Dr. Roque Saenz Peña, made the
exercise of the franchise obligatory upon all native born citizens, and
on foreigners after two years of residence, thus inaugurating a great
change. At the first election under the new law in 1916, Dr. Hipolito
Irigoyen of the Radical Party was chosen President by the Electoral
College, the first person outside of the previously governing class to
be elected.

There are 14 Provinces corresponding to our States, and 10 Territories,
besides the Federal District, Buenos Aires. The best obtainable
figures of the area and population of the Provinces and Territories
with those of the population and altitude of their capitals follow. The
Provinces are named in order from the north across from west to east in
four rows, thus beginning at the northwest:

-------------------+--------+----------+---------------+----------+----------+-------------
  PROVINCES        |  AREA, |POPULATION|   CAPITALS    |POPULATION|ALTITUDES,|DISTANCE FROM
                   |  in    |          |               |          | in feet  | BUENOS
                   | square |          |               |          |          | AIRES,
                   |  miles |          |               |          |          | in miles
-------------------+--------+----------+---------------+----------+----------+-------------
Jujuy              |  15,800|    78,000|Jujuy          |   25,000 |    3,675 |   937
Salta              |  62,160|   160,000|Salta          |   40,000 |    5,200 |   925
Catamarca          |  37,000|   110,000|Catamarca      |   15,000 |    1,663 |   833
Tucumán            |  10,400|   350,000|Tucumán        |  100,000 |    1,522 |   718
Santiago del Estero|  75,000|   265,000|Santiago       |   35,000 |      593 |   630
San Juan           |  38,000|   130,000|San Juan       |   20,000 |    2,077 |   750
La Rioja           |  38,000|    85,000|La Rioja       |   13,000 |    1,650 |   506
Córdoba            |  67,000|   750,000|Córdoba        |  135,000 |    1,428 |   432
Santa Fé           |  50,000| 1,000,000|Santa Fé       |   80,000 |       52 |   298
Corrientes         |  33,000|   400,000|Corrientes     |   40,000 |    ....  |   838
Entre Rios         |  30,000|   450,000|Paraná         |   80,000 |    ....  |   356
Mendoza            |  55,370|   300,000|Mendoza        |   65,000 |    2,470 |   651
San Luis           |  30,000|   127,000|San Luis       |   25,000 |    2,513 |   488
Buenos Aires       | 117,800| 2,200,000|La Plata       |  135,000 |       34 |
Federal District   |      72| 1,800,000|Buenos Aires   |1,800,000 |          |
                   |        |          |               |          |          |
   TERRITORIES     |        |          |               |          |          |
Los Andes          |  35,000|     2,600|San Antonio    |    1,000 |   11,000 | 1,056
Formosa            |  44,000|    52,000|Formosa        |    4,200 |      208 |
Chaco              | 386,000|    65,000|Resistencia    |   12,000 |      144 |   840
Misiones           |  11,880|    52,000|Posadas        |   10,000 |      407 |   700
Pampa Central      |  58,000|   110,000|Sta. Rosa de   |          |          |
                   |        |          |  Toay         |    5,400 |     .... |   376
Neuquen            |  42,470|    31,500|Neuquen        |    4,500 |      870 |   740
Rio Negro          |  77,220|    42,000|Viedma         |    7,500 |     .... |   577
Chubut             | 946,000|    23,000|Rawson         |    8,000 |          |
Santa Cruz         | 111,000|    10,000|Puerto Gallegos|    3,000 |          |
Tierra del Fuego   |   8,300|     2,500|Ushuaiá        |    1,600 |     .... | 1,600
-------------------+--------+----------+---------------+----------+----------+-------------

The Territories are four at the extreme north, and the remaining six
south of a line from Mendoza to the City of Buenos Aires.


POPULATION

With an estimated population of at least 8,600,000, Argentina suffered
a large decrease in its previously great immigration, as well as a
considerable emigration, during the Great War, which in other ways at
first gravely interrupted its prosperity. In the 50 years preceding
1912, over 4,000,000 immigrants had entered the country, more than
3,000,000 remaining. Of those entering, the Italians numbered over
2,000,000, Spanish over 1,000,000; those of any other nationality
except 200,000 French were each fewer than 100,000. The Negroes and the
Indians of earlier days, except perhaps 100,000 of the latter in remote
sections, have become assimilated or killed. The Chaco Indians, it is
said, are not difficult to domesticate, especially the Tobas living
near the Bermejo River. The people are generally considered the most
homogeneous of any of the South American countries except Uruguay, as
nearly all are of European descent. Here as in Chile we observe the
effect of location in the temperate zone, all of the country being so
situated except a small section at the north.

A great preponderance of population is in the cities, one fifth of the
whole in the city of Buenos Aires. While the people are proud of its
greatness they have begun to realize that this concentration is not
for the general welfare. Forty-three per cent of the urban and 25 per
cent of the entire population is said to be foreign born. Aside from
the Capital of the Republic, there are in the Province of Buenos Aires
five cities with a population above 50,000 and a dozen more with over
30,000. In Buenos Aires there is a large social circle of wealth and
culture, as well as a laboring class with strong radical elements.


EDUCATION

Education receives much attention and $25,000,000 are annually devoted
to this purpose. Primary education is free and called compulsory.
There are primary and secondary schools, Universities, Normal Schools,
Technical Colleges, Schools Agrarian and Veterinary, of Viticulture,
Mines, Arts, and Music. The Universities are at Buenos Aires, La Plata,
Córdoba, Tucumán, and Santa Fé; there are three Schools of Commerce at
Buenos Aires, and one each at Rosario and Concordia. In various towns
are private schools, some English and American. The schools generally
are of high grade, and it was said by a former Argentine Ambassador,
corroborated by other persons familiar with Buenos Aires, that their
school children knew more about the United States than most of our
business men and Members of Congress knew about Argentina. Many of
their school buildings, though usually smaller than ours, are superior
in architectural beauty.


PRESS, RELIGION, ETC.

=Press.= As to the Press, Buenos Aires can boast of two of the
wealthiest and best newspapers in the world, the _Prensa_ and the
_Nación_. Not many years ago, the _Prensa_ contained as many pages of
telegraphic and cable dispatches as any New York paper had columns,
and articles superior in literary and intellectual ability. It was
pronounced by some Europeans the best newspaper in the world. Buenos
Aires has other papers of almost equal merit, besides several in
English and in other foreign languages.

=Religion.= In Religion there is entire freedom, but the President must
be of the Roman Catholic Church. One in Buenos Aires no longer sees
women with _manta_ or lace veil over their heads for church going as on
the West Coast.

=Telegraph.= Argentina has about 45,000 miles of telegraph lines,
ample cable connections, and a dozen or more wireless stations.
Telephones are in general use in all the large cities and in many
smaller places.

=Money= current in Argentina is paper, with coins for small change. A
paper peso is equal to .44 of a gold peso, which is a little less than
an American dollar, 96.48 cents; but for practical purposes except in
large transactions a paper peso may be reckoned as 44 cents.




CHAPTER XXXIV

ARGENTINA: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS


Argentina is oftenest thought of as a country of broad plains, but
while a large portion of the country is of this character there are
three distinct sections: the Mountains, the Plateau, and the Plains,
with several subdivisions.


MOUNTAINS

We know that the Andes form the western boundary of the country for
the entire distance from north to south, and that some of the loftiest
summits including the highest, Aconcagua, are in Argentine territory;
but east of the great Cordillera, which as already noted is less steep
on this than on the Chilian side, are other ranges of the same and
other systems. Two or three extend from the Bolivian plateau, and
farther down spurs run out from the main chain. In Córdoba are three
ranges separate from the Andes, with one peak above 9000 feet; a peak
in San Luis is over 7000. Near the sea in the Province of Buenos Aires,
are low mountains, mere hills in comparison, one reaching a height of
4000 feet; and in Misiones are spurs from the Brazilian Coast Range,
the highest a hill about 1300 feet.


PLATEAUS

There are plateaus in the north among the mountains, but the
distinctive Plateau Region is in what used to be called Patagonia, a
name not so much employed in Argentina as formerly. This section is
arranged in terraces, falling from the Andes to the east, the western
part called the Plateau, having an altitude of 2000-500 feet; near the
sea it goes from the latter figure to sea level. The Plateau has many
sterile plains, some strewn with boulders, others with dunes of sand;
also good grazing and forest land, and some suitable for farming.

=Lakes.= The Andine lakes in the Patagonia section are of glacial
origin, with much scenic beauty. One of these, Nahuel-Huapi, 40 miles
long, is said to be 1000 feet deep. Lake Buenos Aires, partly in Chile,
is 75 miles long. The lakes number more than 400; at the north are many
swampy lagoons.


PLAINS

The plains, once under the sea, and now for the most part less than
500 feet above it with a very gradual rise from the ocean to the
Andes, extend from the Pilcomayo River, the boundary line with Western
Paraguay, on the north, to the Rio Negro on the south. The northern
part belongs to the Gran Chaco, swampy and partly wooded, with so
slight a southeastward slope that large spaces are regularly flooded
in the rainy season. South of the Bermejo River which is parallel with
the Pilcomayo, the land is higher, some of it 800 feet above the sea,
and the forests are heavier; but there are still marshy lagoons. Then
come open grassy plains with occasional salt pans. The section between
the Paraná and Uruguay Rivers, called the Argentine Mesopotamia, in
Corrientes at the north is of somewhat similar character, but has
higher land in Entre Rios at the south. The remainder of the plain
is the real Pampa, the part west of the Paraná River and below that
extending to the ocean, mainly, treeless and grassy. It includes the
Provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fé, Córdoba, San Luis, Mendoza, and
the Territory Pampa Central. In the far west is a depressed region
containing some lakes and swamps with no outlet, but with too little
rain.


RIVERS

The rivers of Argentina are of great importance, being navigable for
immense distances. Chief among them are those of the System of La
Plata, this river being formed by the union of the Paraná and the
Uruguay: a great river indeed, the outflow of water being 80 per cent
more than that of the Mississippi, and the drainage basin covering
1,500,000 square miles. The Paraguay, Pilcomayo, Bermejo, Salado del
Norte, Iguassú, and many others belong to this basin. The Iguassú,
though not navigable except for a mile from the Paraná, is world famed
for its magnificent waterfall, surpassing Niagara in height, width, and
most of the year in volume of water; while it is rendered altogether
incomparable by the extraordinary beauty of its setting.

The =Plata River=, 250 miles long, is much like a gulf, having a width
of over 100 miles at its mouth between Capes Santa Maria in Uruguay
and San Antonio in the Province of Buenos Aires. The Paraná River
with many tributaries has two principal sources well up in Brazil
and a total length of 2600 miles, about one half in or on the border
of Argentine territory. At first flowing south it turns west between
Argentina and Paraguay, and after receiving the Paraguay River again
flows south in Argentina. From January to September, nine months, it is
open to trans-Atlantic steamers to Rosario; for 6000 ton vessels, 12
foot draft, to Paraná or Colastiné, the port of Santa Fé; for smaller
steamers up the Alto Paraná nearly to the Falls of La Guayra, a little
above the northeast extremity of Argentina. Steamers of 7 foot draft go
up the Paraguay to Asunción and smaller steamers to Corumbá in Matto
Grosso, Brazil, 2000 miles from Buenos Aires, and beyond to Cuyabá.
Forty-two miles up stream from Buenos Aires is Ibicuy, a port where a
steam ferry operates, carrying trains to and from Zarate on the Buenos
Aires side.

A few small streams flow into lagoons with no outlet; a number in the
Buenos Aires Province flow into the Atlantic. Farther south are rivers
of more importance, among these the Rio Negro and the Colorado, the
only ones of this section easily and regularly navigable.


CLIMATE

The climate of Argentina naturally varies on account of its wide range
of latitude, as well as from increasing altitude in the mountainous
section. The prevailing winds, the mountain barriers, and the sea
also modify the climate in restricted locations. The conditions of
temperature and rainfall are different from those in the northern
hemisphere. Thus Tierra del Fuego and the south main land are more
habitable than corresponding latitudes in Labrador, partly by reason
of a southern equatorial current; it is an excellent region for sheep
raising. At the same time it is colder than at similar latitudes
of Western Europe, as the prevailing west winds are chilled by the
mountains.

In the Provinces of Buenos Aires, Mesopotamia, and Santa Fé the average
temperature in January is 72°, the maximum 97°-107°; the annual at the
Capital city is 62.6°, farther south 42°. In Buenos Aires it may rain
at any time, but the greatest precipitation is in the summer and fall.
In summer there is a land breeze by day and a sea breeze at night.
The north winds are hot and unhealthful, ending in violent storms.
Southwest winds, the _pamperos_, which are gales, sometimes hurricanes,
are invigorating. The central region has greater extremes of daily
heat and of annual temperature, the widest at Córdoba; Santiago is
the warmest of the Provinces. In the city of Buenos Aires the mercury
in summer may reach 107°; in winter it goes below freezing only a few
times, but there is a peculiar chill in the atmosphere which causes
strong men, who never did so in New York or Boston, to wear heavy
woolen underwear. The country has 200 meteorological stations.




                             CHAPTER XXXV

     ARGENTINA: THE CAPITAL, INDIVIDUAL PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES


THE CAPITAL

=Buenos Aires=, the metropolis of South America, the largest city
on that continent, and fourth in all America, has also a wide
reputation as the second Latin city in the world. Its population is
well towards 2,000,000, its area is more than double that of Paris.
All its splendors may not here be rehearsed. The attractions of its
74 beautiful parks and plazas, its fine avenues, its magnificent
Capitol and other public buildings, its beautiful opera house, almost
the finest in the world, the many artistic and sumptuous residences,
the excellent hotels, with many other admirable features make it a
city delightsome to tourist and resident. The city is spoken of as a
very expensive place to live, but in ordinary times, some things were
cheaper than in New York while others were much dearer. Rents were
high, the prices of fruit and vegetables, etc. In general, in other
places in Argentina prices were higher for poor accommodations than
in Europe before the War for far better. As a business centre, Buenos
Aires naturally is of prime importance for the southern part of the
continent. From here it is easy to visit Uruguay, Paraguay, and since
the opening of the Trans-Continental, Chile also; while in every
direction railways radiate to the chief cities of Argentina, even to
those that are accessible by boat.


PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES

We may perhaps get the geography of the Republic most accurately if we
begin near the countries with which we are familiar at the northwest,
and come from the outskirts to the commercial and political centre of
the Republic.

=Jujuy= in the northwest corner naturally has on the north Bolivia,
which comes down a little on the west, where it is followed by a bit
of Chile, then by the Argentine Territory of Los Andes. The last is
also on the south with a longer stretch of the Province of Salta,
which extends along the entire east border as well. Here in Jujuy we
are again among the mountains, for three ranges come from Bolivia,
passing on through Salta at the south. The _puna_ at the northwest
is nearly 12,000 feet high; on this arid plateau are two salt lakes.
The mountains reach an altitude of 15,000-20,000 feet. There are low
valleys too, where there is mixed farming, not many cattle. Above are
the wild vicuñas, guanacos, and chinchillas, as in Bolivia, and various
minerals including gold, silver, petroleum, etc., not much worked.
Sugar refining and wine making are important.

The capital, Jujuy, is in a rich and picturesque valley as low as 3675
feet, from which the railway climbs rapidly to La Quiaca, on the border
of Bolivia.

=Salta= extends along the southern border of Bolivia from Jujuy to
Formosa and Gran Chaco on the east; on the south are Santiago, Tucumán,
and Catamarca; on the west Los Andes with Jujuy. The north and west
sections are mountainous and cold, with high table-lands and fertile
valleys; in the east the terrain comes down to the tropical country,
where in places there are forests though some sections are hot and dry.
Temperate and tropical products are found here; in the mountains are
many varieties of minerals. Cattle are raised, some being driven over
the mountains into Chile; hence the proposed railway to Antofagasta.

Salta, the capital, with an agreeable climate, is a considerable town,
important as a railway centre and with trade of various kinds.

=Los Andes=, a Territory at the west, is a bleak mountain region,
once belonging to Chile, and a part of the Puna de Atacama. It is but
slightly explored, dry and sandy, with salt marshes; it appears to be
rich in minerals.

San Antonio, the capital, is a place of small importance not on a
railway.

=Formosa= and Gran Chaco, Territories east of Salta, are precisely
opposite to Los Andes in character. Formosa has Bolivia on the
northwest; on the long northeast boundary the Pilcomayo River separates
it from Paraguay, which is also at the southeast, there separated by
the Paraguay River. On the southwest the Bermejo divides it from the
Chaco, while Salta is west.

The =Chaco= of similar shape has at the southeast a bit of the
Paraguay River and country, and below a little of Corrientes across
the Paraná. Santa Fé and Santiago del Estero are on the south, the
latter with Salta west. These two Territories are truly semi-tropical,
flat or undulating, sloping to the southeast, partly covered with
dense forests, not thoroughly explored; partly with open plains, lakes
and marshes, many rivers, much very fertile land suited to tropical
products, some of which are grown, and excellent pasturage where herds
of cattle are bred, horses, sheep, and goats. The quebracho industry
for tannin, and the production of sugar are important, with some cotton
plantations and castor oil factories.

Formosa, capital of that Territory, is important as a port, shipping a
variety of products down the river, and as the terminus of a railway to
go to Embarcación, opening up this rich Territory.

Resistencia, capital of the Chaco, on the Paraná River, is of equal and
growing importance. It has railway connection with Santa Fé.

=Misiones=, at the extreme northeast of Argentina, is a Territory of
some similarity to the two just mentioned, but with greater attractions
and merit. Long and narrow, it extends up between Paraguay and Brazil,
separated from the former country by the Paraná River on the west,
from the latter by the Iguassú on the north and by the Uruguay on the
southeast, Brazil enclosing it on the north, east, and south. Misiones
joins the rest of Argentina only by a small strip along the Province
Corrientes on the southwest. Misiones is a subtropical garden largely
covered with beautiful forests where the picking of _mate_ leaves is a
leading industry; there is some timber extraction, and saw mills. It is
an undulating plain with ranges of low mountains and hills. There are
various minerals, and in open spaces some cattle.

Posadas, the capital, is a pleasant town, important as a railway and
steamboat junction.

=Catamarca=, a Province again at the west, we find bordering on Chile,
south of Los Andes and Salta, with Tucumán and Santiago east, and
Córdoba and La Rioja south. The Province is largely mountainous, one
peak in the eastern range, Aconquija, being over 15,000 feet. Some
short torrential streams, formerly disappearing in salt marshes, are
now utilized for irrigation. Cereals and other agricultural products,
also cattle are raised. The Province is rich in minerals, with workings
in gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, and salt.

Catamarca, the capital, on the Catamarca River, is of some importance
as the centre of a rich agricultural district.

=Tucumán=, east of Catamarca, south of Salta, with Santiago east and
south, is the smallest of the Provinces, but more varied in character
than most. It has snow-capped mountains, and well watered valleys and
plains, some quite tropical; with agriculture, or with dense forests
of quebracho, oak, pine, etc. There is activity in sugar refining and
tanning, with steam saw mills, and with cereals and fruit.

Tucumán, the capital, is a large city, especially important, as the
center of the sugar industry, and with many varied interests.

=Santiago del Estero=, more than seven times the size of Tucumán, is
south of Salta and the Chaco, with Chaco and Santa Fé east, Córdoba
south, and Catamarca and Tucumán west. Mostly in the lowlands, it is in
places covered with forest; in other parts is a salt, clayey, partial
desert which is now being crossed by railways. Here woodmen cut out
quebracho trees, though in this section it does not rain for 11 months
in the year, nor can wells, they say, be dug to get water unless they
are over 3000 feet deep, as water obtained higher is salt. The summer
temperature by day runs nearly to 120° F., while in winter it falls to
50°, with cool nights always. Water difficulties are obviously great,
worse than formerly at Iquique. To cross these partly forested deserts
by rail is a 40-hour journey. Between the two rivers, the Salado and
Dulce, both used for irrigation, the soil is fertile, producing sugar
cane, vines, wheat, alfalfa, for which the soil is favorable, coffee,
and tobacco. Some quarrying of marble and gypsum goes on; but timber is
the main industry.

The capital is a small town of the same name on the Rio Dulce.

=La Rioja= is a long, irregularly shaped Province south of Catamarca,
with that and Córdoba east, San Luis and San Juan south, the latter
running nearly all the way up on the west, leaving a small space of
Rioja bordering on Chile. Among high mountains at the west are fertile
irrigated valleys with varied agriculture; there are forests with
quebracho, _carob_, and acacia; but much of the eastern part is low,
sandy, and barren. Great mineral wealth of many varieties exists, but
silver and copper are chiefly exploited.

La Rioja, the capital, is the centre of a rich fruit growing district,
with some mining.

=San Juan=, with an extended border on Chile, has Rioja north and
east, San Luis and Mendoza on the south, on the west are lofty
mountains and well watered valleys; in the east barren sand hills and
marshes. Wine making is the most important industry; varied minerals
give promise for the future. The Province has been called rather slow,
but it is now said to be waking up; irrigation is beginning and other
improvements will follow.

=Córdoba=, an important Province, much larger, is the fourth in
population and the second in wheat production. It has Santiago north,
Santa Fé east, Buenos Aires and La Pampa south, and San Luis, La Rioja,
and Catamarca west. Although mostly rather flat, there are mountains
in the northwest of an altitude of 8000-9000 feet among which are deep
broad valleys. The country is chiefly agricultural and pastoral.

Córdoba, the old capital, founded in 1573, in a charming location
among the hills, preserves some rather mediaeval characteristics, its
university dating from 1613. A wonderful reservoir is near, the Dique
San Roque, called one of the largest semi-natural reservoirs in the
world. A wall of masonry was built across a gorge among the mountains
forming a lake which holds 825,000,000 cubic feet of water. Fifteen
miles lower is a basin from which lead two primary canals carrying
water for irrigation, which extends over 300,000 acres.

=Mendoza=, the third largest Province and the most southern of the
Andean, with a long border on Chile, is just below San Juan; has San
Luis on the east, and on the south the Territories of La Pampa Central
and Neuquen. The surface is much diversified, containing the highest
peaks of the Andes including Aconcagua at the west, and eight passes
across the Andes, among them, the famous Uspallata, at the summit of
which is the celebrated statue, the Christ of the Andes, at a height of
12,796 feet above the sea. More than 2000 feet below, the Trans-Andine
tunnel pierces the range. The Province has many rivers from which there
is extensive irrigation; for the climate and the soil are dry, though
the latter is fertile when irrigated. It is a great section for grapes.

Mendoza, the capital, is headquarters for the wine industry. Grapes are
brought thither from the regions north and south. Raisins and alcohol
are also produced. Excellent livestock, cattle, horses, mules, donkeys,
sheep, goats, and pigs are raised; in the San Rafael section, Durhams
and Herefords, many of which are sent over to Chile.

=San Luis=, east both of Mendoza and San Juan, lies south of La Rioja
and Córdoba, has the latter and La Pampa east, and La Pampa south.
The Province has mountains of the Córdoba system, some rising to a
height of 7000 feet, with fertile well watered valleys; at the west are
swamps, while the south is flat and arid. There are a number of rivers
and much attention is paid to agriculture, to cattle raising, and horse
breeding. The minerals, of great variety, are hardly noticed.

=Santa Fé=, the last of the Provinces west of the Paraná River, extends
along its right bank from the Chaco on the north a distance of nearly
500 miles to the Province of Buenos Aires on the south, with Corrientes
and Entre Rios on the other side of the river, and Córdoba and Santiago
on the west. This State, second in population to Buenos Aires, though
fifth in area, is a great plain with slight elevations, having dense
forests at the north, at the south the fertile prairie, and along
the great river many islands, covered with luxuriant vegetation. It
is an agricultural, cattle raising country, with mills and factories
also; and with extensive commerce in cereals, meat, hides, quebracho
extract, and timber, from the many fluvial ports. The chief of these,
Rosario, is the second largest city of the Republic with a population
of 317,000. The Province contains 3000 miles of railway.

=Corrientes=, east and south of the Paraná River, therefore south of
Paraguay, has Misiones at the northeast, Brazil east, across the
Uruguay River, Entre Rios south, and Santa Fé and the Gran Chaco west
across the Paraná. The Province has temperate uplands and warmer
lowlands, and is well watered by rivers and some lakes and marshes.
Corrientes is prominent as a cattle-raising State and has also large
flocks of sheep.

The capital, Corrientes, is an important river-port visited during most
of the year by vessels drawing 12 or 13 feet. Goya, farther south, is
famed for its excellent cheese.

=Entre Rios=, south of Corrientes, has Uruguay east beyond the Uruguay
River, Buenos Aires south across the Paraná, and Santa Fé beyond the
same river on the west. It is in general a fertile, well-watered
plain, with a forest region at the northwest running over into
Corrientes, containing much valuable timber. It is a stock-raising and
an agricultural region, largely devoted to cereals, with grain of the
finest quality. It has also many industrial establishments.

Paraná, the capital, is a growing centre with some fine buildings,
electric lights, and other facilities. Concordia, on the Uruguay River,
is an important commercial town.

=Buenos Aires=, the last, largest, and most important of the Provinces,
with the greatest population, is the only one with an ocean front.
Buenos Aires has on the north Córdoba and Santa Fé; northeast, on the
other side of the Paraná and La Plata, Entre Rios and Uruguay; the
Atlantic is on the east and south with a bit of Rio Negro, which with
La Pampa is on the west, with a little also of Córdoba. The land is
flat, but with two ranges of hills; the highest in one range is 1200,
in the other about 3000 feet. Several useful, some navigable rivers
flow towards the ocean. The country is agricultural and pastoral,
especially devoted to cattle and wheat, but in the numerous towns,
industries and manufactories are developing. Many great railway systems
converge at the Federal Capital. There are good roads near most of the
towns, which is not the case in the other Provinces, and good auto
roads lead from Buenos Aires to Tigre and to La Plata.

South of the Provinces, at least below Buenos Aires, is what was once
called Patagonia, now divided into Territories.

=La Pampa Central=, a Territory which extends farther north, is already
from its population entitled to be a Province. Lying south of Mendoza,
San Luis, and Córdoba, it has Buenos Aires on the east, Rio Negro
Territory south, with the Colorado River as the dividing line; and
west, Neuquen and Mendoza. The Territory is undulating, with hills,
valleys, prairie, and lakes; the soil is generally fertile, yielding
fine crops; wheat, corn, barley, linseed, alfalfa, vines, fruits. Large
herds of cattle roam over the pastures but are usually sent out for
fattening.

=Neuquen=, south of Mendoza, borders on Chile, has Rio Negro south, and
also with La Pampa, east. The north and east parts are arid, but the
west mountain section has fine fertile valleys and forests, with many
rivers and lakes. A railway now making this section accessible, it will
be more attractive to settlers.

=Rio Negro=, first of the divisions of Argentina to stretch across the
country, has Neuquen and La Pampa on the north, Buenos Aires and the
Atlantic east, Chubut south, and Chile and Neuquen west. The section
between the Negro and Colorado Rivers is fertile, also patches near
other streams; wherever irrigated, good crops of wheat, corn, oats,
and alfalfa are certain. Fruits and vines do well in the Negro Valley.
Excellent timber is exported in beams and planks. There are some towns
and many agricultural colonies; trade goes on with Chile in cattle and
sheep. Several rivers are navigable and a railway has been constructed
from the port San Antonio to Lake Nahuel-Huapi.

=Chubut=, south of Rio Negro, also extends across from the Atlantic
to Chile, with Santa Cruz on the south. The central part has little
vegetation but in the west are fertile valleys, and good grazing for
cattle and sheep. There are millions of each, and many horses. Cereals
and alfalfa are also raised in the east, with temperate zone fruits
and berries. Near the oil fields of Comodoro Rivadavia is excellent
farming land under cultivation. In this section there is now great
activity on account of the petroleum development; some railways have
been constructed and one is expected soon to cross the country. There
is trade in wool and hides; gold, copper, and salt exist.

=Santa Cruz=, the largest division next to Buenos Aires, south of
Chubut, has the Atlantic on the east and Chile on the south and west.
The northwest is rather barren and rocky, with dense forests farther
south; but near the coast and south of the Santa Cruz River are fine
pastures supporting great flocks of sheep. There are many rivers and
lakes, several, like the Buenos Aires, on or near the Chilian boundary.
Wool, frozen mutton, and timber are exported.

=Tierra del Fuego= has the Atlantic Ocean on the north, east, and
south, with the Chilian part of the island on the west. This triangular
part of the island is mountainous, but has sheltered valleys, good
pasturage, and vast forests with excellent timber, to some extent
exploited. There are large flocks of sheep; the gold and copper
deposits are unworked except for washing the sands. The capital,
Ushuaiá, on the Beagle Channel, is a small penal colony.




                             CHAPTER XXXVI

            ARGENTINA: SEAPORTS AND INTERIOR TRANSPORTATION


Argentina has a long sea coast, about 1300 miles, with a number of
gulfs and good harbors. The ports of Buenos Aires and Ensenada, both
constructed at great expense, on the wide La Plata River, may be
regarded as seaports. The best natural harbor is 500 miles by sea south
of Buenos Aires, Bahia Blanca, where the Government has built a port
and naval station, and the harbor is accessible to large ocean vessels.
Farther south are other ports, not greatly frequented on account of
lack of population, but of growing importance. North of Buenos Aires
are river ports, some of these visited by ocean steamers, others
by river boats only, a few of the latter 1000 miles from the sea.
The river ports above Buenos Aires with facilities for ocean liners
besides Rosario, are Campana, Zarate, Ibicuy, San Nicolas, and Santa Fé
(Colastiné).


SEAPORTS

=Buenos Aires= has port facilities of the first order, though
insufficient for its great commerce. These are in two divisions: one,
the natural port, is on the Riachuelo, a small river south of the
city, which probably determined the precise location of its site. The
river admits vessels of 18-foot draft. Capable of an annual traffic
of 1,200,000 tons, it is of great value in national commerce. There
are wooden quays on the north side of the river, now to be rebuilt
at a cost of $400,000, and on the south, concrete docks and quays
constructed by the Southern Railway. On that side are some of the
noted _frigorificos_ and the famous _Mercado de Frutos_, the Central
Produce Market, with 180,000 square yards of floor space.

The main port, receiving the ocean steamers, is on the city front,
extending two miles directly along the Plata River. Constructed at
great expense, and expected to supply the needs of the city for years,
it was completed in 1897; but the growth of the city soon outran its
capacity, so that in 1911 provision was made for its enlargement,
which, however, has not yet been accomplished. About $35,000,000 have
been spent altogether. The port consists of two basins, _darsenas_,
the north and south, with four docks between having a depth of 23 feet
and a total area of 164 acres. The length of the quays which may be
used for loading and discharging freight is about ten miles. Along the
docks are 33 warehouses with 30,000,000 tons capacity, and four sheds.
Grain elevators have a total capacity of 300,000 tons of cereals,
and granaries of 55,000 tons in sacks. Loading under cover, the work
goes on in bad weather, each elevator loading 20,000 tons a day. Two
dry docks accommodate ships 400 feet long; 874 electric lights, 100
feet apart, serve the harbor entrance. Sixty-four thousand ships with
22,000,000 tonnage have entered the harbor in a year, bringing 85 per
cent of the imports and carrying out 50 per cent of the exports of the
country.

=Ensenada=, the port of the made-to-order city of La Plata, more
noteworthy for its university and museum than for its commercial
affairs, has been constructed for the relief of Buenos Aires, and
because, 35 miles lower down, the water naturally has greater depth.
The port has 8000 feet of quays, warehouses, and other necessary
appliances. Two American packing houses are here located.

=Mar del Plata=, the Newport of South America, 250 miles by rail south
of Buenos Aires, is being developed also as a commercial port, with
quays, warehouses, etc.

=Bahia Blanca=, with a population of 80,000 in the city and its several
ports, is about 700 miles south of Buenos Aires. It is of such
importance that the Southern Railway has four different routes for the
journey. The city also has direct connection with Mendoza and with
other parts of the country. Being situated on a large well protected
bay of the ocean, it has a naturally better harbor than Buenos Aires
and may be compared to Liverpool as Buenos Aires to London. Since 1882
its development has been rapid. With more than ordinary advantages
for business for a city of its size, including factories, warehouses,
and good hotels, it is a railway centre for lines spreading over the
agricultural and stock-raising districts of southern Buenos Aires, La
Pampa, San Luis, Mendoza, and San Juan, and is the natural port for
these regions. Belgrano, said to belong to the Compagnie Française, is
the real harbor of the city. Near is the port Ingeniero White with a
T-shaped pier, accommodating 16 ships in 30 feet of water. Electrical
elevators handle 6000 tons of grain in eight hours, while extensive
shops and foundries are a part of the equipment. Puerto Galvan, 1¹⁄₄
miles west, belongs to the Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway. Eight
ocean steamers of 25-foot draft and one of 30 may be accommodated here.
The basins and warehouses are of reinforced concrete; elevators with
storage capacity of 18,000 tons and other facilities exist. Besides the
commercial ports, Bahia Blanca has also the naval port of the Republic,
25 miles southwest of the city on the Southern Railway. The channel
entrance is 25 feet deep at high tide; there are various quays, also
a dry dock, 730 feet long and 33 deep; a new one of larger size is
in preparation. Other facilities are provided, machinery, workshops,
hospital, electric lighting, etc. There are various fortifications,
strategic railway, telegraph, semaphores, and light-houses. Hotels
for immigrants have been built in the city nearby for the benefit of
those who will go to work in the south. Sanitary works, costing nearly
$2,000,000, are to be installed.

=Smaller Ports.= A number of small ports on the ocean are served by the
Mihanovich Line, formerly also by German lines, while various ocean
steamers call at individual ports. Viedma on the Negro River is the
chief port for the Rio Negro Province, with a fine harbor. San Antonio
is on the same Gulf. On the large Gulf Nuevo are the ports Pirámides
on the north side and Madryn on the south, the latter a small place,
but with over-seas and coasting trade; a railway 45 miles long goes to
Trelew, and to the capital of Chubut, Rawson. On Camerones Bay several
British companies have large sheep ranches which many years ago counted
250,000 sheep, 2500 cattle, and 4000 horses.

Comodoro Rivadavia, the famous oil port, is on the Gulf of St. George,
with Visser and other ports in the vicinity. Deseado is a small port
with anchorage for ships six miles in. San Julian has a harbor with
seven fathoms of water. Puerto Gallegos affords good anchorage ten
miles up stream for ships of 10-20-foot draft. Sheep and cattle are
near. This port, the capital of Santa Cruz, has weekly service to Punta
Arenas. Santa Cruz, on a river of that name, is the most important
town, with a fish cultural establishment. Ushuaiá receives monthly
calls, the voyage from Buenos Aires occupying 45-50 days according to
the number of calls en route.


INLAND TRANSPORTATION

The rivers of Argentina are of great importance for inland traffic,
with many ports of local service for the export of grain and other
products, and for varied imports; the chief towns so engaged deserve
mention. On the Paraná River, the principal artery of river travel,
excellent steamers run up to Corrientes, and on the Paraguay as far as
Formosa and Asunción; larger ones go to Rosario only, a night journey
of 240 miles, passing a number of small ports on the way.

=Rosario’s= importance as a commercial city is due to General Urquiza,
who in 1859 made it a port of entry. Ocean steamers drawing 28 feet
come to its docks. Situated in the great cereal section, as a grain
port it now surpasses Buenos Aires. The city located in the Province of
Santa Fé is on a bluff above the Paraná River, along which an expensive
system of docks has been arranged, the new port extending over two
miles with a minimum depth at the wharves of 25 feet. Separate wharves
for ocean and for coasting steamers are provided, elevators, depots
under the wharves for 30,000 tons of cereals, chutes from warehouses
on the bank, all kinds of needed machinery, depots for general goods,
flour mills, a sugar refinery, and railway connection with all of the
different lines. Port extensions costing $3,000,000 include a sea wall
1640 feet long, warehouses, railway lines, and loading apparatus. The
production of $75,000,000 worth of sugar is evidence of prosperity. In
other parts of the city are factories of various kinds. Four railroads
centering here afford direct communication with other Provinces. Of
course the second city of Argentina has all the conveniences of a place
of its size, population 317,000, in the way of fine buildings, hotels,
clubs, parks, theatres, banks, etc.

=Paraná=, capital of Entre Rios, 310 miles from Buenos Aires on the
east bank of the Paraná River, is the next considerable city; its port,
Bajada Grande, a little below, has some local industries and trade in
agricultural and pastoral products.

=Santa Fé=, capital of that Province, though far smaller and less
commercial than Rosario, was founded before Buenos Aires by Juan de
Garay, seven miles up the small stream Quiloaza, at a time when a
quieter port for their small vessels seemed more desirable than the
great river, which at Rosario is 20 miles wide. An important railway
centre, its port is Colastiné, opposite to Paraná, and accessible to
ocean steamers.

=Corrientes=, population 30,000, is a rather old fashioned quiet town
in a sheep raising district, with some cattle; the last port on its
left bank before the turn of the river, which beyond is called the Alto
Paraná. Sailing straight north one is on the Paraguay, up which the
larger steamers go to Asunción. The upper Paraná though broad is much
shallower, accordingly at Corrientes smaller steamers are taken for
Posadas 36 hours distant. The Aripe Rapids, 145 miles up, also make
these necessary. Above Posadas, boats of still lighter draft are used
for the three days’ sail to the Iguassú, where a landing for the Falls
is made at Puerto Aiguirre, a mile up the river. The boats continue up
the Paraná beyond the northern extremity of Argentina to the Falls of
La Guayra.

Continuing north from Corrientes up the Paraguay, the mouth of the
Bermejo is soon passed and at Asunción the mouth of the Pilcomayo is
reached, the northern boundary of this part of Argentina, the Territory
of Formosa. The lower large tributary, the Bermejo, separating Formosa
from the Chaco, has recently been made navigable by clearing the banks
and cleaning the river bed, so that with one transshipment traffic
may be carried on for 450 miles. The journey requires three weeks;
but Villa Embarcación, an important centre of trade on the border of
Bolivia was thus made accessible by water, the town already having rail
connection with Jujuy and Salta, and being but 15 miles from Orán,
another important terminus. Tropical products, as sugar, cotton, and
fruit, are of value, and oil from Bolivia. The native population of El
Chaco is estimated at 25,000 Indians of various tribes; as many more in
Formosa. The forest covered plains are not thoroughly explored, some
persons having lost their lives in the attempt; several are known to
have been murdered in 1900 and 1902. Aside from these rivers there is
little steamboat service in the interior.

=The Plata Basin=, in size and flow of water second in the world, and
now in economic importance surpassing the Amazon, includes also the
Uruguay River which separates the two Republics, serving both for a
considerable distance. The Uruguay, formed by several streams which
rise in the Serra do Mar of Brazil, has a length of 800 miles. It is
navigable for ocean steamers 100 miles to the falls at Concordia and
Salta, above these for smaller craft. Steamers of the Mihanovich Line
from Buenos Aires, after crossing the Plata enter the rather muddy
Uruguay. Passing on the right the town of Fray Bentos in Uruguay, the
first port of consequence in Argentina is Concepción del Uruguay, a
stock raising centre near which are large estancias, some devoted to
pure blooded, others to crossed stock. Nine of these estates cover
370,000 acres, with hardly 1200 devoted to agriculture. Concordia,
population 25,000, a little below the Falls, is an important railway
junction with good harbor accommodations, flour mills, elevators, etc.,
exporting wheat, cattle, hides, wool, linseed, _mate_, and quebracho.


RAILWAYS

The railway system of Argentina is developed to a greater extent
than that of any other South American country, largely due to the
opportunity for easy construction presented by its great plains. The
land transportation is complicated, as there is a real network of
railways centering at Buenos Aires besides smaller centres at Bahia
Blanca, Rosario, and Santa Fé; other cities are at points of junction
of several lines; the most important of these will be mentioned. The
railways have an extension of 22,720 miles, about 4000 of which are
Government owned, 18,000 of private capital, 670 provincial, and 600 of
industrial railways.

The first railway line in Argentina, six miles long, was constructed
in 1857. The first of importance, 246 miles, from Rosario to Córdoba,
was built by Wm. Wheelwright in the 60’s. January 1st, 1918, about
22,500 miles of railway were open to traffic, with other mileage in
construction. The careful policy pursued in Argentina during this
development has prevented the great evils experienced in the United
States of local land booms and town lot speculations. Large investments
in railways have been made by European countries, especially by Great
Britain, which has about $1,000,000,000 so placed, and France the next
smaller sum. The value of the privately owned lines is $1,220,000,000,
while that of the Government owned is $150,000,000. In 1915 the
equipment included 7000 locomotives, 6300 passenger cars, 160,000
freight and service cars. The density of traffic in Buenos Aires is
shown from the fact that 500 passenger trains daily leave the city.
Instead of taxes the railways pay the Government 3 per cent of the net
receipts, which is spent on making roads to the railway stations and
bridges; 60 per cent is allowed for expenses. If above 17 per cent
profit is made by a company in three successive years the Government
has a right to lower the rates. The railways may build branch lines 47
miles long without special permission, if they do not run within 12¹⁄₂
miles of another road. Several roads have constructed irrigation works
along their lines, for which they receive Government 5 per cent bonds
at par. In 1917 an increase of rates of 22 per cent was allowed by the
Government to cover extra operation costs.

=The Central Argentina= is one of the most important of the railways,
serving the chief cities of north and central Argentina, Buenos
Aires, Rosario, Córdoba, Santa Fé, Tucumán, etc., and some of the
best agricultural lands of the country. It has the finest railway
station and terminal in South America, the Retiro, and a mileage of
3300. The main line, extending 720 miles to Tucumán, crosses the
Provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fé, Santiago del Estero, and Tucumán;
there are branches in these Provinces and in Córdoba. Elaborate
extensions planned, but suspended on account of the outbreak of the
War, will doubtless be carried out before long. On account of heavy
suburban traffic the lines for 17 miles out of Buenos Aires have
been electrified by a third rail. Two thousand passenger trains a
week are handled at the station and 9,000,000 passengers annually.
Through express service is maintained, and connection is made with the
Government Line to the Bolivia frontier at La Quiaca. In 1913 about
22,000,000 passengers were carried; 9,000,000 tons of freight are
handled, 2,000,000 head of cattle, and other live stock. Aside from the
stock the chief freight is cereals, but sugar, timber, wool, hides,
hay, and lime are also carried.

[Illustration: EASTERN ARGENTINA, URUGUAY]

=The Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway=, equally important, with the
longest mileage, operates about 3800 miles of road. Ninety per cent of
the mileage is in the province of Buenos Aires, serving the important
cities of La Plata, capital of the province, Mar del Plata, the famous
shore resort, the port, Bahia Blanca, etc. The freight station is
the largest in South America with storage capacity for 230,000 bags
of grain and 2000 tons of other freight. A line goes west from Bahia
Blanca through northern Patagonia to Neuquen and Senilossa, 480 miles,
which is handling excellent traffic especially in cattle. Important
irrigation works have been made by the railway in the Rio Negro and
Neuquen Valleys. The road has a terminus in Plaza Constitución, Buenos
Aires, where 35 trains daily, including express and de luxe, serve
25-30 million passengers in normal years. In 1913 besides 6,500,000
head of live stock the road transported 1,800,000 tons of wheat,
1,000,000 of corn, 227,000 of potatoes, 920,000 of lime and stone, and
2,500,000 general freight.

=The Buenos Aires and Pacific=, an ambitious and adventurous road,
has nearly equal mileage, 3535, some of which are leased. As its name
implies, it operates the main part of the only transcontinental line
of South America. In addition to the cross country line from Buenos
Aires to Mendoza, and beyond that, the Argentine section of the
Trans-Andine, 111 miles to the Chilian Line midway of the tunnel,
amounting with branches to 1000 miles, the Company has acquired by
lease and construction the Bahia Blanca and North Western Railway, now
extended to Mendoza, with branches, a length of 900 miles. From Bahia
Blanca a line called the Patagonas Extension has been constructed 167
miles to Carmen de Patagonas at the mouth of the Negro, giving access
to northern Patagonia. Land is being irrigated with water from the
Colorado River in the effort to attract colonists. It is a property
which has been extended too rapidly to pay dividends at the moment, but
of an assured future. On the North Western Railway wheat, barley, oats,
wine, maize, cattle, sheep, and general merchandise are the freight;
the passenger business is small in comparison.

=The Buenos Aires Western Railway= is fourth in importance, with 1870
miles of track extending from the Once Station, on the Buenos Aires
subway in the heart of the city, to sections of La Pampa and San Luis;
primarily a freight road, it now carries many passengers. Electricity
is used for suburban traffic. By tunnel from the Once station, freight
is carried to the port, being by so much ahead of New York. With the
Great Southern, the Western has leased the Midland Railway from Buenos
Aires to Carhue, 320 miles. In 1912-13 the road carried over 7,000,000
head of live stock, nearly 3,000,000 tons of freight, and 1,000,000
passengers. Wheat, maize, hay, and other agricultural products are the
bulk of the freight.

=The Córdoba Central=, operating 1200 miles, is an amalgamation of
several lines extending from that city, one now reaching Buenos Aires,
one to San Francisco connecting with Santa Fé and Rosario lines, and
another to Tucumán, there connecting with the Government owned road,
the Central Northern Railway, to the frontier. It is hoped that the
small mileage lacking in Bolivia will soon be completed, when, as the
gauge is the same, it will be possible to operate through cars from La
Paz to Buenos Aires. The sugar lands of the north are now traversed by
this road, sugar and cereals being important freight.

=The Entre Rios Railway= is a part of the through rail route to
Asunción, Paraguay, beginning at Ibicuy on the Paraná River where it is
connected with the Buenos Aires Central by ferry, that road bringing
the trains from Buenos Aires. The road, about 800 miles long, has the
standard gauge, 4 feet 8¹⁄₂ inches.

=The Argentina North East Railway=, in which the preceding is largely
interested, extends through Entre Rios, Corrientes, and a bit of
Misiones to Posadas, forming another part of the road to Asunción. It
has 750 miles of the same gauge. On account of the war and decrease
in traffic, difficulties were experienced; but in 1917-18 there was
great improvement, the cattle transport breaking all records, and
oranges becoming an important item. By means of a ferry across the Alto
Paraná River from Posadas to Encarnación there is through service with
sleeping and dining cars from Buenos Aires to Asunción, on account of
which travel has greatly increased as well as shipment of freight.

The last three railways with several French roads were in 1912
incorporated under the name of the Argentine Railway, a Maine
corporation, but on account of difficulties from the War, receivers
were afterward appointed. All of the railways mentioned are British
owned, mostly of broad gauge, 5¹⁄₂ feet. One more is the Central
Railway of the Chubut Company from Port Madryn to Trelaw, about 50
miles, a section settled chiefly by the Welsh. They plan to carry the
road across to the Andean foothills.

While the investments of the British are far larger, the French also
saw here an opportunity and financed several railways.

=The Province of Santa Fé= Railway is the most important, with 1200
miles of line and extensions planned to Asunción;

=The Province of Buenos Aires Railway= with 800 miles has a line to
Rosario, and one to the coal docks and wharves of the port of La Plata;
and

=The Rosario to Puerto Belgrano=, on Bahia Blanca, 500 miles long, is
of broad gauge with the idea of exchanging freight with the British
lines; the other two lines are of one metre.

=The Buenos Aires Central= is a locally controlled road operating 250
miles including an important section from Buenos Aires to Zarate, where
ferry connection is made with lines already spoken of to Asunción.

The War greatly affected conditions in Argentina, but previously the
British-owned roads had made good returns besides giving work to many
British both in Argentina and at home; as the rails, rolling stock, and
coal are all British. Trade has naturally followed the invested dollar.

=The Government Railways= have been constructed under a comprehensive
plan chiefly to promote settlement in outlying districts and to develop
fertile territory. Deficits have resulted, but recently improvements
have been shown in decreasing expenses and increase of gross receipts.

=The Central Northern= is an important road for tourists and business
men, a metre gauge running from Santa Fé by Tucumán, Jujuy, and Negra
Muerta to La Quiaca on the frontier. It has branches extending to
Resistencia, capital of El Chaco, on the west side of the Paraná; and
to Santiago del Estero, to Salta, and to Embarcación, the last, it
is hoped, to be extended to Yacuiba and ultimately to Santa Cruz of
the Bolivian Oriente. The road to La Quiaca passes a height of 12,000
feet, the terminus being above 11,000. Salta, the terminus of another
branch, is 6000 feet lower; Embarcación is lower still, on a navigable
stream, the Bermejo. To this point the Government is building a road
from Formosa on the Paraguay River to open up that Territory; 186 of
the 437 miles are already completed. This rich country now occupied by
savages will then be a source of wealth. A road running northeast from
Diamante, Entre Rios, when finished will open a rich territory; 106
miles are now in operation.

=The Patagonian Railways= will make accessible a large region which
is well worth while. Plans call for over 1200 miles of road, 560 of
which are now open and showing increase of earnings. One line from San
Antonio on the Gulf of San Matias to Lake Nahuel Huapi at San Carlos
de Bariloche is just completed, nearly 300 miles. From the Lake it may
be carried over the mountains to connect with the Chilian Railways at
Osorno. Another road is building from Comodoro Rivadavia on the Gulf of
St. George to Lake Buenos Aires, now complete to Colonia Sarmiento, 122
miles. An important line running more north and south has been begun
and opened 176 miles from Port Deseado in Santa Cruz to Colonia Las
Heras, following up the Deseado River, later crossing the railway from
Comodoro Rivadavia and going on towards Nahuel Huapi, to the terminus
of these lines. A road is planned from Puerto Gallegos to Chile, 84
miles towards Punta Arenas with a branch north to the Puerto Deseado
Railway. A narrow gauge is talked of from San Julian, half way up the
coast toward Puerto Deseado, to the Chilian boundary with one branch to
Lake Argentina, the other to Lake Buenos Aires.

=Other lines= are proposed in the north: one from Salta to Huaytiquina
on the Chilian border, 190 miles, to cost 20,000,000 pesos (if paper,
$8,800,000); this Chile is expected to continue to Antofagasta; one on
the other side of the country, from Candelaria in Misiones, where a
port is to be made on the Alto Paraná, will go northeast to ports on
the Uruguay, connecting the two rivers with 625 miles of light railway.
An industrial railway is expected from Goya or Reconquista through the
quebracho forest to the western part of Santiago del Estero.

An aeroplane service for mail and passengers has been organized to go
from Bahia Blanca to Puerto Gallegos, making ten stops en route.




                            CHAPTER XXXVII

                  ARGENTINA: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES


The chief sources of the wealth of Argentina are familiar to everyone
with any knowledge of world affairs: cattle and agriculture. Stock
raising is said to comprise about 50 per cent of the wealth. According
to the census of 1914 its value of $8,000,000,000, including land,
animals, and machinery, was just about that. The animals were estimated
at 1¹⁄₂ billion, the land and fixed installations at 6 billions. In
stock of various kinds, Argentina is fifth in the world: with 6 per
cent of the total number of cattle, she is third in sheep with 8 per
cent, fourth in horses with 4 per cent, fifth in goats with 4 per cent,
and eighth in pork with 1.2 per cent.


LIVE STOCK

=Cattle.= As to be expected, the live stock industry came first,
requiring less labor. The early development was a natural one, cattle
roaming freely over the plains and multiplying. From these wild herds,
descendants of those brought over by early colonists, one could take
all he wished up to 10,000-12,000 head, or more with permission from
the Governor. But within the last 40 years much blooded stock has been
imported from Europe, and scientific breeding has been practised.
Twenty-five years ago the stock was estimated as worth $200,000,000.
Of great value to the industry was the founding of the Argentina Rural
Society in 1866; further, the discovery of the preservation of meat at
freezing, and the arrangements for the transport of chilled meat. The
numerous Stock Shows greatly contributed to improvements. Beginning at
Palermo, Buenos Aires, in 1858, these have for many years been held
there annually; others at various centres as at Rosario, Bahia Blanca,
Santa Fé, Concordia, etc.

On the pampas all over the country cattle and sheep are raised, though
areas are still open in less favorable or accessible districts. Further
increase especially of cattle will depend to some extent on the
improvement of more pasture lands by the cultivation of alfalfa and
other pasturage. The utility of alfalfa, both as improving the land for
wheat and as food for cattle was early recognized. Its introduction
was a boon to raisers of stock including horses, the alfalfa growing
on brackish lands formerly thought useless, as well as on wheat lands.
On the largest _estancias_ 20,000-50,000 acres are sometimes given to
artificial pasturage chiefly alfalfa. This valuable forage to which
20,000,000 acres are devoted gives 3-4 crops a year, 6-8 tons to the
acre.

A great advance in the quality of the stock naturally followed the
importation between 1901-14 of pedigreed animals, some at fancy
prices: $18,000 for a bull, several horses at $150,000 or more each;
altogether 13,000 cattle, 35,000 sheep, 6000 horses, 3000 pigs, worth
$14,000,000; in one year stock of various kinds worth $1,500,000. Most
of these came from England. Durhams, Shorthorns, are most favored, but
many Herefords are raised, Polled Angus, and other breeds. As dairy
interests are developing, Durhams are preferred as good milkers as well
as good meat. Of the 30,000,000 head of cattle existing before the War
(recent figures are 25,900,000), the largest number was in the Province
of Buenos Aires, about 7,000,000, with Santa Fé and Córdoba following;
millions more are scattered in the Provinces and Territories from the
extreme north almost to the extreme south. The export of live stock to
neighboring countries has in peace times amounted to $9,000,000. In
some districts drought has been a drawback to stock raising, yet it
has been difficult to convince the small farmers of the desirability
of artesian wells. Some persons have thought that as more land is
irrigated for farming the amount of stock would diminish; but Martinez,
the leading authority on such matters, states that 50,000 square
leagues will remain exclusively for breeding. This extent of territory
will support 40,000,000 horned cattle and 200,000,000 sheep, besides
the millions which would be raised in the cultivated districts on the
intensive principle. Patagonia has large regions suited only for stock
raising.

=Sheep= cannot be allowed on the high priced land, ruining the
alfalfa, so they are largely relegated to the outlying districts and
to Patagonia; but some high bred sheep are found on model _estancias_.
In the south the sheep are generally of Falkland and Romney Marsh
origin, crossed with merinos; they are large and fat, weighing about
150 pounds, some over 200. Some proprietors produce fleece of 9 pounds
weight. Thick, short wool is preferred, as frost on long wool prevents
the animals moving and so causes great mortality in winter. In the
north Lincolns are favored. The largest numbers of sheep are in Buenos
Aires, Mesopotamia, San Luis, and Patagonia. During the War wool was in
great demand, and in 1916-17, 350,000 bales were exported, two-thirds
to the United States; in 1917-18, 181,000 tons, one fourth of which was
washed. Diseases are practically unknown, and the increase sometimes
reaches 112 per cent. A mortality of 20 per cent is due to cold
weather. The number of sheep in 1915 was stated as 80,000,000; recent
figures are 43,300,000. Some of the sheep ranches are very large, one
in Santa Cruz having 100,000 acres fenced in; others have 50,000 acres
or more.

=Horses= number about 10,000,000; Argentine racers are of the highest
quality, as might be expected from the importation of high class
blooded stock. Hogs number 3,000,000, goats over 4,000,000.


PACKING HOUSES

The _frigorificos_ are famous; extremely important and prosperous.
British capital was early invested in this industry, both cattle
raising and packing houses. In 1907 American capital began to turn in
this direction. A Swift plant it is said made a profit of 35 per cent
in 1916, one of Wilson with smaller investment, 300 per cent. Some
plants are for canning also; besides there is meat extract, flour,
tongues, soup, dried beef, etc., and by-products such as hides, hoofs,
grease, etc. In 1919, 15 _frigorificos_ were in operation, three in
Buenos Aires, two in La Plata, three in Zarate, two in Santa Cruz,
and one each in Bahia Blanca, General Lopez, Santa Fé, Campana, and
Tierra del Fuego. Of these one belongs to Armour and three to Swift;
the former was expecting a daily capacity of 2500 cattle, 5000 sheep,
and 3000 hogs; others were to increase production. During the War the
demand for meat as we know increased. Normally three-fourths of the
amount exported is frozen beef, with mutton next in quantity; but
in 1917 for war purposes canned meat was nearly half in weight of
the frozen beef. The latter was valued at $77,000,000, the former at
$37,000,000, the total meat export at $137,000,000. Due to millions
spent on pedigreed stock, Argentine meat is of high quality.

In nine months of 1918 the export of stock products, $365,000,000, was
60 per cent of the total. Of meat export, frozen beef was more than
half and canned beef a quarter. Wool both dirty and washed was a large
item, also skins and fat. Cattle exported on the hoof, 143,000 head,
were worth $4,200,000. Butter was a large item and cheese considerable.
From 1908 to 1914 the increase had been in value 116 per cent. In four
months of 1919, 1,000,000 head of cattle were slaughtered, 1,300,000
sheep, and 55,000 hogs; a larger number than in any corresponding
period. The chief purchasers now are England, France, and Italy; but
exports to other countries are likely to develop so that increase in
stock raising is desirable and the prospect excellent. The cultivation
of alfalfa has increased the capacity of different lands 3-25 times. It
is the feeling on the part of some Argentines that the packing house
industry now dominated by foreigners should be rather in the hands of
natives; and it is hoped that by eliminating the excessive profits
of the _frigorificos_, both stock raiser and consumer may receive a
benefit.


AGRICULTURE

Of late years agricultural products in ordinary times have outstripped
stock raising in value, in some years of good crops being practically
double. While regarded as preëminently an agriculture country, hardly
more than one twelfth of the Argentine area is devoted to the industry
although over one-third is arable land, about 250,000,000 acres. Yet
the cultivated land has increased rapidly, being four times as large
in 1916 as in 1872. Thirty-five thousand square miles are annually
offered for sale. The average area of 62,000,000 acres of cultivated
land varies by 2,000,000-3,000,000 from year to year. Of such land
one-third is in the Province of Buenos Aires, one-fourth in Santa Fé,
one-fifth in Córdoba, with Pampa Central, Entre Rios, San Luis, and
other sections following in rapidly diminishing scale. While the area
of wheat and linseed doubled, that of corn quadrupled, and of oats
increased 30-fold; yet wheat is a long leader. The chief products
cultivated are wheat, corn, flax, oats, barley, alfalfa, sugar cane,
and the vine. Others of importance are tobacco, cotton, peanuts,
potatoes, vegetables, _yerba mate_, mandioca, fruits, etc. In 1916 over
2,000,000 tons of wheat, and nearly 3,000,000 of corn were exported
with some linseed, oats, and barley. In 1919-20 there was a decrease
in acreage sown to wheat and corn, but a slight increase in linseed. A
wheat crop of 5,000,000 tons is expected for 1921 with 3,200,000 for
export; of linseed 1,000,000 tons.

=Wheat.= Over 24,000,000 acres are devoted to its culture. Although the
soil is famed for its fertility the average yield is not very high,
about 11 bushels an acre. One writer gives 23 bushels as the average
in Mendoza with one property producing 50 bushels. The climate is
sufficiently agreeable, but in some years the rainfall is inadequate,
and occasionally a visitation of locusts seriously affects the crops,
destroying those in some districts; but the regions are so extensive
that all cannot be affected at the same time.

Extensive farming is beginning to give way to intensive, especially
near the city of Buenos Aires, where land values are now very high.
Argentine authorities state that in general a great improvement in
farming methods is imperative. Hundreds of large estates are owned
by Argentines, while British investments in cattle and agricultural
lands probably amount to $50,000,000. Only 30 per cent of the estates
are cultivated by their owners. Rentals of lease holders are usually
so short and uncertain that they suffer many embarrassments and lack
ambition to install desirable improvements, to plant orchards, etc.;
a situation which must be remedied to attain permanent prosperity.
The Argentine leaders realize that instruction is needed to show the
importance of varied cultivation, of rotation in crops, of including
some stock raising, and on other matters. Better credit arrangements
are suggested and other benefits, one of which has been noted in
connection with the countries farther north, the use of fibre plants to
make their own bags, thus saving a vast outlay for the importation of
such needed articles.

=Linseed= is an important and lucrative production although the fibre
is generally burned. This might be utilized for paper, and better
varieties may be introduced to advantage.

=Cotton=, it is thought, will soon be cultivated on a large scale. Much
progress has been made in the last decade, and nearly 40,000 acres are
now devoted to its culture, most of them in the Chaco, a few less than
5000 in Corrientes, Misiones, and Formosa. Regions in Salta, La Rioja,
Santiago del Estero, Jujuy, Tucumán, and Catamarca are also adapted
to its growth, but especially sections near the Paraná River and its
tributaries, altogether nearly 350,000 square miles. Capital and labor
are wanting, but as little machinery is required, less capital is
needed for this industry than for most others. Most of the region is
favorable for river transport. The cotton raised is of good quality,
classed as Strict good, Middling, or Fully good or Middling; fine and
silky, over an inch in length. Several varieties are cultivated. Land
is about $20 an acre. The production in 1920-21 is expected to be 75
per cent more than in 1919-20 and nearly seven times that of four years
ago. It is hoped that within a few years Argentina will provide cotton
for the great manufacturing nations; also that cotton gins will be
supplied, and factories for developing the by-products, oil, etc., as
also for the cotton itself. Cotton gins already exist in Resistencia
and several colonies, where 2000 tons have been seeded.

=Sugar= is an important production in the north, especially in the
Province of Tucumán, which contains about 85 per cent of the 250,000
acres devoted to sugar in 1913, 9 per cent being in Jujuy. The largest
amount ever produced was in 1914, about 336,000 tons. In 1913 over
3,000,000 tons of cane were ground to produce 275,000 tons of sugar,
an average of 8.8 per cent, in Jujuy a trifle more. Later production
fell, in 1917 to 80,000 tons, but rose in 1919 to 250,000, of which
Tucumán produced 178,000 from 2,500,000 tons of cane. The average yield
is under 12 tons per acre. Java cane has lately been introduced, which
will undoubtedly produce more than double the cane to the acre now
obtained from the native. Much more land is suited to its growth and
the country might be self-sustaining in this line, as it has been one
or two years and also have some to export. Of the 39 sugar mills and
refineries in the country, 27 are in Tucumán, the rest in Santa Fé,
Corrientes, Salta, Jujuy, Chaco, and the Capital. Two are refineries
only, these in Rosario and Buenos Aires; nine refine part of their
production, the rest are sugar mills only. The greatest capacity of the
mills is 417,000 tons, of the refineries 150,400 tons. About 15,000
persons are employed in the industry, at some seasons over 40,000.
Several foreign companies are engaged and several local, which have
paid good dividends. In the entire industry about $100,000,000 is
invested, of which Americans are said to have 10 per cent. The erection
of two sugar beet factories is considered.

=Rice= culture, like that of cotton, has been developed in the last
decade, as yet in few sections although most of the country north of
Buenos Aires has many marshy tracts suitable to its growth. Of 25,000
acres planted in 1918-19 Tucumán had 13,000, Misiones one-fourth as
much, Salta, Jujuy, and elsewhere the remainder. In Tucumán the harvest
is most plentiful, about 1250 pounds to the acre. More than three times
the area should be planted to supply the country, and a superfluity
could be exported.

=Tobacco= has long been cultivated though not largely, 40,000 acres in
1895; but there was a gradual decrease until recently, when production
has been augmented almost to earlier figures. Corrientes, Salta, and
Misiones seem best adapted to its growth. In 1917 over 2,000,000 pounds
were exported worth $500,000. A large and good use for nicotine is for
pastoral and agricultural washes.

=Vineyards.= The climate and soil of Catamarca, Rioja, San Juan,
Mendoza, and Neuquen are excellently adapted for grape culture, and
many varieties flourish of native and European grapes, but the great
rise of freight rates interferes with sending the fruit to the Buenos
Aires market for consumption. As a pound of grapes in Buenos Aires
costs 15 times as much as the fruit grower receives, the fruit has
become a luxury for the rich. The making of wine is therefore the chief
industry of Mendoza, where 1500 _bodegas_ or wine cellars of varying
style and capacity exist, some, models of their kind. Some 15 of these
have cost about $500,000 each, but the more common type numbering 1000
have a value of $50,000-$100,000. An excellent quality of light wine
is made for consumption in the country. The Province of San Juan also
contains extensive vineyards and expensive _bodegas_. At least 3000
establishments are yearly in operation. About 1¹⁄₂ billion pounds of
grapes are used to obtain 500 million litres of wine (a 68 per cent
return) of which 400,000,000 come from Mendoza. A great future for the
industry is expected unless prohibition becomes world wide.

=Fruit= of semi-tropical and temperate zones is increasingly
cultivated, all varieties in the various sections, but in insufficient
quantities. In Chubut apples, pears, plums, cherries, and ordinary
berries of the best quality are raised; but much fruit is imported from
Chile with some from Europe and the United States.


FORESTRY

The development of forestry is slight and the importation of timber for
building and furniture is large; yet the country contains all that is
needed, and by planting under favorable conditions might have much more.

=Quebracho.= In the subtropical country, which is the entire north
aside from the mountains, the most valuable wood is the quebracho, of
two varieties, red and white. The tree takes 90-100 years to reach
maturity, with a height of 80 feet and a diameter of about 2¹⁄₂ feet.
Logs are exported for the extraction of tannin, though tannin is
extracted locally in increasing quantities, and shipped. The wood is
much employed by the railways for sleepers as it does not decay from
standing in water. Lately, owing to shortage of coal much has been
used in locomotives for fuel, and some for manufactories. Formerly
Great Britain was the principal purchaser, but of late the United
States has taken the most. In 1915 over $15,000,000 worth of extract
was exported and $2,500,000 of logs. Quebracho, break-axe, is of course
extremely hard, but there are other hard woods like cedar, and many
varieties of valuable timber.

=Yerba mate= is cultivated in many places, especially in Misiones; the
wild growing trees of the forest furnish a still greater supply of the
leaves. From these a drink is made which outside of the large cities is
in this part of the continent far more popular than tea or coffee.

The northern forests contain several varieties of rubber trees, but
none are exploited. Along the Andes are forests, the principal ones
from Lake Nahuel Huapi south. Those in this region are believed to be
worth $10,000,000,000. The variety of native woods both hard and soft
is large; and trees of other countries have been introduced. Thousands
of eucalyptus trees have been planted on many _estancias_, serving a
useful purpose in many ways, beside being an ornament on the level
plain.


MINING

In the description of the Provinces, mention has been made of the
minerals existing in various localities, but up to the present time
the working of these has been slight. Tungsten, gold, copper, wolfram,
borax, and petroleum have received the most attention, but few are
those who have realized any considerable profits. Within ten years the
exports have amounted to hardly more than $3,000,000.

=Gold= is mined in small quantities in various places; in southern
Patagonia it is gathered from the coast sands after a heavy sea
storm. In Neuquen and Catamarca are workings of fair size. The copper
deposits of the Andes are difficult of access but may be developed
later. Silver was mined formerly, but the ore was of moderate grade and
the work was discontinued. A reverberatory smelter has recently been
installed for the mines in Rioja.

=Coal= deposits exist in Mendoza, San Juan, Neuquen, Chubut, and Tierra
del Fuego. The coal is not very good but will help in view of the
shortage and high prices. Work is being done in San Juan and Mendoza.
It is proposed to open mines among large deposits in Chubut, though the
coal will have to be carried 180 miles to a railway.

The =tungsten= industry is active; 900 tons have been mined in one
year, about one-seventh of the world production. Exploitation of
marble, wolfram, and mica in Córdoba and San Luis is showing good
results.

=Manganese= is exported in increasing quantity chiefly from the desert
section of Santiago del Estero.

Large =saline= deposits exist, some in basins with no outlet, in the
central Provinces, some of volcanic type on the Puna of Atacama, others
near the ocean not far from Bahia Blanca. Some of them have been
exploited. Importation of salt has diminished and home production is
expected shortly to suffice for local needs.

=Petroleum= is now exciting the greatest interest. Oil is known to
exist in four regions with others reported, but only one has been
thoroughly tested, that at Comodoro Rivadavia. Borings carried on here
by the Government struck oil at a depth of about 1800 feet in 1907.
In 1910, 12,000 acres were reserved for Government exploitation which
has since been carried on. The place is near the coast about 850 miles
south of Buenos Aires. Development has been rather slow, but in 1916,
25 wells had been sunk and 21 were in active production of about 14
tons each per day. There were four steel tanks and other storage space,
in all about 26,000 cubic meters, one such of this oil equalling .93
metric ton. In 1917, 36 wells were in production and 19 being bored.
In 1918 about 1,250,000 barrels were produced. Tank steamers are
provided, and storage tanks in Buenos Aires. An oil tank is begun in
Rosario. Others are to be constructed in Buenos Aires, Bahia Blanca,
Puerto Militar, Santa Fé, and Mar del Plata. The oil is heavy with an
asphalt base; distilled, it yields 1.5-3.5 per cent of naphtha and
gasoline, 15-19 per cent of illuminating oils, and 77-85 per cent of
lubricating oils, fuel, and coke. Heavier than the better grades of
United States oil, it has been used almost entirely as fuel, though it
is said that it will distil readily. This will undoubtedly be its chief
usefulness, to serve instead of coal. It is employed by a number of
factories. A new Government well, 1921, was producing 34,000 barrels
a day, and prospects are of the best. Millions have been appropriated
for tank steamers, machinery, and for intensive development of the oil
fields. The price rose from about $10 a ton in 1916 to $40 in December,
1917. Government control will probably continue, especially because the
oil is likely to be used by the navy.

A few private companies are operating outside the restricted area,
using 12-inch tubes, while the Government has used smaller. One Company
with a capital of $2,000,000 has with other equipment 4.3 miles of
railway connecting with the Government railway to the port, also two
miles of pipe line. Many of the _frigorificos_ use oil, mostly Mexican.
The West India Oil Company imports from the United States or Mexico,
mainly for refining.

The other fields are the Salta-Jujuy, the Cacheuta, a few miles south
of Mendoza, and the Mendoza-Neuquen field, 700 miles southwest of
Buenos Aires. In these fields the oil has a paraffine base, a sample
from Jujuy showing 5 per cent of light oil, 30 per cent of kerosene,
and 52 of lubricating oil; a grade equal to that of Pennsylvania or
Ohio. One such field in Neuquen justifying immediate development is
favorably located 824 miles from Buenos Aires near the Ferrocarril del
Sud, which will provide special cars and tariff, so that speedy results
are hoped for.


INDUSTRIES INCLUDING MANUFACTURES

While Argentina is primarily an agricultural and pastoral country and
is likely so to continue, a fair amount of capital is invested in
manufacturing and in other commercial projects, some of the capital
European. The largest sum is invested in Light and Power Companies;
for all cities of any size have electric lighting and many, electric
traction. About $128,000,000 have been thus invested; in packing
houses 40 millions, flour mills 7; in sugar refineries 50, wine making
78, foundries and metal works 25, dairies, etc., 43, tannin extract,
etc., 33, lithographing and printing 12, breweries 14, construction
companies 11, these all millions. Other companies with investments of
5-10 millions are shoes, saw mills, jute and cotton sacks, carpentry,
painting and horse-shoeing together; liquors, tanneries, cotton and
woolen mills, furniture, trunks and tapestries, leather goods, brick
kilns, clothing, wagons and carriages, ice and aërated waters, ore
smelting, grain elevators; many more with investment of 1-5 millions,
besides a total of 47 million in still smaller companies.

Of other lines, in 1916 there were 71 telephone companies, capital
$15,000,000; 143 banks, capital about $500,000,000, employing 10,000
persons; 85 insurance companies. The companies of all kinds generally
are on a sound and paying basis, in spite of high cost of fuel and
power. The two leading department stores in Buenos Aires, equal to our
best in character, are both British owned; there are many other shops
of every kind of the highest class.

The tramways and subway of Buenos Aires are noteworthy. The tramway
system has been called the best in the world. There are 500 miles of
lines, carrying about 400,000,000 passengers yearly. Packing like
cattle is not allowed, the number of persons per car being strictly
limited. The subway 8.7 miles long carries 2,500,000 with a splendid
system and fine service including one for freight. Extensions were
postponed on account of the War. The water supply, taken from the
river, and the drainage system are of the highest character. A revenue
of $7,000,000 is received by the Government.

=Dairy Products.= The dairy industry is of quite recent development;
butter formerly imported in quantity is now becoming an article of
export. From 1914 to 1918 the production of cheese increased 277 per
cent, of butter 162 per cent. Three thousand existing creameries, most
of which are in the Provinces near the Capital, in 1918 made 50,000,000
pounds of butter, 40 million of cheese, and 15 of casein. More than
half the butter and some cheese was exported.

The growth of other industries has caused a great falling off in many
imports; of preserves 62 per cent, of ham 96, preserved vegetables 87,
beer 98, cider 55, common wine 85. Other things as chocolate, macaroni,
fruit crackers, shoes, and cloth have decreased 50 per cent. Of fideos
enough is produced for home use, and to export in 1918 over 2,000,000
pounds.

=Furniture.= The construction of furniture has attained large
proportions, a great part of what is sold in the country being made
in Buenos Aires though often bearing foreign names. Wood is imported,
even $25,000,000 worth in one year, while the finest woods grow in the
country. Of 305 saw mills, 134, the most important, are in the City and
Province of Buenos Aires far from the forests. The small mills near the
woods merely chop off the branches for transport or prepare firewood.
Cut wood from Buenos Aires is returned to Misiones and Corrientes for
construction, a terrible waste. A change has begun; the mills near the
forests are being enlarged and equipped with machinery, so an evolution
of the industry is under way.

=Paper.= Eight paper factories with capital of $8,000,000 employing
1500 persons produce 40,000,000 pounds of paper, 28,000,000 for
packing, the rest for newspapers, books, and other things. A great
quantity is still imported, formerly from Germany, lately much from
the United States. The paper is made of rags, shreds of paper, and
pasteboard, the consumption of pulp being small, hardly 200,000 pounds.
One factory at Barranqueras, on the Paraná River in the Chaco, employs
a kind of bog grass to make three tons of straw board a day.

=Flour.= The flour mills are of great importance, supplying in 1919,
850,000 tons of flour for home use and some for export. In 1918,
176,445 tons were exported. With fewer mills than formerly, the 400
existing are more productive. The 79 in Buenos Aires, 47 in Santa Fé,
44 in Entre Rios, and 26 in Córdoba produce 95 per cent of the total.
Sixty-one per cent of the mills are Argentine owned. One hundred and
fifty two are steam mills, 156 hydraulic. They have 25,000-30,000 horse
power and employ 10,000 persons. About $34,000,000 are invested in the
industry while the production is $100,000,000. However the farmers have
trouble, as the fee for hauling grain has increased 60 per cent, and
cartage 25 miles to a station is as much as the freight from Buenos
Aires to New York. A flour mill in Mendoza and in other western cities
of the wheat belt would undoubtedly pay handsomely, saving expensive
transport. A new flour mill at La Plata to cost $500,000 is to turn out
a quantity sufficient to fill 1000 bags a day.

=Beer= is made in 25 factories for the consumption of the entire
country, a quantity of 80,000,000 litres worth $12,000,000. To produce
the 7000 horse power needed, thousands of tons of coal, wood, and
petroleum are consumed.

=Other Manufactures.= Factories making shoes, said to be of the best
quality, underwear, umbrellas, acids, perfume, and many other articles
are found. Vegetable oils are extracted from peanuts, linseed, rape,
cotton seed, and other articles, in establishments in Buenos Aires and
Santa Fé.

Altogether there are about 50,000 industrial establishments with a
capital of $800,000,000 using 678,000 horse power, employing 500,000
persons, consuming nearly $500,000,000 worth of material, and
producing nearly $1,000,000,000 worth of goods. About half of these are
extractive or manufacturing. One-third belong to the Argentines who
supply 18.67 per cent of the capital.

=Developing Industries.= The Government is interested in the
establishment of other factories and construction work; a cement
factory in Buenos Aires to make 300,000 tons per annum is considered,
the Government now using 700,000 tons a year. Ship building is
encouraged; a steel ship of 1250 tons was launched at Riachuelo;
yards are to be constructed at the port of Carmen de Patagones on the
Rio Negro by an Argentine company with capital of 50,000,000 pesos.
Some armored cement oil-tanks of 6000 tons capacity are to be made
for Comodoro Rivadavia, and a depot for petroleum and naphtha at the
port of Mar del Plata. Also for the former, port works, a breakwater,
a mole for loading, and houses for workmen at a cost of 17,000,000
pesos. Sanitary works for 16 towns at a cost of 9,800,000 pesos are
provided for, 22,000,000 pesos are to be spent in three years for
machinery and tank steamers to develop the Government oil wells, the
exploitation of which will cost 45,000,000 pesos; present production is
yet insufficient.

A Spanish Argentine Corporation with a capital of $10,000,000 is to
build two large _frigorificos_ at Buenos Aires and Santa Fé, with
steamers to transport beef to Spain. Another _frigorifico_ is designed
for Puerto Deseado in the south to coöperate with local ranchmen.

The lack of combustibles has for many years been a great and
embarrassing problem, an early solution of which is now hoped for.
Importation of coal from England and of petroleum from the United
States has been carried on at great cost. In five years, 1912-16,
$190,000,000 was spent for such articles, while as they say petroleum
ran into the sea and wood rotted at the railway stations. In 1919 coal
was $26 a ton. The forests of the north have an inexhaustible supply
of wood; the charcoal industry is quite well developed in the Chaco,
north Santa Fé, Tucumán, and Santiago. Many woods are appropriate,
but high freights have impeded their use. A large deposit of coal is
recently reported in Tucumán. A new railway to the firewood region of
Santiago del Estero will save a 100 mile haul. A splendid source of
electric power are the Iguassú Falls with 275 cascades, the greatest
with a height of 213 feet. Investigation shows that 500,000 horse
power is easily available, one half each for Brazil and Argentina.
Ten thousand horse power would be sent 800 miles to Buenos Aires, the
rest used in Misiones, Corrientes, and Entre Rios. From the Salto
Grande Falls on the Uruguay 50,000 horse power might be available for
Argentina and Uruguay each.


INVESTMENTS

The opportunity for investments for persons with capital is evidently
large. A great deal of money is necessary for stock raising, though
less in the far south. Agriculture, especially the raising of cotton,
rice, or tobacco might be attractive; the sugar industry may be
extended. Factories of various kind may be established by experts.
Persons speaking Spanish fluently, capable of acting as foremen
or superintendents of establishments of various kinds, might find
employment. The minerals with the exception of petroleum are less
accessible than in some other countries. An American department store
in Buenos Aires is desirable, and one might succeed in Rosario.




                            CHAPTER XXXVIII

         PARAGUAY: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.


Paraguay has been called the most romantic of all the South American
countries, from the point of view of nature and history both. It is
a land of “dolce far niente” so far as agreeableness is concerned, a
land where nature is lavish and necessities are few; on the other hand
a region where the climate is not enervating, where energetic action
and enterprise are not altogether lacking, and where these find ample
reward. One of the two inland countries of the continent, having always
been such, she has no grievance on this account. In fact, being in the
heart of South America and almost surrounded by rivers, Paraguay has
in many ways a most favorable location for inland commerce, which will
surely bring her prosperity.


AREA, POPULATION, BOUNDARY

=Area.= Paraguay, generally called eighth in size of the South American
Republics, has an area of about 165,000 square miles, more or less,
according to the determination of the boundary dispute with Bolivia.
One hundred and ninety-six thousand miles is claimed by the Paraguay
Government. The more settled part of the country east of the Paraguay
River covers about 65,000 square miles; the section west, which on most
maps is given to Paraguay, though claimed by Bolivia, is more uncertain
in area, but may have 100,000 or more square miles. With the other
neighboring countries the boundaries have been definitely determined.

=Population.= As in several other countries, the population of Paraguay
can be estimated only, since no exact census has ever been taken.
Approximate figures given by different writers are 800,000-1,100,000.

=Boundary.= Paraguay has Brazil on the north and east; Argentina,
too, is east, is exclusively on the south, and partly on the west;
while Bolivia is west and north of the Chaco, the dividing line being
uncertain.

The greater part of the way rivers form the boundary line. The Paraná
separates Paraguay proper from Argentina on the south, and on the east
as far as the Iguassú River; north of the latter river Brazil is on
the opposite shore of the Paraná to beyond the Sete Quedas, or Falls
of La Guayra (higher up the Paraná is wholly in Brazil); the boundary
line then goes west and north along the watershed to the source of a
branch of the Rio Apá, which with that river it follows west down to
the Paraguay. Above the point of junction the Paraguay River has Brazil
on the east bank and for some distance the Paraguayan Chaco on the
west. Below the Apá, the Paraguay divides the country into sections,
as far as the Pilcomayo River, on the southwest of which is Argentina.
Below, along the Paraguay River to the Alto Paraná, Argentina is on the
west. The Chaco section may be said at present to be in the practical
possession of Paraguay, so far as it is occupied by any one except
savages.


HISTORY

It seems extraordinary that here in the centre of the South American
continent, 1000 miles from the sea, is one of the oldest cities, the
capital of the Republic, Asunción, founded a full century earlier than
Providence (1636), and 85 years before the landing of the Pilgrims at
Plymouth. Juan de Ayolas, sent by Pedro de Mendoza after the first
settlement at Buenos Aires (not long after destroyed), in 1536
established here a colony; then sailing up the river to a place he
called Candelaria, with a few followers he boldly struck off through
the forest towards Peru. Irala, left behind to await his return, proved
faithful; but after long waiting in vain, being obliged twice to go
to Asunción for provisions, he learned at last that Ayolas, after a
successful journey to Alto Peru, had arrived in his absence and had
then been slaughtered by savages: a tragic sequel of heroism, fitly
to be compared to that of Captain Scott, his achievement of the South
Pole, followed by the disastrous return journey.

Irala, later becoming Governor, was one of the few _Conquistadores_,
after many vicissitudes, to die peacefully in 1557. Until 1776,
Asunción was the chief Spanish city of the eastern slope of South
America. Buenos Aires then became the seat of a Viceroy, in that year
appointed.

In 1810, after expelling the Viceroy, the Argentines sent up a small
army, expecting Paraguay also to revolt, but she declined. However, in
1811 the Paraguayans expelled the Spanish Governor; in 1814 a despotism
under Dr. J. G. R. Francia came into being. At his death in 1840, his
nephew, Carlos Antonio Lopez, succeeded to power, followed in 1862
by his son, Francisco Lopez. This young man, who had visited Europe,
soon organized a well drilled army with the idea of becoming a second
Napoleon, in South America. His opportunity came when Uruguay appealed
for his assistance against the Portuguese of Brazil. Crossing Argentine
territory to invade Brazil, in spite of the refusal of Argentina to
give permission, Lopez became involved in war with both of the larger
countries and later with Uruguay. Although so small, Paraguay might
have held her own against one of the larger Republics, but after
making a desperate struggle for nearly six years, during which most of
the male citizens were killed, boys of 12-15 forced to fight, women
compelled to work in the fields and to act as supply bearers, with
cruel persecution from the Dictator, the army was utterly wiped out,
and Lopez killed in 1870. Three-fourths of the population had perished.

Not yet has the country recovered its previous condition and numbers,
several revolutions having interrupted its growth; the last in 1911-12.
Curiously, the people pride themselves on being one of the most
homogeneous of the South American Republics and the best fighters.


GOVERNMENT

The Government organized in 1870 is of the usual form with three
branches. The President, elected for four years, is not again eligible
for eight years. There are two Houses of Congress, a Senate of 13
members and a Chamber of 26 Deputies. A Permanent Committee of Congress
sits during the interval between sessions, both to provide for
emergencies and to prevent usurpation by the Executive. The Judiciary
has a Supreme Court, two Superior Courts of Appeal, Civil and Criminal
Courts with Lower Courts and Justices.

The section west of the River is under military command; the part east
has 23 electoral districts with subdivisions. As in Argentina, all
persons born in the Republic are deemed citizens.

There are said to be 20 Districts, some of which along the Paraguay
from the north are Concepción, San Pedro, Villeta, Pilar; farther east
Caraguatay, Yhú, Paraguarí, Guaira, Guindí, Caazapá, San Ignacio, and
Encarnación. All have capitals of the same name except Guaira, the
capital of which is Villa Rica. Data as to area and population of these
is lacking.

An unusual official is a Defender General of the Poor, of Minors, and
of Absentees.


POPULATION

The Paraguayans claim that their people are nearly pure Spanish,
with slight admixture of Guaraní, this being the most numerous,
intelligent, and peaceful of the Indian tribes of that region.
Preserving the spirit of the invaders, they are an unusually hardy
race for one on the edge of the tropics. While Spanish blood and
culture largely predominate in the capital, the population of the rural
districts is more primitive in character.

The number of the people is uncertain, but may reach 1,000,000,
including 50,000, some say 100,000 wild Indians belonging to several
tribes, chiefly in the Chaco. In the eastern section of Paraguay proper
there are probably not over 25,000 persons, most of the population
being east and south of the mountainous section and especially near the
Paraguay River. They say that there are no idle or poor in the country,
although many may be seen barefoot in Asunción; as the simple life is
popular, little clothing is needed, and food is abundant. (Of late
the standard of living has been rising.) For this reason the country
people generally lack energy and ambition. Most of the inhabitants are
engaged in agriculture, some also in pastoral pursuits. The native
women are called superior to the men. Burdens thrown upon them during
their great war made them resourceful and independent. The men as a
rule are peaceful unless they have been drinking _caña_, which is now
forbidden by some large employers of labor. In the section east of the
mountains are uncivilized Indians of the principal tribes, one timid
and retiring. Some of the Cainguaes at times work in the _yerbales_.
The Indians in the Chaco are of a number of different tribes of a low
order of civilization, who are mostly nomads, and live by the chase and
fishing. A few work at _estancias_ spasmodically, never for long.


EDUCATION

Education is backward, though the percentage of illiteracy, if about
60 as is said, may be less than in some of the other Republics. With
the scattered population, chiefly in the country and in small towns,
to provide educational facilities for all is impossible. There is
a University in Asunción with five Faculties; secondary schools in
Asunción, Pilar, and Villa Rica; and six Normal Schools. A School of
Commerce with night and day classes does good work in the capital,
where the _Instituto Paraguayo_ is of important cultural value,
recently receiving a library of 2000 volumes in English from the
Carnegie Peace Foundation. The _Banco Agricola_ has done much for
the diffusion of general education as well as more specifically in
agriculture. As in other countries, some young men go abroad to study,
either on Government scholarships or with private means.


PRESS, RELIGION, ETC.

=Press.= The capital is well supplied with newspapers and periodicals;
little journalism exists elsewhere.

=Religion.= The religion is Roman Catholic, but there is complete
toleration for other creeds. An important work has been carried on
in the Chaco by W. Barbrooke Grubb and others of the English Church.
Schools have been established, with an industrial and intellectual as
well as a religious centre. Civil marriage alone is legal.

Telegraphic communication with the outside world is carried on by
way of Posadas and Corrientes, but frequent interruptions in service
have made it unsatisfactory. There are over 2000 miles of wire in the
interior. Wireless is used by the Government to communicate with the
garrison towns. There are stations at the Capital, Concepción, and
Encarnación. In 1919 there was no Telephone service in Asunción, as
the station had been destroyed by fire; but such service existed in
Concepción, Villa Rica, and Paraguarí.

=Money.= The Money in use is paper, the standard, a gold peso equal
to the Argentine, 96.5 cents. The paper peso varies in value, in 1920
being worth five cents. The value of exports and imports is declared in
gold, an Exchange Bureau supplying local money at the actual rate. Thus
fluctuations affecting commerce have ceased and business has improved.

=The Metric System= of weights and measures is usual.




                             CHAPTER XXXIX

                  PARAGUAY: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS


=Highlands.= The physical features of the country are simple, the
Paraguay River dividing it into sections: the Gran Chaco, to some
extent unexplored in detail, and the Oriental. The latter, Paraguay
proper, is traversed from north to south by a broad irregular belt of
highlands, nowhere much above 2200 feet. The angle of the ridges is
sharper on the west, the country undulating in gradual slopes from
the foot. On the east, spurs run out enclosing deep valleys, and the
country has more of an upland character. The streams flowing west to
the Paraguay are smoother and to some extent navigable, while those
flowing east and southeast to the Alto Paraná are interrupted by rapids
and falls.

=Plains.= In the southwest section between the Paraguay and the
Paraná there is considerable marshy country, part draining into the
Ypoa lagoon; other marshy lowlands occur along the Paraguay River.
All these could be drained at moderate expense, thus providing much
rich and accessible land. The western section, containing most of
the inhabitants, has an average altitude of about 600 feet. In the
more settled parts of the west and south are extensive grassy and
open lands, and hills covered with forests, while clumps of trees are
frequent in the lowlands. The soil of the western part is rather dry
and sandy except near the rivers and marshes. It is extremely rich,
of a reddish color due to impregnated iron. Above is a thick layer of
humus, formed by centuries of decaying vegetation. In places the soil
is clayey, or has a substratum of clay beneath. This is true of most
of the forest region, and of the swampy section. Of Paraguay proper the
western part is 25 per cent forest, the middle 66, the eastern 95 per
cent.

The Gran Chaco, though called a plain, and flat near the rivers, is
somewhat hilly. Rarely, a freshet on the Paraguay or the Pilcomayo
transforms the neighboring country into great lakes, these sometimes
extending 20 or 30 miles back from the river. Along the river banks
is usually a narrow strip of forest, from which the soil and trees
occasionally crumble into the stream, especially along the Pilcomayo,
thus impeding navigation on that river. Farther back are open plains
dotted with groups of palms, and some stretches of forest. The average
altitude is 426 feet. Little is known of the country north of 22°.

=Rivers.= The country is greatly favored with rivers. The Paraguay,
1800 miles long, rises in Matto Grosso, Brazil, near the source of the
Tapajós, a branch of the Amazon. From the east the Paraguay receives
several important streams. Below the Apá, the northern boundary, two
tributaries, the Aquidabán and the Ipané, are nearly 200 miles long.
More important is the navigable Jejui (all these north of Asunción);
still more the Tebicuary, entering the Paraguay far south of Asunción
by two mouths, one over one-half, the other over one-third of a mile
in width. The Alto Paraná is different, a more rocky and a shallower
stream than the Paraguay. From that country it has many affluents, the
Monday over 100 miles long with great cataracts in the lower part but
navigable above. The Paraná River, 2000 miles long to the mouth of the
Uruguay, rises in Goyaz, 665 miles above the Sete Quedas. It is 100
miles more to the Iguassú, then 492 to Corrientes, and 676 beyond to
the beginning of the La Plata.

The rivers of the Chaco are more sluggish. Even the Pilcomayo is
untraced in its middle course where vast swamps impede passage by
land or water. The river is navigable in its lower reaches for a
considerable distance, and the upper part is well known. The River
Confuso is a smaller stream of similar character. Paraguay has few
lakes save those swampy in character, but one, Lake Ipacaraí, east of
Asunción, is a popular beauty spot, with pleasure and health resorts.
Lake Ypoa is larger and both are navigable by boats of slight draft.


CLIMATE

The climate of the country is called ideal, that of course depending on
one’s taste. In general it is subtropical with two seasons, the summer
temperature averaging 81°, the winter 71° or less. The rainfall is
fairly distributed, the most in the hot months, December to February.
Sudden changes of weather occur; from hot, humid north winds, or
cooling south winds from the Argentine plains. In places the winter
temperature may fall to 33°-42°, even with frost, but not near the
Paraná River where there are fogs. In summer the maximum temperature at
Asunción occasionally reaches 100° or more, and there are 60 inches of
rain; more farther east, but less in the Chaco.




                              CHAPTER XL

                PARAGUAY: THE CAPITAL AND OTHER CITIES


THE CAPITAL

=Asunción=, the population of which is variously given as 80, 90, 100,
120, and 125 thousand, is a quiet town on the Paraguay at a point where
the bank rises to a considerable height, affording good drainage, and
from the palace a pleasing view. An English writer calls the city the
nicest, cleanest town above Buenos Aires. Although 1000 miles from
the ocean, it has an altitude of but 203 feet above sea level. The
classical building of the Custom House stands by the river side. The
palace above, built by the Dictator, Francisco Lopez, as a residence,
is used for the offices of the President and his Cabinet. Other
important buildings are a House of Congress, a Cathedral, a Museum
of Fine Arts containing a Murillo, and a National Library with many
priceless documents.

The several hotels are fairly comfortable if not exactly modern in
character. There are electric lights and electric car service. The
streets at last accounts were poorly paved with rough cobble stones,
but some automobiles are in use. The city is steadily advancing in
commercial importance, 80 per cent of the imports and 40 of the exports
passing through its Custom House.


OTHER CITIES

From the meagre information available, to describe individually
the various States or Districts of Paraguay is impossible, as also
unimportant, the sparse settlements having little marked variation.
Mention will be made instead of the principal towns, few of which have
a population of 15,000.

=Villa Rica=, population perhaps 30,000, 40 hours from Buenos Aires and
93 miles from Asunción, is the second city of Paraguay. Situated in
a rich agricultural district, it is destined to a sound if not rapid
development. It will become important later as a railway junction; for
the railway designed to cross the Paraná River into Brazil just above
the entrance of the Iguassú, passing the great Falls, will connect with
the São Paulo-Rio Grande Railway at União de Victoria and go on to São
Francisco, called the best port in Brazil south of Santos. However,
the date of this road’s completion is uncertain. The actual railway
junction is at Borja, a little south of Villa Rica, but the latter
place will receive the benefit. All of the towns are what we might call
large country villages.

=Villa Concepción=, 130 miles up the river from Asunción, the third
if not the second city of commercial importance, with a population
given as 16, 25, also 30 thousand, is a port for _yerba_, cattle,
quebracho, and sugar. The town of one story houses has better streets
than those of the Capital, and a comfortable inn. It may now boast of
50 automobiles, instead of the one stylish turnout noted years ago by
Colonel Roosevelt.

=Villa Encarnación=, population 15,000 or less, opposite Posadas, is
another city of commercial importance, as the junction of the railway
ferry and of river transportation. Here there is a change of river
boats, those of lighter draft being required for the Upper Paraná.

=Other towns= are Paraguarí on the railway between Asunción and Villa
Rica, Carapeguá near by, San Pedro north of Asunción, half way to
Concepción, Luque, nine miles south of the Capital, and Pilar, well
down the river. Villa Hayes is one of several centres of commercial
importance in the Chaco.

=San Bernadino= on Lake Ipacaraí, two hours from Asunción, is a
pleasure resort favored in winter by citizens of Buenos Aires. A
large modern hotel caters both to fashionables and to sufferers from
tuberculosis.


TRANSPORTATION

=River= transportation in Paraguay is of the greatest importance. Large
comfortable steamers give good service three times a week between
Buenos Aires and Asunción, making the trip upward in four or five days,
down stream in three. Above Asunción boats of suitable size and draft
give poorer service on the Paraguay. Several lines run up 765 miles to
Corumbá in Brazil, a three or four days journey, calling on the way at
several Paraguayan ports, Concepción, 250 miles, San Salvador, Puerto
Max, and others. Fares are high, especially down stream, apparently
because one is obliged to go. Some ports on the Paraguay and on a few
branches above and below the capital are visited by local steamers.
Barges can be floated on over 2000 miles of internal rivers. _Chatas_
(which are poled along) drawing 2-4 feet of water carry 10-100 tons;
such boats on the Paraguay may carry 600 tons.

On the Alto Paraná, as previously stated, there is semi-weekly service
from Corrientes to Encarnación and Posadas. Above, three times a week
steamers, with many calls on both sides of the river, make a four days’
journey to the Iguassú and beyond to Puerto Mendez, from which point a
short railway in Brazil passes around La Guayra Falls.

=Railway= facilities are increasing, construction though not so easy
as on the Argentine plains being less difficult than in general in
the other Republics. Nearly 475 miles of track are in operation,
200 of them privately owned. The main line of the Central Paraguay,
Encarnación to Asunción, 230 miles, has first class equipment with
through sleepers to Buenos Aires, 966 miles from Asunción. Several
short lines of very narrow gauge, about 30 inches, transport quebracho
and timber from the interior to river ports, 152 miles of these in the
Chaco. A railway of 40 miles serves sugar mills back of Concepción. If
the cross lines proposed to Brazil and Bolivia (of one of the former
some miles are in operation) are constructed within the decade, a
rapid development will ensue. Cart roads are few and very poor. In wet
weather six or eight oxen are required for a cart. Two-wheeled vehicles
are much employed.




                              CHAPTER XLI

                  PARAGUAY: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES


The chief resources of Paraguay at present and for an indefinite future
are pastoral pursuits, forestry, and agriculture.


FORESTRY

=Quebracho.= The exploitation of quebracho is an important source of
wealth. On the estimated 27,000,000 acres of forest land in the country
are valuable woods of many varieties, among which the quebracho is
preëminent. The first factory in South America for the extraction of
tannin from this wood was established in 1889 at Puerto Galileo in
the Chaco. The Forestal Company, British owned, was a leader in the
development of the industry in which one or more American companies
have lately become interested. Large sums have been invested,
$15,000,000 it is said by a single company. Most of the properties are
located in the Chaco, which has great tracts of land distributed to
individuals or companies, some of whom have never seen their holdings.
One American company has 1,500,000 acres.

Unlike most other trees from which tannin is derived, the tannin is not
in the bark, but it permeates the entire wood. Formerly the logs were
exported, but this is now forbidden. The International Products Company
has a mill at Puerto Pinasco on the west bank of the Paraguay above San
Salvador, and 300 miles north of San Antonio. The wood is remarkably
rich in tannin which runs 20 per cent. The wood must be cut and then
ground to extract the substance, the refuse wood running the engines.
One tree weighing a ton will produce 600 pounds of extract. By means
of three rotary evaporators, the extract may be solidified so as to
be packed in bags, 75-100 tons of the solid in 24 hours. The Company,
owning enough wood to produce 450,000 tons, is equipped to supply
30,000 tons of the extract annually. The trees are hauled by oxen to a
light railway which brings them to the port, the railway being extended
as the felling of the trees goes farther inland. Twenty million pounds
of extract were exported from Paraguay in 1919.

=Other Wood.= Several other trees have bark which is used for tannin,
among them the _curupay_, said to have 28 per cent in the bark, which
is used in Paraguay. This is one of the strongest woods in the world,
like quebracho much wanted for railway ties. The _urunday_ is a wood so
durable that posts of it in damp ground have lasted 200 years. Other
woods resemble the hickory, the English walnut, the soft pine, etc.
The _ivara-pitak_ is a fine all around timber, light, tough, and hard,
an unusual combination. Lignum vitae (_palo santo_), almost as hard as
quebracho, cedar, and bitter orange abound, the leaves of the latter
used for essential oil, chiefly exported to France. The hard woods are
useful for railways, for cabinet making, and fine furniture; also for
firewood on account of the enormous price of coal. From the proximity
of the forests to the coalless region of Argentina and its plains,
mostly treeless or supporting light woods only, like eucalyptus and
poplar, forestry is certain to have in Paraguay a speedy and extensive
development, in spite of the fact that there is a great variety of
trees growing in a small space, as 47 different kinds among 163 trees
in a tract 100 yards square. However, in places in the Chaco the
quebracho chiefly abounds.

Other woods found in the eastern forest are _ibiraro_, close grained
and flexible, the best for wheels, which made of this wood last for
years without tires, excellent also for boat and ship building; the
_caranday_ or black palm 30 feet high, used for telegraph poles and
scaffolding; _palo de rosa_ (rosewood), a mahogany used for cigar
boxes; the _tatum_, good for clothes boxes, being obnoxious to insects;
and many more, valuable but little known. Also there are fibre plants,
ramie, jute, etc.

=Yerba mate=, although now to some extent cultivated, is chiefly a
forestal product. Once known as Paraguay tea, it is a famous product of
the country, and in some sections the most important.

The trees or shrubs grow wild in the forest to a height of 10-25 feet;
from these the bright green leaves are gathered from which the tea is
made. How to propagate the trees was for years a mystery, but it is
now known that soaking the seed in hot water will promote germination.
If planted in tiny wooden boxes with no bottom, 9 inches deep, the
roots may be transplanted without injury. A tree comes into bearing
in five years, but reaches full production only after 12 years. Some
plantations have been established on the Alto Paraná, but the greater
part of the _mate_ comes from the virgin forest. The natural trees in
the forest grow better if that is cleared of underbrush and of the
larger trees. When full grown they can endure 5-6 cuttings a year
without permanent harm.

The Industrial Paraguay, with a capital of $5,000,000, is said to
export about 75 per cent of the total. This Company holding a property
of 8400 square miles, was the first to undertake on a considerable
scale the cultivation of _yerba mate_ in plantations. Their largest is
in the north at Nueva Germania on the River Acaray. Barthe and Company,
with a property of 3000 square miles, has a plantation near Nacunday
on the Paraná River with 1,400,000 trees producing, and 1,000,000 more
immature. The plantations of 28,000 acres will soon supply 5,700,000
pounds a year. _Mate_ sold in 1918 at 8-10 cents a pound. In that year
cultivated trees produced 6,700,000 pounds, and the natural 17,200,000
pounds. _Chatas_, flat boats, carry the dried leaves down stream to
river ports where they are taken by steamers to Asunción, Posadas,
Corrientes, or Buenos Aires to be ground. The Industrial has two
ports on the Paraná and one on the Acaray, with mills in Asunción,
Corrientes, and Buenos Aires. La Matte Larangeira, a Brazilian Company,
has some _yerbales_ in North Paraguay, but more in Matto Grosso.

Ten to twelve million persons in South America drink _mate_, though
tea and coffee are more fashionable in the large cities. Its use was
spreading in Europe before the War, but few persons in the United
States are acquainted with its virtues. Containing less tannin, it is
more healthful than tea or coffee, is soothing to the nervous system,
and beneficial to digestion unless taken to excess. When used instead
of food it becomes injurious. It is much drunk on the plains of
Argentina, counteracting the effects of an excessive meat diet. It may
be made like tea, but in its native haunts, the powder is put into a
gourd called a _mate_, boiling water is poured on, and after steeping
the liquid is drunk with a _bombilla_, a tube ending in an oval ball,
with small holes to admit the liquid, but supposed to keep out the
_yerba_.


AGRICULTURE

=Tobacco=, largely cultivated in Paraguay, is the most important
agricultural product with the first place in foreign trade. Almost
every one smokes large cigars, even women and girls. The leaves are
divided into seven classes: the first class called _pito_ containing
2¹⁄₂ per cent of nicotine, the seventh class 7 per cent. The first four
classes are used in Europe as fillers, the last three in Argentina as
wrappers, having larger, stronger leaves. The tobacco is mainly from
Havana seed introduced in 1900. The leaves are dried and fermented, and
made into various types of cigars, or shipped in crude form to Europe,
formerly the most to Germany, later to France and Spain. Of one crop
of 7000 tons 4000 went to Europe, there sold under different names. In
Argentina and Uruguay the cigars and cigarettes are popular under the
name of Paraguay.

=Small Farm Products.= Agriculture is naturally important for home
consumption, but aside from tobacco and oranges the exports are slight.
As almost everything will grow in the rich soil, with increasing
population agriculture will become a great source of wealth. Mandioca
and corn are staple for the small farmer, the latter of two varieties,
a hard white and a soft yellow, the former of especial excellence
both for nutriment, and withstanding the ravages of the grain weevil.
Three crops a year may be raised from one variety of sweet corn. White
potatoes flourish, though not so well as sweet, no great hardship.
Beans, peanuts, millet, and various European vegetables are raised for
home consumption. Wheat is experimental. Coffee does fairly but is
often injured by frost; alfalfa not so well as in Argentina. Rotation
of crops is unknown and few implements are employed. Life is so easy
that the small farmer is rather shiftless, and practically nothing is
done on a large scale.

=Oranges=, grown by every one, are the most noteworthy of the many
varieties of fruit produced in Paraguay, but high freight rates make
them less profitable than they should be. They grow freely and are
exported in large numbers to Argentina and Uruguay, 200,000,000 in
1919; they have been called the best in the world. However, they
do not keep well, and being carelessly packed many are spoiled in
transportation. The introduction of hardier varieties is talked of.

=Sugar= finds excellent soil but is liable to suffer from frost or
drought. It is grown mostly in the north near the rivers, railways, and
factories. There are at least seven mills, two at Villa Hayes in the
Chaco, one at Concepción. Some small mills make brown sugar and _caña_;
387,500 tons were produced in 1918. About 20,000 acres were cultivated
in 1919, but some sugar is imported. The methods have been crude but
are improving.

=Cotton.= Good cotton land exists especially in the southwest, and in
the Chaco. An indigenous tree bears 10-12 years. The staple is of good
length and quality. Not enough is produced to supply the home market,
but its culture is increasing. A Belgian obtained annually 1000 pounds
an acre for six years. At present the seed is not utilized.

=Rice= is grown on low ground between the Paraguay River and the
railway. Two crops a year may be raised giving 2000 pounds to the acre,
a quantity which might be nearly doubled. The coconut palm, peanut, and
castor bean flourish.


THE STOCK INDUSTRY

Cattle raising is beginning to be very profitable in Paraguay as in
the neighboring countries; and here there is a chance for the small
capitalist. Formerly some live cattle were exported, but ten times as
many hides; also dried meat from _saladeros_. During the Great War
operations were carried on by three American companies. A plant at San
Salvador, nearly three hundred miles above Asunción, for slaughtering
cattle and putting up canned meat, was conducted by Morris; another by
Swift 5 miles above the Capital, where over 900,000 six-pound cans of
meat were put up in 1918. But with the conclusion of the War the demand
fell off so rapidly that both plants are closed and dismantled.

A third establishment, however, at San Antonio, 15 miles below the
Capital, is actively engaged and about to increase its output. The
International Products Company has a thoroughly modern equipment, a
real _frigorifico_, for the export of frozen meat, with a capacity
of 175,000 head of cattle a year, to be shipped to Buenos Aires and
Europe. The cattle are in part purchased from individual farmers,
but the Company has a large property where its own production is
increasing. Nearly 300 leagues of land are owned back of Puerto Pinasco
in the Chaco: one half for cattle grazing and half quebracho lands.
They have 600 miles of barbed wire and a herd of 70,000 with some
blooded stock. The western section is used for young cattle which are
moved east the third year for fattening. The Company besides tugs and
lighters for the transport of the cattle has two refrigerating steamers
to carry the frozen meat to Buenos Aires. The hides increase the value
of the production.

The native cattle are far better than the Texas Longhorn, but not
equal to the blooded stock of Argentina. They weigh 850-1000 pounds
and afford excellent beef. The Argentine is heavier but called coarser
than that of the United States. The Paraguay stock is now being
improved especially with Herefords. A 50 per cent increase of the herd
is general. It is estimated that the number of cattle in Paraguay is
now 5,000,000, and that 40,000,000 may be easily supported. The native
grasses are good, and the _jaraguá_ from Brazil is used. Stock may be
bought at $15 a head, perhaps less in large numbers, affording the best
possible opportunity for the small capitalist. The dairy industry is
slight, the native cows being poor milkers.

The Chaco land near the River is liable to floods but few cattle are
lost as there is usually time to drive them back 20-30 miles to the
second and higher zone beyond the danger. It has been said that cattle
covered with ticks east of the Paraguay on crossing into the Chaco
soon become free of them. A French company in 1919 had 150,000 head
of cattle with over 500 Hereford bulls, a breeding stock of more than
100,000. One thousand miles of pasture were enclosed. The Company makes
use of 130 telephones, has shops, a tannery, etc. Besides Herefords
there are Durhams and Polled Angus. Two hundred men are in charge of
the stock. The natives make good cowboys, better I was told than some
Americans who went down from here a few years ago.

=Other Stock.= As to other stock, horses are comparatively few, not
one tenth of the number of cattle, hardly enough for home use. They
are liable to disease and do not thrive in the Chaco, better east of
the River. Mules serve well though smaller than in the United States.
Horses are outnumbered by sheep, which are valuable for meat, though
mutton is not favored by the natives. The climate is obviously warm for
sheep and their fleece is light. New stock must be introduced. Hogs and
goats thrive better.


MINING

=Iron=, 34 per cent pure, was produced at Ibicuy, 1863-69. Indications
of it are widespread near the Alto Paraná, and near Caapacá, Quiquió,
and Paraguarí.

=Manganese= runs 63 per cent in beds of 60,000,000 tons. Copper exists
near Encarnación and Caapacá. There are large beds of good stone, talc,
graphite, kaolin. Probably petroleum will be found in the Chaco.


MANUFACTURING

Manufacturing is non-existent, aside from the quebracho and sugar
mills, save for a few necessities of life, as by many regarded. Beer
comes first with the largest investment of capital, flour mills next,
then boots and shoes, furniture, brick, tiles, matches, hard and soft
drinks, soap, vegetable oils, etc. The opportunities are vast for the
development of electric power. Labor in general is fair and loyal,
undeveloped, but with good intelligence. The men lack steadiness and a
feeling of responsibility. There has been less labor trouble than in
Argentina and Chile, but men from Argentina have been attempting to
unionize them. Strikes are common. Wages are from 50 cents to $3.00 a
day, the lower with quarters. At the _frigorificos_ $1.00 is paid with
free rent, for ten hours’ daily work.


INVESTMENTS

Perhaps no other country of South America presents to the small
farmer and willing worker, with or without small capital, openings
more favorable than Paraguay, if equal to these. Some stock raising
for local use or for the packing houses might gradually be added to
agriculture. The dairy industry ought to be profitable. Fruit raising
for export or for canning is undoubtedly of excellent promise; a large
proposition of this nature is now being considered by an American
corporation. Saw mills and lumbering would give good returns. Small
industries, well managed, might afford fair earnings. For quebracho,
_yerba mate_, or large scale stock raising, much capital is required,
yet a modest sum here might go farther for stock than in any other
country. Thousands of acres of land suited to agriculture are available
for colonists in accordance with their liberal colonization and
homestead laws. The price goes from $1 to $13 an acre. Grazing land
costs $2-$5, agricultural $5-$20, Chaco land $1-$2.50 an acre. Special
arrangements are made for and with a party of colonists as in all of
the countries.




                             CHAPTER XLII

URUGUAY: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS


Uruguay, still occasionally called the Banda Oriental (the land east of
the Uruguay River), is the smallest Republic of South America.


AREA, POPULATION, BOUNDARY

=Area.= With an area of 72,172 square miles, Uruguay is larger than New
England.

=Population.= The country has now about 1,500,000 inhabitants.

=Boundary.= Uruguay is nearly surrounded by water, having the Atlantic
Ocean for 120 miles on the east. The river or estuary of La Plata
235 miles on the south, and the Uruguay 270 miles on the west, both
separate the country from Argentina; on the north and east between
Uruguay and Brazil three rivers and Lake Mirím form the boundary most
of the way, with the Santa Hills for some distance.


HISTORY

In 1512 the explorer, Juan de Solis, entered the gulf-like River Plata
and landed upstream, 70 miles beyond Montevideo. Here were found
Charrúa Indians, accounted by the Guaranís rather ferocious. On his
next visit, 1515-16, Juan de Solis was slain by them with all his
party that had gone on shore. It was many years later that permanent
settlements were made in this region by Portuguese or Spaniards and not
until 1726 was the city of Montevideo founded by Spaniards. In 1777 a
rival Portuguese settlement was driven out by General Zavala of Buenos
Aires. Subsequent to 1750 Montevideo was independent of Buenos Aires.
After the Junta was formed in that city in 1810 the Spanish Viceroy
for a short time had his seat at Montevideo; but the people soon
became eager for independence. Under Artigas they waged war for years
against the Spanish, the Portuguese, and also the Porteños of Buenos
Aires. When in 1824 the power of Spain was finally destroyed in Peru,
Uruguay alone was not independent. Accordingly a refugee in Buenos
Aires, Lavalleja, with others, 33 in all (Treinta y Tres, a popular
name in Uruguay), set out from Argentina, crossed the Uruguay River,
gained adherents, captured Dolores, and August 25, 1825, established
a government at Florida. In August, 1828, after many struggles
Brazil and Argentina both acknowledged the independence of Uruguay;
and May, 1829, Lavalleja entered Montevideo. In 1830 the Assembly
elected Rivera President, after which Lavalleja tried to overthrow
the Government. Under the second President, Uribe, one of the 33, a
battle occurred when the colors red and white were used by the opposing
parties, from which date the two parties: Red, Colorados, party of
Rivera; Whites, Blancos, of Uribe and Lavalleja. Strife continued,
the deaths of the leaders making no difference to the factions, and
the parties continuing to the present with these names. In February,
1865, Flores, who had secured the support of Brazil, became dictator,
but Paraguay having been previously asked to interfere continued the
fight. Flores was assassinated, in 1868 occurred a terrible visitation
of cholera, and in ’69 a financial crisis that ruined thousands.
Troubles continued; until within the last few years no President has
had an entirely peaceful term. In view of this fact the development and
prosperity of the country has been remarkable.


GOVERNMENT

The government of the country is that of a centralized republic with
the usual divisions; the President is elected for four years and
not eligible for reëlection. The new Constitution which began to
operate March 1, 1920, is unusually radical in character, a tendency
observed in Uruguay some years ago. The Executive Power is shared by
the President and a National Commission of nine members elected by the
people. Some Members of the Cabinet are appointed by the President,
others by the Commission. Congress elects the members of the Supreme
Court, approves or rejects treaties. Bills may be presented to either
Chamber by Cabinet Members, who may take part in deliberations or
be summoned by a vote of one third to answer questions. A permanent
committee, two Senators and five Deputies, represents Congress when it
is not in session, and has power to convoke it.


----------------------+---------+----------+--------------+-----------
   DEPARTMENTS        |  AREA,  |POPULATION|  CAPITALS    |POPULATION
                      |in square|          |              |
                      |  miles  |          |              |
----------------------+---------+----------+--------------+-----------
_On the Uruguay River_|         |          |              |
Artigas               |    4,400|   37,000 |San Eugenio   |   9,000
Salto                 |    4,900|   69,000 |Salto         |  30,000
Paysandú              |    5,100|   63,000 |Paysandú      |  22,000
Rio Negro             |    3,200|   30,000 |Fray Bentos   |  12,000
Soriano               |    3,600|   52,000 |Mercedes      |  18,000
                      |         |          |              |
_On the Plata River_  |         |          |              |
Colonia               |    2,200|   78,000 |Colonia       |  15,000
San José              |    2,700|   56,000 |San José      |  15,000
Montevideo            |      256|  400,000 |Montevideo    | 435,000
Canelones             |    1,800|  110,000 |Canelones     |  10,000
Maldonado             |    1,600|   38,000 |Maldonado     |   4,000
                      |         |          |              |
_On the Atlantic_     |         |          |              |
Rocha                 |    4,300|   44,000 |Rocha         |  12,000
                      |         |          |              |
_Bordering on Brazil_ |         |          |              |
Treinta y Tres        |    3,700|   38,000 |Treinta y Tres|   8,000
Cerro Largo           |    5,800|   55,000 |Melo          |  14,000
Rivera                |    3,800|   44,000 |Rivera        |  15,000
                      |         |          |              |
_In the Interior_     |         |          |              |
Tacuarembó            |    8,100|   58,000 |San Fructuoso |   9,000
Durazno               |    5,500|   53,000 |Durazno       |  17,000
Flores                |    1,700|   17,000 |Trinidad      |  13,600
Florida               |    4,600|   55,000 |Florida       |  10,000
Minas                 |    4,800|   64,000 |Minas         |  15,000
----------------------+---------+----------+--------------+-----------

The 19 Departments or States with approximate area, population, and
capitals, beginning at the northwest, are given on the preceding page.


POPULATION

The population of Uruguay, about 1,500,000, is practically of the
Caucasian race with slight intermixture of Indian and Negro. The Indian
tribes previously inhabiting the country were mostly exterminated, a
few departing into adjoining regions, a few of the milder tribes being
absorbed by their conquerors. In the north are some negroes near the
Brazilian border and some of mixed blood. More than any other country
of South America Uruguay is inhabited by a homogeneous white population.


EDUCATION

A fine educational system has been developed, with primary and graded
schools throughout the country, so that hardly more than 25 per
cent of the population is illiterate. Primary education is free and
obligatory. In the Capital is a well equipped University with the usual
Departments, including Engineering and Architecture; a School of Arts
and Trades, kindergartens, and two Normal Schools; six of the latter
are found in other cities. In the suburb of Montevideo is a School of
Agriculture; four model farms are located at Colonia, Salto, Paysandú,
and Cerro Largo.


PRESS, RELIGION, ETC.

=The Press= is of high character with a number of good papers in
Montevideo, and some in other cities.

=The Religion=, of course, is Roman Catholic, although there is no
State Church. Complete toleration exists for other forms of worship.

=Telegraph=, etc. The Government has about 4800 miles of telegraph
lines and four wireless stations. Wireless is compulsory on all
steamers visiting Uruguayan ports. Telephones belonging to two private
companies are likely to be taken over by the Government; 19 towns have
this convenience.

=Money.= The gold standard was long ago adopted, but no gold was coined
and no bullion is carried by the State. In spite of this we have the
curious fact that the paper peso is equivalent to gold, and in ordinary
times to $1.034 of our money; though unhappily when once I received
some of the bills here, exchange being normal, I could obtain but 90
cents on the dollar for them. One broker even offered me 80 cents.
Subsidiary coins are of silver and nickel, and a silver dollar is
carried at par. The credit of Uruguay is obviously excellent, and its
bonds are often above par.

=Weights= and =Measures= according to the metric system are obligatory.
The importation even of other weighing apparatus is forbidden.


PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Uruguay is roughly a right-angled triangle in shape, its apex at the
northwest, the western boundary line nearly perpendicular, the south
side almost at right angles with it, and the Brazilian boundary the
hypothenuse; with a little extra piece at the southeast bordering on
the Atlantic. For the most part a gently rolling country well suited
to agriculture as for cattle raising, it slopes towards the east,
west, and south; having rougher and higher land at the north, where
the greatest elevation is a little above 2000 feet. A central cross
depression is the Valley of the Rio Negro. The perimeter of Uruguay
measures 1148 miles, of which 668 are on the ocean or large rivers.
The country is well supplied with rivers, some of which are navigable.
Besides the Plata and Uruguay, there are the Negro, Tacuará, Cebollati,
Climar, and the Yaguarón; also Lake Mirím. Besides Mirím on the
Brazilian border there are a few lakes along the ocean front; a few
islands lie off the coast. The country differs from the Argentine campo
in having plenty of stone.


CLIMATE

Extending from 30° to 35° South Latitude with no considerable elevation
and being close to the sea, Uruguay naturally has a temperate climate
with no great variation over its limited area. The temperature
generally ranges from 40° to 90°. There is sufficient rainfall, about
40 inches, and the country is well watered. Its coast offers agreeable
places for summer resorts, which are patronized both by natives and
by Argentines. The country in general has a particularly salubrious
climate, 244 sunny days, it is said, in the year.




                             CHAPTER XLIII

          URUGUAY: CAPITAL, DEPARTMENTS, CHIEF CITIES, PORTS


THE CAPITAL

=Montevideo=, the capital and chief port of Uruguay, with a population
approaching 400,000, is a pleasant city, a more homelike place than
Buenos Aires and preferred as a residence by many, though doubtless
more persons enjoy life better in the larger gayer capital. Favorably
situated near the entrance, but on the Plata River, on a peninsula of
high ground which shelters a good harbor on the west, while attractive
beaches lie on the side towards the ocean, Montevideo is in some
respects a contrast to South America’s metropolis, 100 miles distant,
on the other shore. With fine drainage facilities it is a clean
healthful city, well lighted, and well served by electric tramways.
Pure water is brought a distance of 30 miles. Though with fine
buildings, theatres, broad, well-paved avenues (150 miles of them),
open squares, and attractive parks, the city seems quite up to date,
yet somehow a trifle old fashioned, with an agreeable air of solid
respectability. The hotels are comfortable, but only those facing the
beaches, at a distance from the business section, are really of the
first class. An underground telephone system is proposed.


DEPARTMENTS

=Canelones= is directly north and east of Montevideo, extending along
the River Plata. In proximity to the Capital and with good rail
connection, fruit growing and agriculture are important, viticulture
is common; but even here the pastoral industry leads. Canelones boasts
of several towns of 8000-10,000 population, one of which, Pando, a
pleasant agricultural centre, is connected with Montevideo by a good
macadamized road.

=San José=, west of Montevideo and Canelones, has industries similar
to the latter with timber in addition, supplying wood for fuel and for
building.

The capital, San José, with a population of 15,000, has the distinction
of being the largest of the country towns as distinguished from the
ports. It has a good macadam road to the capital, Montevideo, 60 miles,
and an up-to-date flour mill.

=Colonia=, west of San José, running up to the entrance of the Uruguay,
is called the richest Department of the Republic. Agriculture, dairy
farming, fruit and viticulture are well developed; its stone quarries
are worked; and lying opposite Buenos Aires, with good steamship
service to that city as well as rail connection with Montevideo, it is
certain of increasing prosperity.

The capital city of Colonia is a quiet old town with historic
associations; a new town three miles east has been created as a
pleasure resort. Colonia Suiza, with 4000 people and many Swiss
chalets, is devoted to the dairy industry; one enterprising proprietor
who began as a milk peddler now turns out from his factory in the
spring one ton of butter daily.

=Soriano= on the Uruguay River, nevertheless has its chief town,
Mercedes, population 18,000, on a tributary, the Rio Negro, here
one-fourth of a mile wide. The main industry is cattle raising; the
town has a saladero and is also a centre of charcoal making. Stone
quarrying is carried on in the Department and some minerals exist,
topaz and amethyst in considerable abundance. A peculiar water stone is
of curious and undetermined origin.

=Rio Negro= follows on the north of the Negro River, the chief centre
for the breeding of live stock, as might be expected from the fact that
the capital is Fray Bentos, the original home of the Liebig industry,
beginning in 1865. The company now owning nearly 5,000,000 acres, and
establishments elsewhere, Fray Bentos is of less relative importance
than formerly; yet with 180,000 cattle slaughtered here in a single
season, the business is considerable. It is quite a model town, with
good streets and homes for employes, schools, etc.

=Paysandú=, the next Department north, has a larger population of which
the capital of that name contains nearly half, 22,000, being the second
city of the Republic in commercial importance. Electric lights and
telephones are in service, also horse cars. Here the stream narrows and
this is the last port of call for ocean steamers. The chief employments
in the Department are agricultural and pastoral; there are some meat
curing factories.

=Salto=, Department and city, each with larger population than the
Department south, is also a pastoral region; but it is rich in
minerals, and is an important wine producing district, where a great
variety of other fruits, including oranges, flourish well. Here the
Uruguay River is bridged to Concordia in Argentina, an important
railway centre. This is called the head of navigation, as here are
falls and rocks, but smaller boats ply the river above.

=Artigas=, the most northern Department with a long frontier on
Argentina and Brazil both, has some railway service, though not the
main line to Brazil. The capital, Artigas, population 10,000, is on the
Brazilian border. This Department has more timber, hard and soft, and
less agriculture and grazing. Some districts are noted for minerals and
precious stones.

=Rivera= is next along the Brazilian border, one of the largest
Departments. The capital, population 15,000, is a clean, well paved
town, of growing importance as the terminus of the Central Uruguay
Railway, here connecting with the Brazilian Railway to São Paulo. The
Department, though thinly peopled, has considerable agriculture and
gold mines of importance.

=Tacuarembó=, directly south, largest of all the Departments, is the
most sparsely populated. It is chiefly devoted to agriculture; tobacco
flourishes, and rice culture has met with some success. Gold and
manganese are found.

=Cerro Largo= next to Rivera on the Brazilian border is chiefly
pastoral with agriculture advancing. Its prosperity is likely to
increase with connection with Brazil now planned from the capital,
Melo, 14,000 population, the present railway terminus.

=Treinta y Tres=, its capital with 8000 population, is chiefly pastoral
with very little agriculture; it is well wooded with valuable timber.
The great Lake Mirím along the eastern border is of much value, and
further railway construction will promote development.

=Rocha=, south of Treinta y Tres, has also a long eastern frontier on
the Lake, a bit of Brazil, and much on the Atlantic. Grazing is the
chief industry with some viticulture. Seal fishery is important, and
there are minerals: copper, gypsum, alabaster, marble, jasper.

=Maldonado=, south of Rocha and east of Canelones, also borders on
the ocean at the southeast. Chiefly pastoral, the Department has some
agriculture and wine making. There is seal fishing on the islands
off the coast. Timber will soon be important as tree planting is
encouraged by the Government. The British Consul received a gold medal
for planting over 10,000 maritime pines. The beginning was difficult,
the young trees being continually buried in masses of sand. Dunes are
characteristic of this coast. But when the trees were once established
continuance was easy and now 100,000 or more are flourishing in this
section. Others followed the example, making land formerly worthless
now rated at $5-$25 an acre. Piriápolis, a new town west of the capital
city, is a remarkable place due to the patriotic energy of Señor
Piria, who here began planting trees over 20 years ago. These are now
a forest, with millions of trees, seven miles of eucalyptus woodland
stretching from the Piria castle to the ocean, near which a hotel has
been erected and chalets, the beginning of a prosperous town and summer
resort. A railway serves this western edge of Maldonado.

=Minas= is back of Maldonado and west of Rocha. It has pastoral and
agricultural industries with a good endowment of minerals.

=Florida=, west of Minas and north of Canelones, abounds in cattle and
is developing agriculture.

=Durazno=, north, in the centre of the Republic, is also chiefly
devoted to cattle raising.

=Flores=, west of Durazno, is not well populated and is chiefly
pastoral.


PORTS

=Ocean Ports.= The only ocean port of importance in Uruguay is
Montevideo and this indeed is on the Plata River. It ranks, however,
among the best in South America in depth, capacity, and ease of access,
admitting ships of 32-foot draft at low tide. A free port for goods in
transit, where they may remain a year in the Custom House without tax,
it has excellent docks and harbor works, including ample warehouses and
facilities for handling all classes of merchandise, 1400 tons unloaded
in ten hours. A port railway serves to connect sea and land traffic,
transferring passengers as well as freight directly from steamers to
railway cars. The port works constructed by the French, concluded for
the most part before the War, cost in the neighborhood of $40,000,000.
In the vicinity a Hotel for Immigrants accommodates 1000.

Ships of many lines call in passing, passenger steamers for Buenos
Aires and many which do not go up the river, either because of too
heavy draft, or to save time when on the way to the West Coast or to
other ports. For some this is the ultimate destination. Nightly trips
between the two great cities are made by steamers of the Mihanovich
Line, which rival all but the finest plying between New York and
Boston. Smaller steamers sail from here or pause on their way up the
Uruguay, or the Paraná and the Paraguay, the latter perhaps going
through to Corumbá, 1800 miles, those for the Uruguay at most 300 miles
to Salto or Concordia.

=River Ports.= Montevideo would strictly come under this head. Others
of importance are Colonia on the Plata and Paysandú on the Uruguay,
to which ocean steamers of 14-foot draft may ascend; to Salto beyond,
steamers of 8-foot draft. Above the rapids at Salto on the Uruguay and
on a few of its branches smaller steamboats and other craft are used.
The Rio Negro is navigable 50 miles to the town of Mercedes. The entire
fluvial navigation is 700 miles. The Uruguay Navigation Company with a
capital of $10,000,000 has recently been organized for traffic on the
Plata, Paraná, Uruguay, and Paraguay Rivers.




                             CHAPTER XLIV

           URUGUAY: TRANSPORTATION, RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES


RAILWAYS

Even more than in Argentina the railways have been developed by British
capital. The first concession in 1865 was for a road from Montevideo to
the Rio Negro. Construction has been more expensive than on the plains
of the neighboring Republic, on account of rolling country and the many
bridges required, over 300. There is a single tunnel, in the Department
Rocha. Happily all of the railways are of the same gauge, the standard,
4 feet 8¹⁄₂ inches. The length of those in operation is 1680 miles, the
greatest in proportion to area of any country in South America.

=The Central Uruguay=, with its extensions, is the main line from which
most of the others branch. The original ran from Montevideo to the
Rio Negro in the centre of the Republic, from which it was prolonged
to the northern border at Rivera. In May, 1917, closer connection
was established with Sant’ Anna, across the Brazilian border, and
sleeping car service to São Paulo in 4¹⁄₂ days, which should shortly be
3¹⁄₂. The prolongation is called the Northern Extension. The Eastern
Extension starts at Toledo, 16 miles from Montevideo, diverging to San
Ramón, Nico Peréz, and Melo, with a branch from Nico Peréz, to Treinta
y Tres, 311 miles in all. The Western Extension runs from San José on a
branch of the Central, to Mal Abrigo and Mercedes. From Abrigo a line
goes to Rosario and Puerto del Sauce, and from Rosario on to Colonia,
altogether 211 miles.

Other roads are the Midland and the Northwestern, the former connecting
with the Central near the Rio Negro, passing west to Paysandú, then
north to Salto, while the Northwestern runs 113 miles from Salto
to Cabellos, then northwest to the corner of the Republic, there
connecting by an international bridge across the Cuareim River with
Quarahim, Brazil, and its Great Southern Railway running northward.
At Salto there is considerable interchange of traffic with Argentina
through Concordia opposite, an important railway junction and city. At
Cabellos connection is made with the Uruguay Northern, another road
running to the Brazilian Boundary, the terminus San Eugenio.

=The Uruguay East Coast Railway= with 78 miles of road, starting from
Olmas on the Central Uruguay runs to Maldonado. Much of the traffic
is to the seaside resorts, Puente del Este and Piriápolis; there is
also considerable freight for the Montevideo market, of agricultural
and pastoral products and fish. An extension northward from San
Carlos to Rocha is authorized. The road has been purchased by the
Government. A line from Durazno on the Central to Trinidad, begun by
the Farquhar-Pearson Syndicate as part of a line designed to cross the
country diagonally from Colonia to the Brazilian border, was taken over
by the Government, which has in view the securing of a system of State
railways. Besides building the 31-mile line from San Carlos on the East
Coast Railway it intends purchasing the 23-mile line from Rocha to the
port Paloma. Further needed construction is planned by the Government
as soon as may be practicable.

=Aeroplane service= is to be installed by a British company from
Montevideo to Rio de Janeiro and Pernambuco, and aerial postal service
is planned for the interior.


RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES

=Stock raising= is by far the leading industry, as is evident from
the fact that in 1917 nearly 98 per cent of the exports were of stock
products. Of the 44 million acres devoted to livestock and agriculture
the latter occupies hardly 5 per cent. In 1603, 100 cattle and two
herds of horses were brought into the country; the cattle increased
so rapidly that at one time they were killed for their hides, as more
recently in Paraguay. Since 1860 when Durham bulls were imported and
stock breeding began, much advance has been made in quality. Herefords,
Devon, a few Polled Angus and others have also been imported; some
for dairy purposes, as Swiss and Flemish. In 1917 the cattle numbered
about 8,000,000. The best _estancias_ have sheds to house pedigreed
stock, they plant trees and have cattle dips. Societies encourage
scientific breeding and the Government subsidizes agricultural shows.
One _estancia_ of 60,000 acres has 15,000 cattle, 20,000 sheep, some
horses, and pays dividends of 16-25 per cent on a capital of £120,000.
Another company with 40,000 acres and a capital of £40,000 pays
dividends of 14-20 per cent. At least 20,000 acres are devoted to dairy
farming; 50,000 pounds of butter are made monthly, and both butter and
cheese are exported. The best of apparatus is employed.

=Sheep=, imported from Argentina in 1608, flourish to the number of
11,700,000; the varieties of Merino, Lincoln, Romney Marsh are found
among others, the English breeds being preferred.

=Horses= of good quality are raised, 570,000, both light and heavy, but
few in comparison to the cattle. There are 300,000 pigs, a few mules,
16,000, and 12,000 goats.

=Meat Packing.= In 1754 the first meat salting plant was established
but the true pioneer dates from 1786. Others followed. There are now 13
besides seven factories for preserving meat and two _frigorificos_. The
slaughter season is from November to January. The meat for _saladeros_
is separated from the bones, dried 4-6 days in the sun, and then
salted. It is arranged in four grades according to fat or lean; the fat
meat is sent to Brazil, the lean to Cuba and elsewhere.

Of _frigorificos_ the Swifts own one, and exported to Europe in 1915
and 1916, each, over 700,000 frozen quarters of beef and 100,000
chilled; also mutton and lamb. The _Frigorifica Uruguaya_ shipped
nearly 44,000,000 pounds of beef to Europe in 1916 and over 2,000,000
pounds of mutton. The total export of animal products shipped in 1916
was worth $73,000,000. A model slaughter house and cold storage plant
is in prospect. A new one for wool washing has a capacity of 132,000
pounds daily. Saving in freight cost and immunity from deterioration
are thereby attained.

The Liebig Extract of Beef Company, with extensive holdings in and
near Fray Bentos and with a total capitalization of £2,000,000 usually
pays 20 per cent dividends on the ordinary shares; 5 per cent in 1916.
They use the best of meat, and their Oxo capsules and Lemco have a
world-wide reputation. They own and rent in Uruguay, Argentina, and
Paraguay 1,120,000 acres.

In spite of strikes and labor troubles the livestock industry has
brought prosperity to the country, with record prices for beef, mutton,
hides, and wool, thus greatly increasing land values. The cattle are
pastured on the natural long thick grass, very little alfalfa being
cultivated. Hogs, hens, bees, and silkworms are raised. The seal
industry and fisheries are important.


AGRICULTURE

The agricultural products are insufficient for the use of the country
although 2,000,000 acres are in cultivation. About 900,000 acres are in
wheat, 700,000 in corn, 128,000 in flax, 100,000 oats, some barley and
canary seed. In 1916 agricultural exports were valued at $1,500,000.
Among other crops are tobacco, which is especially promising, linseed,
alfalfa, sugar cane, some cotton, potatoes, etc. Viticulture is quite
extensive, American grapes growing better in the south, and French and
Italian in the north. Other fruits, oranges, olives, apples, pears,
cherries, peaches, and melons flourish.


FORESTRY

Forestry is encouraged so far as planting is concerned; about 1,000,000
acres are in natural forest land. Millions of trees have been planted
on land not otherwise useful. The supply of wood in future will be
greatly increased and there may even be export.


MINERALS

Minerals are of some importance and may become of more. The country is
believed to contain considerable wealth in gold, silver, coal, marble,
jasper; and in other minerals and semi-precious stones, including
amethyst and topaz. There is little export save sand, stone for paving,
and similar articles.

=Gold.= The chief gold fields are in the Department Rivera near
Cuñapiru not far from the Brazilian border. A district 35-40 miles long
and 7 wide contains auriferous reef with gold 5 ounces to the ton; if
deep the prospect is limitless. A modern English plant is now getting
out gold. Bars worth $4000 were exported in 1915. Four hundred mines
have been denounced in the Department. Enormous quantities of manganese
are in the neighborhood. Gold is found also in Minas, Salto, and
Tacuarembó.

Copper exists in quantity in Cerro Largo, Maldonado, Minas, Paysandú,
and Salto. Iron, silver, slate, gypsum, asbestos, lead, etc. may be
exploited later. Even greatly needed coal of fair quality has been
found in Montevideo, Santa Lucía, and especially in Cerro Largo where
it seems promising, though no working of minerals is sufficiently
developed to present decisive results. Indications of petroleum have
been noted at the north, the strata coming in from Brazil.


MANUFACTURES

Naturally manufacturing save for home consumption is of slight
importance, except of products of the pastoral industry, as of dairies
and of meat extract. For home use there are 115 flour mills, 45 others,
as of hardware, soap, macaroni; 1 sugar factory, 3 starch, 1 cement,
4 breweries. Many of these are in Montevideo. The Government proposes
the construction of chemical factories for the production of sulphuric,
nitric, carbolic, and acetic acid, glycerine, benzol, alcohol,
sulphuric ether, etc., and a powder and explosive factory; these to
cost over $2,000,000, material and machinery to enter free of duty.

An important project of the Government is the development of water
power from the cataracts of the Uruguay River, which will be equivalent
to 3,000,000 tons of coal per annum. Two dams are planned, one movable
and one fixed, with canals by which 419 miles of river will be open
to navigation from the lower section. Irrigation is included in the
project, and 37,000 acres near Montevideo are to be irrigated as an
illustration. Fifteen cities have authorized work in connection with
this project.


INVESTMENTS

Aside from the development of hydro-electric power and the construction
of public works of various kinds including railways, it is probable
that agriculture and fisheries present the most favorable openings,
with good possibilities also in manufacturing industries, stone
cutting, and mining. Stock raising is already pretty well developed.




                              CHAPTER XLV

          BRAZIL: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.


The country of Brazil, largest of the South American Republics, has
also a greater area than the United States without Alaska, and is more
than three-fourths the size of all Europe. It cannot therefore be
considered as a whole so easily as the other Republics. It is essential
to differentiate between the various regions and States; for the
dissimilarity is not confined to climate and productions; or to the
character of the people, by reason of some being indigenous and others
of European descent. It arises in part from the long coast line and the
difficulty of land communication; in part from the fact that in some
districts the population is almost entirely of European descent while
in others there is a large percentage of negro blood; as well as from
differences in physical and climatic conditions. Thus the Capital is
not so markedly the centre of the Republic as in Argentina, and the
States are more loosely bound together than in the other Republics. The
States and the character of the people may be said to differ as much
among themselves as the countries of the West Coast from each other, a
point of importance to notice in commercial relations.


AREA, POPULATION, BOUNDARY

=Area.= Brazil covers a surface of 3,112,453 square miles. Its length,
2750 miles, is about that of Chile; its extreme width, 2560 miles,
is ten times at great. The coast-line is much longer, 4140 miles. A
considerable portion of this immense area is still but superficially
explored.

=Population.= According to the cabled report of the census of 1920,
Brazil has 30,553,509 inhabitants. Its population, therefore, exceeds
that of any other South American Republic even more largely than its
area.

=Boundary.= The boundary of the country, though familiar from that
of the others, may be rehearsed. On the north we find Colombia,
Venezuela, and the three Guianas with the Atlantic beyond; on the east
and southeast the Atlantic only, on the south Uruguay, a speck of
Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, a bit of Peru; on the west a small corner
of Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, and Peru. The only countries of the
continent not touching its border are Ecuador and Chile. However, a few
writers mention Ecuador on the west, as the southeast boundary line of
that country is still undetermined.


HISTORY

The first of the South American countries to be discovered after
Colombia and Venezuela, it was to the region of Brazil that the name
America was first applied. It is therefore especially unbecoming for
us to appropriate to ourselves in any exclusive sense the title of
Americans; though having no other name, with apologies to the others,
it may be pardonable for us to employ it when necessary.

In the year 1500 the first landing on this part of the continent was
made by Pedro Alvares Cabral, then on his way from Portugal to the West
Indies. In commemoration of that event, May 3rd is a Brazilian national
holiday and the date of the assembling of Congress. As soon as the news
was received in the home country, an expedition was sent out under
Amerigo Vespucci, who explored the coast from its eastern extremity
almost to La Plata, nearly 2000 miles. Fifteen Captaincies, each 150
miles along the coast, were later allotted and settlements were begun.
The earliest of these which rose to importance were São Vicente in the
neighborhood of Santos, and Pernambuco; a little later, Bahia and Rio
de Janeiro. These were the first agricultural colonies to be founded
in South America, gold and silver being the attraction elsewhere. The
French also had an eye to this country, making a settlement at Rio de
Janeiro; the Dutch as well, who about a century later captured Bahia
and Pernambuco; but both were ultimately expelled, the whole country
remaining in the hands of the Portuguese. Conflicts with the Indians
took place, at first with some who were unfriendly, and afterwards
through attacks made by the invaders upon those Indians who had been
christianized by the Jesuits. Their settlements were destroyed, 300,000
are said to have been slaughtered, and the rest were driven by the
Paulistas from the region of the upper Paraná.

As Philip II of Spain in 1581 became ruler of Portugal, during the 60
years following, the expansion of Brazil to the west in territory which
had been assigned to Spain was permitted, and such possession remained
permanent. At other times conflicts occurred with the Spaniards at the
south, but in 1777 peace was made with the boundaries as at present.

In 1807, Prince João, fleeing from Napoleon, came with his court to
Brazil. He soon opened the five chief ports to commerce, he encouraged
science, education, literature, art, and the immigration of foreigners,
thus inaugurating a development of permanent value. On his return to
Europe in 1821, the Prince, in view of the revolts of the Spanish
colonies, hinted to his son whom he left in charge the advisability
of himself assuming the crown, if a disposition towards independence
became manifest. Accordingly in 1822, the son was crowned Emperor of
Brazil; but having alienated his supporters, in 1831 he abdicated in
favor of his infant son, Pedro. In 1889, the old Emperor, Dom Pedro
II, who for many years had ruled wisely and well, was expelled on 24
hours’ notice; after a brief interim a Republic was established in
1891. Extravagance, insurrections, and financial distress followed,
but since 1900 the country has made rapid advancement in wealth and in
varied lines of development.


GOVERNMENT

The government is a federalized republic with the usual branches, the
States more loosely bound together than with us, or than in any other
South American Republic. They may even fix export taxes, and levy stamp
duties. The President, with a Vice President, is elected for four
years and is ineligible for a succeeding term. He has a Cabinet of
seven Ministers. Congress is composed of a Senate with 63 members and
a Chamber of 212 Deputies. There are 20 States, a Federal District,
and the Territory of Acre. The last is composed of three Prefectures,
with capital cities where government is administered by Government
appointees. The States have their own administrative bodies, some
with one house of legislation, some with two; and with a Governor or
President as chief executive, a slight confusion possibly arising at
times where the latter term is employed. All male citizens over 21 may
vote except illiterates, soldiers, beggars, and members of monastic
orders subject to vows of obedience, a wise prescription. The list of
States precedes, with the usual figures, as accurate as obtainable,
the areas from the latest Government survey. The list begins at the
northwest, goes down the coast, and follows with the interior.

-------------------+---------+-----------+----------------+-----------+----------
                   |  AREA,  |           |                |           |
      STATES       |in square| POPULATION|    CAPITALS    | POPULATION| ALTITUDE,
                   |  miles  |           |                |           |  in feet
-------------------+---------+-----------+----------------+-----------+----------
Amazonas           | 645,940 |   435,000 | Manaos         |    60,000 |   131
Pará               | 399,000 |   992,300 | Belem          |   250,000 |    23
Maranhão           | 150,830 |   853,000 | Maranhão       |    40,000 |   198
Piauhy             |  89,850 |   548,250 | Therezina      |    35,000 |
Ceará              |  62,160 | 1,436,300 | Fortaleza      |    65,000 |
Rio Grande do Norte|  15,925 |   552,000 | Natal          |    20,000 |    25
Parahyba           |  22,548 |   785,100 | Parahyba       |    20,000 |
Pernambuco         |  38,570 | 1,975,440 | Recife         |   200,000 |
Alagôas            |  10,400 |   990,000 | Maceió         |    40,000 |
Sergipe            |   8,983 |   535,000 | Aracajú        |    30,000 |
Bahia              | 206,990 | 3,373,000 | São Salvador   |   300,000 |   147
Espirito Santo     |  16,860 |   479,200 | Victoria       |    20,000 |
Rio de Janeiro     |  16,408 | 1,502,000 | Nictheroy      |    30,000 |
São Paulo          | 101,890 | 4,823,000 | São Paulo      |   510,000 | 2,510
Paraná             |  73,465 |   674,300 | Curityba       |    50,000 | 2,980
Santa Catharina    |  43,168 |   633,000 | Florianopolis  |    30,000 |
Rio Grande do Sul  |  92,350 | 2,138,800 | Porto Alegre   |   125,000 |
Minas Geraes       | 227,238 | 5,789,000 | Bello Horizonte|    35,000 | 3,081
Goyaz              | 284,000 |   529,000 | Goyaz          |    18,000 | 1,577
Matto Grosso       | 554,400 |   274,100 | Cuyabá         |    32,000 |   953
Territory of Acre  |  67,712 |   104,000 |                |           |
Federal District   |     450 | 1,150,080 | Rio de Janeiro | 1,150,080 |
-------------------+---------+-----------+----------------+-----------+----------


POPULATION

The population, by the recent census 30,553,509, is of a more varied
character than that of Uruguay and Argentina at the south. Some figures
given are 52 per cent white, 26 mixed, 13 Indian, and 9 per cent negro.
The original settlers were Portuguese, and at first immigration was
from the mother country. In the early days many negroes were imported
from Africa as slaves, yet there was little color prejudice so that the
number of mulattoes and lighter as well as of negroes in some sections
is very large.

During the last hundred years over 3,000,000 immigrants have arrived,
of whom the Italians formed the larger proportion; next in number were
the Portuguese, half as many Spaniards; those of other nationalities
included 100,000 Germans, and a small colony from our Southern States,
who left in disgust in 1867. The negroes, freed in 1888 and endowed
with suffrage, were less qualified for it than in the United States.
While some have made good advancement others have relapsed into a
worse condition, being able in many parts of the country to exist on
almost nothing. Indolence is a failing among many of all complexions,
as is natural in tropical regions; on the other hand many Brazilians
even in the warmer sections are characterized by great activity and
industry. In the large cities culture and elegance are noticeable and
aristocracy of birth is cherished. In some regions the inhabitants are
less pretentious, live more simply, and practise the homely virtues;
the most primitive section according to Oakenfull is between the São
Francisco River and Maranhão. Women in general are more secluded than
in some of the other Republics. The Brazilians have much literary
and artistic taste and as a rule are punctilious in courtesy, though
exceptions may be noted.


EDUCATION

Education is highly regarded in Brazil. Primary and secondary are free
and secular, generally provided by the States and Municipalities. The
Federal Government administers several Professional Schools as of
Medicine, Law, Engineering, etc., and many of Agriculture in various
parts of the country. With some of these, local schools are affiliated,
as Schools of Law, of Applied Science, at Rio of Social Science, at
Recife Engineering, etc. The different States spend 4-21 per cent of
their revenue on primary education, averaging above ten. The Federal
District spends 28 per cent. There are also private schools in
different cities, several English or American; the American Mackenzie
College at São Paulo is affiliated with the University of the State of
New York.


PRESS, RELIGION, ETC.

=The Press= is influential and of high quality, the leading papers of
Rio, São Paulo, and other cities comparing well with those of cities
of corresponding size in other parts of the world.

=Religion.= In Brazil there is entire separation of Church and State
and absolute religious freedom. Civil marriage alone is recognized.

=Post and Telegraph.= Brazil has 3700 Post Offices.

Telegraph wires (over 26,000 miles) are in part national; other
lines belong to the railways; there are submarine cables, and one up
the Amazon. Wireless stations have been installed at many points on
the coast and in the interior, including the Amazon district, as at
Manaos and beyond. Telephones are to be found in all cities of any
considerable size, about 80 systems.

=Money= is more complicated and bothersome than in any of the other
countries, the unit being of 1000 instead of 100 parts, as is usual.
Thus the milreis, written 1$000, equals 1000 reis as the name
indicates. The milreis of gold is equal to 54.6 cents, but exchange
varies, and the paper in common use varies from its ordinary value,
33.3 cents, to half that or even less in disturbed conditions. A conto
of reis, a term often used, is 1000 milreis, and is written with a
colon, thus: 5 contos, 20 milreis, and 300 reis would be written
5:20$300.

=The Metric System= is legal and compulsory, but in some places, the
old Portuguese measures persist; these differ from the Spanish. A vara
in Peru is less than a yard, but in Brazil it is 1.111 metre, or 1.215
yard. A libra is 4.695 kilos; an alquiere varies from 24 to 160 litres.
Other variety exists in the same or in different places.




                             CHAPTER XLVI

                   BRAZIL: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS


Brazil presents in physical characteristics more variety than is
generally supposed. As the great Amazon Basin is in striking contrast
to the immense Andean Range, the entire country is thought of as hot.
Since it extends from 5° 10′ N. Lat. to 33° 45′ S. Lat. with the
widest part near the equator, the greater portion of the territory is
evidently in the torrid zone, 11° only in the temperate, with more than
twice that in the tropics. However, in this comparatively low country,
there is happily a variation in altitude sufficient to affect the
climate and to give rise to variety in productions; to which diversity
the 11° in the temperate zone also contribute. The territory may be
considered as in four general sections: the Amazon Basin, the Plata
(the two almost connected over low elevations), the Coastal Belt, and
a mass of mountains and highlands along the coastal states, extending
also at a lower level across to Bolivia. In addition there are the
Guiana Highlands at the north.


THE COASTAL BELT

The coastal section is largely a low-lying sandy tract, varied by swamp
lands overgrown with palms or other verdure, and slopes covered with
dense tropical vegetation. Without deep indentations in the form of
gulfs and bays there is a considerable number of good harbors. In the
far south two large lakes have been created which are connected with
the ocean. The coastal strip varies in width from one to 100 miles.


THE GUIANA HIGHLANDS

Of the mountainous regions, the range forming the boundary line with
Venezuela and Guiana on the north with its offshoots and the country
between has attracted little interest and been but slightly explored.
From Mt. Roraima, 8500 feet, at the corner of Venezuela and British
Guiana, the range lowers toward the East, the highest point on the
French frontier being about 2600 feet. South of this are broken
ranges and deep river courses on the Brazilian plateau, which with
an altitude of 2000 feet slopes south and east. Excepting the part
near the coast, this section called Brazilian Guiana is semi-arid, on
account of the mountains extracting the moisture from the northeast
trade winds. Inhabited by a few roving bands of Indians and in the east
visited by white mining adventurers, it has been deemed one of the
least attractive parts of the Republic. Recent exploration, however,
has reported an extent of valuable forest lands and immense areas of
open country suited to cattle ranges. A railway from British Guiana is
talked of to render this district accessible to the outside world.


THE PLATEAU AND MOUNTAIN REGION

An important part of Brazil is the plateau region (altitude 1000-3000
feet) south of the Amazon, especially that portion extending along
the coastal states. The greater part of the central section was once
covered with a thick sandstone sheet, now deeply eroded by numerous
rivers which have left high flat ridges between the lower basins. The
true mountain systems which rise from the plateau are parallel ranges
following the coast, and the Central or Goyana system. An almost
continuous range, the Serra do Mar, stretches from Rio Grande do Sul
to Cape Frio, just east of Rio de Janeiro; beyond this, farther from
the coast, broken sections extend well towards Cape St. Roque in Rio
Grande do Norte. The highest point in the Serra do Mar or Coast Range
is 7223 feet in the Organ Mountains near Rio, as the capital city is
often called for short and may be so understood when here used.

A second parallel range runs from Eastern São Paulo northeast and
north to the point where the São Francisco River turns east in Bahia;
Itatiaiá, 9823 feet, in Rio de Janeiro State, is its culminating point
in Brazil. West of the São Francisco River is the Central or Goyaz
Range, also in two branches, running from the southern part of Goyaz
northeast, one branch across western Minas Geraes, the other in Goyaz
with highlands extending far north separating the Tocantins Basin from
the São Francisco, and in the south separating it from the Paraná. The
highest point is near the city of Goyaz, Mt. Pyraneus, 7750 feet. How
the great table-land has been broken down by rivers is shown by the
Tocantins-Araguaya Basin excavated northward for 700 miles. From 100 to
500 miles wide, it is from 10 to 1500 feet deep.

The eastern margin of the plateau is near the Atlantic where it breaks
off suddenly with an average height of 2600-3200 feet. This plateau is
the best part of the country, the Atlantic slope heavily wooded, the
more gradual west slope with many grass covered plains. A fertile soil,
rich forests, and regular rainfall make this a favored region. Farther
north than Minas Geraes, the section has less rain, is thinly wooded in
places, with large areas suited to grazing but subject to drought. The
plateau extends across Brazil north of Paraguay abruptly breaking down
from a height of 2600-3000 feet towards the Paraná and Paraguay Basins.
It has a gradual slope towards the Amazon, the parts excavated by the
rivers having lowland characteristics.


THE AMAZON BASIN

The section of the Amazon Basin is indeed immense. The whole drainage
area with that of the Tocantins, generally included though not strictly
a component part, spreads over 2,700,000 square miles, much of it as
we have already seen outside of Brazil, and occupying two-fifths of
South America. This area is greater than the basins of the Mississippi,
Missouri, Danube, and Nile, all combined. The course of one tributary
to the sea is 3200 miles. Of the 55 largest rivers in the world, it is
said that 33 are mainly if not wholly in Brazil. Twenty-seven thousand
miles of navigable rivers are found in the country, the greater part
connected with the Amazon, which is itself navigable for ocean steamers
to Iquitos, Peru, a distance of 2300 miles, and 486 miles farther for
vessels of 14 feet draft. The true mouth of the Amazon is west and
north of the Marajos Island which is greater in area than Holland
or Belgium, while the Pará River at the south and east is the mouth
of the Tocantins. This, however, is the usual entrance for Amazon
steamers even when they do not wish to call at Pará, for this river is
connected by natural channels among islands with the greater stream,
and the northern entrance has too strong a current to be desirable
for navigation. As a matter of convenience the Tocantins is generally
included with the Amazon in descriptions. The depth of the estuary is
90-900 feet, averaging 150.

=The Tocantins River= is a great artery of Brazil flowing from south
to north a distance of 1600 miles, with a west affluent, the Araguaya,
almost its equal in size and 1000 miles long above the union. Both
rivers receive many tributaries. The flat broad valleys are overlooked
by steep bluffs. The cataracts and rapids which occur on nearly all of
the rivers as they come down from the plateau greatly interfere with
navigation, but in their lower courses many are navigable for hundreds
of miles, the Tocantins for 130.

=The Xingú=, the next river, with a length of 1260 miles is the first
true tributary of the Amazon on the south. This also flows nearly
north with many rapids and at last a fall, Itamaracá, at the head of
navigation, 105 miles from its mouth. Near this the river expands
into a great lake which communicates with the Amazon by many natural
channels.

=The Tapajós=, 1158 miles long, entering the Amazon about 500 miles
above Pará, rises near Diamantino on the plateau, and flows through a
long, hot, unhealthful valley. One hundred and eighty-eight miles are
navigable, the lower 100 of these being 4-9 miles wide and throughout
much of its course very deep. Along the lower river valley are bluffs
300-400 feet high.

=The Madeira=, entering 870 miles above Pará, almost rivals the Amazon
in volume. In the rainy season, during which it rises 50 feet, the
largest ocean steamers may ascend 665 miles to the falls of Santo
Antonio and the Madeira-Mamoré Railway; from June to December it is
navigable for vessels of 5-6 foot draft only. Tributary to the Madeira
on the east is the river formerly called the Duvida, first completely
traversed by Colonel Roosevelt and his party and now named in his honor
Rio Roosevelt. The Madeira which has 90 tributaries and a basin of
over 600,000 square miles is formed a little higher up by the junction
of the Beni and Mamoré, both of which streams rise close to the head
waters of the Paraguay. From Santo Antonio south, the Madeira-Mamoré
is obstructed for 263 miles by a series of rapids and cataracts, the
Madeira Falls, where the Beni comes in, presenting a vast display of
whirlpool and boiling torrents. Above Santo Antonio the drainage is
received of the southwest slope of the State of Matto Grosso, the north
slope of the Chiquitos Sierras, and the northeast slope of the Andes
from Santa Cruz de la Sierra in Bolivia to Cuzco in Peru. The most
important of the affluents are the Guaporé, Baurés, Itonamas, Mamoré,
Beni, and Madre de Dios. The almost level Mojos and Beni plains are
said to rival if not to exceed in fertility the Nile Valley; they are
the most healthful and most inviting grazing and agricultural regions
in the Amazon Basin, which has an area about equal to that of France
and Spain. However, 35,000 square miles are flooded 2-3 feet, three or
four months every year.

=The Purús=, over 2000 miles in length, is a very sluggish stream
parallel to the Madeira, in the great depression between the Brazilian
plateau and the Andes. A peculiar feature is five parallel canals
coming into it from the Amazon northwest at almost regular intervals,
making five low islands; and nearer to the great river are three more.
The Purús is navigable for light steamers 1648 miles five months in the
year; for 800 miles its depth is not less than 45 feet. The lands are
subject to inundation, the river at times rising 50 feet.

=The Juruá= is a similar river, navigable for 1133 miles.

=The Javary=, the boundary line between Brazil and Peru, is navigable
for craft 260 miles. The region is occupied by savages.

=The Trombetes.= On the north side of the Amazon there are fewer
important rivers, the Trombetes, the first from the east, which is
navigable 135 miles, comes from the Guiana Highlands.

=The Negro=, 900 miles from Pará, 1500 miles long, is navigable for
450 miles forming midway a succession of lagoons, and overflowing its
banks, often for a width of 20 miles. The rivers farther west have been
sufficiently described.

The average depth of the Amazon is 50 feet, the current is three miles
an hour. Beginning to rise in November the river is fullest in June,
then falling to November. The Madeira, which rises and falls two months
earlier, is in places 4-6 miles wide. The width of the Amazon is 20-60
miles, while in periods of inundation the forest is partly submerged
for a width of 400 miles.


THE PLATA BASIN

A much smaller portion of Brazil lies in the basin of La Plata; this,
at least for the moment, is the best and richest part of the entire
country, containing the greatest population outside of the coastal
fringe.

=The Uruguay.= At the south the several rivers forming the Uruguay,
which rise in the Serra do Mar, drain Rio Grande do Sul and part of
Santa Catharina, while from there up to the north end of São Paulo and
into Goyaz only a narrow coast region is outside the Paraná Basin.

=The Paraná.= The most remote source of the Paraná, that of the branch
Paranahyba, is in the Serra Pyreneos in Goyaz, while the Rio Grande
branch rises in the Serra da Mantiqueira near the peak Itatiaiá, so to
say, in sight of Rio. Many affluents are received from the States of
São Paulo and Paraná, these generally flowing northwest or west; the
Paraná itself flows southwest forming the western boundary of those
States. A branch, the Tiété, in São Paulo, 700 miles long, is broken by
54 rapids and two falls. The Paranapanema in Paraná, 600 miles long,
is navigable for 30 miles. The Iguassú, rising in the Serra do Mar in
Santa Catharina and flowing west is hardly navigable for canoes.

Twenty-eight miles above the mouth of the Tiété the course of the
Paraná is interrupted by the Falls of Urubupungá. From here to
the Guaira or Sete Quedas Falls, 400 miles, there is unobstructed
navigation. At this point the river forms a lake 4¹⁄₂ miles long and
2¹⁄₂ wide before cutting through the Serra de Maracajú. Then after
rushing through a deep and narrow gorge for two miles, it plunges
down a long cañon hardly 200 feet wide in a series of rapids or falls
called the Sete Quedas, Seven Falls. It is reported as able to supply
over a million horse power, probably the most of any cataract in the
world. Again the river is navigable from a little below the falls, and
with regular service it forms an outlet for the State of Paraná to the
ocean.

=The Paraguay.= The River Paraguay rises near Diamantino in Matto
Grosso receiving a number of tributaries from that State, one of which,
the Cuyabá, called the São Lourenço lower down, has its source close to
that of the Tapajós branch of the Amazon.


COAST RIVERS AND LAKES

=Other rivers= flow directly into the Atlantic, several of some
importance. North of the Amazon a few small rivers are called
auriferous, the Araguary of considerable length. South of the Amazon
Delta, some rivers flow north and northeast among the mountain ridges,
others directly to the ocean. Of the former the most important are the
Parnahyba, 900 miles long, navigable in sections, and farther south the
São Francisco, the largest river of the coastal region, navigable 192
miles from the coast to the fine Paulo Affonso Falls, and above these
for a much greater distance. The Jequitinhonha, 500 miles long, has 84
miles navigable. The most important river south of the São Francisco is
the Parahyba do Sul, 658 miles long, rising in the State of São Paulo
and flowing across Rio. It is navigable from its mouth a distance of 57
miles and 90 in its upper course.

=The Ribeira de Iguapé.= The only coast river of economic importance
south of Cape Frio is the Ribeira de Iguapé which rises on the
table-land of Paraná and after receiving several affluents breaks
through the mountains near the boundary of São Paulo. Besides a
navigable channel of 118 miles it communicates with an inland waterway
called the Iguapé or Mar Pequeno, extending many miles along the coast.
In Rio Grande do Sul, where the coastal plain extends half across the
State, several rivers partly navigable flow into the important Lagôa
dos Patos, with which is connected by a navigable channel, 61 miles
long, the Lagôa Mirím.

=Lakes.= The Lakes of Brazil are few in comparison with the rivers.
Those in the Amazon Basin are reservoirs from the overflow of the
rivers and rise and fall with these. The coastal section has lagoons
and inland channels formed by uplifted beaches; they are usually
shallow and some, as in Bahia, are associated with swamps; but on the
Alagôas coast the lakes are long, narrow, and deep. The largest coastal
lakes are the two in Rio Grande do Sul already mentioned, separated
by broad sand beaches from the ocean, with which they communicate by
a channel 42 miles long at the south end of the Lagôa dos Patos. This
lake is 140 miles long and 30 wide; the Mirím is 78 miles long and at
the most 25 wide. Both are navigable, though shallow and with many sand
bars.


CLIMATE

This great country of Brazil presents considerable diversity of
climate, as already observed. The forest covered Amazon Basin is hot,
with slight variation throughout the year, and with heavy rainfalls;
but while the average temperature is over 80°, ranging from 65° to 95°,
some locations are decidedly preferable to others. The regular rainy
season is from November to March, a second of less degree from August
to October; also the rainy season is said to last nine months. On the
upper Amazon there is a short dry season in January and February. There
is a flood time November, December, and higher water from March to
June. The average rainfall is about 78 inches, the rise of the river
45 feet. There are east winds, warm and moisture laden, the deflected
trades, and colder winds from the west and southwest.

The coast region as far south as Santos is generally warm and humid
(except for a stretch at the northeast), with a wet and dry season,
though it rains also in the latter, except on the arid northeast coast.
A variation occurs in Pernambuco where it rains from March to August,
the dry and cooler season in Rio. Here on the edge of the tropics the
annual temperature is 5° lower than on the Amazon. At Santos rainfall
is heavy and the place is hot, but farther south it is cooler with a
wider range of temperature and a more even distribution of rain. In Rio
Grande do Sul the mercury ranges from 20° to 80°. Cold southwest storms
from the Argentine pampa, occasionally as far as Rio, create discomfort
for two or three days at a time. The highest temperature in Rio is
98.7°.

The Brazilian plateau is very different. As a rule the days are
hotter and the nights cooler, the air drier, than on the coast at
the same latitude. With mean temperature 68° there is occasional
frost. Brazilian Guiana is hot and arid, though with more rain at the
east and west than in the centre. South of the Amazon from Piauhy to
southern Bahia is another semi-arid section with a rainless season
from June to December, when streams are dry and fields are burned
bare. With heavy rains from January to May, the country is covered
with verdure; when these fail, sometimes for successive years, the
droughts are destructive to agriculture and cattle. The plateaus of
Minas, São Paulo, and Rio have a climate which is modified by luxuriant
vegetation, south winds, and their altitude; though Minas Geraes,
having forests only along the rivers and at the south, is hotter by
day, but with always cool nights. The open lands of São Paulo also have
higher daily temperature; the annual mean is 68°-77°. In south Minas
and São Paulo frosts occasionally occur. In the State of Rio there is a
delightful climate in the high valleys of the Serra do Mar, temperature
45°-90°. The table-lands farther south, Paraná, Santa Catharina,
and Rio Grande do Sul enjoy a temperate climate with abundant rain,
occasional frost, but no snow. The northern valleys of the Paraná River
are sub-tropical, the mean annual temperature of Goyaz City being 77°.

The country over a large extent may be considered healthful; the
yellow fever which once afflicted Rio and some other cities has been
exterminated by rigid sanitary measures, and the conditions of life
on the eastern plateau and in the temperate south are agreeable.
The Amazon Valley is of course malarial, though some sections are
far better than others. It would seem that the lower parts which
are subject to inundation can hardly be made suitable for residence
whatever precautions are taken; but the higher lands may be to some
extent free of malarial poison, and certain parts have a climate which
some Europeans, even Englishmen enjoy.




                             CHAPTER XLVII

            BRAZIL: THE CAPITAL, INDIVIDUAL STATES, CITIES


THE CAPITAL

=Rio de Janeiro=, the capital of Brazil, with a population of
1,200,000, the second city in South America and the fifth in the
Western Hemisphere, is generally conceded to have the finest harbor in
the world. It is also the most beautiful city in respect to natural
advantages, while the improvements which have recently been carried
out have made the artificial structure of the city in harmony with
its picturesque surroundings. In the early part of this century the
Government awoke to the disadvantages of the narrow streets, the poor
facilities for commerce, and the notoriously bad conditions of health.
Immense improvements were inaugurated and speedily executed. Fine
drainage canals were installed, mosquitoes practically exterminated,
wide avenues were cut through dense quarters, and port works
constructed, so that in health, beauty, and commercial convenience,
nothing remains to be desired. A new Central Avenue, now renamed Rio
Branco, is counted among the finest in the world; other splendid
avenues are lined with fine commercial structures or beautiful private
residences, perhaps with royal palms; along the shores are magnificent
boulevards unrivaled in beauty, often thronged with luxurious
automobiles, all amid surroundings of ideal loveliness of sea-shore and
of mountain. Hotel accommodations, hitherto only fair, and inadequate,
are improving with the erection of needed new structures, as increasing
travel for business and pleasure demanded. Living expenses are
called high in all parts of Brazil, but on the whole Rio has seemed no
dearer than New York. The city may boast of a splendid opera house,
said to have cost $5,000,000, of the largest library in South America,
and the finest art gallery, a wonderful botanical garden, museums,
delightful sea and mountain resorts, etc., etc.

[Illustration: EASTERN BRAZIL]


STATES AND CITIES

As the country of Brazil is so large and of such diversity in its
various sections and even in single States, with many independent
systems of railways connected with its numerous harbors, it may be
desirable to speak of its ports and to some extent of its railways in
connection with a review of the different States. In this we may begin
with the Coastal States, coming up from the south, and conclude with
those of the interior.

=Rio Grande do Sul=, eleventh in area among the States of Brazil, and
equal in size to Indiana and Illinois together, borders on Uruguay at
the south. The Uruguay River separates it from Argentina on the west
and most of the way from the State of Santa Catharina on the north. Its
population is about the same as that of the State of South Carolina,
which is one-third of its size. It is called a pastoral State as its
chief source of wealth at present is cattle; 45 of the 70 million
acres are cattle ranges, 6¹⁄₄ million, farms, and 13³⁄₄ forests. The
nearly 9,000,000 head of cattle are called the best in Brazil. Blooded
stock is being introduced and packing houses are taking the place
of _saladeros_ for _charque_ or dried meat, which formerly were the
destination of most of the cattle. High class poultry is extensively
and profitably raised, $4,500,000 being invested in the industry.

With a temperate climate and well watered, the country is by no means
confined to stock raising, for its agricultural products are more
diverse than those of any other state. Not only cereals like wheat and
oats, but cotton, rice, sugar cane, tobacco, _manioc_, alfalfa, etc.,
even tea are successfully raised, as well as temperate zone fruits and
vegetables. It has important coal mines, with some of copper, gold, and
wolfram also being operated, and a wide distribution of these and other
minerals. With 13,000 industrial establishments its important factories
include nine textile mills.

The capital, Porto Alegre, is the chief manufacturing centre, and the
State is third in such industries. The capital is the largest city in
southern Brazil, with a cosmopolitan population one fourth of German
descent. An important commercial and industrial centre, it has fine
public buildings, colleges, theatres, clubs, good shops, parks, and
hotels. The population is nearly all white with a large percentage of
Italians as well as of Germans.

Rio Grande is the chief port, 1000 miles south of Rio de Janeiro, and
180 by sea north of Montevideo. The city lies just inside the entrance
of the Lagôa dos Patos at its south end. Unfortunately, the entrance
has been obstructed by a sand bar with a varying depth of water above.
Vessels drawing more than 11 feet could not pass; uncertainty, often
a few days’ waiting was the fate of others. An attempt to dredge a
passage was unsuccessful, but with building of jetties improvement
is manifest. Port works in the city, including a mile of quays, have
been established, and a rapid development of the region is expected to
follow. The city, population 40,000, has an active commerce by rail and
water. By rail it is connected at Cacequy with the through line from
São Paulo to Montevideo, and beyond this line at Uruguayana (population
20,000), on the Uruguay River, with the Argentine railways on the other
side. There is regular steam navigation to the port of Pelotas, three
hours, population 32,000, noted for its dried meat products, and to
Porto Alegre at the north end of the lagoon, 150 miles and 12 hours
distant.

=Santa Catharina=, north of Rio Grande, less than one third of its
size, has rather similar characteristics. Bordering on the Atlantic,
it has Argentina on the west; on the north is the State of Paraná,
from which it is separated for half the distance by the Iguassú River.
The State is notable for wheat growing and other grains, for cattle
and dairy products, for its exports of fruits, for its coal mines, and
for the timber from its forests, especially the Paraná pines. It ranks
second in Brazil as a producer of _yerba mate_, in Portuguese _herva
matte_, 14,000,000 pounds being its annual output. Its manufacturing
establishments (174) are of small size.

The capital and chief port is Florianopolis on an island of that name.
Improvements in the way of good port works are in hand, and though
without rail connection a tonnage of about 300,000 has entered and
cleared in a year. The port of São Francisco, a smaller town in the
State, is called the best port south of Santos. This advantage will
give the city future importance. Already it has rail connection by way
of the town Rio Negro with Curityba and Paranaguá, and so with Ponta
Grossa on the São Paulo-Uruguay Railway which of course crosses the
State, a distance of 225 miles. The city is expected to be the terminus
of a road which will pass through União da Victoria to the Iguassú
Falls and across Paraguay to Asunción.

=Paraná=, about the size of Rio Grande, is between Santa Catharina and
São Paulo, having Argentina also on its southwest corner beyond the
Iguassú River and its great Falls. Along the western border flows the
larger river, the Alto Paraná (with the tremendous La Guayra Falls)
separating the State from Paraguay, and farther north from Matto
Grosso. Besides these boundary rivers the Paranapanema, affluent of the
Paraná, flows between this State and São Paulo, while the Rio Negro and
Iguassú are between it and Santa Catharina. Many more tributaries of
the Paraná are entirely within the State. _Matte_ is the chief industry
at present, 100,000,000 pounds being annually exported; but with
the best wheat land of Brazil, its forests of Paraná pine, and other
varieties of timber it may have another leader before long. Paranaguá,
the State’s chief port, with a deep anchorage and improvements planned,
is now visited by 650 vessels a year and has a total annual trade of
$6,000,000. A smaller port, Antonina, is on the north side of the same
bay.

The capital, Curityba, has rail connection with the two ports and with
Ponta Grossa on the line to Uruguay traversing these three States. In
the delightful four hours’ journey of 70 miles from Paranaguá to the
capital, the climb of the Serra do Mar up a steep tropical valley is
made without cogs or cables by means of high trestles, bridges, and 17
tunnels; the ride rivaling if not surpassing in beauty the more famous
one from Santos to São Paulo.

=São Paulo=, a great and justly famous State, about the size of
Arizona, more than twice that of New York, has Minas Geraes on
the north, also east with a small extent of the State of Rio de
Janeiro; the ocean is southeast, Paraná south, and Matto Grosso west.
This enterprising State is the leader in agriculture, producing
60 per cent of the world’s coffee supply, besides cotton, sugar,
tobacco, cereals, etc., in large quantities; it is second to Rio in
manufacturing industries, contains large mineral riches, is advanced
in stock raising, leads in educational advantages, and has the best
railway service of 4300 miles. The wealth of this State is estimated
as at $1,100,000,000 in agriculture, $500,000,000 in manufactures,
$170,000,000 in railways, and $2,230,000,000 miscellaneous. While
most of it is in the torrid zone, the altitude of the State averaging
over 2000 feet gives it (except for the narrow coastal strip) a fine
healthful climate, a blessing enjoyed too by the States previously
mentioned. In the Falls of its rivers the State possesses 3,000,000
horse power of which only 250,000 is employed.

The port of Santos, population 80,000, is regularly visited by the
large Transatlantic and North American steamers. It is called one of
the best and most important ports of the world, receiving 1600 ships
annually besides coasting vessels. The largest ocean steamers, 20-40
foot draft, come up to the quay which extends for three miles along the
harbor front; fine granite walls rise five feet above high water mark
on a base 10-20 feet thick. Modern machinery is provided, making it the
best equipped port in Brazil, and nothing is allowed to interfere with
the efficiency of the service. It is a very busy city though warm. The
heat does not prevent people from rushing about. A Brazilian writer has
said, “People do not run, they fly.” The reason for this unusual haste,
by no means manifest in Rio, is that many prominent business men come
daily, others occasionally, from São Paulo by morning train, returning
at four P.M. A splendid railway which will be referred to later, leads
to that important city, a two hours’ ride.

The capital city, São Paulo, 310 miles from Rio and 50 from Santos,
while lacking the charm of Rio’s scenic beauty, is preferred by many
as a place of residence on account of its cooler climate, the greater
business activity apparent, and the cosmopolitan society, more than one
third of the population being of foreign birth and another one third
direct descendants of Europeans. The city has many splendid buildings,
both public and private, including an opera house superior to any in
the United States, a large number of excellent schools of various
kinds, and all the attractions and facilities, except good and adequate
hotels, of a city of half a million inhabitants.

=The Federal District of Brazil=, the capital, Rio de Janeiro, has been
sufficiently described except as a port city. From a commercial point
of view the harbor and port works are the chief interest. The Guanabara
Bay is a wonderful harbor, not merely on account of its size, depth of
water, absolutely safe anchorage, and the beauty of its surroundings,
but it is extraordinary from the fact that it is hardly a mile from
the ocean to the landing docks. Here a granite quay extends for 2¹⁄₄
miles along the water front with a depth of water alongside of 31
feet. The deep channel entrance is narrowed to a mile in width by long
narrow peninsulas extending on either side and further by a small
island blocking the waves. The docks have the additional protection of
a projecting point of the city, on the other side of which, on rare
occasions, the waves do break over upon the splendid boulevard. The
larger inner harbor is hardly noticeable, being cut off by peninsulas
and islands, of which last the bay contains nearly a hundred. The
entire bay is 18 miles long, and the inner section is 15 miles wide. At
the docks the most modern machinery is provided for hoisting, loading
and unloading ships, with electric power for the work and for lighting.
A width of 80 feet was left for railway tracks; back of these are
storage ware-houses, administration offices, and customs, for which a
space of 110 feet was allowed. Behind these buildings is an avenue 125
feet wide, with double tracks on which run electric cars. Two million
dollars are now (1921) to be expended for additional port works, an
extension of the granite quay or dock wall about 2000 feet and two
breakwaters of 800,000 cubic feet.

=Rio de Janeiro.= This State, though containing or surrounding the
capital, is distinct from it, with a capital of its own on the opposite
shore of the bay. As the direction of the coast line changes here, the
State has the ocean east and south; São Paulo is west, Minas Geraes
north, and Espirito Santo at the northeast. The State is comparatively
small, being only about one sixth the size of its western neighbor, and
less than one twelfth of its northern; it is even a trifle smaller than
Espirito Santo, its next coastal neighbor.

Nictheroy, the capital, is a comparatively small, quiet town of 65,000
population, which has some important manufactories. The State has other
smaller towns, as Petropolis, the so-called summer capital, population
30,000, at an elevation of 3000 feet. The Parahyba Rio do Sul, which
flows northeast, back of the mountain range, is navigable to the city
of Campos, population 30,000, 60 miles from its mouth. The agricultural
products are important, the State ranking third in coffee and second
in sugar. Large quantities of corn and rice are raised, the coast
lands with lakes and lagoons being well suited to the latter. Valuable
forests and minerals exist, and in manufacturing industries of great
variety the State stands first. Besides the harbor of Rio there are a
number of good though small ports.

=Espirito Santo.= Little Espirito Santo, northeast of Rio State, has
Minas at the west and Bahia north. The principal products of the State
are coffee, rice, and other cereals, sugar, cotton, and _mandioca_;
while the export of fine timber, rosewood, satin and brazil wood,
is increasing. Gold and precious stones are its chief minerals. Its
factories are few, but the town of Itaperim on a navigable river has
cheap electric power, which makes it a fine centre for industry in the
future.

The capital and chief city, Victoria, population 20,000, is the first
port of importance north of Rio. On a fine bay 2¹⁄₂ miles wide with
a narrow entrance of less than ¹⁄₂ a mile, it is the outlet of the
eastern part of the State of Minas, which contains the richest mineral
deposits so far exploited in Brazil. A railway connects the port with
interior cities. Works of importance have been planned, a quay ⁵⁄₈ of
a mile long with 28 feet of water and with suitable equipment; the
widening and deepening of the channel entrance, and the building of a
steel bridge to the main land from the island on which the city stands.
Over 500 steamers and 200 sailing vessels clear yearly.

=Bahia=, an important and well known State, the largest yet considered,
exceeding California in area, touches three smaller States on the
north, Piauhy, Pernambuco, and Sergipe; it has Espirito Santo and Minas
on the south and Goyaz west. All kinds of tropical and subtropical
products are found here, cacao, sugar, and coffee in large quantities,
rubber of the _maniçoba_ and _mangabeira_ varieties, cotton, vanilla,
the finest kind of oranges and pine apples, and other fruits. Bahia has
the principal whale fisheries of the country and the best grounds for
table fish. Its mineral wealth includes even the sand, _monazite_, the
most important supply in the world.

The capital and chief port, 720 miles northeast of Rio, about 60 hours
sail, is generally called by the name of the State, though its proper
title is São Salvador. It has an excellent and beautiful harbor, though
over-shadowed by the more remarkable picturesqueness of Rio. The bay,
Bahia de Todos os Santos, about 25 miles wide (three at the entrance),
and 20 miles deep, provides good anchorage for large steamers, 40 feet
close in shore. It is a port of call for Trans-Atlantic liners and
for steamers from North America, the only one north of Rio for some
of the Lines. A company has undertaken port works which will greatly
advance the prosperity of City and State, the works to include three
breakwaters and two quay walls, the levelling of a large wharf space,
erection of store-houses, laying railway lines, installing electric
cranes, and constructing a floating dock and a lighthouse. Over 1000
large steamers with 2,300,000 tonnage enter the port annually. The
imports are $13,000,000, the exports $20,000,000. The city is connected
by rail with various cities in the interior of the State, and with the
São Francisco River at a point above the Falls, from which there is
navigation upstream a distance of 990 miles. The river has a length in
the State of 850 miles. Bahia is a great cocoa port, shipping about
one-fifth of the world’s supply; the State produces about as much
tobacco as Cuba.

=Sergipe=, the smallest of all the States, is larger than nine of ours,
a trifle bigger than Maryland and Delaware together. The São Francisco
River separates it from Alagôas on the north, it has Bahia on the
west and south. Its chief products are cotton, sugar, and rice; the
cattle industry is important; the State has profitable manufacturing
industries; cotton mills, sugar, shoes, soap, and other factories, and
unworked mineral deposits.

The capital, Aracajú, population 40,000, is a small port with 95,000
tons of shipping yearly; but it suffers the disadvantage of receiving
ships of no more than 8 feet draft, and needs the improvements now
planned.

=Alagôas=, of triangular shape, has Sergipe on one side and Pernambuco
on the other, the ocean on the third. Its main products are sugar and
cotton; the cattle industry is prosperous; it has copper, lead and
iron deposits, not operated, and very important milling industries,
particularly of cotton. The São Francisco River is regularly navigated
175 miles to the Paulo Affonso Falls, around which there is a railway
52 miles long to navigation above.

The capital, Maceió, is a modern city; its suburb, the port, Jaraguá,
with a tonnage of 600,000. The State is the most thickly populated next
to Rio de Janeiro.

=Pernambuco=, the twelfth State in size, with area equal to that of New
York, extends well into the interior, though with a coast line of 112
miles only. Ceará and Parahyba are on the north, Alagôas and Bahia on
the south, and Piauhy on the west. The State leads in the production of
cotton and sugar, sometimes exporting 150,000 tons of the latter, and
raw cotton worth $5,000,000. Other agricultural products are secondary,
but cattle and dairying are important, still more the milling industry.
Minerals, coal, iron, saltpetre, kaolin, and manganese exist in paying
quantities. There are two good ports besides the capital; railways
connect Recife with Maceió and with cities inland.

Recife (often called Pernambuco), capital of the State, is a port
protected by a coral reef parallel to the shore, where fine works are
being constructed: these include a breakwater three-fourths of a mile
long, a stone jetty one-half a mile; quays, one with 33 feet of water,
one with 28-30, together three-fourths of a mile long, also other
equipment. One thousand steamers are its annual quota, with tonnage
of 1,750,000; the city has obviously great commercial importance,
exporting especially cotton and sugar, also rum, hides, and cereals.
Its imports surpass those of any other Brazilian city except Rio. The
cost of living is high.

=Parahyba= has on the north Rio Grande do Norte, Pernambuco south,
Ceará west, and 72 miles of coast east. Cotton is the chief product,
and mandioca is important. Vast coconut groves of trees, growing wild,
should be taken advantage of. The pastoral industry is important, with
goats a specialty as with its neighbors.

A little below the capital, Parahyba, at the mouth of the Rio Parahyba
do Norte, is the seaport Cabedello, where port works are planned.

=Rio Grande do Norte= is the first of several States which have the
Atlantic Ocean on the north. It is on the east also, forming a coast
line of 290 miles. Parahyba is south and Ceará west. Here, too, cotton
and sugar are the chief products, though 180 tons of rubber annually,
from the _maniçoba_ trees, are of value; the cattle and goats are
important; _carnaüba_ wax and vegetable oils come from the forests;
the State, from natural _salines_, supplies much of the salt used in
Brazil. Dried and salt fish are supplied to the rest of the northern
States, and much cotton cloth and thread are exported. Natal, the
capital, is near the mouth of the Rio Grande. A great reservoir with
a dam 160 feet high and a capacity of 2,200,000,000 cubic metres of
water is to be constructed, the irrigation of 250,000 acres thereby
transforming a large district; others here and in Ceará.

=Ceará=, smaller than Pernambuco, is nearly twice the size of Rio
Grande do Norte, which with Parahyba is on the east; Pernambuco is
south and Piauhy west. Cotton is the chief product though coffee,
sugar, cacao and cereals are also raised. Cultivated rubber is exported
as from Bahia; the cattle industry is important, though affected by
occasional severe droughts. However there are approximately 2,000,000
head of cattle. Minerals and precious stones are found in variety.

The capital and port, Fortaleza, is one of the worst on the coast.
Three powerful dredges are maintained by the Government for the
continual dredging of the channel into which sand from the dunes is
ever drifting. Two smaller ports require similar dredging.

=Piauhy=, eighth of the States in size, with a deep interior has the
smallest coast line, only 43 miles. It has Ceará and Pernambuco east,
Bahia south, and Maranhão west, from which it is separated by the
Parnahyba River. The State has the expected agricultural products, vast
herds of cattle and large flocks of goats; important forest wealth of
rubber, timber, wax, and medicinal plants, and a variety of minerals.
It has one seaport, Amarraçao, but a good deal goes out from a port
of the next State, Tutoya, on the other side of the river Parnahyba.
Therezina, the capital, is of some importance.

=Maranhão=, a little larger, has Piauhy east and south, Goyaz south
and west, almost touching Bahia between these two; it has Pará also on
the west. Its coast line is 100 miles more than Piauhy’s. Cotton is
the chief agricultural product, but others exist; the cattle industry
is important, much live stock going to Amazonas; there is good forest
wealth, various minerals, and important cotton factories.

São Luis do Maranhão, the capital, population 50,000, is called the
chief port though troubled by sand, while Tutoya is excellent.

=Pará=, a name at last familiar to all, is third of the States in area,
equal to Texas and California, with West Virginia thrown in. It has
Guiana on the north, with the Atlantic northeast; east are Maranhão and
Goyaz. Matto Grosso is south, and Amazonas west. Its chief products are
of the forest, particularly rubber, also Brazil nuts, medicinal plants,
oils and timber. Little is done in agriculture though many plants grow
freely such as cotton, rice, tobacco, and especially cacao, of which
3500 tons a year have been exported. There are large herds of cattle,
perhaps 2,000,000 head, and various minerals are found. One railway,
with branches, leads from Pará to Bragança, near the ocean, and to
other towns; and one is open for a short distance in the valley of the
Tocantins, the beginning of an ambitious project.

The capital, Belém, usually called by foreigners Pará is a fine
city of 200,000 and the only considerable seaport, if so it may be
termed, as it is on a bay of the Pará River 80 miles from the ocean.
Mean temperature 78°. Harbor works, begun in 1906, and costing over
$60,000,000, have been of immense value. They include a fine quay
a mile and a half long with a depth of water part of the way of 30
feet, docks and storehouses, two floating docks, a Custom House, oil
storage tanks, etc. One thousand steamers formerly entered yearly with
tonnage of 1,500,000; imports at one time were valued at $15,000,000
and exports at $30,000,000. A channel from the outer river, 30 feet
in depth, is marked by 26 buoys lighted by acetylene gas. The city is
notable with attractive plazas, a unique forest park, a museum, a white
marble theatre, and a good hotel. The various cities or villages are
coast or river ports, some on the Amazon, others on the Tapajós, Xingú,
Tocantins, Araguary, or smaller streams.

=Amazonas=, first of the inland States, and the largest of all, has
Colombia and Venezuela north, Pará east, Matto Grosso, Bolivia, and
Acre south, and Peru and Colombia west. Its area is equal to that
of our three Pacific Coast States with Idaho, Montana, Nevada, and
Colorado. In this great space the population, estimated at 435,000, is
about one person to 1¹⁄₂ square miles. Manaos, the capital, and the
various other centres of population by the river side mean rubber.
There are no roads except of water, no paths save those made by rubber
gatherers, with a few by Indians, the number of whom is a mere guess.
All tropical products thrive but their production is negligible save
that of rubber. Various minerals are unexploited. Manaos, 924 miles
from Pará, 1030 from the ocean, and 2000 from Rio, is the first real
city in the wilderness, though Obidos, still in the State of Pará, is a
port where 300 vessels call in a year, and a number of smaller places
claim that title.

Manaos, a city of 60,000 population, is located just off the Amazon
seven miles up the Rio Negro, on a large quiet bay. Port works
have been constructed, a fine stone wall over 1500 feet long, with
floating docks to fit the 50-foot rise and fall of the river, and 16
electrically equipped warehouses conveniently arranged. Considering
its location, it is a wonderful city, well lighted, with a splendid
opera house, expensive of course, a fine cathedral, schools, a public
library, museum, and good sanitation. One thousand four hundred miles
farther is the Peruvian city of Iquitos, near the limit of navigation
for ocean vessels on the main stream. Some distance below Manaos the
Amazon is entered by the Madeira River which gives access to the State
of Matto Grosso and to Bolivia.

=Matto Grosso= is second in size, equal to the States mentioned above
without Nevada and Colorado. Estimated population 275,000. This State
has Amazonas and Pará on the north, Goyaz, Minas Geraes, São Paulo,
and Paraná on the east, Paraguay and Bolivia are on the south, and
Paraguay and Bolivia west. The State is much more open than Amazonas;
its chief industry is cattle. Forest products however abound, with all
kinds of rubber and magnificent timber. There are large agricultural
possibilities and considerable _matte_ is exported. Diamonds and
auriferous sands are exploited though their origin is uncertain. The
river systems north and south meet in the highlands, and connection
might be made by a short canal, opening a way from Pará or Manaos to
Buenos Aires.

Cuyabá, the capital, on a river of the same name, an affluent of the
Paraguay, is quite a city, population 32,000, although 1045 miles above
Asunción, while Corumbá, lower down, on the Paraguay, is of nearly
equal size. The river at Corumbá is 1000 feet wide, and 6 feet deep
at the docks at low water. Corumbá is regularly visited by steamers,
though 1800 miles by river from Montevideo. Its export and import trade
amounts to at least $4,000,000 annually.

=Goyaz=, the fourth State in size, following Pará, has Maranhão on the
north, Maranhão, Bahia, and Minas Geraes are on the east, Minas and
Matto Grosso are south, and Matto Grosso and Pará west. Three hundred
thousand is the estimated population with a guess at the number of
Indians of many tribes. The principal industry is stock raising and
many cattle are exported to neighboring States. The forests have the
_maniçoba_ and the _mangabeira_ rubber, also a vegetable silk, _paina_.
There are great mineral riches, placer gold in many streams, and veins
in the hills; many diamonds and rock crystal are also produced. Other
metals as iron and copper exist. Navigable rivers are the means of
communication as in the neighboring States, but a railroad is coming
and more rapid development will follow.

The capital, Goyaz, is not much of a place, though of late evincing
progress. Several other cities have from 5000 to 10,000 inhabitants.

=Minas Geraes=, the fourth inland State and the fifth in size, has
Bahia on the north, Bahia and Espirito Santo east, Rio de Janeiro
southeast, São Paulo southwest, and Goyaz west, a small southwest
corner about reaching Matto Grosso below. Although without a seaport
and with no large city, Minas is the most populous of the States, with
an active industrious population. The State leads in mineral riches
of almost every kind; it is one of the foremost in agriculture of all
varieties, being second to São Paulo in coffee; it has vast pasture
lands, exporting 300,000 head of cattle a year, a sugar refinery, flour
mills, and a great dairy industry. It has increasing railway service
as well as river transportation. It is believed to have a mineral
future rivaling that of the best region in the world. Its factories are
important and there is a great store of water power.

Bello Horizonte, the present capital, was made to order in 1897, and is
well laid out with broad streets, water supply, sewerage, everything
of the best type: a Government Palace, the finest State building of
Brazil, and a fine Agricultural School. Ouro Preto, the old capital,
has a free Mining School, said to be one of the best in the world.

=The Acre Territory=, triangular in shape, has Amazonas north, Bolivia
south, and Peru west. It is naturally similar to the neighboring
sections. There are three Districts: Juruá, of which the capital is
Cruzeiro do Sul, population 2000, 1351 miles from Manaos; Purús,
capital, Senna Madureira, population 4000, 1320 miles from Manaos; and
Acre, capital Rio Branco, population 2000, 1351 miles from Manaos.




                            CHAPTER XLVIII

           BRAZIL: TRANSPORTATION--OCEAN, RIVER, AND RAILWAY


OCEAN AND RIVER TRAFFIC

Brazil has a considerable navy, several warships; and a merchant marine
of 450,000 gross tonnage. The leading national line is the Brazilian
Lloyd which with 62 ships has a service to the United States as well
as a coastwise, the latter shared by the Navegaçao Costeira and other
companies. Rio de Janeiro has three dry docks, one with a capacity for
the largest battleships, and a yard where ships are constructed. The
country has 30,000 miles of navigable rivers, with boats for these
having a tonnage of 75,000.

Coastwise and river steamers have service in the Amazon Basin,
the most important as follows: Pará-Obidos-Manaos, 975 miles;
Pará-Santarem-Itaituba (Rio Tapajós) 729 miles; Pará-Maués, Pará
Tocantins, 1544 miles; Tabatinga (Frontier) Remate dos Males,
1743 miles; Pará-Santo Antonio (Madeira) 1617 miles; Pará-Rio,
Peru-Senna-Madureira, 1934 miles; Pará-Chaves (Marajos Island), Oyapock
River; Manaos and Rio Negro to Santa Isabel, 423 miles; Manaos to the
Yapurá River--to the Juruá River, Cruzeiro do Sul, 1090 miles.

Other companies have service, Maranhão north to Pará, 599 miles, south
to Pernambuco 884 miles; Recife north to Maranhão 803 miles, south to
Bahia 385 miles, east to Fernando do Noronha Island, 239 miles. On
the São Francisco River, Januaria to Pirapora. Other Lines serve from
Rio de Janeiro to ports south to Laguna and Ribeira de Iguapé, São
Paulo; also on the Paraná and the Rio Grande, and on the Lakes Patos
and Mirím. Service from Rio de Janeiro to Corumbá, 765 miles above
Asunción, and 280 miles farther to Cuyabá on the Cuyabá River, in time
of high water is continued on the Paraguay 250 miles beyond to São Luiz
de Caceres.


RAILWAY TRANSPORTATION

While the great rivers of Brazil with their 27,000 miles of navigable
waters have been a large factor in the development of the country, of
equal importance for the future is transportation by rail. The total
present mileage, second to that of Argentina, exceeds 16,500, these
having developed from 9¹⁄₂ miles in 1854 and about 10,000, 50 years
later. About 90 per cent are of metre gauge. For the economic unity
of the great Republic, the Government policy is favorable to a rapid
extension of the present railway systems, a matter as important as
was the creation of our railways to the Pacific 50 years ago. The
development in Brazil has been retarded by the difficult topography
of the country, in striking contrast to the Argentine plains. Along
the greater and better part of the coast is the high steep wall of the
plateau region, which must be climbed to enter the interior. Once at
the top the way in some sections is easier, but in others there are
additional mountain ranges. The wall, obviously low in comparison with
the mighty rampart of the Andes, presents difficulties, but none to
compare with those experienced in Peru.

The first railway, built and operated in 1854, was from Mauá on the
north shore of the Rio harbor to Fragosa. Soon after carried to
Petropolis, it is now a part of the Leopoldina Railway system. Only two
South American railways antedate this, the Demarara of British Guiana
and the Caldera-Copiapó in Chile.

=The Central of Brazil Railway= was the first of much importance, its
first section, 32 miles, opened in 1858. For this road leading out of
Rio expenses were heavy. Many were the difficulties of construction,
tunnels, bridges, etc., the boring of one tunnel, only 1¹⁄₂ miles long,
requiring seven years. The system, now in Government ownership, has
a network of lines extending from Rio to the city of São Paulo, to
Bello Horizonte in Minas, and to other points. It has express trains
with sleeping cars (state rooms), and a heavy suburban traffic. It
is intended to carry this system northward to the city of Pará, with
branches to new territory. Twenty-five million passengers are carried
annually with much freight of coffee, lumber, iron, manganese, etc.
The railway is to be electrified near the capital with a Government
appropriation of $32,760,000.

=The São Paulo Railway.= The most successful, financially and
otherwise, of the railways of Brazil is no doubt the São Paulo,
operating a double track, broad gauge line (5 feet 6 inches) from
Santos to the town and junction, Jundiahy (population 20,000), 86
miles; it passes through the city, São Paulo, and has a branch to
Bragança, 65 miles. This road has a granted monopoly of trade between
the two cities, Santos and São Paulo, 50 miles apart. This, in spite
of the great expense of the railway construction, has insured them
large profits, dividends in 1912-13 being 14 per cent. The train mile
earnings are the largest in South America and normally are greater than
any reported in the United States. With the construction of more and
more lines in this State and beyond, a steady increase in the traffic
seems assured, as nearly all must pass in and out by way of Santos. The
road now carries annually more than half of the world’s coffee supply.

[Illustration: ENVIRONS OF SÃO PAULO AND RIO DE JANEIRO]

One of many engineering triumphs in South America, the railway is
ranked among the greater achievements of the world. An ascent of 2600
feet is made within seven miles. Beginning 15 feet above the sea not
far from Santos five inclined planes with 8 per cent grade, each 1¹⁄₂
miles long, serve for the rapid climb. A stationary engine at the
top of each plane runs the cables; to grip these a small engine is
attached to each car. The tracks seem unique. The double track on the
inclines has but three rails for up and down cars, which therefore
cannot meet there, but may on the intermediate levels of which there
are four, each 600 feet long. On each side between the middle and the
outside rails are the pulleys which carry the cable, an endless steel
wire of enormous strength run by a 1000 horse power engine, capable
of carrying six freight or three passenger cars at the same time.
In this short section are 16 viaducts, 15 tunnels, and two miles of
retaining wall. One viaduct is 334 feet long, and nearly 150 feet high
in the centre. There are now two of these double roads, one just above
the other, as I have seen, and not on a different route as stated
elsewhere. The first soon proving insufficient to accommodate the
freight, the second was built with a few technical improvements. It is
a wonderful ride through tropical forests, with scenes of picturesque
beauty.

=The Sorocabana Railway=, 864 miles, which traverses a rich and
progressive part of Brazil opening up new territory, has important
connections with other lines. This Company has several lines running
west and northwest from São Paulo. One of the most important is to
Baurú, a city also on the Paulista Railway. From this point the North
Western Railway has continued the line to Itapura on the Paraná
River and across the State of Matto Grosso to Porto Esperança on the
Paraguay, about 40 miles by land from Corumbá on the west side of
the River, and 80 by water. Probably a train-car ferry will later be
provided at Esperança and the road continued on the other side to
Corumbá. By the present road connection is made with Bolivia opposite,
and by water with Paraguay farther down, the capital Asunción being
about 700 miles distant, Montevideo nearly 1800. Previously to the
completion of this railway Corumbá and that section of Brazil was
reached from Rio only by a long, long sail, three weeks (farther than
to Europe) by steamers of the Brazilian Lloyd Line. After making calls
along the Brazilian coast, at Montevideo and Buenos Aires, these boats
continue up the Paraná and Paraguay Rivers, arriving at last once more
in their own country. This new railway and others now in construction
will be an immense factor in opening the great central table-land of
Brazil, with its rich possibilities for agriculture, cattle raising,
and mining.

=The São Paulo-Rio Grande=, another important railway, 853 miles, runs
from São Paulo to Sant’ Anna do Livramento on the border of Uruguay,
where it connects with the Central Uruguay Railway to Montevideo.
Improvements have been made so that with better connections and
sleeping cars to the border, which were lacking part of the way in
1916, the journey is now made in comfort in 4¹⁄₂ days to Montevideo.
The road runs through a rich, often beautiful country; in some places
with splendid scenery and fine forests, in others with open grazing
lands where good cattle are visible, past small towns and pleasant
rivers. People who are willing to work could find agreeable homes in
this section with excellent temperate climate. Low land values are
spoken of, which if genuine should make this an attractive region now
that fairly good transportation exists with more in prospect. This line
has several branches of its own, while other railways are connected
with the through line, local roads to ports or to interior towns.
One of these, the Paraná Railway, has its main line from the port
Paranaguá to the State capital, Curityba, and to Ponta Grossa on the
São Paulo-Rio Grande; it has north and south branches, the latter to
Rio Negro and to São Francisco.

The southern part of the São Paulo-Rio Grande Line belonged to the
Compagnie Aux Chemins de Fer de Brasil which had a concession for
the entire State of Rio Grande. Roads from Porto Alegre and from the
city of Rio Grande extend to the line from São Paulo, thus making
connection with Montevideo and Buenos Aires. From the Cacequy junction
a line goes west to Uruguayana on the Uruguay River. Along this river
the Brazil Great Southern operates in Rio Grande 110 miles from
Quarahim on the Uruguay border through Uruguayana north to Itaqui,
with an extension to São Borja 77 miles farther up. At Quarahim an
international bridge 700 yards long connects the Brazil and Uruguay
Railways. Across the Uruguay River connection is made from Uruguayana
with Argentine Railways, and a direct route to Buenos Aires.

There are other roads in the São Paulo, which has the best system in
Brazil and the most mileage: over 4000.

=The Paulista Railway=, extending northwest from Jundiahy through rich
coffee territory with Barretos a recent terminal, has many branches and
a mileage of 721.

=The Mogyana= goes much farther north, crossing a corner of Minas and
entering the State of Goyaz, on the way to the capital city of that
name. It has arrived at Santa Cruz, still quite a distance from Goyaz,
though with a total mileage of 1081.

=The Southern São Paulo Railway= runs along or near the coast 100 miles
from Santos to Juquiá.

=The Leopoldina.= An important British line or system nearly 2000 miles
in length is the Leopoldina, the main line extending from Nictheroy, on
the bay shore opposite Rio, to Friburgo, Campos, Victoria, Leopoldina,
and other points in the States of Rio, Minas, and Espirito Santo. Lines
run also from Rio and Mauá up the mountain to Petropolis and beyond,
connecting with the main line. This follows the Parahyba Valley for
some distance and then crosses four mountain ranges, a work involving
many unusual feats of engineering. On the main line the maximum grade
is 8 per cent, on the Petropolis section 15 per cent. The territory
traversed is highly productive, and in spite of expensive construction
good returns in normal times are assured.

=The Great Western.= Under British control is the Great Western Railway
which has Pernambuco as its centre. Lines extend north along the coast
and also to the interior with 1000 mileage in the several states of
Pernambuco, Alagôas, Parahyba and Rio Grande do Norte. It reaches the
ports of Maceió, Parahyba, Cabedello and Natal. Two and a half million
passengers were carried in one year and much freight.

In the state of Bahia short lines run back to the interior, one, 140
miles, from Nazareth, south of the bay, and one from São Felix, 165
miles, to Santo Amaro, serving the best sugar district, as Nazareth
that of cacao and manganese ores. The principal road is from Bahia, 281
miles, to Joazeiro, on the São Francisco River; the oldest, opened in
1860, is along the coast to Aracajú in Sergipe, 268 miles. Two other
small railways are farther south, in all about 950 miles.

=The Brazil North East Railway= operates in Ceará about 472 miles, one
division from the port of Forteleza, another from the port Camocím to
Granja and Crato.

The State of Pará has less mileage than most of the others, the short
line, 40 miles built, at the junction of the Tocantins and Araguaya to
avoid bad cascades. Another road, the Bragança, runs northeast from
Pará to the Atlantic Coast.

=The Madeira-Mamoré= is in some respects the most remarkable railway
in Brazil, perhaps in the world. It was built in accordance with a
treaty with Bolivia in settlement of the Acre difficulty, and in
compensation for the surrender by that country of the Acre Territory,
to give access to that Republic by making a way around the prohibitive
falls and rapids on the Madeira and the Mamoré Rivers. In the heart
of the wilderness, 570 miles up the Madeira River and about 1100
miles from the sea, this road, 202 miles long, was constructed. In
1871 an American, Colonel George Earl Church, a Civil War veteran,
and a distinguished civil engineer, turned the first sod of the
railway, but work was soon suspended. In 1877 P. T. Collins of
Philadelphia undertook the task and completed 20 miles of railway,
but the difficulties were too great, especially the mortality, modern
methods of sanitation not then being understood; the work was therefore
abandoned. In 1907 the recent operations were begun, again in charge
of Americans, and the road was opened for traffic, July 15, 1912. From
Porto Velho the road runs up the river to Guajará-Mirím, the road of
course on the Brazilian side of the river, and in the State of Matto
Grosso, which is thus made accessible as well as Bolivia. The new
little American town of Porto Velho of 1500 population has an ice
plant making six tons a day, a wireless telegraph to Manaos and other
conveniences. The road passes through a jungle which is cut out 100
feet wide. Two days are required for the short journey. At Abuná they
halt for the night; leaving early next morning they should arrive at
the terminus at 3:15. About 60 miles south of Abuná, Villa Murtinho is
passed, opposite the town of Villa Bella in Bolivia, at the junction
of the Beni and the Mamoré, which two rivers form the Madeira. A road
across from Villa Church opposite Guajará-Mirím or from Villa Bella
to Riberalta on the Beni was in the plan, as the Beni below Riberalta
is unnavigable on account of rapids. Automobile roads are now in
construction, at least one from Riberalta to Puerto Bello (Villa Bella)
or to Villa Church.




                             CHAPTER XLIX

                   BRAZIL: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES


Brazilian industries as we have already seen have the variety befitting
a country of its enormous area. The States of Minas, Pernambuco, and
São Paulo can produce almost anything, but even these have specialties.
Of the various products of Brazil, as in the other South American
countries except Bolivia, the vegetable are the most important,
with coffee far in the lead. Stock raising comes next; minerals of
prodigious variety and richness are third. Manufactures, developing
later, may in time largely satisfy the requirements of the inhabitants.


AGRICULTURE

=Coffee=, we all know, is in value the most important crop of the
country, growing over vast areas, chiefly in what we may call the
northern part of South Brazil, the States on or near the edge of the
tropics, São Paulo, Rio, Minas, and Espirito Santo. North and south
of these States coffee grows and flourishes more or less according to
local conditions. There are said to be 1,400,000,000 coffee trees in
Brazil, which produce perhaps three-fourths of the world supply, more
than half of them in the State of São Paulo. The State contains about
60,000 plantations. Probably more than 1¹⁄₂ billions are invested in
the industry, $900,000,000 in São Paulo. The larger part of the crop
moves over the wonderful railway between São Paulo and Santos and
goes out from that port, some from adjoining States as well as from
São Paulo. For ten years the average value of the coffee exported was
$120,000,000.

Great fortunes were made by some who embarked many years ago in the
business; the coffee king, Colonel Schmidt, who has 8,000,000 trees and
produces 11,000 or 12,000 tons of coffee yearly, was himself a poor
immigrant. But the best lands were taken up long since; production is
increasing in other countries, as well as consumption, and there is not
now the opportunity of earlier days. São Paulo especially has the rich
red soil that the plant loves, the sloping ground, the right climate,
and the water supply, over a greater extent of accessible territory,
probably, than any other land in the world; though districts in other
countries produce coffee of equal excellence. Here of course there
are different varieties and grades, the original plants having been
imported from Arabia and Java and preserving their characteristics.
Life on the _faezendas_, as the farms are called, is agreeable both for
the rich proprietor and for the Italian and other laborer, who has his
own garden and whose wife and children help in the picking season. The
rows of trees extend for miles in even lines; there are great cement
drying grounds in the sun, pulping machinery, and store-houses. The
business generally is in the hands of Brazilians, though there are
foreign stock companies, paying large dividends. Coffee is about 40 per
cent of the Brazil exports and 97 per cent of São Paulo’s.

=Cacao.= Other agricultural industries are of importance and capable
of infinite expansion. Cacao is a product the consumption of which
is rapidly increasing. Bahia stands second in production, a crop of
40,000 tons being exported from the city in 1917. Cacao forms 60 per
cent of the State’s export. Large areas of suitable land are said to
be available for plantations in States south of the Amazon, including
North São Paulo and Matto Grosso. That grown in Maranhão ranks as the
best. The groves run inland along the river valleys, full of rich red
soil. There are two gathering seasons, one from September to April, the
next crop beginning in May, less important. It is said that one person
can take care of 1000 trees, which yield from 5 to 13, sometimes 20
pounds annually. A plantation at pre-war prices cost 80-85 cents
a tree. Three hundred are planted to an acre. The investment of a
moderate sum is pretty sure to give good returns after three or four
years.

=Sugar= plantations are increasing and sugar is exported in
considerable quantities. This was one of Brazil’s earliest industries,
but languished on the discovery of gold in the 17th century, to be
followed by several revivals. The amount exported varies, in 1909 it
was 70,000 tons, in 1916, 54,000. It is cultivated near the coast and
inland, chiefly from Rio Grande do Norte south to São Paulo, though
it is also raised down to Rio Grande do Sul, where the 1916 crop was
worth $3,000,000. In one year 441,000 tons were produced, 109,000
exported. The yield in some States farther north is 20 tons to the
acre. In general little fertilizing is done and crop rotation is not
followed, so that lands have become degenerate after centuries. The
most flourishing seats of the industry are in Rio, and in Pernambuco,
1000 miles north. In Rio, Campos is the focus. The State has 31 large
sugar mills, Pernambuco has 46. São Paulo is third, other States have
fewer, but small mills are scattered everywhere making brown sugar and
_cachaca_, native rum. In the large mills the best machinery is used,
and it is said that 300,000 tons is the total output. The export is to
Uruguay, Argentina, Great Britain, United States, and Portugal. Almost
every cotton, coffee, or other _faezenda_ grows its own sugar. Eighty
or ninety pounds a head are used. Cane ripens in the northern States in
about 15 months; south of Rio in 18-20 months.

=Tobacco= was in use in Brazil in prehistoric days. The State of Bahia
is the centre of the largest production, though it is raised in almost
every State. The quality varies in different localities, but in some
it is said to be equal to the best Havana, especially in Bahia, where
the soil is similar. Forty-five thousand tons were exported in 1902,
chiefly to Germany; in 1916, 2100 tons, valued at over $7,000,000. A
plantation of 37 acres earns $10,000 a year.

=The Coconut= is another product, which might be more important.
It is found near the coast from Parahyba to Bahia, 1,250,000 trees
bearing 50,000,000 nuts, the size of which compares well with others.
One hundred million trees are also reported. At present there is
practically no export, but large possibilities exist for an important
industry. There are three shipping ports, Cabedello, Maceió, and
Recife, three-fourths of the trees near the first two. On the
plantation the nuts sell for $25-$35 per 1000, according to size,
and in cities at $42.50. No attempt is made to produce copra, as the
natives are fond of the milk and fruit. With New York price $160 a ton
for copra and $10 freight it is better to sell the nuts at home, but if
business were done on a large scale, good profit would result. Improper
spacing injures production; of two groves, one 75 trees to the acre and
one close by, 130 trees, the yield of the first is four times that of
the second. Labor is cheap, disease and pests unknown. The by-products
are valuable; fibre for cord or rope, the husk for fuel, the milk for
breakfast, and palm leaves for building or for hats. To develop 2000
acres of land a capital of $30,000 is estimated as necessary, giving
a net return for the first seven years which would average $31,865 a
year, 105 per cent on the capital, with gross receipts for the last
year of $300,000. If the profits are half the estimate the investment
would seem a good one.

=Other Nuts.= The Brazil nut is an equally well known edible, mostly
exported from Pará; in 1914 over $2,000,000 worth. The trees are large,
often 150 feet high. _Babassú_ nuts are exported, some thousands of
tons, chiefly from Bahia, yielding a high percentage of oil, similar
to that from the coconut. Also the _souari_ or butternut brings a good
price and has commercial possibilities, having a larger percentage of
fat than other known species. Its cultivation is believed to be more
profitable than that of coconuts. Tagua nuts are exported in small
quantities.

=Cotton= is an important product likely to have a large increase,
though a diminishing amount is exported, $8,000,000 worth in 1914 and
$500,000 in 1916. This does not indicate lessening production but
large increase in cotton milling. Cotton of long silky staple of high
merit here grows wild or with careless cultivation. Growing in almost
all parts of the country, it is best on the northeast promontory
and along the coast to the Amazon. There is little culture, not yet
¹⁄₂ million bales, where 20 might be produced. United States cotton
buyers in 1916 were astonished to find here the long silky fibre. One
of the best varieties is similar to the Peruvian, a hardy, prolific
perennial growing 13 feet high and yielding for at least three years.
One tree was bearing after 16 years. Maranhão has raised this kind for
centuries. It has the high percentage of 38 to the boll and is similar
to that cultivated by the Incas. Under the names Moco, Serido, and
Sede de Ceará, this cotton is grown in these north States. _Gossipium
microcarpum_, related to _peruvianum_, is said to produce a pound of
clean cotton from 120 bolls. These varieties have fuzz on the seeds,
but four other varieties have clean seeds, the most important, the
_Gossipium vitifolium_ found wild in Brazil, still producing long silky
staple. Sea Island and the best Egyptian belong to this stock. These
varieties can be cultivated here without fear of rival anywhere, and
offer a fine field for the investor. In the State of Pernambuco cotton
production is more important than sugar. Much is produced in São Paulo.
Export growers, and good roads or railways are needed to stimulate
production.

=Cereals= are obviously of far less importance in Brazil than in
Argentina, yet many tons are produced and the possibilities are large.
Rio Grande do Sul alone produces wheat in quantity, though not enough
for her own needs; Santa Catharina, São Paulo, the hills of Rio and
Minas are suitable for cereals, and wheat, barley, oats, and a little
rye are seen in the south near European colonies. The chief cereal
grown is maize; in patches it is found everywhere, and in enormous
fields in the centre of Brazil. With _mandioca_ it is the food of the
common people, in spite of the large consumption of flour in the cities.

=Fruits.= The fine fruits of Brazil deserve greater exploitation. I
have eaten really delicious pineapples in Rio only. There may be as
good elsewhere, there cannot be better. The oranges of Bahia have an
equal reputation. It is from that State that the navels were introduced
into Florida. If superior to the California fruit as were the old
Floridas, it is time they were more extensively cultivated and exported
to the United States.

Rice is growing in importance. Formerly imported, its production has
increased until now there is an export balance.

Beans are raised and consumed in great quantities; recently some have
been exported.


FORESTRY

It is well known that the forest country of Brazil has an enormous
area. The entire rubber region is estimated by a Brazilian authority
as covering 1,000,000 square miles, half of which is in Brazil. Other
forest regions of a different character are on the highlands and at the
south, all together covering 1¹⁄₂ million square miles. The forests
contain the varieties that might naturally be expected with others
peculiar to the country, medicinal plants, trees with gums and resins,
woods hard and soft, but mainly hard; some ornamental, others useful as
timber; plants supplying tannin, quebracho and others; the beautiful
Araucanian (Paraná) pine, the candelabra tree, of which there are
800,000,000 in Paraná. The wood is said to be 20 per cent stronger than
the pine of Sweden; the trees are nearly 200 feet high, with a diameter
at the base of ten feet. Other figures are 100 feet tall and three feet
in diameter.

The timber industry is of slight development, but Paraná and Santa
Catharina afford much good building material. The Brazil Company
has in the two States over 500,000 acres with 5,000,000,000 feet of
good standing timber and three mills. One of these, at Tres Barros,
located on a railway, has a capacity of 40,000,000 feet a year, with
planing mill, box factory, etc. There is a great market in Brazil and
Argentina. Among unusually valuable trees is the _peroba_, with a trunk
weighing 30 tons, worth $7 a ton on the spot. The _imbuya_ tree which
resembles mahogany is heavier than water. An infinite variety is found
with infinite uses.

=Rubber= still has some importance, in spite of the great diminution
of export owing to the development of the Ceylon plantations. Once the
price was $3 a pound; in June, 1921, 15¹⁄₂ cents. Unfortunately the
industry in past years was very badly conducted, with short-sighted
policy, wasteful methods in tapping trees, foolish importation at
excessive cost of all kinds of supplies including food, far too
high prices to the laborers; partly in consequence of extortion and
cruelty, a scarcity of labor; in addition, high export duties. The
idea prevailed that people could get rubber nowhere else and must pay
whatever price was asked. It was a severe shock when Ceylon rubber came
more and more into the market, and was found to be a formidable rival.
Although not generally considered equal to _Pará fina_, the Ceylon
answers for most purposes.

The Government is now lending aid to the industry, encouraging
plantations, and better methods otherwise. The export tax at Pará
has been slightly lowered but is now 24¹⁄₂ per cent. A Government
investigation, however, in 1912-14 at a cost of $47,000,000 did little
besides paying fat salaries to favored individuals. The Ceylon export
has recently been 300,000 tons to Brazil’s 37,000. So far synthetic
rubber with the special therapeutic base has cost four times the
_hevea_. The _Pará fina_ is of course the _hevea brasiliensis_, which
constitutes the larger part exported from the Amazon, 80 per cent
of a good workman’s product. _Sernamby_ is a by-product of scraps or
careless work, though even the better is liable to be contaminated more
or less with leaves, nails, etc. _Caucho_ from the _castilloa elastica_
is not so good, and in procuring it the tree is usually destroyed, as
previously stated. Near the mouth of the Amazon where some collectors
are quite independent, owning their own homes on the edge of the
forest, are white rubber trees producing _fraca_ or weak rubber; not
so good as the _hevea_ which has the most resilience, and is tough and
elastic. For many purposes these qualities are essential, hence the
higher price. Red rubber coagulates badly.

Men from the State of Ceará, especially in times of drought, have been
glad to go to the Amazon as rubber collectors; and half wild Indians
of Peru and Bolivia have been employed. The rubber is collected in the
dry season, June to November. Dr. Oswaldo Cruz, a famous Brazilian
physician, said of some of the Amazon regions that there were no
natives, as all the children die; others declare that the normal
condition of older persons is to be afflicted with malaria, beriberi,
dysentery, pneumonia. Still others maintain that much of the higher
land is fairly healthful for persons of careful habits who have good
food. Conditions are improving. American and other companies are
organizing on a more scientific basis than formerly, and with humane
plans which in the long run will prove profitable. Lands have been
secured in desirable locations where men can live all the year, raise
their own vegetables, and not be dependent for their entire living,
aside from fish, on canned stuff at enormous prices. To put Amazon
rubber on a better basis it is necessary that the output be cleaner,
the expenses of the collector smaller, and his living better through
local cultivation of fruit and vegetables, which here grow luxuriantly,
and with better habitations on suitable sites, so attracting a better
labor supply. A further reduction by the Brazilian States of the rubber
export tax, now about 24 per cent in Pará, seems also desirable.

Besides the _hevea_ and _caucho_, two other varieties of rubber are
exported, the _maniçoba_ and the _mangabeira_, which have a place, like
the balatá of the Guianas and Venezuela and the Guayule shrub from
Mexico. The first is from the _manihot_ tree which grows up to 4000
feet altitude, on a rocky soil where there is not too much rain; it
is good for many purposes. The _mangabeira_, mostly from Pernambuco,
grows on a sandy soil at 3000-5000 feet, but is a wet rubber not highly
valued.

The Ceylon rubber trees, the seeds of which were taken from the Amazon
and germinated in Kew Gardens, first blossomed in 1881. The seeds were
used to plant more trees. In 1900 four tons of rubber came from the
East, in 1910, 800 tons; the output in 1916 was about 150,000 tons.
One million, three hundred thousand acres are now producing in Ceylon,
India, Borneo, and elsewhere, a monument to British enterprise.

=Herva Matte.= A very important export, rather forestal than
agricultural is called in Portuguese _herva matte_, the _yerba mate_ of
Spanish. Paraná is its special home where it grows wild in the forests,
straying over into the neighboring States of Matto Grosso, São Paulo,
Santa Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul, and being native as we have
seen to Paraguay, and to Misiones in Argentina. The trees or shrubs
often grow in sections with the tall Paraná pines, the tree with the
candelabra top, which is not only an ornament to the landscape but
supplies good lumber, and pine kernels as large as chestnuts. These
when boiled make a nutritious food, much relished by the Italians.
The chief export of _matte_ is through the city of Paranaguá, after
preparation in the mills of the region. In 1915, 75,800 tons were
exported, largely to Argentina, some also to Europe; 40,000 tons is an
average amount. It is much used by the residents of Paraná, but in most
of Brazil coffee has the preference.

=Fibres.= Besides cotton Brazil produces fibres of excellence from a
variety of plants. A wonderful article but little known to the general
public is the remarkable _paina_, called in Europe _kapok_, 34 times
as light as water, 14 times, as cork. Chiefly produced in the Orient,
it is obviously excellent for life preservers, also for mattresses,
pillows, and for whatever needs to be light, warm, elastic, and
impermeable. The best fibre, best packed, comes from Java, inferior
grades from India and Africa. Introduced into Venezuela, it was so
packed with stones and refuse that it was rejected when sent to Europe,
although the article was of fine quality. Careless exporters of all
articles should take warning. Other good fibres of Brazil are _aramin_,
from which coffee bags are made; _pita_, from which the Amazon Indians
make hammocks woven with much art, and sometimes with feathers
interspersed along the edge. Palms and aloes supply other fibres, some
equal, they say, to the famous _henequen_ (_sisal_) of Yucatan. Banana
fibre is used by north lace makers for a curious stiff shiny lace, some
quite beautiful, fine and intricate, and some with a darned-in pattern
of heavier silk thread, on a filmy background.

=Carnaüba Wax=, which forms an under coating of the leaves of the
_carnaüba_ palm, is not unlike beeswax. Nearly 600 tons were exported
in 1915 valued at $2,400,000. The trees grow in the north States,
especially in Rio Grande do Norte, where there are 15,000,000 trees,
and in Ceará. Large amounts of the product are used locally. The wax
is of excellent quality, melting at a low temperature and burning with
a bright light. Mixed with a little beeswax and 10 per cent fat, it is
easily worked and makes candles of high quality. It is much used for
shoe blacking.




                               CHAPTER L

                       BRAZIL: OTHER INDUSTRIES


CATTLE INDUSTRY

A leading industry of Brazil which, it has been said, may even in
São Paulo supersede in importance that of coffee is live stock. Two
packing houses now slaughter 300,000 cattle per year, one Brazilian, at
Barretos, the other an American, the Continental Products, at Osasco
near São Paulo, exporting chiefly to France and Italy. Another American
Company has at São Paulo a plant that will handle daily 1500 head
of cattle, 1000 hogs, and 2500 sheep. In tributary territory, which
would include parts of Matto Grosso and Minas, 2,500,000 cattle are
estimated. It is said that the best breeding ground is Matto Grosso,
where the cattle run wild as once in Texas, though each rancher has a
certain range and his cattle are branded. The Brazil Land and Cattle
Company procured 8,000,000 acres in Matto Grosso, Paraná, and Minas,
mostly well watered and with good grazing, except in Matto Grosso. Much
fencing was done and buildings were erected. Recent increase in prices
has improved prospects. This property is now owned by the Continental
Products Company, in which the Wilson packers are interested.

Other vast lands are available. From the ranges of Matto Grosso the
cattle are driven across to fattening pastures of southwest Minas and
northwest São Paulo where the land has been planted to grass, though it
is said that a native grass, _caipim gordura_, grows there all the year
round. Argentina’s alfalfa lands make the cost of fattening an animal
six months $7.50, while with _caipim gordura_ in Brazil $1.33 covers
the expense. Some Brazil grasses are of the highest class while others
are good only for goats. On the Araguaya River the grass is 16-17 feet
high. The Jaragua is over 3 feet. In Amazonas and Pará cattle are said
to flourish but not goats or pigs. Rio Grande near the Uruguay line has
fine grazing lands; those in Minas and São Paulo at an elevation of
1200-1400 feet where animals never need shelter are excellent.

Before the packing houses were started jerked beef only was marketed
from the herds, hence, as thin cattle were preferred for that purpose,
there was no object in improving the grade. Now there is systematic
progress. Breeding farms are operated, fine stock has been imported,
and in time high grade meat, perhaps equal to the Argentine, will be
marketed. Twelve thousand tons were sent to Europe and the United
States in six months in 1916, though the first experimental 1¹⁄₂ tons
was sent in November, 1914. At the School of Agriculture, Piracicaba,
São Paulo, are good imported bulls, and one of native type, the Caracú,
with pale buff hide, fitted to be the base of standardized herds. It
seems that in some sections, notably Matto Grosso, a cross with the
Indian zebu, which has a hump, and its descendants, is best qualified
to resist the climate and the insect pests of that region; but in the
pastures of Paraná and Rio Grande, Herefords, Durhams, Jerseys, etc.,
will flourish. The zebu is of large size and its skin is excellent
leather, but packers say the hump does not pack well, and the shoulder
is thin. Plants now or soon to be in operation south of São Paulo are
three: in Rio Grande, one of Swift, one at Pelotas, Brazilian, and one
at Sant’ Anna of Armour. The President of Paraná has been extending
high roads towards Guarapuava to tap the State of Matto Grosso, and a
large drove of cattle has come down. He desires to have an American
packing house established in the State and will arrange with a suitable
company to make no advance on the export tax for 15 years. Paranaguá,
a port which we have already noted, is well served by the Brazilian
Lloyd Line and the Funch-Edye from New York. Similar concessions are
offered in Santa Catharina, which State has lower export duties; and
by the Governor of Rio Grande, who would exempt from all export taxes
any foreign company; though a tax of 10 milreis, $3.33, is imposed for
every cow slaughtered, to protect the herds from decimation. If all the
herds number 30,000,000, 2,500,000 or more might be slaughtered yearly
without diminution. Cattle formerly were killed for their hides only,
and the export of these is still important; 37,000 tons exported in
1915 were valued at $13,000,000.

=Sheep= raising seems inappropriate for a tropical climate, but in Rio
Grande do Sul development is possible, also on the highlands of São
Paulo, Minas, and Matto Grosso. Experiments with Romney Marsh have been
successful for both wool and meat. Now there are 11,000,000 sheep,
7,000,000 goats, 18,000,000 hogs, 6,000,000 horses, and 3,000,000 mules
and donkeys in the country.


MANUFACTURES

While Brazil may not be called a manufacturing country, she had over
26,000 such plants in 1916; and her statesmen are eager to increase
these industries, for which her immense water power gives her unusual
advantages. The largest concern in this field has a capital of
$8,000,000 and an annual output worth $4,500,000; it employs 2800 hands
making sacking, yarn, rope, thread, etc., this in São Paulo. In the
textile field, the cotton mills naturally lead with over 200 mills and
an investment of $80,000,000. They exist in various States, employing
80,000 persons; one in Pernambuco near the city of Olinda is a sample.
The estate of 45 square miles of pasture and woodland borders on the
sea, the shore fringed with coconut trees. Machinery and some technical
workers were brought from England. All the processes of making fine
cloth are there followed; they spin, dye, weave, color, and print.
Native dyes are used in part. Of 3500 hands employed 70 per cent are
women and children. Over $35,000 a month are paid in wages. Dwellings
are rented at low prices or owned by employes; schools, hospital, and
dispensary are free. A dairy and a stock farm belong to the estate,
brick factories, a bakery, etc. A lumber yard is important. One
thousand tons of coal a month are usually consumed, but in war time
wood was used. The cotton is bought, $200,000 a month, and as much
a year is spent for chemicals, drugs, etc. From 960 looms 1,500,000
metres of cloth 22-26 inches wide are produced a month, from blue denim
to fine flowered fabrics; the products are sold in 80 stores owned by
the Company in various States. Brazil has 11 flour mills of commercial
importance, located in the States of Rio, São Paulo, Paraná, and Rio
Grande do Sul, at one time having no tax on wheat, but ten cents a
kilo on flour, by means of which the infant industry was started. In
1915, 800,000 barrels of flour were imported from the United States and
600,000 from Argentina, a little from Uruguay; at the same time enough
wheat was imported and milled to make 2,750,000 barrels, evidence
of the work of the mills. For metal working there are 134 shops for
imported iron. Factories exist of almost every kind. Leather goods
are produced especially shoes for which there are many factories;
hats, clothing and a variety of ordinary articles, such as soap,
hosiery, brooms, paper, wagons, etc. Brazil workmen are skilful and the
industries are certain to increase.


MINING

The mining industry of Brazil, if not precisely in embryo, for it has
been in a very flourishing condition, is now in a state of prospect;
on the verge of a great development rather than of active operation,
except for a few varieties of metals. At the moment there is little
working except in gold, diamonds, monazite, manganese, and coal.

=Manganese= has recently been the chief mineral exported on account
of war necessities, 245,000 tons valued at 7 million dollars, in the
first half of 1917, in contrast to 85,000 tons in the same part of
1914. The mines are in Minas, Matto Grosso, Bahia, and elsewhere,
those in Minas being accessible to the port of Rio. In Matto Grosso,
18 miles from Corumbá, there is a deposit called the Urucum, estimated
at 30,000,000 tons of undeveloped ore; one, the Quelez, in Minas of
5,000,000, 30 miles from Rio, and others. The ore averages over 50 per
cent of metallic manganese, with a little iron silicate and phosphorus.
Americans are interested in the works as the metal is valuable in the
iron and steel industry. With better transportation facilities for
these and other deposits, a good future is certain.

=Gold= mining was naturally the first to be developed. Minas has been
the chief producer. Of Minas Geraes the writer Diaz said, “In this
State what does not hide gold contains iron; what does not contain
coal spreads diamonds.” After the discovery of gold in 1693, 80,000
men toiled for a century at placer mining for the King of Portugal.
About $1,000,000,000 has been taken out. The Morro Velho, said to be
the oldest producing mine in the world, is now with the Ouro Preto
worked by British Companies. The first is being worked at the depth
of a mile with no sign of exhaustion. The gross receipts for the year
ending February 28, 1917, were over $4,000,000, the profits $750,000,
from a tonnage crushed of 187,400. The Ouro Preto Company operates
the Passagem Mine five miles from the former capital of that name,
being the first to use a stamp mill in 1819. The average thickness
of the lode was ten feet, now about eight. Gold properties exist in
many States, the most important around three mountain chains, the
Mantiqueira and Espinhaço, which cross Minas and Bahia, running into
Pernambuco; the range between Minas and Bahia, and Goyaz, continuing
into Piauhy and Ceará, west of the São Francisco River; the third
east of the Paraguay and Araguaya Rivers. Those most worked are in the
Espinhaco Range in Minas and Bahia. Dredging has been carried on with
varying success, but some of the companies have been overcapitalized.
An American Company has recently acquired some old concessions of land
in Goyaz, rich in gold and diamonds, where extensive operations are
expected shortly.

=Diamonds.= As for diamonds, since the first stone was discovered in
1721, many precious gems have been produced. During 40 years in that
century $17,500,000 worth were exported. The city, Diamantina, 500
miles from Rio, is the centre of one of the most important fields. Gems
are found in pot-holes, one of which contained 10 pounds of diamonds
and 28 of gold. Others are in clay deposits in rocks of sandstone and
schist. In the River Bagagem near the border of São Paulo, 250 miles
from Diamantina, three great diamonds have been found: the Estrella
do Sul, in 1853, weighing 254 carats uncut, was sold to the Gaekwar
of Baroda for $400,000, the others weighing 117 and 175 carats. Other
fields are in Paraná, Bahia, Goyaz, Matto Grosso, and São Paulo, in
Goyaz on the Garças River, tributary to the Araguaya. Apparently most
of the stones are now smuggled. They are said to be finer than the Cape
diamonds and also to be sold for them. Black diamonds are found, of
great value in the arts, and many precious and semi-precious stones,
such as amethysts, tourmaline, topaz, etc., in various places.

=Copper= exists in several States, but production is slight. A mass
weighing over 2600 pounds was discovered years ago near the city of
Bahia, and there are six well known districts in the State. In Rio
Grande do Sul an extensive property was opened which showed 6.5 per
cent copper and 30 grams gold per ton. Minas will probably rank next to
these States. Promising quantities are near Campos in Rio de Janeiro;
there are also ores in Goyaz, Paraná, Matto Grosso, Parahyba, Ceará,
Rio Grande do Norte and Maranhão; some are hardly accessible. One of
those in Bahia covers nearly 15,000 acres, about 30 miles from the
railway. Belgians and Dutch have operated at Camaquam, Rio Grande do
Sul.

=Iron= in actual mountains occurs in Minas, 12 billion tons of the
highest grade in 52 outcroppings. Deposits have been acquired by
American, British, German, and French interests. The manager of a
British company which owned 90,000 acres said, “One could travel 23
miles one way and 16 another on outcrops of ore, _canga_, or rubble.”
In one deposit 30,000,000 tons are in sight, 60 per cent pure.

American interests, the Itabira Company, have secured deposits which
include the celebrated iron mountain of Itabira do Matto Dentro in the
east near the head of the Doce River. The hematite iron district is
reached from Rio by the Central and the Leopoldina Railways; but this
deposit will be tapped by a prolongation of the Victoria-Minas Railway,
now running along a part of the Doce River. Also a branch will lead to
a terminal 40 miles north of Victoria, Santa Cruz, a small port which
will be developed and equipped with special loading machinery. Here
will be erected a steel plant with an annual capacity of 150,000 tons
of steel products, pig-iron, steel plates, rails, etc. The iron, 326
miles from this port, runs 69 per cent pure; some in the United States
runs 52 per cent. It will be several years before manufacture can
begin. Coal will be imported.

Development of iron properties has been retarded by lack of
transportation and fuel. Wagon roads are unknown. The altitude is
2000-4000 feet and the climate good. The coal is hardly good enough or
in sufficiently large supply. Oil development is uncertain. As there is
water power the use of electricity may be arranged.

Near Ipanema, São Paulo, iron is found. A large deposit has been
located in Paraná three miles from the port of Antonina. Other
deposits in the two States south give good promise. So far charcoal has
been used for a little smelting.

=Coal= mining has been carried on for a long time in a small and
primitive way, but most of the coal used has been imported. The
principal deposits found are in Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul,
others are in Paraná and Pernambuco. In Paraná American interests have
made extensive purchases and expect to develop the property at once.
Rio Grande do Sul has been estimated to have 800,000,000 tons and to be
able to supply 1,000,000 a year.

In Santa Catharina the veins are about ten feet thick; some in Rio
Grande are 4-10 feet, some 13. The property at Xarquedas, operated for
some years, produces 20,000 tons per annum. With greater activity, in
March 1918, 650 tons were produced daily from two shafts, and 1000
or more was expected by the addition of a third. With high volatile
matter, good gas and salable coke are procured for Pelotas. Coal is
found in several river valleys in Santa Catharina. State surveys are
being made, and with improvement in transport by land and water a great
industry may be developed of enormous value in promoting manufactures.
Railway construction has been authorized by the President to aid coal
companies in work, and other concessions have been made. The briquettes
from Santa Catharina coal show hardly less caloric value than those of
the Welsh patent fuel. Much is used by the Lloyd Brasileiro and other
steamship lines including the Japanese; by railways, mills, etc. A
little is exported to Argentina and Uruguay. The Rio Grande Railway is
or was burning coal mixed with wood on its locomotives. The best coal
is 42 per cent combustible, and when pulverized is equal to any other.
Bituminous schist sold at $12.50 a ton was used for gas in São Paulo
during the War. There are great seams 10-12 feet thick in São Paulo
and Rio Grande do Sul. Lignite occurs in Pará, Amazonas, and Minas,
enormous peat beds in various places.

=Monazite= sands exist on the Brazilian coast, probably in larger
quantities than in all the rest of the world. In 1910 Germany imported
$1,000,000 worth. The thorium in the sands, used in the manufacture of
gas mantles, is extracted in Brazilian factories before exportation.
Two per cent of thorium is in the sand, sometimes nearly 6 per cent.
It is found on the coast north of Rio and on some river banks in Rio,
Espirito Santo, Bahia, and Minas.

=Graphite= exists in several States, especially Minas and Bahia in
rather inaccessible locations, but one deposit in Rio is worked, for a
pencil factory in the city of Rio; others in a small way for local use.

=Other Minerals.= Platinum is found in gold bearing quartz and in river
alluvium in Pernambuco, Minas, and Parahyba; nickel in Minas, Santa
Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul; salt in Rio Grande do Norte, Rio,
and Minas, worked in the last two; much is imported. Other minerals
found in various localities are asbestos, antimony and tin, bismuth,
barium, cinnabar, emery, kaolin; marble, white, rose, onyx, and green;
mica, molybdenite, saltpetre, silver and lead, soapstone and talc, and
wolfram. Among the stones garnets, opals, pearls, rubies, sapphires,
emeralds, topaz, and tourmalines are found in more or less profusion as
well as rock crystal, useful to opticians. Minas contains almost every
variety of ore and gem, which with its good climate and fertile soil
have made it the best populated State, though without a large city.

=Petroleum= has been discovered in a number of States, among them
São Paulo, Minas, Alagôas, Pernambuco, Bahia, and Sergipe; some of
excellent quality in Bahia; but whether in quantities for large
exploitation is uncertain until further investigation and work
are carried on. Some geologists believe that prospects are highly
favorable. Oil of fine quality is recently reported at Piracicaba, São
Paulo, but as the petroleum is generally in schist rock its extraction
would be expensive. Recent advices state that Brazil has 35 oil fields
in four States with an area of 10,000 square miles; in the entire
country 75,000 square miles with an estimated producing capacity within
ten years of 500 to 600 million barrels.


INVESTMENTS

In view of the varied resources of Brazil, to enumerate the
possibilities for investors would be difficult. There is hardly a line
of industry which cannot there be carried on successfully. That of
coffee growing is so well developed as to be somewhat overcrowded, but
in almost any other line there is a field for the investor. Whether
it be mining of gold or diamonds, of coal, iron, or manganese, be it
agriculture, stock raising, the lumber industry, or manufacturing,
the harnessing of the waterfalls to produce hydro-electric power, the
construction of public works, the field for the capitalist, large
or small, is of infinite variety and excellent promise. The present
Government is planning a broad and active development of the electric
power available from its great and numerous water-falls.




                              CHAPTER LI

                         SOUTH AMERICAN TRADE


As to many it may seem presumptuous that one with no practical
experience should venture to discuss foreign trade, I beg with an
apology for my temerity to make a slight explanation.

On my six trips to South America (1903-1916) I saw and heard so much
of the shortcomings of my countrymen there, and meanwhile perceived
such ignorance at home that as early as 1907 I wrote an article on “Our
Commercial Relations with South America,” published in the _Van Norden
Magazine_, wherein I set forth many points which prominent men of
affairs have repeatedly urged upon the attention of their fellows, even
up to the eighth Annual Trade Convention at Cleveland, May, 1921.

My personal observation being supplemented by extensive reading, I
venture to hope that my remarks under this heading may be charitably
viewed by those who are wiser than I, and prove of some slight service
to those whose acquaintance with South American affairs is more limited.

       *       *       *       *       *

In proportion to our wealth and our domestic activities our export
trade before the Great War was indeed small in comparison to that of
other nationalities. Slight interest was taken in outside matters of
any kind, even our publicists giving little heed to foreign affairs.
However, prior to 1914 there had been a slowly growing interest and a
gradual increase in our export trade, which from 1915 to 1920 showed a
more rapid extension. In 1915 our exports amounted to $3,500,000,000,
in 1920 to $8,228,000,000; to South America in round numbers, in 1915,
$144,000,000, in 1920, $624,000,000, in 1921, $273,000,000.

As to the past and future of this matter, with especial reference to
South America, two widely divergent opinions prevail; one, that we
have accomplished wonders, and that our trade with that continent will
be permanent and, with improvement in exchange and other conditions,
increasing; the other, that we have not done so well as we might and
ought; and that owing to our indifference, inefficiency, ignorance,
and bumptiousness, we shall be unable to retain anything like the
proportion of trade which we have enjoyed or so much of it as might
seem our reasonable share. With some ground for each opinion, the
truth as usual lying between, there is a possibility of either result
depending upon a variety of circumstances. The first is whether some
of us acquire a willingness to learn, or persist in certain mistaken
notions and practices. Well merited criticism of the methods of some
exporters and salesmen is far from applying to all. The “S” of a well
known concern is as familiar in South America as in North. Other great
corporations are famous the world over. Their success in foreign sales
has meant the employment of many men abroad and of a large number at
home, with the home business supplemented and steadied by the foreign.
In addition to the extensive pre-war export of some large companies,
many small ones, whose names are less familiar, have long sent their
wares to foreign lands.

A matter of prime importance is that the entire nation and people
become convinced of the value, the necessity even, of our maintaining
a large export and import trade, for we cannot have one without the
other. The provincialism of our thought and education, which have
a reciprocal influence, must be laid aside. Congressmen should be
able to feel that their reëlection will depend upon their ability to
grasp the problems confronting the whole nation, problems of labor,
transportation, commerce, finance, and world interests, rather
than upon their catering to a special class or securing a sectional
advantage. It would be well if they were high-minded enough to act for
the country’s best interests regardless of their future fate. To demand
ability and statesmanship of their representatives in these crucial
times is the privilege and duty of the people.

As a nation we have prospered because of the richness of our natural
resources and the enormous extent of our agricultural lands. The latter
being now for the most part occupied, with increasing population
our welfare will depend more largely upon the development of our
manufacturing industries and of our export trade. That the prosperity
of our manufacturing towns and seaports will be reflected in our
agricultural districts and will benefit the entire nation should be
self-evident. Supported by the people the Government will act in
accordance with its best judgment. In any case, every one should feel
that it shows a shameful lack of a sense of duty and of patriotism to
place one’s personal fortune above the nation’s welfare in peace no
less than in war.

For success in foreign trade as well as for safety at home our
Government must and no doubt will see that production is not stifled
for any reason, that our transportation on land and sea, and
communication by wire is unhampered by strikes or otherwise. If need
arises, previous restrictive measures should be removed and suitable
aid granted. With abundance of shipping which we formerly lacked,
equality with European freight rates must be maintained or competition
will be impossible. The establishing by our banks of needed branches,
fortunately made practicable, has been accomplished. The important
question of trademarks and patents may require further Governmental
consideration and diplomatic action, though some international
agreements have already been made. In certain countries the laws have
been unfair, prejudicial to the interests of honest manufacturers
and favoring the unscrupulous; some of whom have taken advantage of
the situation to the embarrassment of legitimate American business.
Trademarks have been practically stolen, through previous registration
by foreigners without title to use them. We must remember that the
same thing has been done by Americans in the United States, who have
registered here trademarks owned in Europe.

Of immense service would be a few free ports where raw material could
enter, and without paying duty be exported either as entered or after
being manufactured. Foreign countries have fostered commerce in this
way and by allowing favorable freight rates through subsidies and
otherwise. Competition under Government ownership has produced an
enormous deficit. While better results may be expected under private
ownership, our shipping will be at a disadvantage from difficulties
imposed by the Seamen’s Bill. It is said that American shippers may be
able to pay higher wages than European if relieved of the necessity
of employing larger crews and superfluous engineers. The Bureaus of
the Department of Commerce now perform very valuable service: the
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, the Bureau of Standards; also
the Bureau of Markets of the Department of Agriculture. A consistent
foreign policy, undoubtedly to be formulated and pursued by our able
Secretaries of State and Commerce, will be of great service in relation
to foreign trade and for our general prosperity.

To the intelligent sympathy of the country at large and the coöperation
of the Government must be added the eager purpose of the manufacturer,
and the interest of young men who will make of export trade their
chosen field of labor. The manufacturer who contemplates entering this
broader field or who, through peculiar war conditions, has been brought
into it without preliminary investigation, should recognize the fact
that careful intensive study is a prerequisite for successful permanent
trade, a method which has been followed by many Europeans and by some
Americans with excellent results.

The book here presented it is hoped will furnish a useful groundwork
of information on South America, to be supplemented by further study
of details appropriate to the character of the prospective exports
and to any special conditions. In these countries generally, we have
observed a great diversity in the population and disparity in their
condition. One may hope that the latter will be diminished by advance
in wages and by the education of the Indians, by means of which their
producing and their purchasing power may be increased; but for a long
time two broad classes must be distinguished and catered to: the
cultured and literate, and the poor and illiterate laborers, especially
the Indians of the North and West Coasts. It is evident that the
requirements of a cultivated society where the customs and dress are
European in character, or of a homogeneous middle-class population,
would be quite different from those of Indians who sleep on the floor,
a whole family in one room. A personal acquaintance with the character
of the people, their manner of life, and their methods of business is
extremely desirable. If the head of a manufacturing industry is able
himself to make “The South American Tour” even in a hasty manner, it
will be to his advantage; if not, his export manager, if he has one,
should personally study the ground. Those who look merely for a slight
supplementary trade may best accomplish this by arranging with a
reliable commission house and following directions. If the manufacturer
decides to undertake the matter himself, he must plan a careful
campaign.

To make haste slowly is a good rule. Unhappily in the past some who
have attempted foreign trade have ignored the advice and experience of
others, and deemed information quite unnecessary. With the know-it-all
attitude, the idea that business is business everywhere, and that
goods and methods successful at home must be equally good for abroad,
before the War they proceeded in such a manner as either to make an
utter failure and abandon the project, or after large and needless
losses to secure profitable business. Criticism of two different kinds
made by South Americans should lead to the correction of faults;
otherwise there will be a complete loss of trade on the part of those
who are guilty, and much injury to our commerce generally from the
resulting bad reputation given to all Americans. One form of criticism
is directed to the character, methods, and manners of the traveling
salesman or agent, the other to the shortcomings of the home office.

During the War period when at times our goods alone were available,
even poor methods and service brought results. That the continuance of
such a course will be successful in the face of the severe competition
now arising is too much to expect. A friendly Englishman long engaged
in business in South America, in 1916 remarked that he was _afraid_ the
Americans would lose 60 per cent of their business after the War. A
Peruvian the same year declared that they would lose it _all_; so much
had he been disgusted by the arbitrary manner of some salesmen of the
type who said practically, “There is the stuff. Take it or leave it
as you like.” With a correct atmosphere in the home office and a more
careful choice of salesmen such crudeness would be avoided.

If the heads of the office are unable to visit the countries, there is
greater reason for wide reading. The “Movies,” which seem to entertain
many, present pictures of a few phases of life; but it is not by such
means that one acquires the intimate knowledge of a country and people
essential for a proper conduct of trade. For agreeable and profitable
relationship of any sort with those of other nationalities we must
realize that they also have their point of view; we need to consider
how they regard us. While we may believe our country to be the greatest
and best, and our ways and manner of living superior, we must bear in
mind that others are equally loyal to their own; though their country
may be smaller and in some respects less advanced, its people are
equally patriotic, they prefer their own way of living and methods
of business where these are different. Many South Americans have a
wider knowledge of the world, greater culture and taste, and these in
general are more punctilious in manners and dress than the majority
of Americans. We must therefore, while preserving our own tastes and
ideals, have equal respect for theirs, cultivating a catholicity, a
breadth of view, quite different from the spirit common among us, that
everything different is thereby inferior, that we can teach the world
everything, and that we have nothing to learn. Such an attitude is
merely a mark of ignorance and provincialism.

Aside from visiting the countries there are many sources of information
in regard to sales possibilities for any class of goods. The lists
of imports of the countries and of some cities are available in
commerce reports, with figures showing the approximate quantity and
ratio of these. While the list of our exports seems to embrace almost
everything, all of the goods are not sold everywhere; a knowledge of
the various markets, of the prices at which goods are sold, and of
trade conditions is necessary, to ascertain whether competition is
possible and if there is a prospective increase of present business.
Detailed information as to many lines of manufactures and markets may
be obtained from consular reports, from the branches of the Department
of Commerce located in a few cities, or by writing directly to the
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce in Washington. Many persons
have written to our Consuls in Latin America, often to their great
disgust, for information, not merely such as might be procured in
Washington, but what might be gained by looking in a geography or
reading one of many available books. The Consuls are continually making
reports with suitable information on matters which are within their
province. Membership in certain commercial organizations gives the
privilege of receiving trade information; the Philadelphia Commercial
Museum, the National Association of Manufacturers, and the American
Manufacturers Export Association, chambers of commerce, commercial
clubs, trade associations, such as one of jewelers and silversmiths,
all may be useful in this direction. The Pan American Union through its
Bulletin and otherwise furnishes much information about Latin America.
Export Trade Journals, other magazines and newspapers, are serviceable.

If from investigation it appears that there is a market for one’s goods
in any section or universally, that quality and prices can be such as
to make competition favorable, that the market can be enlarged, or
should there be none that one can be created, and a determination is
therefore formed to enter export trade, the next question is how the
goods shall be sold. The methods are various, but of only two kinds:
the direct and the indirect.

Direct methods include the establishing of branch houses; the
appointing of a general agent for one or more countries or of a local
agent for a limited territory; the employment of traveling salesmen;
and advertising in circulars, newspapers, or magazines, for mail orders
to be filled by freight or parcel post. The choice of methods, and the
appointing of agents or salesmen demand the greatest care. Exclusive
rights of sale have been given for the whole continent to a South
American, incompetent even to take care of a small district. Salesmen
have been appointed from the home office who perhaps had done well here
but were utterly unfit for work in South America.

It is desirable to have representatives of our own nationality. Others
if employed solely by an American Company may do their best for it, but
we now know that many Germans, possibly others, have taken agencies
for the sole purpose of keeping the goods out of the market. A good
salesman or agent of any sort should have as his first qualification
ability to speak Spanish fluently, unless his work is confined to
Brazil, in which case of course he must speak Portuguese. Next he
should be a gentleman and _simpático_. The spirit which led some youths
in the early days in Panamá to call the residents niggers, monkeys,
and savages is one which, though not indulged in outwardly to such a
degree, is sufficient to prevent the harmonious relations necessary to
make permanent, satisfactory business dealings. Unquestioned integrity,
unfailing courtesy, patience, tact, straightforward action, are all
highly important qualities, as well as those essential from a strictly
business point of view, such as critical knowledge of the goods, etc.
Confidence and friendliness count more in South America than at home.
Social qualifications are desirable. It has been said of the British
that they were too cold and exclusive, that the Germans were more
friendly. On the other hand, some Americans have felt that the South
Americans did not care for more than a business acquaintance. This is
doubtless true in many cases, but one who is cultured, sympathetic,
and well mannered is likely to have social opportunities which he may
accept to advantage.

Branch houses will best serve the large manufacturer, giving a standing
not otherwise attained, and best promoting permanent relations. From
these houses salesmen go to neighboring territory. The manager must
be a man of wide experience, familiar not only with the product and
home matters, but with the language, customs, and business methods of
the country in which he is located. Some corporations engage business
houses in different sections as local representatives or distributors,
with exclusive rights in restricted territory. Such arrangements,
supplemented by advice and literature from the home office may prove
effective in securing sales.

Those who cannot afford branch houses or the risk which may attend the
cost of a traveling salesman’s exclusive service are now able through
the Webb-Pomerene law to coöperate with other houses in the same or in
associated lines of industry. Both investigation and sales may thus
be profitably conducted. Advertising only, without the employment of
other agencies, has been highly profitable to many. It is said that
advertising in South America brings better results than in the United
States. To avoid utter waste of money careful investigation as to sales
possibilities and media should be made before planning a campaign. One
large mail order house has carried on an enormous foreign business.
Other firms have accomplished much in a similar way. Advertising is
done in journals and magazines published here and circulated there, in
local publications of various kinds, in moving-picture houses; also by
means of mailed circulars, and to some extent by electric signs.

The importance of correct technical and idiomatic translation in
advertising in Spanish and Portuguese cannot be over-estimated. Gross
and ridiculous errors have been made in the past. A book knowledge
of languages seldom prepares one adequately for such work. Foreign
translators are more numerous than formerly, but they, also, too often
make egregious blunders; not of the same character, but caused by their
not comprehending exactly the English which they translate.

If indirect methods of trade are preferred as involving less risk,
trouble, and preliminary expense, and if the medium is carefully
chosen, it may be more profitable. Export commission houses or export
agents will relieve the manufacturer of almost all care. One large
commission house not only acts as selling agent for manufacturers
through its branches in many parts of South America; it also operates
steamship lines, carries on banking and exchange, and handles important
financial transactions for South American Republics. Certain firms of
national or worldwide reputation and large capital have for many years
been satisfied to conduct their foreign trade through such a house. The
opportunity for commission houses of this sort was not overlooked by
foreigners and one company of these in New York did an annual business
of $30,000,000 before the War.

The experience of a commission house is an asset, which saves many
mistakes. Their experts have a wide range of information covering
American and European competition, and details such as suitable
patterns, correct packing, etc. The commission house may have its
capital tied up for six months in transactions, or did prior to the
more general use of the trade acceptance, while the manufacturer might
receive cash for his goods. For small people this method of sales has
many advantages, especially when first launching into export trade.
Conference and honorable coöperation are necessary and the protection
of the commission house from direct under-selling or from other unfair
dealings. The service of export agents is preferred by some, these
acting as salesmen, forwarders, or shippers, either for one or more
concerns, perhaps on salary and commission, or as independent agents.

After securing orders, by whatever means employed, the responsibilities
of the shipping department begin. The principles governing the
execution of orders would seem to be rudimentary. One wonders how a
business in this country could achieve even a small measure of success
when violating the most elementary rules of conduct. Yet this has
been and still is done in South American trade as recent information
from various sources shows, despite the fact that these things should
go without saying, and furthermore that they have been iterated and
reiterated for years.

First, the goods to fill an order should be precisely like the sample,
if there was one, not something inferior, as has often happened, nor
something just as good, or even better. If ordered without a sample
strictest attention should be paid to prescribed details. If it is
specified that cloth be 28¹⁄₂ inches wide or 25 centimetres, that is
what is wanted. If two-wheeled vehicles are ordered, what sort of
business is it that permits of sending, by mistake, four-wheeled
vehicles a distance of 5000 miles, even though the bill was made the
same and the goods were more expensive? as was done by a well known
manufacturer to his loss. The loss to the purchaser was greater, for
the vehicles sent could not be used at all in that country.

The assumption that the seller knows better than the buyer what the
latter wants is offensive if true. Generally it is not true. Mistakes
are unpardonable. Requests for particular colors, patterns, size of
bolt, and character of weave must be complied with if trade is wanted.
The willingness of the Germans to oblige in such matters largely
accounted for the rapid growth of their South American trade. The Latin
American business men are as acute and intelligent as any. They know
what they want and are discriminating buyers as to quality and price.

Criticism of the shortcomings of the home office is the second of the
two forms previously referred to. Lack of accuracy and of attention to
details is a grievous fault, apparently arising from want of discipline
and thoroughness in our homes and schools, a fault recognized by many
heads of offices here. The dishonesty of sending goods inferior to
sample or order, a practice injurious to the entire national trade as
well as to the guilty individual, shows an utter lack of patriotism, as
well as folly if permanent trade is desired.

Another elementary matter is that of packing. Woful tales of breakage
and loss from bad packing have been rife for years, and volumes have
been written and spoken concerning it. In 1916 an experienced traveling
man told me that before his last trip, in view of war conditions, he
had taken on the agency of some new people and received many orders
for them. He had sent explicit instructions as to packing and other
export details. But now he found his new customers swearing mad and was
booking no more orders for his new patrons: for they had paid not the
slightest heed to his directions either as to packing or forwarding,
with disastrous results. In February, 1919, a letter from Brazil said:
“We cannot imagine why your shippers ever accepted the travesty of
an export bale dumped on you by the spinners, and we must clearly
state that our factory will not accept any yarns which arrive in bad
condition due to bad packing.”

Unwillingness to profit by the knowledge and experience of others, the
belief that one knows everything without learning anything, is called
a peculiarly American trait, though happily it is not universal. The
British not only pack and handle goods in the best manner, but they
are careful to send and land them in all parts of the world by the
best route and with the least expense to the receiver, as the world
knows. Of course we can do the same if we take the trouble. The packing
department for the soldiers overseas showed the highest excellence. The
baling of clothes instead of boxing saved labor, box material, and two
thirds of the space, and goods arrived in better condition. Fifty-five
million dollars were saved at one plant in a year. Forty-nine million
dollars of this was cargo space, other things were rent, freight, etc.
Fifty-eight million feet of lumber of 30 years growth were spared.
The burlap required would be useful in South America. Square packages
instead of round are advantageous. Those who wish a share in foreign
trade must take the pains to do everything right. The most careful
man, familiar with the metric system, should be in charge. The scales
should show pounds and kilograms, and figures be given for net weight,
container, etc. Aside from careful packing to avoid breakage or other
injury as from water, dampness, or pilfering, instructions are often
given as to size and weight of package. Mules, donkeys, and llamas
usually carry two packages, one on each side; the ordinary load of each
is 200, 150, and 100 lbs. respectively, though some mules will take
300 lbs. for a moderate distance. For the interior, especially on the
North and West Coasts and in some sections on the East, these animals
are the only means of transport, and goods must be packed accordingly;
machinery in sections, etc. Many boxes of 1000 pounds weight have been
left on the dock or at a railway station, the goods a total loss.

To arrange the packing with an eye to the custom house is important,
both in order that the contents may be easily examined, and so that
fines or exorbitant imposts may be avoided. Directions and governmental
regulations as to giving separate weight of container and goods, and
the separation of different classes of the latter must be scrupulously
followed. Heavy fines are often imposed for trivial errors in packing
or invoice, and corrections of any mistakes by cable are expensive if
frequent.

Obligations of every kind should be fulfilled with fidelity though a
bad bargain has been made resulting in financial loss. On the other
hand consideration for the embarrassments of the buyer should be shown,
whether these are purely personal or the result of national conditions
such as followed the outbreak of the War or the conclusion of the
Armistice. After the unexpected cessation of War many orders which had
been placed here were suddenly cancelled under the supposition that
coöperation such as had always been extended by European merchants
would not be refused here. British representatives promptly _offered_
to cancel orders for goods that the buyers might not care to receive
under the changed circumstances, while the majority of Americans
made many difficulties: a contrast in conduct liable to influence
unfavorably future trade, especially when added to the fact that
vast numbers here cancelled orders and that the average American
manufacturer had taken advantage of the situation created by the War to
charge exorbitant prices in excess of those applying to domestic trade.
Thus some manufacturers who have cried out about the bad faith of the
South Americans, with no consideration for their difficulties, have
forfeited their confidence and friendship, with a probable loss of
future trade unless able to offer remarkably attractive bargains.

The utmost care should be taken in the shipping of goods as well as
in the packing. Promptness is an important feature. Where regular
sailings occur space should be engaged in advance, and the necessary
papers accurately made out in good season, in view of the many copies
of the consular invoices, the bills of lading, the clearance papers,
and the short hours of some of the consulates. To avoid the trouble
of attending to these and other elaborate details, many manufacturers
find it convenient to employ a Freight Forwarder who looks after such
matters including insurance of various kinds covering theft, damage,
and total loss. He will know the most favorable trade routes, look
after transfer and storage, and fill all requirements, if qualified for
his job.

No dealings should be initiated in any country until after the
registration of patents and trademarks.

Trouble should be taken to adjust any _bona fide_ complaint and
to satisfy reasonable customers. On account of length of time and
distance, especial pains should be taken to avoid possible difficulty
or disagreement.

The establishing of American banks in South America has been a boon to
manufacturers. The houses of Dun and of Bradstreet perform much service
for their clients in the line of credit information. It has been
suggested that the Government might collect information for general
private use. It may be said that experience shows losses in foreign
trade to be less than in domestic. Yet, as shysters exist everywhere,
suitable precaution should be exercised, guarantees required, or the
reliability of the house made certain.

The use of the trade acceptance, a negotiable note given by the
purchaser to the seller of goods, now becoming general, is of great
assistance to those who were deterred from entering South American
trade on account of the long credits which seemed necessary. Foreign
bankers invest in the commercial bills of other countries, knowing
them to be convertible into cash in those countries. Private houses
handling investments or commercial paper have added departments for
dealing in acceptances. The subject of foreign exchange should be
familiar, the fluctuations having an important bearing on purchasing
power and trade, while exchange itself is dependent on foreign trade
conditions, being an index of international transactions. Careful
consideration of this matter is necessary in quoting prices. In normal
times it was customary on English imports to reckon the pound as $4.90,
and in export as $4.80 to cover incidental expenses.

In certain lines, for example, in hand-made goods, it is impossible for
this country to face European or Asiatic competition. In some kinds of
machine-made goods we excel. In lines where competition seems difficult
the excellent suggestion has been made that costs may be reduced. The
lowering of the daily wage has in some cases occurred; and more may
be accomplished by diminishing overhead expense. The high salaries of
the heads and of numerous assistants in plants of moderate size and
the expenses of salesmen are often unnecessarily large, giving rise
to foolish and injurious extravagance, which indeed has permeated all
classes of society. Carnegie while building up his Steel Company, and
President McKinley smoked cigars costing five cents each, while some
modern salesmen pay 50 cents for one, with other things in proportion.
Some hotels charge 40 cents for a potato not costing one; a Washington
hotel asks 60 cents for a slice of watermelon when a whole one is
selling on the street for 15 cents. The head of a company suggests that
by reducing one-third of the personal and family expenses for luxuries
they will live longer and be happier; that one-third of the middle
men might be cut out; that the office and supervising class could
accomplish 25 per cent more and cut down office expenses one-third;
that the laboring man could increase his efficiency and output
one-third without injury and come nearer to earning his wages; and
that the unreasonable waste of material should be diminished. I would
however add that many heads of establishments and departments work
harder and more hours than the ordinary office force or laborer.

One would naturally desire to have his firm name on such goods as
permit this; “Made in U.S.A.” seems desirable where practicable. It has
happened that Germans handling American machinery have covered such
marks with their own. It may be noted that in South America many of the
large mercantile establishments of various kinds, dry goods and others,
are in the hands of British or German firms. A considerable portion of
trade in the large cities is conducted by other than the native born.

For the best development of our foreign trade it is necessary that
young men entering this field should be of higher type than the average
in domestic affairs, particularly those who will go to foreign lands.
The larger number may not be called upon to go outside of their town
or country, as many must be engaged in the export department, at
the factory or the seaport, or in commission houses and banks, as
export agents or freight forwarders, etc. Others will go abroad as
salesmen on tours, or to reside a few or many years in the capacity of
local agents, in branch houses of large companies, civil and mining
engineers, etc.

Many of both sexes have enough of the spirit of adventure to enjoy the
prospect of at least a temporary residence in another land. It is to
be hoped that those who desire the broader career will enter it not
solely for the pecuniary reward but with something of the spirit which
animated our soldiers, the knowledge that they may extend the prestige
of their country and uphold the best traditions of democracy; with the
feeling that their work, if well done, is patriotic in character, an
essential and splendid vocation, a dignified career for the development
of the commerce and the promotion of the welfare of a great nation.
Character, the manners of a gentleman, and educational preparation are
among the requisite qualifications. Of prime necessity is a familiarity
with one or two foreign languages; also a training that will develop
thoroughness and accuracy and the consciousness that these are
essential. Nothing will accomplish this better than a good groundwork
of Latin; which makes mere play the acquisition of any derived language
like Spanish, French, or Portuguese. A sound understanding of Latin
syntax is needed for easy comprehension of these languages, with
their varied forms and constructions, so different from our simple
English, which indeed one who is ignorant of any other language hardly
comprehends. The ability to conduct business correspondence correctly
and with at least some degree of the elegance and courteous phraseology
current in other lands where our brusque letters and speech are
disliked if not resented: Knowledge of office routine especially as
to the various papers to be procured and prepared in connection with
foreign transactions: An acquaintance with the requirements of shipping
practices, trade routes, types of vessels, freight rates, insurance of
various kinds, loading and unloading facilities at different ports,
and details as to the arrival and despatch of cargoes and vessels:
A study of the principles of commercial law needed to enable one to
decide business questions, disputes and misunderstandings, according
to equity and international practice: A close study of the economic
conditions which govern the production of the countries, of the social
institutions and customs, of advertising needs and methods, of shipping
facilities, of banking facilities and methods, credit practices and
requirements, and any discrimination in tariffs or regulations:

A study of the foreign trade practices and methods of those countries
already occupying these markets, the character and style of their goods
and their methods of securing and holding business: Acquaintance with
the financial and investment relations of other countries as affecting
international trade; with foreign banking practices and with the
mechanism of foreign exchange: A study of physical geography including
the natural resources, climatic conditions, and characteristic
peculiarities of each country: A knowledge of the history and
affiliations of the countries, with the character of their governments
as likely to bear on their commerce:--All these are matters which
must not be overlooked by any one who wishes to become an expert in
foreign trade. Some acquaintance with the racial origin and relations
of the nations, with their social customs, religious tendencies, and
traditions may at times help in determining trade possibilities. It
is important to realize that the cultivation of tact, dignity, and
judgment is necessary for success as a foreign representative, and
that such an one may prove a more valuable ambassador than some of
those occupying such position, to whom a similar training would be of
advantage.

Furthermore we must realize that no nation can sell largely abroad
unless it buys also, and that we must purchase from South America if we
expect to sell there. Fortunately they have many agricultural products,
which we do not produce, and other raw material of which we have not
sufficient. Yet probably we cannot take as much from them as we should
like to sell. WE MUST therefore INVEST, now that we are a creditor
nation, in the securities of others, the bonds of the countries
and cities; we must send our capital to develop public utilities
where these are lacking, as for sewerage and water supply. Electric
lighting plants and power, docks and railways, have proved excellent
investments. The better banking facilities now provided encourage these
on our part. The British, French, and Belgians have been beforehand
in this matter. The British have invested more than two billions in
Argentina, $1,200,000,000 in Brazil, smaller sums in Uruguay and Chile.
The Germans have not invested much money, their banks bringing chiefly
credit and making money by taking part of the business of local banks,
a practice not conducive to popularity. The United States, i.e., some
people, have invested $175,000,000 or more in Brazil, smaller sums in
other countries. Large opportunities lie open in this direction.

That loans should be made to foreign countries only on condition that
the money be spent _here_, seems a short-sighted policy, as also
restrictions on our export of gold, when our excessive holding of that
metal is a contributing cause of the unfortunate exchange situation.
Many Republics need railways, for which construction material and
equipment would be here purchased if here financed; but part of the
money must be spent on the ground; so with works of irrigation and
other public or private construction. If we must always be selfish, at
least our selfishness should be enlightened, and we should realize that
in the long run we shall gain more by manifesting a friendly spirit of
service and coöperation rather than by showing intense eagerness for
the “mighty dollar.”




                              CHAPTER LII

                         LIFE IN SOUTH AMERICA


While the variety of conditions in South America makes any treatment
of this subject necessarily superficial, a few words beyond those
already said may not be out of place, since it is evident that for the
successful conduct of our trade many persons from the United States
must spend some years or reside permanently in the several countries.
From the descriptions given one should have a fair idea as to climatic
conditions in these and make an intelligent choice of locality if any
is offered. Some persons will be happy in warm Rio or even in more
tropical Pará. Others will prefer Andean heights, from 7000 to 14,000
feet altitude, the higher for persons with sound hearts only. Most of
the cities where one is likely to be stationed have a fairly temperate
climate, and good health conditions, except as previously indicated.

In respect to social advantages there is considerable variety. In
general the smaller the city the greater the hospitality and the more
will one’s society be cultivated, as is true in the United States
also. On the other hand in the important commercial cities, the
English-speaking folk are numerous enough to make an agreeable society
for themselves, and some South Americans have made the criticism
that the English and Americans hold aloof, apparently preferring
their own company: a mistake from a business point of view and also
nationally. One must, however, have the right qualifications for
cordial recognition anywhere. It has been stated of Buenos Aires
that the fact of membership in the diplomatic corps did not entitle
the gentleman and his family to more than official courtesies; to be
received socially he must be _persona grata_. This is true to some
extent everywhere. At the same time one who is at the head of a large
commercial establishment is more likely to have social opportunities
than members of the office staff, one of whom, a young man of unusually
good manners and attractive personality complained to me in Lima some
years ago, that he had no social opportunities. It is different now. On
the other hand a young dentist in a city of Argentina where Americans
are few associated with the best people and married into one of the
first families.

At the mining camps of the Americans provision is now made for the
social life of the employes and for exercise and recreation, also by
other large corporations. In general I believe that men enjoy the life
in South America better than their wives. Some of the latter decline to
go or to remain after being there a while: a great mistake if they have
any regard for their husband’s welfare, unless the care of children or
other serious matter compels their return. Many women are perfectly
contented, this depending in some degree on their location, but chiefly
upon their disposition. In the town of Sorata, Bolivia, I chanced to
meet one who seemed perfectly happy, though she was the only English
speaking woman in the place, or within 100 miles.

It is desirable for banks and business houses to give their young men
sufficient salaries to permit them to marry and take their wives along.
It will be better for both parties in the long run. Perhaps there are
no more temptations than in our own large cities, but in most places
there are fewer forms of wholesome recreation. Too many men in cities
and in mining camps have gone to pieces as they say.

Some men prefer life abroad for the reason that they feel less
restraint than in their native home or even in our metropolis, rather
than the responsibility which a real patriot should recognize of
presenting the highest American ideals of manners, conduct, and
business practices. If one cannot be contented without going somewhere
every night, except in Rio or Buenos Aires he might be unhappy
or worse. It would be well if persons everywhere had sufficient
intelligence to enjoy themselves at home with a good book, a quiet
game of cards, even cribbage; but especially books that are worth
while, valuable as literature or as containing information about the
world in general or on matters connected with business. “Movies” are
found almost everywhere; in the larger cities, theatres and a long or
short season of opera; clubs with opportunities for golf, tennis, and
other sports; often horse races. In smaller towns horseback riding is
a common, sometimes the chief diversion; but in such places one sooner
enters the social life of the community. Some Americans say they would
not take a wife to such a place, but if she is wise she will go.

Punctiliousness in dress as well as in manners is more highly regarded
in South America than in the United States. Evening dress is more
general in large cities than in most of ours, and correct afternoon
dress for men is a more rigid requirement. Some persons on important
missions have astonished the Latins by their negligence in this regard.
Of course a gentleman is a gentleman the world over and such an one
will have no trouble. It is unnecessary to imitate certain mannerisms
of many South Americans, yet a little more effusiveness is easily
acquired and may be an improvement on the coldness of the Anglo Saxon.
It will be noticed that men regularly lift their hats to each other,
that they shake hands much oftener, when you come and when you go,
make more inquiries after your health, etc. That they pat each other
on the back, give mild hugs, or at times kiss one another (not you),
will perhaps not seem so terrible as formerly, now that so much has
been written about brave marshals and generals kissing soldiers on both
cheeks when conferring decorations.

Courtesy must not be considered hypocrisy because phrases like “The
house is yours” mean no more than our remarks “I am glad to see you” or
“How are you?” though we may wish the caller in Africa and have no real
interest in his health. Not everywhere is the same courtesy evident. On
my first visit to La Paz in 1903 I noticed that men frequently stepped
from the narrow sidewalk into the gutter to allow a lady to pass. More
recently in a much larger city, still with some narrow sidewalks, I
frequently stepped into the street myself to avoid crowding past a
gentleman (?) who made no move to give way.

The cost of living is an item of practical interest. Some remarks on
this subject have seemed to me exaggerated. Great diversity exists in
this respect in the different cities: the larger the more expensive, as
in the world generally. In most of the capital cities and chief ports
rents are high; in some places many articles of food are dear with
others cheap; similarly with dry goods and other articles, some higher
than in New York, others lower. Recent unusual conditions have made
sudden changes which may be repeated. Living expenses were increased
by the War, and on account of the influx of foreigners for business
houses. In 1916 rents in Buenos Aires were lowered in the business
centre; but they have now advanced to their former price or higher.
Years ago one of our diplomats there paid more for his house rent than
his entire salary on which others perhaps have managed to live.

In remote sections, for instance in the Huailas Valley, Peru, in 1906,
a sheep cost $1, a lamb 40 cents, a chicken 15 cents, beefsteak, 9
cents a pound. The cook received $1.50 a month and board. Fresh fruit
and vegetables were almost given away. In Lima then as now it was very
different, some kinds of food were expensive, others cheap. Coal and
kerosene oil are dear everywhere except in the Huailas Valley where
coal is abundant with no market. In Buenos Aires a few apartment houses
and hotels have hot water heating, but in many places in winter one
freezes, or uses an oil stove or an electric heater, the former the
cheaper and more effective.

Persons of adaptable disposition may spend a few years in South America
with pleasure and profit, returning with broader minds, and with the
ability to command higher salaries than if they had remained at home.




                              APPENDIX I

                          POSTAL REGULATIONS


Much repetition is avoided and probably greater convenience secured
by presenting a summary of the Postal Regulations. All of the South
American Republics are members of the Postal Union. In November,
1920, a Pan American Postal Federation was formed. According to the
convention adopted, _domestic rates_ will apply to letters, postal
cards, and printed matter, among the various countries of Latin America
and the United States, as soon as they have ratified the agreement. At
present, October, 1921, this has been done by the United States and by
the South American Republics, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, and
Peru. To these the letter rate is two cents, postal cards, one cent,
return cards two cents; printed matter, newspapers and periodicals,
one cent for four ounces. The old rates now effective in the other
countries will doubtless soon be reduced, and should therefore be
investigated.

Parcel post service has been extended so that parcels weighing up to
22 pounds may be sent to Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Paraguay, and
Peru. To Ecuador 20 pounds is the limit; to Bolivia, Chile, British,
Dutch, and French Guiana, Uruguay, and Venezuela, 11 pounds is the
maximum. The rate to all is 12 cents a pound or a fraction thereof;
except that to Paraguay, on account of transit through Argentina, 30
cents additional must be paid for a parcel weighing 11 pounds or less,
and 60 cents for one above that to 22 pounds. In Brazil, this service
is limited to Bahia, Bello Horizonte, Curityba, Manaos, Pará, Pelotas,
Pernambuco, Porto Alegre, Rio de Janeiro (including Petropolis), Rio
Grande do Sul, and São Paulo. Parcels are subject to customs duties,
and these with other details should be investigated. Parcels may be
registered for Bolivia, Brazil, British Guiana, Chile, Ecuador, Peru,
Venezuela, but not for the other countries.

Money orders may be sent to Peru, Bolivia, and Uruguay.

Changes resulting from the Pan American Postal Congress at Buenos Aires
in 1921 will be inaugurated January, 1923 or earlier.


CABLE FACILITIES

On the North Coast, Cartagena has direct cable connection with Colon
and so with New York. To Puerto Colombia a cable has been laid,
which, however, December, 1921, has not yet been opened. A French
company has a line from Salinas near Pará to Cayenne, Paramaribo, and
Martinique, another from La Guaira, to Curaçao, and Santo Domingo. The
Venezuelan Government has its own cable along the coast from Maracaibo,
to La Guaira, Barcelona, and other points. A British line connects
Georgetown, Guiana, with the Port of Spain, Trinidad.

The West Coast is connected with North America by three lines of
the All America system: one from Nicaragua and two from Panamá to
Santa Elena, Ecuador, one of the latter by way of Buenaventura and
Esmeraldas. The three lines continue south to Callao, one touching
at Paita. Two go on to Iquique and Valparaiso, one touching at
Antofagasta, while a branch comes north from Iquique to Arica to make
connection with La Paz. A cable of another company from Callao touches
at Mollendo, Arica, Antofagasta, La Serena, Valparaiso, and Concepción.

The East Coast is connected with the cables of the West Coast by three
private wires of the All America Cables over the Andes from Valparaiso
to Buenos Aires, so that they can handle messages to the Argentine
metropolis, 7452 miles from New York, by automatic methods in 15
minutes. Another cable company has a land line from Valparaiso to La
Plata, where connection is made with its Trans-Atlantic cable to Africa
and Europe. Both companies have short lines to Montevideo, the focus of
the East Coast lines. From here the All America has a cable to Santos
and one to Rio de Janeiro. The other, the Western Telegraph, has one to
Chuy, Uruguay, thence to Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catharina, Santos,
Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Pernambuco, Fortaleza, Maranhão, and Pará,
Brazil; and one from Chuy direct to Rio de Janeiro and Pernambuco. Four
cables from the latter port connect with Africa and Europe. The Western
Telegraph was to lay a cable from Maranhão to Barbados, there to
connect with the Western Union line to Florida. The All America expects
to lay a cable from Cuba south to Rio de Janeiro. The Amazon Company
has a cable up that river from Pará.


METRIC SYSTEM

The Metric System of weights and measures is legal and official in all
the Republics and obligatory in most, in Argentina, Brazil, Chile,
Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela. In the other countries and in some of
these, the old Spanish measures (Portuguese in Brazil) are more or less
used, but these differ in the various countries and are nowhere like
ours. Always to employ the metric system is highly important and in the
above mentioned countries necessary, though for shipping to some, the
weight in pounds must also be given. In Chile the use of other weights
and measures is prohibited; also in Uruguay, where their importation is
forbidden.




                              APPENDIX II

                    LEADING BANKS OF SOUTH AMERICA


Including the branches and affiliations of American banks and banking
houses, British banks, and the most important local banks of each
country.


UNITED STATES BANKS

The National City Bank, 55 Wall St., New York City, which led the way,
has branches in six of the South American Republics,

The Mercantile Bank of the Americas, 44 Pine St., New York,

The American Foreign Banking Corporation, 53 Broadway, New York,

W. R. Grace and Company’s Bank, 7 Hanover Square, New York,

The First National Bank, 70 Federal St., Boston,

The American Express Company, 65 Broadway, New York, with offices in
Buenos Aires, Argentina; Montevideo, Uruguay; and Valparaiso, Chile;
and with correspondents in other cities, performs some banking service.


BRITISH BANKS

Important banks with New York offices and with many branches in South
America are:

The Anglo South American Bank, 49 Broadway, New York, affiliated with

The British Bank of South America, and with

The Commercial Bank of Spanish America, 49 Broadway, New York;

The London and River Plate Bank, 51 Wall St., New York,

The London and Brazilian Bank, 56 Wall St., New York,

The Royal Bank of Canada, 68 William St., New York.


BRANCHES AND AFFILIATIONS

National City Bank, Branches: Argentina, Buenos Aires, Rosario; Brazil,
Rio de Janeiro, Santos, São Paulo, Pernambuco; Chile, Santiago,
Valparaiso; Peru, Lima; Uruguay, Montevideo; Venezuela, Caracas.

Mercantile Bank of the Americas: Affiliated Banks: Colombia, Banco
Mercantil Americano de Colombia, Bogotá Barranquilla, Cartagena,
Medellín, Cali, Girardot, Manizales; Peru, Banco Mercantil Americano
de Peru, Lima, Arequipa, Chiclayo, Callao, Piura, Trujillo; Venezuela,
Banco Mercantil Americano de Caracas, Caracas, La Guaira, Maracaibo,
Puerto Cabello, Valencia; Agency in Ecuador.

The American Foreign Banking Corporation: Argentina, Buenos Aires;
Brazil, Rio de Janeiro.

W. R. Grace and Company’s Bank: Argentina, Buenos Aires, W. R. Grace y
Cia.; Bolivia, La Paz, W. R. Grace and Company; Brazil, Rio de Janeiro,
Grace and Company; Chile: Santiago, Grace y Cia., Valparaiso, W. R.
Grace and Company, Iquique, Nitrate Agencies, Ltd.; Ecuador, Guayaquil,
Guayaquil Agencies Company; Peru, Lima, W. R. Grace and Company;
Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela Commercial Company.

The First National Bank, Boston: Argentina, Buenos Aires.

The Anglo South American Bank: Chile, Antofagasta, Chillán, Concepción,
Copiapó, Coquimbo, Iquique, Punta Arenas, Santiago, Talcahuano,
Valparaiso; Argentina, Buenos Aires, Bahia Blanca, Comodoro Rivadavia,
Mendoza, Puerto Deseado, Rio Gallegos, Rosario de Santa Fé, San
Julian, San Rafael, Santa Cruz, Trelew; Peru, Lima; Uruguay, Montevideo.

The British Bank of South America: Argentina, Buenos Aires, Rosario de
Santa Fé; Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Pernambuco, Porto Alegre, Rio
Grande do Sul, São Paulo; Uruguay, Montevideo.

The Commercial Bank of Spanish America: Colombia, Bogotá, Barranquilla,
Medellín; Ecuador, Guayaquil, Manta; Peru, Iquitos; Venezuela, Caracas,
Puerto Cabello.

The London and River Plate Bank: Argentina, Buenos Aires, Rosario de
Santa Fé, Mendoza, Bahia Blanca, Concordia, Córdoba, Paraná, Tucumán;
Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, Pará, Maceió, Pernambuco, Bahia, Santos, São
Paulo, Curityba, Pelotas, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul; Chile,
Santiago, Valparaiso, Antofagasta; Colombia, Bogotá; Paraguay,
Asunción; Uruguay, Montevideo, Salto, Paysandú.

The London and Brazilian Bank: Argentina, Buenos Aires, Rosario;
Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, Manaos, Pará, Maranhão, Ceará, Pernambuco,
Bahia, Santos, São Paulo, Curityba, Rio Grande do Sul, Pelotas, Porto
Alegre; Uruguay, Montevideo.

The Royal Bank of Canada: Argentina, Buenos Aires; Brazil, Rio de
Janeiro, Santos, São Paulo; British Guiana, Georgetown, Rose Hall
(Corentyn); Colombia, Barranquilla; Uruguay, Montevideo; Venezuela,
Caracas, Ciudad Bolívar, Maracaibo, Puerto Cabello.

Most if not all of the banks mentioned have correspondents or agents in
the chief cities of the countries where they have no branches and some
have connections in the smaller cities.

The Irving National Bank, Woolworth Building, New York, has
correspondents in the principal cities of South America.

The Guaranty Trust Company, 140 Broadway, New York, is affiliated with
the Mercantile Bank of the Americas and has other correspondents.


OTHER IMPORTANT BANKS IN SOUTH AMERICA

Argentina: Buenos Aires, Banco de la Nación Argentina, with 18 branches
in as many Argentine cities, Ernesto Tornquist and Company, Banco de la
Provincia de Buenos Aires, American Bank of the River Plate; La Plata,
the Central Bank of the Provincia de Buenos Aires, which has branches
in many cities of the Province.

Bolivia: La Paz, Banco de la Nación Boliviana, branches in Cochabamba,
Oruro, Potosí, Tarija, Uyuni; Banco Francisco Argandoña, also in
Cochabamba and Oruro; Banco Mercantil, also in Cochabamba, Oruro,
Potosí, Tarija, Tupiza, Uyuni; Banco Nacional de Bolivia, branches in
Cochabamba, Oruro, Potosí, Tupiza, Uyuni.

Brazil: Rio de Janeiro, Banco do Brasil, with branches in most of
the Brazilian cities, Banco Nacional Brasileiro; São Paulo, Banco
Commercial do Estado de São Paulo; Bahia, Banco de Bahia; Pará,
Banco de Pará; Pernambuco, Banco do Recife; Bello Horizonte, Banco
Hypothecario e Agricola de Estado de Minas Geraes; etc.

Chile: Santiago, Banco de Chile, branches in many cities; Banco Español
de Chile with branches; Banco de A. Edwards y Cia.; Valparaiso, Banco
de Chile y Argentina, branches in Punta Arenas, and also in San Julian
and Santa Cruz, Argentina.

Colombia: Bogotá, Banco de Bogotá, Banco de Colombia. These banks have
fewer branches, if any, than the Bancos de la Nación Argentina, de
Brasil, or de Chile, Medellín has the Banco de la Mutualidad, Banco
Dugand, and Banco Lopez, found also in Bucaramanga, and in other cities.

Ecuador: Guayaquil, Banco Comercial y Agricola, Banco del Ecuador,
Mercantile Overseas Corporation, Juan Marcas y Cia., correspondent of
the Guaranty Trust Company.

Guiana: British, Georgetown, Colonial Bank of London (22 William St.,
New York), branches in Henrietta and New Amsterdam; Dutch, Paramaribo,
De Surinaamsche Bank; French, Cayenne, Banque de la Guyane.

Peru: Lima, Banco del Peru y Londres, branches in most of the Peruvian
cities, Credito Hipotecario del Peru.

Paraguay: Asunción, Banco Mercantil del Paraguay, branches in
Concepción, Encarnación, Pilar, Villa Rica; Banco de la Republica,
branch in Encarnación.

Uruguay: Montevideo, Banco de la Republica Oriental del Uruguay, with
branches in many cities of the country.

Venezuela: Caracas, Banco de Venezuela, many branches; Banco de
Caracas, some branches.


OTHER AMERICAN BANKS

with facilities for South American Trade are:

New York, American Exchange National Bank, 128 Broadway, Bank of New
York, 48 Wall St., Battery Park National Bank of New York, 2 Broadway,
Canadian Bank of Commerce, 16 Exchange Place, Lincoln Trust Company, 7
Wall St.

Boston, The Merchants National Bank, 28 State St.

Chicago, Central Trust Company of Illinois, 125 West Monroe St., Great
Lakes Trust Company.

Cincinnati, The Fifty-Third National Bank.

Detroit, The Peoples State Bank, Fort & Shelby Sts.

Philadelphia, The Philadelphia National Bank, 421 Chestnut St.

Pittsburgh, Mellon National Bank, 514 Smithfield St.

San Francisco, The Crocker National Bank.

Additional banking information may be found in the Exporters’
Encyclopaedia, annual edition; in Commercial Travelers’ Guide to Latin
America, containing lists of banks for each city; and in the Bankers’
Almanac and Year Book, London, annual, with complete lists of banks in
the cities of all countries.




                             APPENDIX III

                   STEAMSHIP LINES TO SOUTH AMERICA


THE NORTH COAST


Colombia: Passenger and Freight Lines

 NEW YORK to Puerto Colombia and Cartagena, Caribbean Steamship
 Company, 10 Bridge St., weekly, Five Continent Steamship Company, 2
 Stone St., weekly, United Fruit Steamship Company Service, 17 Battery
 Place, weekly, also to Santa Marta.

 BOSTON to Cartagena, Puerto Colombia, Santa Marta, United Fruit
 Company Steamship Service, Long Wharf.

 NEW ORLEANS to Puerto Colombia, Pacific-Caribbean-Gulf Line, 630
 Common St., fortnightly; Caribbean Steamship Company, Lykes Bros.,
 monthly.

  Grace Line, to Colombian ports, monthly.


Colombia: Freight Only

 NEW YORK to Cartagena and Puerto Colombia, Tropical Steamship
 Corporation, 44 Whitehall St.

 SEATTLE to Cartagena and Puerto Colombia, Tropical Steamship
 Pacific-Caribbean-Gulf Line, A. M. Gillespie, Inc., Arctic Building,
 monthly.


Venezuela: Passengers and Freight

 NEW YORK to La Guaira, Puerto Cabello, Maracaibo, Red “D” Line, 82
 Wall St., weekly to La Guaira, fortnightly to the other ports.

  To Ciudad Bolívar, Trinidad Line, 29 Broadway, fortnightly to Port of
  Spain, transshipment.

  To Curaçao, Puerto Cabello, La Guaira, Cumaná, Carupano, and Port of
  Spain, Trinidad, Royal Netherlands West India Mail, Funch, Edye, and
  Company, 25 Broadway, fortnightly.

 NEW ORLEANS to La Guaira, Puerto Cabello, Maracaibo, New Orleans
 and South American Steamship Company, Queen and Crescent Bldg.,
 semi-monthly.

  Grace Line to Venezuelan ports, monthly.


Venezuela: Freight Only

 NEW YORK to La Guaira, Puerto Cabello, Maracaibo, Caribbean Steamship
 Company, 10 Bridge St., fortnightly.

 NEW ORLEANS to La Guaira, Puerto Cabello, Maracaibo, Caribbean
 Steamship Company, Lykes Bros., monthly.


Guiana: British, Dutch, and French


British Guiana Passengers and Freight

 NEW YORK to Georgetown, Quebec Steamship Company, 34 Whitehall St.,
 every 10-14 days; Trinidad Line, 22 Pearl St., fortnightly; Royal
 Netherlands West India Mail, monthly, 25 Broadway.

 NEW YORK to Georgetown, Paramaribo, Cayenne, Clyde Steamship Company,
 leave Pier 44 North River; fortnightly, freight only.

 MOBILE to Georgetown, Windward Island Line, Passengers and freight,
 every three weeks.


Dutch and French Guiana: Passengers and Freight

 NEW YORK to Paramaribo, Royal Netherlands West India Mail Line, 25
 Broadway, monthly.

 NEW YORK to Cayenne, Trinidad Line, 22 Pearl St., transshipment at
 Port of Spain.


THE WEST COAST

  Through Lines to Chile by Panama Canal, and from Pacific Ports.


Passengers and Freight

 NEW YORK: Grace Line, 10 Hanover Square, fortnightly to Callao and
 Mollendo, Peru; Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta, Valparaiso, Talcahuano,
 Chile; 20 days to Valparaiso.

  Pacific Steam Navigation Company, Sanderson and Son, 26 Broadway,
  monthly to Callao, Mollendo, Peru; Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta,
  Valparaiso, Chile; 20 days; a line from Liverpool to same ports,
  also a line every three weeks from Arica to Iquique, Antofagasta,
  Valparaiso, Talcahuano, Coronel, Corral, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas.

  Compañia sud Americana de Vapores, Wessel, Duval, and Company,
  25 Broad St., monthly to Guayaquil, Ecuador, Salaverry, Callao,
  Mollendo, Peru; Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta, Valparaiso, Chile.

 SEATTLE AND SAN FRANCISCO: Grace Line, Hoge Building, Seattle, monthly
 to Talara, Paita, Salaverry, Callao, Pisco, Mollendo, Peru; Arica,
 Iquique, Antofagasta, Valparaiso, Chile; also to Ecuador.

 PORTLAND AND SAN FRANCISCO: South American Line, to Guayaquil,
 Ecuador; Talara, Callao, Mollendo, Peru; Antofagasta, Chile.


Freight Only

 NEW YORK to Peru and Chile, New York and Isthmian Steamship Lines, J.
 W. Ryan, 39 Cortland St., monthly.

  West Coast Line, Wessel, Duval, and Company, 25 Broad St., monthly
  or oftener to Paita, Etén, Salaverry, Callao, Pisco, Mollendo, Peru;
  Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta, Taltal, Chañaral, Coquimbo, Valparaiso,
  Talcahuano, Chile.

  Grace Line, Paita, Etén, Salaverry, Callao, Coquimbo, Valparaiso,
  Talcahuano, monthly.

  Also from Baltimore, Clarence Cottman Company, according to demand.

 BALTIMORE to Peru and Chile, Pacific Steam Navigation Company,
 Furness, Withy, and Company, 19 South St., monthly.

 NEW ORLEANS to Ecuador, Peru, and Chile, New Orleans and South
 American Steamship Line Company, Queen and Crescent Bldg., monthly
 to Guayaquil, Ecuador, Callao, Mollendo, Peru; Arica, Iquique,
 Antofagasta, Valparaiso, Chile.

  Grace Line, monthly to Ecuador, Peru, and Chile.

 SEATTLE, PORTLAND, SAN FRANCISCO, AND SAN PEDRO to Colombia, Ecuador,
 Peru, and Chile, General Steamship Corporation, Colman Bldg., Seattle,
 every 20 days to Buenaventura, Colombia; Guayaquil, Ecuador; Paita,
 Callao, Mollendo, Peru; Arica, Antofagasta, Valparaiso, Chile.

 SEATTLE to Colombia, Ecuador, Chile, Rolph Steamship Company, Hind,
 Rolph and Company, Henry Building, monthly to Buenaventura, Colombia;
 Bahia, Manta, Guayaquil, Ecuador; Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta,
 Valparaiso, Chile.

 PORTLAND, OREGON, AND SAN FRANCISCO to Peru and Chile, Toyo Kisen
 Kaisha Oregon Pacific Company, Wilcox Bldg., monthly to Callao,
 Mollendo, Peru; Arica, Iquique, Valparaiso, Chile.


Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru

 NEW YORK to Cartagena, Buenaventura, Guayaquil, Paita, Etén, Pimentel,
 Pacasmayo, and Salaverry, every three weeks; freight only, Grace Line,
 10 Hanover Square.


Colombia and Ecuador

 NEW YORK: Pacific Line every three weeks to Buenaventura, Colombia;
 Esmeraldas, Bahia, Manta, Guayaquil, Ecuador; freight.


Colombia

 NEW YORK to Buenaventura and Tumaco, Caribbean Steamship Company, 10
 Bridge St., passengers and freight, monthly.


Other Lines with Transshipment at Colon

 NEW YORK to Colon, Panama Railroad Steamship Line, 24 State St.,
 weekly, passengers and freight; United Fruit Company Steamship
 Service, twice a week to Colon, passengers and freight; other service
 to Colon from Boston and New Orleans.


West Coast Lines from Colon and Panama

 PACIFIC STEAM NAVIGATION, 26 Broadway, New York, fortnightly, to
 Paita, Pimentel, Etén, Pacasmayo, Salaverry, Callao, Cerro Azul,
 Tambo de Mora, Pisco, Lomas, Chala, Mollendo, Peru; Arica, Iquique,
 Antofagasta, Coquimbo, Valparaiso, Talcahuano, Penco, Tomé, Coronel,
 Chile; another line fortnightly to Buenaventura, Tumaco, Colombia;
 Esmeraldas, Bahia de Caraquez, Manta, Cayo, Machalilla, Manglar Alto,
 Ballenita, P. Bolívar, Guayaquil, Ecuador.

 COMPAÑIA PERUANA DE VAPORES (Peruvian Line), 32 Broadway, New
 York, every ten days to Guayaquil, Ecuador; Paita, Pimentel, Etén,
 Pacasmayo, Salaverry, Chimbote, Samanco, Casma, Callao, Cerro Azul,
 Tambo de Mora, Pisco, Lomas, Chala, Mollendo, Ilo, Peru.

 COMPAÑIA SUD AMERICANA DE VAPORES, 25 Broad St., New York, fortnightly
 to Guayaquil, Ecuador, and primary ports of Peru and Chile; and by
 transfer to caletero boats serving Paita, Pimentel, Etén, Pacasmayo,
 Salaverry, Chimbote, Samanco, Casma, Huarmey, Supe, Huacho, Callao,
 Cerro Azul, Tambo de Mora, Pisco, Lomas, Chala, Mollendo, Ilo, Peru;
 Arica, Pisagua, Caleta Buena, Iquique, Tocopilla, Gatico, Antofagasta,
 Taltal, Chañaral, Caldera, Huasco, Coquimbo, Valparaiso, Talcahuno,
 Penco, Tomé, Coronel, Lota, Chile.

 THE COLOMBIAN MARITIME COMPANY serves Buenaventura and Tumaco,
 Colombia.


THE EAST COAST


Lines to Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina


From New York, Passenger and Freight

 Lamport and Holt Line, 42 Broadway, fortnightly to Pernambuco, Bahia,
 Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Montevideo,
 Uruguay; Buenos Aires, Argentina.

 Munson Steamship Line, 67 Wall St., fortnightly to Rio de Janeiro,
 Brazil; Montevideo, Buenos Aires.

 Lloyd Brasileiro, 44 Whitehall St., fortnightly to Pernambuco, Bahia,
 Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Brazil.

 Booth Steamship Company, 17 Battery Place, monthly or oftener to Pará,
 Manaos (transshipment for Iquitos, Peru), Maranhão, Ceará, Parnahyba,
 Maceió, Pernambuco, Cabedello, Natal; also semi-monthly service to Rio
 de Janeiro, Santos, and Rio Grande do Sul, with calls when required at
 Bahia, Victoria, Paranaguá, Florianopolis, and São Francisco.

 Norton Line, Norton, Lilly, and Company, 26 Beaver St., passenger and
 freight service expected bi-monthly to Montevideo and Buenos Aires;
 sometimes to Rosario. Freight service semi-monthly to Montevideo,
 Buenos Aires, Rosario, occasionally to Santa Fé.

 The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company has services from Liverpool and
 from Southampton to Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina; also a Line around
 South America by the Straits of Magellan and through the Panama Canal,
 and vice versa, calling at the principal East and West Coast ports.


From New York, Freight Only

 Munson Line, 67 Wall St., fortnightly to Rio de Janeiro, Santos,
 Montevideo, Buenos Aires.

 Donald Line, Oriental Navigation Company, 39 Broadway, to Rio de
 Janeiro, Santos, Montevideo, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Rosario.

 Ward Line, New York and Cuba Mail Steamship Company, foot of Wall St.,
 fortnightly to Pará, Maranhão, Ceará, Natal, Cabedello, Pernambuco,
 Maceió, Bahia, Montevideo, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Rosario.

 Prince Line, Furness, Withy and Company, 34 Whitehall St., fortnightly
 to Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Pelotas,
 La Plata, Buenos Aires, Rosario.

 Commercial South American Line, Moore and McCormack, Inc., 5 Broadway,
 monthly to Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Paranaguá, Rio
 Grande do Sul, Montevideo, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Rosario.

 National Line, National Steamship Lines, 11 Broadway, monthly to
 Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, Santos, La Plata, Buenos Aires,
 Rosario.

 New York and Argentine Steamship Company, 50 Broadway, fortnightly to
 Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Buenos Aires.

 North and South Line, P. Kleppe and Company, 11 Broadway, monthly to
 Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Buenos Aires.


To Brazil Only

 United States and Brazil Steamship Line, Arthur Lewis, 39 Cortlandt
 St., fortnightly to Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, Santos.

 Prince Line, 34 Whitehall St., monthly to Pará, Pernambuco, Bahia.

 Lamport and Holt Line, 42 Broadway, monthly to Pará, Maranhão, Ceará,
 Natal, Cabedello, Pernambuco, Maceió, Bahia.

 Ward Line, foot of Wall St., monthly to Rio de Janeiro and Santos.


Argentina and Uruguay

 Barber Steamship Line, 17 Battery Place, fortnightly to Montevideo, La
 Plata, Buenos Aires, Rosario.


Argentina Only

 Houston Line, 17 Battery Place, fortnightly to La Plata, Buenos Aires,
 Rosario.

 Kerr Steamship Company, 44 Beaver St., semi-monthly to Argentine ports.

 American and Rio Plata Line, Houlder, Weir and Boyd, 24 State St.,
 monthly to La Plata, Buenos Aires, Rosario.

 Grace Line, 10 Hanover Square, monthly to Bahia Blanca, Puerto Madryn;
 also to Punta Arenas, Corral, and Coronel, Chile, returning by West
 Coast.

       *       *       *       *       *

 BALTIMORE: New York and Argentine Steamship Company, W. R. Wiest and
 Company, Marine Bank Bldg., monthly to Rio de Janeiro, Santos, La
 Plata, Buenos Aires.

  Green Star Line, 17 South St., monthly to Bahia, Rio de Janeiro,
  Santos, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Rosario.

 BOSTON: Emery Line, 114 State St., monthly to Rio de Janeiro, Santos,
 La Plata, Buenos Aires, Rosario.

 BRUNSWICK, GA.: “Sam Line,” Strachan Shipping Company, monthly to
 Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Buenos Aires.

 CHARLESTON: “Sam Line,” The Carolina Company, monthly to Pernambuco,
 Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Buenos Aires.

 JACKSONVILLE: “Sam Line,” Strachan Shipping Company, monthly to
 Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Buenos Aires.

 MOBILE: Munson Steamship Line, 67 Wall St., New York, fortnightly to
 Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Montevideo, Buenos Aires.

 NEW ORLEANS: Lamport and Holt Line, Alfred Le Blanc, 833 Gravier St.,
 monthly to Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Buenos Aires, Rosario, and up-river
 ports.

  Ward Line, New York and Cuba Mail Steamship Company, Whitney, Central
  Bldg., monthly to Rio de Janeiro, Santos, La Plata, Buenos Aires,
  Rosario.

  Delta Line, Mississippi Shipping Company, Queen and Crescent Bldg.,
  monthly or oftener to Rio de Janeiro and Santos.

  Isthmian Steamship Lines, Norton, Lilly and Company, Canal-Commercial
  Bldg., monthly to Buenos Aires direct; by transshipment to Rosario.

 PHILADELPHIA: I. F. C. Line, International Freight Corporation,
 Lafayette Bldg., Philadelphia, 170 Broadway, New York, semi-monthly to
 Rio de Janeiro, Santos, La Plata, Buenos Aires.

 SAVANNAH: “Sam Line,” South Atlantic Maritime Corporation, 7 East Bay
 St., monthly to Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Buenos Aires.

 WILMINGTON, North Carolina: “Sam Line,” Alexander Sprunt and Son,
 Inc., monthly to Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Buenos Aires.

 SEATTLE: Swayne and Holt Line, A. M. Gillespie, Inc., Arctic Bldg.,
 monthly to La Plata, Buenos Aires, Rosario.

 SAN FRANCISCO to East Coast via Straits of Magellan:
 Pacific-Argentine-Brazil Line, monthly to Santos, Montevideo, Buenos
 Aires; if sufficient freight, Bahia Blanca and Rosario.

Sailings of most of the Freight Lines are liable to some irregularity
as to dates of departure and ports of call, according to the amount of
freight offered.

Full information as to Steamship Lines of the United States to foreign
ports may be found in the Exporters’ Encyclopedia, annual editions,
with Supplementary Bulletins.

The Commercial Travelers’ Guide to Latin America (Filsinger) gives also
European Steamship Lines to South America.




                              APPENDIX IV

                             PUBLICATIONS


Of value to persons interested in South American Trade.

       *       *       *       *       *

The Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Washington, D. C., has
published many important pamphlets and a few books. A list of the
publications available, with their prices, may be obtained from the
Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,
or from the District offices of the Bureau, in New York, Boston,
Chicago, St. Louis, New Orleans, San Francisco, Seattle. Besides the
ordinary consular reports, the Bureau offers publications in the
following groups: Special Agent Series, comprising monographs on
special industries, countries, and phases of commerce; Special Consular
Reports; Foreign Tariff Series; Industrial Standards; and Miscellaneous
Series.


PERIODICALS

PAN AMERICAN BULLETIN, Pan American Union, Washington.

THE SOUTH AMERICAN, 310 Lexington Ave., New York.

THE PAN AMERICAN MAGAZINE, 70 Fifth Ave., New York.

PAN AMERICAN REVIEW, Pan American Society of the United States, 15
Broad St., New York.

COMMERCIAL AMERICA, Philadelphia Commercial Museum, Philadelphia, Pa.

WEEKLY EXPORT BULLETIN, Philadelphia Commercial Museum, Philadelphia,
Pa.

EXPORT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES, 60 Church St., New York.

AMERICAN EXPORTER, Johnston Export Publishing Company, 370 Seventh
Ave., New York.

DUN’S INTERNATIONAL REVIEW, 290 Broadway, New York.

THE WORLD’S MARKETS, 290 Broadway, New York.

EXPORT AND SHIPPING JOURNAL, Board of Trade Bldg., Portland, Ore.

EXPORT NEWS, 16 Beaver St., New York.

EXPORT TRADE, 280 Broadway, New York.

EXPORTERS’ STANDARD, 15 Park Row, New York.

ELECTRICAL EXPORTER, 114 Liberty St., New York.

EXPORT RECORDER OF SHOE AND LEATHER INDUSTRY, 207 South St., Boston.

IMPORTERS’ GUIDE, 47 Broadway, New York.

INTERNATIONAL CINEMA TRADE REVIEW, 1587 Broadway, New York.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE DEVELOPER, 168 Michigan Ave., Chicago.

IRON AGE CATALOGUE OF AMERICAN EXPORTS, 239 West 39th St., New York.

PACIFIC PORTS, 626 Central Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

PAN PACIFIC, 618 Mission St., San Francisco, Calif.


House Organs

AMERICAN EXPORT MONTHLY, Arkell & Douglas, 44 Whitehall St., New York.

EXPORT WORLD AND HERALD, American Trading Company, 25 Broad St., New
York.

EXPORTERS’ AND IMPORTERS’ JOURNAL, Henry W. Peabody & Company, 17 State
St., New York.

FOREIGN TRADE BULLETIN, American Express Company, 65 Broadway, New York.

DU PONT PRODUCTS, Du Pont de Nemours Export Company, 120 Broadway, New
York.

GRAPHIC ARTS, Parsons & Whittemore, 799 Broadway, New York.

THE GRACE LOG, W. R. Grace & Company, 7 Hanover Square, New York.


PERIODICALS IN SPANISH OR PORTUGUESE

AMERICA, National Association of Manufacturers, 60 Church St., New York.

AMERICAN LEATHER, 41 Park Row, New York.

AUTOMOTIVE EXPORTER, 448 West 37th St., New York.

BOOT AND SHOE RECORDER, 207 South St., Boston.

CINE MUNDIAL, 516 Fifth Ave., New York.

DUN’S INTERNATIONAL REVIEW, 290 Broadway, New York.

EL ARTE TIPOGRAFICO, 32 Burling Slip, New York.

EL AUTOMOVIL AMERICANO, 239 West 39th St., New York.

EL CAMPO INTERNATIONAL, 2 West 45th St., New York.

EL COMERCIO, 114 Liberty St., New York.

EL ESCRITORIO, 32 Burling Slip, New York.

EL INDICADOR MERCANTIL, 1328 Broadway, New York.

EL INGENIERO Y CONTRATISTA, 161 Water St., New York.

EL MERCURIO, 635 Common St., New Orleans, La.

EL MUNDO AZUCARERO, 407 Carondelet St., New Orleans, La.

EL NORTE AMERICANO, 310 Lexington Ave., New York.

EL REPORTER AMERICANO (Shoe and Leather), 166 Essex St., Boston.

EMPRESA, John W. Thorne & Company, 165 Broadway, New York.

EXPORTADOR AMERICANO, 370 Seventh Ave., New York.

FERRETERIA, Hurt Bldg., Atlanta, Ga.

GEYERS’ REVISTA INTERNATIONAL de Papeleria, etc., 175 Fifth Ave., New
York.

INGENIERIA INTERNACIONAL, Tenth Ave., at 36th St., New York.

LA HACIENDA, 775 Main St., Buffalo, N. Y.

LA INDUSTRIA, 114 Liberty St., New York.

O ENGENHEIRO E EMPREITEIRO, 161 Water St., New York.

OFFICE APPLIANCE EXPORTER, 417 South Dearborn St., Chicago.

PICTORIAL REVIEW, 222 West 39th St., New York.

REVISTA AMERICANO FARMACIA Y MEDECINA, 66 West Broadway, New York.

VOGUE, 19 West 44th St., New York.

       *       *       *       *       *

All the above publications are in Spanish except O Engenheiro, which
is in Portuguese; La Hacienda and Dun’s International Review have both
Portuguese and Spanish Editions.

The Pan American Bulletin has Spanish and Portuguese editions,
differing from the English edition.


SOME USEFUL BOOKS

Of fairly recent date

THE COMMERCIAL TRAVELERS’ GUIDE TO LATIN AMERICA (with separate maps),
by E. B. Filsinger. No. 89 of the Miscellaneous Series of the U. S.
Bureau of Foreign Commerce, 1920, 592 p., $1.25, contains a vast amount
of detailed information as to routes of travel and cities, large and
small. With the correction of some obvious errors now proceeding in a
revision, the second edition will be of immense value to the persons
for whom it is designed, and highly useful in the home office. The
maps, included in the low price, perform a genuine and needed service,
though not entirely accurate.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LATIN AMERICA: Marion Wilcox and G. E. Rines, editors,
New York, 887 p. $10.

THE SOUTH AMERICAN TOUR, A Guide, by Annie S. Peck. George H. Doran
Company, New York, 1913, ’16, ’20. Pronounced in 1916 by the Director
of Commerce and Industry of Argentina, the best and most accurate book
on South America that he had seen. 400 p. $3.00.

A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA, by W. A. Hirst. MacMillan Company, London,
1915. 340 p. $1.75.

THE GREAT SOUTH LAND, The River Plate and Southern Brazil of To-day, by
W. H. Koebel. Dodd, Mead & Co., 1920. 314 p. $4.50.

PAN AMERICAN COMMERCIAL CONGRESS, Proceedings, 1919. Pan American
Union, Washington. $3.00.

ANGLO SOUTH AMERICAN HANDBOOK, by W. H. Koebel, 1921. Macmillan Co.
$7.50.

THE SOUTH AMERICAN YEAR BOOK AND DIRECTORY, 1915. Louis Cassier Co.,
London (International Book Co., New York). 600 p. $8.50.

LATIN AMERICAN YEAR BOOK FOR INVESTORS AND MERCHANTS. Criterion
Newspaper Syndicate, New York. $3.00.

THE STATESMAN’S YEAR BOOK. Macmillan Co., New York.

SOUTH AMERICA, PAST AND PRESENT, by L. C. Bollo, 1919, Whitehall Bldg.,
New York. 218 p. $3.00.

THE STATES OF SOUTH AMERICA, by Charles Domville-Fife. Macmillan Co.,
New York, 1920. Concise, unusually accurate and valuable.

GLIMPSES OF SOUTH AMERICA, by F. A. Sherwood. Century Co., 1920. 406 p.
$4.00.

UNDERSTANDING SOUTH AMERICA, by C. S. Cooper. Geo. H. Doran Co., 1918.
426 p. $2.50.

THE GULF OF MISUNDERSTANDING, by Tancredo Pinochet. Boni & Liveright,
New York, 1920. 275 p. $2.50.

MEN, MANNERS AND MORALS, IN SOUTH AMERICA, by J. O. Bland. Charles
Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1920. $4.00.

UNITED STATES AND LATIN AMERICA. Doubleday, Page & Co. $2.50.


BOOKS ON INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES


Argentina

ARGENTINA Y SUS GRANDEZAS (with map), by Blasco Ibanez. E. P. Dutton,
1921. $12.00.

ARGENTINA, by G. J. Mills. D. Appleton & Co., 1914. 209 p. $3.00. Good
handbook.

ARGENTINA AND URUGUAY, by Gordon Ross. Macmillan Co., 1916. 308 p.
$4.25.

ARGENTINA IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, by A. B. Martinez and M.
Lewandowski. Scribner, 1915.

THE ARGENTINE YEAR BOOK. R. Grant & Co., Buenos Aires, 10th ed., 1919.
Donnell & Palmer, Whitehall Bldg., New York. $4.50. Gives commercial
laws, regulations, statistics, information on trade and industry, etc.

FIVE MONTHS IN THE ARGENTINE FROM A WOMAN’S POINT OF VIEW, by K. S.
Dreier. F. F. Sherman, 1920. $3.50.

BAEDEKER OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, by A. B. Martinez. D. Appleton & Co.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC IN THE LAST FIFTY YEARS.
E. Tornquist & Co., Buenos Aires, 1919. Pamphlet, 328 p. Free.


Bolivia

BOLIVIA: ITS PEOPLE AND ITS RESOURCES, by Paul Walle. Scribner, 1914.
407 p. $4.50.

GUIA GENERAL DE BOLIVIA; Commercial, Industrial, etc., 1918, by R. and
V. Heredia. Imprenta Artistica, La Paz, Bolivia. 1959 p.

REPORT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMMERCIAL RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNITED
STATES AND BOLIVIA, by J. L. Tejada, Second Pan American Financial
Congress, Pan American Union, Washington, 1920. 55 p. Free.


Brazil

BRAZIL, TODAY AND TOMORROW, by L. E. Elliott. Macmillan Co., 1917. 338
p. $2.50. Good.

BRAZIL IN 1919, by J. C. Oakenfull, Commission of Economic Expansion of
Brazil, U. S. Organization Office, 50 Church St., New York. Important.

ECONOMIC NOTES ON BRAZIL, by I. S. Lopes, Ministry of Agriculture,
Industry, and Commerce, Rio de Janeiro, 1919. 103 p.

NORTH BRAZIL, by E. C. Buley. D. Appleton, 1914. 216 p. $3.00.

SOUTH BRAZIL, by E. C. Buley. D. Appleton, 1914. 216 p. $3.00.

THE SEA AND THE JUNGLE, by H. M. Tomlinson. E. P. Dutton, 1920. $5.00.
Delightful.


Chile

CHILE INDUSTRIAL, by P. L. Gonzalez, Soc. Imprenta y Litografia
Universo, Santiago, Chile, 1919. 244 p.

CHILE, ITS LAND AND PEOPLE, by F. J. G. Maitland. Francis Griffiths,
London, 1914. 293 p. $2.75.

CHILE, by G. J. Mills. D. Appleton. 193 p. $3.00. A practical handbook.


Colombia

BLUE BOOK OF COLOMBIA, Colombian Consulate, 17 Battery Place, New
York, 1918. English and Spanish. 725 p. $15.00. Varied and valuable
information.

COLOMBIA, by P. J. Eder. Scribner, 1917. 312 p. $4.50.

COLOMBIA, by V. Levine. D. Appleton, 1914. 220 p. $3.00.

COMERCIO EXTERIOR DE LA REPUBLICA DE COLOMBIA; por Direccion General de
Estadistica, Imprenta Nacional, Bogota, 1919. 498 p.


Ecuador

ECUADOR, by C. R. Enock. Scribner, 1914. 375 p. $4.50.


The Guianas

BRITISH, DUTCH, AND FRENCH GUIANA, by J. Rodway. Scribner, 1912. 318 p.
$4.50.

BRITISH GUIANA COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK, compiled by Comptroller of Customs.
The Argosy Co., Georgetown, B. G., 1920. 36 cents.


Paraguay

PARAGUAY, by W. H. Koebel. Scribner, 1917. 348 p. $4.50.


Peru

PERU, by E. C. Vivian. D. Appleton, 1914. 235 p. $3.00. Good handbook.


URUGUAY

URUGUAY, by W. H. Koebel. Scribner, 1911. 350 p. $4.50.


VENEZUELA

VENEZUELA, by L. V. Dalton. T. Fisher Unwin, London, 1918. 320 p. $4.50.

       *       *       *       *       *

Valuable articles may be found in many magazines. Monographs of the
different countries have been published by the Pan American Union and
by the Bureau of Foreign Commerce.


BOOKS ON FOREIGN TRADE

AMERICAN BUSINESS IN WORLD’S MARKETS, by J. T. M. Moore. Geo. H. Doran
Co., 1919. 320 p. $2.00.

AMERICAN FOREIGN TRADE, Charles M. Pepper. Century Co., 1919. 350 p.
$2.50.

AMERICAN MANUFACTURERS’ EXPORT ASSOCIATION YEAR BOOK, 300 p. $3.00.

EXPORT TRADE DIRECTORY, Johnston Export Publishing Co., New York,
Annual. $10.00.

EXPORTERS’ ENCYCLOPEDIA, Exporters’ Encyclopedia Co., 280 Broadway, New
York. Annual. $15.00. Necessary Book of Reference with supplementary
bulletins.

EXPORTING TO LATIN AMERICA, by E. B. Filsinger. D. Appleton, 1916. 565
p. $3.25. Comprehensive and valuable.

GETTING TOGETHER WITH LATIN AMERICA, by A. Hyatt Verrill. E. P. Dutton,
1918. $2.00.

INSTRUCTION BOOK FOR EXPORT PACKING OF ENGINEER MATERIAL, Engineer
Corps, U. S. Army, Washington. 63 p. Free; important.

NATIONAL FOREIGN TRADE CONVENTIONS, PROCEEDINGS OF. Yearly, 1914-21
Valuable addresses, National Foreign Trade Council, India House, New
York. $2.00 each.

PAN AMERICAN COMMERCE. Report of Pan American Commercial Conference,
June, 1919; Pan American Union, Washington, 1919. 473 p. $3.00.

PRACTICAL EXPORTING, by B. Olney Hough. Johnston Publishing Co.,
New York, 4th ed., 1919. 529 p. $5.00. Useful book by a recognized
authority.

PRINCIPLES OF FOREIGN TRADE, by Norbert L. Savay. Ronald Press, New
York, 1919. 495 p. $4.00.

SELLING LATIN AMERICA, by W. E. Aughinbaugh. Small, Maynard & Co.,
Boston, 1915. 408 p. $2.00.

ADVERTISING FOR FOREIGN TRADE, by W. E. Aughinbaugh, Foreign Editor N.
Y. Commercial. Century Co., New York, 1921. 300 p. $3.00.

SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICAN TRADE CONDITIONS OF TO-DAY, by A. Hyatt
Verrill. Dodd, Mead, 1919. $1.50.

THEORY AND PRACTICE OF INTERNATIONAL COMMERCE, by A. J. Wolfe
International Book Co., New York, 1919. 548 p. $5.00. Text Book of
import, export, and banking practice.

TRADING WITH LATIN AMERICA, by E. B. Filsinger, Irving National Bank,
New York, 1917, 1919. 186 p.


On Banking

ACCEPTANCE CORPORATIONS, and other pamphlets, issued by the Acceptance
Council, 111 Broadway, New York, 1919.

ACCEPTANCES: Other pamphlets on this subject issued by the American
Exchange Bank, N. Y., 1918, 79 p.; by Guaranty Trust Co., N. Y., 1918,
72 p.; by National City Bank, N. Y., 1918, 56 p.; by Merchants and
Metals National Bank, N. Y., 1918, 50 p.; Trade Acceptance Review and
other Pamphlets, Irving National Bank, N. Y., Foreign Financing under
the Edge Act, Guaranty Trust Co., 1919, 40 p.; Handbook of Finance and
Trade with South America, 1919, and Latin American Monetary Systems and
Exchange Conditions, National City Bank; all free if available.

FOREIGN CREDIT INFORMATION, R. G. Dun, N. Y., 1919. 24 p. Free.

FOREIGN EXCHANGE EXPLAINED, by Franklin Escher. Macmillan Co., 1917
(reprint 1920). 219 p. $1.25.

FOREIGN EXCHANGE; Theory and Practice, by Thomas York. Ronald Press, N.
Y., 1920. $2.50.


On Commodities

MINERAL DEPOSITS OF SOUTH AMERICA, by Miller and Singewald. McGraw-Hill
Book Co., N. Y., 1919. 598 p. $5.00.

COCONUTS, KERNELS, CACAO, AND EDIBLE VEGETABLE OILS AND SEEDS OF
COMMERCE; a practical handbook by H. O. Newland. J. B. Lippincott Co.,
Phila., 1919. 111 p. $2.50.

PITMAN’S COMMERCIAL COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES; a series of 27
illustrated volumes, each $1.00, on Coal, Coffee, etc. Isaac Pitman &
Sons, London and N. Y.

WORLD’S FOOD RESOURCES, by J. Russell Smith. Henry Holt & Co., N. Y.,
1919. 634 p. $3.50.

WHAT BRAZIL BUYS AND SELLS, Ministry of Agriculture, Industry, and
Commerce, Rio de Janeiro, 1918. 95 p.


On Shipping

INFLUENCE OF THE GREAT WAR UPON SHIPPING, by J. Russell Smith. Oxford
Univ. Press, N. Y., 1919. 357 p.

OCEAN STEAMSHIP TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT, by G. G. Huebner. D. Appleton,
1920. 273 p. $3.00. Appleton Shipping Series. Other volumes to appear.

PORTS AND TERMINAL FACILITIES, by R. S. MacElwee. McGraw-Hill Co., N.
Y., 1918. $3.00.

PRINCIPLES OF OCEAN TRANSPORTATION, by E. R. Johnson and G. G. Huebner.
D. Appleton, 1918. $2.75.

SHIPPING’S SHARE IN FOREIGN TRADE, Fundamentals of Ocean
Transportation. Guaranty Trust Co., 1919. 30 p. Free.


Geographies, Maps, etc.

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY, by G. G. Chisholm. Longmans, Green & Co., London
and New York, 1918, 8th ed. 666 p. $7.50.

SOUTH AMERICA, a Geography Reader, by Israel Bowman. Rand, McNally &
Co., Chicago, 1915. 354 p. 75 cents.

SOUTH AMERICA, by N. B. Allen. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1918. 413 p. 96
cents.

ATLAS AMERICANA LATINA, General Drafting Co., New York, 1919. $20.00.
New maps and charts by experts. English and Spanish text.

COMMERCIAL ATLAS OF AMERICA, including South America in four sections.
Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago, 1921. $35.00. Wall Map, of South America,
46 × 66, $10.00, $15.00. Pocket Maps, 4 sections, each 35 cents.

COMPARATIVE WALL ATLAS OF SOUTH AMERICA, George Philip and Son, London
Geographical Institute.

LONDON TIMES SURVEY ATLAS OF THE WORLD, 1920.

THE DAILY TELEGRAPH VICTORY ATLAS OF THE WORLD, London, 1920.

BUSINESS ATLAS OF ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY, C. S. Hammond & Co., N. Y. 88 p.
$1.50.

SOUTH AMERICA, Maps, Richard Mayer, 70 Wall St., New York. Many
sections, 42 × 30 inches. Each section, paper, $15.00, linen $17.50.
Key map showing finished sections on request. Railroads and Mineral
Conditions.

COMMERCIAL MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA, Scale 1:1,000,000, J. G. Bartholomew,
London and Edinburgh. 3 s.

COMMERCIAL MAP OF LATIN AMERICA, 23 × 33 inches, Irving National Bank,
New York.

TRADE CHART OF LATIN AMERICA, 23 × 33 inches, Irving National Bank,
1919. Imports and exports 1913-1918 with per cent to and from United
States.

ATLAS DO BRAZIL, by Homem de Mello, Rio de Janeiro, 1907.

MAPPAS DO BRAZIL, SOCIEDADE NACIONAL DE AGRICULTURA, 1907.

MAPA DE CHILE (Government), 1910.

ATLAS ARGENTINO, 1898.

       *       *       *       *       *

No attempt has been made to supply complete bibliographies. Other works
are listed in various books and in Government pamphlets. An excellent
series of bibliographies recently published in The World’s Markets may
now be available in pamphlet form through the courtesy of the Service
Department of Dun’s International Review, 290 Broadway, New York, to
which the author is much indebted.




                                 INDEX

The figures in black face indicate references of especial
importance.--Ordinary contractions are used, as _R._ for river, _Ry._
railway, _V._ for valley, etc.--As _ch_, _ll_, and _ñ_ are regarded
in Spanish as distinct letters, _ch_ follows all the _c’s_, _ll_
the _l’s_, and _ñ_ the _n’s_.--For additional agricultural and mineral
products, see under the individual States.


  Abancay, 152, 171

  Abuná, 413;
    R. 227, 243

  Acaray Mts., 101;
    R. 347, 348

  Achacachi, 215, 225

  Aconcagua, 247, =257=, 276;
    Mt. 251, 257, 287, 296;
    R. 251, 268

  Aconquija, Mt., 294

  Acre, 242, 375, 376, =405=, 412;
    R. 227

  Aeroplanes, 113, 314, 367

  Agriculture, 40-43; 86-88; 105, 106, 110, 141-143; 185-191; 241-242;
        275-276, 319-323; 348-350; 369, 414-419

  Aguardiente, 42, 142, 189, =241=

  Aguarico R., 126

  Aguas Blancas, 266

  Aiguirre Puerto, 306

  Alagôas, 375, 387, =399=, 412, 432

  Alausi, 136, 138

  Albemarle, Isl., 133

  Albina, 111

  Alfalfa, 143, 191, =276=, 316

  Alligator, 143;
    Pear, 190

  Almagro, Diego de, 113, 149, 245

  Alpacas, 193, 239, 240

  Aluminum, 107

  Amagá, 35, =37=, 46

  Amarração, 401

  Amazon Basin and R., 2, 3, 4, 6, 16, 17, 76, 114, 115, 121, =124=,
        126, 137, 138, 143, 154, 159, 173, 174, 181, 182, 183, 210,
        211, 212, 227, 306, 378, =379=, =382=, 403, 420, 421

  Amazonas, (Ven.), 55, 74, 75, 84,
    (Peru), 152, 169, 173, 188,
    (Brazil), 375, 402, 403, 405, 425, 432

  Ambalema, 33, 37

  Ambato, 117, 137, 138, 139,
    Basin, 122, 123, 125

  Ancash, 152, 165, 197, 200

  Ancón, 151, 167

  Ancón de Sardinas, Bay, 130

  Ancos, 165

  Ancud, 247, 277

  Ancud, Gulf of, 251, 259

  Angol, 247

  Antarctic Circle, 250

  Antarctic Current, 121, 156, 157, 252

  Antimony, 193, 201, 235

  Antioquia, 9, 10, 11, 12, =22=, 23, 38, 40, 42, 49, 50, 51

  Antisana Mt., 126

  Antofagasta, 150, 205, 206, 215, 222, 223, 243, 247, =256=, 261, 263,
        265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 292, 313

  Antonina, 394

  Anzoátegui, 54, 55, 68, 82, 88

  Apá R., 333, 339

  Apolobamba, Nudo of, =211=, 234

  Aporama, 199

  Apuay Knot, 125

  Apure, 55, 56, 71;
    R. 62, 72, 84

  Apurimac, 150, 152, 171, 197;
    R. 159, 170, 171

  Aquidabán R., 339

  Aracajú, 375, =399=, 412

  Aragua, 54, 55, 66, 67, 80, 88;
    R. 60, 67

  Araguary R., 386, 402

  Araguaya R., 381, 382, 412, 425, 429

  Arauca, 10, 13, =27=, 31;
    R. 17, 27, 31, 84

  Arauco, 247, 259;
    Bay, 263, 274

  Archidona, 117

  Argentina, 216, 218, 235, 242, 250, 257, =280-330=, 334, 335, 348,
        367, 368, 424, 427, 452

  Argentina Lake, 313

  Arequipa, 152, 154, 158, 161, =168=, =180=, 198, 200, 201, 203, 221,
        222

  Arica, 148, 151, 158, 222, 235, 236, 246, 249, 255, 261, 263, 266,
        275, 278

  Aricoma Pass, 199

  Ariguani, 36

  Aripe Rapids, 306

  Aroa, 66, 79, 81, 93

  Artigas, 356, =362=;
    Gen., 355

  Ascope, 164

  Asphalt, 94

  Asunción, 289, 306, 311, 312, 333, 334, 336, 337, 339, 340, =341=,
        343, 348, 393, 404, 409

  Atabapo R., 75, 76

  Atacama, 247, =256=, 266, 276;
    Puna de, 293, 325

  Atlantico, 9, 10, 11, =22=, 44

  Atocha, 223

  Atrato R., 15, 16, 17, 18, 23, 24, 35, 43, 48, 49

  Atures Rapids, 17, 75, 84

  Aullagas Lake, 226

  Australia, 133

  Ayacucho, 152, 171, 188, 193, =206=

  Aymarás, 172, 181, 208

  Ayoapó, 236

  Ayolas, Juan de, 333, 334

  Azogues, 117, 133

  Azuay, 116, 117, =132=, 133, 139, 145


  Babahoya, 117, 139;
    R., 127

  Bahia, (Ec.), 136;
    (Brazil), 374, 375, 381, 387, 388, =397=, =398=, 400, 406, 412,
        415, 416, 417, 419, 428, 429, 430, 432

  Bahia de Caraquez, 136, 137

  Bahia Blanca, 269, 301, =302=, 303, 307, 309, 310, 312, 314, 316,
        318, 325, 326

  Bahia Honda, 36

  Bajada Grande, 305

  Balatá, 43, 89, 107, 110

  Balmaceda, 246

  Balsa, 226, 227

  Balzar R., 127

  Ballenita, 131, 136, =144=

  Ballivián, 210

  Bananas, 41, 111

  Banco, 34, 36

  Baños, 139

  Baquedano, 266

  Baragua R., 65

  Barbacoas, 26, 36, 43

  Barcelona, 55, =68=, 79, 82, 88, 93, 94

  Barima, 108

  Barinas, 55, 71, 84, 94

  Barquisimeto, 55, 59, 66, 81, 83, 84, 91

  Barranca Bermeja, =47=

  Barrancas, 76, 91

  Barranqueras, 329

  Barranquilla, 10, 12, 13, 22, 30, 32, 33, 35, 47, 51

  Barretos, 424

  Baudó, Serranía de, 15, 17, 18

  Baurés R., 383

  Baurú, 409

  Bauxite, 99, 107, 111

  Bayovar, 163

  Beagle Channel, 300

  Beans, 88

  Beer, 329

  Belém, 375, =402=

  Belgrano, 303

  Bello Horizonte, 375, =405=, 408

  Benalcazar, Sebastian de, 115

  Beni, See El Beni

  Beni R., 159, 212, 218, 219, 224, 227, 237, 242, 383, 384, 413

  Berbice R., 103, 104

  Bermejo R., 212, 226, 284, 288, 289, 312

  Bermudez Asphalt Lake, 69, 94, 95

  Berrío Puerto, 35, 36

  Bio-Bio, 247, 259;
    R., 252, 263, 275, 277

  Bismuth, 201, =235=

  Bitumen, 108

  Blanco Cape, 122

  Blancos, 355

  Bobures, 82, 87

  Boca de Ceniza, 30

  Boca de Navios, 61

  Bocas del Drago, 69

  Bocono, 72

  Bodega Central, 34

  Bodegas, 139;
    R., 127

  Bogotá, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 18, 19, =20=, 28, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38,
        46, 51

  Bolívar, (Col.), 9, 10, =22=, 24,
    (Ven.), 55, =72=, 73, 74, 84, 88, 89,
    (Ec.), 116, 117, 133

  Bolívar Ciudad, 27, 31, 55, =73=, 78, 83, 90, 92

  Bolívar, Gen., 8, 54, 150

  Bolivia, 4, 14, 53, 114, 148, 150, 158, 159, =205-244=, 248, 292,
        306, 309, 310, 332, 383, 409, 412, 413, 455

  Boquete, 267

  Borax, 200, 268, 275

  Borja, 124, 138,
    (Par.), 342

  Boyacá, 9, 10, 12, 27, 37, 54

  Bragança, 402, 412; 408

  Brazil, 1, 2, 4, 61, 101, =112=, =115=, 192, 218, 242, 245, 289, 331,
        333, 334, 339, 342, 343, 355, =372-434=, 452, 453

  Brazo, 76

  Bucaramanga, 10, 28, 34, 35, 37, 38

  Bucay, 136

  Buenaventura, 12, 24, 26, 30, 31, =36=, 37, 48

  Buenos Aires, 175, 223, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 287, 288, 289,
        290, =291=, =298=, =301=, 305, 307, 308, 309, 310, 312, 316,
        317, 318, 319, 320, 322, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331,
        334, 343, 350, 355, 361, 364, 403, 411, 454, 456, 457

  Buenos Aires Lake, 288, 300, 313

  Buga, 36, 38


  Caapacá, 352

  Caazapá, 335

  Cabedello, 400, 412, 417

  Cabellos, 367

  Cabildo, 265

  Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, 373

  Cacao, 42, 86, 106, 110, =141=, 188, 241, =415=

  Cacequy, 392, 411

  Caceres, 34

  Cachaca, 416

  Cacheuta, 326

  Cailloma, 168, 200

  Cajabamba, 165, 198

  Cajamarca, 149, 152, 161, 164, =169=, 184, 193, 197, 200

  Calabozo, 55, 70, 71

  Calacoto, 238

  Calama, 267, 272

  Calamar, 10, =30=, 32, 34

  Calamara R., 127

  Calantura, 182

  Caldas, 10, 12, =23=, 35, 40, 50

  Caldera, 264, 265, 266

  Calera, 265

  Caleta Coloso, 266

  Cali, 10, 13, =25=, 34, 36, 37, 45, 46, 48

  Caliche, 270

  Callao, 152, 154, 158, 162, 167, 175, =176=, 177, 188, 261

  Callapó, 227

  Camaná, 168

  Camaquám, 430

  Camaquán Lake, 62

  Cambao, 38

  Camerones Bay, 304

  Camocím, 412

  Campana, 301, 318

  Campos, 397, 411, 416, 429

  Candelaria, 313, 334

  Canelas, 139

  Canelones, 356, =360=

  Cañar, 116, 117, 133

  Cañete, 186

  Caño Macareo, 78

  Caño Pedernales, 76

  Caoba, 90

  Capure, 95

  Caquetá, 10, 26;
    R., 17

  Carabaya, 199

  Carabobo, 54, 55, =66=, 70, 77, 78, 91, 93

  Caracas, 54, 55, 57, 60, =63=, 77, 79, 80, 83

  Caracoles, 234

  Carache, 72

  Caraguatay, 335

  Carapeguá, 342

  Caraquez Bay, 131

  Carara V., 37

  Caráz, 166, 167

  Carchi, 116, 117, 133

  Carenero, 79, 80

  Carhuáz, 166

  Carhue, 310

  Cariaco Gulf, 68

  Carmen de Patagones, 310, 330

  Carnaüba Wax, 423

  Caroni R., 61, 73, 74, 92

  Carora R., 65

  Cartagena, 10, 12, =22=, 30, =31=, 32, 34, =35=, 38

  Cartago, 25, 34, 36, 39

  Cartavio, 186

  Carúpano, 69, =77=, 83, 84, 94

  Carrizal, 265, 273

  Casanare, 27, 38, 48

  Casapalca, 196

  Casiquiare R., 17, 26, 62, =76=, 89

  Casma, 167

  Castilletes, 82, 94

  Castro, 277;
    Gen., 54, 69

  Catacaos, 163

  Catamarca, 283, =294=, 321, 322, 324

  Catatumbo R., 16, 28, 31, 48, 62, 64, 81, 84

  Cattle, 44, 91, 108, 111, 143, 193, 240, 277, 278, 315, 350, 368,
        391, 424, 425, 426

  Cauca, 9, 10, 12, =25=, 40, 41;
    R., 16, 23, 32, 34, 35, 38, 50;
    V., 15, 18, 19, 31, 35, 37, 38, 39, 42

  Cauquenes, 247

  Caura R., 61, 74, 90

  Cautín, 247, =259=, 276

  Cayapas Indians, 118, 119

  Cayenne, 112, 113

  Cayo, 136

  Ceará, 375, =400=, 412, 421, 423, 428, 429

  Central Valley, 257, 258, 264

  Centro, 66, 67

  Cerro Azul, 168

  Cerro de Pasco, 152, 159, 170, 179, 182, =195=, 198, 200

  Cerro Largo, 356, 357, 363, 370

  Cerro Potosí, 232, 233

  Cerro Quespesisa, 199

  César R., 34, 36

  Christ of the Andes, 296

  Church, George Earl, 412

  Cicapra R., 93

  Climar R., 359

  Coal, 45, 93, 145, 198, 236, 274, 325, 370, 431

  Cobija, 210, 243

  Coca, 188, 242

  Coca R., 126

  Coconuts, 42, 88

  Cochabamba, 207, 209, 216, 218, 224, 225, 227, 230, 236, 242, 243

  Coche, 69, 70, 94

  Codera Cape, 60

  Coffee, 7, 40, 86, 106, 110, 142, 143, 188, 241, 414

  Cojedes, 55, =70=, 77, 93;
    R., 59

  Cojoro, 78

  Colastiné, 289, 301, 305

  Colchagua, 247, =258=, 276

  Collins, P. T., 413

  Colombia, 4, =7-52=; 76, 78, 91, 114, 124, 133, 148, 149, 174, 373

  Colón, 31, 83

  Colonia, 356, 357, =361=, 365

  Colonia Las Heras, 313

  Colonia Sarmiento, 313

  Colonia Suiza, 361

  Colonias del Gran Chaco, 207, 220

  Colonias del Noroeste, 207, =219=, 237, 243

  Colorado R., 290, 299, 310

  Colorados, 355

  Colquechaca, 217

  Colquipocro, 167, 200

  Columbus, 8, 53, 69, 100

  Collahuasi, 223, 268

  Collay, 145

  Commewynne R., 109

  Comodoro Rivadavia, 275, 300, 304, 313, 325, 330

  Concepción, (Chile), 246, 247, 259, =263=, 264, 275, 276; (Par.),
        335, 337, 342, 343, 344, 349

  Concepción del Uruguay, 307, 365

  Concordia, 285, 298, =307=, 316, 362, 367

  Conchi, 268

  Condoto R., 49

  Confuso R., 340

  Constitución, 264

  Copacabana, 215, 236

  Copaiba, 107

  Copiapó, 247, 248, 256, 264, 265, 407

  Copper, 28, 45, 93, 144, 194, 195, 234, 271, 295, 300, 352, 370, 429

  Copra, 106

  Coquimbo, 247, 251, =256=, 261, 263, 265, 270, 273, 274, 276

  Córdoba, 281, 283, 285, 287, 288, 290, =296=, 307, 308, 310, 316,
        319, 325, 329

  Corentyn R., 102, 104, 105, 109

  Corn, 43, 88, 111, 142, 143, 190, 241, 319, 349

  Coro, 55, =65=, 79, 81, 84, 91, 94

  Corocoro, 215, 222, =234=, 235, 237

  Coroico, 215, 224

  Coronel, 236, 261, 263, 264, 274, 275

  Coropuno Mt., 168

  Corumbá, 218, 220, 231, 289, 343, 365, =404=, 407, 409, 428

  Corral, 273

  Corriente R., 125

  Corrientes, 283, 288, =297=, 304, 305, 306, 311, 321, 322, 328, 331,
        337, 339, 343, 348

  Cotabambas, 199

  Cotopaxi Mt., =123=, 125, 126, 137

  Cotton, 42, 88, 187, 321, 349, 418

  Crato, 412

  Cristóbal Colón, 69

  Cruzeiro do Sul, 405, 406

  Cruz Grande, 273

  Cua, 83

  Cuareim R., 367

  Cuatro Ojos, 227

  Cuba, 186

  Cubagua, 69

  Cúcuta, 10, 13, 28, 36, 37, 38, 84

  Cuchivero R., 74

  Cuenca, 117, 119, 122, 123, 124, =132=, 138, 139, 184

  Cumaná, 55, 65, =68=, 79, 83, 84, 88, 90, 94, 98

  Cundinamarca, 9, 10, =28=, 40, 45

  Cuñapiru, 370

  Cupisnique, 198

  Curaçao, 31, 57, 66, 78, 79, 83, 90, 96

  Curaray R., 126, 137

  Curicó, 247, 258

  Curityba, 375, 393, 394, 410

  Cuyabá, 289, 375, =403=, 407;
    R., 386, 407

  Cuyuni R., 92, 108

  Cuzco, 149, 152, 154, 159, =171=, =172=, 179, 180, 183, 184, 188,
        190, 193, 197, 199, 201, 203, 211, 383

  Chacarilla, 234, 235

  Chaco, 223, 283, =293=, 306, 312, 321, 322, 329, 331, 333, 336, 340,
        342,
  344, 345, 346, 349, 350, 351, 352

  Chachani Mt., 180

  Chachapoyas, 152

  Chala, 154, 168, 171

  Challapata, 216

  Chama R., 82

  Chanchamayo V., 188

  Chañaral, 265

  Chaparé R., 227

  Charles Isl., 133

  Charrúa Indians, 354

  Chatham Isl., 133

  Chaves, 406

  Chaves Isl., 133

  Chibchas, 27

  Chicama V., 164, 185, 186

  Chicla, 177

  Chiclayo, 152, 164

  Chicle, 43, =90=

  Chicha, 42, 241

  Chile, 2, 4, 53, 114, 121, 122, 128, 151, 157, 158, 187, 191, 193,
        205, 242, =245-279=, 313, 323, 373

  Chilete, 164

  Chili R., 180

  Chiloé, 122, 247, =260=, 275, 276, 277

  Chillán, 247

  Chillo V., 137

  Chimbo R., 127

  Chimbote, 159, =165=, 166, 167, 176, 183, 186, 198

  Chimborazo, 116, 117, 133, 139

  Chimborazo Mt., 122, =123=, 133;
    Pass, 137

  Chimoré R., 227

  Chinchillas, 193, 239

  Chinchipe R., 124

  Chiquinquirá, 37

  Chiquitos, Sierra de, 211, 383

  Chirimoias, 143, 190

  Chita, 27, 139

  Chlorolque Mt., 234

  Chocó, 10, 23, 35, 43, 49, 50

  Chone, 137

  Chonos Isls., 260

  Chorillos, 154, 183

  Chubut, 283, =299=, 304, 311, 323, 325

  Chuño, 241

  Chuquiaguillo, 230, 231

  Chuquisaca, 206, 207, =217=, 223, 237;
    R., 167


  Dairy Industry, 328, 361, 368

  Daule R., 127, 142

  Delegación Nac. en el Oriente, 207, 219

  Delta Amacuro, 55, 76, 94

  Delta Orinoco, 56, 95, 97

  Demarara R., 103, 104

  Desaguadero R., 212, 226, 234, 235

  Deseado, 304, 313;
    R., 313

  Diamante, 313

  Diamantina, 429

  Diamantino, 383, 386

  Diamonds, 94, 107, 108, 429

  Dique, 30, 31

  Dividivi, 89

  Doce R., 430

  Dolores, 355

  D’Orbigny, 210

  Dulce R., 295

  Durán, 136

  Durazno, 356, 364, 367


  East Coast, =280-433=

  East Indians, 102, 105, 111

  Ecuador, 4, 8, 14, 15, 24, 38, =114-147=, 148, 157, 163, 188, 251, 373

  El Beni, 207, =218=, 243

  El Callao, 73, 74, 84, 93

  El Canto, 154

  El Dorado, 92

  El Misti, 158, 180

  El Oriente, 116, 117, 123, 134, 219

  El Oro, 116, 117, 132, 139, 144

  El Valle, 9, 10, =24=, 40, 50

  El Vigia, 84

  Embarcación, 223, 293, 306, 312

  Emeralds, 7, 50

  Encarnación, 311, 335, 342, 343, 352

  Encontrados, 72, 81, 84, 85, 96

  Ené R., 170, 183

  Ensenada, 301, 302

  Entre Rios, 283, 288, =298=, 305, 311, 313, 319, 329, 331

  Escalante R., 62, 64, 81, 85

  Esmeralda, 75, 76

  Esmeraldas, 116, 117, 118, 128, 130, 131, 136, 142, 145

  Esmeraldas R., 127, 130

  Espejos Spring, 238

  Esperança, 409

  Esperanza Rapids, 227

  Espirito Santo, 375, =397=, 411, 414, 432

  Essequibo R., 101, 104, 105

  Esteros, 210

  Etén, 164, 175

  Eucalyptus, 234;
    timber, 145, 324, =364=


  Facatativá, 33, 34, 37

  Falcón, 54, 55, =65=, 79, 88, 93, 94, 97

  Federal District, 54, 55, 56, 66, =67=

  Fernando de Noronha Isl., 406

  Ferreñafe, 164

  Ferrobamba, 197

  Fibre Plants, 42, 91, 107, 146, 422

  Fish, 108, 144, 194, 278, 398, 400

  Flandes, 37

  Florencia, 10

  Flores, 356, 364;
    General, 355

  Florianopolis, 375, =393=

  Florida, 355, 356, 364

  Flour, 329, 427

  Forestry, 43, 89, 106, 113, 143, 191, 242, 277, 323, 345, 370, 419

  Formosa, 283, 293, 304, 306, 313, 321

  Fortaleza, 375, =401=, =412=

  Fragosa, 407

  Francia, Dr. J. G. R., 334

  Fray Bentos, 307, 356, 362, 369

  Friburgo, 411

  Frigoríficos, 44, 92, 278, 318, 350, 352, 368, 369

  Frio Cape, 380, 386

  Fruit, 106, 143, 189, 241, 276, 323, 349, 370, 419

  Fundición, 36

  Furniture, 328


  Galápagos Isls., 116, 117, 121, =133=

  Galera Tunnel, 177;
    Volcano, 25

  Garay, Juan de, 281, 305

  Garcas R., 429

  General Lopez, (town), 318

  Georgetown, 101, 103, 104

  Girardot, 33, 34, 35, 37

  Goajira Penin., 15, 21, 36, 46, 56

  Goats, 45, 65, 91, 143, 239, 278, 315, 368, 426

  Gold, 7, 45, 49, 92, 107, 111, 112, 145, 199, 229, 274, 324, 370, 428

  Gomez, General, 92

  Gorgas, General, 128

  Goya, 298, 313

  Goyaz, 339, 375, 381, 385, 388, =404=, 411, 428, 429

  Goyaz Mts., 380, 381

  Goyllarisquisga, 179, 182, 184, 196

  Granadillas, 143

  Gran Chaco, 220, 288, 338, 339

  Grande R., 127, 407

  Granja, 412

  Greenheart, 106

  Greenwich Park, 104

  Grubb, W. Barbrooke, 337

  Guacara, 67

  Guadalupe, 164

  Guaharibos Ind., 75

  Guainía R., 17, 76

  Guaira, 335

  Guaire R., 63, 68;
    V., 80

  Guajará-Mirím, 225, 227, 243, 413

  Gualaquiza, 139

  Guanabara Bay, 395

  Guanacos, 193, 329

  Guanare, 55, 71, 84

  Guanipa, 82

  Guano, 194

  Guanoco, 69, 82, 94, 97

  Guanta, 68, 79, 82

  Guapo, 68, 80

  Guaporé R., 211, 212, 227, 383

  Guaqui, 181, 221, 223, 236

  Guaranda, 117

  Guaranís, 335, 354

  Guarapiche R., 70

  Guarapuava, 425

  Guárico, 55, 70, 80, 83

  Guasipati, 73

  Guatire, 83, 87

  Guaviare R., 17, 27, 61, 75, 76

  Guayana (Guiana), 56, 76, 86, 92

  Guayana Highlands, 59, 60, 62, 72, 100, 379, 380, 384

  Guayaquil, 117, 119, 120, 127, 128, 132, =135=, 136

  Guayaquil Gulf, 122, 124, 127, 128, 131, 163

  Guayas, 116, 117, 131, 139;
    R., 122, 127, =138=, 156;
    V., 142

  Guiana, 100-113

  Guiana Brazilian, 100, 380, 388

  Guiana British, 73, 100, 101, 102-108

  Guiana Dutch, 100, 101, 109-112

  Guiana French, 100, 101, 112-113

  Guiana Highlands, 379, 380

  Guigüe, 80, 83

  Guindí, 335


  Hauri Hauri R., 199

  Herva Matte, 393, 422

  Higuerote, 80

  Hogs, 92, 193, 240, 317, 368

  Honda, 33, 47;
    Rapids, 33

  Horses, 45, 92, 194, 278, 317, 368, 426

  Huacho, 167, 187, 201

  Huailas V., 158, 159, =166=, 167, 176, 179, 183, 198, 457

  Huaina Potosí Mt., 222, 233

  Huallaga R., 159, 160, 169, 170, 173

  Huamachuco, 165, 188

  Huancabamba, 184

  Huancavelica, 152, 171, 197, 200

  Huancayo, 171, 179, 183

  Huanchaca, 224, 232

  Huanchaco, 165, 186

  Huanday, 164

  Huanta, 188

  Huánuco, 152, 161, =169=, 170, 188

  Huarás, 152, 165, 166

  Huarmey, 167, 199

  Huasaga R., 125

  Huascarán Mt., 166

  Huasco, 256, 265

  Huatanay R., 172

  Huayday, 198

  Huaytiquina, 269, 313

  Huigra, 136

  Huila, 9, 10, =28=, 51

  Humboldt, Alexander von, 148

  Hydroplane, 33


  Iabaro R., 227

  Ibagué, 10, 29, 35, 39

  Ibarra, 38, 117, 133, 137

  Ibicuy, (Arg.), 289, 301, 311;
    (Par.), 352

  Ica, 152, 167, =168=, 187, 197, 198

  Iguapé, Ribeira de, 386, 406

  Iguassú Falls, =289=, 306, 331, 342

  Iguassú R., 289, 294, 306, 333, 343, 385, 393

  Ilo, 154, 169, 175

  Illampu Mt., 222, 225

  Illimani Mt., 222

  Imataca, 94

  Imbabura, 116, 117, 133

  Imperial, 246

  Inambari R., 192, 199

  Incas, 115, 149, 150

  Inciarte, 82, 95

  Indians, 11, 21, 24, 25, 27, 37, 56, 64, 75, 102, 118, 119, 125, 153,
        173, 179, 203, 208, 246, 248, 281, 284, 306, 336, 354, 374

  Indigo, 88, 142

  Industries, 51, 106, 111, 146, 202, =238-240=, =327-331=

  Ingeniero White, 303

  Investments, 52, 98, 147, 203, 244, 279, 331, 353, 371, 433

  Iodine, 271

  Ipacaraí Lake, 340, 343

  Ipané R., 339

  Ipanema, 430

  Iquique, 158, 247, =255=, 261, 263, 266, 271

  Iquitos, 126, 152, 154, 161, 170, 173, 179, 182, 183, 192, 382, 403

  Irala, 334

  Irigoyen, Dr. Hipolito, 282

  Iron, 94, 144, =273=, 352, =430=

  Islay, 168

  Itabira do Matto Dentro, 430

  Itaituba, 406

  Itamarca Falls, 383

  Itaperim, 397

  Itapura, 409

  Itaquy, 411

  Itatiaiá Mt., 1, =381=, 385

  Itenéz R., 212, 227

  Itonamas R., 383


  Jaen, 139, 184, 188

  Jambeli Channel, 135

  Januaria, 406

  Jaraguá, 399;
    Grass, 425

  Jatunhuasi, 198

  Jauja R., 170, 179

  Javanese, 111

  Javary R., 384

  Jazpampa, 266

  Jejui R., 339

  Jequitonha R., 386

  Jesus Marie, 183

  Jipijapa, 131, 146

  João, Prince, 374

  Joazeiro, 412

  Juan Fernandez Isls., 249, 261, 278

  Jujuy, 283, 292, 306, 312, 321, 322, 326

  Juliaca, 180

  Jundiahy, 408, 411

  Junín, 150, 152, 170, 193, 197

  Junín Lake, 170, 179, 193

  Juquiá, 411

  Juruá, 405;
    R., 384, 406


  Kaieteur Falls, 101, 104

  Kaolin, 108, 352

  Kapok, 423


  La Asunción, 55, 70

  La Ceiba, 35, 81, 85, 98

  La Columna Mt., 59

  La Chacarilla, 235

  La Dorada, 33, 34, 37, 38

  La Goajira, 10, 18

  La Guaira, 63, 67, 77, 80, 83

  La Guayra Falls, 289, 306, 333, 343, =385=, 393

  Laguna, 406

  Laguneta, 62

  La Hacha, 81

  La Limeña, 165

  Lambayeque, 152, =164=, 187, 189

  La Merced, 178

  La Pampa, 283, 288, =299=, 303, 310, 319

  La Paz, 181, 184, 206, 207, 209, 210, 213, =214=, 217, 221, 222,
        223, 224, 225, 226, 230, 231, 233, 234, 236, 237, 242, 243,
        248, 311, 457

  La Plata, 283, 285, 302, 309, 312, 318, 329

  La Plata R., 210, 211, 212, 281, =289=, 301, 302, 306, 354, 360,
        364, 379, =385=;
    Isl., 144

  La Quiaca, 184, 223, 235, 292, 309, 312

  Lara, 55, 63, =66=, 88, 93

  La Rioja, 283, 295, 321, 322, 325

  La Serena, 247, 248, 256, 265

  Latacunga, 117, 125, 137, 139

  Lavalleja General, 355

  La Vela, 65, 79, 81

  La Victoria, 67, 80

  Lead, 144, 194, 195, 235, 274, 432

  Lebrija R., 34, 35

  León, 116, 117, 133

  Leopoldina, 407, 411

  Leticia, 154

  Libertad, 152, =164=, 188, 189

  Lima, 8, 115, 149, =150=, 152, 153, 154, 160, =162=, =167=, 176, 179,
        183, 187, 190, 203, 206, 455, 457

  Linares, 247, 258

  Linseed, 320

  Lipez, 234;
    Serranía de, 211

  Live stock, 44, 91, 108, 143, 193, 239, 240, 277, 315, 350, 368, 424

  Loa R., 256, 268

  Lobitos, 144, 201

  Lobos Isls., 164, 201

  Lobos, Punta de, 275

  Loja, 116, 117, 123, 124, 132, 139, 144, 145, 184

  Lomas, 168

  Lopez, Carlos Antonio, 334;
    Francisco, 334, 335

  Loreto, 152, 173, 179

  Lorica, 22

  Los Andes, (Chile), 254, 268, 269;
    (Arg.), 283, 291, 293

  Los Angeles, 247

  Los Patos Pass, 257

  Los Rios, 116, 117, 132

  Lota, 263, 264, =274=, 275

  Luque, 342;
    Hernando de, 147

  Lurín, 183

  Llallagua, 233

  Llamas, 143, 193, 225, 239

  Llanos, 16, 27, 59, 60, 62, 70, 71, 91, 123, 211

  Llanquihue, 247, =259=, 277;
    Lake, 252


  Macami, 110

  Macas, 139, 145

  Maceió, 375, 399, 417

  Macora, 146

  Machacamarca, 224

  Machachi V., 137

  Machala, 117, 132, 139

  Machalilla, 136

  Madeira R., 160, 243, 383, 384, 403, 406, 412, 413

  Madeira-Mamoré Ry., 183, 225, 227, 228, 243, 383, 412

  Madera R., 212

  Madidi R., 212, 227, 237, 241

  Madre de Dios, 152, 173, 199;
    R., 159, 172, 183, 192, 212, 219, 227, 238, 241, 383

  Magallanes, 246, 247, =260=, 275, 278

  Magangué, 34

  Magdalena, 9, 10, 21;
    R., 16, 17, 18, 22, 32-35, 37, 38

  Magellan Strait, 251

  Mahogany, 90

  Maipo R., 246

  Maipures Rapids, 17, 75

  Maize, see Corn

  Majes R., 168, 180

  Mal Abrigo, 366

  Malabrigo, 165

  Maldonado, (Peru), 152;
    (Urug.), 356, =363=, 367, 370

  Malleco, 247, =259=;
    R., 264

  Mamoré R., 160, 211, 212, 219, 227, 383, 412, 413

  Manabí, 116, 117, 131, 142, 144, 146

  Manaos, 26, 43, 179, 375, 378, =403=, 406, 413

  Mandioca, 142, 349, 400, 419

  Manganese, 145, 325, 352, 370, 428

  Manglar Alto, 136, 146

  Mangrove, 90

  Manizales, 10, =23=, 35

  Manta, 131, 136, 144;
    Bay, 131

  Mantaro R., 159, 170, 171

  Mantiqueiro, Serra de, 385, 428

  Manufactures, 51, 52, 98, 202, 203, 278, 327-329, 352, 371, 426, 427

  Manzanares R., 79

  Mapocho R., 254

  Mar, Serra do, 1, 380, 381, 385, 388

  Maracaibo, 41, 55, 57, =64=, =78=, 82, 83, 84, 91, 94, 98

  Maracaibo Channel, 78, 96;
    Lake, 16, 31, 36, 46, 48, 53, 59, 61, 62, 64, 78, 82, 84, 87, 94,
        95, 96

  Maracajú, Serra de, 385

  Maracay, 55, 57, 67, 79, 80, 83, 87, 92, 98

  Marajós Isl., 382, 406

  Maranhão, 375, 377, =401=, 406, 415, 418, 430

  Marañón R., 119, 124, 125, 138, 159, 170, 182, 192

  Mar del Plata, 302, 309, 326, 330

  Margarita Isl., 69, 70, 79, 98

  Mariquita, 35

  Maroni R., 109, 113

  Marowijne R., 111, 112, 113

  Martinez, 317

  Martinique Isl., 112

  Matahuasi, 183

  Matarani, 168

  Matto Grosso, 289, 339, 348, 375, 383, 386, =403=, 413, 415, 422,
        424, 425, 426, 428, 429

  Matucana, 178

  Maturín, 55, 70

  Mauá, 407, 411

  Maués, 406

  Maule, 247, =258=;
    R., 252

  Medellín, 10, 12, 13, 19, =23=, 35, 37, 38, 51

  Medicinal Plants, 44

  Meiggs, Henry, 165, 177, 179, 196

  Mejillones, 256, 266, 267

  Melo, 356, 363, 366

  Mendoza, 269, 281, 283, 288, =296=, =297=, 303, 309, 310, 320, 322,
        323, 325, 326, 329;
    Pedro de, 281, 333

  Mene Grande, 95, 96

  Mercedario Mt., 251

  Mercedes, 356, 361, 365, 366

  Mérida, 55, 57, =72=, 81, 84, 93, 98

  Mesopotamia, 288, 290, 317

  Mestizos, 209

  Meta, 10, =26=;
    R., 17, 27, 61, 62, 65, 84

  Minas, 356, 364, 370

  Minas Geraes, 375, 381, 388, =404=, 414, 418, 424, 425, 426, 428,
        429, 430, 432

  Mining-Minerals, 45-50, 52, 92-97, 107, 108, 111, 112, 144, 145;
    194-202, 229-238, 270-275, 324-326, 352, 370, 427-433

  Miranda, 54, 55, 66, =68=, 79, 80

  Mirím Lake, 354, 359, 363, 386, 387, 407

  Misiones, 283, 287, =293=, 311, 313, 321, 322, 324, 328, 331, 422;
    Sierra de, 211

  Mocoa, 10, 26, 38

  Mojos Plains, 384

  Molybdenum, 201

  Mollendo, 161, 168, 175, 179, 192, 221, 222, 243, 261

  Monagas, 54, 55, =70=, 82

  Monazite, 398

  Monday R., 339

  Montaña, 153, 154, 156, =159=, 161, =172=, 174, 178, 181, 188, 210

  Montecristi, 131, 146

  Monteria, 22, 38

  Montevideo, 354, 355, 356, 357, =360=, =364=, 365, 366, 367, 370,
        371, 392, 404, 410

  Moquegua, 152, =169=, 255

  Moriche Palm, 91

  Morococha, 177, 195, 196, 200, 224

  Morona R., 124, 125

  Moropán, 163

  Morrisquillo Bay, 44

  Motatán, 72, 81, 84, 85

  Moyabamba, 152


  Nacion La, (Newspaper), 285

  Nacunday, 347

  Nahuel Huapi Lake, 288, 299, 313, 324

  Naiguatá Falls, 98;
    Mt., 60

  Nanay R., 124, 126

  Napo, 126;
    R., 26, 115, 118, 124, 126, 138, 139

  Naranjal, 139

  Naricual, 82, 93

  Nariño, 9, 10, 25, 50, 51

  Natal, 375, 400, 412

  Nazareth, 412

  Nechi R., 34, 50

  Negra Muerta, 312

  Negritos, 202

  Negro R., (Amazon), 17, 26, 43, 76, 384, 403, 406;
    (Arg.), 288, 290, 309;
    (Urug.), 358, 359, 361, 365;
    (South Brazil), 393

  Neiva, 10, =28=, 35, 39

  Nemocón, 37

  Nepeña R., 167

  Neuquen, 283, =299=, 309, 322, 324, 325, 326

  Neveri R., 68, 82

  New Amsterdam, 103, 104

  New Granada, 8, 115

  Nico Peréz, 366

  Nictheroy, 375, =396=, 411

  Nichare R., 74

  Nirgua, 66, 93

  Nitrates, 270

  North Coast, =7-113=

  Nuble, 247, 258

  Nueva Esparta, 55, 69

  Nueva Germania, 347

  Nuevo Gulf, 304

  Nuts, 417


  Obidos, 403, 406

  Ocaña, 35

  Ocumare de la Costa, 67, 79, 83

  Ocumare del Tuy, 55, 68, 80, 89

  O’Higgins, 247, =258=, 272, 276

  Ojeda, Alonzo de, 8, 53

  Olinda, 426

  Olmas, 367

  Ollague, 223, 268, 275

  Orán, 223, 306

  Oranges, 349, 419

  Orellana, 154;
    Francisco de, 115, 126

  Oriente, 116, 117, =123=, =134=, 140, 145

  Orinoco R., 3, 16, =17=, 18, 26, 48, 59, 60, 61, 73, 74, 75, 76, 84,
        90, 92, 94, 99, 101

  Oro, Rio de, 28, 48, 96

  Orocué, 31

  Oroya, 177, 178, 179, 183, 200

  Ortíz, 83

  Orton R., 227

  Oruro, 207, 209, 210, 215, 223, 224, 232, 233, 234, 243

  Osasco, 424

  Osorno, 313

  Otuzco, 188, 198

  Ouro Preto, 405

  Ovalle, 273

  Oyack R., 112

  Oyapock R., 112, 406

  Oyón, 198


  Pacaraima Mts., 101

  Pacasmayo, 164, 169, 175, 188, 189

  Pacific Ry., 37

  Pachacamac R., 183

  Pachacayo, 197, 198

  Pacheco, 238

  Pachitea R., 169, 170

  Paita, 131, 156, 163, 175, 182, 201, 202

  Paja Toquilla, 146

  Palcazú, 170

  Palma Sola, 81

  Palmira, 25, 36, 37, 38

  Paloma, 367

  Pampa Aullagas Lake, 212

  Pampa Central, See La Pampa

  Pampatar, 70, 79

  Pamplona, 38

  Panamá, 7, 8, 15, 18, 107, 133

  Panamá Hats, 25, 26, 51, 131, 146, 163, 201

  Pan American Ry., 38, 137, 175, 179, 184, 223

  Pando, 361

  Pangoa R., 183

  Pantana, 42

  Paper, 91, 98, 107, 146, 328

  Pará, 174, 179, 182, 375, 383, =401=, 402, 406, 408, 412, 417, 420,
        425, 432;
    R., 382, 402

  Paracas Penin., 198

  Paraguarí, 335, 337, 342, 352

  Paraguay, 205, 220, =332-353=, 368, 369, 422

  Paraguay R., 205, 212, 220, 226, 304, 313, 333, 338, =339=, 343, 383,
        =386=, 409, 410

  Parahyba, 375, =400=, 412, 417, 429, 432

  Parahyba do Norte R., 400

  Parahyba do Sul R., 386, 396, 411

  Paramaribo, 109, 110, 111

  Paramos, 19, 28, 72, 122, 129

  Paraná, (Arg.), 283, 289, =298=, 305;
    (Brazil), 375, 385, 388, =393=, =394=, 419, 422, 424, =425=, 429,
        430, 431

  Paraná R., 288, =289=, 304, 305, =306=, 311, 333, 339, 340, 343, 347,
        374, 381, =385=, 388, 393, 407, 410

  Paranaguá, 394, 410, 422, 425

  Paranahyba R., 385

  Paranapanema R., 385, 393

  Paria Gulf, 60, 69, 70, 76, 78, 97;
    Penin., 69, 97

  Parime Mts., 60

  Parnahyba R., 386, 401

  Pastaza R., 124, =125=

  Pasto, 10, 12, =25=, 38, 51, 133

  Patagonas, 275

  Patagonia, 287, 288, 299, 309, 310, 313, 317, 324

  Patapó, 164

  Patía R., 16, 17, 25, 36

  Patiño Simón, J., 224, 233

  Pato R., 50

  Patos, Lagôa dos, 386, 387, 392, 407

  Paucartambo, 199; R., 159;
    V., 188

  Paulo Affonso Falls, 386

  Pauta R., 124

  Paysandú, 356, 357, =362=, 365, 367, 370

  Pearls, 94, 144

  Pedernales, 76;
    Isl., 97

  Pedro, Dom II., 374

  Pelotas, 392, 425, 431

  Perené R., 159, 170, 178, 183;
    V., 178

  Pericos, 84

  Perija, 84, 96;
    Sierra de, 18, 59, 61

  Peripe R., 127

  Pernambuco, 367, 374, 375, 387, 399, 406, 412, 414, 416, 418, 422,
        426, 428, 431, 432

  Peru, 4, 5, 118, 121, 122, 123, 125, =148-204=, 275, 278, 281, 382,
        383, 384, 406, 457

  Petare, 80

  Petroleum, 46, 95, 144, 201, 237, 275, 325, 371, 432

  Petropolis, 396, 407, =411=

  Philip II., 374

  Piar District, 73

  Piauhy, 375, 388, =401=, 428

  Pichilemu, 264

  Pichincha, 115, 116, 117, 133, 139, 144, 145;
    Volc., 123

  Pichis R., 170

  Pilar, 335, 336, 342

  Pilcomayo R., 212, 217, 226, 288, 289, 339

  Pimentel, 164

  Pintados, 266

  Pirámides, 304

  Pirapora, 406

  Piria, Señor, 364

  Piriápolis, 363, 367

  Piracicaba, 425, 432

  Pisagua, 255, 266, 270, 271

  Pisco, 154, 168, 175, 199, 200

  Piura, 152, =163=, 182, 187, 201

  Pizarro, 163

  Pizarro, Francisco, 115, 149, 164, 169, 172, 245, 281

  Pizarro, Gonzales, 115, 126

  Plaisance, 104

  Plantains, 41, 106, 142

  Platinum, 7, 48, 144, 145, 432

  Pomasqui, 145

  Pongo de Manseriche, 124, 138, 182

  Ponta Grossa, 394, 410

  Poopo, Lake, 212, 226

  Popayán, 10, 12, =25=, 36, 38, 39

  Porce R., 50

  Port of Spain, 69, 78

  Porto Alegre, 375, =392=, 410

  Porto Esperança, 409

  Porto Velho, 413

  Portoviejo, 117, 131;
    R., 131

  Portuguesa, 55, 60, 71, 77, 88

  Posadas, 283, =294=, 306, 311, 337, 342, 343

  Potaro R., 104

  Potash, 271

  Potosi, 207, 209, =216=, 224, 225, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 237

  Prat, 267

  Prensa, La, (newspaper), 285

  Providencia, 10

  Pucalpa, 182

  Pucasuro R., 125

  Puente del Este, 367

  Puerto Aiguirre, 306

  Puerto Asís, 38

  Puerto Belgrano, 312

  Puerto Beltrán, 33, 34, 37

  Puerto Bermudez, 179

  Puerto Berrío, 35

  Puerto Bolívar, 138

  Puerto Brais, 224

  Puerto Cabello, 66, 67, 77, 80, 81, 83, 92, 98

  Puerto Colombia, 12, 30, 32

  Puerto del Sauce, 367

  Puerto Deseado, 313, 330

  Puerto Galileo, 345

  Puerto Gallegos, 283, 304, 313, 314

  Puerto Galván, 303

  Puerto Jessup, 179

  Puerto Limón, 182

  Puerto Madryn, 304, 311

  Puerto Max, 343

  Puerto Mendez, 343

  Puerto Militar, 326

  Puerto Molendez, 182

  Puerto Montt, 247, 252, 259, 264, 266, 269, 278

  Puerto Pando, 227

  Puerto Pinasco, 345, 350

  Puerto Suarez, 207, 210, 218, 220, 225, 238, 243

  Puerto Tablas, 73

  Puerto Villamizar, 36

  Puerto Wertheman, 183

  Puerto Wilches, 34, 37

  Pulacayo, 232

  Puna, 212

  Puná Isl., 122, 127, 131, 135, 139

  Puno, 152, 172, 180, 181, 188, 193, 199, 221

  Punta Arenas, 193, 247, 249, 253, 261, 263, 278, 304, 313

  Punta de Lobos, 275

  Purús, 405; R., 172, 227, =384=

  Putumayo, 10, 26;
    R., 17, 26, 38, 126

  Pyreneos Mt., 381, 385


  Quarahim, 367, 411

  Quebracho, 323, 345

  Quelez, 428

  Queruvilca, 164, 198

  Quesada, Gonzalo Jimenez de, 8

  Quespesisa Cerro, 199

  Quevado R., 127

  Quibdó, 10, =24=, 35, 43, 48

  Quichuas, 172, 179, 181, 208

  Quicksilver, 133, 144, =200=

  Quilca, 168

  Quiloaza R., 305

  Quimsa Cruz Range, =234=

  Quinine, 142, 242

  Quinua, 191, 241

  Quiquió, 352

  Quishuarcancha, 179, 196

  Quispicanchis, 199

  Quito, 115, 116, 117, 119, 120, 122, 127, 130, 136, 137, 139


  Rancagua, 247, 272

  Rauco Lake, 252

  Rawson, 283, 304

  Recife, 375, 377, =399=, 406, 417

  Reconquista, 314

  Recuay, 166, 183, 184

  Reloncavi Gulf, 266

  Remate dos Males, 406

  Resistencia, 283, 293, 312, 321

  Reventazón, 163

  Riachuelo, 330;
    R., 301

  Riberalta, 207, 210, =219=, 225, 227, 413

  Rice, 42, 105, 110, 189, 241, 322, 350, 419

  Rimac R., 149, 162;
    V., 177

  Riobamba, 117, 125, 136, 137, 145

  Rio Branco, 405

  Rio Chico, 68, 80

  Rio de Janeiro, 254, 367, 374, 375, 377, 381, 388, =390=, =395=,
        =396=,
  406, 407, 408, 411, 414, 416, 418, 427, 432, 454, 456

  Rio Grande, 392;
    R., 385

  Rio Grande do Norte, 375, 381, =400=, 412, 416, 423, 429, 432

  Rio Grande do Sul, 375, 380, 385, 386, 387, 388, =391=, 410, 411,
        416, 418, 422, 425, 426, 427, 429, 430, 431, 432

  Riohacha, 21, 30, 31, 46

  Rio Limón, 82

  Rio Mulato, 224

  Rio Negro, (Arg.), 283, =299=, 304, 309;
    (Urug.), 356, =361=;
    (Brazil), 393, 410

  Rivera, 356, =362=, 366, 370;
    General, 355

  Rockstone, 104

  Rocha, 356, =363=, 366, 367

  Roosevelt R., 383

  Ropeway Line, 35

  Roraima Mt., 61, 101, 380

  Rosario, 285, 289, 297, 301, 304, 307, 308, 310, 312, 316, 322, 326,
        331;
    (Urug.), 366, 367

  Rubber, 43, 89, 106, 143, 192, 242, 419, 420

  Rurenabaque, 224, 227


  Sabana Ry., 34, 37

  Sacramento, Pampa del, 160, 183

  Saenz Peña, Dr. Roque, 282

  Safety Isls., 112

  St. George Gulf, 304, 313

  St. Laurent, 113

  St. Roque Cape, 381

  Salado del Norte R., 289, 295

  Salaverry, 164, 165, 175, 186

  Salt, 64, 69, 94, 201, 275, 325

  Salta, 269, 283, 292, 306, 307, 312, 313, 321, 322, 326

  Salto, 356, 357, =362=, 365, 367, 370

  Salto Grande Falls, 331

  Sama R., =255=

  Samanco, 167, 186, 188

  San Andrés, 10, 12

  San Antonio, (Col.), 10, 72;
    (Ven.), 72;
    (Ec.), 137, 145;
    (Chile), 258, 265;
    (Arg.), 283, 293, 299, 304, 313;
    (Par.), 345, 350;
    Cape, 289

  San Bernadino, 343

  San Carlos, (Ven.), 55, 71, 84;
    (Urug.), 367

  San Carlos de Bariloche, 313

  San Cristóbal, 55, 71, 84;
    Isl., 133

  Sandia, 199

  San Eugenio, 356, 367

  San Felipe, (Ven.), 55, 66, 81, 83;
    (Chile), =247=

  San Felix, 73, 81, 84

  San Fernando, 247

  San Fernando de Apure, 55, =71=, 84

  San Fernando de Atabapo, 55, 75

  San Francisco, 310

  San Francisco de Yare, 80

  San Fructuoso, =356=

  Sangay Mt., 123

  San Ignacio, 335

  San Jorge R., 34

  San José, 356, =361=, 366

  San Juan, 283, =295=, 303, 322, 323, 325

  San Juan R., (Col.), 15, 17, 18, =24=, 26, 43, 49

  San Juan R., (Ven.), 69, 97

  San Julian, 304, 313

  San Lorenzo, (Ven.), 82, 95;
    (Ec.), 137;
    Cape, 121, 131

  San Luis, 283, 287, 288, =297=, 303, 310, 317, 319, 325

  San Luis do Maranhão, 401

  San Martín, 48, 152, 173, 188

  San Martín, General, 150, 246, 257, 281

  San Matias Gulf, 313

  San Nicolas, 301

  San Pedro, (Chile), 268;
    (Par.), 335, 342

  San Rafael, (Ven.), 83;
    (Arg.), =297=

  San Ramón, 366

  San Roque, Dique, 296

  San Salvador, =343=, 345, 350

  Santa, 167;
    R., 158, 165, 166, 167, =184=, 186

  Santa Ana, 83;
    Lake, 170

  Sant’ Anna do Livramento, =366=, 410, 425

  Santa Barbara, 81, 85

  Santa Catharina, 375, 385, 388, =392=, 418, 420, 422, 426, 431, 432

  Santa Cruz, (Bol.), 207, 209, 210, =217=, =218=, 223, 225, 227, 230,
        231, 236, 237, 238, 241, 242, 243, 342, 383;
    (Arg.), 283, =300=, 304, 317, 318; R., 300;
    (Brazil), 411, 430

  Santa Elena, 120, 131, 136, 138, 144;
    Cape, 121, 122, 131

  Santa Fé, 283, 285, 288, 289, 290, =297=, 301, 305, 307, 308, 310,
        311, 312, 316, 318, 319, 322, 326, 329, 330

  Santa Isabel, 406

  Santa Lucía, 370

  Santa Maria Isl., 133;
    Cape, 289

  Santa Marta, 10, 12, 19, 21, 30, 31, 32, 36, 41, 45

  Santa Marta, Nevada de, 15, 21, 40, 46

  Santander, 9, 10, 28, 46, 51

  Santander del Norte, 9, 10, 28, 30, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 81

  Santarem, 406

  Santa Rosa, 144

  Santa Rosa de Toay, =283=

  Santa Teresa, 68

  Santiago, 246, 247, 248, 249, 251, =254=, =257=, 264, 265, 272, 276;
    R., 124, 126

  Santiago de Chuco, 198

  Santiago del Estero, 281, 283, 290, =295=, 308, 312, 314, 321, 325,
        331

  Santo Amaro, 412

  Santo Antonio, 383, 406

  Santos, 4, 374, 387, 388, =394=, 408, =414=

  São Borja, 411

  São Felix, 412

  São Francisco, 342, 393, =410=;
    R., 377, 381, 386, 398, 399, 406, 412, 429

  São Lourenço R., 386

  São Luis de Caceres, 407

  São Luis do Maranhão, 401

  São Paulo, 218, 254, 366, 375, =377=, 385, 388, =394=, =395=, 408,
        409, 410, 411, 414, 415, 416, 418, 422, 424, 425, 426, 427,
        429, 430, 431, 432

  São Salvador, 375, =398=

  São Vicente, 374

  Sapodilla, 90, 106

  Sapotal R., 127

  Saramacca R., 109

  Sarmiento Mt., 251

  Sechura Bay, 163

  Segovia Highlands, 60, 65, 66

  Senilossa, 309

  Senna Madureira, 405

  Serena, See La Serena

  Sergipe, 375, =398=, 412, 432

  Serpent’s Mouth, 69

  Serrapia, Tree, 90

  Sete Quedas Falls, 333, 339, 385

  Sevilla de Oro, 119, 145

  Sheep, 92, 143, 193, 240, 260, 277, 278, 317, 368, 426

  Sibate, 37

  Silla de Caracas, 60

  Silver, 195, 231

  Sincerín, 31

  Sinú R., 16, 22, 36;
    V., 44

  Siquisique, 81

  Sogamoso, =27=, 38;
    R., 35, 44

  Solis, Juan de, 364

  Sorata, 215, 225, 236, 455;
    Mt., 212, 214

  Soriano, 356, 361

  Sorocabana, 409

  Soroche, 129, 161, 178, 180, 191

  Stock, See Live Stock

  Sucre, (Ven.), 54, 55, =68=, 78, 79, 82, 93, 94;
    (Bol.), 206, 207, 209, 217, 224, 225

  Sucre, Gen. Antonio José de, 68, 150, 206

  Sugar, 41, 87, 105, 110, 142, 185, =241=, 321, 349, 416

  Sulphur, 94, =275=

  Sumbay, 200

  Supe, 167, 187

  Suriname, 109;
    R., 109, 110, 111


  Tabatinga, 406

  Tacna, 148, 151, 152, 247, =255=, 266, 274

  Tacora, 236, =275=

  Tacuará R., 359

  Tacuarembó, 356, 363, =370=

  Táchira, 55, =71=, 81, 84, 93

  Tagua, 21, 43, 142, 143, 191, 418

  Taitao, 260

  Takutu R., 108

  Talara, 202

  Talca, 247, =258=, 264

  Talcahuano, 261, 263, 264, 269, 274

  Taltal, 256, 266

  Tamalameque, 36, 37

  Tamaya, 273

  Tambo R., 170, 178, 183

  Tannin, 89, 90, 277, 323, 345

  Tapajós R., 339, 383, 386, 402, 406

  Taquia, 200, 237

  Tarapacá, 151, 247, =255=, 270

  Taratá, 266

  Tarija, 207, 209, =217=, 223, 237

  Tarma, 178

  Tebicuary R., 339

  Temuco, 247, 269, 277

  Therezina, 375, 401

  Ticlio, 177, 196

  Tierra del Fuego, 251, 274, 283, 290, =300=, 318, 325

  Tiété R., 385

  Tigre, 299;
    R., 124, 125

  Tin, 232

  Tipuani R., 230, 231

  Tirapata, 183, 199

  Titicaca Lake, 159, =172=, 179, 180, 181, 201, 208, =215=, 221, 233,
        235, 238, 239, 243

  Tobacco, 42, 87, 142, 191, 241, 322, 348, 416

  Tocantins R., 381, 382, 402, 406, =412=

  Toco, 266

  Tocopilla, 256, 266, 267, 272

  Tocujo R., 62, 65, 81

  Todos os Santos Lake, 252

  Tofo, 273, 274

  Tola, 237

  Toledo, 366

  Tolima, 9, 10, =29=, 33, 35, 37, 40, 50

  Tongoy, 273

  Tonka Bean, 90, 107

  Toquilla, 146

  Tortoise, 134

  Totora, 225

  Treinta y Tres, 355, 356, 363, 366

  Trelew, 304, 311

  Tres Barros, 420

  Trinidad, (Bol.), 207, 210, 218;
    (Urug.), 367

  Trinidad Isl., 69, 87, 93, 97, 106;
    Lake, 94, 95

  Trombetes R., 384

  Trujillo, (Ven.), 55, =72=, 81, 84, 85, 93;
    (Peru), 149, 152, 154, =164=

  Tucacas, 65, 79, 81, 98

  Tucumán, 281, 283, 285, =294=, 308, 310, 312, 321, 322, 331

  Tucupita, 55, 76

  Tucurutu Mts., 108

  Tulcán, 117, 133, 145

  Tumaco, 26, 30, 31, 36, 38, 43

  Tumbes, 132, 139, 149, 152, =163=, 191, 198, 201

  Tumbes R., 122, 163

  Tumeremo, 74, 84

  Tumuc Humac Mts., 109, 112

  Tungsten, 200, 325

  Tungurahua, 116, 117, 133, 139

  Tunja, 10, 27, 35

  Tupiza, 217, 223, 230

  Tupungato, 251

  Turiamo, 79, 92

  Tutoya, 401

  Tuy R., 63, 68, 80


  Ucayali R., 124, 125, 159, 160, 169, 170, 173, 178, 182, 183, 192

  Unare R., 60

  Uncia, 224, 233, 234

  Unduavi, 224

  União da Victoria, 342, 393

  United Fruit Co., 21, 22

  Upata, 73

  Urabá Gulf, 16, 23, 35, 41, 46

  Uribe, Señor, 11;
    President, 355

  Uracá, 72, 84

  Urcos, 183

  Urquiza, General, 304

  Urubamba R., 170, 172, 183, 192

  Urubupungá Falls, 385

  Urucum, 428

  Uruguay, 114, 289, 331, 334, 348,
  349, =354-371=, 416, 427, 431, 452

  Uruguay R., 288, 289, 294, 306, 307, 313, 331, 354, 359, 362, 365,
        371, =385=, 391, 411

  Uruguayana, 392, 411

  Ushuaiá, 283, 300, 304

  Uspallata Pass, 267, 296

  Uyuni, 217, 223, 224, 268


  Valdivia, (Col.), 34;
    (Chile), 246, 247, 248, 259, 264, 277

  Valdivia, Pedro de, 246

  Valencia, 55, 67, 80, 83, 84, 90;
    Lake, 62, 67, 87

  Valera, 72

  Valle de Upar, 36

  Vallenar, 265

  Vanadium, 200

  Vanilla, 88

  Vaupés, 10, =26=, 43;
    R., 17

  Vegetables, 190

  Venezuela, 15, 30, 37, =53-99=, 101, 423

  Venezuela, Gulf of, 64, 65, 78

  Ventuari R., 61, 76

  Verrugas V., 177

  Vespucci, Amerigo, 373

  Viacha, 210, 223

  Victoria, 375, 397, 411, 430

  Vicuñas, 193, 239

  Vichada, 10, 27;
    R., 17, =27=, 75, 91

  Viedma, 283, 304

  Vilcamayu R., 159

  Vilcanota, 159, 211

  Villa Bella, 210, 219, =227=, 243, 413

  Villa Church, 225, 227, 413

  Villa Concepción, 342

  Villa de Cura, 67, 83

  Villa Encarnación, 342

  Villa Hayes, 342, 349

  Villamizar, 30, 31, 85

  Villa Montes, =207=, =220=

  Villa Murtinho, 219, 227, 413

  Villavicencio, 10

  Villeta, 335

  Vinces R., 127

  Viña del Mar, 263

  Viscacha, 193, 239

  Visser, 304

  Viticulture, 189, 241, 276, 322, 370

  Vitor, 180

  Vreeden Hook, 104


  Waini R., 108

  Water power, 52, 83, 98, 101, 124, 202, 225, 279, 331, 371, 385, 394,
        405, 426, 433

  West Coast, =114-279=

  Wheat, 43, 88, 276, 320, 418

  Wheelwright, William, 264, 307

  Wismar, 104

  Wool, 193, 239, 278, 317, 369


  Xarquedas, 431

  Xingú R., 383, 402


  Yacuiba, 210, 220, 223, 243, =312=

  Yaguachi R., 127

  Yaguarón R., 359

  Yapurá R., 17, 406

  Yaracuy, 54, 55, =66=, 77, 81, 93

  Yareta, 237

  Yaritagua, 66

  Yauli, 197, 200

  Yauricocha, 197, 198

  Yerba Mate, 324, 347, 393, =422=

  Yhú, 335

  Ypoa Lake, 338, 340

  Yucca, 142

  Yungas, 213, 215, =224=, 226, 234, 242, 243

  Yungay, 166

  Yurimaguas, 173

  Yuruán, 108

  Yuruary R., 89, 92, 93


  Zamora, (Ven.), 55, 71, 88;
    (Ec.), 145

  Zaragosa, 49

  Zarate, 289, 301, 312, 318

  Zaruma, 132, 145

  Zarzal, 37

  Zavala, General, 354

  Zinc, 45, =200=, 236, 274

  Zipiquirá, 37, 45

  Zorritos, 144, 201

  Zulia, 54, 55, =64=;
    Lake, 62;
    R., =16=, 28, 30, 31, 36, 64, 86

  Zumba, 139




                          Transcriber’s Notes

Page 22: “Madgalena River” changed to “Magdalena River”

Page 92: “Cuidad Bolívar” changed to “Ciudad Bolívar”

Page 199, Page 308 and Page 395: “on acount” changed to “on account”

Page 361: “west of Montevido” changed to “west of Montevideo”

Page 471: “Buenventura and Tumaco” changed to “Buenaventura and Tumaco”

Page 483: “Direccion Gencral” changed to “Direccion General”