THE SOUTH AMERICAN SERIES




VENEZUELA

[Illustration: CATHEDRAL: CARÁCAS.]




                                VENEZUELA

                                    BY
                     LEONARD V. DALTON, B.SC. (LOND.)
             FELLOW OF THE GEOLOGICAL AND ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL
                             SOCIETIES, ETC.

                     WITH A MAP AND 34 ILLUSTRATIONS

                             T. FISHER UNWIN

                                 LONDON:
                             ADELPHI TERRACE

                                 LEIPSIC:
                             INSELSTRASSE 20

                                   1912

                         (_All rights reserved._)




                                    TO
                                 D. R. R.




INTRODUCTORY NOTE


The author is desirous of expressing his appreciation of the continued
courtesy and kindness rendered during his stay in Venezuela by the
British Chargé d’Affaires, Mr. W. E. O’Reilly, by Mr. E. A. Wallis, and
other British residents, as well as the warm reception accorded by the
Venezuelan officials throughout the parts of the country he visited.

Mr. F. A. Holiday, A.R.C.S., F.G.S., has made himself responsible for
much of the information on the Llanos, and has assisted largely in the
preparation of the tables in Appendix B. Mr. J. D. Berrington, of El
Callao, also furnished details relating to the Guayana goldfields and
their surroundings.

The author is greatly indebted to Mr. N. G. Burch, F.R.G.S., for reading
the manuscript and for many valuable suggestions and criticisms. He would
also thank Mr. G. T. Wayman, of Carácas, for many useful documents and
items of interest regarding recent developments.




CONTENTS


                                                                      PAGE

  INTRODUCTORY NOTE                                                      9

                                CHAPTER I

  PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF VENEZUELA                25

      Situation—Area—Population—Main physical divisions—The
      Guayana Highlands—Mountains, rivers, and forests The
      Llanos—_Selvas_—_Mesas_—Rivers and _cienagas_—The
      Delta—_Caños_—The Caribbean Hills—Serrania Costanera—Serrania
      Interior—Rivers—Segovia Highlands—Drainage—Vegetation—The
      Andes—Portuguesa Chain—Cordillera of Mérida—The Sierra
      Nevada—Mountain torrents—Vegetation—_Páramos_—The
      coastal plain—Lake of Maracaibo—Coro and Paraguana
      lowlands—Climate—“White-water” and “black-water”
      rivers—Seasons—_Tierra caliente_, _templada_, and
      _fria_—Temperature and seasons—“St. John’s little
      summer”—Health.

                               CHAPTER II

  THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF VENEZUELA                                   38

      Ancient land of Guayana—Comparison with Scottish
      Highlands—Gneisses, schists, and granite—Dykes—Roraima
      Series—Strange peaks—The Caribbean Series—“All that
      glitters is not gold”—La Galera—Segovia Group—Natural
      castles—Capacho Limestone—The “Golden Hill”—Cerro
      de Oro Series—Formation of mountains—Early outlet
      of Orinoco—Cumaná Series—Shoals and islands—Llano
      gravels—Cubagua Beds—Igneous rocks—Earthquakes—Hot springs—A
      natural kettle—Coal—Iron—Gold—Copper—Lead—Petroleum and
      asphalt—Sulphur—Salt—_Urao_—Ornamental stones—Wealth in
      minerals.

                               CHAPTER III

  THE PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF VENEZUELA                                   47

      The glamour of the South American forests—Hidden
      treasures—Temples of Nature—“A dim religious
      light”—_Bejucales_—Forest giants—Brazil
      nuts—Tonka-beans—Rubber—Quinine—Arctic and tropic
      forms—The Llanos—_Tierra caliente_—Natural
      hothouses—Colour and coolness _Páramo_
      plants—Monkeys—An old friend—Cannibalism—Vampires
      and bats—“Tigers” and “lions”—“Handsome is as
      handsome doesn’t”—Wild horses—Dolphins—Prickly
      mice—The “water-hog”—Sloths—Birds—Many-coloured
      varieties—Umbrella-bird—“Cock-of-the-rock”—Toucans—
      Cuckoos—Humming-birds—“Who are you?”—Oil-birds—Parrots
      and macaws—Eagles and vultures—A national
      disgrace—Game-birds—Snakes—Lizards—From the Orinoco
      to a city dinner—A cup-tie crowd—Ferocious fish—When is
      a mosquito not a mosquito?—Agricultural ants—Gigantic
      spiders—Ticks—A pugnacious crustacean—A rich field.

                               CHAPTER IV

  VENEZUELA UNDER SPANISH RULE AND BEFORE                               61

      Pre-Columbian times—No great empire—Primitive
      Venezuelans—Picture rocks—Invasions—The Guatavitas and
      the legend of El Dorado—Amalivaca—An Inca prince?—Ancient
      roads—The discovery of Tierra firme, 1498—Alonso de Ojeda—The
      name “Venezuela”—A great geographical fraud—Discovery of the
      treasures of the west—Arrival of the _conquistadores_—The
      slave trade—Treacheries of the Cubagua colonists—Gonzalez de
      Ocampo—Las Casas—First cities of the New World—Settlement
      of Coro—The Welsers—Alfinger—Ingratitude of Charles
      V.—New Andalusia—Exploration of the Orinoco—Cruelties
      of Alfinger—Exploration of the Llanos—First Bishop of
      Venezuela—Destruction of New Cadiz—Faxardo and the
      Carácas—Cities of Western Venezuela—The rebellion
      of Aguirre—Foundation of Carácas—Pimentel moves his
      capital to the new city—Capture of Carácas by English
      buccaneers—Inaccuracies of Spanish historians—Explorations of
      Berrio in Guayana—Raleigh and El Dorado—Attempts to civilise
      the Indians—Missions—University of Carácas—Guipuzcoana
      Company—Revolution of Gual and España—Miranda—The last
      Captain-General—The Junta—Appeals to England—The Declaration of
      Independence.

                                CHAPTER V

  THE REPUBLIC, 1811-1911                                               84

      Local character of revolution—Declaration of a
      Constitution—Centralised government—Troubles of the young
      republic—The Church and the patriots—Miranda—Dictatorship
      and downfall—Drastic measures of Monteverde—Youth and
      parentage of Simon Bolivar—The _guerra a muerte_—Dictatorship
      of Bolivar—Monteverde murders four prisoners—The
      _Mestizos_—Massacre of Spaniards—Murmurings—Retirement of
      Bolivar—Royalist victories and reinforcements—Morillo’s
      barbarities—Return of Bolivar to Venezuela—Indecisive
      campaign—Renewed discontent—Bolivar withdraws to Haiti,
      but returns—Mariño’s insubordination—Massacre of
      Barcelona—Campaign in the Llanos—Arrival of the British
      Legion—Congress of Angostura—The march to Bogotá—The
      republic of great Colombia—Change of allegiance of the
      _Mestizos_—Armistice of Trujillo—Negotiations with
      Spain—Recommencement of hostilities—Battle of Carabobo—End
      of Spanish power in Venezuela—Position of Venezuela in
      Colombia—Separatist movement—Death of Bolivar—Páez first
      President of Venezuela—Vargas—Folly of Mariño—Progress
      of the country—Public honours to Bolivar—Recognition of
      republic by France and Spain—Commerce and prosperity
      of the country—Tyranny of Tadeo Monágas—Abolition of
      slavery—Revolution of Julian Castro—Capital temporarily removed
      to Valencia—Federalists and Centralists—Falcón—_Convenio de
      Coche_—Federal Constitution—Guzman Blanco—Development under
      his government—Revolution of Crespo—British Guiana boundary
      dispute—Cipriano Castro—The Matos revolution—_Coup d’état_ of
      General Gomez—Centenary celebrations—Present prospects.

                               CHAPTER VI

  MODERN VENEZUELA                                                     106

      Boundaries—Frontier with Brazil—Colombia—British
      Guiana—Internal subdivision—States and territories with
      their capitals—Density of population—Constitution—Departments
      of the Executive—_Jefes Civiles_—Legislature—Senators
      and deputies—Administration of justice—Laws relating
      to foreigners—Marriage—Public health—Philanthropic
      institutions—Education—Coinage—Multiplicity of
      terms—Towns—Typical houses—Furniture—Hospitality—Food—
      Clothing—Army and navy—Insignia—_Busto de Bolivar_—The Press.

                               CHAPTER VII

  THE ABORIGINES                                                       119

      The Goajiros—Lake dwellings—Appearance—Territory—Villages—
      Government—Burial customs—Religion—Medicine-men—The
      Caribs—A fine race—Cannibalism—Headless men of the
      Caura—The Amazons—Industries—Religion—Marriage customs—The
      aborigines of Guayana—Tavera-Acosta on languages—The
      Warraus—Appearance—Houses—Food—Clothing—Marriage
      customs—Birth—Death—Religion—Treatment of sick—The
      Banibas—Appearance—Customs—Religion—Celebration of puberty of
      girls—Marriage customs—The Arawaks—Religion—Early missions
      amongst Indians—Wanted, a twentieth-century apostle.

                              CHAPTER VIII

  THE STATES OF THE “CENTRO”: DISTRITO FEDERAL, MIRANDA, ARAGUA,
    AND CARABOBO                                                       135

      La Guaira—Heat—Port-works—The Brighton of Venezuela—Sugar
      plantations—Streets and _botiquins_—_Guarapo_—La
      Guaira-Carácas Railway—A great engineering
      feat—Carácas—Climate—Population—Streets—Buildings—The
      Salón Elíptico—El Calvario—El Paraiso—“La India”—Water
      supply—Trams and telephones—Lighting—Industries—The Guaire
      valley—Coffee—Miranda—Ocumare del Tuy—Petare—Central
      Railway—Vegetable snow—Carenero Railway—Rio Chico—Los
      Teques—Great Venezuelan Railway—La Victoria—Sixteen-fold
      wheatfields—Maracay—Grazing lands—Cheese—President
      Gomez’s country house—Villa de Cura—An epitome of the
      State—Lake of Valencia—Cotton—Carabobo—Valencia—Cotton
      mills—Montalbán—Deserted vineyards—Wild rubber—Puerto Cabello
      Railway—The port—Meat syndicate—Club—Ocumare de la Costa—What
      is bad for man may be good for cocoa—Mineral resources.

                               CHAPTER IX

  ZULIA                                                                149

      The Lake of Coquibacoa in the sixteenth century
      and now—Wealth and importance of the State—Area
      and population—Waterways—Forests—Mineral
      wealth—Savannahs—Maracaibo—Harbour and
      dredging schemes—Cojoro—Wharves and warehouses
      of Maracaibo—Exports—Population—German
      colony—Buildings—Industries—Tramways—_Coches_—Lake
      steamers—Ancient craft—The comedy of the
      bar—Railways—Communication with Colombia—Altagracia—Santa
      Rita—A western Gibraltar—An eventful history—San Carlos de
      Zulia—Sinamaica—Vegetable milk—Timber—Copaiba—Fisheries—The
      “Maracaibo Lights.”

                                CHAPTER X

  THE ANDINE STATES: TÁCHIRA, MÉRIDA, AND TRUJILLO                     157

      Access—Roads versus railways—Mineral
      wealth—“Maracaibo” coffee—Forests—San Cristobal—Water
      supply—Industries—Roads—Rubio—Táchira Petroleum Company—San
      Antonio—Lobatera—Colón—Interrupted communications—Pregonero—El
      Cobre—Old mines—La Grita—Seboruco copper—Mérida—The
      Bishop and the Bible—Eternal snows—Earthquakes—Electric
      light—Road schemes—Gold and silver—Lagunillas—_Urao_—Wayside
      hospitality—Puente Real—Primitive modes of transport—Las
      Laderas—The Mucuties valley—Tovar—Mucuchíes—The highest town
      in Venezuela—The _páramos_—Timotes—Trujillo—Valera—Water
      supply—La Ceiba Railway—Betijoque and Escuque—Boconó—Santa
      Ana—Carache—Unknown regions—Possibilities of the Andes.

                               CHAPTER XI

  LARA, YARACUY, AND FALCÓN                                            171

      The original Venezuela—Ancient
      cities—Communications—Barquisimeto—Fortified
      stores—Productions—The Bolivar Railway—Duaca—Aroa
      copper-mines—A precarious house-site—In the mine—Bats and
      cockroaches _El Purgatorio_—Blue and green stalactites—San
      Felipe—The Yaracuy valley—Nirgua—Yaritagua—Tocuyo—The “coach”
      to Barquisimeto—Quíbor—_Minas_—Carora—An ill-advised
      scheme—Siquisique—Steamboats on the Tocuyo—San Luis—Coro—The
      first cathedral of South America—Goat-farms—Fibre—La
      Vela—Capatárida tobacco—Curaçao—A fragment of Holland—A mixed
      language—Trade—Sanitation—The islands.

                               CHAPTER XII

  IN THE “ORIENTE.” NUEVA ESPARTA, SUCRE, PART OF MONÁGAS, AND THE
    DELTA TERRITORY                                                    181

      Restricted use of term “Oriente”—Margarita—Asunción—Porlamar
      and Pampatar—Macanao—A primitive population—The
      priests, the comet, and the people—Cubagua—Pearl
      fisheries—Coche—Cumaná—Las Casas—A diving feat—Petroleum
      and salt—Fruit—The Manzanares—Cumanacoa—In the hills—San
      Antonio and its church—The Guacharo cave—Humboldt—Virgin
      territory—Punceres—Oil-springs—The Bermudez asphalt
      lake—Carúpano—_Ron blanco_—Sulphur and gold—Rio
      Caribe—Peninsula of Paria—Cristobal Colón—An ambitious
      project—The Delta—The _Golfo Triste_—Pedernales—Asphalt
      and outlaws—In the _caños_—Tucupita—Barrancas—Imataca
      iron-mines—Canadian capital for Venezuela—Guayana Vieja.

                              CHAPTER XIII

  THE LLANOS. MONÁGAS, ANZOÁTEGUI, GUÁRICO, COJEDES, PORTUGUESA,
    ZAMORA, AND APURE                                                  193

      The great plains—An ocean without water—“_Bancos_” and
      _mesas_—Drought and flood—A living floor—Streams which flow
      upwards—Heat—Cattle and horses—Imported butter—Methods
      of milking—Civil wars—Future prospects—A mean annual
      temperature of 90° F.—Barcelona—History—The massacre of the
      Casa Fuerte—Survivors—Guanta—Coal of Naricual—Aragua de
      Barcelona—Maturín—Low death rate—Caño Colorado—Bongos—Athletic
      boatmen—_Casitas_—Travelling on the Llanos—An _hato_—Areo—An
      ancient cotton press—The men of Urica—Churches and wayside
      shrines—A gruesome monument—Calabozo—Barbacoas—Ortiz—Zaraza and
      Camaguan—San Carlos—Barinas—Guanare—Past prosperity and future
      prospects.

                               CHAPTER XIV

  THE CITY AND STATE OF BOLIVAR                                        211

      An enormous area—How to reach it—Ciudad Bolivar—Climate—San
      Felix—Falls of the Caroni—Trade of San Felix—Quality
      of “roads”—Upata—Guasipati—Balatá industry—Extravagant
      exploitation—Former importance—The goldfields—El
      Callao—The discovery—Callao Bis—Big dividends—The common
      pursuit—Venamo valley High freights—Poor quality of
      labour—Unsystematic working—Goldfields of Venezuela,
      Ltd.—Savannahs—Stock-farming—Sugar—Old settlements—An ancient
      bridge—Tumeremo and the balatá forests—Killing the goose
      that lays the golden eggs—The Caroni—An opportunity for a
      pioneer—Up the Orinoco—The “Gates of Hell”—The Caura—Rice
      and tonka-beans—“_Lajas_”—Rubber of the Nichare—Falls of
      Pará—André’s journeys—Mountains of the upper Caura—The
      Waiomgomos—Reticence regarding names—Ticks—Caicara—The
      Cuchivero—Savannahs and “_Sarrapiales_”—Sarsaparilla—Climate of
      the Orinoco valley.

                               CHAPTER XV

  THE AMAZONAS TERRITORY                                               223

      Area—General character—San Fernando de Atabapo—The upper
      Orinoco—Communication with outside world—Atures and Maipures
      rapids—Humboldt’s description—The Compañía Anónima de
      Navegacion Fluvial y Costanera—General Chalbaud—Railway
      projects—The Piaroas—_Curare_—Savannahs—Rubber—Brazil-nuts—Wild
      cocoa—Mineral wealth—Water power—Rubber prospectors—Method
      of working—Esmeralda—The place of flies—Mt. Duida—Gold
      possibilities—The Raudal de los Guaharibos—The limit of
      exploration—The Ventuari—An old Spanish road—A midnight
      massacre—Stock-raising lands—The Maquiritare—Trading with gold
      dust—The Casiquiare bifurcation—Life of the natives—Eau de
      Cologne in the wilds—The Guainia and Rio Negro—Maroa—Cucuhy—The
      Atabapo—Lack of population—Education—Colonisation—General
      prospects.

                               CHAPTER XVI

  THE DEVELOPMENT OF VENEZUELA                                         235

      Commerce—Early history—Pearls and gold—The Guipuzcoana
      Company—The republic—Years of struggle—Separation from
      Colombia—Guzman Blanco—British, American, and German
      trade—Opportunities—Currency—Banking—Banco de Venezuela—Banco
      Carácas—Banco de Maracaibo—National Debt—Natural
      resources—Large returns on capital—Coal—Iron—Salt—Asphalt
      and petroleum—Sulphur—Copper—Gold—The
      Llanos—Stock-raising—Possibilities of the industry—The
      Venezuelan Meat Products Syndicate—Agriculture—Coffee—Cocoa—
      Sugar—Tobacco—Cotton—Rubber—Tonka-beans, balatá, sernambi and
      copaiba—Fisheries—Pearls—Industries—Chocolate—Cotton-mills
      —Tanning—Matches, glass, and paper—Cigarettes and beer—Arts and
      sciences—Academy of History—Universities—Surveys.

                              CHAPTER XVII

  COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSPORT                                         252

      Lack of adequate means—Postal service—A small but
      growing system—Methods of carriage—Unusual uses of
      mailbags—Telegraphs—Telephones—Railways—Bolivar
      Railway—Later lines—Tramways—Abundant
      water-power—“Roads”—_Carreteras_—Bridle-paths—P.W.
      D.—Waterways—Less than they seem—Importance—The
      Orinoco—Ports—Shipping—Steamship lines.

                              CHAPTER XVIII

  THE FUTURE OF VENEZUELA                                              261

      A great opportunity—The Panama Canal—The
      Llanos—Petroleum-fields—Liquid fuel—Position of
      Venezuela—Guayana—Possibilities—Colonisation—Government—The
      military-political class—The disgrace of labour—Better
      conditions—Vargas—The “Matos” revolution—General
      Gomez—Hopes to be realised—Honesty and
      justice—Development—Roads—Railways—Education—Consular
      service—Great Britain’s trade with Venezuela—A poor
      third—British capital—The people’s responsibility—An
      opportunity.

                               APPENDICES

  APPENDIX A                                                           269

      Population of States and districts under the Constitution of
      1909 according to the census of 1891

  APPENDIX B                                                           274

      Imports (by classes)—Imports (by countries)—Exports (by
      products)—Imports (classes and countries)—Exports (by products
      and ports)

  APPENDIX C                                                           281

      Population, altitude, mean annual temperature and death rate of
      principal Venezuelan cities—Heights of principal mountains

  APPENDIX D                                                           283

      Government finance—Revenue—Expenditure

  APPENDIX E                                                           285

      The National Debt of Venezuela—Internal debt—Foreign debt

  BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                         287

      General Works—Geographical—Geological—Botanical and
      Zoological—Historical—Ethnological—Carácas and the
      “Centro”—Zulia—The Andes, Falcón, &c.—The “Oriente”—The
      Llanos—Bolivar City and State—The Territorio
      Amazonas—Resources, commercial development, communications, &c.

  INDEX                                                                314




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS


  CATHEDRAL: CARÁCAS                                         _Frontispiece_

  FACING PAGE

  PENINSULA OF PARIA FROM TRINIDAD                                      28

  IN THE DELTA                                                          28

  PANORAMA OF THE ANDES FROM NORTH OF CARACHE                           36

  IN THE UPPER TEMPERATE ZONE: THE CHAMA VALLEY                         50

  CLOUD DRIFTS IN THE ANDES                                             58

  TORBES VALLEY AND THE COLOMBIAN HILLS                                 58

  THE CHAMA VALLEY ABOVE MÉRIDA                                         68

  MOUNTAIN STREAM NEAR CUMANACOA AND CUMANÁ                             68

  BARQUISIMETO                                                          78

  STATUE IN PLAZA BOLIVAR: CARÁCAS                                      88

  THE UNIVERSITY: CARÁCAS                                               98

  THE FEDERAL PALACE: CARÁCAS                                          108

  OVEN: LA RAYA                                                        116

  AN ANDINE POSADA: LA RAYA                                            116

  LA GUAIRA HARBOUR                                                    128

  PLAZA BOLIVAR: VALENCIA                                              138

  MARACAIBO BAY                                                        148

  SAN TIMOTEO: LAKE OF MARACAIBO                                       148

  A STREET IN LA GRITA                                                 158

  PUENTE REAL: GORGE OF THE CHAMA                                      158

  THE SIERRA NEVADA AND CATHEDRAL OF MÉRIDA                            168

  WILLEMSTAD: CURAÇAO                                                  178

  THE HARBOUR: WILLEMSTAD                                              178

  PUERTO CRISTOBAL COLÓN                                               188

  RUINED CHURCH: BARCELONA                                             198

  CASA FUERTE: BARCELONA                                               198

  MESA OF ESNOJAQUE: TRUJILLO                                          208

  MÉRIDA: LOOKING SOUTH FROM UNIVERSITY                                208

  CARRYING TILES ON OX-BACK: NEAR TOVAR                                218

  CROSSING THE TORBES IN FLOOD                                         228

  THE “PITCH” LAKE: TRINIDAD                                           244

  COUNTRY COACH: BARQUISIMETO                                          256

  ON THE BOLIVAR RAILWAY                                               256

The frontispiece and the illustrations facing pages 78, 88, 98, 108, 128,
138 are taken from “Venezuela,” by N. Veloz-Goiticoa, by permission of
the Bureau of South American Republics, Washington, U.S.A.




VENEZUELA




CHAPTER I

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF VENEZUELA

    Situation—Area—Population—Main physical divisions—The
    Guayana Highlands—Mountains, rivers, and forests—The
    Llanos—_Selvas_—_Mesas_—Rivers and _cienagas_—The
    Delta—_Caños_—The Caribbean Hills—Serrania Costanera—Serrania
    Interior—Rivers—Segovia Highlands—Drainage—Vegetation—The
    Andes—Portuguese chain—Cordillera of Mérida—The Sierra
    Nevada—Mountain torrents—Vegetation—_Páramos_—The
    Coastal Plain—Lake of Maracaibo—Coro and Paraguana
    Lowlands—Climate—“White-water” and “black-water”
    rivers—Seasons—_Tierra caliente_, _templada_, and
    _fria_—Temperature and seasons—“St. John’s little
    summer”—Health.


If we take a map of South America on which the political boundaries
are clearly shown, Venezuela will be observed as a wedge of territory
immediately to the east of the most northerly point of the continent,
separating Colombia from our colony of British Guiana.

The United States of Venezuela, as this republic is officially called,
lie wholly within the tropical zone, between latitude 0° 45´ N. and
12° 26´ N. and longitude 59° 35´ W. and 73° 20´ W. (from Greenwich).
The area within these limits is some 1,020,400 square kilometres, or
394,000 square miles, according to the Statistical Year Book for 1908,
published in Carácas in 1910. The total population, according to the
same authority, is 2,664,241, these being the figures of the last census,
that of 1891.

Turning to our map once more, it will be seen that the wedge is not a
regular one, but suggests rather the lower half of a human head, with the
Lower Orinoco as the line of the jaw. The features are easily observed
to separate the territory of the republic into four main divisions: (1)
the Guayana Highlands, including all the region corresponding to the part
of the head below the jaw-line, _i.e._, south and east of the Orinoco;
(2) the great central area of plains or _Llanos_, bounded on the north
and west by (3) the north-eastern branch of the great Andine chain, and
in the north-west of the country (4) a smaller low-lying region round
the Lake of Maracaibo. Each of these divisions includes somewhat varying
types of land surface, but has its main features of uniform character.

As already defined, the Guayana Highlands include the whole of that
vast, more or less unexplored, tract of Venezuela lying on the right
bank of the Orinoco and round the head-waters of that river. The area
is primarily one huge elevated plateau about 1,000 feet or more above
the sea, and from this rise a few principal mountain ranges, with some
peaks over 8,000 feet high, while smaller hills and chains link up the
larger systems. The highest ground is found on the Brazilian frontier,
beginning at Mount Roraima (8,500 feet), where the three boundaries of
Venezuela, British Guiana, and Brazil meet, and extends thence in the
Sierras Pacaraima and Parima westward and southward to the head-waters of
the Orinoco. From Roraima the Orinoco-Cuyuni watershed extends northward
within Venezuela, along the Sierras Rincote and Usupamo and the Highlands
of Puedpa, to the Sierra Piacoa, and thence south-east along the Sierra
Imataca to the British limits again. The Sierra Maigualida forms the
watershed between the Caura and the Ventuari.

The whole area, which amounts to some 204,600 square miles, is well
watered by the upper Orinoco and the Ventuari, with the other great
tributaries, the Cuchivero, Caura, Aro, Caroni, and their affluents.
Large as these rivers are, they are so broken by rapids that travel along
them is only possible for much of their length in small portable craft,
and even then the passage is fraught with danger. Save for the districts
in the immediate neighbourhood of the Orinoco, and scattered areas
elsewhere, the whole region is thickly covered with forests of valuable
timber, containing rubber, tonka-beans, brazil-nuts, copaiba, and all the
varied natural produce of the South American tropics.

The great plains or Llanos of the Orinoco extend from the banks of
the Meta in a broad arc parallel to the course of the Orinoco along
its left bank. Westward they are bounded by the Cordillera of Mérida,
and northward by the Cordillera of Carácas and the hills of Sucre,
but between these ranges, at Barcelona, they virtually reach the sea
for a short distance. To the east they merge into the low-lying tract
of the Orinoco Delta. The total area of the Llanos proper is in the
neighbourhood of 108,300 square miles, so that we have in these two
thinly populated tracts about 80 per cent. of the territory of the
republic.

Vast areas of the Llanos remain, for all practical purposes, still
unexplored, and their general character can only be inferred from that of
the regions bordering on the “roads.” The typical areas are wide grass
plains, often stretching to the horizon on all sides without a break,
but generally interrupted by little groups of palms and small trees,
especially near the banks of the rivers. At some four or five points
near the northern edge there are great forests or _selvas_, relics
possibly of an earlier, more extensive woodland.

The elevation of the Llanos ranges up to 650 feet, and more than this in
the _mesas_ of the central region, these being gravel-capped plateaux,
of varying extent, beginning in the west with the Mesa de Santa Clara,
northward of Caicara, and extending thence in a continuous series
eastward and northward to form the watershed between the Orinoco and
the Unare-Aragua basin, which drains into the Caribbean Sea west of
Barcelona. The lowest part of the Llanos is situated westward of this
chain of tablelands, in the valley of the Portuguesa, the lower part of
which has large tracts less than 300 feet above sea-level. East of the
Mesa de Guanipa the ground falls comparatively rapidly to the Delta.

[Illustration: PENINSULA OF PARIA FROM TRINIDAD.]

[Illustration: IN THE DELTA.]

While severe drought is experienced over much of the Llano region in
summer, the heavy rains, particularly in the western districts, produce
floods over the low-lying plains, the mesas being dry at all times. The
whole area is traversed by numerous streams and rivers, which rise either
on the southern slopes of the Cordillera or in the mesas. North of the
Meta, in addition to the large number of smaller streams which here and
there broaden out into marshy lakes or _cienagas_, we have the navigable
rivers Arauca (the main waterway to eastern Colombia) and Apure, flowing
from the Andes to the Orinoco in an easterly direction. The Apure
receives many tributaries on its left bank from the Venezuelan Andes,
most important of which are the Portuguesa, rising in the plains of the
same name south of Barquisimeto and joining the Apure at San Fernando,
and the Guárico, whose mouth is east of the same town, flowing from south
of Carácas through the State to which it gives its name, and receiving
from the east the waters of the Orituco, whose source is less than thirty
miles from the coast in longitude 66°. Of the Orinoco tributaries from
the north beyond the Apure the most important is the Manapire, all the
streams east of this rising in the mesas and having but short courses.
The greater part of the eastern Llanos drains northward by the Unare
and Aragua into the Caribbean Sea. A few large rivers rise on the east
of the mesas, but flow for short distances only through the plains,
emptying, not into the Orinoco itself but the _caños_ of the Delta.
This last-mentioned region of inundated forest, savannah and mangrove
swamp, occupies about 11,500 square miles, bringing the total area of the
central plains up to 119,800 square miles.

The third great tract, the north-eastern spur of the Andes, divides
itself naturally into three parts—the Caribbean Hills, along the shores
of the sea of the same name; the Segovia Highlands, linking the former to
the higher mountains of western Venezuela; and the Cordillera of Mérida,
or the Venezuelan Andes. The total area occupied by these mountain and
hill tracts is about 41,800 square miles.

The Caribbean Hills give to the Venezuelan coast its splendid and
almost unique aspect, for, save for the interruption near Barcelona,
the range extends without much decrease in average height from west of
longitude 68° to the east end of the peninsula of Paria, less than 62°
west of Greenwich. Two main lines of elevation are plainly discernible
in the Carácas region, known as the Serrania Costanera and the Serrania
Interior; they continue throughout the range, but are less distinct in
the Cumaná Hills. The greatest elevation of the outer line is reached
near Carácas itself, a considerable area west of the city rising to
over 6,500 feet, while to the east are the famous peaks of La Silla (de
Carácas) and Naiguatá (8,620 feet and 9,100 feet respectively). In the
inner range the greatest elevation is round Mount Turimquiri, south of
Cumaná; the eastern portion of the coast range, in the peninsulas of
Araya and Paria, does not rise above 3,200 feet. On the northern side the
complex is drained only by mountain torrents falling rapidly throughout
their short courses to the sea, while on the south are the head-waters
of the Orinoco tributaries. Between the two ranges, however, we have
longitudinal valleys with rivers of more or less importance—the Aragua,
flowing westwards from Carácas into the lake of Valencia or Tacarigua,
which overflows into the Paito, a tributary of the Portuguesa; and the
Tuy, with its affluent the Guaire, flowing eastwards to the sea south of
Cape Codera. In the Cumaná Hills we have the Manzanares and other smaller
streams emptying their waters into the Gulf of Cariaco, and on the east
the Lake of Putucual, though small, is similar in situation to that of
Valencia, and its overflow forms the River San Juan, which empties into
the Gulf of Paria, forming virtually part of the Orinoco drainage. The
lower slopes of all these ranges, and the valleys, are clothed with rich
forests, excepting the dry, barren coasts near Carácas, while the heights
are bare, save for grass and a few small temperate trees.

Between the western extremity of the Caribbean Hills and the northern
spurs of the Venezuelan Andes there is an elevated region, which,
though subject to variations of level, possesses the main features of a
tableland, and this type of surface extends in a broad belt northward
through the States of Lara and Falcón. Their main extent is in the State
of Lara, whose capital, Barquisimeto, had as its original name, before
any territorial limits were defined round it, Nueva Segovia; it seems
appropriate, therefore, to distinguish this area as the Segovia Highlands.

The level of most of the area so designated ranges from 1,500 to 3,500
feet, but the plateau type is best developed in the Barquisimeto region,
the dry, barren plains of which, with their cactus vegetation, suggest
by their general features the dry bed of an ancient lake, in whose
waters the small scattered hills formed islands, while the Andine spurs
to the south and the Sierra de Aroa and similar mountain masses north
of Barquisimeto, constituted its limits. Beyond the latter, and north
of the Tocuyo River, while the larger part of the area maintains its
more or less uniform elevation, three well-defined ranges rise from the
plateau, in the Cordilleras of Baragua, Agua Negra, and San Luis; the
last named is the largest, and extends for 110 miles parallel to the Coro
coast, overlooking the Gulf of Venezuela. Practically the whole of this
region is drained by the Tocuyo and its tributaries, the other rivers
rising merely on its outer edges and falling direct to the sea; from
this generalisation should be excepted a small area round Barquisimeto,
in the catchment area of the river of the same name, which contributes
its waters to the volume of the Portuguesa, and so enters the Orinoco.
The Tocuyo, whose principal affluents are the Carora and the Baragua
on its left bank, rises in the Andes and flows for some 330 miles in a
northerly direction, changing to easterly in the lower river, before it
empties itself into the Caribbean. While the southern part of this area
is barren, all the lower slopes of the northern hills are forest clad and
fertile, with _llanos_ in the Carora Valley and grass-covered summits
above.

To the south we have the Venezuelan Andes, stretching for some 300 miles
south-westward to the Colombian frontier, and forming the highest land in
the whole country.

There are two main divisions of this mountain group, the Portuguesa chain
south of Barquisimeto, and the Cordillera of Mérida constituting the more
important and higher part. The Portuguesa chain reaches its greatest
elevation (13,100 feet) in the south near the sources of the Tocuyo, the
northern portion rising only to about 5,000 feet. A slight break in the
mass is caused by the valley of the Boconó, beyond which the Cordillera
of Mérida begins with peaks of nearly 13,000 feet on the north, rising to
their maximum in the centre, where the summits of the Sierra Nevada of
Mérida have an elevation of about 16,400 feet, and the top of the highest
of all, La Columna, is 16,423 feet above sea-level. Southwards the
elevations decrease again, until on the borders of Colombia the watershed
is less than 5,000 feet above the sea. The streams of this chain, with
its steep outer flanks so characteristic of the Andes, naturally belong
for the most part to the catchment area of the Orinoco or the Maracaibo
Lake, but there is a succession of longitudinal valleys within the chain
which may be considered as pertaining more particularly to the Andes. The
chief of these rivers are the Motatán, which, rising north of Mérida,
flows northwards through Trujillo to the Lake of Maracaibo; the Chama,
whose sources are in the same snows that supply the Motatán, though the
stream flows southward past Mérida, bending then sharply northward to
reach the south shore of the lake opposite the mouth of the Motatán; and
the Torbes, flowing south-westward by San Cristobal, and turning there to
the east to fall into the Uribante, a tributary of the Apure. Every type
of vegetation occurs within this Andine tract, varying according to the
geology of the ground and its elevation. At some points there are fertile
valleys with tropical flora, others with temperate cereals; sometimes
bare mountain slopes and hot gorges supporting only cactus and acacia,
and little of these; sometimes grass-clad slopes and summits, with the
peculiar heather-like and resinous plants of the “páramos,” and, lastly,
the eternal snows of the peaks of the Sierra Nevada.

North of the mountain region of Venezuela lies what may be considered as
the coastal plain, including the alluvial area of the Lake of Maracaibo,
the Coro and Paraguana lowlands, and such few tracts of flat ground as
may be found along the coast, with the numerous islands in the Caribbean
which belong to Venezuela. The area of this division may be estimated
as about 27,800 square miles. The lake has many points of similarity to
the Delta, both in hydrography and general character. The southern part
has innumerable rivers comparable to the caños, with open lagoons and
swamps, bordered by dense forests more or less inundated in the rains.
On the east and west shores to the north there are stretches of higher
ground between the swamps, and frequent grass plains like the Llanos; the
western side is bounded by the Sierra de Perija, forming the frontier of
Colombia. Chief of the rivers traversing these plains are the Motatán
and Chama, already mentioned as rising in the Andes, the Escalante, and
the Catatumbo; the mouths of all are of a deltaic character, and all are
navigable to a greater or lesser extent. The largest and most important
is the Catatumbo, which, with its great tributary, the Zulia, rises in
Colombia.

The Coro and Paraguana lowlands form a stretch of open, sandy, more or
less barren and low hills, extending from the neighbourhood of the port
of Maracaibo along the coast to Coro, and into the Paraguana peninsula;
with them may be grouped the islands, which are similar in character,
except Margarita, whose mountains resemble those of the Caribbean chain,
though the open, cactus-covered lower ground is a repetition of the
western coast (and Curaçao).

The climate of the 394,000 square miles naturally varies greatly
according to latitude, elevation, and vegetation. The Guayana region,
here also, stands by itself, both from its southern position and
comparatively uniform elevation, so that over a wide area the temperature
and rainfall are more or less the same. Naturally in those parts of
Guayana where mountain ridges rise above the general level of the
plateau the temperature is lower than the average, but these must
constitute a small part of the whole. There is a marked difference
in the meteorological conditions in the various river-valleys of the
Orinoco basin, where the “white-water”—_i.e._, the swiftly flowing but
muddy streams, with rocky beds—are always accompanied by a clear sky
overhead, and mosquitoes and crocodiles abound; on the “black water”—the
deep and slow rivers—the sky is continually clouded, but the air is free
from mosquitoes. The Orinoco represents the former type, the Rio Negro
the latter. The rainy season in Guayana begins in April and lasts till
November; the remaining four months are fairly dry.

The better known region of the north is generally considered as divided,
_qua_ climate, into three regions, in common with tropical South
America generally—that is to say, the hot, temperate, and cold zones.
The hot zone or _Tierra caliente_ is generally considered as ranging
from sea-level to an elevation of 1,915 feet, where the mean annual
temperature varies from 74° to 91° Fahr. The intermediate or temperate
zone, the _Tierra templada_, lies between 1,915 and 7,030 feet above
sea-level, and within those limits the mean annual temperature may fall
as low as, or even lower than, 60° Fahr. The _Tierra fria_, or cold zone,
including the highest peak of Venezuela, 16,423 feet, has mean annual
temperatures ranging from 60° to below zero.

The _Tierra caliente_ includes (in addition to the greater part of
Guayana) the Llanos, the coastal plains, and the region of the Lake of
Maracaibo, the lower slopes and part of the central valleys of the
mountains, part of the Segovia Highlands, and the Caribbean islands.
The higher ground naturally has a climate varying with elevation, but
the typical hot country, the Llanos are the warmest, the islands the
coolest. On the Llanos the central, northern, and eastern regions are
cooler than the southern and western, the highest mean annual temperature
being recorded in San Fernando de Apure. Over this area the rainfall is
heavy, and the wet season lasts from April to November. Maracaibo has
the highest temperature of the cities of the coastal region, and, while
the rains in the greater part of the area last through the same months
as in Guayana and the Llanos, the area round the lake is comparatively
free from rain until August and September, when the heaviest falls are
recorded. The Segovia highlands and the islands alike have a lower mean
temperature and rainfall than the remainder of the zone, the position
of the one region, behind the coastal range which has precipitated the
moisture of the easterly winds, being paralleled by the distance of the
islands from these heights in the opposite direction.

The _Tierra templada_ includes the greater part of the inhabited region
of the hills, in which the climate necessarily varies greatly according
to situation, the bottoms of some of the Andine valleys within the zone
being more oppressive than parts of the low countries.

In the eastern part of the Caribbean Hills the rains last during the
same months as in the Llanos, but in the Andes, particularly to the
south, the seasons vary, and it is generally considered that there are
two rainy seasons; the first light rains from April to June, separated
by “St. John’s little summer” (_El Veranito de San Juan_) from the later
heavy rains which last from August to November; this arrangement applies
rather to the eastern side of the watershed, the western side having an
increasing similarity in seasons to the Llanos as one descends towards
those plains.

Only the higher peaks and ridges of the Caribbean Hills are included in
the _Tierra fria_, but between Tocuyo and the Colombian frontier the
greater part of the area is situated above 7,030 feet. The prevalent
strong winds and the sparse vegetation of the upper areas render
them too unattractive to have become extensively colonised, but the
products of the temperate zone grow readily in the lower parts below
the timber-limit. Only the peaks of the Sierra Nevada are permanently
snow-covered, the line having, it is said, retreated upwards of late
years. The snow is apparently more abundant in the hotter months of the
year, when the clouds which are dropping rain on the plain hide the peaks
for many hours of the day, and then, lifting suddenly, show them white
with snow far below the normal point, which is about 14,700 feet above
sea-level. A very short period of exposure to the sun’s rays restores the
mountains to their usual aspect.

[Illustration: PANORAMA OF THE ANDES FROM NORTH OF CARACHE.]

From the point of view of health, Venezuela must be looked upon as
holding a good record for a country in its latitude, where malaria is to
be expected to prevail. The death-rate for the whole republic in 1908 is
given in the _Anuario Estadístico_ as 25·1 per 1,000, and of the 56,903
deaths in that year, about one-third were infants under four years of
age, while malaria (_paludismo_) accounts for 8,239. Tuberculosis and
gastric and nervous diseases are the most prevalent causes of death.
Yellow fever, once so prevalent, is now rare, thanks to improved sanitary
conditions. The Delta region and the lower parts of the Guayana valley
are the most unhealthy from a general point of view, while the death-rate
of the cities shows that the Llanos are by far the healthiest district,
with the Andes next, followed by the Caribbean Hills. In some of the
low-lying coast towns, where mangrove swamps abound in the neighbourhood,
the death-rate is high, but as a general rule the northern coast, with
its dry atmosphere and sea breezes, while hot, appears to be markedly
healthy.




CHAPTER II

THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF VENEZUELA

    Ancient land of Guayana—Comparison with Scottish
    Highlands—Gneisses, schists, and granite—Dykes—Roraima
    Series—Strange peaks—The Caribbean Series—“All that
    glitters is not gold”—La Galera—Segovia Group—Natural
    castles—Capacho Limestone—The Golden Hill—Cerro
    de Oro Series—Formation of mountains—Early outlet
    of Orinoco—Cumaná Series—Shoals and islands—Llano
    gravels—Cubagua beds—Igneous rocks—Earthquakes—Hot springs—A
    natural kettle—Coal—Iron—Gold—Copper—Lead—Petroleum and
    asphalt—Sulphur—Salt—Urao—Ornamental stones—Wealth in minerals.


A certain interest, often described as spurious but none the less common,
generally attaches to the ancient for the sake of its antiquity, and
we may, hope, therefore, that the story of the rocks of Venezuela will
appeal even to non-geological readers.

The Guayana Highlands appear not only to be formed of the oldest rocks in
Venezuela, but from such scanty study as has been made of parts of the
region, to represent one of the most ancient land-surfaces in the world.
Different as they are in appearance, they offer many analogies with the
north-western highlands of Scotland from a geological point of view; and
here it is known that the processes of building-up and breaking-down have
preserved for us glimpses of a land which stood, as it now stands, long
ages ago when living organisms, if there were any, had not reached such a
stage in their development as to leave their traces in the deposits of
the time.

The great elevated platform from which rise the peaks and mountain chains
of Guayana appears everywhere to be composed of similar rocks, gneisses,
hornblende schists, and granites, all containing evidence of great
antiquity in geological time. This Guayana complex, as it may be called,
has been considered by geologists as more or less equivalent in age to
the Lewisian gneiss of Scotland, and therefore one of the oldest members
of the Archæan system.

What may have been the original condition of the rocks it is
impossible now to say, but one of the agencies which has brought them
to their present form has left its traces in the form of “dykes” of
quartz-porphyries and felsite, which were once forced in a molten
condition into crevices and joints of the then less solid deposits.

After the cooling of these intrusions and wearing down of the whole
mass by atmospheric influences, the movements of the earth’s crust
produced a shallow sea or series of lakes over what is now Guayana, and
in these waters a series of beds of red and white sandstones, coarse
conglomerate, and red shale were laid down to a thickness of about 2,000
feet. Later the area was again elevated into dry land, the sediments
were consolidated, and again veins or dykes of basalt, dolerite, and
similar dark, heavy rocks in a molten condition forced themselves into
the fractures of gneisses and sandstones alike. These sandstones are here
named the Roraima Series, from their occurrence in that mountain, and
they now remain as isolated peaks or chains of hills all over Guayana,
which, since that far-off period when the series was first consolidated,
seems to have been always dry land.

The points at which the Roraima beds have been left as upstanding masses
of horizontally stratified material, in place of being completely denuded
from the ancient foundation of gneiss, appear to have been determined in
many cases by the presence of exceptional accumulations of molten igneous
rock, which has hardened and remained as a cap to protect the softer
sandstones below from the effects of atmospheric weathering. Where this
has been the case the strange vertical-sided, flat-topped mountains of
Guayana are the result.

While in all probability northern Venezuela has no rocks quite so ancient
as those of Guayana, the geological history of this part of the country
has been much more eventful, and the number of earthquakes suggest that
even yet the form of the earth’s crust in this region is undergoing
comparatively violent changes.

As is commonly the case, to find the oldest rocks we have to search the
hills, and because the masses of gneiss, silvery mica-schist, marble,
and so on, which form the highest parts of much of the mountain region,
were first studied by Mr. G. P. Wall in the Caribbean Hills in 1860,
he named the whole the Caribbean Series. The beds which make up the
series may have been deposited at a period corresponding to that of the
ancient Silurian rocks of Wales, but it seems very possible that they are
older in some parts than in others. They form the central region of the
Venezuelan Andes, where there is a core of granite which probably cooled
at a date subsequent to the consolidation of the gneiss and schists.
The silvery mica-flakes of the latter are very often mistaken by the
inhabitants for gold or silver ores, and the author had more than one
pretty but valueless specimen offered for sale, with its locality to be
revealed as a secret of great worth! The same rocks extend all the way
along the coastal range across the Boca del Draco into Trinidad, and
northward in Margarita the mountains are formed of similar gneisses and
schists. In the Llanos north of El Baúl there is a peculiar elevated
plateau known as La Galera, from which rise many hills of gneiss and
granitic rock, but these may perhaps be an outlying island of the Guayana
complex.

After the deposits of the Caribbean Series had been consolidated and
elevated into dry land, but before they had been thrown into high
mountains such as they form to-day, perhaps at the same time that the
granite of the Sierra Nevada of Mérida was being pushed up under them in
a molten condition, the seas around were receiving deposits of quartz
sand, mud, and lime, which were later consolidated to form a series
of red and yellow sandstones, shales, slates, and black bituminous
limestones, which now outcrop along the Sierras, and chiefly in the
Segovia Highlands, suggesting for the whole the name Segovia Group. The
animals which inhabited the seas of those times left their shells and
remains in the rocks, and the forms (Ammonites, _Inoceramus_, &c.) which
have been found by various travellers show that these deposits were
formed at a period approximately corresponding to that of the lowest
parts of our chalk or of the Cretaceous System generally.

Here and there throughout the mountains of northern Venezuela, the
traveller is sure to be struck by the sight of great cliffs and
castle-like masses of limestone rock, which add greatly to the effect
of the scenery where they occur. From their position it is clear that
these were originally parts of a more or less continuous accumulation of
lime in a deep, still sea, after more turbulent waters had deposited the
Segovia Group. The German traveller Dr. Sievers called this limestone the
Capacho Limestone, from Capacho in Táchira. The fossils are similar to
those of the period of the higher parts of the chalk.

After the deposition of the Capacho Limestone the earth’s crust, which
had in this region remained tranquil for a considerable period, again
underwent some changes, and in the new shallower sea thus formed sand
and mud, with some lime, were alternately laid down. The resulting
sandstones, shales, and limestones were named by Dr. Sievers the Cerro
de Oro Series, from a hill formed of these rocks in Táchira, and called
Cerro de Oro, or Golden Hill, because the very abundant iron pyrites in
it were mistaken for the precious metal. Many fossils have been found
in the group, and from these it seems that in Venezuela, instead of the
break between Cretaceous and Tertiary which we have in England, there
was a continuous series of deposits, so that at the base we have chalk
fossils, and higher up Eocene forms, the general character of the animal
life changing gradually from one to the other.

With the consolidation of the Cerro de Oro beds we have a new period of
disturbance, in which the mountain chains of northern Venezuela began to
be formed as we know them to-day, and the waters of the Orinoco began
to flow into the Atlantic more or less by the present mouth of the
river. Alongside the newly formed hills, or islands as they would then
be, sandstones and shales were deposited to a considerable thickness.
They are found outcropping now along the coast and under the Llanos,
as well as round the Lake of Maracaibo. The first fossils from them
were collected by Mr. G. P. Wall from Cumaná, and it seems fitting to
distinguish the whole as the Cumaná Series.

After the deposition of the Cumaná Series, and the crust movements
which led to the consolidation and folding of these rocks, the physical
features of Venezuela must have been very much what they are to-day,
save that many of the smaller islands and parts of the coast were still
submerged as shoals, whilst the Llanos seem to have been a great swampy
or submerged plain, with deep water in parts, over which the Orinoco
sediments gradually accumulated in the form of current-bedded sands
and clays surmounted by gravels, which we may term the Llano deposits.
At the same time, along the coast and on the shoals shell-beds were
being formed, and can now be seen at Cabo Blanco, west of La Guaira,
and similar places, while practically the whole surface of the Island
of Cubagua is formed of them, suggesting the name Cubagua Beds. About
this period some volcanic rocks were thrust up and cooled both in the
Peninsula of Paraguana and near San Casimiro, south of Carácas. In the
mountains great masses of gravels containing huge boulders and some
_Megatherium_ and other bones were being piled up by the rivers. Last of
all we have the still-accumulating recent alluvium of the modern streams,
attaining its widest extent in the Delta and round the Lake of Maracaibo.

No volcanoes, active or recently extinct, are known in Venezuela, but
the country has, like most of South America, been continually subject
to earthquake shocks of greater or less intensity. Some of these are
historic, but of the many others recorded not a few had far-reaching
effects on the population. The first important tremor noticed after
the discovery and settlement of the shores of the Caribbean was that
of 1530, which shook the city of Nueva Cadiz on the Island of Cubagua
and destroyed the fortress of Cumaná, thus checking for some time the
colonisation of the mainland in this region. Thirteen years later New
Cadiz was visited again by earthquake and hurricane, and so disastrous
were the results that from that day to the present Cubagua has been,
what it was before the arrival of the Spaniards, a desert island. The
many shocks experienced in the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries seem to have been generally unaccompanied by much loss of life
or property, but this period of comparative quiescence was followed
by one of the historical examples of severe earthquake early in the
nineteenth century. In March, 1812, a shock destroyed great parts of
Carácas, La Guaira, Barquisimeto, Mérida, and other towns, and in the
capital alone ten thousand people were killed. The great earthquake
which, on August 13, 1868, made itself felt all over South America, so
much affected some of the Venezuelan rivers that their waters over-flowed
the banks, and even remained for a short time in new channels. In
1894 Mérida and other towns in the Andes suffered much damage, houses
and churches being shaken down; the destruction was in some cases
extraordinarily complete. Since that time only slight tremors have been
felt.

The internal heat in the north-eastern spur of the Andes, which traverses
Venezuela, manifests itself at many points in the form of hot springs.
One, containing much sulphur, is found at Las Trincheras, between
Valencia and Puerto Cabello. The temperature of this spring varies,
but in 1852 it was found by Karsten to be only a few degrees below the
boiling point of water; in general, however, it does not exceed 195° F.
or 17° below boiling point. Wall found one south of Carúpano actually
boiling. All along the flanks of the coastal Cordillera there are
mineral springs, generally at fairly high temperatures, and many more
are known throughout the Andes. Nearly all these springs have been used
in the treatment of various diseases, though none has achieved especial
popularity.

While hot springs may be interesting to the visitor, they are hardly
valuable assets to a country such as Venezuela, but this part of the
world has always, and with much justice, held the reputation of being
rich in minerals. There is coal of fairly good quality in more than one
of the Cretaceous and Tertiary groups of strata, near Barcelona, Tocuyo,
Coro, and Maracaibo, as well as in the Andes, but the often-associated
iron is only found in large quantities in the Guayana gneiss south of the
Orinoco Delta.

Gold, that great lure for the early European ventures to the west, may
be said to occur in almost every State of Venezuela, but it has only
been worked with profit in Guayana, even though samples of a quartz-reef
near Carúpano are said to have assayed 7 oz. to the ton. When Sir Robert
Dudley visited the coast of the Gulf of Paria in 1595, he heard of a
goldmine near Orocoa (Uracoa), on the eastern side of the Llanos, which
may mean that the gravels are occasionally auriferous, but unfortunately
he failed to reach the place. Placer workings are the chief source of
the precious metal in the Guasipati goldfields in Guayana, but the reefs
from which it is derived have been discovered and worked at odd times.
In British Guiana, where the conditions are similar, Mr. Harrison says
that the gold is generally found along the later intrusive dykes, the
smallest dykes being the richest, while most gold is found where a basalt
intrusion crosses one of the older ones.

The ores of copper are fairly common in the northern Cordillera, and
the mines of Aroa in Yaracuy have been worked for many years. Here the
pyrites veins occur in the Capacho Limestone, not far from where it has
been invaded by a mass of granite. In the Andes it seems to occur in
the more ancient rocks, as near Seboruco in Táchira, and Bailadores in
Mérida. A mine near Pao seems to be in Cretaceous rocks.

Many other metallic ores occur at various points, notably galena in the
Andes, but one of the most common minerals of northern Venezuela is
petroleum, known in its desiccated form as “Bermudez asphalt” over half
the world. Boring for the original mineral oil has only recently been
undertaken. Sulphur is one of the less valuable minerals which occur in
considerable quantities, but the so-called salt-mines are not strictly
mines at all, and are described in Chapter XVI. Humboldt had heard of the
strange mineral lake near Lagunillas, which contains a large proportion
of _urao_ or sesqui-carbonate of soda, a mineral not usually found in
nature, and here apparently supplied from springs rising in the Segovia
rocks. It is used locally for mixture with tobacco juice to make a
chewing mixture called _chimo_, but there have been projects to obtain
the salt in large quantities for the manufacture of caustic soda.

In addition to those already mentioned, all the following minerals or
ornamental stones have been found in one part or another of Venezuela,
viz., marble, kaolin, gypsum, calcium phosphate, opal, onyx, jasper,
quartz, felspar, talc, mica, staurolite, asbestos, and ores of antimony,
silver, and tin.

The minerals of Venezuela have merely been mentioned casually in this
place, an account of the extent to which they have been exploited being
deferred to the chapter on the general development of the country. It
is evident, however, when one considers their number and the extent of
their distribution, that the geological changes which have played their
part in the building up of the physical features of the country have left
Venezuela in possession of splendid assets in this respect.




CHAPTER III

THE PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF VENEZUELA

    The glamour of the South American forests—Hidden
    treasures—Temples of Nature—“A dim religious
    light”—_Bejucales_—Forest giants—Brazil
    nuts—Tonka-beans—Rubber—Quinine—Arctic and tropic
    forms—The Llanos—_Tierra caliente_—Natural
    hothouses—Colour and coolness—_Páramo_
    plants—Monkeys—An old friend—Cannibalism—Vampires
    and bats—“Tigers” and “lions”—“Handsome is as
    handsome doesn’t”—Wild horses—Dolphins—Prickly
    mice—The “water-hog”—Sloths—Birds—Many-coloured
    varieties—Umbrella-bird—“Cock-of-the-rock”—Toucans—Cuckoos—
    Humming-birds—“Who are you?”—Oil-birds—Parrots
    and macaws—Eagles and vultures—A national
    disgrace—Game-birds—Snakes—Lizards—From the Orinoco to a city
    dinner—A cup-tie crowd—Ferocious fish—When is a mosquito not a
    mosquito?—Agricultural ants—Gigantic spiders—Ticks—A pugnacious
    crustacean—A rich field.


Most of us, if possessed of imaginative faculties, have been impressed in
our youth by the thought of those vast virgin forests of South America,
inhabited, as we often used to think, only by huge boa-constrictors and
anacondas which lived to an immense age and continued to grow throughout
their lifetime; and even in later years, when experience at first or
second hand has taught us that the supposed silent forest of the tropics
is generally noisy with the chattering of monkeys and birds or the
perpetual hum and chirp of insects, and is often far from a desirable
place on account of these last, the glamour of the vastness and
fertility of these great untrodden temples of nature remains with us.

More than half of Venezuela is covered by forest, and, indeed, comes
within the forest area of South America; what botanical treasures and
zoological curiosities may yet be discovered, when some explorer is
found to succeed Humboldt and Schomburgk, are not to be guessed at, and
it is not our purpose to give a scientific account of what has been
done towards classifying and enumerating the many plants and animals
already known to live in Venezuela, but to briefly describe what is most
interesting and important to the general reader who may be interested in
the country as a whole.

Richest in quantity, and probably in variety, of vegetable life is the
little-known land of Guayana, with its vast forests, hot climate, and
heavy rainfall. Within it the plants range from the alpine shrubs and
reindeer moss of some of the higher plateaux and hills to the bamboos
and orchids of the river banks. The simile which compares the tropical
forest to those darkened lofty cathedrals of Europe has been often used,
and is, perhaps, somewhat trite, but its aptness is incontrovertible.
The huge timber-trees grow fairly close together, and their spreading
tops, fifty, eighty, or a hundred feet from the ground, with the abundant
hanging lianes and flowering creepers, keep all but a feeble light from
the ground, whence it comes that the under-growth is usually sparse or
absent, and progress on foot is comparatively easy. Sometimes, however,
there are stretches of _bejucal_, full of tangled ground creepers, and it
may take a day to cut a path for one mile through such growth as this.

Of all the forest giants of Guayana, Schomburgk considered the mora the
most magnificent; the average diameter of the trunk is about three feet,
and it seldom branches at less than forty feet from the ground. The
dark-red, fine-grained wood is said to be excellent for shipbuilding
purposes. Mahogany or _caoba_, the _palo de arco_, whose wood is very
like mahogany in colour, and a big tree called in Venezuela rosewood,
which it resembles, are among the timber trees of the region known to
us in Europe. The huge _ceibas_, with their buttress-like roots, have
a soft, easily worked wood, excellent for the dug-out canoes of the
Indians, and the equally large _mucurutu_ or cannon-ball tree furnishes
a beautiful but hard and fine-grained timber. Unfortunately, the very
fertility of the soil becomes a drawback in the exploitation of these
timber resources, for all trees grow with equal freedom, and the
particular kind for which the lumber-man is searching may only be found
at rare intervals; on a large scale, when all the valuable woods are
utilised, this difficulty would, to some extent, disappear.

There are two fruit-trees whose products are well known in European
markets, and though these grow all over Guayana, they are particularly
abundant in certain regions. The Brazil nut was first described
by Humboldt, but since his time it has become a common article of
merchandise in Europe; the tree which bears it is itself large, and
the fruit, with its fifteen or twenty nuts, is tremendously heavy, and
generally breaks in falling from the tree when ripe, not infrequently
cracking the shells inside, when the birds and monkeys are able to
enjoy the oily kernel; otherwise the exterior usually proves too hard.
The other fruit we have referred to is the _sarrapia_, or tonka-bean,
not so well known to the general public of to-day as formerly, though
extensively used in perfumery. The trees grow in greatest abundance and
excellence, according to André, in the Caura and Cuchivero valleys.
The gums and resins of Guayana include the balatá, copaiba-balsam, and
rubber-producing trees, the latter chiefly varieties of Hevea, while
_cinchona_ or quinine with innumerable creepers and trees possessed of
medicinal or toxic properties are found everywhere. The 2,450 species
of plants referred to by Schomburgk have since been added to, and it is
obvious that in such an assembly there must be many of value, as yet
undiscovered and unused.

The vegetation of the higher exposed peaks and plateaux is quite
different from that of the forests, and here Schomburgk found such
an alpine, or rather Arctic, form as reindeer-moss, associated with
semi-tropical rock-orchids and aloes.

The forest plants and trees of Guayana also flourish in the Delta region
and in the forests bordering the Llanos of Maturín, but the vegetation of
northern Venezuela is generally very different from that of the south.

The great green or brown plain of the Llanos is often beautified by small
golden, white, and pink flowers, and sedges and irises make up much of
the small vegetation. Here and there the beautiful “royal” palm, with
its banded stem and graceful crown, the _moriche_, or one of the other
kinds, forms clumps to break the monotony, and along the small streams
are patches of _chaparro_ bushes, cashew-nuts, locusts, and so forth.
The banks of the rivers often support denser groves of ceibas, crotons,
guamos, &c.; the last-named bears a pod covered with short, velvety hair,
within which, around the beans (about the size of our broad beans),
is a cool, juicy, very refreshing pulp, not unlike that of the young
cocoa-pod. Along the banks of the streams in front of the trees are
masses of reeds and semi-aquatic grasses, which effectually conceal the
higher vegetation from a traveller in a canoe at water-level.

[Illustration: IN THE UPPER TEMPERATE ZONE: THE CHAMA VALLEY.]

As might be expected, when we enter the region of the Cordilleras, we
find very different types of vegetation in the various zones. The _tierra
caliente_ has generally a heavy rainfall, and then supports thick
forest, but along the coast there are barren stretches with only cactus,
acacia, croton, and similar plants, picturesque, but hardly beautiful.
The mangroves and their associated forms line the shore in a belt of
varying width, but behind follow, according to the climate and soil,
lowland forests or plains and hills covered with cactus of all shapes
and sizes, some being so large that the woody stems are used locally in
building.

In the _tierra caliente_ we have the plantations of cacao, sugar,
bananas, plantains, maize, and cassava, which produce the staple foods of
the inhabitants, and the highly profitable coconuts, if not cultivated,
are at least encouraged and exploited. In addition, there are the many
valuable products of the forests, chief of which are the dye-woods and
tanning barks, including logwood, dividive, mangrove, indigo, and many
others. A good deal of valuable timber grows in parts of the forest, the
chief woods exported being mahogany and “cedar.”

As we rise into the cooler regions, we find, naturally, a mixture of
the hot-country plants and those of the mountains; particularly is this
so in the case of cultivated kinds. One may see in the same valley,
within a short distance of one another, bananas, potatoes, sugar-cane,
wheat, yuca or cassava, peas, maize, cotton, cocoa, and coffee, all
flourishing, and a single orchard may contain guavas and apples, peaches
and oranges, papayas and quinces, not to mention many other fruits; the
garden adjoining will have a mixture of roses, carnations, violets,
and dahlias with bougainvilleas, dragon’s blood, magnolias, and other
tropical flowers. Strawberries, mint, bulrushes, nasturtiums, and other
of our garden plants have been successfully naturalised in these mountain
regions within 10° of the equator.

The higher part of the _tierra templada_ exhibits the greatest variety
of plants peculiar to this zone. As one travels along the mountain roads,
in addition to new kinds of palms, one sees screw-pines and beautiful
tree-ferns, splendid white rock-orchids and purple parasitic varieties,
red and white rhododendrons and heaths, cranberries, blackberries, ivy,
passion-flowers, yews, quinine-trees, aloes of all kinds, small bamboos,
silver-ferns, and all manner of beautiful flowering shrubs and plants,
for it is here and not in the hotter tropical regions that we have the
greatest variety of colour and the most beautiful floral scenery.

Nor is the _tierra fria_ of the Cordilleras without its beauty and
interest to the botanist. The small woods of the temperate zone gradually
die out, and towards the snow-line we have the alpine grasses, heaths,
and lichens of the _páramos_, amongst which are scattered those peculiar
white or yellow, thick-leaved, aloe-shaped plants which, strangely
enough, have lumps of resin clinging to their roots, and seem in this
respect to supply the place of the pines and firs which are not found in
Venezuela.

There is at least one animal found in the forests of Guayana which is
familiar even to the untravelled Cockney, namely, the prehensile-tailed
capuchin monkey or _sapajou_, of which several species are known in
Venezuela, while they are the most common tame kind brought to Europe.
Humboldt’s woolly monkey, which is nearly allied, is dark grey, the
capuchin being generally reddish; its flesh is said to be excellent
eating for those who feel no qualms at nearing the verge of cannibalism.
Many other kinds are found in the forests, including the black thumbless
spider-monkeys, but the variegated spider-monkey, of which the first
specimen brought alive to England came from the Upper Caura in 1870,
is a gorgeous beast, with black back, white cheeks, a band of bright
reddish-yellow across the forehead, and yellow under-surface to body and
limbs. The banded douroucouli also occurs in southern Venezuela, and Mr.
Bates has described how, on the banks of the Amazon, a person passing by
a tree in which a number of them are concealed may be startled by the
apparition of a number of little striped faces crowding a hole in the
trunk. Their ears are very small. The graceful little squirrel-monkeys,
with dark fur shot with gold, the titi, reddish-black, with a white spot
on the chest, the white-headed and other sakis, and the abundant and very
noisy howlers are all denizens of the Guayana forests. Nor must we omit
to mention the pretty little marmosets, which are often kept as pets.

Bats, and their objectionable cousins, the vampires, are abundant in
Venezuela, but the true blood-sucking vampire does not seem to be very
common.

There are, of course, no tigers or lions, properly so called, in the New
World, but the names have been usurped by similar beasts, the jaguar and
the puma. The tan-coloured fur of the former, with its large rosette-like
spots, is very beautiful, and quite equals that of the tiger in large
specimens, while for agility it more than rivals its Asiatic relative,
being credited with climbing trees and living there in times of severe
flood, to the great danger and annoyance of the usual inhabitants,
the monkeys. The tawny puma is also said to chase the monkeys in the
tree-tops, even in ordinary times. The other large cats of Venezuela
include the ocelot, jaguarondi, and margay, and there is the one fox-like
“Azara’s” dog.

The peculiar-looking “spectacled bear” is found up in the Andes, and the
kinkajou represents the raccoon tribe, while the weasels include the
tayra and grison, and their relative, the handsome but most objectionable
skunk, occasionally pollutes the atmosphere with his presence. The big
Brazilian otter, with chocolate-brown fur, is found in the rivers of the
Llanos.

Amongst the hoofed animals, the red Brazilian and Ecuador brockets
represent the deer, and there are two species of _vaquira_ or peccary, in
addition to the now acclimatised European pig. Horses and donkeys live in
a semi-wild state on the Llanos, though their nearest relative native to
the country is the tapir or _danta_, a very different beast in appearance.

The nailless manati of the Orinoco mouth is fairly common, and higher up
the river there is a fresh-water dolphin: the author observed a fish-like
beast in the Lake of Maracaibo, which may be the same species, though out
in the salt water of the Caribbean the common dolphin is found, as well
as the cachalot, and another species of whale is said to have been seen
there.

The rodents include a number of species of great scientific interest,
but for the ordinary individual one rat or shrew is much like another,
and the squirrels, mice, rabbits, hedgehogs, and allied animals are very
similar to those of Europe. One of the mice has flattened spines mingled
with the fur, and the coypu or _perro de agua_ has a very harsh coat,
though it is rather like a beaver in appearance and habits, while some
near relatives of smaller size have the same peculiar flattened spines on
the back. The peculiar Brazilian tree-porcupine is a Guayana species. The
gracefully formed aguti or _acure_ is common in the Venezuelan forests,
and its near relative, the _aguchi_, is found there with the _lappa_ or
_paca_, the flesh of which is excellent eating. The big “water-hog,”
_chiguire_ or _capybara_, familiar to Zoo visitors, occurs in Guayana and
elsewhere.

There are several sloths common in the low-lying parts of the Guayana
forests and similar regions of northern Venezuela, and the great-maned
ant-eater or “ant-bear,” with the lesser ant-eater, is as often seen in
Venezuela as in any part of South America, while Guayana is the centre
of the small district in which the peculiar two-toed ant-eater is found.
The _cachicamos_ or armadillos are much esteemed as food in the forest
districts.

The marsupials are represented by the _rabipelados_ or opossums and the
_perrito de agua_ or water-opossum.

The birds, being more commonly seen, are perhaps of greater interest than
the mammals, and certainly many of the Venezuelan birds are beautiful,
though, as frequently happens, what they gain in plumage they lose in
song, and few have even a pleasant note.

Beautifully coloured jays, the peculiar cassiques, with their hanging
nests, starlings, and the many violet, scarlet, and other tanagers, with
some very pretty members of the finch tribe, are all fairly abundant
in Venezuela. Greenlets, some of the allied waxwings, and thrushes
of various kinds, with the equally familiar wrens, are particularly
abundant, nor does the cosmopolitan swallow absent himself from this
part of the world. The numerous family of the American flycatchers
has fifty representatives in Venezuela, and the allied ant-birds
constitute one of the exceptions to the rule, in possessing a pleasant
warbling note. The chatterers include some of the most notable birds of
Venezuela, and we may specially notice the strange-looking umbrella-bird
which extends into the Amazon territory, known from its note as the
fife-bird; the variegated bell-bird, which makes a noise like the
ringing of a bell; the gay manikins, whose colour include blue, crimson,
orange, and yellow, mingled with sober blacks, browns, and greens;
the nearly allied cock-of-the-rock is one of the most beautiful birds
of Guayana, orange-red being the principal colour in its plumage,
while its helmet-like crest adds to its grandeur; the hen is a uniform
reddish-brown. The wood-hewers are more of interest from their habits
than the beauty of their plumage.

The beautiful green jacamars, the puff-birds, and the bright-coloured
woodpeckers are found all over Venezuela in the forests, but their
relatives the toucans are among the most peculiar of the feathered
tribe. With their enormous beaks and gaudy plumage they are easily
recognised when seen, and can make a terrible din if a number of them
collected together are disturbed, the individual cry being short and
unmelodious. Several cuckoos are found in Venezuela, some having more or
less dull plumage and being rare, while others with brighter feathers
are gregarious. With the trogons, however, we come to the near relatives
of the beautiful quezal, all medium-sized birds, with the characteristic
metallic blue or green back and yellow or red breasts. The tiny, though
equally beautiful, humming-birds are common sights in the forest, but a
sharp eye is needed to detect them in their rapid flight through the dim
light; some of the Venezuelan forms are large, however, notably the king
humming-bird of Guayana; and the crested coquettes, though smaller, are
still large enough to make their golden-green plumage conspicuous. The
birds which perhaps most force themselves, not by sight but by sound,
upon the notice of travellers are the night-jars; the “who are you?” is
as well known in Trinidad as in Venezuela. The great wood night-jar of
Guayana has a very peculiar mournful cry, particularly uncanny when heard
in the moonlight. The kingfisher-like motmots have one representative
in Venezuela, but the other member of the group, which includes all the
preceding birds, constitute a family by itself. This is the oil-bird or
_guacharo_, famous from Humboldt’s description of the cave of Caripe in
which they were first found. The young birds are covered with thick
masses of yellow fat, for which they are killed in large numbers by the
local peasantry. They live in caves wherever they are found and only come
out to feed at dusk.

Other birds which are sure to be observed even by the least
ornithological traveller are the parrots and macaws which fly in flocks
from tree to tree of the forest, uttering their discordant cries.
The macaws have blue and red or yellow plumage, but the parrots and
parraquets are all wholly or mainly of a green hue. The several owls are
naturally seldom seen, and, in the author’s experience, rarely heard.

There are no less than thirty-two species of falcons or eagles known
from Venezuela, and of these many are particularly handsome, such as
the swallow-tailed kite and the harpy eagle of Guayana. Their loathsome
carrion-eating cousins, the vultures, have four representatives.

In the rivers and caños of the lowlands there are abundant water-birds,
and the identified species include a darter, two pelicans, several herons
or _garzas_, the indiscriminate slaughter of which in the breeding season
for egret plumes has been one of the disgraces of Venezuela, as well as
storks and ibises. Among the most beautiful birds of these districts are
the rosy white or scarlet flamingoes, huge flocks of which are sometimes
seen rising from the water’s edge at the approach of a boat or canoe.
There are also seven Venezuelan species of duck.

The various pigeons and doves possess no very notable characteristics,
and one or two of the American quails are found in the Andes. Other
game-birds include the fine-crested curassows of Guayana, the nearly
allied guans, and the pheasant-like hoatzin. There are several rails,
and the finfeet are represented. The sun bittern is very common on the
Orinoco. There are members of the following groups: the trumpeters (tamed
in Brazil to protect poultry), plovers, terns, petrels, grebes, and,
lastly, seven species of the flightless tinamous.

Descending lower in the scale, we come to the animals which are, or
used to be, most often associated in the mind with the forests of South
America. The snakes are very numerous, but only a minority are poisonous.
Of the latter the beautiful but deadly coral-snake is not very common,
but a rattlesnake and the formidable “bushmaster” are often seen. Of the
non-poisonous variety the water-loving boas and _tigres_ or anacondas are
mainly confined to the Delta and the banks of the Guayana rivers. The
_cazadora_ (one of the colubers) and the Brazilian wood-snake or _sipo_,
with its beautiful coloration, are common; the blind or velvet snake is
often found in the enclosures of dwellings.

One of the lizards, the amphisbæna, is known in the country as the
double-headed snake, and is popularly supposed to be poisonous, but there
are many species of the pretty and more typical forms, especially in the
dry regions, while the edible iguana is common in the forests. There
are eleven species of crocodiles, of which the _caiman_ infests all the
larger rivers and caños. The Chelonidæ include only two land tortoises,
but there are several turtles in the seas and rivers, and representatives
of this family from the Gulf of Paria often figure on the menus of City
companies.

There are some six genera of frogs and toads to represent the Amphibians,
and the evening croaking of the various species of the former on the
Llanos is very characteristic of those regions; one, in particular, emits
a sound like a human shout, and a number of them give the impression of a
crowd at a football match.

[Illustration: CLOUD-DRIFTS IN THE ANDES.]

[Illustration: TORBES VALLEY AND THE COLOMBIAN HILLS.]

Fish abound in rivers, lakes, and seas, but, considering their number,
remarkably little is known about them. Some are regarded as poisonous,
and others are certainly dangerous, such as the small but ferocious
_caribe_ of the Llano rivers, which is particularly feared by bathers, as
an attack from a shoal results in numbers of severe, often fatal, wounds.
The _temblador_ or electric eel is very abundant in the western Llanos,
and is as dangerous in its way as the _caribe_.

The insects are too numerous for more than casual reference, but it
may be noted that the _mosquito_ of the Spaniards is a small and
very annoying sandfly; the mosquito as we know it is, and always has
been, called _zancudo de noche_ by the Spanish-speaking inhabitants
of Venezuela. The gorgeous butterflies and the emerald lights of the
fireflies are in a measure a compensation for the discomforts caused by
their relatives, but of the less attractive forms, the most interesting
are the hunting ants, which swarm through houses at times devouring all
refuse, and the parasol ants, which make with the leaves they carry
hot-beds, as it were, for the fungus upon which they feed.

One of the most unpleasant of the lower forms of life in the forests is
the _araña mono_ or big spider of Guayana, which sometimes measures more
than six inches across; it is found in the remote parts of the forest,
and its bites cause severe fever. The better-known tarantula, though less
dangerous, can inflict severe bites. The extremely poisonous scorpions
and the _garrapatas_ or ticks must be seen or felt to be appreciated.

We may leave the lower forms of life to more technical works, but the
amusing “calling-crab” deserves special mention. With his one enormous
paw of pincers the male if disturbed will sit upon the mud or sand
and apparently challenge all the world to “come on” in a most amusing
fashion.

A host of interesting birds, beasts, and plants have already been found
in Venezuela, and it still presents an almost virgin field for the
botanist and zoologist, to whom the technical literature given in the
bibliography will prove of more use than this necessarily brief sketch.




CHAPTER IV

VENEZUELA UNDER SPANISH RULE AND BEFORE

    Pre-Columbian times—No great empire—Primitive
    Venezuelans—Picture rocks—Invasions—The Guatavitas and
    the legend of El Dorado—Amalivaca—An Inca prince?—Ancient
    roads—The discovery of _Tierra Firme_, 1498—Alonso de Ojeda—The
    name Venezuela—A great geographical fraud—Discovery of the
    treasures of the west—Arrival of the _conquistadores_—The
    slave trade—Treacheries of the Cubagua colonists—Gonzalez de
    Ocampo—Las Casas—First cities of the New World—Settlement
    of Coro—The Welsers—Alfinger—Ingratitude of Charles
    V.—New Andalusia—Exploration of the Orinoco—Cruelties
    of Alfinger—Exploration of the Llanos—First Bishop of
    Venezuela—Destruction of New Cadiz—Faxardo and the
    Carácas—Cities of Western Venezuela—The rebellion
    of Aguirre—Foundation of Carácas—Pimentel moves his
    capital to the new city—Capture of Carácas by English
    buccaneers—Inaccuracies of Spanish historians—Explorations of
    Berrio in Guayana—Raleigh and El Dorado—Attempts to civilise
    the Indians—Missions—University of Carácas—Guipuzcoana
    Company—Revolution of Gual and España—Miranda—The last
    Captain-General—The Junta—Appeals to England—The Declaration of
    Independence.


The advanced civilisations of early Peru and Mexico have left us,
despite the vicious destruction of everything “heathen” by the
“Christian” _conquistadores_, in possession of sufficient documents of
one kind or another to glean a fairly complete and consecutive story
of those countries in pre-Columbian times, as we may term that period
before the discovery of the New World by Columbus. It is otherwise in
Venezuela; here there seems to have been no advanced civilisation; and
the _conquistadores_ were as incapable of noticing or recording details
of the social organisation and international relations of the savage
aborigines as of appreciating the knowledge and skill of Incas or Aztecs;
hence we have to depend mainly, if not entirely, on the information
gathered with difficulty from buried ruins, tombs, and sepulchre-caves.
Dr. G. Marcano has been one of the chief workers in this direction, and
his systematic and painstaking work may one day give us a fairly complete
picture of Venezuela before the Spaniards.

In the remote past, long (though we do not know how long) before the
arrival of the white men from the east, the land appears to have been
sparsely peopled by semi-nomadic, primitive tribes of a long-headed
race, whose social organisation was limited to a grouping in temporary
villages, while in the arts they had advanced as far as the making of
rude earthenware, and perhaps the use of curiously shaped stones for
personal adornment. They buried their dead in caves, either natural
or artificial, placing them in a sitting posture in palm-leaf frails
or earthenware urns, accompanied by small pieces of pottery and other
household matters. The names of “tribes” in Guayana appear to be far
too numerous to be really distinct races, and it is probable that they
represent merely the more permanent associations of villages or groups
of villages with slight differences of dialect. In Humboldt’s time there
were traditions of the internecine warfare of these “tribes,” and it is
possible that in times of strife they were guilty of cannibalism, though
in later days authentic occurrences of the eating of human flesh were
very rare, if existent at all.

Throughout Guayana there are crude rock inscriptions of comparatively
ancient date, apparently representing an early attempt at
picture-writing, and it is said that some of the shy and reticent Indian
tribes appear to know the meaning of these. As yet no one has obtained
any satisfactory clue to the purpose of these _rocas pintadas_.

We have said that these long-headed peoples occupied the land in the
remote past, though their descendants were to be found in parts of
Venezuela in comparatively recent times, and tribes of mixed race still
bear witness to their existence. Many years before the Spanish conquest,
however, there was a great influx of the more normal short-headed
peoples, divided into more or less civilised communities, and possessed
of some proficiency in the arts, with beliefs which were, in some
respects, an advance upon the Nature-worship of the earlier inhabitants.

These last were soon compelled to withdraw into the mountain fastnesses,
or the equally inaccessible forests of the south, while their conquerors
settled in the Caribbean Hills and the lower valleys of the Andes, where
at some points excavations have revealed something of their customs.
Though greatly inferior to the ruling nations of Peru and Mexico, these
races must still be looked upon as intermediate between them and the
savages already referred to.

The Guatavitas of the plateau of Bogotá, whose great religious festival
probably gave rise to the legend of El Dorado and his golden city of
Manoa, may be taken as representing their higher development. The
Guatavita chief, according to Acosta, used on the occasion of this
annual festival to smear his body with turpentine preparatory to rolling
in gold-dust; then, proceeding on a barge to the centre of their
sacred lake, he would cast into it gold ornaments, emeralds, and other
valuables, finally plunging into the waters himself, an action which was
the signal for shouts of applause from the worshippers on the banks.[1]

Whether the Incas ever really held any communication with these lowland
peoples it is impossible at present to say, but perhaps the legend of
Amalivaca, who, the Indians say, visited them and began to teach them
to write, finally sailing away to the east with a promise to return,
may be based upon an actual visit of a Peruvian leader, who left on an
exploratory voyage to the east, from which he never returned, at least
to these shores. It is strange that there was in Humboldt’s time on the
Llanos between Barinas and the River Apure some twenty miles of well-made
road, elevated about fifteen feet above the frequently flooded plains,
the remains of a causeway from the mountains made long before Spanish
times, and apparently the work of some nation far more advanced in the
arts than any living close at hand.

We emerge from these regions of conjecture into the definite historical
period rather more than five years after the first discovery of the
islands of the New Continent by Columbus, when the great explorer, on his
third westward journey, coasted along the south side of the Peninsula of
Paria on July 31, 1498. He did not land there, but his son tells us that
from the ships they could see men on the shore dressed in vari-coloured
turbans and loincloths. When he entered the Gulf of Paria, he had
expected to be able to pass out on the west side, believing the peninsula
to be an island; realising his error, he turned back and entered
the Caribbean through the Boca del Draco, “giving thanks to God who
delivered him from so many troubles and dangers, still showing him new
countries full of peaceful people, and great wealth.” On his way across
to Hispaniola (Santo Domingo), he passed by an island which he named
Margarita, knowing nothing, as it seems, of the rich pearl fisheries
which later rendered the name so appropriate.

Great enthusiasm was naturally kindled in Spain by the news of the
discovery of a mainland (_Tierra Firme_) west of the islands, and it was
decided to send a special exploratory expedition. Hence we have Alonso de
Ojeda setting sail in 1499, and landing several times on what is now the
Peninsula of Paria, though he knew it by the native name of Maracapana.
The region generally he designated Nueva Andalusia. Encouraged by what
he had seen, he sailed on westwards as far as Cabo de la Vela (now in
Colombia), and entered the Lake of Maracaibo or Coquibacoa. Here there
were at that time, as now, Indian pile-dwellings on the shores of the
lake, which so far reminded Ojeda of Venice or Venezia, that he gave to
the region the name of Little Venice, or Venezuela.

Thus we have the mainland of the New World or the Indies first sighted
by Columbus and partly examined and named by Ojeda, but we may here turn
aside from the story of Venezuela for a moment to see how, by a great
and successful geographical fraud, the whole of the continent came to be
called America.

There was on Ojeda’s ship a Florentine merchant by name Amerigo Vespucci,
who appeared to have contented himself on this voyage with gazing from
the deck at the shores of the new countries. After returning to Europe,
he developed sufficient zeal to make a voyage on his own account to
Brazil, and wrote a clever joint account of both voyages, in which he
represented himself as a leader in the first expedition which effected a
landing on the mainland of the New World. This _suggestio falsi_, if it
deserves no harsher term, led Martin Hylacomylus in his “Cosmographia,”
published in 1509, to say of the discovery of the different parts of the
globe: “_Alia quarta pars per Americū Vesputium ... inuenta est: qua
non video cur quis iure vetet ab Americo inventatore ... Amerigen quasi
Americi terram, siue Americam dicendam._”[2] Thus it comes that a third
of the land of the globe bears the name of a man who had no claim to be
considered as of any particular importance on the ship which bore the
first Spanish explorers who set foot in Venezuela.

Meanwhile, close behind Ojeda there was travelling an expedition
including Pedro Alonso Niño, Luis Guerra, and Christobal Guerra, who
visited Margarita and the adjacent islands of Cubagua, where they had
some intercourse with the natives and obtained from them by barter a
number of pearls. Next they touched the Cumanagoto coast, not far from
where Barcelona now stands, and sailed from there to the Coro district.
Here again they were well received by the natives, and exchanged European
trinkets with them for gold and pearls. They continued their voyage as
far as the Goajira Peninsula, but found the people there of a fierce and
menacing aspect, so they returned to Spain, bearing news of the wealth of
the West.

Had those natives only kept their pearls and golden trinkets from the
sight of these first genuine explorers, the history of Venezuela might
have been very different. The white men who next visited Venezuela were
little, if anything, more than rapacious brigands, consumed with a lust
for gain, before which any shreds of morality or good feeling they may
once have possessed went for nothing.

In the year 1500 some fifty adventurers, sailing from Hispaniola,
established a settlement on Cubagua for the pearl fisheries, and soon
a horde of nondescripts from all the countries of Europe flocked to
this source of easily won treasure, which under their uncontrolled and
extravagant exploitation began to fail rapidly. With appetites whetted,
these spoilt children of fortune turned to look for other means of
acquiring wealth, always provided these did not entail any honest toil,
and from this time begins the long black record of Spanish cruelties in
the Indies, with the fabricated excuses of cannibalism and ferocity among
the Indians.

To appreciate the position we must recall the infamous decree of Charles
V. of Spain, which permitted the Europeans in the Indies to capture and
enslave the natives who in any way opposed the “colonisation” of the
new countries, or who practised cannibalism. The Indians being found
most reprehensibly innocent of either of these crimes, the Cubaguans
pronounced their very presence an evidence of opposition, and further
assumed that they must all be cannibals. Carefully avoiding the
possibility of arousing the wrath of the fine and stalwart Guaiquerias of
Margarita, who lived in uncomfortable proximity to their town, they took
steps to enslave some of the more remote Indians of the mainland.

While the world, the flesh, and the devil had been having things to
themselves on Cubagua, the Church had been entering upon the new field
of missionary work on the mainland, and three Franciscan monks settled
on the Cumaná coast in 1513, while some Dominicans established a little
community at Manjar, near Píritu. At both places the monks were on the
most friendly terms with the natives, on whom, at that date, their
influence was wholly for good.

The Franciscans of Cumaná received one day a visit from a few of the
adventurers of Cubagua, who had previously, for obvious reasons, ignored
the existence of the missionaries. Notwithstanding, they were hospitably
treated, and entertained as well as might be by the monks and their
Indian friends for several days; then the most catholic and Christian
_conquistadores_ revealed themselves in their true colours. The cacique
of the district (christened Don Alonso by the friars) was invited with
his family to dine on board; he accepted, unsuspecting, and found
himself, his wife and children, captives on a ship making sail for Santo
Domingo. At sight of this treachery, the Indians naturally seized the
monks as partly responsible, but acceded to their request that before
taking summary vengeance they should allow time for a messenger to go
to Hispaniola and return with the cacique in safety; for this purpose
four months was granted. But justice in Santo Domingo was non-existent,
and legal decisions bought and sold. The pleas of the friars and their
superiors in the island were of no avail, and at the termination of the
stipulated period the monks of Cumaná were put to death by the mourning
Indians. The region remained abandoned by Spaniards till 1518, when a new
Franciscan community was established.

[Illustration: THE CHAMA VALLEY ABOVE MÉRIDA.]

[Illustration: MOUNTAIN STREAM BETWEEN CUMANACOA AND CUMANÁ.]

In 1520 the Dominicans of Chichirivichi, near Barcelona, also fell
victims to Spanish treachery; the Indians had previously recognised
their innocence of any possible complicity in the Cumaná affair, but
their turn came on this wise. One of the Cubagua colonists, Alonso de
Ojeda, said to have been the unworthy father of the author of the name
Venezuela, crossed to Chichirivichi, and was well received by friars and
Indians alike. Being, like most of his confrères, neither a gentleman
himself nor able to recognise one when he met him, he insulted one of his
hosts, the cacique of Maraguey, by asking whether any of his people ate
human flesh; the chief replied with some feeling that they did not, and
withdrew, recognising the motive of the question, as seeking the sanction
under the _codicia_ to enslave all cannibals. Ojeda departed, we may
believe unregretted, and sailed along the coast to Maracapana, where he
was well received by the cacique (christened Gil Gonzalez). Ojeda was,
or pretended to be, short of corn, and accordingly Gonzalez gave him
guides for ten or twelve miles inland to enable him to buy maize from the
Tageres Indians, while these lent him fifty men to carry the grain to
Maracapana. By way of return for the various favours received, Ojeda’s
men fell on the porters as they rested in the market-place and carried
them off to the caravel. On this occasion retribution fell, in part at
least, on the heads of those who deserved it, for Ojeda landed again
farther down the coast, where Gil Gonzalez met and killed him with six
of his fellow-scoundrels. Unfortunately, the reception accorded to their
countrymen by the friars of Chichirivichi made them appear privy to the
plot against the Indians, and they, too, fell victims to the vengeance of
Maraguey.

The Audiencia Real of Hispaniola, by way of brazening out the crimes of
the Cubaguans, now dispatched Gonzalez de Ocampo with an armed force to
settle the country. The leader of the expedition appears to have been
temperate and wise in his dealings, and succeeded in establishing peace,
founding a city where Cumaná now stands under the name of Nueva Toledo
(1520). Shortly afterwards, Bartolomé de las Casas, a noble figure in
the history of the period, reached these shores, and discovering for
himself the true history of what had been described as unprovoked attacks
by the Indians, suggested that a fortress should be built opposite
New Toledo, with a garrison under such control that it should protect
the Indians from the lawless gangs of Cubagua, and keep in check any
unprovoked manifestation of hostility on the part of the natives towards
well-intentioned Spaniards. As might be expected, the Cubaguans were
extremely hostile to such a project, and so hampered Las Casas that he
resolved to return to Hispaniola and thence to Spain, to lay before the
authorities a true account of the condition of affairs in the west.

Francisco de Soto was left in charge of affairs in New Toledo, and no
sooner was the good influence of Las Casas withdrawn than he recommenced
the slave traffic, which had been the cause of all the previous trouble,
and now resulted in the destruction of the new city after the massacre of
inhabitants and missionaries and an invasion of Cubagua by the Indians of
the mainland. A second semi-military expedition from Hispaniola in 1521,
under the leadership of Jacome Castellon, built the castle of Araya in
spite of the Cubaguans, and founded the city of _la gloriosa Santa Ines
de Nueva Córdoba_, the modern Cumaná. The fortress was reduced to ruins
by an earthquake in 1530.

In the meantime, orders had been received from Spain to name the already
existing city on Cubagua, Nueva Cadiz, and three years later, in 1524,
La Asunción was founded on the island of Margarita, while in 1527 the
inhabitants of New Cadiz received the right to elect annually an alcalde,
the Emperor giving 500 pesos for rebuilding the church there. Thus
we have three cities founded in Venezuela territory within the first
twenty-five years of the sixteenth century.

With the year 1527 the history of Venezuela as a colony, or rather a
group of colonies, under Spanish dominion, may be said to commence. We
have already seen a form of government established in Cubagua, which
for a time appears to have existed more or less irregularly apart from
the other provinces into which Venezuela, with Trinidad, was shortly
divided, namely, Nueva Andalusia in the east, Venezuela or Coro in the
west, and Trinidad and the Orinoco in the south.

Attracted by the reports of the first expedition, various merchants
and adventurers had settled in the Coro country, and lived on good
terms with the Caiquetia nation of Indians. Now, however, some of these
colonists, losing taste for a civilised life, made attempts to commence
the nefarious trade which was at that time disgracing all the countries
of the Old World in Africa and America. Having learned wisdom from the
disasters in Nueva Andalusia, the audience of Santo Domingo dispatched
a splendid man in Juan de Ampies to nip the evil in the bud; as a first
step he founded the city of Santa Ana de Coro on that Saint’s day in
1527, and in his administration sought steadily to foster the spirit
of amity between the Caiquetias (under their cacique Manaure) and the
Europeans. His good work was soon, however, destined to be ignored and
frustrated by the selfish policy of the King of Spain.

Charles V. had at various times raised heavy loans from the _Welser_,
the bankers of Augsburg, and now in part payment he handed over to them
the administration and exploitation of the newly-acquired province of
Venezuela. Ambrosius Alfinger was appointed first Governor of Coro, with
jurisdiction over all the country between the Gulf of Coquibacoa and the
western end of the Peninsula of Paria. He arrived at the seat of his
government with three hundred Spaniards, many of them of noble blood,
and fifty German miners, and found Juan de Ampies too patriotic to raise
difficulties on account of the ingratitude of a worthless king. The man
who had founded Coro and started administration on sound lines spent the
remainder of his days in retirement in Santo Domingo, though at a later
date the barren island of Curaçao was given to him as some return for
his services.

The following year saw Nueva Andalusia constituted a definite province,
under Don Diego de Ordaz as first Governor, who was given authority to
explore and conquer all the territory to the south. Sedeño was appointed
Governor of Trinidad, but as yet the Orinoco region was ignored or by
implication included in New Andalusia, and it was therefore Ordaz who,
upon his arrival, journeyed up the Orinoco as far as the rapids of
Carichana, near the mouth of the Meta, where he heard stories of the gold
and emeralds to be found in the country whence that river flowed. The
success of the voyage proved his death, however, for Sedeño was jealous
of his fame and in league with Matienza, then commander-in-chief in
Cubagua, managed to poison Ordaz in Nueva Cadiz on his return.

In the west Alfinger undertook a long journey of discovery towards what
is now Colombia, and in his greed for gold and precious stones committed
all manner of atrocities on the Indians who had none, or who refused to
be robbed. Making a permanent camp in the country to the west of the
Lake of Maracaibo, after founding the city of that name in 1529, he
sent a party of Spaniards and Germans to Coro for fresh supplies and
reinforcements. The party lost themselves in the forest-clad mountains at
the south end of the lake, and in their privations some of the members
turned cannibals, killing and eating their Indian servants. Apparently
the taste for human flesh, once acquired, was not easily overcome, for
the survivors, when given food by some Indians on the banks of the Chama,
fell upon their benefactors and devoured them! The few that reached
Coro found that Alfinger had been killed in his camp in 1531, and his
expedition had accomplished nothing beyond outraging the Indians.

Georg von Speyer (Jorge de Spira) was the next Governor, appointed in
1533, and with him came Alonso de Pacheco, and ancestors of many of the
modern Venezuelan families. Before his death, in 1540, von Speyer and his
equally energetic lieutenant, Nicolaus Federmann, carried out extensive
journeys in western and southern Venezuela, and the former reached the
banks of the Guaviare, which were never again visited by Europeans until
the middle of the nineteenth century. In the meantime Coro was made
the seat of a bishopric, and Don Rodrigo de Bastidas arrived as first
occupant of the see in 1536. The Bishop acted as interim Governor after
Speyer’s death until the new Governor, Philip von Huten (Felipe de Urre),
arrived in 1541. The latter also made extensive journeys into the Llanos
in search of El Dorado, but was killed in 1545 by Juan de Carvajal, the
founder of Nuestra Señora de la Concepción de el Tocuyo. With his death
the rule of the Welsers practically came to an end, though the King of
Spain only finally removed all claim to power on their part in 1558.
Their energy in exploration is indisputable, but their dominion was
marked throughout by cruelty and extravagance.

In Nueva Andalusia the new Governor after Ordaz, Gerónimo Ortal, and
after him Sedeño, Governor of Trinidad, were also exploring the Llanos
and endeavouring to settle that region, but the previous evil deeds of
the Cubaguans had made the task very difficult, if not impossible. Before
long these received a just reward for their crimes, in a succession of
natural catastrophes, which ultimately drove the remnant from the island.
In 1530 an earthquake shook the town and destroyed many buildings, not
without loss of life, and in 1543 earthquake and hurricane together
wrought so much havoc to life and property that only a few lingered on,
persisting in the slave trade, for which New Cadiz was notorious, until
at last the population decreased to nil in 1550; even the exact site of
the city is now unknown. One important man appears on the scene from
Margarita, about 1555, in Francisco Faxardo, the son of a Spaniard of
noble birth who had wedded a princess of the Guaiquerias. Crossing to
the coasts of the Carácas, he established friendly relations with the
Teques and other Indians, and in 1560 built the Villa de San Francisco,
approximately where the capital of Venezuela now stands, together with
the Villa de El Collado (Pablo Collado being the Governor in Coro),
afterwards Caraballeda, about eight miles east of La Guaira.

Under the Spanish Governors who succeeded the Welsers, the already
evident tendency to leave the barren plains of Coro for the more fruitful
territory to the east and south became more marked. Mérida had been
founded in 1542, Borburata (Puerto Cabello) in 1549, Nueva Segovia
(Barquisimeto) in 1552, and Nueva Valencia, on the shores of Lake
Tacarigua, in 1555, with Trujillo in 1556, while the mines of San Felipe
and Nirgua had been known and worked for some years.

In 1561 occurred the rebellion of the mad “traitor” Lope de Aguirre.
After journeying down the Amazon from Peru, he sailed up to Margarita,
and there robbed the treasury. With his booty he crossed to Borburata,
sacked the port, and climbed the mountain road to Valencia, from which
town he wrote his famous letter to Philip II. In this he upbraided the
monarch for his lack of practical interest in the colonists’ welfare,
in lands won by Spaniards for his father, while the latter lived at
his ease in Castile; the officials and priests sent out to guide them
sought, he said, only their own ends. The monkish historian Oviedo y
Baños, incensed by the reference to the laziness of the Churchmen, calls
him _aquel bruto_ (“that brute”), but it is probable that most of his
complaints were fully justified, though he was hardly fitted to found
a new and better order of things. He marched on Barquisimeto and took
it, and, hearing that the Governor was approaching with troops from the
direction of Tocuyo, wrote him a letter, the humour of which can best be
appreciated after reading the early writers’ accounts of the poltroonery
of Pablo Collado, for which he was subsequently deposed by the Audience
of Santo Domingo.

The letter opens: “_Muy magnífico Señor,—Entre otros papeles que de V.
md. en este Pueblo se han hallado, estaba una carta suya a mi dirigida,
con mas ofrecimientos, y preambulos, que Estrellas ay en el Cielo._”[3]

These offers he rejects because, he says, he has thrown off his
allegiance to Spain and therefore needs no pardon for rebellion; then he
closes with the sarcastic farewell:—

    “_Nuestro Señor la muy magnifica persona de V. md. guarde_,

                            “_Su Servidor_,

                                             “_Lope de Aguirre._”[4]

The Governor wept with vexation on reading this epistle, and, after the
manner of men of his stamp, said what he would do to Aguirre, were they
able to fight the matter out in single combat. Meanwhile the troops
surprised and took the town from the rebel, who fled towards San Felipe.
He met his daughter there, and killed her to save her from the disgrace
she might expect as the child of “the traitor.” Oviedo y Baños declaims
at length against the murder as the crowning act of cruelty of his life,
but while he was undoubtedly guilty during his career of many acts of
wild savagery, this final deed seems to an unbiased mind to be creditable
rather than otherwise. Be that as it may, he was captured and killed,
and his body was quartered and thrown to the dogs on the various roads
leading away from Barquisimeto.

Whether as a result of Aguirre’s protest or no, it is impossible to say,
but in 1564 Philip II. took steps to adequately reward one man who had
worked to develop his Caribbean colonies, in conferring upon Faxardo
the title of Don, and offering him the governorship of the lands he
had been so instrumental in opening to commerce. Unfortunately, before
the messenger arrived, Faxardo had been treacherously killed by Cobos,
alcalde of Cumaná, who was jealous of his exploits in the west.

The work of this first traveller in the Carácas was not entirely lost,
however, for three years later, during the governorship of Don Diego
Ponce de Leon, Diego de Losada, a native of Tocuyo, travelled across
through Villa Rica (Nirgua) to the Llanos, where his efforts, in spite of
many battles with the Indians, were directed rather towards settlement
than conquest. Returned to the Villa de San Francisco (of Faxardo), he
founded there—presumably in the latter part of 1567, though, strangely
enough, the exact date is not recorded—the city of Santiago de Leon de
Carácas. As he had on his travels adopted San Sebastian as his patron and
protector against the poisoned arrows of the Indians, that saint’s day
has been celebrated in a special manner in Carácas since its foundation.

Ten years later Don Juan Pimentel, the newly appointed Governor, moved
his seat from Coro to Carácas, and that city has remained since, with
one short break, the capital of Venezuela. For some years at this time
there seems to have been no Governor of Nueva Andalusia, and a captain of
considerable energy and tact, named Garcia-Gonzalez, was dispatched by
Pimentel to settle the countries near the boundaries of the two provinces.

Carácas is splendidly situated for defence, the steep range of the coast
making a natural 5,000-foot rampart against invaders from the sea. It was
taken once, however, and the story of its capture has, for some reason,
been wrongly described by nearly every writer on Venezuela, though
Kingsley’s reference in “Westward Ho!” avoids the current inaccuracies.
Generally it is briefly stated that Drake, or El Draque, took the city
at the beginning of June, 1595; but Sir Francis was then in England
preparing for what proved to be his last voyage, during which he died at
sea off Porto Bello in Panama, a place confused by an American writer on
Venezuela with Puerto Cabello. The true account may be read in Hakluyt’s
“Voyages” as it was given by one of the members of the party.

Briefly, Captain (afterwards Sir Amyas) Preston and Captain Sommers,
after putting Cumaná to ransom, landed on the Carácas coast and captured
a small fort, presumably near Naiguatá. Finding the Governor of the fort
asleep in the forest, they learned that the inhabitants of Carácas had
heard of the arrival of the corsairs, and were preparing to meet them on
the main road over the mountains from La Guaira. The fugitive, whose name
is given as Villalpando, was induced to act as guide along the “Indian
Way” to the city, which Preston entered on May 29th, after a difficult
journey through forests and over mountains. The only Spaniard found
in the place was an old gentleman, Don Alonso Andrea de Ledesma, who
gallantly tried to repel the invaders single-handed. The Englishmen had
orders to spare him for his chivalry, but his refusal to accept defeat
led to his death, and he was interred with honour by his foes. Meanwhile
messengers were carrying the news to the troops in the pass on the La
Guaira road, who returned to find such valuables as they had left in the
city gone with the invaders by the supposedly unknown Indian way. Preston
continued his way to Coro, found nothing there and burned the town, and
finally returned to England on September 10, 1595.

Here we must go back for a year or two to follow the course of events in
the east and south. In 1591 Don Antonio de Berrio y Oruña was appointed
Governor of Trinidad and the Orinoco, and very shortly after his arrival
he gave evidence of his energetic spirit by crossing to the mainland and
founding there the city of San Thomé de la Guayana, east of the mouth of
the Caroni, where the castle of Guayana Vieja stands to this day.[5] In
1595 Sir Walter Raleigh first visited these regions of Guayana or Guiana,
described so fully in his famous book. On his way he took Berrio prisoner
in Trinidad, but afterwards released him.

[Illustration: BARQUISIMETO.]

Both men, clever and energetic as they were, rapidly became fascinated
by the stories of Manoa, the city of El Dorado, which were being handed
on from one narrator to another, and losing nothing, by repetition; the
fabled wealth of the Golden Inca was eventually the cause of the death of
both. In 1615 Berrio led an expedition southward from San Thomé, but he
at length returned unsuccessful, with only thirty of his three hundred
men, and himself died of fever shortly afterwards. His son, Don Fernando
de Berrio, took charge temporarily, but was soon removed to Santa Fé de
Bogotá, as Viceroy of the New Kingdom of Granada, into which Venezuela
was now incorporated.

Raleigh’s final expedition in 1618 captured the fortress of San Thomé,
but this and other encounters with the Spanish colonists, who, owing to
a misunderstanding, appear to have commenced the attacks, led to his
execution by the poltroon James I. to appease the wrath of Spain. Thus
the fable of Manoa remained alive for two centuries more till finally
exposed by Humboldt.

The province of Venezuela by this time was completely conquered, but
New Andalusia, or Cumaná, which again had a Governor of its own, still
continued to be the scene of strife; and Vides, as Governor, did not
improve matters by his encouragement of the slave trade. At length, in
1652, the suggestion of one Francisco Rodriguez Liete to the bishops of
Puerto Rico, made four years previously, was adopted, and, all military
operations against the Indians were forbidden, with a view to carrying
out organised attempts to civilise them through the missions, and in
1656 a station was again founded at Barcelona by Franciscan monks. As an
indication of the success of these new methods it may be observed that
within 150 years (before 1799) the Franciscans founded 38 towns with
25,000 Indian inhabitants, while the previous equal period of aggression
and oppression had effected no settlement of a lasting nature. In 1686
missions were established round Cumaná and south of the Delta by the
Capuchins, while the Jesuits undertook to civilise the Orinoco. The
latter were obliged on account of ill-health to abandon their first
stations within a very short time, but returned again in 1725 to meet
with increased success. The inhuman cruelty which their creed allowed
some of them to practise towards the pagan Indians undid much of the good
they may have at first accomplished, and in the nineteenth century their
missions became deserted, with one or two exceptions, while the last of
the missionaries after the revolution seem to have been as licentious and
lazy as their predecessors had been cruel and energetic.

The founding of the University of Carácas by Philip V. in 1721 seemed to
promise development of the colony on sound lines, but three years later a
monopoly of trade was granted to the Compañía Guipuzcoana, a step which
probably did more than any other single act to bring about disaffection
towards Spain. The province was separated from New Granada in 1731, when
the whole of what is now Venezuela (with the exception of the Maracaibo
region, incorporated in 1777) was included in a new _Capitania-General_
of that name. The first Captain-General was Colonel Don Sebastian Garcia
de la Torre.

As a result of the evident discontent among the colonists the privileges
of the Guipuzcoana Company were taken away from them in 1778, but the
disregard by the mother country of Venezuela’s best interests could not
be atoned for by a negative act only, and nineteen years later, in 1797,
occurred the first definite attempt at revolt. Under the influence of
the French Revolution, some of the colonists banded themselves together
with the purpose of forming an independent Republic of Venezuela; the
leading spirits appear to have been Don Manuel Gual and Don José Maria
España, but one of the other leaders in his zeal to multiply adherents
disclosed the schemes to his barber, who straightway communicated the
fact to the authorities, Carbonell being Captain-General. Six of the
leaders were hanged, drawn, and quartered, many having voluntarily given
themselves up as their best hope of safety. Gual and España fled, but the
latter, returning from Trinidad in 1799 to visit his wife in La Guaira,
was captured, executed, and his body mutilated by order of the new
Captain-General, Manuel Guevara Vasconcelos.

The revolution of Gual and España thus being ended, nothing of special
note occurred in Venezuela for six years, but in the meantime a
Venezuelan, Don Francisco Miranda, who had relations in Europe and had
travelled in many lands, fighting in the American War of Independence,
and for France in the wars with Prussia in 1792-5, was conferring with
Pitt in England. From the British statesman he obtained promises of help,
but finally got practical assistance in America, and at last invaded
the colony at Ocumare oh March 25, 1806. Vasconcelos had been warned
of his arrival, and repulsed him without difficulty; Miranda retired
to Trinidad, but continued to work for his purpose there, and made an
unsuccessful landing in Coro some five months later. His resources were
exhausted, however, and he finally returned to Trinidad and thence to
Europe.

In the following year Vasconcelos died, and the interim Captain, Juan
de las Casas, recognised Prince Murat as regent in place of Charles
IV., the Prince’s commissioners reaching La Guaira in July, 1808. The
colonists, however, compelled him to swear allegiance to Prince Ferdinand
as Ferdinand VII., then captive in Bayonne. In May of the following year
Vicente Emparan arrived as new Captain-General, appointed by the Supreme
Junta of Spain, but finding the people unwilling to acknowledge that
authority, he was easily led by Madariaga, a Chilian, then canon of the
cathedral of Carácas, to appeal to them as to whether they wished him
to carry out his duties as Governor. It is said that Emparan came out
on a balcony to put the question to the crowd, and Madariaga, behind
him, signed to them to reply to him in the negative, “_No lo queremos_”
(“We do not wish it”), in answer to which Emparan said, “_Yo tampoco
quiero mandar_” (“Nor do I wish to command”), and so retired from the
captaincy, which he was the last to fill. He was finally deposed by a
local Junta formed to act in the name of Ferdinand VII. on April 19, 1810.

While this new Government had sworn allegiance to the rightful occupant
of the throne of Spain, it was inevitable, in view of the disturbed state
of that country and the insecurity of the reigning dynasty, that sooner
or later the colonies would break away completely. The Junta sent Simon
Bolivar to England to appeal for protection and to ask the Government
to urge Spain to avoid war with the colonists. Our statesmen, however,
were not then able to resist the temptation to secure the utmost from
Venezuela in return for such passive assistance as they might render,
even to the point of asking for a monopoly of trade, and negotiations
fell through. Spain declared Venezuela under blockade conditionally,
and appointed Miyares, Governor of Maracaibo, to be Captain-General, an
office which he never filled.

Later Miranda returned from Europe, being sent by Bolivar, and was
refused a landing by the Junta, in view of his avowed republican
principles. The people of La Guaira, however, insisted on his landing and
brought him ashore.

In 1811 forty-four deputies were elected by the seven provinces which
recognised the Junta (Carácas, Barinas, Barcelona, Cumaná, Margarita,
Mérida, and Trujillo), and they met on March 2nd. The names of the first
Congress of Venezuela (as it subsequently became) included, besides
Miranda, the Marquis del Toro, Martin Tovar, Fernando de Peñalver, and
many gentlemen of rank and standing in the colony. Miranda was elected
President of the Junta, and the combined effect of the inaction of
Miyares, a man of more vanity than talent, and such incidents as the
massacre of persons of republican inclinations by royalists in Cabruta
on April 2nd, led finally to the Declaration of Independence by the
deputies on July 5, 1811.

The seven provinces were declared to be a confederation of free,
sovereign, and independent States, governed in accordance with the will
of the inhabitants, and thus ended, in name at least, the long period of
Spain’s misrule. From this time onward, whatever has been the internal
policy of the country, the inhabitants, in theory if not in fact, have
had the government they chose for themselves.




CHAPTER V

THE REPUBLIC, 1811-1911

    Local character of revolution—Declaration of a
    Constitution—Centralised government—Troubles of the young
    republic—The Church and the patriots—Miranda—Dictatorship
    and downfall—Drastic measures of Monteverde—Youth and
    parentage of Simon Bolivar—The _guerra a muerte_—Dictatorship
    of Bolivar—Monteverde murders four prisoners—The
    _Mestizos_—Massacre of Spaniards—Murmurings—Retirement of
    Bolivar—Royalist victories and reinforcements—Morillo’s
    barbarities—Return of Bolivar to Venezuela—Indecisive
    campaign—Renewed discontent—Bolivar withdraws to Haiti,
    but returns—Mariño’s insubordination—Massacre of
    Barcelona—Campaign in the Llanos—Arrival of the British
    Legion—Congress of Angostura—The march to Bogotá—The
    republic of Great Colombia—Change of allegiance of the
    _Mestizos_—Armistice of Trujillo—Negotiations with
    Spain—Recommencement of hostilities—Battle of Carabobo—End
    of Spanish power in Venezuela—Position of Venezuela in
    Colombia—Separatist movement—Death of Bolivar—Páez first
    President of Venezuela—Vargas—Folly of Mariño—Progress
    of the country—Public honours to Bolivar—Recognition of
    republic by France and Spain—Commerce and prosperity of the
    country—Tyranny of Tadeo Monágas—Gregorio Monágas—Abolition of
    slavery—Revolution of Julian Castro—Capital temporarily removed
    to Valencia—Federalists and Centralists—Falcón—_Convenio de
    Coche_—Federal Constitution—Guzman Blanco—Development under
    his government—Revolution of Crespo—British Guiana boundary
    dispute—Cipriano Castro—The Matos revolution—_Coup d’état_ of
    General Gomez—Centenary celebrations—Present prospects.


Even though subsequent events proved that the Declaration of July 5,
1811, marked in reality the beginning of the independence of Venezuela,
that end was far from being attained as yet. The revolution itself had
begun, not amongst the people but with a few of the more intelligent
and patriotic members of the aristocracy of the country; and even the
open breach with Spain found popular feeling about equally divided, or,
if anything, on the side of Spain and the royalists. While the movement
had thus little staying power within the colony, there were many foreign
sympathisers, notable amongst whom was William Burke, an Irish Catholic.

The Declaration of Independence was followed almost immediately by
disturbances in Los Teques and Valencia, instigated mainly by colonists
from the Canary Islands; but though the provinces of Coro, Maracaibo,
and Guayana held aloof, the leaders of the Revolution were sufficiently
strong to declare a Constitution on December 21, 1811.

One of the main features of this first Constitution was the power
given to the Central Government to revise the Constitutions of the
provinces. The national power was divided under three heads—Legislative,
Executive, and Judicial. The Legislature was to consist of two
Chambers—one of Representatives, the other of Senators, the first to
be elected by popular vote, the second by the Provincial Governments;
the qualifications for membership of the Lower Chamber were: to be over
twenty-one years of age, five years a citizen, and a property-owner; the
Senators were to be over thirty years of age, ten years citizens, and to
possess 6,000 pesos. A National Guard was provided, to be controlled by
the Legislature. The Executive was vested in a Junta of three persons,
who were to have been in Venezuela on July 5th or to be natives of the
“Colombian Continent” (_i.e._, South America); they held office for four
years. Judicial power was exercised by a Supreme Court, subaltern Courts,
and inferior tribunals, under control of Congress. The royalists who had
been responsible for the risings in Valencia were pardoned and released.

In 1812 the troubles of the young republic began. Early in the year
Don Domingo de Monteverde landed in Coro and marched inland, capturing
Siquisique and Carora, finally directing his steps towards Carácas
via Barquisimeto and San Carlos. On Holy Thursday (March 26th), while
thousands were gathered in the churches, a terrible earthquake destroyed
Carácas, La Guaira, San Felipe, Barquisimeto, Tocuyo, and Mérida; in
Carácas alone 10,000 people were killed. The ecclesiastics, recognising
their interests to be largely bound up with the royalist cause,
attributed these disasters to the wrath of Heaven at the revolution,
and one who preached in this strain in Carácas is said to have been
threatened with death by Bolivar, who exclaimed, “If Nature opposes
us we will fight her and make her obey us!” For his antagonism to the
new régime the Archbishop of Carácas was expelled and Madariaga put in
charge in his place. An expedition to Guayana had been planned, but
was abandoned after the earthquake, when Miranda was made Dictator by
Congress. The royalist leader Monteverde reached La Victoria in June,
and some four weeks later, for obscure and, it was widely suggested,
discreditable pecuniary reasons, Miranda, with 4,000 men, capitulated to
the Spanish force of 3,000 on July 25th. Monteverde sent him to Puerto
Rico, but for which Bolivar and others would have shot him as a traitor
at the first opportunity. He finally died in prison in Spain in 1816.

Had Monteverde shown more discretion and mercy this reverse of the
patriots would probably have had far more lasting results, but he
speedily showed himself treacherous, and, in direct violation of the
terms agreed upon with Miranda, he sent eight of the revolutionary
leaders, including Madariaga, to Spain. He imprisoned 1,500 more, and,
refusing to apply any part of the new Spanish Constitution to Venezuela,
proclaimed martial law; as a result, war to the death was declared by the
patriots in the following year.

The Simon Bolivar who has been referred to above was the direct
descendant, six generations removed, from Simon de Bolivar, a Biscayan of
noble rank who reached Venezuela in 1588. This man entered the service
of his adopted land immediately upon his arrival, for he was the special
commissioner dispatched in 1589 by the then Governor to Spain to urge the
need of reforms and to obtain permission for the initiation of projects
calculated to open up and settle the country. The Simon Bolivar of the
revolution was born on July 24, 1783, in Carácas; he went to the Court of
Madrid as a youth, and there acquitted himself well, but, shortly after
his return to his native country in 1802, lost his young wife. Possibly
this bereavement helped to harden his character, and so to acquire for
him that reputation for cruelty and obstinacy which marred the early
history of his work as liberator of his native country and of half of
South America.

The young soldier found himself in Cúcuta (southward of the Lake of
Maracaibo) early in 1813, and was instructed by the revolutionary
Government in Santa Fé de Bogotá to proceed with the conflict, but to
wage war against armed Spaniards only. On June 8th he declared a war of
vengeance to the death against Spain in Mérida, and marching northwards,
won victories at Niquitao, Los Horcones, and Taguanes, finally reaching
and taking Carácas. Meanwhile, Juan Bautista Arismendi had taken the
Island of Margarita; and Mariño, Bermudez, Piar and Sucre took Maturín
and Cumaná in August, leaving only Coro, Maracaibo, Guayana, part of
Barinas, and the plaza of Puerto Cabello in the hands of the royalists.

Following these successes, Bolivar was made Dictator, with legislative
and executive powers, and arrangements were made for the formation
of a Congress similar to that of New Granada. Later in the year the
Dictator marched on Puerto Cabello, where his proposal for an exchange
of prisoners met with an offer of two Spaniards for one Venezuelan, with
the exception of one Jalon, whom Monteverde refused to release; at the
same time the Spanish leader killed four of the prisoners. Reinforcements
reached him from Cadiz about this time, but they were defeated by the
patriots, who later in the year gained other victories over Ceballos.

Early in 1814 Monteverde was compelled by his officers to give up his
command and retire to the Antilles; but to counterbalance this, just
after the meeting of the popular assembly in Carácas came the rising
of the _Mestizos_, or half-breeds of the Llanos, under Tomas Boves, on
behalf of the royalists, a new factor which delayed the settlement of
the struggle for years. After Boves’s victory over the patriots at La
Puerta, when another force was advancing on Ocumare, Bolivar was guilty
of the barbarity of massacring all the Spaniards in Puerto Cabello.
After several battles, the total results of which were indecisive, Boves
finally defeated Bolivar and Mariño by sheer force of numbers in the
Aragua valley and forced them to fly to Carácas. On July 6th Bolivar
evacuated the town, and with its inhabitants retreated to Barcelona
overland, where upon the royalists and llaneros entered it two days
later and Boves claimed the supreme power in Venezuela, although this
had been vested by the Spanish Government in Cajil. Murmurings against
Bolivar now made themselves heard, and Ribas and others of his generals
wished to assassinate him in revenge for their defeats; he was, however,
permitted to retire in safety to the Antilles. Later Boves occupied
Cumaná with massacre and defeated the patriot leaders in Urica, sending
his lieutenant, Morales, to Maturín. Meanwhile, after the restoration of
Ferdinand VII., an expedition of 15,000 men was sent from Spain under
Morillo; with the capitulation to him of Margarita early in 1815 the
outlook for the republic was black indeed.

[Illustration: STATUE IN PLAZA BOLIVAR: CARÁCAS.]

Once again the barbarities of the new Spanish leader acted as a goad
to the jaded spirits of the patriots, for after breaking his promises
of amnesty in Margarita he proceeded to show no mercy to any patriot
families met with in Carácas or on his way to New Granada, where also
his barbarous conduct brought him an unenviable notoriety. Bolivar had
recaptured Santa Fé with the remnant of the Venezuelan patriot army, but
the beginning of 1816 found him in Jamaica planning his great campaign,
with a view to forming fifteen independent republics in South America,
including the Great Colombia, which afterwards became for a short time a
reality.

With a view to the fulfilment of these dreams he secured help in Haiti,
and later in the year reached Margarita. His associates included
MacGregor and Ducoudray-Holstein, Crossing to Carúpano, he sent Mariño to
Guaira, Piar to Maturín, and with Anzoátegui and other leaders he himself
marched to Ocumare; here, however, he was cut off by royalist forces,
and, retreating, joined Zaraza and Monágas with their guerilla troops in
the Llanos, and finally with Piar defeated the royalists in the battle of
El Juncal, near Barcelona. The net result of the campaign in the earlier
part of the year was, however, adverse, and when, after joining Bermudez
in Bonaire, he crossed again to Paria, he was threatened with death by
the newly arrived leader and Mariño. As a result he returned to Haiti on
August 22nd, but came back later in the year at the request of Piar and
other generals.

Early in 1817 Mariño and Bermudez again came to an agreement with
Bolivar, but when he and Arismendi were defeated at Clarines, on their
way to Carácas, Mariño again became subordinate, and, to his lasting
disgrace, left General Freites without support in Barcelona, where he
and 300 refugees were massacred in the _Casa Fuerte_ on April 7th by
the royalists. Shortly after these events a Congress was formed in
Cariaco, by which Bolivar was made one of the Executive, but Mariño
Commander-in-Chief; the latter was at this time in Margarita, which was
now first named Nueva Esparta.

Meanwhile, Bolivar had moved southward to Guayana, and a fresh invasion
of royalists soon drove the other leaders in Cariaco to join him there.
After a victory at San Felix by Piar the prisoners and monks were
massacred, but by whose orders could not be definitely ascertained. The
city of Angostura was evacuated by the Spanish on July 17th, and Guayana
Vieja on August 3rd. During the succeeding months Páez was fighting
with Morillo in the plains of Barinas; Mariño, by the intervention of
Sucre, finally acknowledged Bolivar as commander-in-chief, and Piar, for
insubordination and ostensibly also for the massacre of San Felix, was
condemned by court-martial. On September 3rd an order was issued for the
sequestration of royalist property to pay for the war, and in November
Bolivar left Angostura for Calabozo. After one reverse he retired into
the province of Barinas, where Páez joined him; and finally, early in
1818, he defeated Morillo at Calabozo, though Páez was in April forced
back on San Fernando de Apure with a few men.

With insubordination and murmurings among his own generals, decreased
troops and depleted treasure, and without the encouragement of decisive
victories to make good these deficiencies, the outlook for Bolivar and
for the cause in which he was fighting might well have disheartened him
at this time. In March, however, Colonel Daniel O’Leary had arrived with
the troops raised by Colonel Wilson in London, consisting largely of
veterans of the Napoleonic wars. These tried soldiers, afterwards known
as the British Legion, were destined to play an all-important part in
the liberation of Venezuela, and Bolivar soon recognised their value,
spending the time till December in distributing these new forces to the
best advantage.

Elections were arranged in the autumn, and on February 15, 1819, Congress
was installed in Angostura. Bolivar took the British Constitution as his
model, with the substitute of an elected president for an hereditary
king, and was himself proclaimed provisional holder of the office. The
hereditary form of the Senate was, however, soon given up.

The early part of the year was spent in local marchings and
counter-marchings, but in June Bolivar set out, accompanied by Colonel
James Rook and the British Legion, on his famous march to New Granada.
Pushing through swamps and forests and marching over interminable
plains, they met and defeated the advance guard of the enemy in the
defile of Paya. The first week in July found them crossing the Páramo
of Pisva on the road to Bogotá, where many men perished from the cold.
The rest of the month saw them victorious in many battles, in which the
British Legion and the llaneros made themselves conspicuous. With 2,000
patriots Bolivar defeated 3,000 royalists in the battle of Boyacá on
August 7th, taking many prisoners. On reaching Bogotá he made Santander
vice-president of New Granada and left the prisoners in his charge, a
confidence which the latter abused by shooting the most prominent, on
pretext of an attempted escape. In the meantime there was the normal
disaffection in the east, where Arismendi had been made vice-president,
in the place of Zea, in Angostura. On hearing of Bolivar’s successes, he
immediately wanted to resign; Bolivar, however, ignored his attempted
insubordination, and made him commander-in-chief in the east.

On December 17, 1819, Bolivar formally inaugurated the Great Colombian
republic, consisting of the three Departments of Venezuela, Cundinamarca,
and Quito. A new capital with the name of Bolivar was to be built near
the boundary of Cundinamarca and Venezuela, and the first united Congress
was to assemble in Rosario de Cúcuta. Although this Declaration was not
formally ratified for two years in Quito, 1820 marks the close of the
first period of Venezuela’s independence, from the Declaration of July 5,
1811, to its inclusion in the Great Colombia, a part of which it remained
till 1830.

With the commencement of the second period we come to an entirely
new condition of affairs. While Spain was desirous of attempting a
reconciliation with the northern colony, she did not realise that the
Mestizos, and therefore the population of Venezuela generally, were now
in favour of independence, and after their period of successful fighting,
were not willing to accept less than a recognition of their freedom in
some part, at least, of the territory. While the attitude of the Spanish
authorities was thus foolishly lacking in appreciation of all that had
happened in the last ten years, their general in command in Venezuela,
Morillo, showed himself most conciliatory and even magnanimous. On
November 25th, owing to his efforts, the armistice of Trujillo was
declared. On the following day came the “regularisation” of the campaign,
by which it was determined that hostilities should not recommence till
April 28th of the next year, and on the 27th of the month the opposing
leaders met in the little village of Santa Ana, north of Trujillo.

By the beginning of 1821 Bolivar had returned to Bogotá, and there he
nominated a plenipotentiary to carry on negotiations with Spain, claiming
for his part recognition of the absolute independence, either of Colombia
with its three divisions or of the part of the territory which had now
been liberated. He authorised the republic’s representative, however,
to give up the recognition of Quito, if necessary, but either that or
Panama was to be included. Finally, the republic asserted its willingness
to enter into an alliance with Spain, but its unalterable opposition to
union or to the rule of any European sovereign.

Spain, in spite of this clear statement of the case of the republic,
persisted in regarding the revolution as a mere insurrection, and the
first negotiations broke down. Meanwhile, in January, the province of
Maracaibo had declared itself independent and part of Colombia. Later,
one of Bolivar’s generals occupied the town of Gibraltar, on the Lake of
Maracaibo, an act of zeal on his part which was nevertheless a violation
of the terms of the armistice of Trujillo. Bolivar wished to submit this
matter to arbitration, but before anything had been arranged the date for
resumption of hostilities came round, and the last stage of the struggle
began.

The royalists, at this time held the province of Cumaná, and Carácas
between the towns of Unare and Guanare, and at both ends of the region
they were attacked simultaneously. They succeeded in driving Bermudez out
of the capital, but Bolivar was in Tinaquillo, not far to the west, with
6,500 men, his generals being Páez, in command of the Bravos de Apure and
Británico battalions; Cedeño, with one brigade of the La Guardia, and the
Tiradores, Boyacá and Vargas battalions; Playa, with the other brigade
of the La Guardia, a regiment of English Rifles, the Granaderos, and
Vencedores de Boyacá; and Anzoátegui, with one cavalry regiment under a
Llanero leader. Mariño was Bolivar’s chief-of-staff.

On June 24, 1821, the Spanish leader, La Torre, occupied the plain of
Carabobo with 5,000 men (six columns of infantry and three of cavalry).
The patriot army, in order to reach them, had to follow a narrow mountain
path over the Alto de Buenavista, under the fire of the royalists, and
Páez was dispatched on a flanking movement to the right. Meanwhile
Bolivar, having descended this exposed path, had to defile a second time
to cross a small stream between the two hills. The enemy descended to
dispute his passage, which was effected under cover of a hot fire from
the infantry on both sides. The Apure battalion crossed first and were
nearly driven back, but the British crossed just in time to allow them
to re-form, while the Tiradores speedily came over to their assistance,
the hollow square formed by our countrymen having held the ground at the
critical moment of the day. By this time the cavalry were across and the
field was won, for the Spanish troops were unable to withstand the attack
of the llaneros, once these were in their natural element in the open
plains. La Torre and Morales made good their escape, owing to the gallant
stand made by the first Valencey battalion, while of the patriots,
Bolivar wrote that only 200 were killed or wounded. La Torre fled to
Puerto Cabello, and Bolivar marched on to Carácas.

Casual fighting continued for two years more, but the power of Spain was
finally broken at Carabobo, and the last royalist adherents capitulated
in Puerto Cabello on October 8, 1823.

In the meantime the Constitution of Great Colombia had been adopted by
the Congress of Cúcuta in August, 1821, but before long Venezuela found
her position in the Union far from satisfactory. The discontent found
voice in the municipality of Valencia in 1826, Páez being one of the
leaders of the separatists. Bolivar arrived in Puerto Cabello from the
west in 1827, having previously written to Páez, whose loyalty to his old
chief made him bow to his opinion. This, however, would not suffice to
make up for the bad state of agricultural industries and of the country
generally, and the murmurings broke out afresh. In 1828 Bolivar was given
dictatorial power by the Congress of Colombia, while on the other hand
plots were formed by the malcontents to assassinate him. In the following
year, during Colombia’s squabbles with Peru, Carácas and Valencia
repudiated Bolivar, and on January 13, 1830, Páez declared Venezuela
independent of Colombia.

The last Colombian Congress met in the “conference of Cúcuta,” and
Bolivar finally retired from power on March 1st. Valencia even demanded
his expulsion. The sentimental attempt, carried through in spite of
practical opposition, to form so large a single State of three groups
of settlements, separated by wide areas without roads or other means of
communication, seems but another instance of the frequent inability of
a gallant soldier to play a worthy part in the politics of the land he
has served. It was, nevertheless, a melancholy period of the history of
Venezuela when the liberator of half of South America, as well as of
his own land, was left to retire broken-hearted to Santa Marta in New
Granada, where he died of phthisis on December 17, 1830, and was buried
in the little church of the town.

But though Bolivar was unhonoured in his death, the main object to which
he had devoted his life was attained, and, as we shall see, after twelve
years his services were duly recognised by the country and town which
gave him birth. The next period of Venezuelan history lasts to 1864,
during which the centralist Constitution was in force, to be changed
afterwards to the federal type which exists to-day.

One of his generals, Monágas, still remained loyal to Bolivar’s views,
and for some years continued his efforts to persuade the powers that were
in Venezuela to join themselves again with Colombia. In April, 1831,
however, the new Congress assembled and formally elected General José
Antonio Páez as President of the republic; an embassy was dispatched to
Bogotá, and Carácas was declared the capital on May 25th. Early in the
following year their independence was formally recognised by Colombia,
and measures were taken to provide for the efficient administration of
the country, which was divided into three districts, the Oriente, Centro,
and Occidente, the supreme courts of each being at Cumaná, Valencia, and
Maracaibo respectively.

The third Venezuelan Congress met in January, 1833, and proceeded to
incorporate the wandering soldiers of the revolution into a regular army,
and to arrange the division of the public debt and other agreements with
Colombia and Ecuador.

At the end of 1834 there were four candidates for the presidency, of
whom Doctor José Maria Vargas was elected in 1835; a good omen for the
country, inasmuch as Vargas was a scholar, not a soldier, and his claim
to the confidence of his country rested on more solid grounds than those
of his military opponents. He was only prevailed upon with difficulty to
stand, or to act when elected, but displayed a praiseworthy loftiness of
motive while in office. Mariño, however, showed his shallow and selfish
nature once more in raising discontent amongst those who considered
that might should triumph over right rather than the reverse; Vargas
resigned early in 1836, and for the rest of this presidential term the
vice-president carried out the duties of the office.

In 1839 Páez was again elected President, and in that year did much to
increase the prosperity of the country and to raise its position in South
America. The cart-road from La Guaira to Carácas was opened, and another
commenced between Puerto Cabello and Valencia. The liberty of the press
was so far increased that A. L. Guzman was able to start the journal _El
Venezolano_ in opposition to the existing Government, and in support of
the Federal ideal of the newly formed Liberal party, the Centralists
being known as the Oligarca. In the following year a colonisation scheme
was put forward, and a national college for girls opened, while an
attempt was made to found a national bank in 1841. This year also saw
authority given to the executive to take measures for the education and
civilisation of the aborigines, and to put in hand the standard works on
the geography and history of Venezuela by Codazzi and Baralt.

In 1842, the last year of Páez’s second presidency, the gradually
increasing appreciation of Bolivar’s services to his country culminated
on April 30th in a decree of public honours to the “Libertador,” as he
was now styled, and burial in state in Carácas. The Venezuelan boats
_Constitucion_ and _Carácas_, H.M.S. _Albatross_, the Dutch warship _La
Venus_, and the French frigate _Circe_, accordingly left La Guaira,
bearing a deputation of influential men, including Vargas, and reached
Santa Marta on November 16th. The people of Nueva Granada recognised
willingly the prior claims of Carácas, as Bolivar’s birthplace, and
his body was borne back on the _Constitucion_. A permanent triumphal
arch had been erected in his honour at the foot of El Calvario, and the
remains were laid to rest in the chapel of the Holy Trinity in Carácas
Cathedral, being transferred later to the Pantheon.

General Carlos Soublette was elected President in 1843, in which year
France formally recognised the republic, while Spain followed in March,
1845. A further honour was done to the Liberator by renaming Angostura
Ciudad Bolivar on May 31, 1845.

The foreign trade of Venezuela had tripled since 1830, the debt had
been reduced from 9,372,448.44 pesos to 2,085,595.72 pesos, and General
Urdaneta was in London, endeavouring to raise a loan to enable the
Government to free the slaves. The country was, therefore, in a fair way
of prosperity, but opposition to the centralist form of government was
not decreasing. It would seem, notwithstanding, that under wise rulers
this grievance could have been redressed without the first of that series
of revolutions which, beginning not many years later, made Venezuela a
byword in the latter half of the nineteenth century.

In 1847 General José Tadeo Monágas was elected President, and commenced
his period of office by sentencing Guzman, the editor of _El Venezolano_,
to death, subsequently commuting the penalty to banishment. For this
act of tyranny he was censured by Congress in the following year, and
retaliated by dissolving the Assembly with armed force, not without
bloodshed. As a not unnatural result, Páez attempted to start an
insurrection against him in Calabozo, but was forced to fly to Colombia,
and a similar rising in Maracaibo died out. The death penalty for
political offences was abolished by Congress, but Páez, on landing
in Coro in an attempt to continue his revolt, was overpowered and
capitulated; he broke his terms, however, and was imprisoned in the
fortress of Cumaná.

[Illustration: THE UNIVERSITY: CARÁCAS.]

By the end of 1850 Tadeo Monágas, having acquired power as a member of
the Oligarca, avowed himself a Liberal at the end of his presidency.
General José Gregorio Monágas was elected to succeed him, a man of whom
Tejera says that he was affable in temper, of a generous spirit, and
capable of noble actions. In 1854 he promulgated the decree abolishing
slavery within Venezuelan territory, March 24th.

The year 1855 saw J. T. Monágas re-elected. In this term the country was
divided into provinces identical with the States of to-day, though in
some cases the names differed. In 1857 it was reported that Guayana had
been sold by the President, and this rumour, with his repeated abuses of
power, led to the revolution of Valencia under General Julian Castro,
Governor of Carabobo, March 5, 1858.

This was the first serious internal dissension in Venezuela, but here we
have only the revolt of the people against a tyrant, not the attempt of
an individual to make himself master of the country on selfish grounds.
Taking as their motto _Union de los partidos, y olvido de lo pasado_, the
revolutionaries forced Monágas to take refuge in the French Legation,
Julian Castro being acclaimed Provisional President. Unfortunately,
despite the motto, one of his earliest acts was to imprison Monágas,
in direct violation of the promises given to the French and British
Legations, which led to an imbroglio with the two countries.

Meanwhile the seat of government was removed to Valencia, though
Carácas again became the capital after a few weeks, when, following
the success of Julian Castro’s rising, he being a Conservative, the
Liberals, with Zamora and Falcón as leaders, landed in Coro on July
24th. Castro was shortly afterwards captured and imprisoned, but the
Conservatives proclaimed Pedro Gual President, with Manuel Felipe Tovar
as Vice-President. Battles were fought between the Centralists and
Federalists in the streets of Carácas, and at Santa Ines and San Carlos,
but finally Falcón was defeated on March 17, 1860, and Tovar elected as
constitutional President. Throughout 1861, however, Páez was actively
working against him, and finally, in 1862, was declared dictator.

In 1863, after a conference between the dictator’s secretary and General
Guzman Blanco, leader of the Federals of the Centro, the “_convenio de
Coche_” allowed the National Assembly to nominate Falcón President and
Guzman Blanco Vice-President, while Páez left for the United States.
After the elections public works of some magnitude were authorised and
a £1,500,000 European loan. Finally, on March 28, 1864, the new Federal
Constitution was adopted, whereby the United States of Venezuela came
into being, consisting of twenty sovereign States, with a Federal
two-chamber Legislature, an Executive of President and six ministers, and
judicial power in the hands of a high Federal court holding jurisdiction
in international affairs. The death penalty was abolished, with
imprisonment for debt, the rights of meeting and of a free press were
established, and in other respects the Constitution took the general form
which it has to-day.

At the close of Falcón’s presidency the Centralists again attempted
forcibly to gain power under the leadership of the changeable J. T.
Monágas, by whom Carácas was occupied in June. He died in November, and
J. R. Monágas was chosen provisional President in 1869. The Federalists
meanwhile were endeavouring to regain their position by force of arms,
with the result that Monágas was never elected, and on April 27, 1870,
Guzman Blanco was able to call together a Congress which nominated him
provisional President. Owing to continued disturbances he was only
formally elected towards the end of 1872. In 1874 an Act was passed
reducing the presidential period from four years to two, and Francisco
Linares Alcantara was elected in 1877, but the fatal series of individual
revolutions now begins with Gregorio Cedeño, by whom Carácas was occupied
in February, 1879.

Guzman Blanco was immediately recalled from Europe and hailed as
_Director Supremo de la Revindicacion Nacional_, being made provisional
President by the new Congress, and formally elected in 1880, and again in
1882, doing much to advance the reputation of his country during these
years. General Joaquin Crespo, a llanero, who had been Minister of War
since 1870, succeeded him for the period 1884-6, but in the latter year
Guzman Blanco, again President, was dispatched by Congress to Europe
as plenipotentiary. Doctor Rojas Paul and R. A. Palacio successively
occupied the presidential chair till 1892, by which time Venezuela’s
trade had reached an amount never touched before or since, and the
country was generally in a prosperous condition.

Despite the advance made by Venezuela during the period from 1880 to
1892, throughout which Guzman Blanco was either actually or virtually
President, his rule was at times unduly autocratic, and his affection for
statues of himself and for high-sounding titles, such as “_El Ilustre
Americano_,” seems strange in a man with so great business ability both
on behalf of his country and himself. In time he might have raised
Venezuela to a position comparable to that of Mexico under Diaz, but as
it was the less attractive and dignified side of his character began, for
the time being, to undermine the affection and esteem in which he had
been held by his countrymen, and a desire for a change of control became
general. It is hardly necessary to add that the Venezuelans of to-day
remember only the beneficent aspects of his periods of office.

Unfortunately, the example of Cedeño, and the successful internal
revolutions of earlier days, had not been forgotten, and now Crespo
secured his re-election by force, his first act being to restore the
presidential period to four years. In 1898 he was succeeded by José
Andrade, formerly Venezuelan Minister at Washington, and though his
period of office was short it was important as marking the settlement
of a dispute which, after lasting for over sixty years, nearly led to a
rupture between this country and the United States.

From the early days of the independence of Venezuela continual protests
had been made by the representatives of the republic against the alleged
encroachments of residents and officials from British Guiana. Briefly,
the contentions raised by the two parties were: on the part of Venezuela,
that the Dutch, to whom we were successors, had only claimed jurisdiction
on the east side of the Essequibo River; on the part of Great Britain,
that the Dutch had in 1759 and 1769 put forward the claim that their
territory included, not merely the Essequibo River but the whole of the
basin drained by that river and its tributaries. This claim was never
rebutted by the authorities in Madrid.

So the dispute dragged on, the British Government refusing to consent to
arbitration of the boundary unless it was previously agreed by Venezuela
that such parts of the Essequibo Valley as had been effectively occupied
by British colonists were recognised as their territory. In April,
1895, the arrest by the Venezuelan authorities of two inspectors of the
British Guiana Police on the Cuyuni River brought matters to a crisis.
The inspectors were soon released, but Crespo appealed to Washington
for protection against any claim for indemnity. President Cleveland
took up the cause of Venezuela on the ground that any action by Great
Britain would constitute an infringement of the Monroe Doctrine, and
in December, 1895, sent his two famous messages to Congress, in which
he declared that any forcible action by this country would constitute
a _casus belli_ with the United States. For a time great excitement
prevailed in Carácas, associations being formed for the boycott of
British goods and for national defence. Fortunately, wiser counsels
prevailed on both sides and diplomatic relations were resumed in 1897,
the matter being submitted to arbitration, and finally settled by the
award of the tribunal of Paris on October 3, 1899.

Hardly had this long-standing and vexatious external dispute been
cleared up when the prosperity of Venezuela was once again threatened by
internal dissension. Cipriano Castro, a Tachiran, had in May declared
his intention of avenging a real or intended slight received from the
Government, and, after marching through the Andes at the head of the
so-called _Ejercito Restaurador_, fighting several successful battles on
the way, he entered Carácas late in October. The executive power, which
he immediately assumed, was only confirmed by an _Asamblea Constituyente_
in February, 1901.

In March of that year a new Constitution was decreed, whereby the
presidential period was extended to six years, and Castro was duly
elected to the office. In 1902 the “Matos” revolution broke out, under
the general of that name; this appears to have been a genuine popular
revolt, and almost proved successful when in the autumn of the year a
tactical mistake on the part of the revolutionists left Castro master of
the country.

No attempt was made to compensate foreigners for the damage to property
suffered by them during these various revolutions, and in view of the
accumulation of claims the powers chiefly concerned—Great Britain,
Germany, and Italy—declared a blockade of the ports of Venezuela in
January, 1903, which had the desired effect of persuading Castro’s
Government to agree to the arbitration of the various claims by third
parties. Though the allied Powers demanded that their claims should be
settled first, the counter-demand of Venezuela, that all the Powers,
peaceful and otherwise, should be treated alike, was upheld by the Hague
Tribunal, and protocols with all the countries were signed within a few
months.

A second change of the Constitution was decreed in April, 1904, whereby
it was made possible for Castro to be again declared provisional
President, and in June of the following year he was elected for the term
1905-11, with General Gomez again as one of the Vice-Presidents, the
other being José Antonio Velutini.

Once securely possessed of the presidency, Castro’s rule became that of a
Dictator, and though his strength of purpose might well have made him a
national hero had he been animated by love of country, his selfish abuse
of power rendered his period of office a time of retrogression throughout
the republic. Vicious reprisals for real or fancied slights and equally
capricious distribution of rewards to those who obeyed his behests, while
they produced as much satisfaction as discontent amongst individuals,
left the thoughtful man with a feeling of insecurity which was fatal
to any real advance in commercial or general prosperity. An equally
whimsical expenditure of money on public works of questionable utility
tended only to aggravate the dissatisfaction amongst the wiser heads of
the community.

When, after nearly five years of despotism, he started for Europe in
1909, leaving, it was said, secret instructions to assassinate General
Gomez, of whose popularity he was jealous, the discontent found vent in
a general acclamation of the latter’s _coup d’état_, whereby he secured
his safety, the admiration of the soldiery, and the presidential power,
without deliberately shedding Venezuelan blood, A new Constitution was
promulgated in November, 1909, reverting in general to the form of 1864,
and in April, 1910, the elections established General Juan Vicente Gomez
as Constitutional President for the current term.

Since that time the centenary of the independence of the republic has
been celebrated in Carácas, at which period the ex-Dictator’s carefully
planned attempt to occupy the country was frustrated by the seizure of
his ships as piratical vessels in Haiti. The new President has shown
himself eager to promote the welfare of the country and to encourage
commerce, Consuls have been appointed to stations where, since the time
of Guzman Blanco, there have been none; the application of foreign
capital to the development of the resources of the country has been
encouraged, with due regard to the rights of the inhabitants; and, more
than all, the spirit of the country at large, wearied with the fifty
revolutions of the last eighty years, is opposed to further civil strife,
and inclined to maintain that internal peace the benefits of which are
already being enjoyed.




CHAPTER VI

MODERN VENEZUELA

    Boundaries—Frontier with Brazil—Colombia—British
    Guiana—Internal subdivision—States and territories with their
    capitals—Density of population—Constitution—Departments
    of the executive—_Jefes Civiles_—Legislature—Senators
    and deputies—Administration of Justice—Laws relating
    to foreigners—Marriage—Public health—Philanthropic
    institutions—Education—Coinage—Multiplicity
    of terms—Towns—Typical
    houses—Furniture—Hospitality—Food—Clothing—Army and
    Navy—Insignia—_Busto de Bolivar_—The Press.


The United States of Venezuela, as constituted to-day, are bounded on the
north by the Caribbean Sea, on the south by the United States of Brazil,
on the east by the Gulf of Paria, the Atlantic Ocean, and British Guiana,
on the west by the republic of Colombia.

The boundary between Brazil and Venezuela was determined by a Joint
Commission in 1880 as follows: From Mount Roraima, south and west
along the watershed of the Sierra Pacaraima, to Cerro Mashiati, thence
southwards along the Sierra Parima, and the Sierras de Curupira, Tapira
Peco, and Imeri to the bifurcation of the Rivers Baria and Cauapury on
the Rio Negro.

The Colombia-Venezuelan frontier was submitted to arbitration in 1891,
and the King of Spain made the award thus: From Los Mogotes or Los
Frailes islands to the highest point of the Oca Mountain separating the
Valley of Upar, the province of Mairacaibo, and Rio del Hacha, thence
along the watershed of the sierras of Perija and Motilones to the source
of the Rio de Oro. Thence across the Rivers Catatumbo, Sardinata, and
Tarra to the mouth of the La Grita on the Rio Zulia; from that point
along the previously recognised line to the junction of the Quebrada
de Don Pedro with the Táchira, and up that river to its source. Thence
across the range and Páramo of Tama to the River Oira; down this to its
junction with the Sarare, and along the latter, through the Laguna de
Desparramadero, to the junction with the Arauca, down that river to a
point equidistant from Arauca and the meridian of the junction of the
Masparro and Apure. Thence in a straight line to Antiguo Apostadero, and
down the Meta to the Orinoco. Then down the mid-stream of the Orinoco,
reserving a right of way for Venezuelans on the left bank between Atures
and the Maipures rapids to the mouth of the Guaviare, up the latter to
the junction with the Atabapo; then up this to a point 36 kilometres west
of Pimichin, and so across to the Guainia (or Rio Negro), following this
down to Cocuhy.

The British Guiana boundary was submitted to arbitration in 1897, and
the Paris tribunal, in 1899, awarded as follows: From the coast at Punta
Playa in a straight line to the junction of the Barima and Mururuma;
thence along mid-stream of the latter to its source. From this point to
the junction of the Rio Haiowa and the Amacura, and along mid-stream of
the latter to its source in the Sierra Imataca. Then south-west along the
spur to the main range of the sierra opposite the source of the Barima;
then along the watershed south-east to the source of the Acarabisi and
down it to the Cuyuni, westward along this river to its junction with the
Wenamu (Venamo) and up the latter to its most westerly course. Thence in
a straight line to the summit of Mount Roraima.

The political divisions of the country established in 1856 were adopted,
with some slight changes, in the Constitution of November, 1909, when
General Gomez assumed the presidency. The divisions for which these were
substituted were less convenient for administrative purposes, but were
in general form the same—that is to say, States divided into districts,
a Federal District and Territories. There are now twenty States with
their own Legislatures, the Federal District of Carácas under the Central
Government, and two Territories. The population of these is given in
Appendix A.

The Federal District includes the country round Carácas, and the coastal
region between Naiguatá and Cabo Blanco, with the islands to the north.
The States are distributed as follows:—

Zulia (capital, Maracaibo), includes all the lake region; Táchira
(capital, San Cristobal), Mérida, and Trujillo are the Andine States;
Lara (capital, Barquisimeto), Falcón (Coro), and Yaracuy (San Felipe)
include the Segovia highlands and the coastal regions in front; Carabobo
(Valencia), Aragua (La Victoria), Miranda (Ocumare), and Sucre (Cumaná)
are in the Caribbean hills; Nueva Esparta includes Margarita and the
other islands immediately to the north and east (capital, Asunción);
Monágas (Maturín), Anzoátegui (Barcelona), Guárico (Calabozo), Cojedes
(San Carlos), Portuguesa (Guanare), Zamora (Barinas), and Apure (San
Fernando) are wholly or mainly Llano States; and nearly half the
territory south of the Orinoco is comprised within the State of Bolivar
and governed from the city of the same name. The Delta-Amacuro Territory
includes the delta proper and the similar region to the south of it;
its capital is Tucupita, on the Caño Macareo: the Amazonas Territory,
with its capital on the Orinoco at San Fernando de Atabapo, includes
the Upper Orinoco basin and the adjacent districts, an enormous, almost
unknown area.

[Illustration: THE FEDERAL PALACE: CARÁCAS.]

The density of the population in the country as a whole (according to
the _Anuario Estadístico_, 1910, census of 1891) is 2·27 per square
kilometre, or 5·88 to the square mile. Some idea of the meaning of these
figures may be gathered from a comparison of the population of Monágas,
where there are 6·68 inhabitants to the square mile, over an area almost
equal to that of Belgium, with that of the latter country, Monágas having
74,500 inhabitants and Belgium nearly 7,500,000. The Federal district
stands highest, with 151·94 to the square mile; and, making due allowance
for the greater density of the population in the higher lands, the
figures decrease in proportion to the distance from this centre. Thus
the coast States adjoining the Federal districts, with the island of
Margarita, are the most thickly populated, the Segovia highlands, Andine
States, and region of Paria next, with the northern lowlands and the
Llanos, having a density of population approximately equal to that of the
whole country, while the Guayana region and the Delta territory range as
low as 0·41 to the square mile. It should be remembered, however, that no
exact figures are available for the nomadic tribes who people the remoter
districts of Venezuela.

The Constitution of the Republic is modelled upon that of the
United States of America; the President, elected by a college of
fourteen members of Congress for a term of four years, is the head
of the nation; under him are the three great departments of the
administration—executive, legislative, and judicial, these being again
regarded as National, Federal, and Municipal, according to their powers.
Each State of the Union has its own Legislature and President, who is
a Federal officer, while the territories are governed directly by the
national Executive.

The national Executive exercises its functions through the following
departments: Ministry of the Interior, for Home Affairs; Ministry of
Hacienda (Finance); Ministry of War and Marine; Ministry of Fomento
(National Development, Agriculture, Commerce, and Industry); Public
Works Department; Ministry of Education; the special province of each
being sufficiently indicated by the name. There is also a Government
Council of ten members appointed to advise the President, who has his
State Secretary and Chaplain; the presiding officer of this Council takes
charge during the absence, or in case of the death, of the President. The
executives of the State Governments are similarly constituted, but here
both President and Government Councillors are Federal officers, while
the District _Jefaturas Civiles_ are also supported at Federal charges.
It should be explained that there are _Jefes Civiles_ (Commissioners of
Police and Chief Magistrates) for each district, while under these as
municipal officers are the _Jefes Civiles_ of rural districts and towns
(_municipios_).

The legislative power is vested in the National and State Legislatures
and the Municipal Councils. The Congress of the United States of
Venezuela consists of two Chambers—one of Senators and the other of
Deputies. The Deputies (1 to 35,000 of the population, or portion of
this number greater than half) are elected by the citizens of each State
and serve a term of four years; they must be Venezuelan by birth and
over twenty-one years of age. Two Senators are elected by each State
Legislative Assembly, and they also remain in office for four years;
the Constitution requires all to be Venezuelan by birth and over thirty
years of age. In case of dispute a joint session is provided for, and
Bills finally sanctioned by both Chambers become law, and are thereupon
communicated to the President as head of the Executive for publication
in the _Gaceta Oficial_ and administration by his officers.

Justice is administered by the _Corte Federal y de Casacion_,
whose members are appointed by Congress, and by lower courts and
tribunals throughout the country; the territorial judges are national
functionaries, but judicial powers in the State are wielded by Federal
officers, while the municipal courts are the same throughout the country.

The law prohibits foreigners from taking any part in politics, but
in other matters they have equal rights with Venezuelans, as regards
personal liberty, free correspondence, safety of life and limb, &c. There
are three principal general codes—civil, criminal, and commercial, the
last named including special regulations for foreign companies. A new
revised mining code was sanctioned on June 29, 1910.

The laws make marriage a civil contract with or without a religious
ceremony, but in the country districts the people seem to prefer no
ceremony at all to one not conducted by a priest; and as the latter are
few and their fees often exorbitant, it results that more than two-thirds
of the births in any year are (most unjustly) recorded as illegitimate.

While sanitation and hygiene have not as yet received sufficient
attention to reduce the death rate in what appears to be a naturally
healthy country to its possible level (see p. 36), a large number of
officials are employed in the departments of public health, and the
authorities are now in possession of data which have made them thoroughly
alive to the needs of the country in this particular. Arrangements
have already been made with a British firm for an up-to-date system
of sanitation of the capital. There were, in 1908, 52 philanthropic
institutions in the republic under Government control, consisting of the
following: 27 hospitals, 2 leper asylums, 2 lunatic asylums, 9 homes for
blind and aged persons, and 12 orphanages. The number of inmates at the
close of that year was 3,244, but, as might be expected, the remoter
regions of the country are absolutely unprovided for, and many parts of
the central and western regions are as yet without establishments for
public assistance.

In a similar manner provision is made, more or less adequately, for
education in the central area, and, in fact, throughout the old province
of Venezuela; but outside this the number of establishments decreases to
nil in the Amazonas territory, while in the 40,000 square miles of the
Delta there are only 2 municipal schools. There are in the republic 1,404
elementary schools with 48,869 pupils, 102 institutions for secondary
education with 2,189 pupils; and for higher and technical education
there are 31 institutions with 2,441 students, including 2 Universities
(Carácas and Mérida), 1 school of engineering, 6 seminaries of philosophy
and divinity, 8 schools of fine arts, and 14 of arts and crafts. Of all
these establishments rather less than nine-tenths are supported by public
money, though more than half of the secondary schools are private. The
proportion of males to females is in general about as 10 is to 8; but
there is no provision for women in the Universities, and save for the
schools of fine arts the proportion of females to males in the higher
departments is below the average for all classes of instruction.

The currency of Venezuela is established upon a gold standard, with the
result that there is none of the depreciated coinage which constitutes
one of the curses of the neighbouring State of Colombia. The monetary
unit is the _bolivar_, equivalent to the French franc, the London rate
of exchange being generally 25.25; this is divided into 100 centimos,
and the system is therefore in theory extremely simple; since, however,
there is in practice a multiplicity of terms and coins, it is a matter
of time for the visiting foreigner to become sufficiently familiar with
both to carry on business with promptitude and confidence. The coins
issued by the Government of Venezuela are of gold, silver, and nickel, in
the following values: gold, 100 bolivars, 25 bolivars, and 20 bolivars;
silver, 5, 2½, and 2 bolivars, 1, ½, ¼, and ⅕ bolivar, the limit of legal
payments in silver being restricted to sums under 50 bolivars; nickel,
12½ centimos and 5 centimos, with which sums may be paid not exceeding
20 bolivars. The three principal banks, _i.e._, the Banco de Venezuela,
Banco Carácas, and Banco de Maracaibo, have the right at present to issue
notes, but these, though current at par in the region where the banks
are situated, are often refused in more remote districts. The following
gold coins are also current in practice; American gold pieces of 20,
10, and 5 dollars, the dollar being reckoned as 5 bolivars; old Spanish
onzas; and those issued by different Latin-American States both before
and after secession from Spain, at the nominal value of 80 bolivars, but
in both cases there is a premium on gold coin which renders the 20-dollar
piece worth 104 bolivars and the onza 82 bolivars. Finally, the English
sovereign is readily accepted in Carácas, the premium varying from 4 to
10 per cent. according to circumstances.

As an outcome of this condition of affairs the ordinary traveller in
Venezuela has, for the purpose of petty commerce, to be acquainted
with three methods of reckoning. In La Guaira and Carácas and other
towns affected by commerce with the United States and the West Indies
dollars and centavos represent respectively 5 bolivars and 5 centimos,
and English-speaking Venezuelans always use American monetary terms; in
the towns, however, the bolivar is often voluntarily used as the unit
in speaking, and will always be so used on request. In the country the
old Spanish nomenclature is everywhere employed, having the _real_ as
the unit, equivalent to 25 centimos, with its subdivisions the _medio_
(12½ centimos) and the _cuartillo_ (6¼ centimos). In Maracaibo and the
Andine States, for large sums, the _onza_ is employed as a unit, or more
commonly the _morrocota_ (20-dollar gold piece). Finally, in commerce
on a large scale and for all accounts, pesos and centavos are employed,
representing respectively 4 bolivars and 4 centimos; there are no coins
corresponding to these sums, and in writing the dollar sign is used, a
practice bound to lead to some confusion when the sign is occasionally
used in the correct way. Thus, a tradesman will present a bill for
$12.50—_i.e._, 12½ pesos or 50 bolivars, the proper market price for the
article supplied, and will receive from a new-comer (who may think the
figure dear, but remembers that he is buying goods imported under a heavy
tariff) the sum of $12½, which gives an unscrupulous seller an extra
profit of 12.50 bolivars. Throughout the country, however, people know
the Venezuelan terms, and can be asked to explain any account, verbal or
otherwise, in bolivars or centimos.

The metric system is in general use throughout the civilised parts of the
country.

As in all Spanish and most American cities, the towns of Venezuela are
regularly laid out, with a _plaza_ or square as centre, from which roads
diverge towards the four cardinal points. Round the plaza are generally
the Government offices, the church, and other principal buildings or
private houses; the ground within the square is either occupied by
gardens or trees or (in the smaller towns and villages) is grass-covered.
Away from the centre the streets show little sign of arrangement in the
buildings, old Spanish houses of imposing design standing out here and
there, conspicuous among the smaller, more modern edifices.

The doors of the houses open directly on to the pavement, if there is
one, and a wall with a few windows, and sometimes none, is all that
meets the eye of the passer-by. Inside, however, in all the older and
better-built modern residences the short passage opens into a patio,
generally full of palms, trees, and flowers, and having a fountain in the
centre. Round the patio there is a covered veranda with doors opening
into living-rooms and bedrooms on the different sides. From beautiful
and elegant courts like this there is every grade to the bare yard, with
perhaps only one or two banana-plants. At the back are the kitchens, and
in general a second patio, without trees or shrubs, and having stalls for
the horses or mules on one side; there are generally several pigs and
numerous chickens running about here.

In the country places the furniture of the houses is very simple: a few
chairs, some or all of which may be home-made and of hide stretched over
wooden frames of all shapes, tables, and one or two stands for glasses,
&c., complete the inventory for the ordinary rooms; pictures are rare
and not infrequently are limited to lithograph calendars and coloured
advertisements received from the more advanced business houses.

The stranger is not as a rule invited to join the family circle, but if
he is admitted, on account of introductions from mutual friends, he will
find the traditions of Spanish hospitality carried out to the full, and
all that the house affords is at his disposal. The elaborate lace edging
of the linen, particularly of the pillow-cases, is another characteristic
shared in common with other Spanish peoples.

Maize forms the staple grain of the country, though in the east
especially cassava is an equally important foodstuff, and sometimes
entirely replaces corn, for a large proportion of the people. The maize
flour is generally made with water into cakes (_arepa_), rather like
curling-stones in shape, about 4 inches in diameter, which are lightly
baked and brought to the table warm: a variation of these, generally
considered somewhat of a luxury, are known as _bollas_, which are
sausage-shaped rolls of fine maize flour. In the Andes dark-coloured
bread (_pan de trigo_) of native wheat flour is generally eaten, and in
every large town white bread made from imported flour can be had. The
cassava root has its poisonous juices extracted in a long straw tube
which contracts in diameter as it is extended in length, thus providing
the necessary pressure; the dry material is ground to the consistency of
oatmeal, and made into large flat cakes, which, when baked, are often two
feet across and extremely hard. The broken cake as placed on the table
is often soaked in water to soften it. Cassava bread, like arepa, is of
more than one quality, according to the fineness to which the material is
ground.

In the coast regions _carne seca_ (dried beef) forms an important item in
general diet, while _carne de chivo_ (goat’s flesh) is a staple in Coro.
Fresh meat is of course the rule in the towns, and fowls are everywhere
abundant; the _sancoche de gallina_, a kind of rich stew made of chicken
with herbs and oil, is very good if properly prepared. For other articles
of diet, yams and _frijoles_ (beans) are the commonest vegetables, with
potatoes in the Andes, while fruit preserves and similar sweets are found
everywhere. Last, but not least, the cheeses of the Llanos and foothills
(of which _queso de mano_ is perhaps the best) and the ubiquitous
_papelon_ (brown unrefined sugar) are an important item in the country
fare.

[Illustration: OVEN: LA RAYA.]

[Illustration: AN ANDINE POSADA: LA RAYA.]

A refreshing and sustaining drink known as guarapo also consists of
raw sugar and water, and this with the aguardiente, distilled from the
fermented syrup, and coffee are to be seen everywhere. Cacao is less
common, but is naturally largely drunk in the neighbourhood of the
plantations. A light beer is made at the Carácas and Maracaibo breweries,
and there is a multitude of sweet non-alcoholic drinks manufactured from
fruits.

The meals are in general as follows: _Café_, coffee, with or without
solid food, on first rising; _almuerzo_, like the _déjeuner_ of Europe,
at midday; and _comida_ or dinner, at sunset. As far as order and number
of meals are concerned, Carácas is like the rest of the country, but
the remarks above made relative to food apply in the main only to the
provinces.

As for food, so for clothing, Carácas and the large towns need no special
mention, since the imported weaving material here is mainly European or
American. The country towns, however, frequently depend, not only for
workmanship but also for materials, on the products of the country. The
poorer people wear simple white or blue garments, with broad-brimmed
straw hats, and generally go barefoot or wear leather sandals
(_alpargatas_). Everywhere, however, both men and women turn out on feast
days in their finest and gaudiest apparel.

A country protected as regards great world powers by the Monroe Doctrine
and their own international jealousy, and surrounded by States where
the density of population is even less than in its own underpeopled
lands, has naturally no need of great and expensive establishments for
national defence, and the army and navy are merely of a size sufficient
for the settlement of possible petty disputes with neighbours. The land
force consists of 5,632 officers and men, and the navy employs only
457 combatants. These figures represent men under national control
only, though there are also a small number of militiamen and Federal
Guards distributed through the States, paid by the Ministry of War and
Marine. This department controls also the pilots and lighthouses round
the coast, and is responsible for the execution of the surveys for the
military maps of Venezuela. The total expenditure in all branches for
1908-9 was Bs. 9,113,534.86, or about £361,000.

The insignia of the republic, as adopted in 1836 and modified by decree
of July 29, 1863, consist of a flag and coat of arms. The flag is a
tricolour of yellow, blue, and red, in equal bands, one above the other
in the order mentioned, and having in the blue seven white stars,
representing the seven original provinces of Venezuela, grouped in a
circle of six round the seventh. The shield has three quarterings; the
right red with a sheaf of corn, as many ears being indicated as there
are States; the left yellow, with a group of arms and flags, crowned
with a laurel as a token of triumph; the third, occupying the whole of
the bottom part of the shield, is blue, and bears a white horse rampant,
symbolising independence and liberty. Above the shield there are two
horns of plenty, and below an olive-branch and a palm-leaf, tied with
blue and yellow ribbons, which are inscribed _Dios y Federación_ in the
centre, _5 de julio de 1811_ and _Independencia_ on the left; and the
date of the Constitution of the United States of Venezuela (_13 de Abril
1864_) and _Libertad_ on the right.

There is one decoration in Venezuela, given to prominent men in the
country and, in its lower classes, to foreigners whom the nation delights
to honour. This is the _Busto de Bolivar_, the medal showing the head of
the liberator and the ribbon the national colours.

There are in all 237 periodicals published in the country, including,
besides the official gazettes of the capitals, one or more of general
interest in every State, and a considerable number devoted to scientific,
literary, masonic, and other special subjects. The State of Lara had
in 1908, according to the Venezuelan Year-Book, the largest number of
periodical publications in the Union.




CHAPTER VII

THE ABORIGINES

    The Goajiros—Lake
    dwellings—Appearance—Territory—Villages—Government—Burial
    customs—Religion—Medicine-men—The Caribs—A fine
    race—Cannibalism—Headless man of the Caura—The
    Amazons—Industries—Religion—Marriage customs—The
    aborigines of Guayana—Tavera-Acosta on languages—The
    Warraus—Appearance—Houses—Food—Clothing—Marriage
    customs—Birth—Death—Religion—Treatment of sick—The
    Banibas—Appearance—Customs—Religion—Celebration of puberty of
    girls—Marriage customs—The Arawaks—Religion—Early missions
    amongst Indians—Wanted, a twentieth-century apostle.


The aboriginal inhabitants of Venezuela preserve their habits and racial
customs unchanged only in two regions of the republic, namely, along the
north-west frontier and in the vast forests of Guayana. Elsewhere, a
few families remain in the less accessible and more barren regions, but
the “Indians” have been in general absorbed by intermarriage into the
Spanish-speaking Venezuela nation, slowly emerging from the mixture of
races which have at various times occupied the territory.

A powerful tribe occupy the mountains and forests along the Colombian
frontier, and these are generally known as the Goajiros. Some of their
villages are on the shores of Lake Maracaibo, as at Sinamaica, and are
of the pile-dwelling type which first gave rise to the name of the
country; most of the tribe, however, live as an independent nation within
recognised boundaries.

Both men and women may be seen in Maracaibo on market days, clothed
then in the white or blue garments which all keep for contact with
civilisation. In their own villages they wear a less elaborate costume.
The men are well built, light and agile, with keen and intelligent faces,
but the women have the amorphous figures and dull, heavy faces which
come of centuries of slavery and drudgery for their menkind. Apparently
they are ethnologically a branch of the great Carib group of which we
shall have more to say later. As might be surmised from the fact of their
independence, the Goajiros are vigorous and warlike, and incidentally
excellent horsemen.

Their territory extends from Rio Hacha, in Colombia, down into the
Goajira peninsula, and across the Venezuelan border to within eight or
ten miles of Sinamaica. The boundary is guarded by military pickets, and
most of their trading is done on the frontier, merchants travelling to
this point from all sides.

They live in small villages made up of round thatched houses, which at
a distance look like so many ant-hills; the floor inside is strewn with
grass, and on this the women and children work and sleep; the men spend
much of their time in hammocks slung from the rafters. They are more fond
of fighting than of working, but in civilised regions they are peaceable,
and make excellent boatmen, while from their secluded homes they go
out hunting and fishing, and are famous for the horses and mules which
they breed. Their fields are tended by the womenfolk or by the slaves
taken from neighbouring tribes in battle, and are of exceptionally large
size, sown with yuca or manioc, potatoes and maize; they have banana
plantations, but apparently have never cultivated cocoa or coffee.

In their homes the less wealthy members of the tribe wear the _guayuco_,
or small apron, of different patterns, common to all the Venezuelan
Indians, but some have good cloth clothing, trousers and jacket, with
embroidered white shawls or blankets for the men and long mantles or
knee-high tunics for the women. Nearly all the men carry firearms of
modern patterns.

Each village has its cacique or headman, but they acknowledge the
suzerainty of a temporal chief or king living in Tunja, and a supreme
spiritual prince or pope in Iraca. Like the ancient Incas, who possibly
influenced them and helped to make them what they are, they worship the
sun, but little is known of their modes of worship or religious festivals.

If one of the tribe dies at home his body is buried in his cattle-pen,
or where he may have been most frequently found in his lifetime, his
clothing and weapons being interred with him for use in the happy hunting
grounds to which he is shortly to depart. Their belief is, however, that
for about twenty-four hours after death the spirit remains near its
dwelling, and therefore they keep up a kind of lyke-wake all day, not
to mourn for the departed but to wish him good hunting and to speed him
on his way to the next world. At sunset his spirit departs, no more to
return.

Along with their sun-worship is a belief in a good and evil principle in
Nature, residing in the spirits of the wood, streams, rain, thunder, and
so forth. Probably this represents the original animism of the nation
before their contact with the Incas. From this animism arises the custom
of exorcising evil spirits from the bodies of the sick. The sufferer is
shielded by a curtain from the rest of the hut, and the medicine-man,
clothed in a long white mantle or blanket, first massages the patient
till both perspire freely, then flagellates himself till the blood
flows, and finally, casting a powder into the fire, which sends up
clouds of blue smoke, dances himself into convulsions, until from sheer
exhaustion he sinks to the ground, covered with the white mantle; the
fire is allowed to die down, and the sick man and his doctor are left
alone in the darkness and silence.

As we have said, these Goajiros appear to be a family of the Carib group,
but while they remain where they were at the time of the conquest,
their relations eastward have been driven southwards or absorbed by the
white races, just as they themselves at an earlier date drove back the
aborigines, who now, with them, people the forests of Guayana.

The Caribs probably spoke more than one dialect when they first invaded
the mainland from the islands of the Caribbean, but now the number of
the tribes and languages considered by Señor Tavera-Acosta to belong to
the group is about thirty, including the following: Caribe, Tamanaco,
Otomak, Maquiritare or Uayungomo (also spelt Guayungomo and Waiomgomo. In
every case for names beginning with U there is the alternative spelling
with the unsounded Spanish G, and B and V are interchangeable), Maco
or Macapure, Cuacua or Mapoyo, Taparita, Uiquire or Uiquiare, Pauare,
Pareca, Uayamara, Cadupinapo, Curasicana, Yabarana, Arecuna, Macusi,
Uaica, and others of minor importance.

The members of these tribes were those who, like the Goajiros, fought
most stoutly for their independence when they saw it menaced by the
_conquistadores_. These patriots, superior in many respects, as we have
seen, to their foes, were characterised by the European invaders as
cannibals, vicious and degraded, and the Jesuits later, in their holy
zeal for souls (_conquista espiritual_) were no less harsh in their
judgments on those who naturally resented the separation of parents
from children and husband from wife and the general atrocities of the
self-styled Christians who thus endeavoured to forcibly convert them.

In reality they were then, what they still are where unspoilt by
“civilisation,” a fine race physically, brave and intelligent,
possessing, no doubt, the vices of savagery, but also its virtues. The
charges of cannibalism brought by the European exploiters of the New
World (who had the vices of civilisation and barbarism combined, without
the virtues of either) were either entirely baseless, or due to the
ignorance which mistook the limbs of monkeys, which the Indians were
always accustomed to eat, for those of men. As we have seen (Chapter
IV.), the only substantiated cases of cannibalism occurred among the
_conquistadores_ themselves.

As an instance of the unintentional perversion of facts, it is
interesting to recall the sixteenth and seventeenth century fables
of the headless men of the Caura, the _Ewaipanomo_. The banks of the
Caura are, in point of fact, inhabited by the Uayungomo branch of the
Caribs, a name sufficiently like to be possibly the same. Whether that
be so or no, a perusal of Raleigh’s and other original accounts gives
the impression that some member of one of the shorter aboriginal tribes
told the white men, by signs, that in the direction of the Caura were
men whose shoulders were above their heads (_i.e._, the heads of the
speakers). I put this forward as a plausible hypothesis for the origin
of the fable, which may not commend itself to all, but may be compared
with that advanced by various writers to explain the legend of the Amazon
communities of this region.

The story of manless villages and tribes was told (and doubtless is
still told) to nearly all travellers in Guayana and Brazil, and it has
been suggested that the statements are founded upon actual attempts at
emancipation on the part of small groups of women intelligent enough
to realise the light esteem in which they were held in the social
organisation of the Indians, and their worthiness of better treatment.
These banded themselves together in free villages in remote parts of
the forest, were seen at times by, or perhaps fought with, members of
the normal tribes, and so gave rise to a legend of a nation of warlike
independent women living somewhere, but no man knew where.

To return to the Caribs, we find these peoples at the present day
inhabiting the forests along the banks of the Caroni, Parana, and Caura
almost entirely, and particular regions on the Upper Orinoco and its
tributaries, notably the Ventuari. They are still among the best formed
and most intelligent natives of Venezuela, and retain in their native
haunts the many industries by which they long ago learned to support
themselves upon the produce of the forest lands.

These industries include cultivation of corn and manioc, the manufacture
of fibres from the _moriche_-palm for cloth, of simple earthenware, often
decorated with hieroglyphics in colour, of pigments for this and for
painting their bodies in wartime. Their arrows are often poisoned with
_curare_, the concentrated and congealed sap of the _mavacure_ creeper,
sometimes also with the extracted juice of the poisonous manioc. From the
pith of the moriche-palm they obtain a kind of sago-meal, and this, with
maize flour, bitter and sweet manioc or cassava-bread, and fish-paste
or meat from their hunting expeditions, forms their staple diet. Their
canoes are of bark or dug out of the solid trunk with the aid of stone or
flint hatchets or fire. For hunting and war they had in early times good
bows and arrows, spears of hard, heavy wood, shields of plaited creepers
covered with hides of manati, tapir, or jaguar. Nor were they without
musical (?) instruments, of which the _maracas_ or rattles of small
dried calabashes are used all over Venezuela in the country districts
to-day.

Their religious beliefs appear to be, generally speaking, those of
the Goajiros without the sun-worship, and birth, marriage, and death
customs are much alike amongst all the tribes, whether Carib or no. The
only difference here is that, in place of the usual marriage by consent
without any religious ceremony, at the time of their conquest of the
mainland, they adopted in part a marriage by capture, which has otherwise
never been their custom.

The principal tribes of the aborigines of Guayana are thus enumerated,
with their distribution and general characteristics, by Tavera Acosta,
the spelling of the names being changed in some cases.

(1) The Warraus or Guaraunos (see note, p. 122) of the Delta; dull,
unintelligent, and dirty.

(2) Arawaks, south of the Delta; intelligent, gentle, and exceptionally
cleanly.

(3) Banibas, a branch of the Quichua nation living on the Guainia or Rio
Negro and Atabapo; intelligent, gentle, and of a sedentary mode of life,
excellent boatmen and hammock-makers.

(4) Guahibos or Uajibas, on the Vichada; dirty.

(5) Barias, on the Baria, Casiquiare, and Rio Negro; good workers and
boatmen.

(6) Yaviteras, at Yavita; like the Barias.

(7) Piaroas, including the Maipures and Atures; living on the Sipapo,
Cataniapo and Mataveni; timid and agricultural.

(8) Puinabi or Guaipunavi, on the Inirida; intelligent, but fierce.

(9) Caruzana or Marapizanos; on the Guainia, and neighbouring rivers,
cultivators of manioc.

(10) Wareca or Guareca, at San Miguel and Baltazar; intelligent and
industrious.

(11) Piapocos and Salibas, on the Guaviare, &c.; agricultural.

(12) Guaharibos, round the head-waters of the Orinoco; savage.

(13, 14, and 15) Guaicas, Pasimonabis, and Mandawaks, on the Casiquiare,
&c.; agricultural.

(16) Yaruros.

Of these the Piaroas, Guarecas, Piapocos and Salibas, Pasimonabis, and
Mandawaks are becoming extinct or are leaving Venezuela for neighbouring
countries. It may be noted that many place-names, such as Guárico,
Achaguas, Apure, Mucuchíes, are those of extinct tribes or of branches of
those given above.

Tavera-Acosta finds the languages spoken by these people divisible into
three main groups, but some appear to have an admixture of Parian or
Carib words. It is interesting to note his statement that the common
Chinese root _chi_ abounds in all the dialects of Guayana, and the system
of counting is Mongolian. In addition, he states that the languages show
some Malayan affinities.

The most numerous tribes appear to be the Warraus or Guaraunos, the
Banibas (a branch of the ancient Quichua stock of the Rio Negro), and the
Arawaks; these last, however, are chiefly to be found in British Guiana.

The Warraus occupy the Delta of the Orinoco, and extend into the lowlands
of British Guiana, having everywhere retained their racial characters to
an unusual extent. Their language appears to be akin to the Carib group
on the one hand and the Arawak on the other, while the people themselves
have at times been considered as an offshoot of the Carib nation.

They are dark copper in colour, well set up, and strong, though not as
a rule tall, and with low foreheads, long and fine black hair, and the
usual high cheek-bones and wide nostrils of the South American “Indians.”
Where they have not come into contact with civilisation they are
particularly shy and reticent, but they soon lose this character, and
some are said to show considerable aptitude as workmen.

Living as they do mainly in the Delta, their houses are of necessity near
water and are raised from the ground as a protection against floods,
being sometimes, it is said, even placed on platforms in trees. The
roof is supported in the middle by two vertical posts and a ridge pole,
and is composed of palm-leaves, supported at the corners by stakes. The
sides of this simple hut consist of light palm-leaf curtains, and the
floor is of palm-planks. The hammocks are slung on the ridge pole, and
the bows and arrows of the occupants fixed in the roof, while their
household furniture, consisting of home-made earthenware pots, calabashes
of various sizes, &c., lie promiscuously about the floor. Some of the
Warraus are nomadic and live in canoes, but the majority are grouped in
villages of these huts, with captains responsible to the Venezuelan local
government authorities.

The staple diet of these people is manioc and sago, with _chicha_ (a
mixture of manioc meal and water). For clothing they dispense with
everything in their homes, except the _buja_ or _guayuco_, a tiny apron
of palm-fibre or ordinary cloth, held in position by a belt of palm-fibre
or hair. That worn by women is triangular, and often ornamented with
feathers or pearls. Among the whites the men always wear a long strip of
blue cloth, one end of which passes round the waist, the other over the
shoulder, hanging down in front; the women have a kind of long-sleeveless
gown. For ornament they wear necklaces of pearls, or more frequently
of red, blue, and white beads, and tight bracelets and bangles of hair
or _curagua_ (palm-fibre); some pierce ears, nose, and lower lips for
the insertion of pieces of reed, feathers, or berries on fête days. The
characteristic dull red paint on their bodies is intended to act as a
preventive against mosquitoes, and it is made by boiling the powdered
bark and wood of a creeper in turtle or alligator fat. All hair is
removed from the body by the simple but painful process of pulling each
one out with a split reed.

Marriage, as is usual among savage races, takes place at a very early
age, the husband being often only fourteen, the wife ten or twelve years
of age. Polygamy is common, but not universal; where a chief or rich
man has several wives the first, or the earliest to become a mother,
takes charge of the establishment during the absence of the owner on his
hunting or fishing expeditions. The girls are sometimes betrothed at the
age of five or six years, living in the house of the future husband from
that time on.

At birth the mother is left in a separate house alone, where all food
that she may need is placed for her, though she remains unvisited by any
of her companions throughout the day; meanwhile the father remains in his
hammock for several days, apparently owing to a belief that some evil may
befall the child; there he receives the congratulations of the villagers,
who bring him presents of the best game caught on their expeditions. This
male child-bed or _couvade_ is common to many of the Indian tribes.

The dead are mourned with elaborate ceremony—shouting, weeping, and slow,
monotonous music; the nearest relatives of the defunct cut their hair.
The body is placed in leaves and tied up in the hammock used by the owner
during life, and then placed in a hollow tree-trunk or in his canoe. This
rude coffin is then generally placed on a small support, consisting of
bamboo trestles, and so left in the deserted house of the dead man.

[Illustration: LA GUAIRA HARBOUR.]

The beliefs of the Warraus have been somewhat modified by contact with
foreigners, and perhaps on this account they speak, according to
Plassard, of one Supreme Being, the _Gébu_, superior to all the lesser
spirits of plenty, famine, fire, and all phenomena of Nature. Earthquakes
are looked upon as good signs, indicating the presence of a healthy,
invigorating spirit in the earth; a belief not so strange when it is
remembered that in the alluvial plains where the Warraus live earthquakes
have seldom been sufficiently violent to do harm.

The religious rites of the communities are presided over by the
_Wicidatu_, like the piache, a mixture of priest and medicine-man. Their
worship includes invocations against disease and famine, and prayers for
good hunting. To Gébu and the lesser spirits they offer the first-fruits
of their harvest, vegetable and animal alike, at the one great festival
of the year, for which elaborate preparations are made. All the previous
day is spent in preparing provisions, and at dawn on the feast day, their
bodies decorated with lines in blue and red, they surround the house of
the wicidatu. The priest shortly comes forth, a crown of feathers on his
head, and holding a pair of maracas. Shaking these, he leads the crowd
to the _rancho_, or hut, set apart for the offerings, and there, sitting
on the trunk of a tree, smokes and chants (accompanying himself with the
maracas) to Gébu, in whose name he presently takes the offerings. After
this he holds a maraca in the air at the length of his arm, shaking it,
and after a time bringing it down to his mouth. Then, in a disguised
voice, supposed to be that of Gébu, he asks why he is called; in reply
the wicidatu salutes and offers the first-fruits, which are accepted.
This acceptance is the signal for a general chant of the assembly
recounting their petitions, which Gébu, speaking as before through the
priest, promises to consider. Finally, the priest alone sings a song
of farewell, and Gébu returns to his heaven. The ceremonies over, the
wicidatu takes the best of the food and drink, and the remainder provides
refreshment during the dancing and revels which occupy the rest of the
day.

In addition to conducting this public worship the wicidatu acts as doctor
in times of sickness, making use of certain simples and invocations to
the spirits of the disease. Religious ceremonies are performed round the
hut by night, and the medicine-man enters with a cigar of tobacco and
herbs and blows the smoke on to the abdomen and chest of the patient.
After the fumigation he is left alone for some time, until the wicidatu
returns, dances and prostrates himself round the hut, performs the
fumigation once more, and finally retires, leaving the sick man to
recover or die, according to the manner in which the spirit has been
affected by the supplications.

Not only are the Banibas probably the most numerous of the many tribes
of the hinterland of Guayana, but they are considered by Tavera-Acosta
to be the most advanced of them all. A description, therefore, of their
principal customs may be taken as a sufficient indication of the tendency
of the beliefs and practices of other aborigines of the interior.

The Banibas are found chiefly along the Guainia and the Atabapo Rivers,
their villages extending into Brazil and Colombia. They are said to be
intelligent and peaceable, of a sedentary mode of life, excellent boatmen
and hammock-makers. Tavera-Acosta, adopting the view that they are a
branch of the ancient Quichua nation, gives d’Orbigny’s description of
the latter thus: “The head is oblong, nose long, slightly aquiline, eyes
horizontal, profile almost European, though the cheek-bones are higher.
They are serious, somewhat melancholy, industrious, with an intelligent
expression, but reserved. Neither red nor copper in colour, but bronze.
The foot is small, but instep rather high.”

Their villages are composed of round conical huts, built of poles
covered with palm-leaves, each hut containing twenty or thirty of the
same family. All the work is done by the young men and women, the elders
living a life of absolute idleness; the men hunt and collect the rubber
and other produce of the forest, travelling about in canoes; the women
attend to the household duties, fish, and sow the small fields with maize
and manioc. The hammocks made by the Banibas are especially noted, some
being beautifully interwoven with feathers; the best have been known to
fetch as much as £40.

Their staple foods are maize flour, manioc meal, and the cakes of arepa
or cassava made therefrom; the meal they preserve by treating it with a
preparation of bitter yuca, known as _murujui_; fish, smoked and dried
tapir meat, and small game vary their diet, and in default of other
beverages they drink _yucuta_, the chicha of the Warraus.

Their religious beliefs and customs have been considerably affected by
the presence in the region of Jesuits and other missionaries from an
early period in the Spanish occupation; hence Roman scapularies and pagan
fetiches are found side by side, and their form of worship, as well as
their faith, is a similar mixture of pagan and heathen dogmas.

Their customs as regards birth, sickness, and death are sufficiently
similar to the rest of the aborigines to render description unnecessary,
but the marriage ceremony is bound up with the celebration of the
pubescence of the girls, which is extraordinarily barbarous in view of
the high standard of their morals and general character.

When a maiden of the tribe attains the age of puberty her mother
communicates the fact to the elders of the village, and her daughter
is shut up alone in a hut, where she is expected to lie in a hammock,
eating and drinking only a little manioc and water. Notice being given,
the eligible youths of the community apply to her father for the girl,
who is promised to him who shall bring as a present the best piece
of curare, the finest hammock, or certain kinds of fish or game. The
bridegroom having been thus selected, the girl’s seclusion is over. She
is led forth, with eyes bandaged and head covered with a kind of bonnet,
to a stake in the centre of the village, where the elders tie up and
beat the unfortunate damsel with whips of cord or fish-skin, sometimes
studded with sharp stones; the proceedings are accompanied by the blowing
of conches. The two senior elders then advance inside the revolving
circle and command the supposed demon in the girl to leave her and enter
the stake to which she is tied, and presently, at a given signal, the
flagellation ceases. The girl, often fainting from pain and weakness, is
released and taken away to a distance; her wounds are washed and soothing
herbs applied, while the youngest elder present is dispatched to advise
the bridegroom that his future wife has been freed from the demon and is
to be found in such and such a place. Then he goes from house to house
shouting, “Come and burn the demon which would have taken possession of
such and such a girl!”

Meanwhile the bridegroom has found the bride and taken her to his
father’s house, and the rest of the population is collected round the
stake, which is surrounded with faggots; the women, wearing fringed
belts and holding one another by the waist, dance round in a ring
execrating the demon; the men shout and sing and drink strong liquors
prepared previously by the girl’s parents. The bridegroom, having left
the bride with his mother, approaches with a torch to fire the pile, and
apostrophises the demon, telling him that the girl he wished to harm is
now his wife, paid for with curare (or whatever the present may have
been), and finally, in token of their vengeance, he lights the faggots
to the sound of a fearful din from the conches, tambourines, and maracas.
All the people dance up to the fire and back again, the men lined up on
one side, the women on the other, finally circling round till everything
is consumed. In this way the safety of the bride from evil influences is
secured, and she is recognised henceforth as the wife of her purchaser.

Sir Everard im Thurn described the Arawaks, of whom there are many
families, as one of the most advanced groups in British Guiana, whence
they extend into Venezuela. They build the cleanest and best houses,
sometimes square and sometimes round, especially on the savannahs. Their
standard of morality is high, and their religious belief, where untouched
by those of the colonists, is a pure animism. He notes, however, that
they use one general term very frequently in apostrophising a heavy rain,
severe thunderstorm, or other unpleasant display of the powers of the
air, without any definite idea of one being. This term, _Oenicidu_, he
suggests, represents an approach to recognition of a single force behind
all the phenomena of Nature, which might grow into a belief in a Supreme
Spirit. Those who wish to know the folklore of these and neighbouring
peoples should turn to Sir Everard’s book on the Indians of Guiana.

We have already seen that, while the early Romish missionaries in the
north of Venezuela did much good in civilising and settling the Indians
there, who have since become amalgamated with the Castilian element, in
Guiana the atrocities perpetrated by the Jesuits far outweighed any good
effect produced by the lessons of industry inculcated in the mission
settlements. It is not surprising, therefore, in view of the early
opposition of some of even the better ecclesiastics to the republic, that
foreign priests and monks of all denominations were prohibited from
entering the republic. There has been absolute freedom for all beliefs
within the country since 1854, however, and the State contributes to the
support of the Catholic churches throughout the land, while reserving
the right to make all ecclesiastical appointments and to admit or reject
papal bulls as it sees fit.

These remarks are made here in partial explanation of the absence
of any recent attempts on the part of any branch of the Christian
Church to convert or civilise the natives of Guayana. There is little
inducement for the 409 priests who serve the 547 churches of the country
to penetrate the unattractive regions of Guayana, and no Protestant
missionaries have been found willing to sacrifice their nationality in
order to take up the work. Yet these Indians are fine material for a
sincere apostle to work upon, and were they given an incentive to use
their time well, the talents of the best among them might soon lessen
the distance between that visionary prosperous future of Guayana and the
present day, when both land and inhabitants are standing still amid the
progress of the world.




CHAPTER VIII

THE STATES OF THE “CENTRO”

    La Guaira—Heat—Port works—The Brighton of Venezuela—Sugar
    plantations—Streets and _botiquins_—_Guarapo_—La
    Guaira-Carácas Railway—A great engineering
    feat—Carácas—Climate—Population—Streets—Buildings—The Salón
    Elíptico—El Calvario—El Paraiso—“La India”—Water-supply—Trams
    and telephones—Lighting—Industries—The Guaire
    Valley—Coffee—Miranda—Ocumare del Tuy—Petare—Central
    Railway—Vegetable snow—Carenero Railway—Rio Chico—Los
    Teques—Great Venezuelan Railway—La Victoria—Sixteen-fold
    wheatfields—Maracay—Grazing lands—Cheese—President Gomez’s
    country house—Villa de Cura—An epitome of the State—Lake of
    Valencia—Cotton—Carabobo—Valencia—Cotton-mills—Montalbán—Deserted
    vineyards—Wild rubber—Puerto Cabello Railway—The port—Meat
    syndicate—Club—Ocumare de la Costa—What is bad for man may be
    good for cocoa—Mineral resources.


For obvious reasons the central region of Venezuela, round about the
capital, is that most frequently visited by Europeans, and generally even
those travellers who, at the call of science, commerce, or pleasure,
penetrate to other parts of the country first come into contact with it
at La Guaira, the chief port of the republic.

The first settlement in the neighbourhood was established some eight
miles to the westward, and was known as Caraballeda, the present town
being founded in 1588, shortly after the seat of government was removed
from Coro to Carácas. Standing as it does on a narrow strip of more or
less level land, at the foot of the cordillera which here rises from
the water’s edge to the height of about 5,000 feet, and extending up
the precipitous slopes of the bare mountain, the town is terribly hot
at times. In early days the roadstead must have been very unsafe, for
the swell running on this coast at all seasons prevents secure anchorage
outside the harbour.

The existing port works belong to an English company, and cost £980,000
to complete; and even so, the rise and fall from the swell is merely
reduced, not neutralised. The contract for the La Guaira harbour was
given to Messrs. Punchard & Co., who decided, in view of the fact that
the roadstead was open to the waves to north and east only, that a
straight east and west breakwater would prove most effective. The length
of this was to be 2,050 feet, and the design allowed for the enclosure of
90 acres of water of an average depth of 30 feet, 3,100 feet of quays,
and 18 acres of reclaimed land. There are seldom severe wind-storms, and
the strong swell with the resulting huge waves which break upon the coast
were the principal difficulties to be met. Unfortunately, as we have
said, the movement is not entirely kept back by the breakwater. The work
was commenced in December, 1885, but the first breakwater was destroyed
by a particularly heavy swell in December, 1887; the second was commenced
in July, 1888, and finally completed, more or less as it stands to-day,
in July, 1891.

A railway runs through the town from the suburb of Maiquetia, about a
mile and a half westwards, to the fashionable watering-place of Macuto,
three miles in the opposite direction. Here there is an esplanade,
gardens, and sea-baths, and as the coast, in contrast to La Guaira, faces
the direction of the prevalent winds, climatic conditions are pleasant.
In the season this Brighton of Venezuela is full of visitors.

Through La Guaira passes out the greater part of the produce of the
“Centro,” and much from other parts of the country, the principal exports
being coffee, cacao, cotton, hides, gold, rubber, pearls, feathers
(egrets’), and _alpargatas_ (sandals). There are factories turning out
cigars, cigarettes, hats, boots, and other articles for home consumption;
and at La Guaira the French cable enters the sea. Near Punta Caraballeda
there is the big Juan Diaz sugar-mill of Messrs. Boulton, surrounded by
bright green cane plantations; but save coconut-palms, little of value
grows along the greater part of this coast near the shore.

The narrow street behind the quay is chiefly occupied by _botiquins_,
some with abundant tropical and temperate fruits of which cooling
_refrescos_ can be made, with green milk-coconuts and barrels of diluted
_guarapo_ (sugar syrup) at a centimo a tumbler—not the pleasantest to
an unaccustomed palate but probably the most effective of Venezuelan
thirst-quenchers. After the hot sun on the quay the little tables under
the trees look particularly inviting, though it is only fair to say that
the unkempt appearance of this small fore street is more likely to strike
the new-comer than the more pleasant matters.

Communication with the capital is carried on by rail and road, the
former carrying the express freight, though the loaded donkeys and mules
leaving Maiquetia before sunrise show that the railway is not without
competition. The road is well engineered, and is about twenty-five
miles in length; the unmacadamised surface is, however, little used for
wheel-traffic. In a straight line Carácas is about eight miles from La
Guaira, but stands 3,000 feet above the port, and is separated from it by
a mountain range 5,000 feet high, over which climbs the old Spanish paved
road.

The British-built and owned La Guaira-Carácas railway accomplishes the
climb in about 23 miles, the ruling gradient being 1 in 27 to the head
of the pass at 3,200 feet, whence it descends 200 feet to the city. The
chief feature of the line is the small radius of the curves, some of
which are so sharp that it has been said that the guard at the rear of
the train can whisper to the driver. For much of the distance there is a
splendid view over the Caribbean, and as the line climbs higher up into
the gorge the train is often only a few feet from the edge of precipices,
with a vertical drop in some cases of over a thousand feet. De Lesseps
said that there was only one dangerous part of the line, but that
that extended from La Guaira to Carácas. The whole is a fine piece of
engineering, and, notwithstanding the theoretical risks, there has never
been an accident to a passenger train, thanks to the energetic management
and splendid system of _vigilantes_, or watchmen, ever on the lookout for
landslips as well as for faults in the permanent way.

Carácas stands on the north bank of the River Guaire, on the inner slope
of the coastal cordillera. The northern part of the city is thus higher
than the southern. Founded in 1567 by Diego de Losada, its equable
climate at the elevation of 3,000 feet and the fertile valley in which
it lay soon attracted the Government away from Coro, on the hot, barren
plains near the Gulf of Venezuela. The minimum temperature recorded in an
average year may be as low as 48° F. (this, of course, at night), but,
in general, days and nights are mild, and only in the middle of the year
is the air uncomfortably warm at any time of the day. The population was
estimated as 90,000 in 1904, and suburbs bring the total to over 100,000.
It would be obviously unfair to institute a comparison between a city
of this size and any of the better known capitals of Spanish-American
republics, but, considered purely on its own merits, the capital of
Venezuela has much to commend it, and undoubtedly exerts a peculiar
fascination over most of those who visit it.

[Illustration: PLAZA BOLIVAR: VALENCIA.]

The streets are narrow, though the one-storey buildings make this hardly
noticeable, and are paved in the outer parts of the city with cobbles,
in the centre with cement. Though most of the private or business houses
have one storey only, this does not apply to the public edifices, and
the distribution of these is as casual as in London. As is usual, the
principal square or plaza occupies the centre of the town, and round it
are grouped the cathedral, Federal Government offices, Palace of Justice,
Archbishop’s palace, the Casa Amarilla (containing the archives), the
G.P.O., and the principal hotel (the Klindt) of the city. The centre
of the plaza gardens is occupied by an equestrian statue of Bolivar in
bronze. The Capitol is south-west of the Plaza Bolivar, and is a large
building in semi-Moorish style, divided by a central patio into two
main portions. The southern part is occupied by the two Chambers of
the Legislature, while the northern houses the Executive. Part of the
Executive Palace, as it is called, is occupied by the Salón Elíptico,
containing portraits of famous patriots and statesmen of Venezuela,
conspicuous among the dark-haired Spanish or Venezuelan types being the
Irishman O’Leary. The dome is decorated with a picture of the battle
of Carabobo, and the roofs of the wings with representations of those
of Pinchincha and Boyacá, while to the east is a large picture of the
Congress of Angostura. The offices of the various departments are on the
first floor. Among the remaining buildings of note we may mention the
University, an imitation-freestone gothic structure south of the Capitol,
the Municipal Theatre, the Pantheon, and the presidential residence
(Miraflores).

On the hill of El Calvario west of the city is the Observatory and the
Independencia Park, from which a fine view of the city can be had in the
afternoon. On the south of the Guaire, which is crossed by two bridges,
is the Paraiso drive, with the villas of some of the wealthier residents.
Here the society of Carácas drives just before sunset, and we may note,
in passing, that the cabs (generally hooded victorias or small landaus)
are remarkably cheap and good. One carries a walking-stick when driving
to con the coachman, a tap on the right arm meaning a turn in that
direction, a poke in the middle of the back “stop,” and so on. Not far
from the plaza on the one hand and the Municipal Theatre on the other is
the restaurant “La India,” where the youth of Carácas indulge in cakes
and ale in the mornings, and chocolate (which is excellent), or less
innocuous liquids after the theatre. Tea, or at least afternoon tea, is
uncommon in Carácas as yet, though a growing British colony may change
matters in that respect. An enumeration of the plazas and monuments could
be of little service, and still less a list of the various hospitals and
charitable institutions, of which there are many. On the practical side,
however, it is worth noting that Carácas has two public slaughterhouses
in different parts of the city.

The water supply is mainly derived from the River Macarao, about fifteen
miles west of the town, whence it is brought by an aqueduct to El
Calvario and there filtered; there are also reservoirs for the north of
the city, deriving their supply from the streams of the Silla de Carácas.
There is an excellent service of trams and telephones, both started and
controlled by Britishers, and the electric supply for the former as well
as for lighting the city is derived from the falls of El Encantado and
Los Naranjos, on the Guaire below Carácas. A new plant is shortly to be
erected at Mamo. The city also boasts a brewery, foundry, and factories
for furniture-making, cigarettes, matches, &c. The remarks made in
reference to the trade of La Guaira apply equally to the capital, for
practically all the merchandise of the one passes first through the other.

The bottom of the Guaire Valley near Carácas constitutes economically
the most important part of the Federal district, for the inner slope
of the Cordillera here supports only small forest or grass, while the
more accessible parts of the seaward flank are barren and useless. The
sugar plantations of Juan Diaz have already been mentioned, but in the
neighbourhood of Carácas there are, or were, many of these, even though
the climate is sufficiently cool to have allowed the cultivation of wheat
in earlier days, when the Spaniards found it, as might the Venezuelans,
less costly than importation. There are fine coffee plantations also
in the neighbourhood of Carácas, and the elevation would point to this
as one of the best coffee districts of the country; indeed, the yield
obtained on some haciendas here is said to have been as much as twenty
pounds to the tree.

East and south of the Federal District lies the State of Miranda,
including all the hills to Cape Codera and the edge of the Llanos as
far as Uchire. The capital is Ocumare del Tuy, though this is not the
largest town. Its name at the time of its foundation in 1692 was Sabana
de Ocumare, but its proximity to the River Tuy led to the adoption of the
present name as a distinction from Ocumare de la Costa. Coffee is grown
on the hills in the neighbourhood, with cacao lower down, and sugar and
beans in the valleys. The importance of the town is rather political than
commercial at present, though the Central Railway may some time reach it
and make a centre for the traffic from the Llanos, which lie southward.

Petare was the largest town in Miranda at the last census, having then
a population of nearly 7,000. It was founded on the Guaire, some seven
miles east of Carácas, in 1704, and is a locally important manufacturing
town, turning out principally _alpargatas_, cigarettes, and starch, the
last named made from yuca or manioc.

This town was the first terminus of the Central Railway of Venezuela,
which was projected by Guzman Blanco to travel south-eastward from
Carácas down the Guaire to its junction with the Tuy, then up the larger
river westwards and down the Aragua to Valencia. At present it has only
reached Santa Lucia, rather more than thirty miles from Carácas, and
the direct German line has done away with the necessity of carrying it
through to Valencia. The prosperous nature of the country under Guzman
Blanco made the enterprise extremely promising, but the long series of
revolutions and counter-revolutions since his day have kept the freight
down to a minimum. Better days may be in store for the line, however,
when the owners of the rich coffee, cocoa, and sugar lands which it taps
rise to their opportunities, and an extension to Ocumare should bring it
an ever-increasing amount of traffic in the produce of the Llanos.

All the way along the Valley of the Guaire the hills are, in the season,
white with the coffee-bloom, and the small patches of yuca, maize, and
bananas may yet become big and profitable plantations. Beyond Santa Lucia
the Guaire joins the Tuy, and here, in a broad, flat-bottomed valley full
of sugar and cacao, stands Santa Teresa.

If we follow down the fertile valley of the Tuy we come at length to the
barren, sandy stretch along the coast and its fringe of mangroves, where
we encounter the second railway (a rather primitive affair) in the State.

The line crosses the river at right angles, and connects the port of
Carenero with the little town of Higuerote, a few miles to the south,
and with the flourishing manufacturing town of Rio Chico, south of the
Tuy; beyond them it is continued to Guapo, on the way to the Llanos of
Guárico. Rio Chico is therefore about twenty-four miles by rail from its
port, even though the open sea is but four miles away. Here we are down
at sea-level, and the mean annual temperature is 82° F. Its position at
the edge of the rich alluvium of the Tuy brings it large quantities of
coffee, cocoa, beans, and maize, which are easily transmitted by rail
to Carenero, and thence conveyed in little schooners or steamers to
La Guaira for use in the country or for export. More important to its
welfare are the cattle of the Llanos, whose hides are similarly passed
on through Carenero to La Guaira, while the carcasses provide the raw
material for the manufacture of soap and candles, which, with the making
of alpargatas, constitutes the chief industry of the town.

Returning to Santa Teresa, we can traverse the plantations to Ocumare,
the capital, and beyond to Cúa, named after a famous Indian cacique.
Beyond this there are no towns of importance east of the State boundary,
but a road over the watershed leads to Los Teques, at the head of the
Guaire. This stands at a considerably greater altitude than Carácas, and
is chiefly of importance to-day as a health resort, though when Faxardo
first visited the Indians after whom the place is named, in the sixteenth
century, he was attracted by the copper-mines of the district, now no
longer worked.

Los Teques is the first town of importance on the Great Venezuelan
Railway (a German line) west of Carácas, but it is the last in the State
of Miranda. The train climbs up a picturesque gorge to Los Teques, then
passes through a tunnel, and begins to cross by equally picturesque loops
and zigzags the head of the Tuy, finally dropping down into the fertile
valley of Aragua, from which the next State takes its name. The western
terminus of the line is Valencia, but the first large town reached is La
Victoria (much beloved of ex-President Castro), the capital of Aragua.

All along the line are evidences of the agriculture and sylvan wealth
of the land, in coffee and sugar-plantations, and patches of forest of
valuable timber. La Victoria is a well-built, handsome town. It was
founded in 1593 and had a population of over 14,000 at the last census.
The barracks form an imposing block of buildings, and there are factories
on a small scale for cigarettes, paper, sandals, boots and shoes, and
candles. The tobacco and wood for the two first come from plantations
and forests close at hand, and the considerable traffic from the Llanos,
as well as the pasture-lands of the Aragua Valley farther west, supply
the raw materials for the other articles. There is a mill here also
which uses the cotton of the drier parts of the valley, near the Lake
of Valencia. The railway, both before and after La Victoria, passes
many cane plantations with small refineries and distilleries, turning
out the raw sugar and spirit which constitute an important part of the
trade of the town. A good deal of wheat used to be grown here, the fields
producing as much as 3,000 pounds to the acre, a sixteen-fold return,
which would surely pay well to-day, when the heavy duty on imported flour
(about 1d. per lb.) is considered.

Maracay, also on the railway, near the east end of the Lake of Valencia,
is in a splendid farming and stock-breeding country. There are rich
grazing lands planted with pará grass, forest for timber, and coffee,
sugar, indigo of excellent quality, and tobacco, as well as cotton,
can be grown in the vicinity. The dairies of Maracay produce a famous
cream-cheese, known by the name of the town throughout Venezuela, and the
hogs of Maracay are very different from the skinny animals generally seen
in the tropics. President Gomez has a ranch here, to which he retires
whenever allowed a respite from cares of State.

South of Maracay at a distance of about fifteen miles is the main pass
across the Serrania Interior to the Llanos, and in this pass stands the
important town of Villa de Cura, founded in 1730. It is a well-built
town, standing between two rivers flowing in opposite directions; the
valley itself is dry compared to that of Aragua, but has many big
cattle-ranches, so that here, as at Maracay, cheese and hides form the
principal articles of commerce. Since it derives a certain amount of
profit from the cacao and coffee of the mills near by, it forms in itself
an epitome of the wealth of the State of Aragua, which, with its fertile
valleys, combines the products of the hills and forests with those of the
neighbouring Llanos.

The beautiful Lake of Valencia, with its many islands, lies partly in
Aragua and partly in the neighbouring State of Carabobo. The dry, sandy
shores are mainly utilised for cotton-growing, an industry which, like
many others in Venezuela, has never received the attention which it
deserves, because an ample return on capital can be had in a multitude of
enterprises for a minimum expenditure of labour and forethought.

In Carabobo we begin to leave the more densely populated region of the
Centro, and find something of the wildness of virgin territory away
from the towns. Thus we have timber and dye-woods and uncultivated
rubber exported as well as the products of the pastoral and agricultural
industries.

The capital of the State is Valencia, once greater and more important
than it is now, much of the produce of Aragua which formerly passed
through the city being carried eastward by the Great Venezuelan Railway,
while the Bolivar Railway now carries direct to and from Barquisimeto
goods which in earlier days came in and passed out through Valencia. The
industry of the inhabitants has saved the place from absolute decay, and
the population at the last census was over 54,000.

As we have already seen, Valencia is connected with the capital by rail,
and there is a cart-road for slow traffic, while the Telephone Company
has a line as far as Puerto Cabello, passing through Valencia. For its
internal comfort, the city has a good supply of water brought by aqueduct
from the hills, tramways, electric light, hotels, and plazas. The public
buildings include the State Capitol and Municipal Theatre, and there is
a column in the Plaza Bolivar commemorating the battle on the _campo_
from which the State takes its name. The large cotton-mills testify to an
attempt to develop the resources of the neighbourhood; flour-mills and
cigarette-factories deal with some of the produce of the fertile valleys
to the west. Coffee, sugar, alcohol, live beasts and hides, with other
agricultural products, all find their way to the markets of Valencia; nor
should the marble quarries of the hills be forgotten, since the country
may one day use more of its own ornamental stones in place of importing
them over the high tariff wall.

Twenty-three miles westward from Valencia (which by the way, is unusually
hot for its elevation) is the town of Montalbán, higher up in the hills,
with a population of nearly 9,000. It was named after Montalbán in
Aragon, and rejoices in a mean annual temperature of 73°F. On the fertile
river banks the Montalbanians used once to grow excellent grapes, as well
as wheat and indigo of fine quality. With the introduction of coffee in
1813, it was found more profitable to devote the land to that, and the
cultivation of the fruit, for which it was formerly famous, has died out.

The river-valleys and mountain-slopes of Carabobo are often
forest-covered, and wild rubber is sufficiently common to be collected.
From all the western region of the State the produce of field and farm
is brought by road to Valencia, and thence, if intended for export, sent
down the English railway to Puerto Cabello.

This line was begun during the construction of that from La Guaira to
Carácas, but presented in some respects a less difficult task, since
the highest point to which it must rise to cross the watershed of the
coastal cordillera is only 1,950 feet above the sea. The original scheme
of ordinary traction was changed to include a short piece of 8 per cent.
grade with a rack engine, working on a cogged centre rail, the rest of
the descent is then easily accomplished.

Puerto Cabello has one of the best harbours in Venezuela, which possesses
the additional merit of being entirely natural. The name is a witness
to the excellence of the shelter, since the Spaniards changed Borburata
to Cabello in token of the fact that in calm waters of the harbour a
ship would be held with a hair (Sp. _Cabello_). On the outer side are
the red iron-roofed buildings of the Venezuela Naval Dockyard, next door
to the fortress, the submarine dungeons of which have too often been
occupied by innocent men, both in colonial and republican times. Through
Puerto Cabello is exported most of the produce of Carabobo, Yaracuy,
and the Llano States of Cojedes and Portuguesa, with some from Lara,
Trujillo, and Mérida. The new buildings of the Venezuela Meat Syndicate
are near the station, an enterprise which seems likely, when once fairly
started, to give Puerto Cabello an increasing importance, in addition
to encouraging improvement in stock-farming. The various members of the
staff make up a small English colony, who are largely responsible for the
presence of English papers in the waterside club, a pleasant place to
spend the sultry evenings.

Round about the port there are numbers of attractive villas and
plantations, but the most fruitful land is in the neighbourhood of
Ocumare, some twenty miles eastward along the coast. The town is situated
near the mouth of a deep valley, and, but for the sea breezes, would be
unbearably hot. As it is, the climate which would, untempered, be so
unpleasant for men, is excellent for cocoa, and that of Ocumare has a
deserved fame. From the higher lands behind come cattle and cereals to
swell the trade of the town, whose population has increased greatly since
the last census.

The agricultural resources of the “Centro” have received, as we have
seen, a moderate share of attention, and if they are not developed to
anything approaching a full extent, the region is nevertheless one in
which less remains to be done than elsewhere in the republic. There are
said to be “mines” of all manner of metals unworked as yet, particularly
in the west, but without months of work by a mining engineer it would be
impossible to verify such a statement. At present all that can be said is
that it may be true, and perhaps some day the copper, silver, iron, and
gold of the Centro will be established realities, and not mere words in
“accusations” of territory for mining purposes.

[Illustration: MARACAIBO BAY.]

[Illustration: SAN TIMOTEO: LAKE OF MARACAIBO.]




CHAPTER IX

ZULIA

    The Lake of Coquibacoa in the sixteenth century
    and now—Wealth and importance of the State—Area
    and population—Waterways—Forests—Mineral
    wealth—Savannahs—Maracaibo—Harbour and
    dredging schemes—Cojoro—Wharves and warehouses
    of Maracaibo—Exports—Population—German
    colony—Buildings—Industries—Tramways—_Coches_—Lake
    steamers—Ancient craft—The comedy of the
    bar—Railways—Communication with Colombia—Altagracia—Santa
    Rita—A western Gibraltar—An eventful history—San Carlos de
    Zulia—Sinamaica—Vegetable milk—Timber—Copaiba—Fisheries—The
    “Maracaibo lights.”


When Alonso de Ojeda, first of all Europeans, entered what was then the
Lake of Coquibacoa, he was chiefly struck by the unusual appearance of
the Indian huts, built on platforms over the shallow waters, and were it
possible for any one to-day to cruise round the “lake” without observing
the port of Maracaibo, he might come away with the impression that the
greater part of the State of Zulia has not changed since the sixteenth
century. Strangely enough, this impression would not be far from the
truth as regards the extent of cultivation and settlement, and yet,
thanks to the great fertility of the soil in these steaming lowlands,
and to the commercial importance of the capital, the State of Zulia is
already one of the most important and wealthy in the Union of Venezuela.

The area within its boundaries amounts to some 23,000 square miles,
the greater part of which is inhabited (if we except the concentrated
populations of Maracaibo and the Goajira territory) by about 56,000
souls. Even if we take the total population the density is but 6·4 to the
square mile, in a State whose resources might support with ease ten times
that number, while its death-rate is one of the lowest in the republic.

Among the most valuable assets of the State are its abundant waterways.
Not only is the central part occupied by a brackish-water lake on which
small _goletas_ or schooners and steamers can ply, but through the level
plains around flow innumerable rivers, most of which are navigable for
the greater part of their length. The forests which cover much of the
area are at once a benefit and a hindrance to progress, the valuable
timber and natural products to be found there being only in part a
compensation for the obstacle they present to the increase of the much
more valuable cultivated fruits. It would be a matter for regret were the
forests to be indiscriminately cut down, but the absence of clearings is
not due to any prudential reasons of this sort.

While the other resources of Zulia have received more or less attention,
its mines, for one reason or another, have never been developed. Yet
indications of petroleum or asphalt and outcrops of coal are to be met
with all round the lake. The _salinas_ near Maracaibo are not mines
in the normal sense of the word, but in so far as their product is a
mineral, it may be said that this is an exception to the rule, the salt
of Zulia being well known in the Andes and Colombia.

The savannahs which here and there break the forest on both sides of the
lake, and especially on the lower slopes of the Serrania del Empalado to
the east, provide pasturage for many head of cattle, and in the north
goat-farming is extensively carried on.

The port through which all these products are, or might be, transmitted
to the outside world was first founded by Alfinger in 1529, but the
original town fell into decay, and the present city dates back to 1571,
when Don Alonso Pacheco founded it as Nueva Zamora; as usual, the Indian
name soon ousted the Spanish title. To-day it is the second port of the
republic, and has a larger export trade than La Guaira.

The beautiful bay, with its wharves and smooth roadstead, makes a
splendid harbour, but the difficult navigation of the mouth of the lake
presents a hindrance ever increasing in magnitude with the silting up of
the bar. Schemes have been advanced for dredging one of the four channels
and so providing a permanent entrance for the kind of steamer which at
present reaches Maracaibo. The alternative idea of utilising the fine
natural harbour of Cojoro on the Gulf of Venezuela and connecting this
with the capital by means of a railway, appears much more satisfactory,
since in this way the increasing volume of exports from Zulia and the
Andes could be brought to a port capable of accommodating the largest of
ocean-going steamers. The length of this line would be some 100 miles.

The foreign trade of Maracaibo is at present carried by the National boat
_Venezuela_ or by the boats of the American Red D Line, which in many
cases transfer them to other lines in Curaçao; the greater part of the
exported produce is carried by sailing-boats. The wharves and warehouses
are under public control, and there is a fixed scale of charges from 65
centimos per 100 kilos. for exported goods to B12.0 for imported goods
destined for merchants in Maracaibo or in transit to Colombia. The
last-named trade is very considerable, as all the foreign goods consumed
in the province of Santander enter through Maracaibo. The chief exports
are coffee, cocoa, quinine, copaiba-balsam, dye-woods, sugar, and hides.

If one ignores the fact that the great majority of the streets of
Maracaibo are as Nature made them, it is possible to admire the extent of
the city and flourishing aspect of the port, but on a hot afternoon (and
this is worse than La Guaira for heat) the dusty walk or drive to one’s
hotel does not add to the pleasure of the first experience of the place.
The city had a population of 34,740 at the last census, but there must
now be nearly half as many again living in the capital.

There are no Anglo-Saxons at present in Maracaibo, the larger business
houses being entirely managed, though not always owned, by Germans, from
all of whom, including the British Vice-Consul, Mr. Schröder, our party
met with the greatest kindness. The town being built for use rather
than ornament, there are no public buildings of particularly striking
appearance. The Legislative and Municipal Palaces in the Plaza Bolivar
and the spired church of the Immaculate Conception are among the most
noticeable buildings. There are hospitals and two clubs, and the Teatro
and Plaza Baralt, with many statues, keep in memory the name of one of
Maracaibo’s most famous citizens, who wrote the first comprehensive
history of Venezuela.

Factories for candles, soap, hats, boots, tanneries, and saw-mills are
among the more prominent industries of Maracaibo, whose products command
a sale in Colombia as well as in Venezuela.

The town has a well-equipped electric light plant, a tramway to the south
of the town, which is shortly to be electrified, another out to the Bella
Vista suburb, worked by steam, a more or less efficient water supply,
and restaurants, shops, and other means of administration to the public
comfort, not to mention _coches_ equal to those of Carácas. The chief
needs of the city are really efficient water supply, paving and drainage
systems; with these it ought to be, though hot, one of the healthiest
cities of the republic; as it is, the death-rate is high.

From Maracaibo steamers and sailing craft of all kinds travel to points
of the lake shore, and in some cases far up the larger rivers to the
ports of the Andine States and Colombia. The steamers plying on the
lake include some venerable hulks, whose passage through the water is
accompanied by painful groans and sobs from the ancient engines; one of
those which still makes the trip to Encontrados, on the Catatumbo, is
mentioned by Dr. Sievers as working when he visited the region in 1884.
The charges for freight and passengers are in inverse proportion to the
efficiency of the boats.

There are two main lines of steamers from the capital, one travelling
along the western side of the lake and then up the Catatumbo to
Encontrados, the port of Táchira; the other crossing diagonally to La
Ceiba, where the railway from Motatán in Trujillo reaches the shore. A
smaller boat travels round the southern end of the lake, connecting the
mouth of the Catatumbo and La Ceiba with Santa Barbara on the Escalante,
where a railway was once built part of the way to Mérida. There is a bar
at the mouth of the Catatumbo, and in consequence of this the smaller
steamer is always there awaiting the arrival of the large boat from
Maracaibo. If there is much cargo, some of it is transhipped outside the
bar and reloaded when the lightened vessel has successfully navigated the
shallow water. Often a whole day is wasted over this performance, and
one cannot help thinking that if the dredging of a channel would be more
expensive it would at least be less ludicrous.

Of the railways mentioned in connection with the lines of steamers, that
from La Ceiba is wholly in the State of Trujillo, but the others traverse
a considerable extent of the forests of Zulia before entering the Andine
States. The metre-gauge line from Santa Barbara was originally intended
to reach Mérida by way of the Chama Valley, but it only reached El Vigia,
on that river, and has now fallen into disrepair. The Encontrados line or
Gran Ferrocarril del Táchira, also a Venezuelan concern, has a 1·07-metre
track, and is intended ultimately to reach San Cristobal; passing as it
does through great stretches of virgin forest on the banks of the Zulia,
it has already done much to open up this country to cultivation, and ends
at present in the coffee-bearing foothills of the Andes. From Encontrados
a line of small steamers carries merchandise on up the Zulia River to the
Colombian port of Villamizar.

While the majority of settlements round the lake consist of a few
palm-leaf huts, or houses on piles in the ancient fashion of the
Indians, there are several towns of more or less importance. Altagracia,
immediately opposite Maracaibo on the eastern shore, is the largest of
these, and has a considerable importance on account of the agricultural
products of its surroundings, with a fleet of fishing-boats, whose
catches are sold in the town and thence shipped into the interior. Santa
Rita, not far to the south, is in the midst of a fine goat-farming
district, and the coco-palms along the lake shores are cultivated with
great profit.

At the extreme south-east corner of the lake there is a hamlet which
bears a famous name, and has itself been of note in Venezuelan history.
This is Gibraltar, founded by Gonzalo Piña Lidueña, afterwards Governor
of the province, in 1597. It is said that during the night when he camped
at this spot there was a total eclipse of the moon, reminding him of a
bivouac at Gibraltar in Spain, where he had last seen the phenomenon; as
a result he named the new settlement after the famous rock. The fertile
lands around were so excellent for cacao and tobacco that the place soon
became important, and substantial buildings were erected to accommodate
the increasing population. Before long it was sacked and reduced to ruins
by the Motilones Indians, but in 1666 was again so flourishing that the
pirate Henry Morgan considered it worth taking, and the town, which had
again grown up in 1678, was sacked a third time by Gramont. From one
cause and another, chiefly the disturbances during the revolution against
Spain, the place became deserted, and now only a few huts amid the ruins
of the old stone buildings mark the site of the city, while the cacao and
tobacco plantations have, through neglect, lost their prestige or been
swallowed up by forest.

San Carlos de Zulia, on the Escalante, is important by virtue of the
through traffic from the haciendas in the interior to the shores of the
lake, but it is not attractive, being, like the port of Encontrados, an
insanitary, unhealthy, riverside village rather than a town.

North of the cultivated lands on the west shore near Maracaibo, opposite
the entrance of the lake, we have open, dry lands where the salt-pans
are to be found, and on a lagoon in these plains stands Sinamaica,
interesting for the Goajiro population, who preserve their primitive
customs alongside the civilisation of the town.

In the forests south-west of the capital occurs the peculiar _arbol de
leche_, whose sap can be used in every way like cow’s milk, though it
is slightly thicker. Here and elsewhere the woods are full of valuable
timber (mahogany, ebony, lignum-vitæ) and of useful creepers and trees
like that which furnishes the copaiba-balsam. These represent to a great
extent the undeveloped resources of the State, and side by side with them
must be considered the many varieties of fishes inhabiting the waters of
the gulf and lake, only a few of which are caught at the present time.

No account of the Zulian region could omit a reference to the famous
“Maracaibo lights,” or _farol de Maracaibo_, the flash of which can be
seen far out at sea and is used by mariners out of range of any of the
lighthouses. This vivid and continuous lightning is to be seen nightly
over the south end of the lake, and is generally described as visible
over the mouth of the Catatumbo. The flashes seem, however, rather to
extend all along the line of the mountains, which rise a few miles from
the lake to a height of fourteen or fifteen thousand feet. A possible
explanation seems to be the following: As the atmosphere over the bare
mountains cools rapidly at sunset the heavily-charged hot air of the
basin-like depression of Maracaibo rises, so that masses of air at
different potentials meet at a great height and emit huge sparks visible
for hundreds of miles. Whether this be so or not, it is a fact that
the flashes are visible nightly from sunset until sunrise, with little
variation in brilliance.




CHAPTER X

THE ANDINE STATES

TÁCHIRA, MÉRIDA, AND TRUJILLO

    Access—Roads versus railways—Mineral
    wealth—Maracaibo coffee—Forests—San Cristobal—Water
    supply—Industries—Roads—Rubio—Táchira Petroleum Company—San
    Antonio—Lobatera—Colón—Interrupted communications—Pregonero—El
    Cobre—Old mines—La Grita—Seboruco copper—Mérida—The
    Bishop and the Bible—Eternal snows—Earthquakes—Electric
    light—Road schemes—Gold and silver—Lagunillas—_Urao_—Wayside
    hospitality—Puente Real—Primitive modes of transport—Las
    Laderas—The Mucuties Valley—Tovar—Mucuchíes—The highest town
    in Venezuela—The _páramos_—Timotes—Trujillo—Valera—Water
    supply—La Ceiba Railway—Betijoque and Escuque—Boconó—Santa
    Ana—Carache—Unknown regions—Possibilities of the Andes.


Were I asked which of all the regions of Venezuela I thought the most
attractive and interesting to the general traveller, I should have little
hesitation in replying, “The Andes.” The three mountain States constitute
a territory where, along with an appreciable extent of development, there
is a complete absence of the commonplace both in the country and its
people. The deep valleys and gorges and snow-clad peaks, with towns and
cities perched on mountain-sides and gravel plateaux, might be paralleled
elsewhere in South America but not in this republic, and though the
inhabitants of the towns have often travelled in America and Europe on
modern steamers and trains, to reach their homes they have, like their
less aspiring countrymen, to jog on mule-back for many leagues over rough
mountain paths which lead them frequently along precipices and through
all but unfordable rivers, and are marked by crosses commemorating the
violent deaths of previous travellers. It is a region where, a few miles
from the towns, are great stretches of unknown uplands and forest-clad
slopes, unexplored territory side by side with the habitation of some of
the most industrious communities of the republic.

The Andes may be reached from the north via the Bolivar Railway and
from Maracaibo either by way of La Ceiba, whence the railway brings
the traveller into the foothills of Trujillo at the north end, or by
Encontrados, when he enters Táchira, the most southerly of the trio of
States. There is a fourth route along the disused railway from Santa
Barbara, on the Escalante, up the valley of the Chama and so into Mérida,
but this is best avoided by those who do not hanker after unnecessary
discomforts and the less pleasant type of adventure. Within the Andes
proper everything is carried on mules, and on the narrow paths one has
continually to pass or be passed by trains of laden beasts, bearing the
produce of the hills and valleys or the imported wares of Europe and
America.

Over the swiftest and deepest rivers there are generally bridges, but
a stream flooded by heavy rain may hold one up for a week or more, and
where the track is along the sides of precipitous ravines wash-outs and
landslides are often serious obstacles. Despite the industry of the
inhabitants, the primitive character of the roads in the Andes is a great
hindrance to adequate development of the country, and when one hears of
machinery for use in Mérida taking a year to get there from the terminus
of the La Ceiba Railway one wonders that the prominence of the Andinos in
politics has not secured for their States some beginning of a system of
adequate roads suitable for wheel traffic. Railways have been projected,
but the cost of building these in virgin country generally renders
the freights so high that they do little or nothing for development.
Roads may appeal less to the imagination than the more modern means of
communication, but there can be little doubt that the often despised road
in a country like Venezuela would for a time be a better investment for
public, if not for private, capital.

[Illustration: A STREET IN LA GRITA.]

[Illustration: PUENTE REAL: GORGE OF THE CHAMA.]

The mineral wealth of the Andes is as yet practically untouched, yet
copper and silver are known to occur in Táchira and Mérida; gold is said
to have been found in the latter, and coal and petroleum occur in all
three States.

The Andine States include some of the best coffee-lands in the republic,
and Maracaibo coffee, as it is called, enjoys great favour in the United
States. In the warmer regions good cocoa can be grown, while wheat is
common in the upper temperate zones. Tobacco also flourishes in Mérida
and Trujillo.

The forests of the mountain-flanks add to the botanic wealth of the
region mahogany, ebony, lignum-vitæ, quinine, dividive, and many other
valuable products hardly exploited as yet.

For population and revenue Trujillo stands first of the Andine States,
Táchira second, and Mérida, though the largest in area, third. For
convenience of description we will consider them in geographical order,
beginning from the south.

The capital of Táchira is San Cristobal, founded on the left bank of the
River Torbes by Juan Maldonado in 1561. Although, in approaching the
town, the traveller who does not trace his route on a map would consider
himself still on the Maracaibo side of the watershed, the waters of the
Torbes flow round the mountains behind the town to join the Uribante, a
sub-tributary of the Orinoco. The main watershed of the Venezuelan Andes
at this point is probably less than 4,000 feet above the sea, and San
Cristobal is well situated in respect of through traffic from the western
Llanos to Zulia or Colombia. Despite its political importance, therefore,
its aspect is in the main that of a busy commercial town situated in a
fruitful valley.

As in all the Andine towns, the question of water supply is settled
with comparative ease by leading water down from a spring or stream
above and allowing this to follow stone channels in the centre of the
cobbled streets, while side channels behind and under the houses provide
continuously flushed drains emptying into the river. The system is
not always as well or elaborately worked as in San Cristobal, but in
essentials it is the same throughout the region. In addition to its
through trade the town has several flourishing industries, not least of
which is the manufacture of vermicelli, or _fideos_, used extensively,
if not perpetually, in the soups of this part of the country; the beasts
and stock products from the Llanos provide in addition raw materials
for making candles and soap, as well as for the tanneries in the
neighbourhood.

From San Cristobal roads lead to San Antonio on the Colombian frontier;
to the Llanos down the Torbes and Quinimari valleys; to Uracá, the
terminus of the Táchira Railway; and to Mérida.

San Cristobal being built on the slope of a steep range of hills, with
a river flowing in a semicircle in front, it is impossible to leave the
town on any of the main routes without crossing water, somewhat of a
difficulty when unbridged streams are flooded. On the road which leads
to Colombia, however, there is a bridge over the Torbes, which enables
communications to be maintained at all seasons.

Fifteen miles down the valley to the south is the flourishing little town
of Rubio, surrounded by some of the biggest and best coffee estates in
the country, fitted with modern plant for handling the beans. Coal and,
it is said, silver are to be found near by, and the Táchira Petroleum
Company, a local affair, has produced and sold small quantities of
illuminating oil in the neighbourhood for many years.

A good deal of the produce of these parts is shipped through Colombia
in bond to avoid the additional, and often difficult, length of road
to Uracá. San Antonio is the frontier town on the River Táchira, both
river and State taking their name from a frontier Indian tribe; here is
the terminus of the English railway which runs through Cúcuta to Puerto
Villamizar. Once cocoa, coffee, and indigo were the chief products of the
neighbourhood, but now, with the growth of Cúcuta and San Cristobal, it
has been found more profitable to use the lands for grazing or for sugar.

The other main export route from the capital of Táchira passes through
the small towns of Lobatera and Colón to Uracá, the terminus of the
Táchira Railway leading to Encontrados in Zulia. Lobatera itself is
something over 3,000 feet above the sea, on the Maracaibo side of the
watershed, up to which the white road zigzags behind the town. Its
productions are said to have decreased of late years, but I have pleasant
recollections of the agreeable impression produced by these clean and
apparently prosperous towns of Táchira, on first arriving there from
the lowlands of Zulia, with their miserable huts and muddy, insanitary
villages. People, housing, and food alike seemed vastly improved. Colón
is the half-way house for arrivals from Uracá, and as a result has
several _hoteles_. It is a neat, well-built little town, the surrounding
hills and plateaux being chiefly devoted to stock-farming. Some ten miles
to the north is the railway terminus in the small town of Uracá, on the
edge of the hot lands and very damp in consequence, the mists banking
up in the narrow valley nightly; coffee and cocoa seem to be the chief
products of the neighbourhood.

Both the Encontrados road and that to Mérida pass through the little town
of Táriba, about three miles east of San Cristobal, on the north bank of
the Torbes. There are no bridges here over the stream, and as a result in
time of floods would-be travellers are penned up in San Cristobal, for
on both roads one must ford the stream below the town, and on the way
to Mérida, a second ford is necessary immediately above; at the latter
there is a foot bridge, and when the Torbes is in flood the mules are
fairly hauled across the stream on a rope; the strong currents would
otherwise carry them down over the rocks. It is interesting to watch and
follow a man who knows these fords as he pricks his way along through the
shallows, but they are a great hindrance to traffic.

Up the Torbes Valley and across the páramo of El Zumbador (8,000 feet),
a day’s ride brings one to La Grita (I shall have to refer to páramos
again later on). Near the watershed a road branches off to the east to
Pregonero, capital of the Uribante district, in a valley whose products
range from potatoes and wheat at the top to coffee and sugar at the
bottom; out on the plains, too, there are big cattle-ranches whence comes
much of the meat consumed in the Andine towns. The district needs roads
for its development, and at present is rather an isolated, unvisited
region.

Vargas or El Cobre is a pleasant little village on the northern or
western side of the pass, and its alternative name is said to refer to
mines of copper in the hills near by worked by the Spaniards, who made
the bells of the little church from the metal.

Forty miles is the estimated distance from Táriba to La Grita, but the
road is sufficiently good to make it seem shorter, and the view up
the valley, with mountains rising tier upon tier into the clouds, is
superb. The town was founded in 1576, on a gravel _mesa_ or tableland,
necessitated a steep climb before actually entering the town. Its
position makes it peculiarly subject to earthquake shocks, but in spite
of this the old churches and Government buildings are still standing.
The many stores are an indication of the importance of La Grita as a
market town, and on Sunday one finds the streets full of countrymen
in charge of mules laden with the wheat, wool, tobacco, and cotton of
the surrounding country. At 6,000 feet above the sea, the town has the
reputation of being one of the healthiest in Venezuela, and certainly
the apples, apricots, and peaches in the patios, with roses and violets
beneath them, are a pleasant sight to the man from the north, who has
found the “luscious fruits” and gorgeous flowers of the tropics a snare
and delusion. A few miles down the river towards Uracá is Seboruco, with
its copper-mines, soon, it is said, to be worked again. Not far above the
town is the Pass of Portachuelo, which marks the boundary with Mérida,
the central of the three Andine States.

Mérida is the mountain State _par excellence_ of Venezuela, including
within its boundaries the highest peaks and some of the hottest valleys
in the country. With this variety of climate it is natural that the range
of products should be wide, but bad roads and resulting high cost of
transport have kept the country largely undeveloped.

The capital was founded in 1542 under the lengthy appellation of Santiago
de los Caballeros de Mérida, and it has long been the seat of the Bishop
of the Andes. A colporteur having recently been found in the diocese
selling Bibles, the energetic occupant of the see promptly excommunicated
him and all who had purchased the forbidden books; his zeal, however,
seems merely to have rendered more marked the indifference of the male
portion of the population to public religion of any kind.

The city is built on a high plateau like that of La Grita between the
Rivers Mucujun and Chama, and towering above it to the east is the
white-topped Sierra Nevada, while a lower but equally steep range bounds
the valley to the west. The snow on the Sierras is said to have been
retreating of recent years, but there are still perpetual snow-fields and
glaciers round the summits, the permanent line being now at about 15,000
feet. The city has often suffered severe damage from earthquakes, but
new buildings have always quickly taken the place of those destroyed.
Partly, probably, on account of the humidity of the atmosphere of the
valley, Mérida has a somewhat deserted look with its grass-grown streets,
yet there are looms turning out cotton and woollen cloth, and it is an
important market centre for the coffee, wheat, and sugar from the various
zones in its neighbourhood.

The torrent of the Chama immediately above Mérida has been requisitioned
to supply power for an electric lighting system in the city. The
turbines were brought at great trouble and expense over the mountain
track from La Ceiba, the journey occupying about a year, but in view of
the determination which carried through such an enterprise, it is to be
regretted that the results are not more impressive. Strings of three or
four bulbs each across the street at regular intervals might provide an
efficient light, but as a matter of fact they do not, the total number
of lamps being far in excess of the capabilities of the present turbine
installation, though much below the available water-power. As a result,
while one may have the electric light in the house, it is better to
resort to the homely candle for reading or writing after sunset.

What is chiefly needed for Mérida to-day is a good road to connect it
with the lake, across which all the produce of the region has to travel
to the sea. Long ago the project was formed of building a railway along
the Chama Valley to connect with Santa Barbara on the Escalante, but
the engineering difficulties in the gorges would probably prevent the
carrying out of any such scheme just yet; a second idea, which has never
received much attention, was to carry a line up the Mucujun, and so over
the pass of the outer range of the Cordillera to Bobures, on the lake, a
feasible scheme enough, though at the present stage a road would better
supply the need of the place.

There have, from time to time, been reports of mines in the Sierra,
but the best authenticated occurrence is that of gold and silver, near
Estanques, on the main road to the lowlands; these deposits have never
been worked, as far as I could ascertain. The chief assets of the
district are at present the fertile lands of the Chama and tributary
valleys. Down the former, on the way to Ejido, about seven miles from
the capital, the road passes all the way through coffee and cacao
plantations, with some open pasture-lands; beyond Ejido the valley
becomes more and more barren towards Lagunillas, famed for its mineral
lake, containing large quantities of _urao_ or trona. The view over this
little town to the snow-clad peaks above Mérida is very fine in the early
morning, but the place seems to have little commerce. I must not omit
mention of a pleasant incident which occurred near Lagunillas, showing
the hospitable temper of the Andinos. We asked at a wayside store (empty
of goods) if we might buy some of the oranges growing profusely in their
garden. “With great pleasure,” said the proprietor, and brought us chairs
that we might dismount and rest. Presently came plates of oranges cut
up into a salad, a very welcome dish in these hot valleys. “And the
charge?” we asked. “Nada, señores.” Nor would our kind hosts accept a
centimo. We knew they would not have eaten the fruit themselves, but the
spirit of hospitality was the same.

Two or three miles below Lagunillas is one of the worst bits of road
in the Andes, and yet it is on the main route to the south. First, a
descent down a steep zigzag brings one to a picturesque wooden bridge
over the torrent of the Chama, giving the name to the group of houses
near by of Puente Real. Not many years ago travellers and their baggage
were taken over the stream in a sort of breeches-buoy, while their mules
were dragged through the swift current below, and often only landed with
difficulty far down on the opposite bank; the bridge is at least an
advance on this primitive mode of transit.

The bottom of the bare steep-sided ravine is hot and dusty, and on the
far side, after a mile or two, the road begins to follow the nearly
vertical side, finally narrowing down to a mere path, with a precipice
into the torrent below. This lasts for some four or five miles, and the
whole stretch takes its name from the most unpleasant part of all, _Las
Laderas_, or “the steeps,” just before the San Pablo tributary enters
from the south. Here the height of the road above the stream gradually
increases, until at length the descent to the side valley is accomplished
in a short distance by what is practically a staircase of loose rock,
buttressed with logs, while there is a sheer drop on the offside into the
foaming torrent beneath; not a pleasant place on a dry day, and almost
impassable on a wet one. Once at the bottom, the rest of the way, until
more open valleys are reached, is a precipice road, generally, but not
always, wide enough for two mules to pass.

Beyond Estanques the main valley narrows down to a gorge, but the road
climbs over the hills to the side, and at length descends past a tile
and brick making yard to the hot valley of the Mucuties with its cacao
plantations. A picturesque bridge across the river leads to the parting
of the roads, one going up the Mucuties to Tovar, the other down the
Chama Valley to El Vigia, and so to the Zulia plains.

Tovar forms a local market-centre for the produce of the cocoa and coffee
plantations of the valley, but beyond it Bailadores marks the downward
limit of the wheatfields which make the top of the Mucuties ravine almost
like a European landscape in time of harvest.

Northward of Mérida, the Chama Valley has some coffee plantations,
but the road soon leaves these, and at Mucuchíes, the highest town
in Venezuela (10,000 feet), we are in the region of pasture-land and
potatoes, even wheat being absent in these high altitudes. There are a
few scattered houses above Mucuchíes, one of which is a small inn known
as Los Apartaderos, the best stopping-place to ensure a calm crossing of
the pass next day, the winds rising normally towards midday.

These high exposed passes are known in Venezuela as _páramos_, a word as
to whose precise meaning some doubt appears to exist, though Humboldt’s
definition as “all passes above 1,800-2,200 Toises above the sea, where
inclement rough weather prevails,” seems to cover the present use of the
word. The páramo of Mucuchíes or Timotes over which passes the main road
between Mérida and Trujillo is the highest in the Venezuelan Andes, the
big wooden cross at the summit being about 14,500 feet above the sea.
In the rainy season, owing to the dense mass of clouds on the pass, it
is often deep in snow, and woe betide the unlucky traveller whose mule
becomes _paramada_ then! The verb derived from the generic name of these
high passes is often applied jokingly to an individual who has merely got
wet through and is cold and uncomfortable.

At Timotes, the first town on the north side of the pass, the tropical
plants begin again to make their appearance, but the valley is chiefly
occupied by grazing land, as far, at least, as the boundary of Trujillo.

The most northerly State of the trio is far more temperate in its general
aspect than Mérida, though in Trujillo also there are páramos as well as
tropical lowlands. The chief products are coffee and sugar, and while
Mérida has its metallic ores, the most notable minerals here are coal and
petroleum.

The capital dates back to 1556, and has been the scene of many notable
events in the history of Venezuela, while its commercial prosperity
tempted Gramont to march from La Ceiba and sack the town in 1678.
It stands in a valley alone, surrounded by coffee plantations and
canefields, which provide the principal articles of commerce in its
markets. As is the case with San Cristobal, a ford on the main road to
its port makes communications uncertain, although there is a second but
difficult track over the hills which can be used in emergencies; either
route means about twenty-five miles to Motatán and the same distance on a
branch road to Valera, an important town on the road to Mérida.

[Illustration: THE SIERRA NEVADA AND CATHEDRAL OF MÉRIDA.]

Although Trujillo is the capital of the State and Motatán the present
terminus of the La Ceiba Railway, it is in Valera that most of the
important commerce of the State is carried on, a fact due, on the one
hand, to the more advantageous position of the town in regard to the
fertile valley of the foothills, on the other, to its age in comparison
with Motatán, regarded as only the temporary terminus. Sugar and coffee
estates, bearing evidence of prosperity in their appearance, occupy the
valley in which the town of Valera lies, and the produce of these, as
well as that from the regions around, passes through the hands of the
merchants of the place on its way to Maracaibo. There are some hot
springs near by, but so far Valera has acquired no fame as a health
resort. There is a good water supply from mountain streams far up the
valley, brought to the town through cisterns and mains, arranged by its
energetic citizen Señor Antonio Braschi, who, like many of the prospering
merchants and professional men of Trujillo, Zulia, and Mérida, claims
Italy as his mother country.

The La Ceiba Railway was built with the aid of Venezuelan capital, and is
controlled by a local board of directors, though the actual construction
of the line was carried out by French engineers. It is proposed to
replace the wooden bridges by those of iron and to effect other
improvements in the permanent way which will tend to avoid the occasional
stoppages of the past.

Not far to the west of Valera are the towns of Betijoque and Escuque,
both of considerable antiquity, situated in richly fertile valleys; near
the former there are well-known oil-springs, so far not exploited, while
the coffee of Escuque is of specially fine quality.

From the streets of Trujillo the hills can be followed with the eye to a
pass, of threatening appearance when covered with heavy clouds, far to
the south-east the Páramo de la Cristalina. Over this lies the way to
Boconó, one of the most picturesquely situated towns in Venezuela in its
fertile valley, which produces at different altitudes sugar, coffee, and
wheat.

Following the road northward from Trujillo, down the valley and then
up the _cuestas_ (sharply zigzag roads up steep ascents), we come to
Santa Ana, or Santana, a place famous in the history of the revolution
as the meeting-place of Bolivar and Morillo after the declaration of
the armistice. A column outside the town commemorates the event. It has
little attraction to-day, save as a half-way house to Carache, being a
small village situated on a cold and misty limestone ridge between two
deep valleys.

Carache, beyond it, is near the north-east boundary of the State, and
near also to the northern end of the Andine region proper. The dry valley
in which the well-built little town stands seems fit to support only
goats, a few cattle, and some cotton, but the hills and valleys round
grow wheat, sugar, and coffee, giving business to more than one merchant
in the town. From the bare hills behind the town a glimpse may often be
obtained through the clouds of the Lake of Maracaibo far below the west,
while over the clouds to the south are the peaks of the Cordillera, a
splendid prospect on a suitable day.

North-west of Carache is an almost unexplored area, extending down the
flanks of the Sierra del Empalado to the lake shore, one day, perhaps, to
be visited and developed, but as yet hardly known save to those who cut
dividive in the forests.

There must be great possibilities for such a region as that of the
Andes, where much territory remains unexplored, while it includes, as
it were, all the climates of the globe. Many plants have already been
acclimatised, and of those whose cultivation is already carried on on a
larger scale much more might be made; the coffee and cocoa of the moister
tropical valleys, the wheat of the open higher zones, the possible
cotton of the Chama, Carache, and other valleys are among their number.
The possible culture of fruits of all kinds for which a demand might be
expected in Venezuela generally as the country develops, and the less
permanent resources of mines and forests, make an increasing prosperity
for the Andine States almost assured, but adequate and permanent means of
transport are required before they can be developed to their full extent.
The long mule-trains on the mountain roads are picturesque, but roads
fit for wheel traffic would leave these where desirable and yet provide
the means of quicker and cheaper transit for the produce of the fertile
valleys of the Cordillera.




CHAPTER XI

LARA, YARACUY, AND FALCÓN

    The original Venezuela—Ancient
    cities—Communications—Barquisimeto—Fortified
    stores—Productions—The Bolivar Railway—Duaca—Aroa
    copper-mines—A precarious house-site—In the mine—Bats and
    cockroaches—“_El Purgatorio_”—Blue and green stalactites—San
    Felipe—The Yaracuy Valley—Nirgua—Yaritagua—Tocuyo—The
    “coach” to Barquisimeto—Quíbor—_Minas_—Carora—An ill-advised
    scheme—Siquisique—Steamboats on the Tocuyo—San Luis—Coro—The
    first cathedral of South America—Goat-farms—Fibre—La
    Vela—Capatárida tobacco—Curaçao—A fragment of Holland—A mixed
    language—Trade—Sanitation—The islands.


The three States whose boundaries include to-day the Segovia Highlands
and the Coro Lowlands represent the greater part of the original
province of Venezuela, as known to the Welser Governors. The region is
for the most part high, with no exceptional peaks, and therefore may be
considered as an elevated plateau, separated from the sea by a belt of
plains. In Yaracuy there are fertile valleys, as well as in the northern
part of Lara and the south of Falcón; in Lara, too, round Carora, we have
llanos for cattle-grazing, and Barquisimeto receives much wheat from the
surrounding country. The Coro plains are mostly dry and barren, covered
with cactus, which nourishes thousands of goats.

The towns and cities of this region are, almost without exception, of
sixteenth-century foundation, and include, therefore, the majority of
the earliest settlements in Venezuela. Despite the fact that a railway
connects Barquisimeto with the coast, communication with much of Lara
is only carried out by primitive means. A projected branch line to San
Felipe, capital of Yaracuy, will further open up that fertile valley,
and the products of northern Falcón are mainly shipped through La Vela
and Curaçao. Both upland and lowland plains are very suitable for wheel
traffic, and natural carreteras there contrast favourably with the bridle
paths of the hills, though little labour has been expended upon them.

Barquisimeto was founded in 1552, at the northern edge of the plain,
which extends thence to Tocuyo, in appearance like the dry bed of an
ancient lake. As the centre for the produce of the northern Andes, as
well as Lara, the town has a busy aspect, busier even than Maracaibo.
In the recent troublous years the conflicting parties seem to have met
in and around Barquisimeto, and as a result one is struck by the heavy
iron doors, often pitted with bullet marks, of the big commercial houses,
which were thus at times turned into fortresses. The plains and valleys
of Lara sent to the markets of Barquisimeto their wheat, coffee, cocoa,
beans, sugar, and sugar-spirit, while the aloes of this region furnish
not only _cocui_ (a spirit distilled from cocuiza) but also fibre for
the manufacture of sacks, bridles, and hammocks, for which the town is
celebrated.

The British built and owned Bolivar Railway connects Barquisimeto with
its port of Tucacas, and a steamer of the Company carries goods and
passengers thence to Puerto Cabello, Tucacas being only an internal
port without a custom-house. The gauge of the line is only two feet,
but a considerable amount of traffic is carried. Leaving the open and
dry plains of Barquisimeto, it climbs through scrub (probably excellent
cotton land) to Duaca, and then begins the ascent of the humid coastal
slope, along a valley full of coffee, sugar, and cacao plantations, but
little cultivation has been carried on away from the line, the country
on either side being as wild and as unknown as any in Venezuela. Near
Tucacas the swampy forest gives place to open sandy plains, as on much of
the northern coast of Venezuela.

Below Duaca, a well-built and picturesque but apparently sleepy little
town, the railway enters the State of Yaracuy, and so continues to beyond
the important junction of El Hacha, where the Barquisimeto line joins
that from the copper-mines of Aroa. Originally the line was built from
Tucacas to Aroa, the El Hacha-Barquisimeto extension being known as the
South-Western of Venezuela; now both are united, and El Hacha to Aroa is
regarded as a branch line.

The copper-mines of Aroa have been known from early colonial days, and
even in 1800 some ore was exported. The greatest output was recorded
after the concern was conceded to an English Company in 1880, and in 1891
(the maximum year) 38,341 tons of ore, with a smaller quantity of 25 per
cent. regulus, was shipped from Tucacas. Three years later the production
began to decrease greatly, and smelting-works and mines alike fall into
disuse. They have now been reopened by an English syndicate, and, under
Mr. Scrutton’s energetic management, have already commenced to pay well.
In the eighties the mines of Aroa sent to Swansea so much ore and regulus
that in the statistics they ranged next to Chile.

The mines, or the entrances to them, are in a beautiful limestone gorge,
full of the blue and green tinted pebbles and boulders which led the
pioneers to search for the source of the mineral. On the left bank there
are some cottages situated under an overhanging rock which would give
a nervous inmate qualms, but presumably here as elsewhere familiarity
breeds contempt. The manager’s and other white houses up the valley look
charming with their girdles of orange-trees, bananas, and papayas.

Wash-outs in the gorge sometimes cause considerable damage, and at
the time of our visit the mine was temporarily closed owing to the
disablement of the centrifugal pumps buried under the debris brought down
by exceptionally heavy rains; four inches in an hour was, I think, the
fall during part of the downpour, which also carried away or buried big
pieces of the Bolivar Railway.

As one walks through the galleries with a little acetylene lamp clouds of
bats brush past, and the floor is alive, where dry, with cockroaches. The
most recently opened parts develop a very high temperature owing to the
oxidation of the copper pyrites, and in “El Purgatorio,” as it is called,
one finds it difficult to breathe for a moment until a slight effort
of will forces the lungs to take in the hot air. In many of the older
workings there are quantities of beautiful stalactites and stalagmites
in all shades of blue and green. Unfortunately, the copper-salts which
colour them also make them brittle, and it would be difficult to bring
one away without injury. After these the ore looks very black and dingy,
though the freshly broken surface glitters brightly enough.

Near the edge of the forest on the Bolivar Railway is the station of
Palma Sola, whence a branch is now being surveyed across the Aroa and
up the Yaracuy Valley to San Felipe, a great boon to the agricultural
interests of the State. There is a road from the town to Puerto Cabello,
along which the merchandise now travels, but it is often impassable in
the rains; the comparatively easy task of engineering a railway here to
connect with the nearer port of Tucacas will probably enable it to be
carried out profitably at the same time that it provides a cheap and
rapid mode of transit for the coffee, cocoa, and hides of these rich
agricultural and pastoral valleys.

In the State of Yaracuy, but south of the watershed at the western
extremity of the coastal cordillera, lies Nirgua, founded in 1628 in the
picturesque alluvial plain of the Buria. Copper-mines have been known and
worked here from very early times, but I believe they are quiescent now;
there are also, it is said, deposits of sulphur in the neighbourhood. The
fertile plains and the surrounding hills send to the markets of Nirgua
coffee, cocoa, beans, sugar, alcohol, cotton, and wheat, a goodly list
for one small town.

Twenty miles away from Nirgua to the west in a straight line, though
very much more by existing roads, is Yaritagua, the only other town of
note in Yaracuy, connected by road with Barquisimeto. This is a good
place for tobacco, and cigarettes used to be manufactured in considerable
quantities from the local leaf; also it has its share of the ubiquitous
coffee and sugar.

A natural cart-road enables the produce of Yaritagua to be shipped
through Barquisimeto, the route passing by the small town of Cabudare.
A similar road connects Barquisimeto with Tocuyo rather more than forty
miles to the south-west.

Though the population of Tocuyo to-day is scarcely two-thirds that of
Barquisimeto, it is the older town of the two, being founded by Carvajal
in 1545. Its substantial, well-built houses bear witness to its former
importance, and even now there is a continual stream of carts passing
along the road to the capital, bearing not only coffee, sugar, and cocoa,
which grow in the plantations of the valley near the town, but also wheat
and temperate fruits from the hills. There are extensive potreros in the
district, too, for raising sheep as well as cattle. The club building is
a fine old mansion, comparable to any in Carácas, with a large patio and
broad veranda.

The “road” to Barquisimeto is merely a casual track over the sand and
gravel plains, but it serves its purpose, and one may make the journey
in a strange vehicle, rather like a stage-coach in shape when seen from
a distance, though without any outside seats, for the very good and
sufficient reason that the apparently solid sides and top are of oilcloth
and can be rolled up if desired. In leaving Tocuyo, _el Señor cochero_
tells us we must be ready to start at 4 a.m., reserving to himself the
right to turn up at two or five as may suit him best. This brings us
to Quíbor, a little town, whose chief trade is in the temperate fruits
(quinces, &c.) of the Sanare Hills, at about eight, and we leave again
after midday, arriving dusty and sore at Barquisimeto by 5.30.

There are reported _minas_ of metal and coal round about Tocuyo, and the
latter certainly exists, though, like the less authentic minerals, it has
never been worked.

If, in place of travelling to the capital of the State, we followed
down the river from which Tocuyo takes its name, we should shortly find
the cactus-covered hills replaced on the left bank by grass plains, the
llanos of Carora, in the middle of which the town of the same name was
founded in 1572. Like most of these more ancient towns of Venezuela, it
contains many substantial buildings, and it is the market centre for the
grazing lands surrounding it, where sheep as well as cattle are raised.
From more remote districts come goats on the one hand, coffee and cane
on the other, these last from the fertile valleys to the west. There are
said to be outcrops of coal near by, a by no means improbable occurrence.

A whim of ex-President Castro’s led to the expenditure of a considerable
sum on the surveying and construction of a cart-road over the Sierra
Empalada to San Timoteo, on the Lake of Maracaibo. It was manifestly
impossible that such a scheme could succeed, involving, as it did,
the use of a hundred miles of road over a range of hills instead of
some sixty miles across the level to the Bolivar Railway terminus at
Barquisimeto; at the present time much of the road has fallen into
disuse, the remainder forming a standing monument to misplaced energy.

In addition to the level road to Barquisimeto there is another which in
some fifty miles brings us to Siquisique, the head of possible steam
navigation on the Tocuyo River. Up to this point steamers were run for a
short time, but the undeveloped country on either bank was not brought
under cultivation as a result, and the produce of the rest failed to
make the venture pay. Once again, want of population and of incentives
to labour have proved the main drawbacks in a feasible project. The
hills both north and south of the lower river produce, and are capable
of producing more, wheat, coffee, and cocoa; downstream there are
virgin forests of valuable timber, and on the north bank indications of
petroleum over a wide area almost uninhabited and unexplored.

From Siquisique several roads cross the hills on the borders of Lara and
Falcón to the towns of the latter. Only one town of any importance (San
Luis) is situated in the hills, but about half the area of the State is
accounted for by grass-clad hills and fertile valleys, the remainder
being the better known coastal plain, with its dry climate and cactus
vegetation, a repetition of the Barquisimeto plateau.

Coro, now only the capital of a State, but once the capital of the whole
province, is situated on the plains at the base of the peculiarly shaped
peninsula of Paraguana. Next to Cumaná it is the oldest town in South
America, and has frequently been the landing-place for troops both in the
revolution against Spain and in the course of domestic quarrels. The
old church, known as the _Iglesia Matriz_, is interesting as the first
cathedral of the New World, but, like the rest of the town, it has fallen
upon evil days.

The flesh and hides of goats are the chief articles of commerce in
Coro. Bred at little cost on the cactus plains, they give returns said
to be enormous. I heard of one owner of a ranch along the coast who,
in the course of two or three years’ breeding of and trading in goats,
accumulates sufficient wealth to travel extensively in Europe, returning
when his money is gone to repeat the process. The coalmines and salinas
of the region count for little in comparison with this simple form of
stock-farming, but there are extensive coal deposits in the foothills of
the Cordillera de San Luis, whose valleys produce maize, coffee, cocoa,
and arrowroot, chiefly for local consumption. The greater part of the
foothills is forest-covered, and the timber and vegetable products of
these will continually add to the revenues of the State in the future.
Last, but not least, the coastal plain near Coro is admirably situated
for the cultivation of cocuiza and other aloes, and attempts are now
being made to manufacture fibre equal in quality to that of Mexico.
Already Coro makes sacks and hammocks from cocuiza, in addition to soap
and cigarettes, the only other industries of the place. All the produce
exported passes along the seven-mile railway to the harbour of La Vela,
not to be confused with the cape of the same name far to the west in
Colombia.

Capatárida, a small town on the coast some thirty miles west of Coro,
is chiefly famed for the excellent quality of the tobacco grown in the
valley south of the town. The plains of Falcón and the peninsula of
Paraguana are, however, chiefly devoted to goat-farming, the character of
the country being almost identical with that of Curaçao, and most of the
other coastal islands.

[Illustration: WILLEMSTAD: CURAÇAO.]

[Illustration: THE HARBOUR: WILLEMSTAD.]

Curaçao is, of course, Dutch territory, but the relations of the island
with Venezuela are very close—too close, in fact, from the point of
view of the Government. The legitimate and registered trade between the
two is small, but an enormous amount of smuggling is carried on, while
Willemstad has more than once proved a convenient base for intending
revolutionaries.

The town is a strange mixture both in people and language, and in
character a strong contrast to those of the Venezuelan coast. If one
is up betimes on board, watching for the entrance to the harbour, one
wonders if it is not really a confused dream of Flushing and a desert
island, so much does the port resemble a homely Dutch town transported
bodily into the heat of the West Indies, and set down on a barren rock.
When the steamer has entered the harbour, and the pontoon bridge has
swung back behind her, one can hardly believe that the land of mañana and
_dolce far niente_ is only a few miles away across the sea.

Harbour police, in plain but good blue uniforms and helmets, in place
of dirty white ducks adorned with much gold braid, pronounce us, after
some conversation in very guttural Spanish, fit and proper persons to
enter her Majesty’s colony of Curaçao, and we go on shore to examine this
fragment of Holland.

The very cleanliness of the town seems the cause of the only discomfort
experienced as one lands, for the dry soil will not support avenues
of trees, and the glare from the white stone pavements and walls is
almost painful. The names over the shops are sometimes Dutch, sometimes
Portuguese and Spanish, often combinations of these, while the people who
fill the streets are largely negroes of a strong, healthy type, talking
a language which sounds like Dutch as far as accent is concerned, but on
fuller acquaintance develops a likeness to Spanish. Those who know it
say that all languages contribute to genuine Curaçao, and I am almost
certain that I heard a Russian word used by one dusky Dutch subject.
The notice on the end of the bridge tells us alternately to “_Langzaam
rijden_” and “_Kore poko poko_,” the latter being the genuine Curaçao “as
she is wrote,” practically Spanish spelt phonetically.

On the east side of the harbour are the Government buildings, Post
Office, &c., together with the large business houses and the Dutch
Reformed Church. As it was August when I visited the island, most of the
comfortable-looking mansions were empty, the owners being away on home
visits.

The prosperity of Willemstad, it is evident, does not depend upon natural
products, of which there are none; even the oranges with which the famous
liqueur was made are not grown in Curaçao now, but the building of small
sloops and supplies for these, with the custom of visitors who come to
buy in a free-trade market and avoid the all but prohibitive prices
behind Venezuela’s tariff wall, provide work for the numerous warehouses,
not to mention the illicit trade with the mainland. The official returns
show straw hats as the most considerable export, although formerly a fair
amount of guano and phosphate of lime was shipped away. With a water
supply dependent upon casual rains and a few shallow wells, there can
be no drainage system, but the dryness of the climate and the stringent
sanitary regulations combine to give Curaçao absolute freedom from
epidemics and a deserved reputation as a health resort.

The smaller islands of the Las Aves, Los Roques, and other groups used,
like Curaçao, to export a considerable quantity of guano, and phosphate
produced by atmospheric action from coral limestones under the guano.
Now, however, the few small settlements are mere fishing villages, whose
catch is sold on the mainland.




CHAPTER XII

IN THE “ORIENTE”

    Restricted use of term “Oriente”—Margarita—Asunción—Porlamar
    and Pampatar—Macanao—A primitive population—The
    priests, the comet, and the people—Cubagua—Pearl
    fisheries—Coche—Cumaná—Las Casas—A diving feat—Petroleum
    and salt—Fruit—The Manzanares—Cumanacoa—In the hills—San
    Antonio and its church—The Guacharo cave—Humboldt—Virgin
    territory—Punceres—Oil-springs—The Bermudez asphalt
    lake—Carúpano—“_Ron blanco_”—Sulphur and gold—Rio
    Caribe—Peninsula of Paria—Cristobal Colón—An ambitious
    project—The Delta—the _Golfo Triste_—Pedernales—Asphalt
    and outlaws—In the _caños_—Tucupita—Barrancas—Imataca
    iron-mines—Canadian capital for Venezuela—Guayana Vieja.


As the term “Oriente” is used to-day in Venezuela, it includes the
cities of Barcelona, Maturín and Ciudad Bolivar, with their surrounding
districts, but since these are more fitly considered in succeeding
chapters, the use of the word is restricted here to the eastern part
of the Caribbean Hills, the Island of Margarita, and the Delta of the
Orinoco.

The “Oriente” thus includes those parts, not only of Venezuela but of
the New Continent, which were first visited by Europeans. The names of
the Boca del Draco (between the peninsula of Paria and Trinidad) and of
Margarita were given by Columbus; Cubagua supported the first settlement
of adventurers, and the shores westward of Cumaná were visited by Alonso
de Ojeda on his first voyage.

Margarita lies some twenty miles north of the mainland, with the islands
of Cubagua and Coche between. It is practically two islands joined by
a sandspit, the two halves being equally rugged and mountainous; the
western is known as Macanao, and contains but few inhabitants, the towns
being all in the eastern half or Margarita proper.

With the surrounding smaller islands it constitutes the State of Nueva
Esparta. The capital, Asunción, founded in 1524, is in a sheltered valley
at the eastern end of the island. A ruined fort above the town, ruins
of substantial houses, grass-grown streets and a general atmosphere of
decay make the town somewhat depressing. To the south-east are the ports
of Pampatar and Porlamar, the former the most important, since to this
come European liners, but Porlamar has the larger population. The bay of
Porlamar is generally full of small fishing-smacks and pearling vessels,
which carry on two of the chief industries of the island, though from
Pampatar, with the pearls, they export also tiles, hats of straw and of a
kind of velvet known as _pelo guamo_, hammocks, and embroidery.

The western half of Margarita is dry and barren for the most part, with
small, scrubby vegetation, but here and there one finds grass-covered
glades and more fertile soil; the inhabitants are chiefly fishermen,
living in great poverty, with poor diet, yet contented and at the same
time amazingly ignorant of the outside world. Who may be president in
Carácas matters little to them, and European countries and cities are
unknown. Probably fibre could be grown here with advantage, but the only
land industry appears to be the farming of goats or cattle. Some of the
outlying homesteads are conducted on patriarchal lines, and the families
of the owners are occasionally enormous. Many of the people seem to be
direct descendants of the ancient Guaiquerias, of strangely Mongolian
appearance.

In Porlamar one may arrange for a passage in one of the little sloops or
schooners to any of the other islands of the State, and it is as well
to be prepared for a drenching if it is necessary to sail against the
wind. Porlamar is a _triste_ little town with about 3,500 inhabitants. We
had the good (or ill) fortune to be there on the night when this planet
passed through the tail of Halley’s comet, which for some time previous
had been a magnificent sight in the early morning. The priest had given
out that the earth was to be destroyed by the comet at 2 a.m. prompt
unless perhaps repentance, signified by devotion to mother-Church, was
sufficiently general to avert disaster. As a result all the evening the
churches, brilliantly lighted by myriads of candles, were crammed with
devotees who professed and doubtless felt penitence for past misdeeds, if
thereby they might prevent the threatened destruction or secure safety
for themselves. Two o’clock came and passed, but, the night being cloudy,
there was no sign of the comet, and the crowd flocked to the club and the
_botiquins_ to make up for lost time. It was in vain for the priests to
tell them that the comet would come back if they persisted in their evil
ways: the churches have remained as empty as they were before the months
of the comet.

After this digression we may glance at Cubagua, the once famous pearl
island, now perhaps on the eve of obtaining a new importance as a source
of petroleum. There are springs of mineral oil along the northern shore,
a tiny fishing village at the south-west corner, one small patch of
cultivation with a single hut near the centre of the island, and a small
cattle-ranch at the eastern end, and that is all—not a visible trace on
all its barren surface of the once great city of New Cadiz. The eastern
end is the most pleasant to-day, supporting more vegetation than the
rest, and it is here, I was told, that diligent search and delving
will reveal relics of the fifteenth-century settlement. Nothing seems
to have been done in the way of archæological exploration, and even the
old coat-of-arms graven in stone was picked up by chance on the shore to
be lost again (apparently) in Carácas. It was displayed at the Bolivar
Centenary Exhibition in 1883, and lay neglected in the patio of the
building in 1891.

The west end of the island has a fine bay, with deep water, sheltered
from the constant east wind, so that it is hard to see for what reason
the city was founded at the other extremity; harder still, perhaps, to
understand why it was founded at all on a barren island where practically
every drop of water had to be brought from Margarita or from the Rio
Manzanares at Cumaná. Its end came after its partial destruction by
earthquake and hurricane in 1543, with the subsequent decrease in the
output of the pearl fisheries, already spoilt by the extravagant and
careless exploitation of the Spaniards, who soon paid more attention
to those of the neighbouring island of Coche. It was infamous during
its existence for the cruelties of its slave market, where the captive
Indians of the mainland were branded with the initial letter of the city,
and even after its final abandonment the memory of that fatal “_C_”
rankled in the minds of the unfortunate Caribs and Chaymas.

Now, however, barring the heat in the valleys and to leeward of the
cliffs of its treeless surface, the island is pleasant enough, and the
clear shallows with their safe bathing-places are a compensation for
the midday heat, while in the rock-pools the squids, water-snakes, and
many-coloured shells of the tropical seas are a continual source of
delight (to the eye); often, too, one may see the giant rays splashing
in the strait between the island and Margarita, like huge pieces of
armour-plate leaping from the water.

Coche still possesses a town in San Pedro de Coche, whose population live
partly by their fisheries, but chiefly by the exploitation of the white
salt of their _salinas_, almost the finest in Venezuela.

Separated from Cubagua and Coche by only a few miles of shallow water
is the peninsula of Araya, behind which lies the Gulf of Cariaco, a
long east and west arm of the sea. At the entrance on the south side
is Cumaná, capital of the State, which, since the chief city was the
birthplace of José de Sucre, of revolutionary fame, is now called after
him, while the actual port of Cumaná is known as Puerto Sucre. The town
was founded in 1520, and has a special interest in that it owed much in
its early years to the labours of Bartolomé de las Casas. It has more
than once suffered severely from earthquakes, and these earth tremors
have, at times, played a considerable part in its history.

The town is connected with the port by about half a mile of dusty road
across the sand-flats, and alongside runs a tramway, the motive power for
which is supplied by mules; projects for utilising steam-engines have
been formed but have never materialised, though an efficient service
ought to pay. To the east the Gulf of Cariaco stretches away for about
fifty miles, with a mean width of six or seven. At the eastern end its
waters are covered with wild fowl of all kinds, and the local peasants
catch them for their plumage by diving under the birds and drowning them,
a feat necessitating a considerable development of fish-like qualities.

At the western end of the peninsula of Araya is the site of the
old castle of Araya, built at the suggestion of Las Casas for the
preservation of peace between the Cubaguans and the Caribs; here,
too, are the extensive salinas, and on the south side there are
oil-springs, indicating deposits whose value and extent have still to
be investigated. The product of the salt-pans is, both in quality and
quantity, second only to that of Coche, and amounts to some 6,000 tons in
the year.

The neighbourhood of Cumaná, along the banks of its river, the
Manzanares, is famous for fruits of all kinds, principally pineapples,
grapes, and mangoes; the less fertile hills look like cotton country,
but none is grown, or very little. The chief exports of Puerto Sucre are
coffee, tobacco, sugar, beans, and hides, brought from the interior.

This produce is carried on mule-back along the mountain roads of
Sucre. The main route from the interior follows the Manzanares for
most of its course, but the last few leagues lie over a steep ridge, a
shorter but more troublesome route than that along the river, were the
latter properly looked after. The upper valley of the Manzanares has
some beautiful pieces of scenery as the gorge is followed through the
limestone hills; until Cumanacoa is reached, however, fifty miles from
Cumaná, there is no cultivation in the valley, and little possibility of
it, and the coastal region generally seems only fit for cotton or fibre
cultivation.

Round Cumanacoa there are fertile hillsides and rich alluvial flats,
chiefly devoted to coffee and sugar or beans. When the town was founded
by Domingo Arias in 1717, he named it San Baltazar de las Arias, but as
in the case of Cumaná, the old Italian name of the district has ousted
the later Spanish one. Above Cumanacoa the valley narrows down into a
gorge running up into the mountain-mass on the borders of Sucre and
Monágas, the watershed forming the boundary between the two States. On
the high, open grass-lands there is pasturage for many more sheep and
cattle than one sees at present, and the change in climate from the hot,
damp valleys is very pleasant, though somewhat sudden.

Some twenty-five miles southward of Cumanacoa is the town of San Antonio,
in Humboldt’s time a flourishing mission with a massive stone church
built entirely by the Indians; the church, with its beautifully bright
frescoes, is still standing, but sadly in want of repair, and one of the
towers is cracked and overgrown at the base. Four or five miles to the
south-east lies the Caripe valley, famous for its tobacco, and for the
Guacharo cavern so well described by Humboldt.

From his account a good idea may be gained of the beauty of the approach
and the impressiveness of this hole in the limestone. He describes how,
as he and Bonpland, with their friends and guides from the Mission
Caripe, travelled up the valley, they were unable to see the mouth of
the cave even at 400 paces distant, their way lying under an overhanging
cliff, with the stream almost in a crevasse below them; then, turning
a corner, they were suddenly in full view of the opening, 80 feet wide
and 72 feet high, with stalactites and stalagmites within and huge trees
above, while the aspect was different from anything of the kind in Europe
on account of the luxuriant tropical vegetation all about. As they walked
through the cave it was often necessary to step into the stream, which
was only 2 feet deep, while overhead the Guacharos,[6] from which the
cave has its name, were uttering their raucous cries. In the broader part
of the cave the Indians were accustomed to venture at one season of the
year to catch the young birds for their fat, which they used in cooking
in the mission, but beyond they would hardly go, believing the spirits
of their departed ancestors to be there. At the limit of Humboldt’s
exploration in this narrower part he found an underground waterfall,
which marks the visible source of the Rio Caripe.

Thirty miles from San Antonio, at Aragua de Maturín, the edge of the
hills is reached and the Llanos begin, but to the north-east there lies
a stretch of little-known territory, chiefly forest-clad hills, capable
of supporting millions of cacao-trees when a growing population shall
settle there. Near Punceres there are oil-springs, and at other points in
the region indications of petroleum are known, which may one day lead to
the development of this rich and well-situated stretch of country, for at
the east end is the old Puerto San Juan of colonial days, with a depth
of water in the _caño_ of the same name sufficient for steam or sailing
craft of considerable size. At present most of the produce of all the
northern part of Monágas, as well as of Sucre, passes out over the hills
to the Caribbean.

An exception to the above must be made in the case of the asphalt from
the Bermudez Lake, which is shipped across to Trinidad. This has been
worked for many years by an American company, and is almost as well
known as the famous Pitch Lake of Trinidad. It was once thought that
the quantity of asphalt visible was much greater here, but fuller
investigation showed that though a larger area was covered the thickness
of the deposit was very much less than in Trinidad. Over 32,000 tons were
exported in the fiscal year 1909-10.

The principal port of the Oriente is Carúpano, on the north coast, midway
between the two peninsulas of Paria and Araya. The town, seen from a
steamer, seems to be as much huddled up at the foot of the mountains as
La Guaira, but in a similar way it extends up the valleys of two streams
which here reach the sea. Its position thus makes it hot, though it is
sufficiently open to the sea breezes to be healthy. A white zigzag line
up the slope behind the town represents the road, down which comes the
cocoa of the hills and valleys of Sucre, for which Carúpano is famous,
as well as cotton, sugar, timber, and alcohol. This last is a spirit of
exceptional purity, and the “white rum” of Carúpano is famed throughout
the country. The hills about the town also support aloes, of the fibre
of which ropes are manufactured in the town, and near by there are
potteries. It is an important place, then, with its population of some
11,000, in spite of the fact that the steamers which visit it have to lie
in an open roadstead sheltered only by a promontory to the east from the
prevalent winds. Sulphur is found near by, and, it is said, auriferous
quartz of high quality, but the minerals have never been systematically
worked.

[Illustration: PUERTO CRISTOBAL COLÓN.]

A few miles east of Carúpano is the small port of Rio Caribe, where the
roadstead is not sufficiently sheltered to allow steamers to lie; small
sailing craft carry away the local produce, which consists principally of
cacao. Beyond Rio Caribe is the peninsula of Paria, a beautifully wooded
mountain mass rising sheer from the water’s edge and separated only by a
narrow strait, with numerous islands, from Trinidad. The northern side of
the peninsula is practically uninhabited, but the coast facing the Gulf
of Paria has several settlements, chiefly occupied in cultivating cacao
or cutting timber; their produce is shipped across to Trinidad.

Cristobal Colón is the most easterly port of Venezuela, and its position
at the eastern end of the peninsula of Paria, opposite to the Delta
of the Orinoco, led Castro to suppose that a small expenditure of
public money would lead to a diversion of all the freight now passing
via Port-of-Spain to Ciudad Bolivar, from Trinidad to Venezuela—an
ill-founded hope, however, as events proved, for the roadstead is very
poor, open to a continual heavy swell coming in through the Bocas, which
could only be overcome by extensive harbour-works, the cost of which is
entirely unwarranted by the circumstances of the case. The wharves and
warehouses erected represent, therefore, a sacrifice of public zeal to a
private whim as reprehensible as the construction of the Carora and San
Timoteo road.

The trade with Southern Venezuela is normally carried on through
Port-of-Spain, goods being there transferred to the Orinoco steamer
_Delta_, which crosses the Gulf of Paria to the Caño Macareo, up which
lies the normal route to Ciudad Bolivar. Columbus named the Gulf of
Paria “Golfo Triste,” and when one has left the beautiful hills and
islands on the north side behind it certainly wears a very gloomy aspect,
particularly on a cloudy day.

Near the mouths of the Orinoco the water becomes muddy and musky, full
of floating masses of water-hyacinth or dead timber, while away on the
horizon one can see a dark band of mangroves marking the beginning of the
swampy Delta territory.

Pedernales is the only settlement on the coast of the Delta proper—a
gloomy, unhealthy-looking spot, though the islands on which the houses
are built are more solid than the surrounding swamps. For the new town
one lands at a stone causeway leading across the black mud to a single
row of houses, one of which has a flagstaff indicating it as the seat of
authority. Crabs crawl on the slime and mud all around, and the black
patches of natural asphalt along the main street and foreshore offer
no contrast to the dirty pools which necessitate a wary eye and foot
in walking. The ruins of the German asphalt and oil refinery a mile or
so away add to the desolate effect, and the greeting from outlaws from
Trinidad, broken-down whites, and villainous-looking negroes make one
even more ready to leave this fever-stricken spot, where the floors of
the houses are flooded by frequent downpours in the rainy season. The
inhabitants exist chiefly by cutting and exporting mangrove-stems for
dyeing and tanning purposes; the asphalt industry seems to be quiescent.

Up the caño the scene is one of great beauty, in the varying foliage of
the high green banks, whose inundated forest is hidden by the mass of
creepers, bamboos, &c., which come down to the water’s edge; beyond only
the tops of the high trees can be seen, though sometimes behind a bank of
reeds or water-hyacinths, looking in the distance like well-kept turf,
the forest itself can be seen. The masses of floating hyacinth, as they
float down the stream, the muddy water, and the alligators on the banks
here and there, with the macaws, flamingoes, and parrots above and around
us, complete the picture. Here and there through the creepers there is
a narrow archway cut by the Guaraunos, who live behind in huts raised
above the swampy ground, and eat, drink, and clothe themselves with the
products of the Moriche palm, besides making their roofs of its fronds.

Higher up there is unflooded forest and open country, where the savannahs
bear rich grass for thousands of herds of cattle, and on the banks
scattered groups of a few houses mark partly civilised settlements. A
fine cacao ranch is passed on the right bank not far below Tucupita,
the capital of the Delta-Amacuro Territory, a dismal, unhealthy-looking
place, though with some signs of commercial life in the number of goletas
in front, not to mention steam craft.

Soon after Tucupita the mountains of Guayana come in sight far to the
south, and an hour or so brings us to Barrancas, the lowest port on the
Orinoco proper, whose grass-grown streets and broad laguna behind the
settlement do not suggest health. Here the character of the navigation
changes, and one begins that journey, so finely described by Humboldt, up
the thousands of miles of waterways, which will conduct the traveller,
if he wishes it, through to the Amazon, and even by devious routes to the
Plate.

The Delta territory southward of the main stream consists, in part at
least, of hilly country, and here on the flanks of the Sierra Imataca
there are rich deposits of iron ore, soon to be worked by a Canadian
company by whom the rights have recently been acquired. To aid in the
work the company has the right to establish a port (Nueva Angostura) with
a custom-house on the Caño Corosimo, in order to avoid the long journey
up to Ciudad Bolivar and back.

A few miles above Barrancas, on the south bank of the river, is the
castle of San Thomé, now known as Guayana Vieja or Los Castillos, where
Raleigh had several encounters with the Spaniards on his last fatal
expedition. There are only a few houses round the citadel to-day, and the
place possesses no importance.




CHAPTER XIII

THE LLANOS

MONÁGAS, ANZOÁTEGUI, GUÁRICO, COJEDES, PORTUGUESA, ZAMORA, AND APURE

    The great plains—An ocean without water—_Bancos_ and
    _mesas_—Drought and flood—A living floor—Streams which flow
    upwards—Heat—Cattle and horses—Imported butter—Methods
    of milking—Civil wars—Future prospects—A mean annual
    temperature of 91° F.—Barcelona—History—The massacre of the
    Casa Fuerte—Survivors—Guanta—Coal of Naricual—Aragua de
    Barcelona—Maturín—Low death-rate—Caño Colorado—Bongos—Athletic
    boatmen—_Casitas_—Travelling on the Llanos—an _hato_—Areo—An
    ancient cotton-press—The men of Urica—Churches and wayside
    shrines—A gruesome monument—Calabozo—Barbacoas—Ortiz—Zaraza and
    Camaguan—San Carlos—Barinas—Guanare—Past prosperity and future
    prospects.


The llanos of northern South America form one of the remarkable great
plains of the world. They stretch from the Orinoco Delta in the east
right to the Cordillera of the Andes in the west.

The foothills and highlands on the south side of the coastal range limit
them in the north, and where the continuity of the mountain chain is
broken, near Barcelona, they reach the coast itself.

The Orinoco constitutes their southern boundary as far west as its
junction with the Apure. Beyond this point the course of the Orinoco
is from south to north instead of from west to east, and out west of
this the great plains stretch away to the south far beyond the southern
boundary of Venezuela. In fact, formerly the settlers in the Venezuelan
llanos, who knew of the Argentine pampas and their cattle industry away
somewhere to the south of them, but had vague notions of geography and no
knowledge of the high country in central South America, believed that the
llanos went right away south to Patagonia.

The stretches of plain from the south of Cumaná, Barcelona, and Carácas
down to the Orinoco are called the llanos of Cumaná, Barcelona, and
Carácas respectively, while the extreme west corner is known as the
llanos of Barinas.

Near the northern and western limits of this great plain there is a
gradual passage from the foothills and the adjoining broken country to
the plain, but once away in the interior the flatness of the llanos is
remarkable. There are neither the undulations of rolling prairie-lands
nor the sandhills and ridges of the desert. The mountains can, of course,
be seen for a considerable distance, and to fully realise the curious
effect of the llanos it is necessary to be out of sight of them.

In some places nothing, not even a tree, can be seen in any direction but
the flat plain, covered with short grass; the traveller has the illusion
of being on the ocean stretching in every direction to the horizon, and
it is very easy to get lost if he leaves a beaten track.

The llanos are not, however, absolutely level; there are flat banks of
slight elevation (a few feet) called _bancos_, only to be observed at
their edges, and extending for miles, and also _mesas_, convexities
gently, almost imperceptibly, rising to a very moderate height, and yet
sufficiently important to form water divides.

A glance at the map shows that in the llanos south of Carácas the
streams flow right across Venezuela, from the hills to the Orinoco or
its tributaries, and, in fact, the whole of the western llanos are very
gently inclined to the south-east, but in the eastern part of the llanos
south of Cumaná we see a water divide, the Rivers Tigre and Guanipa
flowing eastwards to the Delta, and farther west a number of rivers
flowing into the Orinoco, while north of the divide various streams, the
Aragua, the Unare, and others, empty themselves into the sea west of
Barcelona, this being due, not to a range of hills but to the convexity
of the plains, the mesas of Tigre, Guanipa, &c.

It is hard to understand that lack of water is one of the difficulties
besetting the traveller on the llanos when one sees the network of
streams indicated on the maps. In the wet season there is of course
plenty of water, but in the dry season most of these tributary streams
cease to flow. Those which take their rise in the hilly country have,
indeed, some water in their upper courses all the time, while in their
lower part water from the main streams, the Orinoco, the Apure, the
Portuguesa, and others, is able to back a good way up, on account of
their very gentle fall, but their middle courses run quite dry, pools
remaining here and there in the hollows. The water in these gets somewhat
foul, but by digging in the sand in their neighbourhood sweeter water
may be obtained. The River Guárico, which partly dries up in this way,
is said formerly to have flowed all the year round. It takes its rise
near Lake Tacarigua (Lake of Valencia), and perhaps the diminution of
its water supply is due to the same cause as the shrinking of that lake,
the cutting down of forest and the cultivation of land near its source.
In the wet season many of the streams overflow and flood wide areas, the
cattle having to take refuge on slightly higher tracts. When the waters
again retire many alligators and water-snakes bury themselves in the
mud, and one hears of people being startled by sudden upheavals of the
ground, followed by the emergence of some disturbed monster. In one
case a traveller settled for a night in a hut which had been flooded the
previous season, and the barking of the dogs awoke a huge alligator, who
heaved up the floor, made a dash at the dogs, and then fled into the open.

Referring once again to the fact of the water in the main streams
backing up the tributaries, so very slight is the inclination of the
western plains, and so small the fall of its streams, that swelling
of the Orinoco, or wind pressure, will force the water to flow up the
tributaries, whirlpools forming where the opposing currents meet.

Humboldt states that under these conditions many natives firmly believed
that in travelling up these streams in their canoes they were really
descending for a considerable distance.

Apart from the change of season from wet to dry, the great factor in the
climate of the llanos is the trade wind, which blows across from the
east to the west. The sandy ground, thinly covered with grass, becomes
very hot in the daytime and heats the air near it. In the east the trade
wind, arriving fresh from the sea, lessens this effect, and makes the
air pleasant, but as it sweeps across the hundreds of miles of burning
soil it becomes itself heated, and as it gets farther west adds to the
discomfort, instead of correcting it.

In fact, the western llanos are very hot, and although there is a
twelve-hours night in which to cool, there is so much heat to be radiated
off from the earth that when dawn, the coolest moment, arrives very
little diminution of temperature has been attained, and the heating
process begins again.

The llanos, then, are neither prairie nor desert, but hold rather an
intermediate position, varying towards one or the other according to the
season. Various grasses suitable for feeding live stock grow here, and
there are some trees, notably varieties of mimosas, one with sensitive
leaves (_dormideras_) very good for cattle. There are also palms, notably
the Corypa palms, or _palmas de Cobija_, with hard wood, which are good
for building huts, their leaves being used for the roof, and the Moriche
palm (_Mauritia flexuosa_), which, as already noticed, furnishes nearly
all the necessities of life to the Guarauno Indians of the Delta.

The llanos originally contained deer, the river swine or capybara
(_chiguire_), and the jaguar, also wild ducks and geese. In 1548
Cristobal Rodriguez started sending cattle into the plains to multiply.
In Humboldt’s time the live stock were estimated at 1,200,000 oxen,
180,000 horses, and 90,000 mules. Wars and diseases have at different
times interrupted their increase. Horses, asses, and mules were abundant
and cheap up to 1843, when a pestilence destroyed nearly all the wild
ones, the loss being estimated at between six and seven million beasts.

The cattle are believed to have decreased between the years 1863-73 from
5,000,000 to 1,400,000, but by 1888 were estimated at 8,500,000 again.

Cattle-breeding should be a great and important industry for Venezuela,
and it is to be hoped that it will be put on a better footing before
long. An up-to-date factory for killing and chilling meat has been
established at Puerto Cabello, and the first shipment took place in 1910.

One of the chief difficulties this industry has to contend with is the
loss of condition the cattle sustain on their journeys to the port from
distant ranches. There are, however, plenty of outlets from the llanos,
for the southern part, the Orinoco, and for the west, central, and
eastern parts, Puerto Cabello, Barcelona, and Caño Colorado, the port of
Maturín.

Most of the cattle in the llanos are in a half-wild state. It is rather
melancholy to find that in country towns surrounded by vast areas of
pasture-land milk and butter are often difficult to procure; in fact, a
lot of imported butter is used. The calves generally get all the milk,
and the cows are so unused to being milked for the benefit of mankind
that it is necessary to bring the calf and tie it to the mother’s leg and
allow it to begin the operation before the milkmen can do anything, the
cow apparently being deluded into the idea that she is feeding the calf
all the time. The farmers and llaneros in most parts seem surprised to
hear that milking can be done in any other way.

This pastoral industry, like the others, has suffered from many causes,
but the chief has been political unrest and internal wars. There is
little doubt that if the country once settles down, as it now bids fair
to do, and a feeling of security is established, the farmers will show
more energy and increase their knowledge of their art, and in time the
physical conditions of the vast plains may, nay, will, be gradually
improved. Irrigation and the planting of trees, protecting them when
young from the cattle, will bring this about. One would think that this
process should be begun in the east and gradually worked westward. In
the east the climate is pleasanter, and the prevailing east wind cool
(not having passed over a hot, arid land surface), and as each strip of
country is improved it would render easier the amelioration of the area
immediately to the west of it. But all this requires capital, work, and
patience, and men will not be found to undertake it as long as they have
reason to fear that civil wars will prevent them enjoying the fruits of
their labour.

[Illustration: RUINED CHURCH: BARCELONA.]

[Illustration: CASA FUERTE: BARCELONA.]

The general physical description of the llanos applies to all the States
named in the heading to this chapter. A glance at the map shows that
the first six, Monágas to Zamora, actually constitute the east to west
extension of the great plain, whilst Apure forms the beginning of the
southerly extension, which, as already pointed out, stretches far beyond
the boundaries of Venezuela.

The chief towns of the eastern llanos are Maturín, in Monágas, Barcelona
and Aragua de Barcelona, in Anzoátegui. The northern part of these two
States includes some of the highlands south of the Cumaná range, pleasant
pastoral country with a good climate. The central part of the llanos
is very hot, and arid in the dry season. Calabozo, in Guárico, and San
Fernando de Apure are the two hottest places in the country, the latter
having a mean annual temperature of 91°.

In the extreme west, as the Cordillera is approached, the heat
diminishes, and the typical llano is often replaced by well-wooded
country. The chief towns here are San Carlos, in Cojedes, Guanare, in
Portuguesa, and Barinas, in Zamora, the last-named town not being much
hotter than Maturín.

The town of Nueva Barcelona was founded in 1637 by Juan Urpin, at a spot
some two leagues distant from its present site.

In 1671, in order to terminate the frequent quarrels between its
inhabitants and those of a neighbouring settlement, Cumanagoto, the
Governor, Angelo, united the two populations at the spot where Barcelona
now stands. This shifting of towns and villages at the order of a
Governor, or even a priest, was not uncommon in the colony in the early
days.

Towards the end of the eighteenth century Barcelona grew considerably
in importance. There was a large and growing demand in the Antilles,
especially in Cuba, for meat to feed the slaves on the plantations and
for horses and mules. The journey from the River Plate in sailing-ships
was a very long one, and the Cuba merchants preferred to get their goods
from the north coast. Barcelona’s position at the point where the llanos
extend right to the coast, and where consequently there are no mountains
to cross, gave her a big advantage over Cumaná and other seaports, and
her trade and population grew rapidly. From 1790 to 1800 her population
grew from 10,000 to 16,000. But it was in adversity that Barcelona was to
become famous, and in 1817 she gained a crown of martyrdom, becoming the
scene of one of the most tragic events in the history of South American
independence.

Bolivar, after several encounters with the royalists in February, had
left Barcelona to beat up recruits. The Captain-General, Juan de Aldama,
having failed to intercept him, turned eastward to the doomed city, where
he was joined by some troops from Cumaná and by some vessels of the
fleet, which provided him with guns. A devoted band, consisting chiefly
of Venezuelans, with some Colombians and a few foreigners, in all 600-700
fighting men, and some 300 civilians, women, and children, determined to
resist to the last, and prepared to defend the convent of San Francisco,
better known to history as the Casa Fuerte, which stands in an open space
in the town.

Aldama’s sharpshooters having cleared the town, he invested the convent,
placing ordnance on two sides of it and stationing troops on the far
sides to prevent the escape of the garrison. He then invited the patriots
to capitulate, promising to spare their lives, but they refused, and at
dawn of April 10th he began the bombardment.

The Casa Fuerte was not strong enough to withstand his artillery, and
at two in the afternoon a large breach had been effected. The royalists
charged from cover across the open space round the convent, and a
desperate fight ensued, the Venezuelans selling their lives very dearly.
The walls of the room in which the last of the patriots died are still
standing, and the stones are deeply scored all over from the blows of
the weapons of men fighting in a confined space.

Aldama states in his official report to the King that he invited the
garrison to capitulate before the bombardment, with a view to avoiding
any unnecessary bloodshed and to demonstrate his Majesty’s clemency, but
any humane intentions seem to have deserted the royalists during the
day, for, not content with annihilating the combatants, who disdained
to ask for quarter, nearly all the women and children were outraged and
murdered. It is even said that Aldama gave orders to have the sick in the
hospital butchered, but the officer to whom this task was deputed would
not carry out his instructions. A few individuals escaped, fighting as
they went.

The military and civil Governors of Barcelona, General Pedro Maria
Freites and Colonel Francisco Esteban Rivas, were taken wounded and
prisoners to Carácas, and there shot on April 17th.

In connection with the centenary celebrations this year, 1911, an
interesting little booklet has been written by the historian M. L.
Rosales, and officially published by the President of Anzoátegui, General
A. Rolando, giving the accounts of the affair by Aldama on the one hand
and by General D. F. O’Leary on the other.

Most of the victims’ names are lost, but the historian has collected some
seventy-seven, six of whom were priests and eighteen women. Among them we
may note one Carlos Chamberlain, of Jamaica, a colonel in the Republican
Army, and his mother, Doña Eulalia. Another lady, Doña Juana de Jesus
Rojas, died of seven bayonet wounds, while the last on the list is a
little girl, Dolores Rodriguez, only four months old, who had a hand cut
off, but survived and died in Carácas as lately as 1898.

Barcelona is a town of good appearance, with fairly well paved streets,
and many houses of more than one storey, which show that there is not
the same dread of earthquakes as at Cumaná. There are three fine churches
and a well-equipped theatre. The sea near the town is shallow and has
many shoals of sand, and is therefore unsuited to vessels of any size.
Guanta, some 19 kilometres to the east, has an excellent natural harbour,
and is now the port of Barcelona, connected with the city by a railway,
which runs also to the coalmines at Naricual and Capiricual, another 19
kilometres distant. These furnish a useful bright burning coal of a later
geological period than the British coal which is used on the railway
and supplied to the Venezuelan steamers which ply from the Orinoco to
the ports on the north coast. Briquettes are also manufactured with
the coal and pitch brought from the north-east coast and Trinidad. The
Barcelonians conduct the railway, the coalmine, and the briquette factory
themselves, and are rather proud of their “home industries,” since in
Venezuela most modern enterprises are conducted by foreigners.

The imports are mixed goods, chiefly from the United States and Holland,
while the exports are mainly beasts, hides, horns, and coffee.

Aragua de Barcelona is better placed than Barcelona itself as a trade
centre, and is growing in importance, becoming a serious rival to the
older town. It is chiefly concerned with the cattle industry, but the
inhabitants also make hammocks and various textile goods.

Maturín, the capital of Monágas, stands in the N.E. corner of the llanos,
on the River Guarapiche, and from its situation it is likely, to grow
considerably, in importance as the country develops. At first sight it
does not produce a particularly favourable impression. The streets are
not paved, but in front of the houses run narrow raised sidewalks often
two feet or more above the roadway. It improves, however, on further
acquaintance. There is not the air of decay and diminished importance
which is badly evident in some parts of the country; the inhabitants are
cheerful and sociable, and inclined to progress, and a fair amount of
business appears to pass through the town.

There is probably no part of the llanos pleasanter than the country round
Maturín. The grassy plain is well supplied with streams, which have
generally cut their channels fairly deep, and are well wooded along their
banks, and the climate is pleasant even for Europeans.

The death-rate, although there is no sanitation, is very low, under 12
per 1,000, or less than half the average rate for the republic, and lower
than that of London.

Most of the trade of this part of the country is carried by schooners,
which come from the sea up the Caño San Juan, to the point where the
Rivers San Juan and Guarapiche join. Here there is an old guardship,
where some Customs officials are stationed. The San Juan leads to
Guanoco, where the Bermudez Asphalt Company carry on their business. A
few miles up the Guarapiche stands the village of Caño Colorado, the
headquarters of the Customs. The jungle is dense on both banks of the
river, but on one side a narrow clearing has been made, just sufficient
for a row of small houses, with a little back garden to each. Maturín
is about thirty miles from here across country, but much farther by
river. From the point at which the schooners stop the trade with Maturín
is carried in bongos, which are propelled, like punts, by long poles.
Planks are fixed on the two sides of the boats, and the crews, standing
on these, plant their poles firmly, and then walk towards the stern. When
they can go no farther, they pull out the poles and run towards the bows.
The river is narrow and very swift, so that coming down stream is very
easy, but going up so much way is lost between the strokes, that the men,
when they pull up their poles, have to rush forward again as fast as they
can. It takes three days to get from Caño Colorado up to Maturín like
this, and the men are able to work almost continually during the day.
Once out of sight of the houses, they generally strip completely, only
throwing on some light covering on reaching one of the few settlements
on the river. The exercise develops every muscle of the body and limbs,
and the men engaged in it are as fine a set of athletes as any artist or
anatomist could wish to see. Although the river is so wild, and human
habitations so few and far apart, this scene is quite lively at intervals
as groups of these bongos come along, and “man overboard,” a frequent
event, is always the cause of much merriment.

The country round Maturín is dotted here and there with villages, as
well as with isolated cottages. The larger cattle-owners often live in
the towns but have here and there small houses for their employees. A
typical _casita_ is simplicity itself. Upright posts, tree-trunks with
their branches trimmed off, are planted firmly in the ground, six feet
or more apart, and cross-pieces are tied to them, at a height of about
eight feet. The rafters of the roof, lighter poles, are also tied on,
and palm-leaves form a most efficient thatch, throwing off the heaviest
rain, and lasting for years. At one end of this roofed enclosure a small
space is rendered more private, to serve as the retiring-room of the
inhabitants. A few light trunks or branches are tied horizontally across
the uprights, about a foot apart, and either palm-leaves are tied to
these, the bedroom walls, in fact, being thatched like the roof, or a
more solid mud wall is constructed on the wooden framework. The soil
itself is the floor. The traveller seeking a night’s shelter slings his
hammock to some of the uprights in the outer room, having no walls
around him, but a roof over his head. A small fire is kept going in a
corner of the outer room for cooking purposes. In the simpler cases very
little furniture is required: a log or two to sit on; a few bowls of
different sizes made of gourds cut in half, serving as cups or plates;
an iron pot on the fire; an upright log, stuck in the ground with a
bowl-shaped hollow at the top serves as a sort of mortar, in which maize,
&c., may be ground; and another somewhat similar device, with a wooden
lever for crushing sugar-cane, the juice running out below into the gourd
placed to receive it.

It is easy to set up a home of this sort; the site once selected, the
materials for house and furniture are always at hand, and the whole thing
can be done in a few days.

The traveller, of course, always carries his own hammock, rolled up
tight in a sausage-shaped bag carried across the saddle, either before
or behind the rider. On arrival at one of these homesteads he can almost
invariably count on a civil reception, and without further preliminaries
slings his hammock, which then serves him as chair as well as bed.
Sometimes he may chance on a spot where food is scarce at the moment, but
generally the good people will find something for him. A sancoche made of
a fowl stewed in its own juices, cassava in thin cakes, sprinkled with
a few drops of water to soften it, some beans, and some roast plantains
(cooking bananas) form a menu which, even if it does not appeal to an
epicure, proves both tasty and satisfying after a long day in the saddle.
Houses of this type are generally inhabited by one family only, who are
looking after the flocks and herds of some wealthy owner or are in a very
small way of business themselves.

A more animated scene is presented by the _hato_ of a regular farmer, a
proprietor living on the premises, employing several hands and working
with them. Here we may expect to see a solid house of several rooms, with
mud walls and an earth floor. If the farmer is a person of substance
and taste, his bedroom may be furnished with an up-to-date bedstead,
and a wardrobe or chest of drawers, and a few chairs, while the chief
living-room probably has a rough table and a few chairs also. In the
living-rooms the mud or clay of the walls is broken here and there about
six feet above the ground, giving glimpses of the wooden framework inside
the wall. This is, however, not due to accidental damage or neglect,
for at night strangers, or some of the farm hands, sleep in these
living-rooms, and passing their hammock-ropes through these holes, attach
them to the wooden posts inside.

Round about the house, or near it, is an enclosed stockyard, built, like
the houses, of upright posts, with horizontal poles attached to them. In
the middle of this yard is an upright post, to which the beasts requiring
any sort of operation are secured one at a time. There are, perhaps,
other similar enclosures, some covered with palm thatch, in which any
part of the stock may be kept separate if desired. These yards are also
used at times for the accommodation of travelling herds, especially if
the farm be on or near the recognised route to some market town or port.
The drovers pay the farmer a small rental, generally based on the number
of cattle they have, and secure them for the night, thus preventing them
from straying about the plains and ensuring an early start in the morning.

Near the house, in a roofed shed, is the bakery; there we may find a
small fireplace with clay walls, the top of which is formed by a circular
iron plate about three feet in diameter, the whole being about the height
of an ordinary table. On this the cassava-bread is baked. The flour,
duly prepared and freed from superfluous water, is thinly spread on the
iron and rapidly baked, the finished loaf being a large circular disc
very hard and brittle, and thinner than our ordinary milk biscuits.

The cattle may be seen dotted about the plain, and near to the homesteads
a few horses are grazing, tethered so that they may be at hand when
wanted. There is none of the continuous work, laborious cultivation
of the soil, constant attention to the live stock, &c., which we are
accustomed to connect with farming at home. The farm hands spend a
good deal of their time loafing about, chatting, smoking, and playing
their guitars and maracas. At other times there is plenty of bustle
and activity; they rush for their horses and gallop off to collect the
cattle, or such of them as may be required, and drive them into the
enclosure, where they are lassooed one at a time, and milked, or fastened
to the post in the middle to be branded, or have hurts attended to, as
the case may be. The amount of comfort to be found in these farms, and
the amount of skill and energy displayed in their exploitation varies
a good deal from place to place, depending mainly, after all, on the
tastes and character of the owner, but partly on circumstances. In many
cases absolute slackness and indifference prevail, the cattle are almost
entirely left to shift for themselves, and the human beings are content
to exist miserably rather than bestir themselves. There are some estates,
again, where the owner is a wealthy, educated, and perhaps a travelled
man, which are managed on far better lines than the average.

Maturín has a creditable record from the War of Independence, a Spanish
army having been twice repulsed, and finally almost completely destroyed
there. At Areo, a day and a half west of Maturín, there is in the open
space by the church a huge wooden screw press, like a giant letterpress,
which the inhabitants say was used by the Spaniards to press cotton. At
Urica, farther west, the inhabitants are somewhat interesting. They have
the reputation of having been of a brave and warlike disposition from the
earliest times, and fought desperately in the War of Independence. There
is something in their appearance, and a general suggestion of freedom and
independence in their manner, in their very gait, which can scarcely fail
to strike the traveller, even if he be unacquainted with their history.

At the little village of Curataquiche, near Barcelona, are the ruins of
the Mission of St. Joseph; the walls of one end of the church, and a bit
of the adjoining enclosure, very solidly built in stone, are all that
remain of a once important mission. The church bells have been preserved,
and are hung to a large wooden trestle on the village green.

Most of these towns and villages possess churches, but resident priests
are rarely to be found. The inhabitants generally meet on Sundays and
hold some sort of service among themselves, but can only hear Mass when
a travelling priest comes their way. At either end of a village, at the
side of the track, a plain wooden cross is generally erected, and often
in its neighbourhood will be found a small shrine about which are hung
various little objects placed there by pious hands as thankofferings for
answers to prayers. These shrines generally contain a cross with the
instruments of crucifixion, the ladder, nails, hammer, crown of thorns,
spear shaft with sponge, dice, &c., but without the figure of Christ.
They are often illuminated with a little flickering light at night. To
the west of Barcelona there is one on the spot where a man was killed.
It contains his skull, which is lit up from inside at night, producing a
somewhat weird effect.

[Illustration: MESA OF ESNOJAQUE: TRUJILLO.]

[Illustration: MÉRIDA: LOOKING SOUTH FROM UNIVERSITY.]

Calabozo, the chief town in the State of Guárico, and the seat of a
bishopric, founded in 1730 by the Guipuzcoana Company, is a town of some
importance to-day. There is a good grazing country round it, and it has
a trade in cattle, mules, hides, cheese, and other things. It is a hot
place, but has not the reputation of being unhealthy. Its communications
are liable to be cut off by floods in the wet season. It has always been
specially noted in the records of travellers for the electric eels which
abound in its neighbourhood. Humboldt, when visiting Calabozo, offered
a fair price for a number of these creatures. Horses were cheap at that
time, and some of the inhabitants obtained the desired specimens by
driving a number of horses into a pond infested with them, and prevented
their escape by surrounding the pond armed with sticks. When the gymnoti
had exhausted their energies on the unfortunate horses, they were able
to secure them without risk. Several of the horses died, either directly
from the attacks of the eels or, more probably, from drowning during the
temporary paralysis caused by the electric shocks.

Among the other principal towns in Guárico is Barbacoas, pleasantly
situated in a raised plain east of the Guárico, with woods to the north
of it and a fertile plain to the south.

At Ortiz, founded by the cacique of that name, Bolivar was nearly killed
on April 16, 1818. This town and Guayabal, which was founded by the
Capuchins in 1758, were both burnt by the Spaniards during the war.

Zaraza, on the River Unare, and Camaguan, on the Portuguesa, are also of
some importance; the latter was built by the Capuchins in the seventeenth
century. Inundations from the Portuguesa, the Apure, and the Apurito have
formed a considerable lake near Camaguan, which appears to be permanent;
the Rivers Unare and Apurito are navigable to the neighbourhood of these
towns in the wet season.

In the State of Cojedes, the town of San Carlos was formerly a
flourishing place, but has now a very reduced population, and many
formerly fine buildings are going into decay. The same sad state of
things obtains at Barinas, on the River San Domingo, in the State of
Zamora; its neighbourhood was formerly a famous tobacco district.
Barinas is at the extremity in this direction of the telegraph service
of Venezuela. Near it, at Pedraza, are some ruins, traces of an earlier
Indian civilisation.

In the State of Portuguesa the chief town is Guanare, founded in 1593 by
Francisco de Leon. Besides the usual cattle and live-stock industries,
coffee and cocoa are grown in the neighbourhood.

The western part of the country was settled by the Spaniards earlier than
the east, but about the towns of the western llanos there appears to be a
melancholy air of past prosperity and of arrested development. They have
suffered much from wars and political troubles, also from cattle plagues.
Their inhabitants now depend chiefly on their cattle, mules, hides, &c.;
in some places coffee, cocoa, and tobacco are grown, and there are a few
simple manufactures, hammocks, straw hats, earthenware goods, sugar,
cheese, &c., being the chief.

Nevertheless, the western llanos undoubtedly possess great resources and
convenient outlets. To the north they can communicate with Barquisimeto,
Puerto Cabello, and other towns, whilst the streams on which they are
situated are all tributaries of the Orinoco, or of its main feeders, thus
putting them into communication with Ciudad Bolivar. If good government
continues, and capital is attracted, there must come to this great
territory a degree of prosperity far greater than it has enjoyed in the
past, or than its present inhabitants probably even dream of.




CHAPTER XIV

THE CITY AND STATE OF BOLIVAR

    An enormous area—How to reach it—Ciudad Bolivar—Climate—San
    Felix—Falls of the Caroni—Trade of San Felix—Quality
    of “roads”—Upata—Guasipati—Balatá industry—Extravagant
    exploitation—Former importance—The goldfields—El
    Callao—The discovery—Callao Bis—Big dividends—The common
    pursuit—Venamo Valley—High freights—Poor quality of
    labour—Unsystematic working—Goldfields of Venezuela,
    Ltd.—Savannahs—Stock-farming—Sugar—Old settlements—An ancient
    bridge—Tumeremo and the balatá forests—Killing the goose
    that lays the golden eggs—The Caroni—An opportunity for a
    pioneer—Up the Orinoco—The “Gates of Hell”—The Caura—Rice and
    tonka-beans—_Lajas_—Rubber of the Nichare—Falls of Pará—André’s
    journeys—Mountains of the upper Caura—The Waiomgomos—Reticence
    regarding names—Ticks—Caicara—The Cuchivero—Savannahs and
    _sarrapiales_—Sarsaparilla—Climate of the Orinoco Valley.


Less than two miles up-stream from the ancient citadel of Guayana Vieja,
the boundary of the Delta territory crosses the Orinoco, and the right
bank of the river becomes the northern limit of the State of Bolivar
under the Constitution of 1909. This State includes a vast unexplored
region, in addition to the gold-producing district bordering on British
Guiana, and occupies in all 238,000 square kilometres, or 90,440 square
miles, mainly covered with virgin forest.

The capital of this huge State is the city of Angostura, named in 1846
Ciudad Bolivar, in honour of the Libertador. Its intercourse with the
outside world is carried on solely through Port-of-Spain, in Trinidad,
from which shallow-draught river steamers run over in about two days,
once a week in the busy season, when the rubber, balatá, and other forest
products from the interior are being exported in largest quantities, and
once every ten days at other times; from the city smaller steamers ply up
the Orinoco and the Apure to the borders of Colombia.

Founded in 1764 by the then Governor of the Orinoco province, Don Joaquin
Moreno de Mendoza, on the slope of a granite hill overlooking the
river, the new city received the name of San Thomé de la Nueva Guayana,
as opposed to Guayana Vieja down the river. Later the name changed,
naturally, to Angostura, from the fact that the river at this point
narrows down to 800 metres, a physical feature which accentuates the rise
of the Orinoco to such an extent that in the rains the water-level rises
some 40 feet, flooding the lower parts of the city. There is a gradual
descent from the fort and cathedral behind the town, with the cemetery
again behind them, to the waterside, where there is a good road along the
river-front, having the principal private houses and the large stores,
many of which are owned by German firms; elsewhere there are scattered
mansions dating back to colonial times, with massive walls as protection
from the heat. The granite on which the city is built seems to absorb
the heat throughout the day, and the radiation after sunset renders the
atmosphere unusually oppressive for a town in so fine a position. The
mean annual temperature is 86·6° F.

Ciudad Bolivar is the official port of entry, not only for the hinterland
of Guayana but also for the eastern gold-mining region, the port of which
is in reality passed on the way up the river, and is known as San Felix
or Puerto Tablas, a few miles eastward of the mouth and falls of the
Caroni. A special permit is occasionally granted for passengers to land
at this point without first visiting Bolivar, but normally all passengers
and goods perform the eight-hours journey between San Felix and Bolivar
twice over, in order to pass through the custom-house at the latter.

The falls of Caroni, near Las Tablas, have been made famous by many
travellers since the days of Raleigh, who was struck with the magnificent
spectacle of their huge body of water descending a sheer 60 feet over
black polished granite to join the greater river of which it is a
tributary, after its hundreds of miles of comparatively quiet travel from
the slopes of the Sierra Pacaraima, on the borders of Brazil. East of
Caroni lie the two most populous districts of Bolivar, those of Piar and
Roscio, containing numerous towns and fairly well provided with roads.
The district of Heres has in the aggregate a larger population than
either of the more easterly divisions, but over two-thirds of the whole
of this is accounted for by the congregation of souls in the capital, so
that from a general point of view the goldfield area is the most densely
populated of all, and included 22,392 of the total of 55,744 in the State
at the census of 1891.

San Felix receives its second name of Las Tablas from the elevated
plateau behind the town, over which the road climbs to the interior.
It is a busy little town, though small, with an hotel, a few
stores, telegraph office, and custom-house; the last is rather a
coastguard-station, as we have seen that all duties are collected in
Bolivar. There is a British consular agent in the port. With the enormous
possibilities of the water-power present in the Caroni falls, it seems
strange that the place has not developed ere this into a flourishing and
important city, instead of the small terminus town that it remains. As
it is, the size of the place is no criterion of its commercial standing,
for all the imports and exports of the two eastern districts pass through
San Felix, and the freight paid there amounts alone to £200,000 annually.
Merchandise proceeds southwards on ox-wagons and mule-carts, which carry
in cotton goods and hardware and bring back balatá and hides, with the
small amount of gold at present produced. The 215 kilometres to Guasipati
may take any time from ten days to two months for the wheel traffic,
according to the kind used and the season of the year, for the “road”
is exceedingly primitive. Bridges are rare, and the route is a mere
track cut through the forest or winding over sandy plains, without any
attempts at surveying, metalling, or draining, so that deep mud-holes are
frequently formed, wherein the wagons may stick for two or three days
before they are hauled out with block and tackle. In these circumstances
it is not surprising that the ordinary traveller hires a mule for the
journey from San Felix, and so covers the distance to Guasipati in about
twenty-five hours’ actual riding.

The road to Guasipati passes through Upata, the capital of the Piar
district, which is about ten and a half hours distant from Las Tablas.
After one and a half hours across sandy, open ground, with stunted
trees, the edge of the forest is reached, and the road continues through
this for some seven hours more, beyond which two hours’ riding across
open savannah is required to reach Upata. This is a small agricultural
town with a population of less than 3,000, forming a market for the
neighbouring villages and haciendas, and possessing a hotel, telegraph
office, and a few shops.

After Upata the main road to Guasipati crosses the Orinoco-Cuyuni
watershed, and winding all the way across open savannahs on which are
grazing large herds of cattle, with villages here and there, finally
enters the capital of the Roscio district, about fifteen hours’
continuous riding from Upata. Needless to say, the journey from San Felix
is not necessarily one of two long stages, and those who do not mind
putting up with the discomforts of small posadas may take four or five
days over the journey.

In 1891 Guasipati had a population of over 3,000, and was then and
subsequently the centre of the balatá industry, large quantities of
the gum being obtained from the neighbouring forests. Unfortunately,
the local operators adopted the extravagant and lazy habit of cutting
down the trees in place of tapping them, and the source of supply has
consequently retreated into the forests away from the town. For this
and other reasons, notably the decreased activity in the goldfields,
Guasipati has of late years decreased in size, but it is still the
district capital, with the chief courts and registry offices, and
possesses a fine plaza and church, hotel, telegraph office, and numerous
stores.

While the botanical and zoological resources of the region have proved,
as is usual, more satisfactory in the long run than mineral wealth, the
principal attraction and chief source of revenue was originally, and
to some extent still is, the gold of the El Callao region to the south
of Guasipati. The town of that name lies some twenty-five kilometres,
or three hours’ ride, from Guasipati, on the right bank of the River
Yuruari. The town is built on and around the site of the famous mine
of the same name, which is said to have been worked by Indians in very
early times. The hills above the town are covered with dense tropical
vegetation, the second growth which has replaced the former forests,
whose trees supplied the fuel used in working the mines. The commencement
of recent work and the discovery of the various alluvial and reef
deposits is attributed to more than one source, but the most probable
story is that which follows:—

The Spanish monks had a station at Tupuquen, on the left bank of the
river some four miles above El Callao, and prospectors from this
settlement followed up the rich alluvial valley of a small tributary
known as the Mocupia, founding there the settlement of Caratal, where
there are still many prospecting shafts working free gold from a depth of
about 20 feet, with the ruins of various mills erected at a later date,
during the boom of the early eighties, including that of the notorious
Callao Bis. From Caratal the prospectors spread over the surrounding
country and found numerous rich deposits, the chief being El Callao,
about two miles from Caratal. In 1842 a Brazilian named Pedro Ayares
visited Tupuquen, and recorded the existence of auriferous sands in the
river, but primitive washings were not established there till 1849, when
good returns were obtained. After many years of prospecting and handwork
the El Callao company was formed, and a mill was erected, yielding the
following results:—

  ------+---------------+-----------------+-----------------
  Year. | Tons crushed. |  Gold produced. | Average per Ton.
  ------+---------------+-----------------+-----------------
        |               |        Oz.      |        Oz.
  1871  |       315     |       3,219·60  |       6·25
  1874  |     3,963     |      17,187·68  |       4·33
  1876  |    12,419     |      42,542·05  |       3·42
  1878  |     9,673     |      49,638·88  |       5·13
  1881  |    24,978     |      72,254·62  |       2·89
  1884  |    30,936     |     177,055·16  |       5·72
  1886  |    73,708     |     118,040·20  |       2·45
  1889  |    57,301     |      52,971·35  |       0·91
  1892  |    52,910     |      31,945·27  |       0·60
  ------+---------------+-----------------+-----------------

paying in dividends, from 1871 to 1892, 48,332,200 francs, or £1,933,288.
Since that time little of importance has been done, and at the present
time the mine is practically shut down, after having been involved in
endless lawsuits.

That there is good reason to suppose that the region contains vast
mineral wealth can hardly be denied, in view of the widespread
indications of gold, so general that it is almost a daily occurrence
to see men, women, and boys setting out with pan, pick, and shovel,
carried on a donkey’s back, to try their fortune at some fresh alluvial
discovery. A big rush of men took place to the Venamo Valley, on the
borders of Guiana, in December of last year, and the field there is now
being opened up, some sixty or seventy miles southward of Callao, and
accessible by water only. One of the chief drawbacks to development of
any part of the district is the high cost of transport—the freight from
San Felix by ox-cart is 9 cents per lb., or over £30 per ton—and this
is followed by a scarcity of labour, which is almost entirely derived
from West Indian coloured settlers and immigrants, often of a very low
type, so that it is necessary to pay B6.00 per day for the lowest class
of unintelligent manual labour, and up to B16.00 for skilled (_i.e._,
indifferent fitters’) work. These difficulties may, and doubtless will,
be overcome in time; but the country moves forward slowly, if at all,
and the early attempts at working the mines appear to have been too
careless and unsystematic to offer much encouragement to immigration of
a good class of settler. Mills were put up on any rich strike, and when
that was worked out the company died, without any attempt to find any
other sources of ore. Among many companies that have been thus floated
from time to time may be mentioned the Nacupai, Chili, Potosi, Union,
Victory, and Choco. Practically the only mine now worked regularly is the
Goldfields of Venezuela, which has absorbed many of the old companies and
employs modern methods under the direction of a superintendent of many
years’ experience of the peculiarities of the country.

Outside the forest-clad hills of the auriferous territory there are
immense stretches of savannah, which are divided up into ranches, and
have been found excellent for cattle-breeding, though as yet the horses
raised there are of very indifferent quality; the stocks are small,
however, and much extension is possible in the industry, which is
hardly so important at the present time as the cultivation of sugar.
Many plantations and mills are to be found in the eastern districts
of Bolivar, and the large quantities of rum and _papelon_ (raw sugar)
produced give a good return, the local demand for these commodities being
considerable.

There are still some ruins, and in some cases modern villages, to mark
the sites of the old Spanish settlements, among which may be mentioned
Tupuquen, Carapo, Sicapra, and Cura; the last named must once have been a
place of considerable importance, as near by are traces of a bridge over
the Yuruari, the only one on record, and of a brick and tile factory.
It is said to have been the port for small trading boats coming up the
Essequibo and the Cuyuni from Dutch Guiana; the old Dutch bells found
near by are adduced as evidence in support of this statement. The place
is now entirely abandoned and in ruins.

Some six hours’ ride south of El Callao is the town of Tumeremo, which
is rapidly coming to the fore as the centre of the balatá industry. At
present it is near the forests, which are of enormous extent; but the
system of wholesale destruction of the trees still prevails, and it is to
be feared that the history of Guasipati will be repeated here, and that
the industry will perish by a suicide’s death at no very distant date.

[Illustration: CARRYING THE TILES ON OX-BACK; NEAR TOVAR.]

Famous as are the falls of the Caroni, the upper course and tributaries
of this great river are practically unknown. For some fifty miles from
its mouth, until the savannahs finally give place to forest, villages
may be found on the sites of the old Capuchin Missions. The chief
tributary is the Paragua, but this and the minor affluents are alike
known chiefly from the casual information of the Indians who inhabit the
forests along the banks. Yet there may be extensive savannahs in the
uplands, and the geology of Guayana would lead one to expect to find
gold, while the forests undoubtedly contain great wealth of timber and
vegetable products, all waiting to reward the industry of the pioneer
bold enough to take his lot in these remote regions.

Above Bolivar the Orinoco has a tranquil course for some distance between
llanos on the north and granite hills and savannahs on the south. Above
Moitaco, however, there is a sharp S bend, with many islands, where the
current gradually increases in strength as one approaches the Puerto or
Boca del Infierno (Gates of Hell), where the whole stream rushes through
a narrow gorge with such force as to occasionally drive back the river
steamers. Beyond this to the mouth of the Caura the main river, though
full of rocks, is wide and the current less rapid.

Like most of the Guayana tributaries of the Lower Orinoco, for the last
forty or fifty miles before it joins the main river the Caura flows
through wide savannahs, broken here and there by wooded hills, and by
the belts of trees along the river banks. In these more fertile belts
clearings have been made at a few spots, with one or two miserable
huts, whose occupants cultivate the sugar, rice, bananas, manioc, sweet
potatoes, and yams of these tiny plantations.

Higher up the forests begin, and, as far as is known, the upper valley
of the Caura is all forest, with very few savannahs. In these forests
the tonka-bean (_sarrapia_) grows to perfection, and the collecting
of these, and of a certain amount of copaiba-balsam and cedar-wood,
constitutes the chief industry of the Caura settlements. Of late years
the tonka-bean has gone down in value, and the inhabitants have turned
their attention more to rice-farming, for which the Caura lowlands are
well fitted. Most of the produce is used locally, but a small surplus is
shipped to Ciudad Bolivar.

The dense forests are not absolutely unbroken, however, for here and
there are bare open spaces of flat granite rock, known as _lajas_; it is
to these that the foresters come often to crush and dry the tonka-beans.
Up the Nichare, a western tributary of the Caura above the Raudales of
Mura, there is said to be much rubber of good quality, but it remains
practically untouched for want of population in the region.

Some 130 miles up the Caura from its mouth are the falls or rapids of
Pará, with a total descent of apparently about 200 feet, according to
André, the author of the only reliable account of the Upper Caura. Some
day, as he suggests, the falls may provide power for saw-mills and a town
whose prosperity is founded upon the natural wealth of the surrounding
forest; at present all is wild, and almost unknown. There is a portage
over the falls, by way of an island in the middle, and then begins the
Merevari, as the Caura above Pará is called.

The two chief tributaries on the west bank are the Nichare, already
mentioned, and the Erewato, above Pará, once colonised by the early
missionaries and afterwards the line of a short cut to the Upper Orinoco;
now the valley is unknown to Europeans.

Two days’ journey in canoes above the big rapids is the gorge of Ayaima,
where the great stream is forced to rush through a channel 30 feet wide,
between walls of granite. Above this the flat-topped, steep-sided peak of
Achaba, and beyond it those of Arichi to the west and Améha to the east,
may be seen. On his adventurous journey André reached the last of these,
where he experienced one of the severe thunderstorms of the region,
interpreted by the Waiomgomos as the angry voice of the spirits of the
mountain.

These Waiomgomos are found in their original haunts round the head-waters
of the Caura, and there they are said to go about with faces and bodies
painted bright red, wearing only the _guayuco_ or _buja_. It is strange
that they are very reluctant to give their Indian names to outsiders, and
always on approaching the bounds of civilisation adopt a Spanish name.

The forests and savannahs of the Lower Caura, like most of the districts
near the Orinoco, are frightfully infested with bush-ticks, mosquitoes,
and sandflies; higher in the hills these pests decrease, but they
effectually prevent absolute enjoyment of an exploring trip where they
are found.

Beyond the Caura’s mouth the main river is devoid of special interest to
Caicara, where it comes sweeping round a hill, leaving a fine backwater
behind as a safe anchorage for boats—the reason of the former importance
of the town, now, alas! only a village of mud and wattle huts. Its
commerce is confined to rice, tonka-beans, and hides, the latter from the
savannahs which stretch away southwards in all directions to the hills.

The Cuchivero, which enters the Orinoco fifteen miles east of Caicara,
is, in part at least, far better known than the Caura, and, though
smaller, is a more important river at the present time, since the
savannahs of the Cuchivaro support many cattle, and there are _hatos_
here and there as far as the Raudal Seriapo. These savannahs are of
guinea-grass, broken here and there by _chaparral_, moriche-palms, or
_morros_—_i.e._, small rocky hills covered with trees, amongst which the
_Dipteryx odorata_ is common, giving to the wooded mounds the name of
_sarrapiales_.

The waters of the Guaniamo, a tributary of the Cuchivero, are said to be
noticeably affected by the quantity of sarsaparilla on the river’s banks,
and the whole upper valley of the Cuchivero is rich in rubber, copaiba,
quinine, mahogany, “cedar,” and other valuable forest products. According
to Major Paterson, traces of gold, cinnabar, and silver are found in the
hills. In the distant south are the typical mushroom peaks of Guayana,
showing that here also the geology is similar to that of the goldfield
area, and the minerals may therefore also be alike.

It is not pleasant travelling in the Cuchivero forests, Major Paterson
tells us. The trees grow over loose rock, and the crevices under the
tangled roots may often cause nasty falls; and there are the ubiquitous
mosquitoes and sandflies, to make matters worse. But higher up the
insects become fewer, and from the occasional savannahs or _lajas_
splendid views may be obtained of the hill ranges to the south, between
the Caura and the Ventuari. The Indians of these forests are presumably
the Piaroas, said to be a peaceable, mild race.

The climate of all the lower Orinoco Valley is far from pleasant in the
rains, but in the dry season, which lasts from October to March, an
easterly breeze blows both morning and afternoon, the sweltering interval
during the lull at midday serving only to accentuate the pleasant
comparative coolness of the rest. The nights then are often chilly, owing
to the heavy dews.




CHAPTER XV

THE AMAZONAS TERRITORY

    Area—General character—San Fernando de Atabapo—The upper
    Orinoco—Communication with outside world—Atures and Maipures
    rapids—Humboldt’s description—The Compañía Anónima de
    Navegacion Fluvial y Costanera—General Chalbaud—Railway
    projects—The Piaroas—_Curare_—Savannahs—Rubber—Brazil-nuts—Wild
    cocoa—Mineral wealth—Water-power—Rubber prospectors—Method
    of working—Esmeralda—The place of flies—Mt. Duida—Gold
    possibilities—The Raudal de los Guaharibos—The limit of
    exploration—The Ventuari—An old Spanish road—A midnight
    massacre—Stock-raising lands—The Maquiritare—Trading with
    gold-dust—The Casiquiare bifurcation—Life of the natives—Eau de
    Cologne in the wilds—The Guainia and Rio Negro—Maroa—Cucuhy—The
    Atabapo—Lack of population—Education—Colonisation—General
    prospects.


On the right bank of the Orinoco above the confluence of the Meta and
below that of the Atabapo, and south-eastward of this on both banks of
the main river, lies the great but little known Territorio Amazonas,
extending over the ill-defined watershed into the Rio Negro, and,
therefore, the Amazon, basin. The area included in the territory amounts
to some 281,700 square kilometres or 101,400 square miles, and of this
vast region practically nothing is known, save the character of the banks
of the larger rivers and of such parts of the hills and forests as may
have been traversed by the few explorers who have entered the hinterland
of the Guayanas.

On the northern and eastern borders the general character of the region
is like that of the greater part of the State of Bolivar, the boundary to
the north being more or less arbitrary, in part at least. The Brazilian
frontier follows the watershed of the Sierra Parima in its northern part,
but near the Rio Negro this line also ceases to be determined by any
clearly marked natural features.

The capital of this huge and almost unknown area is San Fernando de
Atabapo, little more than a village from the point of view of population,
which amounted to only 388 in 1891, but still the largest centre in the
region. It is situated at the junction of the Atabapo and Orinoco, the
land on which it stands being practically an island on account of the
channel connecting the two rivers behind the settlement; the Inirida and
Guaviare enter the Atabapo opposite the town, the contrast between the
white waters of the Guaviare, the black, clear stream of the Atabapo,
and the muddy Orinoco being very noticeable. The capital is the seat
of the Governor and a Judge of First Instance and minor officials, who
constitute an appreciable fraction of the population.

The upper Orinoco basin includes some of the best known, as well as some
of the least explored districts in the whole territory. The old mission
station of Esmeralda (longitude 65° 40´ W., latitude 3° 11´ N.) marks the
limit of any attempt at civilisation on the upper Orinoco, and beyond
this point our knowledge of the country is very scant indeed. Below this
point the river and forests and savannahs near its bank are comparatively
well known, from the number of travellers and small rubber prospectors,
as far as San Fernando, and below this again little exploration has been
carried out away from the river, which, nevertheless, is the main line of
communication with Pericos, below the Atures Rapids, whence steamers run
down the lower Orinoco to Ciudad Bolivar, and so afford communication
with the outside world.

The Atures Rapids, the biggest on the Orinoco, form at present an
effectual barrier to through communication by steamer, between the upper
and lower river, a difficulty formerly obviated by the construction of
a now disused cart-road from Pericos to Salvajitos, above the rapids, a
distance of 14 kilometres. But though the rapids have thus barred the
advance of civilisation, their great beauty and the possibility that one
day they may afford the power for an electric railway along the line of
the old cart-road beyond compensate for any such disadvantage.

Humboldt thus describes the Maipures and Atures Rapids in his “Ansichten
der Natur.” They are, he says, “to be regarded as a countless number
of small cascades succeeding each other like steps. The _Raudal_ (as
the Spanish term this kind of cataract) is formed by an archipelago
of islands and rocks, which so contract the bed of the river that its
natural width of more than 8,500 feet is often reduced to a channel
scarcely navigable to the extent of 20 feet. At the present day the
eastern side is far less accessible and far more dangerous than the
western.

“... It was with surprise I found, by barometrical measurements, that the
entire fall of the Raudal (of Maipures) scarcely amounted to more than
30 or 32 feet.... I say with surprise, for I hence discovered that the
tremendous roar and wild dashing of the stream arose from the contraction
of its bed by numerous rocks and islands, and the counter-currents
produced by the form and position of the masses of rock.

“... The beholder enjoys a most striking and wonderful prospect. A
foaming surface, several miles in length, intersected with iron-black
masses of rock projecting like battlemented ruins from the waters, is
seen at one view. Every islet and every rock is adorned with luxuriant
forest trees. A perpetual mist hovers over the watery mirror, and the
summits of the lofty palms pierce through the crowd of vapoury spray.
When the rays of the glowing evening sun are refracted in the humid
atmosphere, an exquisite optical illusion is produced. Coloured bows
appear, vanish, and reappear, while the ethereal picture dances, like an
_ignis fatuus_, with every motion of the sportive breeze.

“... A canal might be opened between the Cameji and the Toparo ... which
would become a navigable arm of the Orinoco, and supersede the old and
dangerous bed of the river.

“The Raudal of Atures is exactly similar to that of Maipures, like which,
it consists of a cluster of islands between which the river forces itself
a passage extending from 18,000 to 24,000 feet.

“... rocks, like dykes, connected one island with another. At one time
the water shoots over these dykes, at another it falls into their
cavities with a deafening hollow sound. In some places considerable
portions of the bed of the river are perfectly dry, in consequence of the
stream having opened for itself a subterranean passage. In this solitude
the golden-coloured rock manakin builds its nest.”

The contract recently entered into with General R. D. Chalbaud, the
President of the Compañía Anónima de Navegacion Fluvial y Costanera de
Venezuela, stipulates for a railway worked by steam or electricity to
provide a land connection between a service of upper Orinoco steamers
above the Maipures Rapids and the lower Orinoco steamers already plying
below those of Atures; the time may not be far distant, therefore,
when these beautiful falls will also add to the sum of the world’s
happiness by assisting in opening up a vast extent of territory rich in
agricultural and mineral products, which hitherto they themselves have
been largely instrumental in closing.

From the right bank of the Orinoco in the region of the rapids along
the Sipapo and Cataniapo tributaries to the hills forming the watershed
between that river and the Ventuari, and beyond these, is the unknown
territory of the Piaroa Indians, whose sacred mountain of Sipapo is
visible from the Orinoco banks. The name Piaroa appears to be a general
term including those branches of families of the Maipures, Atures, &c.,
which were formerly considered to be separate tribes. Tavera-Acosta
describes them as a timid people, devoted to agriculture, and they are
said to be very light in colour. They frequently come down to the town of
Atures to exchange their curare, cotton, cassava, plantains, and game for
general merchandise and tools; and their curare is held in high esteem
for its purity and high quality by the other tribes.

Of an unexplored country such as that of the Piaroas little or
nothing can be said definitely with regard to the products, but the
observations of travellers as to the country along the river banks and
the circumstantial accounts of the remainder derived from some of the
inhabitants point to this region as one rich in all manner of resources.

Near the Orinoco and at intervals throughout the region there are
grass plains, or savannahs, which may some day, like those elsewhere
in Guayana, support many thousand head of cattle. In the forests which
surround these savannahs there are quantities of untouched rubber-trees
(_Hevea guianensis_ and _H. Brasilensis_). Though near the rivers, the
wild rubber has been exploited to some small extent, not always wisely,
the output of the district is very far below what it might be, apart from
the possibility of plantation rubber, the lack of development being due,
as throughout the Orinoco region, to lack of population. Practically all
the available hands work at the collection of rubber, but a few trees
of _Bertholettia excelsa_, the Brazil-nut, have been planted near San
Fernando, and the enormous quantities of wild nuts which at present
lie on the ground and rot will doubtless one day be systematically
collected and exported; to mention only one other of the many forest
products, there are, along the Orinoco below San Fernando, many natural
cacao patches (_Theobroma cacao_), as yet untouched and undeveloped.
It is hardly necessary to speak of the valuable timber-trees of which
the forests are largely composed, and the quantity of natural vegetable
products of the region is as yet only to be surmised from the casual
specimens brought in by natives or travellers.

Nor is there lack of mineral resources; the _lajas_ which so often occur
both in the savannahs and as bare patches in the midst of the forest
frequently show indications of metallic ores, and below Pericos, on the
Orinoca, copper is said to be visible in the river banks. The Indians
frequently show specimens of ores, iron, manganese, copper, and even
gold, the localities of which they are not unnaturally unwilling to
reveal until there is some prospect of development of the “mine.”

Finally, the big falls on the Cataniapo and Sipapo and other tributaries
of the Orinoco, with the rapids of the main river, promise a supply of
power in the Piaroa territory sufficient for all probable demands for
many years to come.

The 75 kilometres of open water between the Atures and Maipures Rapids is
navigable for steamers during the greater part of the year, but the upper
of the two great “raudales” proves a bar again to through communication
with the upper Orinoco and its tributaries. Above Maipures, however,
there is no serious hindrance to navigation, even through to the Amazon
basin by way of the Casiquiare bifurcation.

[Illustration: CROSSING THE TORBES IN FLOOD.]

Some twenty miles above Maipures the Orinoco receives the large volume
of water drained by the River Vichada from the llanos of the San Martin
territory of Colombia, and a little over one hundred miles from Maipures
the Guaviare and Atabapo discharge their waters side by side into the
main stream.

From the mouth of the Guaviare up to Esmeralda is probably the best known
portion of the upper valley, since it is here that the majority of small
rubber prospectors have obtained small fortunes after a short period of
hard and rough labour in the insect-infested forests. The same causes
as those referred to above in the lower parts of the Orinoco have here
also prevented more systematic and continuous exploitation; those who
have ventured to brave the discomforts and dangers of the forest have
almost invariably retired with their gains to taste such pleasures of
civilisation as the towns of the Lower Orinoco and neighbouring regions
afford; thus the scanty population remains stationary, and previously,
from want either of sufficient interest or opportunity, capital has never
attempted to introduce colonists or to develop the resources of the
region with such labour as can be had.

The _picadores de goma_ have thus only seen the forests along the river
for a few kilometres on either bank, and the remoter parts of the region
are as little known as any other part of the territory of the Amazons.
The rubber collectors enter the forest in the month of October, the
season lasting from then to February or March, and parcel out the forest
among themselves, each man taking an area including some five hundred
trees or more. He then proceeds to cut an _estrada_ through the forest
along a tortuous course, so arranged that about half the rubber-trees lie
on either side. He will begin to traverse this path at sunrise and tap
the trees of either group on alternate days, the latex being carried back
to the river late in the day and put to smoke in huts by the river. Each
day he may collect eight or ten gallons of sap, and so twelve or fifteen
hundredweight in the season, in addition to inferior gums derived from
the creepers which hang everywhere from the large forest trees.

The rubber and other valuable trees, including the wild cacao and
brazil-nuts, seem to become less scattered above Maipures, and this is
doubtless an additional reason for the greater extent of exploitation in
this more remote district, while it should also be remembered that the
Casiquiare affords a highway for the bold and industrious Banibas and
other Indians of the Rio Negro basin to the rubber-producing forests,
which afford better returns than those in their immediate neighbourhood.

About forty miles above the mouth of the Guaviare, where the Orinoco
again changes the direction of its course from parallel to meridian, the
Delta and mouth of the great Ventuari tributary is encountered and beyond
this the course is in a south-easterly direction and so continues as far
as the source. The famous Casiquiare bifurcation is about 150 miles above
the mouth of the Ventuari; and Esmeralda, the highest point of attempted
permanent civilisation on the Orinoco, is some twenty miles beyond.

Esmeralda was, even in Humboldt’s time, a flourishing mission, but has
been now for many years little more than a name, the houses being reduced
to two or three huts. The name is derived from the quantity of fragments
of chloritic and colourless quartz which lie scattered about the grass
plains on which the mission was established. All travellers bear witness
to the beauty of the position, with the peak of Duida visible beyond the
forest to the north-east; but they also agree in considering Esmeralda
the worst place for the tiny sandflies (mosquitoes of the Spaniards),
which are the great plague of the Upper Orinoco.

Duida appears to be one of the peaks of the vertical-sided tableland
type usual in Guayana, belonging to a range of mountains extending into
the Piaroa territory, though broken at many points by river valleys,
including that of the Ventuari. Though similarity of form cannot always
be regarded as indicating identity of composition, the fact that such
observations as have been made point to the floor of the whole elevated
plateau of Guayana, here as elsewhere, being made of the same granite as
that of the Roraima Hills and the Callao goldfields. It seems justifiable
to suppose that all these peculiar mountains are of the same probably
pre-Cambrian sediments, and it may be that Mount Duida and the range of
which it is part will be found to be pierced by the dykes and sills which
elsewhere in the Guayanas are often found to be accompanied by gold and
other ores.

Beyond Esmeralda several travellers, from the time of Don Francisco de
Bobadilla downwards, have reached the Raudal de los Guaharibos, but all
have been compelled to turn back from those rapids, on account of the
ferocity of the Indians of that name. Only one traveller claimed to have
been more fortunate than the rest and to have reached the source of the
great river. The Guaharibo Rapids are situated some 120 miles up-stream
from Esmeralda.

The Ventuari is the largest Venezuelan tributary of the Upper Orinoco,
yet the three hundred miles or so of its course are practically unknown
to Europeans. As far as its valley has been explored, alternating forests
and savannahs have been found. Across these in colonial times there was
once a track uniting Esmeralda directly with the Lower Orinoco by way of
the Caura; the route lay up the Padamo and then across the head-waters
of the Ventuari to the source of the Erewato, a tributary of the Caura.
Along this road there was a chain of forts, but the cruelties of the
soldiers at last led the Indians to unite for their examination, and
Humboldt tells us that every man in the fifty-league-long chain of forts
was slain one night in 1776. The Indians told him that by this road it
was ten days from Esmeralda to the headquarters of the Ventuari, and two
days thence to the mouth of the Erewato.

Some of the upland savannahs which this road crossed must be excellently
situated both for occupation by Europeans and for stock-raising, but the
region is naturally very difficult of access at present, lying as it does
in the very back of the hinterland of the Guayana. These districts are
occupied by the Maquiritare, near relatives of, if not identical with,
the Waiomgomo of the Caura. Their territory produces rubber and timber
as well as gold. Auriferous quartz is said to have been seen by casual
traders up the Ventuari, and the inhabitants collect the precious metal,
storing it in jars, with which, by devious waterways and many portages,
they travel across to British Guiana to trade for rifles of a quality
unobtainable in southern Venezuela.

Separated by a narrow ridge from the Ventuari is the upper valley of the
Merevari (Caura), a practically unknown region, scantily peopled by the
Waiomgomo, and apparently possessing no particular attractions from a
commercial point of view.

On the south side of the main river we have one of the most notable
instances of a natural phenomenon peculiar to the elevated inland plain
of South America in the celebrated bifurcation of the Casiquiare, some
twenty miles below Esmeralda. The watershed between the Orinoco and the
Rio Negro is here very ill defined, and near the bifurcation a line of
slight elevation on the southern bank of the former river is all that
exists to separate the two great drainage systems. At the head of the
Casiquiare the elevation is sufficiently reduced to allow some part of
the water of the Orinoco to overflow into the southern drainage area,
and so affords a through waterway to the whole of the Amazon Valley.

On the eastern side of the _Brazo_, as it is called, there are numerous
tributaries, whose upper courses are absolutely unknown, save from the
casual reports of wandering Indians. The main stream and its affluents
alike flow through great forests, and the immediate neighbourhood of the
Casiquiare being level, the valley is damp and abounds in small lakes and
swamps.

There is abundant rubber in the forests, but the life of the inhabitants
of the small settlements, which are mainly supported by this industry,
is a miserable one. They live chiefly on cassava, accompanied by much
alcohol in one form or another, from champagne to raw sugar spirit; if
other beverages fail, they have even fallen back on eau-de-Cologne,
brought from Pará or Ciudad Bolivar and, one would have imagined, too
expensive a luxury to be imbibed in quantity.

The Casiquiare discharges its waters into the Guainia, or more correctly,
the two streams join to form the Rio Negro, the river being known by that
name below the junction. The highest village of importance on the Guainia
is Maroa, the seat of government of the Rio Negro district. The Guainia
being a clear, deep (_i.e._, black) stream, with a cloudless sky overhead
and no mosquitoes, Maroa enjoys a good climate. Its inhabitants cultivate
an excellent quality of manioc and manufacture hammocks.

The forests of the Guainia and Rio Negro are comparatively little known,
though some rubber is collected along the banks. The old settlement of
San Carlos, on the Rio Negro, is now abandoned, and beyond this there are
no Venezuelan villages before the hill known as the Cerro del Cucuhy,
which marks the Brazilian frontier, and beyond lies the military station
of Cucuhy, occupied by soldiers of the latter republic.

Although, as we have seen, it is possible to travel by water from the
Orinoco to the Amazon, the more direct route up the Atabapo and across
the “Isthmus” of Pimichin to the Guainia is generally used by the Indians
and traders.

Above San Fernando there are no towns on the banks of the Atabapo,
though many native villages. To the south-east of the capital is the
wide savannah of Santa Barbara, capable of supporting a vast number of
cattle. Farther south the banks are forest-covered, and when the head of
navigation is reached at Yavita the route across to Pimichin lies between
giant trees, which have attracted the attention of many travellers.
The watershed here between the two rivers has no great elevation, and
it would be possible to excavate a canal and so provide a far shorter
waterway between the two great river systems. Whether such a project will
ever seem to be justified is another matter.

The great hindrance to progress over the whole of the Amazons territory
is at present lack of population, for with less than two persons to the
square mile it is impossible to do much towards developing the country.
Apart from their natural lack of enthusiasm, the Indians have for over
a century been neglected as far as education is concerned, and whether
judicious action in this direction on the part of the Government would
be possible or profitable one cannot say. The general tendency of the
authorities is rather towards colonisation by Europeans, with due
regard to the protection of the Indians. However its development may
eventually come about, there is no doubt of the great possibilities of
the territory, pastoral, agricultural, and mineral resources being alike
abundant and untried.




CHAPTER XVI

THE DEVELOPMENT OF VENEZUELA

    Commerce—Early history—Pearls and gold—The Guipuzcoana
    Company—The republic—Years of struggle—Separation from
    Colombia—Guzman Blanco—British, American, and German
    trade—Opportunities—Currency—Banking—Banco de Venezuela—Banco
    Carácas—Banco de Maracaibo—National Debt—Natural
    resources—Large returns on capital—Coal—Iron—Salt—Asphalt
    and petroleum—Sulphur—Copper—Gold—The
    Llanos—Stock-raising—Possibilities of the
    industry—The Venezuelan Meat Products
    Syndicate—Agriculture—Coffee—Cocoa—Sugar—Tobacco—Cotton—
    Rubber—Tonka-beans, balatá, sernambi and
    copaiba—Fisheries—Pearls—Industries—Chocolate—Cotton-mills—
    Tanning—Matches, glass, and paper—Cigarettes and beer—Arts and
    sciences—Academy of History—Universities—Surveys.


The gradual advance of Venezuela into a position of real importance in
the commonwealth of nations can hardly be considered to have commenced
till the country took approximately its present political boundaries and
organisation, since before that time the movement in commercial dealings
with the outside world had been fitful and very retrogressive.

The casual coincidence of some of the colonial and republican provinces
prior to 1830 is, however, a sufficient excuse for a brief review of the
course of such development as took place between the discovery of South
America and the final severance of Venezuela from Colombia.

As has been seen in the sketches of the early history of Venezuela,
the pearl fisheries of the Caribbean Islands were the lure which first
attracted a band of settlers who, however unworthy of the title of
pioneers or merchants, were nevertheless the first traffickers who
carried the produce of the New World to Europe. The value of the pearls
exported in the early years of the sixteenth century appears to have
been very great, and equal to, if not in excess of, all the produce and
merchandise shipped annually from the colony of Venezuela in the closing
years of Spanish rule. After the destruction of the pearl fisheries
by the reckless and extravagant exploitation of the _conquistadores_,
the value of the exports varied according to the quantity of gold and
precious metals extorted from the Indians, and little trading was carried
on.

As the easily accessible stores of gold decreased, the Court of Spain
sought to acquire gain in a not entirely new fashion from the colonists
by selling them to the Compañía Guipuzcoana in 1728, which, at first but
a chartered company with special privileges, soon obtained a monopoly,
and became by its extortions the cause of the first attempt at revolt on
the part of the captaincy-general. At length their rights were abrogated
in 1778, and the commerce of the colony was at liberty again to develop
in a normal fashion; though the continued arbitrary opening and closing
of the ports to foreign nations could not but render any advance very
fitful. In 1796 the imports into Venezuela during one of the “open”
periods reached a total of over £600,000, and in 1810 the increasing
quantity of tropical produce transmitted to the East was nearly one
million pounds in value.

Though, under the republic, the commerce of the country has greatly
increased, the twenty years following the Declaration of Independence
were a period of great industrial depression. For the first ten years
or so the war with Spain practically put a stop to ordinary trade
with foreign countries; during the joint administration of the three
provinces of Venezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador in the Great Colombia
of Bolivar, Venezuela suffered in all departments of her life, until at
last the union was severed in 1830, and from that date it is possible to
compare the progress of Venezuelan commerce with that of other nations;
for convenience this has been expressed in a diagram, the solid line
corresponding to exports and the dotted line to imports. The zenith
of Venezuela’s prosperity in the seventy years was reached during the
Presidency of Guzman Blanco, the figures for the present day being far
below these. The excess and growing excess in value of exports over
imports is natural in a country rich, as Venezuela is, in easily won
agricultural and mineral resources but poor as yet in manufactures and
shipping; and that this is so may be readily seen from the detailed table
of exports and imports for 1909-1910 given in Appendix B.

[Illustration: FOREIGN TRADE OF VENEZUELA, 1830-1910.

Solid line = Exports. Dotted line = Imports.]

As may be seen from the tables in Appendix B, the largest exporter to
Venezuela at the present time is the United States, with Great Britain
second and Germany third. It is only within the last two or three years
that the United States have advanced to this position of superiority in
the trade of the republic, Great Britain having previously held the lead.
There is little need to inquire into the cause of this influx of American
goods, when in travelling through even remote parts of the country one
meets with travellers exhibiting and praising American inventions and
manufactures such as are calculated to appeal to the Venezuelan public,
and this in spite of the fact that at the present time the American,
as such, apart from his personal attractiveness or otherwise, is not
_persona grata_ in the country. The big stores, with branches in most
of the more important towns, are mainly in the hands of Germans, but
the goods sold are largely British and American. More than one of them
attributed their possession of this trade to the fact that they are
willing to live in the country and work there for a far smaller return at
present than the British trader; but the day of small things is not to be
despised, and in view of the expansion of trade and the amelioration of
the standard of living evident at the present time in Venezuela, there
is a great opportunity for British merchants to adopt the persevering
tactics of the German, and to some extent the pushfulness of the
American, not only to increase the sale of their products already shipped
in large quantities into Venezuela, but to do the selling themselves.

The chief medium of exchange has been continuously since 1812 the coinage
of the republic, which was at first issued after the Declaration of
Independence from the old royal mint at Carácas, but for many years all
the best known European moneys of the higher denominations were accepted
at a fixed rate. In 1848 the franc was for a short time adopted as the
unit, followed by the _Venezolano_ (1854), and in 1879 the _bolivar_,
equivalent to a franc, was first suggested, but only finally standardised
in 1891, since which time it has remained the unit.

Banks were first established in the early eighties, but the big
commercial houses, both before and since that time, have carried on a
good deal of banking business. The recognised banking institutions of the
country are three in number, all being permitted to issue notes pending
the establishment of a long-mooted National Bank.

The Banco de Venezuela has a nominal capital of B 12,000,000, of which
three-quarters is paid up. A charter was first granted by the Government
to a group of Venezuelan merchants and capitalists on March 24, 1882,
to form a _Banco Commercial_, but in 1903 it became, and has since
remained, national as well as commercial. In August, 1890, the bank was
reconstructed as the Banco de Venezuela, with a capital of B 8,000,000,
the charter to hold good for fifty years; it underwent a second
reconstruction in 1899, since which date the nominal capital has been B
12,000,000, divided into 600 shares of B 20,000 each, in the hands of 276
shareholders. The note issue is B 2,000,000, and the reserve fund at the
end of 1908 was B 1,200,000. The dividend declared that year was equal
to 8 per cent. on the total capital. The bank has its headquarters in
Carácas, with fourteen agencies in the towns of the republic.

The Banco Carácas was incorporated on August 23, 1890, the charter
holding good for forty years. The nominal capital is B 6,000,000, divided
into 600 shares of B 10,000 each, and there are now 137 shareholders.
The note issue is B 801,000, the reserve fund at the end of 1908 being
B 579,483, while the dividend declared in that year was equivalent to
3·9 per cent. on the capital. The bank is wholly devoted to commercial
business, and has its headquarters in Carácas, with various agencies
throughout the republic.

The Banco de Maracaibo received a thirty-one-years charter on May 11,
1882, and was incorporated with a capital of B 1,250,000, of which
three-quarters has been paid up. The 3,750 shares are held by 161
persons, who received in 1908 a dividend of 9 per cent. on the total
capital; at the end of that year the reserve fund was B 125,000, while
the note issue was B 1,895,000. The headquarters of the bank are in
Maracaibo, and there are various agencies in the western States of the
republic.

The National Debt of Venezuela dates in the first place from a few years
after the Declaration of Independence, but until 1830 it was, of course,
included with that of New Granada and Ecuador in the Great Colombia. At
that date the various internal floating debts on the custom-houses were
consolidated at 5 per cent. and a further consolidation was authorised in
1840. In 1845 a further arrangement was made under the treaty with Spain
for the payment of indemnity to Spanish subjects whose property had been
confiscated by the republic. Later loans have been raised for certain
public works, &c., bringing the total internal debt in 1909 to over two
and a half million pounds.

The external debt has a more eventful history, and dates from 1820,
when the first moneys were borrowed by Colombia in London. £547,783 was
the amount raised, the interest payable being at 8 per cent. if paid in
London and 10 per cent. if paid in Colombia. At the division of Colombia
in 1830 the total debt had increased to £9,806,406, of which £3,180,456
was for arrears of interest; the new republic was adjudged responsible in
1834 for £2,794,826, being £1,888,396 of the original debt, with £906,430
arrears. In 1840 an attempt was made to put matters on a regular footing
by the issue of bonds for the outstanding capital debt, bearing interest
for the first seven years at 2 per cent., with a subsequent increase to 6
per cent. at the rate of ¼ per cent. annually. Deferred bonds were issued
for the arrears bearing interest at 1 per cent. for the first year with a
¼ per cent. annual increment up to 5 per cent. The total value of bonds
issued was £2,007,159, the interest being paid regularly until 1847, when
internal troubles prevented the payment of the October dividend.

After a period of chaos, a further arrangement was made in 1859 by which
the earlier ordinary bonds were to be exchanged for others paying 2½ per
cent. for the first year, and 3 per cent. subsequently, while similar
bonds were to be issued for the arrears on both ordinary and deferred
stock. The deferred stock was to be exchanged for 1½ per cent. bonds.
Finally the bondholders agreed to accept 3 per cent. stock for the
arrears of interest from 1840 to 1847, with a 2 per cent. cash payment in
September, 1860.

In 1862 a £1,000,000 loan was arranged through Baring Brothers, in
London, the issue to be at 63 per cent., the bonds to bear interest at
6 per cent. with 2 per cent. annual redemption. The security was 55 per
cent. of the La Guaira and Puerto Cabello import duties; two years later
a further loan on the same terms was issued through the General Finance
and Credit Company of London, the issue price being 60 per cent.

In 1880 the bonds and loans since 1859 were converted into a new
consolidated debt of £2,750,000 at 3 per cent. By resolution of August 5,
1887, the diplomatic debt (to France and Spain) was added to the National
Debt, and these two branches of the external debt were duly recognised
in 1889, the diplomatic claims of about £200,000 being paid interest at
the rate of 13 per cent. Internal disturbances prevented the payment
of interest in 1892 and 1893, but otherwise the amounts were regularly
forthcoming.

In 1896 a further loan of £2,000,000 was authorised for the payment
of the guaranteed interest to certain railways, and for acquiring and
completing other lines. This loan, issued by the Diskonto Gesellschaft in
Berlin at 80 per cent., bears interest at 5 per cent., but the requisite
sum was not paid by Venezuela either for this or other debts in 1897, and
only partial payments were made down to August, 1901, when they ceased
altogether.

In 1903 payments were resumed, and between that year and 1907 the amounts
awarded to the three favoured nations after the 1903 blockade were paid
off, while the sums due to other nations were reduced before 1910 from
B 21,000,000 to B 13,000,000. In 1905 also the old English 3 per cent.
debt and the 1896 loan were united under the name of the Three Per Cent.
Diplomatic Debt. Between 1906 and 1910 over B 33,000,000 of debt were
paid off, the total at the beginning of that year being B 207,995,052.72
or £8,111,807. At the close of the year this had been further reduced to
B 197,807,477.83, or £7,714,490. Nearly £400,000 was thus paid off in the
first year of General Gomez’s presidency.

The natural resources of the country have received little attention
hitherto, in comparison with the abundance and extent of the
opportunities for investment of capital. The desultory attempts at
development have in many cases met with extraordinary success, the best
known instance being that of the Callao goldmine, while the return
obtained for capital has been very high both for Venezuelans and
foreigners; the failure of at first successful enterprises or the failure
of others from the commencement has in nearly every case been due to lack
of foresight, careless management, inadequate or inflated capital.

The republic has been best known to miners as a producer of the rarer
metals and minerals, but the more satisfactory, if less showy, resources
are not wanting, though some, such as the fine building and ornamental
stones, have been absolutely neglected.

In many parts of the Caribbean Hills the Segovia Highlands, the Andes, as
well as the Maracaibo and Coro lowlands, deposits of coal are known to
exist, and have been worked in a perfunctory manner in various regions.
There are _minas de carbon de piedra_ west of Maracaibo, where the coal
appears to be of very good quality; and similar seams have been extracted
near Coro by shallow workings. The most extensive coalmines are those of
Naricual, some fifteen miles eastward of Barcelona.

The ores of the other great staple mineral, iron, are vaguely referred
to in descriptions of various imperfectly known parts of the country,
but the only deposit which has hitherto attracted the interest of
capitalists is that of Imataca on the foothills of the range of the same
name in the Delta-Amacuro territory, on the banks of the Caño Corosimo.
The veins are said to be numerous and extensive, and 700 tons were
shipped to Baltimore in 1901, when the ore was examined and described
as magnetic with 60 to 70 per cent. of iron. The main deposit is known
as Imataca, but neighbouring _minas_ bear the names of Tequendama, El
Salvador, Nicaragua, La Magdalena, El Encantado, Costa Rica, and Yucatan;
a concession for the whole of the known ferriferous area was granted on
August 14th of last year (1911) to the Canadian-Venezuelan Ore Company,
Limited, of Halifax, N.S.

Salt is, perhaps, the most profitable source of mineral wealth, in view
of the Government monopoly, only certain persons being licensed to
mine or otherwise obtain it. One of the richest sources is the salina
of Araya, discovered by Niño in 1499, where there is an extensive
surface deposit of pure sodium chloride; the majority of these salinas
are situated on the dry, treeless stretches formed by ancient marine
deposits, from which the salt is obtained by digging pits, these being
filled with water in such a way as to dissolve out the salt of the
surrounding sands and clays, and then evaporated to dryness in the
sun. Several thousands of tons are obtained annually in this way near
Maracaibo, on the Island of Coche, while some is also produced near
Barcelona. The Coche salt is said to be the whitest and finest, but much
of the inferior yellow variety is consumed in the Andine States.

[Illustration: THE “PITCH” LAKE, TRINIDAD.]

Venezuela has long been known as a source of asphalt, and there are
indications of the existence of the parent mineral, petroleum, all over
the northern and western States. A few desultory and ill-advised attempts
have been made to develop the petroleum resources in such places as
Pedernales, in the Delta, and other localities near the coast; but the
only satisfactory work has been carried out by the Venezuelan Compañía
de Petroleo del Táchira, in the southern part of the State of that name,
where for some years the oil was raised in shallow wells, refined, and
sold in the neighbourhood for illuminating purposes. The more easily
worked and discovered asphalt deposits have been mined both on Pedernales
Island and the mainland near the Gulf of Paria, where the Bermudez
asphalt “lake” is found near the Guanoco River; the area covered by the
black, pitch-like residue of petroleum here is said to be considerably
larger than the famous “pitch lake” of Trinidad, but the thickness of the
deposit is less. The total amount exported in 1908 amounted to 37,588
metric tons, most of which was from the Bermudez property, Pedernales
having only been exploited by a German company for a short time about ten
years ago.

The only other non-metallic mineral which has been developed in any way
appears to be sulphur, which occurs in considerable quantities near
Carúpano, some eighteen kilometres from the port, in the mountains. A
German company was formed in 1903 with a capital of 2,000,000 marks to
work the deposit.

Copper ores are believed to exist at many places in the mountains of
Venezuela, and the mines of Seboruco, Bailadores, and other places, both
in the Andes and the Caribbean Hills, were worked formerly with profit. A
rich deposit has recently been opened up near Pao, in the north part of
the State of Cojedes, but the chief development of this resource of the
country has taken place at Aroa, in the State of Yaracuy. Here extensive
plant was set up some twenty years ago by a British company, and large
quantities of regulus were shipped from Tucacas, the maximum being 38,341
tons in 1891. This earlier work came to an end, however, owing to the
fall in prices, and the mines have only recently been reopened, when on a
small capital they have made very large returns under the able management
of Mr. Scrutton; the amount of ore exported in 1908 was 3,334 metric
tons, and in 1909-10 4,950 metric tons, valued at about £7,000.

Gold has always since the Conquest been one of the principal attractions
offered by Venezuela to prospectors and some few capitalists, and it
must be acknowledged that the evidence of the various attempts proves
that gold in great quantities exists in the Callao region, where
the majority of the mines have been located. Lack of experience and
carelessness among the managers of the earlier concerns have led to
shutting down of mine after mine, when once the more accessible parts
of the vein have been exhausted, or it has been lost by faulting. Among
the earlier mines the El Callao was perhaps the most famous, but at all
times the mining industry in this remote region has been hampered by the
cost and difficulty of transport, a drawback only to be removed by the
construction by the Government either of proper macadamised roads or of
railways, preferably the former to begin with. In spite of the various
difficulties, however, the quantity of gold exported from Ciudad Bolivar
in 1908-9 was 385·774 kilograms, and in 1909-10, 601·974 kilograms.

No visitor to Venezuela who penetrates far enough into the country
to catch a glimpse of the Llanos can fail to be impressed with the
possibilities of the country in stock-raising and exporting, and yet
this great area of pasturage supports, in proportion to its extent, a
mere handful of cattle and horses. The quality of the grass of the Llanos
may be inferior to that of the Argentine Pampas, but even such a defect,
if existent, may be improved in time, and so far no pedigree stock have
ever been introduced, nor has the industry ever been seriously handled.

In 1804, according to Depons, there were 1,470,000 cattle, horses, and
mules on the Llanos, and by 1812 the total number had increased to
4,500,000; but during the wars of independence, owing to the depredations
by the opposing armies, the number was greatly decreased, and in 1839
was still only a little over 2,000,000. In the meantime, however, the
excellent qualities of the Barquisimeto tableland and the Coro and
Maracaibo lowlands for breeding goats had been discovered, and the export
of goats’ horns and hides has been continuously an important item in the
trade of Western Venezuela. In 1888 the number of heads of stock on the
Llanos had increased to 8,500,000, and at that period many were exported
to the other States and islands of America, a few even to the United
States. Ten years later revolutions and counter-revolutions had decreased
the number to 2,000,000.

The export trade in live stock has never attained very great dimensions,
and in 1909-10 the value was £40,374, while the always more important
item of hides, horns, and hoofs of cattle and goats was valued at over
£320,000. The establishment of the Venezuelan Meat Products Syndicate
works for shipping frozen meat from Puerto Cabello should do much to
encourage an industry as yet in its infancy and yet of incalculable
interest to the country, once properly developed.

As is the case with other resources, of the many agricultural products
of Venezuela only a minority have been energetically developed, in some
degree on account of lack of population to collect the natural fruits
in such prolific regions as Guayana, but also on account of failure to
appreciate the natural advantage of the many climates to be found within
the northern part of the country, where may be grown, not only the rare
fruits of the tropics but the, to many, more pleasant fruits and flowers
of the cooler zones.

The three cultivated plants which have multiplied sufficiently to form
the basis of considerable industries are coffee, cacao, and sugar-cane.
Of these coffee was first introduced from the West Indian Islands towards
the end of the eighteenth century, and the plantations now cover much
of the cultivated land of the northern hills. The bushes grow anywhere
between elevations of 500 and 2,000 metres, but the region immediately
below the 1,000 metre line is found to be the best; and at this elevation
flourishing plantations are to be found in the central part of the
Coastal Cordillera, and in the Andes; the Carabobo and Segovia coffees
are not so good, however, as those grown elsewhere. The plants are set
from 1,600 to 1,900 to the hectare, each when matured producing ¼ to ½
lb. annually, or 400 to 950 lbs. per hectare, the life of each bush being
taken as about fifty years. The value of the coffee exported in the year
1909-10 was nearly £1,500,000.

Cacao is indigenous to Venezuela, and the wild trees abound in the
forests of Guayana. Before the advent of Europeans it is believed that
no cultivation of cacao was carried on, but the plantations of Venezuela
produce some 8,000 tons annually at the present time, of which some is
renowned above all other cocoa of the world. The chief cocoa districts
are the neighbourhood of Carácas, parts of the Orinoco Delta, and the
Maracaibo Lake region. In the financial year 1909-10 the total exports
were valued at about £700,000.

Sugar can be grown anywhere in Northern Venezuela, except on the Llanos
and in the higher mountains, or where, as near Barquisimeto or Coro, the
atmosphere is too dry. In addition to the native or Creole sugar, there
are three varieties from the East known as Otahiti, Batavia, and Selangor
cane. From the juice of these sugars crude (_papelon_) and refined
(_azucar_), with alcohol (_aguardiente_) and rum are manufactured, the
greater part of the crop being utilised in distilleries. Most of the
sugar comes from the Maracaibo and Carácas districts, but the product
is for the most part consumed in the country, as are the million or so
bottles of alcohol. The exports for 1909-10 amounted to £20,000.

Tobacco can be grown all through the foothills of the Cordilleras, but
the only important centres are the upland valleys south of Cumaná, in
the east, and near Capatárida, in the State of Falcón; the latter is
said to be the best, and considerable quantities of the leaf are sent to
Havana. Cotton also grows wild along the dry northern coast, and has been
cultivated to some extent, particularly after the American Civil War; at
the close of the last century the exports amounted to 450 tons, but in
1909-10 only 63 tons were shipped, the greater part of the native product
being used in the Valencia mills. Of the remaining agricultural produce
most is consumed in the country, the principal plants being maize, manioc
(of which some is exported), and (in the Andes) wheat.

Of the wild products rubber has been known to occur in Guayana since
1758, and the latter has been collected since 1860 in a desultory manner
by individual prospectors; some is also produced in the forests of Zulia,
but the largest quantity passes through Ciudad Bolivar, which exported
some 440,000 lbs. of caoutchouc in 1909-10, valued at over £116,000.
The tonka-beans, balatá-gum (see p. 215), sernambi, and copaiba-balsam
of Guayana are also collected and exported, to say nothing of the many
valuable timbers, with which little is done as yet, while coconuts have
their place among the minor agricultural products of the country.

The fisheries of Venezuela, if these can be considered as existent,
are of very slight importance, and even the pearling-grounds have
comparatively little value. These are more or less controlled by the
Government, and unlimited concessions have been granted to companies from
time to time, a system not calculated to secure the greatest possible
length of life for this national asset. The value of the stones exported
in 1909-10 was about £21,000.

As we have seen, the industries of Venezuela are in their infancy, and
have as yet no international importance, and apparently little for the
country itself, in spite of the enormous protective duties on all kinds
of manufactures. Chocolate of good quality is made in Carácas, some
45,000 lbs. being turned out by “La India,” but the high-priced imported
article is more sought after.

Cotton goods are manufactured in Valencia, drills, flannelette, canvas,
&c., being the principal varieties, largely made of the local produce.
In spite of the great grazing-grounds of Venezuela very little butter is
made in the country, and the inhabitants seem here also to prefer the
inferior but much more expensive imported (tinned) variety. An important
industry throughout Northern Venezuela is that of tanning, dividive and
mangrove bark being the principal materials used; the leather is used
chiefly for boots and saddles.

Matches are a Government monopoly, and are manufactured in Carácas. The
glass industry, heavily protected though it is, does not seem to have
acquired any great importance since its inception in 1906, though paper
(chiefly of inferior quality) has been manufactured since 1897.

The two most profitable local industries are the cigarette factories and
breweries; the former, a heavily protected monopoly, exists in many parts
of the republic, though the largest output is from the Federal District.
The Cervecería Nacional was established in Carácas in 1894, with a
capital of B 600,000, increased in 1901 to B 2,500,000; it has flourished
continuously, and bought up the smaller rival breweries of Valencia and
Puerto Cabello. There is also a brewery in Maracaibo, and very little
beer is imported into Venezuela.

It is, perhaps, early yet to look for development in the arts or sciences
in Venezuela, but there have been one or two painters of note; and of a
vast output of flowery writing some is worthy of the name of literature.
In this connection the Academy and the Academy of History, with the
museum and library in Carácas, deserve honourable mention.

There are two Universities, as we have seen, that of Carácas dating from
1725, that of Mérida from 1810; in both the best faculties are those of
medicine and law, few of the many “doctors” in the country having any
knowledge of other branches.

Although after the separation from Colombia steps were taken to have a
survey made of the republic, the first preliminary studies of Codazzi
have remained till very recently all that have been done. Since 1907,
however, there has been a Commission, under the control of the War
Department, which is slowly collecting material for a map of the whole
country, but so far only a small area has been completed.




CHAPTER XVII

COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSPORT

    Lack of adequate means—Postal service—A small but
    growing system—Methods of carriage—Unusual uses of
    mailbags—Telegraphs—Telephones—Railways—Bolivar
    Railway—Later lines—Tramways—Abundant
    water-power—“Roads”—_Carreteras_—Bridle-paths—P.W.
    D.—Waterways—Less than they seem—Importance—The
    Orinoco—Ports—Shipping—Steamship lines.


Those who know something of Venezuela away from the few ports and towns
generally visited by Europeans will doubtless consider the title of
this chapter a misnomer. Indeed, it is the lack of adequate means of
communication between the different parts of the republic which hinders
more than any single cause its progress and development. Revolutions
and internal dissensions have been the immediate trouble, but these, if
not caused, are at least fostered, by the absence of better roads than
bridle-paths and of more permanent lines of communication than single
telegraph wires; though in justice it must be said that in times of peace
the last-named service is far ahead of the other branches.

Venezuela is included in the Postal Union, though owing partly to the
custom of “farming” the stamps, the cost of transmission of letters
in the interior is twopence-halfpenny and from Venezuela to foreign
countries fivepence.

The Post Office is considered as a branch of the Ministry of National
Development, and employed 358 officials in 1909. The G.P.O. in Carácas
is well administered, and from this the quality of the service ranges
through the principal offices of each State to the two hundred rural
offices scattered up and down the more frequented parts of the republic.
More and more money is being spent annually in an endeavour to make the
service thoroughly efficient, and in 1908-9 the expenditure under this
head was B 848,444, or £33,602. In 1908 the number of interior postal
packets carried was about 4,500,000, 2,750,000 letters were received
from, or dispatched to, foreign countries, with 18,500 parcels; the
number of letters dispatched abroad was rather smaller. The comparison
between 4,500,000 and 4,500,000,000, the number of letters handled by
our own Post Office some years back, makes the Venezuelan service seem
insignificant, but at least it exists and is capable of expansion to an
efficient system of communication throughout the country.

In the _Centro_ the mails are, of course, carried by train between the
big towns, and the deliveries are fairly punctual, while the service to
the seaports is sufficiently good; elsewhere, however, the mail-trains
of mules wander casually along the “roads,” the postbags often forming
only an insignificant part of the loads; in more outlying parts still
the mails are carried on foot. On one occasion the author with a friend
was guided along about thirty miles of obscure track by the “postman”
(aged sixteen), who had one U.S.A. mailbag, which during part of the
journey was occupied jointly by the letters and tins of sardines
and other provisions for the long tramp; the letters did not appear
to suffer greatly, but this familiar use of a mailbag of a foreign
Government seemed somewhat unorthodox, even though it be less so than the
application of the striped remains to sail-patching, many of the small
sloops and goletas being wafted on their way by means of fragments of
mailbags, generally Uncle Sam’s.

But though the postal service outside the principal towns and most
populous districts is very primitive, the telegraph service, with its
cheap rates, is well managed and efficient.

The first telegraph line in the country was that between La Guaira and
Carácas, opened in 1856; in 1909 there were 7,839 kilometres of wires in
the country and 179 offices, with a staff of 800 men. In the financial
year 1908-9 the cost of the service was B 2,041,385, or £80,847, and
394,792 messages were sent in 1908, at a total charge of B 936,657
(£36,429); more than half of these were official.

In addition to the Government lines there are a few private wires along
the railways, and telegraphic communication with the outside world is
carried on by means of the French cable, which runs from La Guaira to
Curaçao.

Such telephone lines as exist are mainly in the hands of private
companies or individuals, and only 10 of the 120 lines existing are
owned by the State. The British Telephone Company in Carácas has a very
efficient exchange there and trunk lines to the chief towns of the
_Centro_, and also a telephone service in Ciudad Bolivar.

Means of transport are in much the same condition as lines of
communication—that is to say, there is in existence the nucleus of
a complete system; but “the end is not yet,” and to-day one must be
prepared for anything in travelling over wide areas in Venezuela.

In and around Carácas, and between most of the large towns of the
_Centro_, one may travel with as much ease and comfort as in parts of
Europe, and better than on a certain line running out of London, but
beyond, though there may be in some directions roads on which carts
can be used, one is more often reduced to the means of locomotion
of sixteenth-century England. Outside the _Centro_ there are a few
comparatively short lines, which can hardly be regarded as forming part
of the railway system of Venezuela, though they may one day become part
of it.

There are in all eleven railways in the country, but one has practically
ceased to exist, and it is a long time since any train ran on it. The
total number of passengers carried in 1908 was 413,000, and nearly
184,000 tons of freight.

Of the eleven lines the oldest, strangely enough, is not in the _Centro_,
though, being connected with the main system by steamer, it may be
considered as part of it. This is the Bolivar Railway, which commenced
in 1873 as a line from Tucacas to the copper-mines of Aroa, and was
subsequently extended to Barquisimeto. It has a 24-inch gauge, and its
present length is 176·5 kilometres. The La Ceiba line was authorised
in 1880, and has a ·91-metre gauge, with a present length of 81·5
kilometres; the same year saw the commencement of the La Guaira-Carácas
Line, already described in an earlier chapter. Two years later a
1·07-metre line was commenced from the port of Guanta to Barcelona and
the Naricual coalmines. In 1884 the Maiquetia-Macuto street railway
was built to afford easy communication with the chief watering-place
of Venezuela; it has the same gauge (·91-metre) as the Carácas line
and is 8 kilometres in length. The railway from Carenero to Rio Chico
was commenced in 1884, and is now 50 kilometres long, but, like the
La Ceiba line, this is not part of the central system. The Central
Railway, originally planned in 1885 to connect Carácas and Valencia by a
circuitous route, never accomplished that end, and merely affords a means
of communication between Carácas and the towns of Miranda, and is now 42
kilometres in length, with a gauge of 1·07 metre. The Puerto Cabello and
Valencia line was commenced in the same year and is 54 kilometres long,
while the Gran Ferrocarril de Venezuela, the German line, was contracted
for in 1888, and at one and the same time obviated the extension of the
Central, as originally planned, and completed the nucleus railway system
of Central Venezuela as it exists to-day. It has a total length of 179
kilometres. The short line connecting Coro and La Vela was built in 1893,
and is, like the Táchira line, commenced at the same time, owned in the
country; the latter has a length to-day of 114·5 kilometres and is of
the standard Venezuelan gauge, 1·07 metre. The Santa Barbara-El Vigia
line was the last to be commenced (1896), but it has already fallen into
disrepair, and of the 60 kilometres little, if any, remains in usable
condition.

In Carácas a system of electric tramways not only provides rapid transit
from one part of the city to the other but also runs out southwards to
the suburb of El Valle. There are also lines of varying motive power
and efficiency in Valencia, Puerto Cabello, Maracaibo, Ciudad Bolivar,
Barquisimeto, Carúpano, and Cumaná. In view of the quantity of available
water-power in the mountain districts of Venezuela, one imagines that
electric traction will one day be very widely used, but, like many of the
possibilities of Venezuela, this lies almost entirely in the future.

Descending to the less rapid methods of travelling by road, we find the
whole country is in much the same condition as England or Western Europe
four hundred years ago, for, with the exception of some ten carreteras of
very indifferent quality, the roads of Venezuela are bridle-paths, and
occasionally hardly worthy even of that title.

[Illustration: COUNTRY COACH: BARQUISIMETO.]

[Illustration: ON THE BOLIVAR RAILWAY.]

Such cart-roads as there are have to some extent been engineered, but
none are macadamised. The best is that from La Guaira to Carácas, 35·4
kilometres long, but even this is little used by wheel traffic. One of
the longest is the high-road from Carácas to Valencia, 168 kilometres,
but this is exceeded by that connecting San Felix, on the Orinoco, with
Guasipati, which has a length of 219 kilometres, with a 25-kilometre
extension to Callao; the whole road is in a fearfully bad state in the
rains, however, as to which matter enough has been said in Chapter XIV.
From Carácas another main road goes eastward 70 kilometres down the
Guaire valley to Santa Lucia, and yet another south-east to Charallave,
47 kilometres away. From Valencia, also, cart-roads radiate to Puerto
Cabello (70 kilometres), to Nirgua (90 kilometres), to Güigüe for Villa
de Cura (34 kilometres), and to San Carlos (99 kilometres).

There are also cart-roads under construction from Puerto Cabello to San
Felipe, between Uracá and San Cristobal, and one or two in other parts of
the Andes.

Among the bridle-paths there are a few with cobble-paved surfaces, dating
back to early colonial times, but these have fallen into disrepair, and
in Guayana they have been disused for so long that their whereabouts is
often unknown, save where the Indian trails cross or follow a bit of the
old paving here and there. For the rest the way is generally passable,
but sometimes up to the animal’s belly in mud; here there are bridges
over the mountain torrents, there none; the deeper streams may have
ferries, but to be held up by an extra heavy fall of rain is no uncommon
event. The Government spent nearly £80,000 on the Public Works Department
in 1908-9, but since not all even of this small sum is devoted to actual
road-making or other improvements, it will be seen that things are being
only gradually improved; and it may be long yet before the asphalt and
rock of the country are applied to the betterment of the uninspiring yet
all-important roadways, at once one of the simplest and one of the most
efficient methods of developing the nation’s natural resources.

The waterways of Venezuela, numerous and general as they appear on the
map, are singularly disappointing on closer investigation. The great
Orinoco is a fine natural highway, it is true, as far as Pericos, some
600 miles from the mouth, but here the river is broken by the rapids of
Atures and beyond by those of Maipures, and it is impossible for large
boats to pass through to the upper river. The Apure, Arauca, and Meta
are, of course, useful means of communication with the Colombian border
regions and the south-western Llanos, but the numerous tributaries on the
north side are generally too variable in depth for permanent traffic,
and those on the south, as we have seen, are broken up by rapids for
practically their whole length.

On the other hand, if we take the positive value of the river highways,
rather than their actual extent as compared with the number of streams
indicated on a map, we can see that they are of considerable importance;
the rivers of Guayana and of the eastern Llanos may be of little use for
large boats, but the Orinoco forms a great central artery, from which
roads, and perhaps eventually railways, can diverge to the limits of the
basin. Some of the Llano tributaries, too, are navigable for steamers,
and thus the State of Apure is now kept in communication with the outside
world—all this without speaking of the great advantage accruing to the
State of Zulia from its central lake, with its many tributary navigable
rivers, along which large boats can travel throughout the greater part
of the State, and on to the boundaries of those of the Andes, as well as
into the neighbouring republic of Colombia. Along most of these natural
and easily utilised lines of communication there are already services of
steamers—nothing very advanced, but still a beginning.

There are twelve ports with custom-houses for trade and communication
with the outside world, but that number includes the new one of Imataca,
on the Caño Corosimo, in the Delta territory, established August 14,
1911. Puerto Cabello ranks first for number of vessels, La Guaira second,
and Carúpano third; all, except Caño Colorado, have regular wharves,
adequate custom-houses, &c. The total number of vessels received in
the year 1909 was 645, with an aggregate tonnage of 937,689, of which
two-thirds were steam-propelled. It is interesting to compare the
standing of the various countries in tonnage of steamships, as given in
the following table:—

  -------------------------+----------+-------------------
       Nationality.        | Tonnage. | Number of Vessels.
  -------------------------+----------+-------------------
  Dutch                    |  212,375 |     151
  United States of America |  155,269 |      85
  British                  |  149,565 |      67
  French                   |  149,114 |      36
  German                   |  106,257 |      53
  Italian                  |   71,760 |      21
  Spanish                  |   43,785 |      13
  Norwegian                |   30,978 |      42
  Venezuelan               |   10,651 |     158
  Swedish                  |    4,808 |       7
  Russian                  |    2,346 |       7
  Danish                   |      778 |       3
  Colombian                |        3 |       2
  -------------------------+----------+-------------------

Thus Holland is far ahead in point of numbers, though by no means first
in trade, while France comes above Germany, even though the imports
from the latter are much greater. The small number of Spanish vessels
speaks eloquently as to the fitness of Spain to retain her South American
colonies by force after her decline.

Finally, for communication with the outside world, these are the
following chief lines and the ports they run to:—

  ------------+--------------------+---------------------------------
  Nationality.|      Line.         |          Ports.
  ------------+--------------------+---------------------------------
  Dutch       |  Koninglijke W. I. |Amsterdam to Carúpano, Cumaná,
              |   Mail             |  Guanta, La Guaira,
              |                    |  Puerto Cabello, and Curaçao
              |                    |
  U.S.A.      |      Red “D”       |New York to La Guaira, Puerto
              |                    |  Cabello, Curaçao, and Maracaibo
              |                    |
  British     |      R.M.S.P.      |Puerto Cabello to Southampton
              |                    |  (when so announced)
              |                    |
  British     |      Harrison      |Liverpool to La Guaira and
              |                    |  Puerto Cabello
              |                    |
  British     |      Leyland       |The same
              |                    |
  French      |     Cie. Gén.      |Bordeaux to Carúpano, Pampatar,
              |  Transatlantique.  |  La Guaira, and Puerto
              |                    |  Cabello
              |                    |
  German      |  Hamburg-Amerika.  |Hamburg to Cumaná (Puerto
              |                    |  Sucre), Pampatar, Guanta, La
              |                    |  Guaira, and Puerto Cabello
              |                    |
  Italian     |      La Veloce     |Genova to La Guaira and Puerto
              |                    |  Cabello
              |                    |
  Spanish     |Cia. Transatlantica |Barcelona to La Guaira and
              |      Española      |  Puerto Cabello
              |                    |
  Venezuelan  |     “Nacional”     |Maracaibo, via all ports except
              |                    |  Cristobal Colón, and Caño
              |                    |  Colorado, to Ciudad Bolivar
  ------------+--------------------+---------------------------------

The most usual route from England is of course via Trinidad, travelling
to Port-of-Spain by the R.M.S.P. and on by Dutch, French, or other line
to La Guaira; the Red “D” route, via New York, may be quicker, if other
services do not suit, but it is less pleasant, owing to the longer time
spent in northern (and stormy) latitudes.




CHAPTER XVIII

THE FUTURE OF VENEZUELA

    A great opportunity—The Panama Canal—The
    Llanos—Petroleum-fields—Liquid fuel—Position of
    Venezuela—Guayana—Possibilities—Colonisation—Government—The
    military-political class—The disgrace of labour—Better
    conditions—Vargas—The “Matos” revolution—General
    Gomez—Hopes to be realised—Honesty and
    justice—Development—Roads—Railways—Education—Consular
    service—Great Britain’s trade with Venezuela—A poor
    third—British capital—The people’s responsibility—An
    opportunity.


What will be the condition of Venezuela twenty or thirty years hence? The
question is one to which no exact answer can be given, for it involves
the consideration of so many, variable factors. We may, however, safely
say that in that period there will be either no advance or a very
great one; in the latter case, the country may well rival Argentine in
world-importance.

The resources to some of which increased prosperity will be due have
already been described in the body of this volume, but we can here pass
in review the chief national assets, and glance also at the methods which
will have to be adopted to secure the right atmosphere for the full
development of the country.

In doing this, we must take into account one external event which may
be expected to occur within the next two years, namely, the opening of
the Panama Canal, for it will give Venezuela an opportunity such as
she has never before had of developing her foreign trade by leaps and
bounds. Many of her products are common to other countries equally well
situated for taking advantage of the increasing shipping facilities
afforded by the “Ditch,” but two of her undeveloped assets in respect of
which she enjoys exceptional conditions are found in the great natural
grazing-grounds and the subterranean stores of petroleum; the latter are
as yet untried, but assuming that they fulfil their promise, Venezuela
can supply equally well to the Pacific and the Atlantic food and
fuel—_i.e._, not luxuries but necessities.

The area of the Llanos has been estimated as over 100,000 square miles,
so that Venezuela has here a space large enough to support a vast herd of
cattle. Their markets, it is true, will still lie rather in the populous
countries of Europe than in any of those brought nearer by the canal;
but increased shipping facilities should encourage the improvement of
stock and the development of the industry along lines which will make the
country of real international importance, for it must be remembered that
Venezuela is a week nearer to Europe than the other great meat-exporting
country of the South, Argentina.

The oil resources of Venezuela do not possess any unique qualities either
from a strategic or a topographical point of view; in other words, their
product is not the nearest to the line of steam-traffic to the Isthmus,
nor are the fields so situated in the country that they could be worked
with greater ease than, for instance, those of Trinidad or Peru.

We must digress for a moment to notice more fully the importance of a
strategic position, from the point of view of commerce, not of war.
It is a well-known fact that one of the greatest hindrances to a more
general adoption of liquid fuel, apart from the question of permanence of
supplies, is the absence of regular oiling-stations, so that steamers
burning petroleum are handicapped as to freedom of movement in a way in
which coal-burning boats are not.

Now let us glance once more at Venezuela’s position, from the point
of view of strategic position; the topography of the country and the
present means of communication will probably render it more easy to
develop these oil-fields than those of the neighbouring republic of
Colombia, though the latter lie nearer to the canal-zone; if this be so,
Venezuela and Trinidad may be considered together as the largest area of
oil-producing country situated in such proximity to the canal as to make
it possible for vessels to replenish their stores of fuel conveniently.
Whether the oil is taken on board in Trinidad, at one of the Venezuelan
ports, or at Colón, the advantageous position of the fields is equally
clear for European boats, which would then, on this sea-route, be in a
position almost analogous to the oil-burning boats between Japan and San
Francisco, where they are in the Californian fuel-oil region.

There seems reason to suppose that Venezuela has extensive areas
producing oil of the type requisite, and therefore her future importance
depends largely upon the energy with which she discovers or encourages
others to discover where and how the mineral can be most profitably won.

Nor must the possibilities of Guayana be ignored in this general summary,
for a considerable proportion of some of the larger exports given in
Appendix B is shipped through Ciudad Bolivar; these are mainly, of
course, forest products and gold, but there are great possibilities of
increased output of both these, with the development of more permanent
agricultural and pastoral resources in the woods and savannahs of
southern Venezuela. The introduction of industrial colonists has, as
we have seen, been planned already, and much may come of the wise
prosecution of such a scheme.

Under these three heads we have the undeveloped resources of Venezuela,
but there remains a long list of products exported, some of which already
aggregate a considerable value, while others are capable of great
increase. There is no necessity to deal with these various products
in detail here, since a glance at the table in Appendix B will show
their relative importance. The question remains, What is needed that
Venezuela’s trade may be free to expand and may be assisted in that
expansion by those in authority?

First and foremost, there is the character of the Government itself to
be considered. Venezuela, like most of the rest of Latin America, has
suffered much at the hands of a military-political class, whose one
method of acquiring and retaining power has been that of force; while,
once installed in the places of authority, the members of that class have
devoted most of their time to acquiring wealth and power for themselves,
and little or none to the task for which they have been “elected” (in
theory) by the people. To such an extent were the doctrines of this class
general that it had been found impossible to persuade good men and true
to take control of the national finance, those fitted to do so knowing
well that any attempts at reform on their part would at once be thwarted
by their self-seeking colleagues in the Ministry, to whom adequate public
control of expenditure would be abhorrent.

Nor can the republic be blamed for the existence of this class, whose
traditions are merely a slightly exaggerated copy, of those of the early
Spanish aristocratic colonists, who deemed it derogatory to work, but
thought it no shame to exist upon the forced labour of others; with
the break-up of slavery conditions, which occurred before their actual
abolition, these men and their descendants, often not of pure Spanish
blood, preferred political intrigues and the leadership of revolutions to
honest work, and until recent years this caste has held the government
in the majority of the Latin-American republics. The belief in the
disgrace of labour is not common to any age or any country among men of
a certain type, but the class who hold these views have held more power
and have been more numerous in South America than in Europe, unless we go
back some three or four hundred years to the days when “gentlemen” were
supposed to live like the lilies of the field, with an occasional fight
at other people’s expense to relieve the monotony of existence.

Early in the history of Venezuela’s independence an abortive attempt was
made, in the election of Doctor Vargas to the presidency, to counteract
the evil influence of the military politicians of the revolution, but
Mariño and his friends, whose names should surely be reviled by every
true patriot in Venezuela, made the succeeding chaos inevitable, and it
may be doubted if the spirit which revealed itself in the election of
Vargas in 1834 attained such prominence again until the time of the Matos
revolution, which was an attempt (in 1902) of the people of Venezuela to
do away with the military power by defeating it on its own ground. That
revolt failed, but it is noteworthy that the supporters of the present
régime were prominent among its leaders.

Whether with the growing dislike for military dictatorships there has
come the equally necessary love of justice and straight dealing, and
real hatred of political jobbery, time alone will show. High hopes have
been fostered by the speeches of General Gomez for the greater stability
and responsibility of the Governments of the republic, and it remains
for the people of Venezuela to see that these hopes are realised. Just
and honest government is the first need of the country; given those
conditions, its development should, indeed must, be rapid.

Such a Government should divert the revenue of the country from the
private pockets, into which too much of it has hitherto gone, to such
beneficent ends as the improvement of ways of communication, the cause of
popular education, and the establishment of an efficient consular service
abroad.

Real roads, with macadam surface, would cause modern methods of transport
to supersede the antique pack-mule method, and railways would follow
without direct Government intervention. A system of free popular
education is in existence, on paper, but in reality the overwhelming
majority of Venezuelans are as yet absolutely illiterate; yet the
individuals are far from dull, and increased learning will doubtless,
ere long, leave no chance of return for the rule of inefficiency and
disorder. The consular service is already being improved, and it is to be
hoped that the effect on foreign commerce will soon be felt for good.

From a geographical point of view Great Britain should be more interested
in Venezuela than in any other South American republic. Not only is it
almost the nearest part of that continent to our shores, but in British
Guiana, Trinidad, Tobago, and Barbados, to say nothing of other West
Indian islands, we are her next-door neighbours. In spite of these facts
the amount of British capital in Venezuela is only some £8,000,000
sterling as compared with £44,000,000 in Uruguay; we are a very poor
third in the list of her customers, the next highest, France, buying
four times as much as ourselves, and the United States nearly six times.
As far as the amount of capital invested is concerned, the comparative
stability of the various countries may be urged as a reason, but
there seems no reason why we should not foster trade in Venezuela by
purchasing more of those of her many products which we need, and since a
large proportion of these would be shipped through Trinidad, it might be
urged that we should thereby strengthen one of the islands of the Empire.

The future of Venezuela depends primarily on her own people, who will
have to rouse themselves to develop in a conscientious and painstaking
manner the many resources of their country; but it is certain that in the
task which lies before them they will need and obtain the assistance of
foreign capital and advice, and in this, if British enterprise is alive
to a great opportunity, we, as a nation, should bear no small part.




APPENDICES




APPENDIX A

POPULATION OF STATES AND DISTRICTS UNDER THE CONSTITUTION OF 1909
ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1891


   State.     District.           Capital.               Population.

  =ANZOÁTEGUI=                   =Barcelona=               =134,064=
              Aragua              Aragua                     36,802
              Bolivar             Barcelona                  26,235
              Bruzual             Clarines                   12,467
              Cagigal             Onoto                      10,811
              Freites             Cantaura                   16,665
              Independencia       Soledad                     4,092
              Libertad            San Mateo                   7,200
              Miranda             Pariaguán                   5,222
              Peñalver            Píritu                      8,773
              Tadeo Monágas       Mapire                      5,797

  =APURE=                        =San Fernando=             =22,937=
              Achaguas            Achaguas                    4,746
              Muñoz               Bruzual                     1,848
              San Fernando        San Fernando               12,186
              Páez                Guasdualito                 4,157

  =ARAGUA=                       =La Victoria=              =94,994=
              Girardot            Maracay                     9,505
              Mariño              Turmero                    13,235
              Ricaurte            La Victoria                25,712
              San Casimiro        San Casimiro                9,405
              San Sebastian       San Sebastian               5,292
              Urdaneta            Camatagua                   9,533
              Zamora              Villa de Cura              22,312

  =BOLIVAR=                      =Ciudad Bolivar=           =55,744=
              Cedeño              Caicara                     3,847
              Heres               Ciudad Bolivar             21,582
              Roscio              Guasipati                  12,391
              Sucre               Moitaco                     7,923
              Piar                Upata                      10,001

  =CARABOBO=                     =Valencia=                =169,313=
              Bejuma              Bejuma                     18,282
              Guacara             Guacara                    15,362
              Montalbán           Montalbán                  17,469
              Ocumare de la Costa Ocumare                     4,157
              Puerto Cabello      Puerto Cabello             18,489
              Valencia            Valencia                   95,554

  =COJEDES=                      =San Carlos=               =87,935=
              Anzoátegui          Cojedes                     3,697
              Falcón              Tinaquillo                 15,964
              Girardot            El Baúl                     9,108
              Pao                 Pao de San Juan Bautista   20,907
              Ricaurte            Libertad                    9,248
              San Carlos          San Carlos                 17,963
              Tinaco              Tinaco                     11,048

  =FALCÓN=                       =Coro=                    =139,110=
              Acosta              San Juan                    7,910
              Buchivacoa }        Capatárida }               18,898
              Jurado     }        Urumaco    }
              Colina              La Vela                     9,655
              Democracia          Pedregal                   13,176
              Falcón              Pueblo Nuevo               19,590
              Federación          Churuguara                 10,622
              Miranda             Coro                       19,686
              Bolivar }           San Luis }                 19,438
              Petit   }           Cabure   }
              Silva               Tucacas                     3,943
              Zamora              Cumarebo                   16,192

  =GUÁRICO=                      =Calabozo=                =183,930=
              Bruzual             El Sombrero                21,189
              Infante             Valle de la Pascu          21,564
              Miranda             Calabozo                   25,860
              Monágas             Altagracia de Orituco      31,297
              Roscio              Ortiz                      27,072
              Zaraza              Zaraza                     56,948

  =LARA=                         =Barquisimeto=            =189,624=
              Barquisimeto        Barquisimeto               41,321
              Cabudare            Cabudare                   16,938
              Crespo              Duaca                      12,868
              Quíbor              Quíbor                     20,273
              Tocuyo              Tocuyo                     41,559
              Torres              Carora                     40,140
              Urdaneta            Siquisique                 16,525

  =MÉRIDA=                       =Mérida=                   =88,522=
              Campoelías          Egido                      12,457
              Libertador          Mérida                     29,437[7]
              Miranda             Timotes                     6,601
              Rangel              Mucuchíes                   4,783
              Rivas Davila        Bailadores                  6,875
              Sucre               Lagunillas                 13,166
              Torondoy            Torondoy                    1,595
              Tovar               Tovar                      13,608

  =MIRANDA=                      =Ocumare del Tuy=         =141,446=
              Acevedo             Caucagua                   16,776
              Brión               Higuerote                   7,963
              Guaicaipuro         Los Teques                 25,414
              Lander              Ocumare del Tuy            13,305
              Páez                Rio Chico                  18,621
              Paz Castillo        Santa Lucia                13,673
              Plaza               Guarenas                    6,817
              Sucre               Petare                     17,964
              Urdaneta            Cúa                        12,509
              Zamora              Guatire                     8,404

  =MONÁGAS=                      =Maturín=                  =74,503=
              Acosta              San Antonio                 8,829
              Cedeño              Caicara                    21,852
              Monágas             Maturín                    25,874
              Piar                Aragua de Maturín          14,144
              Sotillo             Uracoa                      3,804

  =NUEVA ESPARTA=                =La Asunción=              =40,197=
              Arismendi           La Asunción                 6,266
              Diaz                San Juan Bautista           8,705
              Gomez               San Ana                     9,080
              Maneiro             Pampatar                    5,144
              Marcano             Juan Griego                 5,309
              Mariño              Porlamar                    5,693

  =PORTUGUESA=                   =Guanare=                  =96,045=
              Acarigua            Acarigua                   11,871
              Araure              Araure                     12,463
              Esteller            Píritu                      8,450
              Guanare             Guanare                    30,008
              Guanarito           Guanarito                  10,432
              Obispo              Ospino                     12,233
              Turén               Villa Bruzual              10,588

  =SUCRE=                        =Cumaná=                   =92,030=
              Arismendi           Rio Caribe                 11,268
              Benítez             El Pilar                   12,889
              Bermudez            Carúpano                   17,500
              Mariño              Cristobal Colón             8,777
              Mejías              Marigüitar                  5,402
              Montes              Cumanacoa                   8,133
              Rivero              Cariaco                     7,396
              Sucre               Cumaná                     20,665

  =TÁCHIRA=                      =San Cristobal=           =101,709=
              Ayacucho            San Juan de Colón           8,041
              Bolivar             San Antonio                 8,195
              Cárdenas            Táriba                     12,882
              Capacho             Independencia               9,091
              Junín               Rubio                      12,229
              Jauregui            La Grita                   18,804
              Lobatera            Lobatera                    5,143
              San Cristobal       San Cristobal              19,504
              Uribante            Pregonero                   7,820

  =TRUJILLO=                     =Trujillo=                =146,585=
              Betijoque           Betijoque                  14,529
              Boconó              Boconó                     33,289
              Carache             Carache                    33,845
              Escuque             Escuque                    12,696
              Trujillo            Trujillo                   26,095
              Urdaneta            La Quebrada                12,698
              Valera              Valera                     13,433

  =YARACUY=                      =San Felipe=               =85,844=
              Bruzual             Chivacoa                    8,134
              Nirgua              Nirgua                     28,708
              San Felipe          San Felipe                 17,959
              Sucre   }           Guama }                    11,838
              Bolivar }           Aroa  }
              Urachiche           Urachiche                   6,110
              Yaritagua           Yaritagua                  13,095

  =ZAMORA=                       =Barinas=                  =62,696=
              Arismendi           Arismendi                   6,929
              Barinas             Barinas                     9,157
              Bolivar             Barinitas                   7,146
              Obispos             Obispos                    10,481
              Pedraza             Ciudad Bolivia              7,579
              Rojas               Libertad                   10,430
              Sosa                Nutrias                    10,974

  =ZULIA=                        =Maracaibo=               =150,776=
              Bolivar             Santa Rita                  6,598
              Colón               San Carlos del Zulia        7,161
              Mara                San Rafael                  5,538
              Maracaibo           Maracaibo                  37,551
              Miranda             Altagracia                  7,020
              Páez                Sinamaica                  68,707
              Perija              Libertad                    5,512
              Sucre               Bobure                      5,529[8]
              Urdaneta            Concepción                  7,160

  =DISTRITO FEDERAL=             =Carácas=                 =113,204=

  =TERRITORIO AMAZONAS=          =San Fernando de Atabapo=  =45,097=

  =TERRITORIO DELTA-AMACURO=     =Tucupita=                  =7,222=




APPENDIX B

TRADE OF VENEZUELA, 1909-10

(Compiled from the _Estadística Mercantil y Marítima_, Carácas)


IMPORTS (BY CLASSES).

                                         £ (at 25·25).
     I. Textiles                             821,619
    II. Foodstuffs                           444,142
   III. Hardware                             341,942
    IV. Machinery                             65,091
     V. Other oils (and stearin)              58,612
    VI. Mineral oils                          34,198
   VII. Building materials and labour         15,187
  VIII. Cement                                12,816
    IX. Coal                                  11,244
     X. Railway materials                      5,791
    XI. Electrical apparatus                   1,938
   XII. General merchandise                  430,620
                                           ---------
                  Total                    2,243,200
                                           =========


IMPORTS (BY COUNTRIES).[9]

                                         £ (at 25·25).
  United States                              730,560
  Great Britain                              589,700
  Germany                                    422,234
  Holland                                    153,725
  France                                     148,930
  Spain                                      109,173
  Italy                                       58,953
  Trinidad                                    13,821
  Belgium                                     12,110
  Austria                                      1,647
  Curaçao                                      1,183
  Other countries                              1,164
                                           ---------
                  Total                    2,243,200
                                           =========


EXPORTS (BY PRODUCTS).

                                         £ (at 25·25).
  Coffee                                   1,469,476
  Cocoa                                      689,954
  Rubber (caoutchouc, sernambi, and balatá)  557,127
  Hides (oxen, goats, and others)            320,571
  Gold                                        65,738
  Egret plumes                                50,459
  Cattle                                      40,374
  Asphalt                                     36,598
  Dye woods and tanning barks                 23,101
  Pearls                                      20,941
  Sugar                                       20,080
  Timber                                      16,215
  Tonka-beans                                  7,792
  Tobacco                                      5,737
  Hellebore                                    2,806
  Alpargatas (sandals)                         2,570
  Fish-bladders                                2,383
  Coco-palm products                           2,361
  Cotton                                       2,291
  Horns                                        2,031
  Tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, &c.         1,642
  Fruit                                          600
  Quinine                                        492
  Arrowroot                                      221
                                           ---------
                  Total                    3,363,370
                                           =========


IMPORTS (CLASSES AND COUNTRIES).

 -----------------------------------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
                                    |Austria.|Barbados.|Belgium.|Colombia.|
 -----------------------------------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
                                    |   £    |    £    |    £   |    £    |
    I. Textiles                     |        |   120   |  1,050 |         |
   II. Foodstuffs                   | 1,647  |         |    270 |         |
  III. Hardware                     |        |         |  1,513 |         |
   IV. Machinery                    |        |         |    156 |         |
    V. Other oils (and stearin)     |        |         |  3,667 |         |
   VI. Mineral oils                 |        |         |      3 |         |
  VII. Building materials and lumber|        |    11   |        |         |
 VIII. Cement                       |        |         |     58 |         |
   IX. Coal                         |        |         |        |         |
    X. Railway materials            |        |         |        |         |
   XI. Electrical apparatus         |        |         |        |         |
  XII. General merchandise          |        |     5   |  5,393 |   99    |
 -----------------------------------+--------+---------+--------+---------+
       Totals                       | 1,647  |   136   | 12,110 |   99    |
 -----------------------------------+--------+---------+--------+---------+

 -----------------------------------+-----+--------+--------+-------+
                                    |Cuba.|Curaçao.|Ecuador.|France.|
 -----------------------------------+-----+--------+--------+-------+
                                    |  £  |    £   |    £   |   £   |
    I. Textiles                     |     |    92  |   99   | 37,635|
   II. Foodstuffs                   |     |    11  |        | 33,912|
  III. Hardware                     |     |     2  |        | 11,087|
   IV. Machinery                    |     |   614  |        |    273|
    V. Other oils (and stearin)     |     |        |        |  1,831|
   VI. Mineral oils                 |     |        |        |       |
  VII. Building materials and lumber|     |        |        |    337|
 VIII. Cement                       |     |    19  |        |     33|
   IX. Coal                         |     |     4  |        |       |
    X. Railway materials            |     |        |        |       |
   XI. Electrical apparatus         |     |        |        |      4|
  XII. General merchandise          | 571 |   441  |        | 63,818|
 -----------------------------------+-----+--------+--------+-------+
        Totals                      | 571 | 1,183  |   99   |148,930|
 -----------------------------------+-----+--------+--------+-------+

 -----------------------------------+--------+--------+----------+-------+
                                    |Germany.|Great   | Holland. | Italy.|
                                    |        |Britain.|          |       |
 -----------------------------------+--------+--------+----------+-------+
                                    |    £   |   £    |  £       |   £   |
    I. Textiles                     | 155,274|417,614 |54,397    | 29,748|
   II. Foodstuffs                   |  99,120| 17,028 |29,606    | 10,909|
  III. Hardware                     |  67,476| 43,514 | 7,581[10]|  1,831|
   IV. Machinery                    |   8,880| 16,893 | 1,664    |    291|
    V. Other oils (and stearin)     |   2,752|    493 |35,558[11]|  4,741|
   VI. Mineral oils                 |     204|     37 |     3    |       |
  VII. Building materials and lumber|   1,270|  3,983 |   206    |    178|
 VIII. Cement                       |   3,843|  1,443 | 1,352    |       |
   IX. Coal                         |   1,366|  8,146 |   908    |       |
    X. Railway materials            |     807|  1,100 |   528    |       |
   XI. Electrical apparatus         |     115|     51 |          |    243|
  XII. General merchandise          |  81,127| 79,398 |21,924    | 11,012|
 -----------------------------------+--------+--------+----------+-------+
       Totals                       | 422,234|589,700 |153,725   | 58,953|
 -----------------------------------+--------+--------+----------+-------+

 -----------------------------------+-----+---------+-------+---------+
                                    |Porto|Portugal.| Spain.|Trinidad.|
                                    |Rico.|         |       |         |
 -----------------------------------+-----+---------+-------+---------+
                                    |  £  |    £    |   £   |    £    |
    I. Textiles                     |     |         | 47,682|     193 |
   II. Foodstuffs                   |     |         | 34,606|   2,673 |
  III. Hardware                     |     |         |  1,601|   1,262 |
   IV. Machinery                    |  139|         |  3,343|      54 |
    V. Other oils (and stearin)     |     |         |  5,543|     242 |
   VI. Mineral oils                 |     |         |       |   1,062 |
  VII. Building materials and lumber|     |         |       |     456 |
 VIII. Cement                       |     |         |       |   2,988 |
   IX. Coal                         |     |         |       |         |
    X. Railway materials            |     |         |       |     297 |
   XI. Electrical apparatus         |     |         |       |      19 |
  XII. General merchandise          |  47 |   73    | 16,398|   4,575 |
 -----------------------------------+-----+---------+-------+---------+
       Totals                       | 186 |   73    |109,173|  13,821 |
 -----------------------------------+-----+---------+-------+---------+

 -----------------------------------+----------
                                    |United
                                    |States.
 -----------------------------------+----------
                                    |   £
    I. Textiles                     | 77,715
   II. Foodstuffs                   |214,360
  III. Hardware                     |206,075[10]
   IV. Machinery                    | 32,784
    V. Other oils (and stearin)     |  3,785
   VI. Mineral oils                 | 32,889
  VII. Building materials and lumber|  8,746
 VIII. Cement                       |  3,080
   IX. Coal                         |    820
    X. Railway materials            |  3,061
   XI. Electrical apparatus         |  1,506
  XII. General merchandise          |145,739
 -----------------------------------+----------
       Totals                       |730,560
 -----------------------------------+----------


EXPORTS (BY PRODUCTS AND PORTS. VALUE IN £ AT 25·25).

  ---------------+----------+----------+--------+-------+-------+---------+
                 |Alpargalas|Arrowroot.|Asphalt.|Cattle.| Cocoa.|Coco-palm|
                 |(sandals).|          |        |       |       |Products.|
  ---------------+----------+----------+--------+-------+-------+---------+
                 |     £    |      £   |    £   |   £   |   £   |     £   |
  La Guaira      |   1,887  |          |        |       |334,415|         |
  Puerto Cabello |     582  |      16  |        |   785 | 96,884|    594  |
  Maracaibo      |          |      31  | 3,056  |       | 10,892|     24  |
  Ciudad Bolivar |          |          |        |34,550 |    374|         |
  Carúpano       |      47  |          |        |    27 |151,545|         |
  Pampatar       |      54  |          |        |       |       |         |
  La Vela        |          |     174  |        |   581 |       |         |
  Guanta         |          |          |        | 2,865 |       |         |
  Puerto Sucre   |          |          |        |       |       |         |
  Cristobal Colón|          |          |   270  | 1,566 | 91,070|  1,743  |
  Caño Colorado  |          |          |33,272  |       |  4,774|         |
  ---------------+----------+----------+--------+-------+-------+---------+
      Totals     |   2,570  |     221  |36,598  |40,374 |689,954|  2,361  |
  ---------------+----------+----------+--------+-------+-------+---------+

  ---------------+---------+---------+-------+-------+----------------+
                 | Coffee. |Copaiba— |Copper.|Cotton.|DYES AND TANNING|
                 |         |Balsam   |       |       |    MATERIALS.  |
                 |         |and Oil. |       |       +------+---------+
                 |         |         |       |       |Barks.|Divisive.|
  ---------------+---------+---------+-------+-------+------+---------+
                 |    £    |    £    |   £   |   £   |   £  |    £    |
  La Guaira      |  244,836|         |   654 |   459 |      |         |
  Puerto Cabello |  441,161|         | 7,019 |   605 |      |   1,144 |
  Maracaibo      |  751,779|   7,197 |       |   427 | 1,884|  14,621 |
  Ciudad Bolivar |    1,664|   2,041 |       |       |    36|         |
  Carúpano       |    5,556|         |    31 |       |      |      27 |
  Pampatar       |      299|         |    61 |       |      |     487 |
  La Vela        |    2,127|         |    16 |    12 |      |   4,134 |
  Guanta         |      950|         |       |   556 |      |     185 |
  Puerto Sucre   |   19,610|         |       |       |      |     444 |
  Cristobal Colón|    1,482|         |       |       |    71|      68 |
  Caño Colorado  |       12|      85 |    11 |   232 |      |         |
  ---------------+---------+---------+-------+-------+------+---------+
      Totals     |1,469,476|   9,323 | 7,792 | 2,291 | 1,991|  21,110 |
  ---------------+---------+---------+-------+-------+------+---------+

  ---------------+-------+---------+------+------+----------+
                 |Egrets’|  Fish   |Fruit.| Gold.|Hellebore.|
                 |Plumes.|Bladders.|      |      |          |
  ---------------+-------+---------+------+------+----------+
                 |   £   |    £    |  £   |  £   |    £     |
  La Guaira      |     77|         |      |   674|   2,806  |
  Puerto Cabello |    677|    19   | 335  |   317|          |
  Maracaibo      |       |  2,346  |      |      |          |
  Ciudad Bolivar | 49,705|         |      |64,747|          |
  Carúpano       |       |         |      |      |          |
  Pampatar       |       |         |      |      |          |
  La Vela        |       |         |      |      |          |
  Guanta         |       |         |      |      |          |
  Puerto Sucre   |       |         |      |      |          |
  Cristobal Colón|       |         | 265  |      |          |
  Caño Colorado  |       |         |      |      |          |
  ---------------+-------+---------+------+------+----------+
      Totals     | 50,459|  2,383  | 600  |65,738|   2,806  |
  ---------------+-------+---------+------+------+----------+

  ---------------+------------------------+------+-------+--------+
                 |          HIDES.        |      |       |        |
                 +-------+-------+--------+      |       |Quinine-|
                 |Goats’.| Oxen. | Others,|Horns.|Pearls.| bark.  |
                 |       |       |chiefly |      |       |        |
                 |       |       | Deer.  |      |       |        |
  ---------------+-------+-------+--------+------+-------+--------+
                 |   £   |   £   |    £   |   £  |    £  |    £   |
  La Guaira      |  2,900| 45,355|  3,990 |   653| 11,889|    188 |
  Puerto Cabello | 26,622| 26,035|  3,469 | 1,052|       |    279 |
  Maracaibo      |  8,063| 30,459|    296 |      |       |     25 |
  Ciudad Bolivar |     73|126,245|  3,797 |   197|       |        |
  Carúpano       |     94|  1,053|        |      |  4,305|        |
  Pampatar       |    459|    139|        |      |  4,752|        |
  La Vela        | 34,681|       |        |      |       |        |
  Guanta         |    305|    883|    104 |   112|       |        |
  Puerto Sucre   |    684|  2,029|     45 |      |       |        |
  Cristobal Colón|     87|    464|        |      |       |        |
  Caño Colorado  |       |  2,049|    191 |   17 |       |        |
  ---------------+-------+-------+--------+------+-------+--------+
      Totals     | 73,968|234,711| 11,892 | 2,031| 20,941|    492 |
  ---------------+-------+-------+--------+------+-------+--------+

  ---------------+-----------------------------+-------+------+-------+
                 |           RUBBER.           |       |      |       |
                 +-----------+---------+-------+Shells.|Sugar.|Timber.|
                 |Caoutchouc.|Sernambi.|Balatá.|       |      |       |
  ---------------+-----------+---------+-------+-------+------+-------+
                 |     £     |    £    |    £  |   £   |  £   |   £   |
  La Guaira      |           |         |    820|   133 | 7,879|     79|
  Puerto Cabello |    1,787  |         |       |    11 | 1,443|    392|
  Maracaibo      |    3,230  |         |       |       |10,233| 15,044|
  Ciudad Bolivar |  116,305  |  32,089 |401,093|       |      |       |
  Carúpano       |           |         |    239|       |      |    149|
  Pampatar       |           |         |       | 1,498 |      |     92|
  La Vela        |           |         |       |       |   525|       |
  Guanta         |           |         |       |       |      |     19|
  Puerto Sucre   |           |         |    126|       |      |       |
  Cristobal Colón|           |         |    539|       |      |    440|
  Caño Colorado  |           |         |    899|       |      |       |
  ---------------+-----------+---------+-------+-------+------+-------+
      Totals     |  121,322  |  32,089 |403,716| 1,642 |20,080| 16,215|
  ---------------+-----------+---------+-------+-------+------+-------+

  ---------------+--------+-----------
                 |        |Tonka-beans
                 |Tobacco.|(Sarrapia).
  ---------------+--------+-----------
                 |   £    |     £
  La Guaira      |    562 |
  Puerto Cabello |        |      58
  Maracaibo      |        |
  Ciudad Bolivar |  1,676 |  12,429
  Carúpano       |        |
  Pampatar       |        |
  La Vela        |        |
  Guanta         |        |
  Puerto Sucre   |        |
  Cristobal Colón|     11 |
  Caño Colorado  |  3,488 |
  ---------------+--------+-----------
      Totals     |  5,737 |  12,487
  ---------------+--------+-----------




APPENDIX C

POPULATION, ALTITUDE, MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE AND DEATH-RATE OF PRINCIPAL
VENEZUELAN CITIES

(From the _Anuario Estadístico_, 1908, and the data for the military map,
1909)


  -----------------------+-----------+---------+------------+------------
                         |Population.|         |Mean Annual |Death Rate
  City.                  | Census of |Altitude,|Temperature,| 1908, per
                         |   1891.   |in Feet. |  Degrees   | 1,000
                         |           |         |Fahrenheit. |Inhabitants.
  -----------------------+-----------+---------+------------+------------

  (_a_) COAST TOWNS.

  Maracaibo              | 34,740    |     20  |    86      |   36·5
  Barcelona              | 14,089    |     43  |    81·5    |   15·8
  Puerto Cabello         | 13,176    |     10  |    81      |   42·0
  Cumaná                 | 11,471    |     23  |    80·5    |   19·7
  Carúpano               | 10,897    |     26  |    81      |   25·9
  Coro                   | 10,161    |     53  |    81      |   31·6
  La Guaira              |  8,512    |     26  |    84·5    |   33·1
  La Asunción            |  3,160    |    356  |    79      |   27·3

  (_b_) CORDILLERAS AND GUAYANA HIGHLANDS.

  Carácas                | 72,429    |  3,036  |    66·5    |   34·4
  Valencia               | 54,387    |  1,577  |    80      |   24·5
  Barquisimeto           | 27,069    |  1,868  |    78      |   35·1
  San Cristobal          | 16,797    |  2,722  |    70·5    |   19·6
  Villa de Cura          | 15,792    |  1,835  |    75·5    |   27·6
  La Victoria            | 14,109    |  1,782  |    74      |   29·6
  Mérida                 | 13,366    |  5,415  |    64·5    |   29·9
  Boconó                 | 13,233    |  4,336  |    65      |   32·9
  San Felipe             | 10,817    |    808  |    80      |   33·9
  Trujillo               | 10,481    |  2,640  |    72      |   26·3
  Ocumare del Tuy        |  7,745    |    693  |    79      |   60·2
  Los Teques             |  6,916    |  3,864  |    68      |   40·6
  Guasipati              |  3,052    |     ?   |    86      |   14·3

  (_c_) LLANOS AND ORINOCO VALLEY.

  Ciudad Bolivar         | 17,535    |    125  |    86·5    |   23·8
  Maturín                | 15,624    |    244  |    80·5    |   11·7
  Aragua de Barcelona    | 15,680[12]|    363  |    82      |   21·4
  San Carlos             | 10,159[12]|    495  |    83      |   47·4
  Guanare                |  9,051    |    636  |    83·5    |    9·3
  Calabozo               |  8,159    |    330  |    88·5    |   25·1
  San Fernando de Apure  |  6,695    |    240  |    91      |   26·8
  Barinas                |  5,354    |    594  |    82      |   14·2
  Tucupita               |    823    |      ?  |     ?      |    ?
  San Fernando de Atabapo|    388    |      ?  |     ?      |    ?
  -----------------------+-----------+---------+------------+------------


HEIGHTS OF PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS.

  ------------------------+---------------------------------+------------
          Range.          |              Peak.              | Height, in
                          |                                 |    Feet.
  ------------------------+---------------------------------+------------
  Sierra Nevada of Mérida | La Columna                      |   16,523
                          | La Concha                       |   16,087
                          | La Corona                       |   15,609
                          | El Leon                         |   15,490
                          | El Toro                         |   15,490
  Cordillera of the Andes | El Salado                       |   13,949
  (outer range)           | Los Conejos                     |   13,761
  Cordillera of the Coast | Naiguatá                        |    9,124
                          | Silla de Carácas (eastern peak) |    8,702
  Interior Range          | Turumiquiri                     |    6,761
  ------------------------+---------------------------------+------------




APPENDIX D

GOVERNMENT FINANCE, 1908-9

(From the _Anuario Estadístico_, 1908)


  REVENUE 1908-9.

                                              £           £
  Taxes on foreign trade:—
      Import duties                        1,152,105
      Export duty (live cattle)                3,371
      Sundry port dues                        20,204
      Storage and warehousing                    655
      Consular fees                            2,118
      Other minor imposts                      1,310  1,179,763
                                           ---------

  Internal taxation payable throughout the
          Federation:—
      Sale of stamps[13]                      109,048
      Stamped paper                            5,134
      Tax on mining properties                 4,895
      Tax on alcohol and tobacco             112,767
      Tax on cigarettes, &c.                  85,833
      Tax on matches                          10,335
      Trademark and patent dues                  160    328,172
                                           ---------

  Taxes payable in the Federal district and
          territories:—
      12% duty in territories                220,501
      Public registry of property              3,097
      Direct and local taxes in territories      876    224,474
                                           ---------
  Public services:—
      Telegraphs and cables                   10,566
      Other Government enterprises             2,314     12,880
                                           ---------

  Revenue from national estate:—
      National lands                             632
      Salt-pans                              202,744
      Pearl fisheries                            494    203,870
                                           ---------

  Minor sources of revenue:—
      Returns on sundry capital, securities,
        rights, &c.                           15,622
      Other minor sources                     31,660     47,282
                                           ---------  ---------
                  Total                               1,996,441
                                                      ---------

  EXPENDITURE 1908-9.

                                                £          £
  Ministry of the Interior:—
      Legislature                             17,593
      Ecclesiastical subsidy                   7,264
      Public health                            2,577
      Prisons                                  7,633
      Subsidies to States                    224,074
      Charities                               13,349
      General                                 28,146    310,636
                                           ---------

  Ministry of Foreign Affairs:—
      Consular Service                         2,404
      Legations and general                  141,279    143,683
                                           ---------

  Ministry of Finance and Public Credit:—
      Administrative Services                193,475
      Diplomatic claims of 1903              126,404
      Other branches of National Debt        261,667    581,546
                                           ---------

  Ministry of War and Marine:—
      Army                                   259,003
      Navy                                    22,003
      Dockyard                                24,699
      Military map of Venezuela                4,566
      General                                 50,661    360,932
                                           ---------

  Ministry of Public Instruction:—
      Higher Education                        28,465
      Elementary Education                    55,561
      General                                 33,247    117,273
                                           ---------

  Ministry of National Development:—
      Post Office                             33,602
      Telegraphs                              80,847
      General                                  8,634    123,183
                                           ---------

  Ministry of Public Works                               78,928
  “Emergencies”                                         171,693
                                                      ---------
                  Total                               1,887,874
                                                      ---------




APPENDIX E

THE NATIONAL DEBT OF VENEZUELA

(Years 1906 to 1910)


  ------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------------
        Branch.     |  1906.  |  1907.  |  1908.  |  1909.  |  1910.
  ------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------------
                    |    £    |    £    |    £    |    £    |    £
                    |         |         |         |         |
  INTERNAL DEBT.    |         |         |         |         |
                    |         |         |         |         |
  Consolidated 3    |         |         |         |         |
    per cent.       |         |         |         |         |
    stock[14]       |1,299,448|2,175,210|2,354,300|2,389,668|2,399,309
  Other             |1,744,242|  551,240|  279,885|  165,784|  119,156
  ------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------------
      Totals        |3,043,690|2,726,050|2,634,185|2,555,452|2,518,465
  ------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------------
                    |         |         |         |         |
  FOREIGN DEBT.     |         |         |         |         |
                    |         |         |         |         |
  National 3 per    |         |         |         |         |
    cent. bonds by  |         |         |         |         |
    diplomatic      |         |         |         |         |
    agreements      |  483,169|  466,919|  453,295|  433,309|  417,414
  Provisional       |         |         |         |         |
    (Spanish)       |         |         |         |         |
    certificates    |       62|       62|       62|       62|       62
  Diplomatic 3 per  |         |         |         |         |
    cent. debt      |4,993,627|4,868,978|4,735,958|4,604,572|4,418,987[15]
  Claims awarded    |         |         |         |         |
    by Hague        |         |         |         |         |
    Tribunal, 1903  |  883,799|  777,514|  647,344|  518,409|  359,562
  ------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------------
      Totals        |6,360,657|6,113,473|5,836,659|5,556,352|5,196,025
  ------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------------




FOOTNOTES


[1] This lake has recently been drained by an English syndicate, who
have already found some evidence which tends to show that the story is
substantially correct.

[2] “Another fourth part was discovered ... by Amerigo Vespucci:
wherefore I do not see why it should not be justly permissible to name
it after Amerigo the discoverer ... Amerigē, the land of Americus, or
America.”

[3] “MOST MAGNIFICENT SIR,—Among other papers of your worship’s found
in this city, there was a letter addressed to me, with more offers and
preambles than there are stars in the sky.”

[4] “Our Lord protect the most magnificent person of your worship,

                              “Your servant,

                                                    “LOPE DE AGUIRRE.”

[5] As usual, the second part of the original title was the name, or
supposed name, of the local Indians.

[6] The word Guacharo connotes crying or lamenting in Spanish.

[7] Includes the municipality of Independencia. _See_ =Zulia=.

[8] Does not include the municipality of Independencia. _See_ =Mérida=.

[9] Omitting _coal_ and _coined gold_, the totals for the four leading
countries are as follows: U.S.A., £585,953; Great Britain, £581,559;
Germany, £420,868; Holland, £152,501.

[10] Includes coined gold, £317 from Holland; £143,700 from U.S.A.

[11] Principally stearin.

[12] Very scattered.

[13] Includes postage stamps, for which allowance should be made under
“Public Services.”

[14] Created in 1906 and increased by conversion of other branches in
1907.

[15] Great Britain, Italy, and Germany were paid in full before 1908;
Belgium, France, Mexico, United States, Spain, Holland, Sweden, and
Norway are still creditors.




A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS RELATING TO VENEZUELA


I. GENERAL

1. =Appun, C. F.= Unter den Tropen. Bd. i. _Jena_, 1871.

2. =Bénard, C.= Le Vénézuéla. Pp. 106, map. _Bordeaux_, 1897.

3. =Bolet-Peraza, N.= The Republic of Venezuela. 8vo. _Boston_, 1892
(reprinted from _New England Mag._).

4. =Bolivar, G. de.= Venezuela. _Journ. Manchester Geogr. Soc._, vol.
xxv, pp. 18-31 [1909].

5. =Brown, G. M. L.= Three old Ports on the Spanish Main. _Nat. Geogr.
Mag._, vol. xvii, pp. 622-38 [1906].

6. =Bruycker, P. de.= Le Vénézuéla. _Bull. Soc. Géogr. Anvers_, t. x, pp.
303-31 [1885].

7. =Bürger, O.= Reisen eines Naturforschers in tröpischen Südamerika. Pp.
vi, 395, 8vo. _Leipzig_, 1900.

8. =Caseneuve, P. de= and =François=. Les États-Unis de Vénézuéla. Map.
_Paris_, 1888.

9. =Chaffanjon, J.= Vénézuéla et Colombie. _Bull. Soc. Géogr. Comm.
Paris_, t. xiii, pp. 431-42 [1890-1].

10. =Chaper=, =⸺.= La Côte Nord du Vénézuéla. _Arch. Miss. Sci. Litt.
Paris_, sér. 3, t. xiv, pp. 337-43 [1888].

11. =Creveaux, J.= Voyages dans l’Amérique du Sud. _Paris_, 1883.

12. =Curtis, W. E.= Venezuela: her Government, People, and Boundary.
_Nat. Geogr. Mag._, vol. vii, pp. 42-58, map [1896].

13. =⸺.= Venezuela: a Land where it’s always Summer. Pp. 315, map, 8vo.
_New York_ and _London_, 1896.

14. =Dance, C. D.= Four Years in Venezuela. _London_, 1876.

15. =Dauxion-Lavaysse, J. F.= A Statistical, Commercial, and Political
Description of Venezuela, Trinidad, Margarita, and Tobago. _London_, 1820.

16. =Dawson, T. C.= The South American Republics. 2 vols. _London_, 1904.

    =Den Kati, H.= _See_ =Ten Kate, H.=

17. =Depons, F.= Voyage dans l’Amérique méridionale. 3 vols., 8vo.
_Paris_, 1806.

18. =⸺.= Travels in South America during 1801-4, containing a Description
of the Carácas. Map, 8vo. _London_, 1807.

19. =Duane, W.= A Visit to Colombia in the Years 1822 and 1823.
_Philadelphia_, 1826.

20. =Eastwick, E. B.= Venezuela: or, Sketches of Life in a South American
Republic. Map by R. Rojas. _London_, 1868.

21. =Erbach, E. Graf zu.= Wandertage eines deutschen Touristen im Strom-
und Küstengebiet des Orinoko. 8vo. _Leipzig_, 1892.

22. =Engel, F.= Mittheilungen über Venezuela. _Globus_, bd. xiv, pp.
44-119, 145-84 [1868].

23. =Ernst, A.= Der erste Census in Venezuela. _Globus_, bd. xxvi, pp.
75-7 [1874].

24. =Fitzgerald, D.= Du Vénézuéla. _Bull. Soc. Géogr. Comm. Bordeaux_, t.
i, pp. 262-9, 285-93, 313-5, 352-4 [1878].

25. =Gazzurelli, A.= Il Venezuela. _Rome_, 1901.

26. =⸺.= Venezuela, Ordinamento, Produzioni e Scambi. Pp. 62. _Rome_, 1904.

27. =Gerstächer, F.= Neue Reisen durch die Vereinigten Staaten, Mexico,
Ecuador, West Indien und Venezuela. _Jena_, 1868-9.

    =Goiticoa, N. V.= _See_ =Veloz-Goiticoa, N.=

28. =Halle, F.= Colombia. 8vo. _London_, 1824.

29. =Hawkshaw, J.= Reminiscences of South America from two and a half
years’ Residence in Venezuela. 8vo. _London_, 1838.

30. =Hondius, J.= Brevio et admiranda Descriptio Regni Guianæ. ?1599.

31. =Jonas, P.= Nachrichten über Venezuela. _Petermann’s Mitt._, bd.
xxiv, pp. 11-14 [1878]; bd. xxv, pp. 212-16 [1879].

32. =Landaeta Rosales, M.= Gran recopilacion geografica, estadística e
historica de Venezuela. 2 vols., fo. _Carácas_, 1889.

33. =Lisboa, M. M.= Relaçao de uma Viagem a Venezuela, Nova Granada e
Equador. 8vo. _Brussels_, 1866.

34. =Mozans, H. J.= Up the Orinoco and down the Magdalena. _New York_ and
_London_, 1910.

35. =Olinda, A.= Venezuela in der Gegenwart. _Deutsch. Rundschau Geogr._,
bd. xxiv, pp. 337-48, 398-407 [1902].

36. =Risquez, D. F. A.= Venezuela. _Rev. Geogr. Col. y Mercantil_, t. vi,
pp. 275-98 [1909].

37. =Rojas, F. V.= Guia Commercial de la Republica de Venezuela.
_Port-of-Spain_, 1901, &c.

38. =Roncayolo, M.= Au Vénézuéla. _Paris_, 1894.

    =Rosales, M. L.= _See_ =Landaeta Rosales, M.=

39. =Scruggs, W. L.= The Colombian and Venezuelan Republics. 8vo.
_Boston_, 1905.

40. =Sievers, W.= Venezuela. _Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Hamburg_, 1885-6, pp.
134-48.

41. =⸺.= Census von Venezuela. _Ibid._, pp. 316-26.

42. =⸺.= Zur Kenntniss Venezuelas. _Globus_, bd. lii, pp. 134-7, 149-52
[1887].

43. =⸺.= Zweite Reise in Venezuela in den Jahren 1892-3. Map, 1: 1,000,000.
_Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Hamburg_, bd. xii, pp. 328 [1896].

44. =Spence, J. M.= The Land of Bolivar. 2 vols., 8vo. _London_, 1878.

45. =Tallenay, J. de.= Souvenirs de Vénézuéla. 12 mo. _Paris_, 1884.

46. =Tejera, M.= Venezuela pintoresca e ilustrada. 8vo. _Paris_, 1875.

47. =⸺.= Venezuela en la exposicion de Paris en 1878. 8vo. _Paris_, 1878.

48. =Ten Kate, H.= Travels in Guiana and Venezuela. _Rev. Col. Internat.
Amsterdam_, t. ii, pp. 527-40 [1886].

49. =Veloz-Goiticoa, N.= Les États-Unis de Vénézuéla. _Bull. Soc. Géogr.
Comm. Bordeaux_, t. xiv, pp. 33-9 [1891].

50. =⸺.= Venezuela. Pp. 608, map, 8vo. _Washington_, 1904.

51. =Villavicencio, R.= La Republica de Vénézuéla bajo el punto de vista
de la Geografia y Topografia médicas y de la Demografia. Pp. 137, 8vo.
_Carácas_, 1880.

52. =Vincent, L.= Notice sur les États-Unis de Vénézuéla. _Bull. Soc.
Géogr. Comm. Bordeaux_, t. xiii, pp. 57-69, 89-109 [1890].

53. =Wappäus, J. E.= Die Republiken von Süd Amerika. _Göttingen_, 1843.

54. =Anon.= Letters written from Colombia during a Journey from Carácas
to Bogotá. Pp. 208, map. _London_, 1824.

55. =⸺.= Tropical Information: a Treatise on the History, Climate, Soil,
Productions, &c. of Venezuela. 12mo. _London_, 1846.

56. =⸺.= Appun’s Wanderungen durch Venezuela. _Ausland_, vol. xliv, pp.
817-21 [1871].

57. =⸺.= Notice politique, statistique, commerciale, &c., sur les
États-Unis du Vénézuéla. Map, 12mo. _Paris_, 1889.

58. =⸺.= Die Vereinigten Staaten von Venezuela. _Deutsch. Rundschau_, bd.
xi, pp. 459-63, map [1889].

59. =⸺.= Venezuela: Laws regulating Immigration and Public Lands.
_Washington_, 1895.

60. =⸺.= Venezuela: Short Sketch of its History, Geography and Industries.
_Scottish Geogr. Mag._, vol. xii, pp. 184-95 [1896].

61. =⸺.= Official History of the Discussion between Venezuela and Great
Britain on their Guiana Boundaries. _Atlanta, Ga._, 1896.

62. =⸺.= Notes on Venezuela. _Scottish Geogr. Mag._, vol. xix, pp. 97, 98,
map [1903].

63. Official Publications, 1. Annual Reports of the Ministers of State to
the National Congress.

64. =⸺.= 2. Messages of the President of the Republic to the National
Congress.

65. =⸺.= 3. Codigos de Venezuela.

66. =⸺.= 4. Recopilacion de leyes y decretos de Venezuela.

67. =⸺.= 5. Venezuela: Ministerio de Relaciones. World’s Colombian
Exposition at Chicago. The United States of Venezuela in 1903. Pp. 149,
map, 8vo. _New York_, 1903.

68. =Anon.= 6. Ministerio de Fomento. Direccion general de Estadística.
Estadística mercantil de Venezuela y Anuario Estadístico.

69. =⸺.= 7. Reports of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign
Bondholders (annual). _London_.

70. =⸺.= 8. British Foreign Office Consular Reports, Annual Series
(Venezuela, Carácas, &c.).


II. GEOGRAPHICAL.

71. =Aguerrevere, F., &c.= Trabajos del Cuerpo de Ingenieros encargado
del levantamiento del Plano Militar de Venezuela. 4to. _Carácas_, 1908.

72. =Berthelot, S.= Sur les travaux géographiques et statistiques
exécutés dans toute l’étendue du territoire du Vénézuéla par M. le
colonel Codazzi. _Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris_, sér. 2, t. xiv, pp. 161-78
[1840].

73. =Bianconi, F.= Carte des États-Unis de Vénézuéla. 1: 3,400,000. _Rev.
Franç._, t. viii, pp. 413-19 [1888].

74. =Boussingault=, =⸺.= Rapport sur les travaux géographiques et
statistiques exécutés dans la république de Vénézuéla, d’aprés les ordres
du Congres par M. le colonel Codazzi. _Compt. Rend._, t. xii, pp. 462-79
[1841].

75. =Codazzi, A.= Atlas fisico y politico de la Republica de Venezuela.
Pp. 8, 33 maps, &c. _Carácas_, 1840.

76. =⸺.= Rapport sur les travaux géographiques, &c., dans le Vénézuéla.
4to. _Paris_, 1841.

77. =⸺.= Résumen de la Geografia de Vénézuéla. Pp. 648. _Paris_, 1841.

78. =Ernst, A.= Demarkation der Venezuelanisch-brasilianischen
Grenzlinie. _Zeitschr. Ges. Erdk., Berlin_, bd. xxi, pp. 167-72 [1886].

79. =Hondius, H.= Venezuela cum parte Australi Novæ Andalusiæ. 1630.

80. =Humboldt, F. H. A. v.= Geognostische Skizze von Süd-america. _Ann.
Phys._, t. xvi, pp. 394-449 [1804].

81. =Huot, V.= Nouveaux travaux topographiques au Vénézuéla. _Bull. Soc.
Géogr. Paris_, t. xvii, pp. 458-60 [1908].

82. =Jahn, A.= Contribuciones a la geografia fisica de Venezuela. I.
Observaciones al Plano Militar de la Republica. _Carácas_, 1907.

83. =⸺.= Contribuciones a la Hidrogafia del Orinoco y Rio Negro. Map, 1:
1,000,000. _Carácas_, 1907.

84. =Level, A. A.= Nomenclator de Venezuela, contentivo de su censo en
orden alfabetico. T. 2, 8vo. _Carácas_, 1883.

85. =Oltmann=, =⸺.= Don José de Ituriaga’s astronomische Beobachtungen am
Nieder-Orinoco.... 1754 bis 1758. _Abh. K. Akad. Wiss. Berlin_, bd. ii,
pp. 115-27 [1830].

    =Rosa, R.= _See_ =Eastwick, E. B.= (No. 21).

86. =Sievers, W.= Bemerkungen zur Karte der Venezolanisch-Brasilianischen
Grenze. _Zeitschr. Ges. Erdk. Berlin_, bd. xxii, pp. 1-5, map, 1:
2,000,000 [1887].

87. =⸺.= Die Grenzen Venezuelas, _Globus_, bd. lxix, pp. 53-5. map [1896].

88. =⸺.= Eine neue Karte von Venezuela. _Petermann’s Mitt._, bd. liv, pp.
69, 70, map, 1: 1,500,000 [1908].

89. =Tejera, M.= Mapa Fisico y Politico de Venezuela. 4 sheets, _Paris_,
1876.

90. =Anon.= Residuum Continentis (Viz. Caribana & Nova Andalusia) cum
adjacentibus insulis. 1598.

91. =⸺.= Carta plana de la Provincia de Carácas o Venezuela. 1787.

92. =⸺.= Memoria de la Direccion general de estadística al Presidente de
los Estados Unidos de Venezuela en 1873. 3 vols. _Carácas_, 1873.

93. =⸺.= Texte et carte commerciale des États-Unis de Vénézuéla avec notice
descriptive. _Paris_, 1888.

94. =⸺.= Orinoco-Essequibo Regions.... map, 2, Senate Doc. U.S. (Boundary
Commission), 1897.

_See also_ Nos. 79, 119, 120, 366, 367.


III. GEOLOGICAL.

95. =Ahrensburg, H.= Erdbeben in Carácas. _Mitt. Géogr. Ges. Jena_, bd.
xix, pp. 56-8 [1901].

96. =Attwood, G.= A Contribution to South American Geology. _Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xxxv, pp. 582-590, map [1879].

97. =Bendrat, T. A.= Geologic and Petrographic Notes on the Regions about
Caicara, Venezuela. _Amer. Journ. Sci._, ser. 4, vol. xxxi, pp. 443-52
[1911].

98. =Bonssingault=,—. Les Sources Thermales de la Chaîne du littoral du
Vénézuéla, _Compt. Rend._, t. xci, pp. 836-41 [1880].

99. =Buch, L. v.= Von Aptychus, und über die Anden von Venezuela.
_Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges._, bd. ii, pp. 339-44, pl. x [1850].

100. =Cortese, E.= Escursioni geologiche al Venezuela. _Boll. Soc. Geol.
Ital._, vol. xx, pp. 447-69 [1901].

101. =Drevermann, Fr.= Ueber Untersilur in Venezuela. _N. Jahrb._, 1904,
vol. i, pp. 91-3, pl. [1904].

102. =Foster, C. Le Neve.= On the Caratal Goldfield. _Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc._, vol. xxv, pp. 336-43 [1869].

103. =Gerhardt, K.= Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Kreideformation in
Venezuela und Peru. _N. Jahrb._, Beilage-Band xi, pp. 65-117 [1897].

104. =Humboldt, F. H. A. v.= Esquisse d’un Tableau Géologique de
l’Amérique méridionale. _Journ. Phys._, t. liii, pp. 30-59 [1801].

105. =⸺.= Account of the Earthquake which destroyed the Town of Carácas on
the 26th March, 1812. _Edinb. Phil. Journ._, vol. i, pp. 272-80 [1819].

106. =Karsten, H.= [Letter from Puerto Cabello on the Geology of Western
Venezuela.] _Ber. Acad. Wiss. Berlin_, 1849, pp. 197-200.

107. =⸺.= [On Neocomian Rocks near Trujillo.] _Ibid._, pp. 370-6.

108. =⸺.= [Tertiary and Cretaceous in Cumaná and Barcelona.] _Zeitschr.
deutsch. geol. Ges._, bd. ii, pp. 86-8 [1850].

109. =⸺.= Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Gesteine des nördlichen Venezuela.
_Ibid._, pp. 345-61.

110. =⸺.= Ueber die geognostische Verhältnisse des nördlichen Venezuela.
_Archiv. Min. Geogn._, bd. xxiv, pp. 440-79 [1851].

111. =⸺.= Geognostische Bemerkungen über die Umgebungen von Maracaibo und
über die Nordküste von Neu Granada. _Ibid._, bd. xxv, pp. 567-73 [1853].

112. =Karsten, H.= Reise-notizen über die Provinz Cumaná in Venezuela.
_Westermann’s Monatshefte_, 1859.

113. =⸺.= Die geognostische Beschaffenheit der Gebirge der Provinz Carácas.
_Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges._, bd. xiv, pp. 282-7 [1862].

114. =⸺.= Geologie de l’ancienne Colombie Bolivarienne. Pp. 62, map, 4to.
_Berlin_, 1886.

115. =Lorié, J.= Fossile Mollusken von Curaçao, Aruba und der Küste von
Venezuela. _Samml. geol. Reichs-Mus. Leyden_, sér. 2, bd. i, pp. 111-49,
[1887].

116. =Salomon, W.= Ueber angebliches Untersilur in Venezuela. _Monatsb.
deutsch. geol. Ges._, 1909, pp. 193. [Shows that specimens described by
Drevermann (No. 101) were bought in U.S.A. and not from Venezuela.]

117. =Sievers, W.= Das Erdbeben vom 26 März, 1812, an den Nordküste
Südamerikas. _Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Hamburg_, pp. 265-71.

118. =⸺.= Reiseberichte aus Venezuela. _Ibid._, pp. 272-87; 1885-6, pp.
1-133.

119. =⸺.= Venezuela. Pp. viii, 359. _Hamburg_, 1888.

120. =⸺.= Karten zur physikalischen Geographie von Venezuela. _Petermann’s
Mitt._, bd. xlii, pp. 149-55, 197-201, 3 maps, 1: 3,000,000 [1896].

121. =⸺.= Das Erdbeben in Venezuela von 26 Okt., 1900. _Jahrb. Veroffnet.
Geogr. Ver. Bonn_, 1905, pp. 35-50.

122. =Stevens, R. P.= [Geology and Mineralogy of Venezuela.] _Proc. Ac.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia_, 1868, pp. 303, 304.

123. =Tate, R.= Notes on the Geology of Guyana, in Venezuela. _Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xxv, pp. 343-50 [1869].

_See also_ Nos. 314, 319, 320, 342.


IV. BOTANICAL AND ZOOLOGICAL.

124. =Appun, K. F.= Beiträge zur Insecten-Fauna von Venezuela und
Britisch Guyana. _Ausland_, bd. xlv, pp. 41-7, 67-70 [1872].

125. =Bellermann, P.= Landschaft- und Vegetations-Bilder aus den Tropen
Südamerika’s nach der Natur Gezeichnet. _Berlin_, 1894. [Text by
=Karsten=.]

126. =Berlepsch, H. v.= and =E. Hartert=. On the Birds of the Orinoco
Region. _Novitates Zoologicae_, vol. ix, 1902.

     =Bonpland, A.= _See_ =Humboldt, F. H. A. v.=

127. =Braun, A.= Uebersicht der Characeen aus Colombien und Guyana.
_Monatsb. k. preuss. Akad. Wiss._, 1858, pp. 354-67.

128. =Dozy, F.= Prodromus floræ bryologicæ Surinamensis. Accedit pugillus
specierum novarum floræ bryologicæ Venezuelanæ. Pp. 54. _Düsseldorf_,
1854.

129. =Ernst, A.= On the Medicinal Plants of Carácas, Venezuela, and their
Venezuelan Names. _Journ. Botany_, vol. iii, pp. 143-50, 277-84, 306-22
[1865].

130. =⸺.= Plants growing in the Streets of Carácas. _Ibid._, pp. 322, 323
[1865].

131. =⸺.= Formas caracteristicas de la flora Venezolana. Las palmas. _El
Porvenir_, vol. i, no. 6; vol. ii, no. 7; vol. iii, no. 8 [1866].

132. =⸺.= List of Venezuelan Woods, with their Venezuelan Names and
Specific Gravity. _Journ. Botany_, vol. iv, pp. 359, 360 [1866].

133. =⸺.= On the Plants cultivated or naturalised in the Valley of Carácas,
and their Vernacular Names. _Ibid._, vol. v, pp. 264-75, 287-90 [1867].

134. =⸺.= On the Plants common to the Southern United States and Venezuela.
_Ibid._, pp. 290-6 [1867].

135. =⸺.= Los Helechos de la Flora Caracasana. _Vargasia_, 1868-9, pp.
100-103.

136. =⸺.= Plantas interesantes de la Flora Caracasana. _Ibid._, pp. 178-94.

137. =⸺.= Verzeichniss der auf den venezuelanischen Inselgruppe Los Roques
im Sept., 1871, beobachteten Pflanzen. _Botan. Zeit._, bd. xxx, pp.
539-41 [1872].

138. =⸺.= Sertulum Naiguatense.... _Journ. Botany_, vol. x, pp. 261-4
[1872].

139. =⸺.= Observationes aliquot in plantas nonnullas rariores vel novas
floræ Caracasanæ. _Flora_, vol. lvii, pp. 209-15 [1874].

140. =⸺.= Descriptive Catalogue of the Venezuelan Department at the
Philadelphia International Exhibition, 1876. Pp. 55. _Philadelphia_,
1879.

141. =Ernst, A.= Estudios sobre la flora y fauna de Venezuela. Pp. 330.
_Carácas_, 1877.

142. =⸺.= Florula Chelonesiaca. _Journ. Botany_, vol. xiv, pp. 176-9
[1876].

143. =⸺.= Vargas considerado como botanico. _Carácas_, 1877.

144. =⸺.= Enumeracion de las plantas mas notables que fueron observadas en
la excursion a Naiguatá. _Repertoria Caraqueño_, 1879, pp. 141-6.

145. =⸺.= On some Interesting Cases of Migration of Marine Fishes on the
Coast of Venezuela at Carúpano. _Nature_, vol. xxxiii, pp. 321, 322
[1886].

146. =⸺.= Eine botanische Excursion auf der Insel Margarita. _Nederl.
Kruidk. arch. Nijmegen_, bd. iv [1886].

147. =⸺.= La vegetacion de los Páramos de los Andes Venezolanes. _Bol.
Ministr. Obras. Publicas, Carácas_, 1892, pp. 159-63.

148. =⸺.= Sertulum Aturense.... _Rev. Cient. Univ. Central Venezuela_, t.
i, pp. 219-23 [1900].

149. =⸺.= Bibliographia. _Jena_, 1900.

     =Gaillard, A.= _See_ =Patouillard, N.=

150. =Goebel, K.= Die Vegetation der venezolanischen Páramos.
_Pflanzenbiol. Schild._, 1889-93, pt. 2, no. 1. and _Marburg_, 1891.

151. =Goering, A.= Zur Thiergeographie Venezuelas. _Mitt. Ver. Erdk.
Leipzig_, 1876, pp. 14-24.

     =Hartert, E.= _See_ =Berlepsch, H. v.=

152. =Humboldt, F. H. A. v.= and =A. Bonpland=. Plantæ æquinoctiales. 2
vols. _Paris_, 1808.

153. =⸺= and =C. S. Kunth=. Nova genera et species plantarum. 7 vols.
_Paris_, 1815-25. [Vol. 7 has lists of Venezuelan plants.]

154. =Jahn, A.= Las palmas de la flora venezolana. Pp. 126, 8vo.
_Carácas_, 1908.

155. =Johnston, J. R.= Flora of the Islands of Margarita and Coche,
Venezuela. _Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist._, vol. xxxiv, pp. 163-212, map
[1909].

156. =Karsten, H.= Auswahl neuer und blühender Gewächse Venezuelas. 4to.
_Berlin_, 1848.

157. =⸺.= Floræ Colombiæ terrarumque adjacentium specimina selecta....
_Berlin_, 1858-69.

     =Kunth, G. S.= _See_ =Humboldt, F. H. A. v.=

158. =Loefling, P.= Reise nach den spanischen Ländern in Europa und
America in den Jahren 1751 bis 1756. Pp. 406. _Berlin_ and _Stralsund_,
1766.

159. =Loriol, P. de.= Note sur quelques espéces nouvelles appartenant à
la classe des Echinoderms. _Mém. Soc. Phys. Hist. Genève_, t. xxiv, pp.
659-73 [1876].

160. =Maury, P.= Enumération des plantes du Haut-Orénoque récoltées par
Mm. J. Chaffanjon et A. Gaillard. _Journ. Botanique_, t. iii, pp. 129,
157, 196, 209, 260, 166 [1889].

161. =Patouillard, N.= and =A. Gaillard=. Champignons du Vénézuéla et
principalement de la région du Haut-Orénoque, récoltées en 1887 par M. A.
Gaillard. _Bull. Soc. Mycol. France_, t. iii, pp. 7-46, 92-129 [1887].

162. =Ritter, C=. Ein Blick auf die Vegetation der Cordilleren in
Venezuela (über 12-13° N. Br.) aus handschriftlichen Mittheilungen der
Herrn. Berg. _Monatsb. Ges. Erdk. Berlin_, sér. 2, bd. viii, pp. 152-6
[1851].

_See also_ Nos. 51, 315, 317, 401.


V. HISTORICAL.

163. =Acosta, Joaquin.= Compendio historico del descubrimiento y
colonizacion de la Nueva Granada en el siglo decimo sexto. 8vo. _Paris_,
1848.

164. =Alcala, A. P. de.= Consectario de la ciudad de Cumaná. 1790.

165. =Altoguirre y Duvale, A. de.= Relaciones geograficas de la
Gobernacion de Venezuela (1767-8) con prologo y notas. _Madrid_, 1908.

166. =Anglerius, Petrus Martyr.= De rebus oceanicis et novo orbe
decades tres. _Basiliæ_, 1516 etc. _Coloniæ_, 1574. [Many editions and
translations.]

167. =Austin, J. B.= Venezuela’s Territorial Claims. _Bull. Geogr. Club
Philadelphia_, vol. ii, pp. 1-19 [1896].

168. =Baker, M.= The Anglo-Venezuelan Boundary Dispute. _Nat. Geogr.
Mag._, vol. xi, pp. 129-44, map [1900].

169. =Baralt, R. M.= and =R. Diaz.= Résumen de la Historia de Venezuela.
Tt. ii. Pp. 398, 370. _Paris_, 1841.

170. =Benzoni, G.= La historia del mondo nuevo. 8vo. _Venice_, 1565.

171. =Berthelot, S.= Analyse du premier volume de l’Histoire du
Vénézuéla. _Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris_, sér. 2, t. xv, pp. 319-29 [1841].

172. =Blanco, E.= Venezuela heroica; cuadros historicos. 8vo. _Carácas_,
1881.

173. =Briceño, Manuel.= Los Ilustres. Paginas para la Historia de
Venezuela. Pp. 239, 8vo. _Bogotá_, 1884.

174. =Barney, J.= A Chronological History of the Discoveries in the South
Sea or Pacific Ocean. 5 vols. 4to. _London_, 1803-17.

175. =Casas, B. de= las. Brevissima relacion de la destruycion de las
Indias.... 4to. _Seville_, 1552.

176. =Cassani, J.= Historia de la Provincia de la Compañía de Jesus del
Nuevo Reyno de Granada. Fol. _Madrid_, 1741.

177. =Castellanos, J. de.= Elegias de Varones ilustres de Indias.
_Madrid_, 1589.

178. =Caulin, A.= Historia coro-graphica, natural y evangelica de la
Nueva Andalusia. Provincias de Cumaná, Guayana y Vertiente del Rio
Orinoco. Pp. 482, map. _Madrid_, 1779, and 8vo. _Carácas_, 1841.

179. =Colón, Cristobal.= Relaciones y cartas de.... In _Biblioteca
Classica_, t. clxiv. _Madrid_, 1892.

180. =Daly, C. P.= Is the Monroe Doctrine involved in the Controversy
between Venezuela and Great Britain? _New York_, 1896.

181. =Davie, R.= The Victorious Voyage of Captaine Amyas Preston, now
Knight, and Captaine George Sommers to the West India, begun in March,
1595. In _Hakluyt’s Principal Navigations_ ... Hakluyt Society edition,
1904, vol. x, pp. 213-26.

182. =Diaz, J. D.= Recuerdos sobre la rebelion de Carácas. 4to. _Madrid_,
1829.

     =Diaz, R.= _See_ =Baralt, R. M.=

183. =Ducoudray-Holstein, H. L. V.= Historia de Bolivar ... 2 t., 8vo.
_Paris_, 1831.

184. =Dudley, R.= [Voyage to Trinidad and the Coast of Paria.] _Hakluyt’s
Principal Navigations_, 1600, vol. iii, pp. 574-8.

185. =Esteller, A.= Catecismo de historia de Venezuela, desde su
descubrimiento hasta la muerte del Libertador. 8vo. _Carácas_, 1886, &c.

186. =Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes, G.= La historia general de los
Indias. Fo. _Seville_, 1535.

187. =Figueiras, G.= Une première occupation allemande au Vénézuéla (xviᵉ
siècle). _Questions Diplom. et Col._, t. xv, pp. 240-4 [1903].

188. =Flinter, G. D.= The History of the Revolution of Carácas ... with
a Description of the Llaneros or people of the Plains of South America.
8vo. _London_, 1819.

     =Fortoul, J.= _See_ =Gil Fortoul, J.=

189. =Gaffarel, P.= Étude sur les rapports de l’Amérique et de l’ancien
continent avant Christophe Colomb. 8vo. _Paris_, 1869.

190. =Gil Fortoul, J.= Historia Constitucional de Venezuela. Tom i. Pp.
570. _Berlin_, 1907.

191. =Gilij, F. S.= Saggio di Storia Americana. 4 Tt. 8vo. _Rome_, 1780-4.

     =Gomara, F. L. de.= _See_ =Lopez de Gomara, F.=

192. =Guinan, F. G.= Historia del Gobierno del Doctor J. P. Rojas Paul
... 1888 à 1890. Pp. 560. 8vo. _Valencia_, 1891.

193. =Gumilla, J.= El Orinoco illustrado y defendido. 4to. _Madrid_, 1745.

194. =Hassert, K.= Die Welserzüge in Venezuela. _Beiträge
Kolonial-politik_, bd. iii, pp. 297-317 [1902].

195. =Heilprin, A.= Notes on the Schomburgk Line and the Guayana
Boundary. _Bull. Géogr. Club Philadelphia_, vol. ii, pp. 20-30, map
[1896].

196. =Herrera Tordesillas, A. de.= Descripcion de los Indias
Occidentales. 8 Dec. Fo. _Madrid_, 1601-15.

197. =Hippisley, G.= A Narrative of the Expedition to the Rivers Orinoco
and Apure. Pp. 653. _London_, 1819.

198. =Humbert, J.= La première occupation allemande du Vénézuéla au xviᵉ
siècle, période dite des Welser (1528-56). _Journ. Soc. Americanistes_,
_Paris_, t. i, no. 3 [1904]. _See_ =Vincent, L.=

199. =Hylacomylus, M.= Cosmographiæ Introductio ... Insuper quatuor
Americi Vespucci navigationes. 4to. _St. Dié_, _Lorraine_, 1507.

200. =Keymis, L.= A Relation of the second Voyage to Guiana, performed
and written in the Year 1596. 4to. _London_, 1596.

201. =Klöden, K. v.= Die Welser in Augsburg als Besitzer von Venezuela
und die von ihnen veranlassten Expeditionen der Deutscher dahin.
_Zeitschr. Allgem. Erdk. Berlin_, bd. v, pp. 433-55 [1855].

202. =Laet, J. de.= Nieuvve Wereldt ofte Beschrijvinghe van
West-Indien.... Pp. 510, maps, fo. _Leyden_, 1625. Other editions in
Latin. Fo. _Leyden_, 1633, &c.

203. =Lameda, L.= and =M. Landaeta Rosales.= Historia militar y politica
del general Joaquin Crespo. 2 vols. Pp. xcii, 528; xlii, 528. 4to.
_Carácas_, 1897.

204. =Landaeta Rosales, M.= Gobiernos de Venezuela desde 1810 hasta 1905.
Pp. 115, 8vo. _Carácas_, 1905.

205. =Lopez de Gomara, F.= La Istoria de las Indias, y Conquista de
Mexico. 2 parts. Fo. _Zaragoza_, 1552.

206. =MacNutt, F. A.= Bartholomew de las Casas: his Life, his Apostolate,
and his Writings.... 8vo. _New York_ and _London_, 1909.

207. =Mendoza, L. Torres de.= Coleccion de Documentos ineditos ... del
archivo de Indias. 8vo. _Madrid_, 1864.

208. =Olavarria, D. A.= Estudios historico-politicos, 1810 à 1889. Pp.
289, 8vo. _Valencia_, 1894.

209. =Oviedo y Baños, J. de.= Historia de la conquista, y poblacion de la
provincia de Venezuela. Pt. I. Pp. 380, fo. _Madrid_, 1723.

     =Oviedo y Valdes, G. F. de.= _See_ =Fernando de Oviedo y
    Valdes, G.=

     =Pacheco, J. F.= _See_ =Mendoza, L. T. de.=

210. =Páez, J. A.= Autobiografia. 2 vols., 8vo. _New York_, 1867-9.

211. =Pepper, E.= Apuntes para la historia contemporanea de Venezuela,
1892-4. Pp. 93, 8vo. _Curaçao_, 1895.

     =Petrus Martyr d’Anghiera.= _See_ =Anglerius, P. M.=

212. =Raleigh, W.= The Discoverie of the large, rich and bewtiful Empyre
of Guiana, with a relation of the great and Golden Citie of Manoa (which
the Spaniards call El Dorado). Pp. 112, 4to. _London_, 1596.

213. =Rivero, J.= Historia de las Misiones de las Llanos de Casanare y
los rios Orinoco y Meta, escrita en el año de 1736. 8vo. _Bogotá_, 1883.

214. =Robinson, J. H.= Journal of an Expedition 1,400 miles up the
Orinoco and 300 up the Arauca. Pp. 397. _London_, 1822. [An absurd title,
the total length of the Orinoco being about 850 miles, and the portion
below the mouth of the Arauca only 360.—L.V.D.]

215. =Rodway, J.= The West Indies and the Spanish Main (Story of the
Nations Series). _London_, 1896.

216. =Rojas, A.= Estudios indigenas. Contribuciones a la historia antiqua
de Venezuela. 8vo. _Carácas_, 1888.

217. =⸺.= Primeras paginas de un libro de leyendas historicas de Venezuela.
8vo. _Carácas_. 1888.

218. =⸺.= Historia Patria. Leyendas historicas de Venezuela. 8vo.
_Carácas_, 1890.

219. =⸺.= Do. Estudios historicos. Origenes Venezolanos. 8vo. _Carácas_,
1891.

220. =Scruggs, W. L.= British Aggressions in Venezuela. _Atlanta, Ga._
Map. 1895.

221. =Simon, Pedro.= Primera Parte de las Noticias historiales de las
Conquistas de tierra firme en las Indias Occidentales. Pp. 671, fo.
_Cuenca_, 1627.

222. =Steinen, K. v. den.= Ausgrabungen am Valenciasee. _Globus_, bd.
lxxxvi, pp. 101-8 [1904].

223. =Strickland, J.= Documents and Maps on the Boundary Question between
Venezuela and British Guayana from the Capuchin Archives in Rome.
_London_, 1896.

224. =Tavera-Acosta, B.= Anales de Guayana, vol. i. _Ciudad Bolivar_,
1905.

225. =Tejera, F.= Manual de Historia de Venezuela. Ed. iii. Pp. 291.
_Carácas_, 1895.

226. =Tejera, M.= Compendio de la Historia de Venezuela. 12mo. _Paris_,
1875.

227. =Tello Mendoza, R.= Viaje del General Cipriano Castro ... al Centro,
sur y Oriente de Venezuela en Abril y Mayo de 1905. Pp. 427, 4to.
_Carácas_, 1905.

228. =⸺.= Complemento. [General Cipriano Castro.] Pp. 326, 8vo. _Carácas_,
1905.

229. =Tello Mendoza, R.= Documentos del General Cipriano Castro. 5 vols.
_Carácas_, 1906.

230. =Ulloa, A. de.= Noticias Americanas. 4to. _Madrid_, 1772.

231. =Vespucci, A.= _See_ =Hylacomylus, M.=

232. =Vincent, L.= and =J. Humbert=. Le Vénézuéla; période des Welser
(1528-46). _Bull. Soc. Géogr. Comm. Bordeaux_, t. xx, pp. 444-57 [1897]:
t. xxi, pp. 7-12 [1898].

     =Waldsee Mueller, M.= _See_ =Hylacomylus, M.=

233. =Weinhold, M.= Ueber Nicolaus Federmann’s Reise in Venezuela,
1524-31. 3 _Jahresb. Ver. Erdk. Dresden_, 1867, Appendix, pp. 91-112,
maps.

234. =Yanes, F. J.= Historia de Venezuela. 1840.

235. =Anon.= _Cartas edificantes de la Compañía de Jesus_, t. xvi., p. 92
[1757].

236. =⸺.= Documentos para los anales de Venezuela desde el movimiento
separatista de la Union Colombiana hasta nuestros días. _Carácas_, 1889.

237. =⸺.= The United States of Venezuela in 1893. (World’s Columbian
Exposition at Chicago.) Pp. 149, map, 8vo. _New York_, 1893.

238. =⸺.= Brief submitted by Venezuela to the Commission appointed to
investigate and report upon the true Divisional Line between the Republic
of Venezuela and British Guiana. Pp. 28. _Washington._

239. =⸺.= U. S. Commission on Boundary between Venezuela and British
Guiana. Documents, &c. 8 vols. _Washington_, 1897.

_See also_ Nos. 293, 324, 325, 338, 343.


VI. ETHNOLOGICAL

240. =Appun, K. F.= Die Goajira-Indianer. _Ausland_, 1868, pp. 1220-22.

241. =Breton, R.= Dictionnaire Caraibe-Français. Tt. 2., 4to. _Auxerre_,
1665-6.

242. =⸺.= Grammaire Caraibe. 8vo. _Ibid._, 1667.

243. =Brinton, D. G.= The Dwarf Tribe of the Upper Amazon. _Washington_,
1898.

244. =Calcaño, J.= El Castellano en Venezuela. Estudio Crítica. 8vo.
_Carácas_, 1897.

245. =Costambert, E.= Coup d’Œil sur les productions et sur les peuplades
géophages et les autres populations des bords de l’Orénoque. _Bull. Soc.
Géogr. Paris_, sér. 5. t. i, pp. 205-20 [1861].

246. =D’Orbigny, A.= L’homme Américain (de l’Amérique méridionale). Tt.
2. _Paris_, 1839.

247. =Du Pouget, J. F. A.= L’Amérique préhistorique. 8vo. _Paris_, 1883.

248. =Engel, F.= Pfahlbauten in Venezuela. _Ausland_, 1865, pp. 254-8.

249. =⸺.= Die Goajiros. _Ibid._, pp. 798-802, 834-9.

250. =⸺.= Volksbilder aus Venezuela. _Ibid._, 1867, pp. 11-14.

251. =Ernst, A.= Anthropological Remarks on the Population of Venezuela.
_Mem. Anthrop. Soc._, vol. iii, pp. 274-87 [1870].

252. =⸺.= Ueber die Reste der Ureinwohner in den Gebirgen von Mérida.
_Zeitschr. Ethnol._, vol. xvii, p. 190 [1885].

253. =Garcia, G.= Origen de los Indios de el Nuevo Mundo, e Indias
occidentales. Pp. 525. _Valencia_, 1607.

254. =Goering, A.= A Visit to the Guajiro Indians of Maracaibo. _Illustr.
Travels H. W. Bates_, vol. ii, pp. 19-21 [1869].

255. =⸺.= Venezuelanische Alterthümer. _Mitt. Ver. Erdkunde Leipzig_, 1874,
pp. 21-3.

256. =⸺.= Bei den Chaymas-Indianern von Caripe. _Mitt. Ver. Erdk. Halle_,
1879, pp. 40-48.

257. =Hervas y Panduro, L.= Catalogo de las lenguas de las naciones
conocidas.... 6 vols. 4to. _Madrid_, 1800-1805.

258. =Level, A. A.= Informe sobre el estado actual de los Distritos de
reducción de indigenas Alto Orinoco, Central y Bajo Orinoco. _Carácas_,
1850.

259. =Lopez Borreguero, R.= Los Indios Caribes. 2 vols. 16mo. _Madrid_,
1875.

260. =Lugo, B. de.= Gramatica en la lengua general del Nuevo Reyno,
llamado Mosca. 8vo. _Madrid_, 1619.

261. =Marcano, G.= Ethnographie précolombienne de Vénézuéla. [Valleys of
Aragua and Carácas and Atures district.] _Mém. Soc. Athrop. Paris_, sér.
2, t. iv, pp. 1-86, 99-218 [1889-93].

262. =Marcano, G.= Ethnographie précolombienne du Vénézuéla. _Bull. Soc.
Anthrop. Paris_, sér 4, t. i, pp. 857-65, 883-95 [1890].

263. =⸺.= Ethnographie précolombienne du Vénézuéla. _Ibid._, t. ii, pp.
238-54 [1891].

264. =Morisot=, =⸺.= Notes ethnographiques recueillies dans le bassin de
l’Orénoque. _Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Lyon_, t. viii, pp. 115-20 [1890].

     =Nadaillac, Marquis de.= _See_ =Du Pouget, J. F. A.=

265. =Orsi di Broglia di Mombella, G.= Sculture di Indigene del Alto
Orinoco. _Bull. Soc. Geogr. Ital._, ser. 3, t. iii, pp. 474-9 [1890].

266. =Plassard, L.= Les Guaraunos. _Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris_, sér. 5, t.
xv, pp. 568-92 [1868].

267. =S— M. D. L.= Dictionnaire Galibi.... Précédé d’un essai de
grammaire. 8vo. _Paris_, 1763.

268. =Tauste, F. de.= Arte y Bocabulario de la Lengua de los Indios
Chaymas, Cumanagotos, Coros, Parias.... 4to. _Madrid_, 1680.

269. =Tavera Acosta, B.= En el Sur (dialectos indigenas de Venezuela).
_Ciudad Bolivar_, 1907.

270. =Anon.= Dr. Crevaux’ Besuch bei den Guaraunos im. Orinoko Delta.
_Globus_, bd. xliii, pp. 1-8 [1883].

_See also_ No. 313, 376.


VII. CARÁCAS AND THE “CENTRO.”

271. =Andral, —.= Trade of Carácas District for the Year 1899. _Foreign
Office Cons. Rep._, Ann. Ser., No. 2466 [1900].

272. =Appun, C. F.= and =L. Martin=. Beobachtungen auf ihrer Reise nach
Venezuela im December, 1848, und Januar, 1849. _Monatsb. Ges. Erdk.
Berlin_, ser. 2, bd. vi, pp. 123-30 [1849].

273. =Blume, —.= Die Verhältnisse von Venezuela und die dortige deutsche
Colonie Tovar nach neueren handschriftlichen Mitteilungen und eigner
Erfahrung. _Monatsb. Ges. Erdk. Berlin_, ser. 2, bd. x, pp. 111-27 [1853].

274. =Curtis, W. E. C.= The Capitals of Spanish America. 8vo. _New York_,
1888.

275. =Engel, F.= Die Küste von Carácas. _Zeitschr. Ges. Erdk. Berlin_,
bd. iv, pp. 404-29 [1869].

276. =⸺.= Carácas, die Hauptstadt von Venezuela. _Globus_, bd. xv, pp.
210-12, 234-6 [1869].

277. =Ernst, A.= Das Thal von Carácas in Venezuela. _Globus_, bd. xx, pp.
25-9, 43-6, 56-9 [1871].

278. =⸺.= Die Witterungsverhältnisse der Thäler von Carácas. _Zeitschr.
Ges. Erdk. Berlin_, bd. vii, pp. 248-58, map [1872].

279. =Fendler, A.= [Meteorology of Colonia Tovar.] _Smithson Rep._, 1857,
pp. 178-282 [1858].

280. =Fitzgerald, H. D.= Valencia (Vénézuéla). _Bull Soc. Géogr._ _Comm.
Bordeaux_, t. ii, pp. 417-24 [1879].

281. =Galli, A.= Del Discoprimiento di un Nuovo Baco da Seta nelle
vicinanze di Carácas. _Boll. Consol. Firenze_, t. v, pt. 2, pp. 343-8
[1868-9].

282. =Goering, A.= [Puerto Cabello to Valencia.] _Globus_, bd. xiv, pp.
281-3 [1868].

283. =Gronen, D.= Puerto Cabello. _Deutsche Rundschau_, bd. ix, pp. 123-6
[1887].

284. =Herzog, A.= Eine Besteigung der Silla de Carácas. _Globus_, bd.
lvi, pp. 277-81 [1889].

285. =Hesse-Wartegg, E. v.= Beobachtungen über den See von Tacarigua im
nördlichen Venezuela. _Petermann’s Mitt._, bd. xxxiv, pp. 321-31, map, 1:
420,000 [1888].

286. =Kiesselbach, W.= Von Bremen nach Carácas und der deutschen
Niederlassung Tovar in Venezuela. _Globus_, bd. ix, pp. 276-9 [1866].

     =Martin, L.= _See_ =Appun, C. F.=

287. =Ritter, C.= Ein Tag in San Estevan. Geschildert von Herrn Carl
Appun. _Monatsb. Ges. Erdk. Berlin_, ser. 2, bd. vi, pp. 131-42 [1849].

288. =Rivera, A.= An Illustrated Guide to Carácas. _Philadelphia_, 1897.

289. =Spence, J. M.= Primera Ascension al Pico de Naiguatá. 8vo.
_Carácas_, 1872.

_See also_ Nos. 5, 13, 20, 21, 98, 105, 113, 119, 133, 222, 381, 382,
383, 387.


VIII. ZULIA.

290. =Delechaux, —.= Renseignements sur le port et sur la barre de
Maracaibo. _Ann. Hydrogr. Paris_, t. xiii, pp. 126-7 [1857].

291. =Eggers, H.= Die Asphalt-Quellen am See von Maracaibo. _Deutsche
Geogr. Blätter_, bd. xix, pp. 183-94 [1896].

292. =Engel, F.= Maracaibo. _Zeitschr. Ges. Erdk. Berlin_, bd. v, pp.
418-52 [1870].

293. =Humbert, J.= Un Gibraltar ignoré. _Bull. Soc. Géogr. Comm.
Bordeaux_, sér. 2, t. xxiv, pp. 109-12 [1901].

294. =Plümacher, O.= Maracaibo. _Ausland_, bd. lxi, pp. 781-5, 812-14,
836-9 [1888].

295. =Pocaterra, J. D.= Derrotero del Golfo de Venezuela ó saco de
Maracaibo. _New York_, 1864.

_See also_ Nos. 6, 111, 119, 248, 254, 393, 395.


IX. THE ANDES.

296. =Engel, F.= Eine Ersteigung der Sierra Nevada de Mérida in
Venezuela. _Globus_, bd. xv, pp. 278-81, 298-301, 330-32 [1869].

297. =⸺.= Auf der Sierra Nevada de Mérida. _Samml. gem. verstand. Wiss.
Vorträge_, n.f., bd. iii, no. 58. _Hamburg_, 1888.

298. =Goering, A.= Sierra Nevada von Mérida. _Mitt. Ver. Erdkunde
Leipzig_, 1875, pp. 101-5.

299. =⸺.= Vom tröpischen Tieflande zum ewigen Schnee. _Leipzig_, n.d.
[1895?].

300. =Guerrero, E. C.= El Táchira fisico, politico é ilustrado. Pp. 306.
8vo. _Carácas_, 1905.

301. =⸺.= El Táchira. _Bol. R. Soc. Geogr. Madrid_, t. xlviii, pp. 133-6
[1906].

302. =Sievers, W.= [Communication relative to his journey to the
Cordillera of Mérida.] _Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Hamburg_, 1884, pp. 339-45.

303. =⸺.= Ueber Schneeverhältnisse in der Cordillere Venezuela’s. _Jahresb.
Geogr. Ges. München_, 1885, pp. 54-7.

304. =⸺.= Bemerkungen zur Original Routenkarte der Venezolanische
Cordillere. _Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Hamburg_, 1885-6, pp. 309-16, map, 1:
1,000,000.

305. =Sievers, W.= Landschaftlicher Charakter der Anden Venezuelas.
_Globus_, bd. li. pp. 8-11, 26-9, 41-4 [1887].

306. =⸺.= Die Cordillere von Mérida nebst bemerkungen über das Karibische
Gebirge. _Geogr. Abhand._, bd. iii. Pp. 238, map [1888].

_See also_ Nos. 99, 107, 119, 147, 150, 162, 252.


X. FALCÓN, &c.

307. =Sievers, W.= Richard Ludwig’s Reisen auf Paraguana (Venezuela).
_Globus_, bd. lxxiii, pp. 303-9 [1898].

308. =⸺.= Die Inseln von der Nordküste von Venezuela. _Ibid._, bd. lxxiv,
pp. 163-5, 291-4, 302-7 [1898].

309. =⸺.= Richard Ludwig’s Reisen in Coro. _Ibid._, bd. lxxv, 177-10
[1899].

_See also_ Nos. 43, 106, 119, 137, 403, 404.


XI. THE “ORIENTE.”

310. =Ahrenburg, H.= Die Perlenfischerei auf der Insel Margarita. _Mem.
Geogr. Ges. Jena_, bd. xxv, pp. 37-9 [1907].

311. =Beebe, Mary B.= and =C. W.= Our Search for a Wilderness. _London_,
1910.

312. =Erbach-Erbach, E. Graf zu.= Im Delta des Orinoko. _Jahresb._ ix
_u._ x _Württemberg Ver. Handelsgeographie_, pp. 50-66 [1892].

313. =Ernst, A.= Bemerkungen über das Delta des Orinoco und die
Guaraunen. _Globus_, bd. xvii, pp. 316-18 [1870].

314. =Fostin, E.= Une plaine de bitume au Vénézuéla. _Compt. Rend. Soc.
Geogr. Paris_, 1895, pp. 221-4.

315. =Goering, A.= Ausflug nach den neuen Guacharo-höhlen in der
Venezolanischen Provinz Cumaná. _Globus_, bd. xiii, pp. 161-7 [1868].

316. =Hirzel, H.= Erdöl und Asphalt auf der Inseln Pedernales, Pesquero
und del Plata in Venezuela. _Chem. Rev. Fett. Harz. Ind._, bd. x, pp.
275-7 [1903].

317. =Humboldt, P. H. A. v.= Account of the Great Cavern of the Guacharo.
_Edinb. Phil. Journ._, vol. iii, pp. 83-92 [1820].

318. =Level, A. A.= Esbozos de Venezuela. I. Margarita. _Carácas_, 1881.

319. =Sievers, W.= Ein Schlammvulkan, Hervidero, in der Llanos von
Maturín. _Deutsche Rundschau Geogr._, bd. xx, pp. 394-8 [1898].

320. =Wall, G. P.= On the Geology of a Part of Venezuela and Trinidad.
_Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xvi, pp. 460-70 [1860].

321. =Anon.= Recollections of Cumaná. _Orient. Herald_, vol. xv, pp.
495-501 [1827].

322. =⸺.= Wanderungen an der Küste Venezuela’s. _Ausland_, 1865, pp.
745-51.

_See also_ Nos. 5, 21, 108, 146, 155, 164, 178, 256, 270, 386, 397.


XII. THE LLANOS.

323. =Bingham, H.= The Journal of an Expedition across Venezuela and
Colombia. 8vo. _New Haven_ and _London_, 1909.

324. =Carvajal, J. de.= Relacion del descubrimiento del Rio Apure hasta
su ingreso en el Orinoco.... MSS. Printed _Leon_, 1892.

325. =Cortes de Madariaga, J.= Diario y observaciones ... en su regreso
de Santafé a Carácas. 8vo. _Carácas_, 1832.

326. =Gagliardi, —.= Le condizioni delle colonie italiane nel Venezuela
e la miniera di Naricual. _Bol. Soc. Geogr. Ital._, sér. 4, t. vii, pp.
1251-3 [1906].

327. =Humboldt, F. H. A. v.= Ansichten der Natur.... 16mo. _Stuttgart_
and _Tübingen_, 1826.

328. =Páez, R.= Travels and Adventures in South and Central America. Life
on the Llanos. 8vo. _New York_, 1868.

329. =Anon.= Die Landschaft am Apurestrom in Venezuela. _Globus_, bd. v,
pp. 244-7 [1864].

_See also_ Nos. 34, 108, 188, 197, 213, 214.


XIII. BOLIVAR CITY AND STATE.

330. =André, E.= The Caura Affluent of the Orinoco. _Geogr. Journ._, vol.
xx, pp. 283-306 [1902].

331. =⸺.= The Caura. 4to & fo., map. _Trinidad_, 1902.

332. =André, E.= A Naturalist in the Guianas. Pp. 310, map. _London_,
1904.

333. =Bendrat, T. A.= Karte der Umgebung von Caicara in Venezuela.
_Petermann’s Mitt._ 1910, pl. xlvi.

334. =⸺.= Ciudad Bolivar. _Journ. Geogr._, bd. viii, pp. 218-22 [1910].

     =Blair, Dr.= _See_ No. 354.

335. =Campbell, W. H.= By the Cuyooni to the Orinoco in 1857. _“Timehri,”
Demerara_, vol. ii, pp. 133-58 [1883]. _See_ No. 354, _infra._

336. =Du Marais, —.= Renseignements sur l’Orénoque. _Ann. Hydrogr.
Paris_, t. xiii, p. 127 [1857].

337. =Eckermann, —.= Orinoco Fahrten. _Ann. Hydrographie_, bd. xxxi, pp.
166-72 [1903].

338. =Elliot, C.= Proposed Exploration of the River Orinoco, &c. _Proc.
R. G. S._, vol. i, pp. 251-5 [1856-7].

339. =Ernst, A.= Die Goldregion des venezuelanischen Guayana. _Globus_,
bd. xvi, pp. 124-6, 137, 138 [1869].

340. =Fernandez-Duro, C.= Rios de Venezuela y de Colombia. Relaciones
ineditas (Antonio de la Torre, &c.). _Bol. Soc. Geogr. Madrid_, t.
xxviii, pp. 76-174 [1890]; t. xxix, pp. 161-219 [1890].

341. =Foster, C. Le Neve.= A Journey up the Orinoco to the Caratal
Goldfield—Raleigh’s “El Dorado.” _Illustr. Trav. H. W. Bates_, vol. i,
pp. 257-63, 297-302, 335-8, 376-8, map [1869].

342. =Galli, G.= Sulle Miniere Aurifere delia Guayana. _Bol. Consol.
Firenze_, t. vi, pt. 2, pp. 24-35 [1870].

343. =Gumilla, P. J.= Histoire naturelle, civile et géographique de
l’Orénoque. 3 vols., 12mo. _Avignon_, 1758.

     =Holmes, —.= _See_ No. 354.

344. =Lemos, — de.= Trade of Ciudad Bolivar for the Year 1899. _For. Off.
Cons. Rep._, Ann. Ser., No. 2388 [1900] and others.

345. =Morisse, L.= Excursion dans l’Eldorado (El Callao). 4 maps.
_Paris_, 1904.

346. =Paquet, N.= L’Or en Guyane Vénézuélien. 8vo. _Paris_, 1904.

347. =Passarge, S.= Reise im venezolanischer Guiana. _Mitth. Geogr. Ges.
Hamburg_, bd. xix, pp. 253-5 [1903].

348. =⸺.= Reise im Gebiet des Orinoko. _Mitt. Ver. Erdk. Leipzig_, 1903,
pp. 33-6.

349. =Passarge, S.= Bericht über eine Reise in venezolanischer Guyana.
_Zeitschr. Ges. Erdk. Berlin_, 1903, pp. 5-43, map, 1: 300,000.
[Astronomical work by W. M. S. Selwyn.]

350. =Paterson, S.= In the Wilds of Venezuela. _Scottish Geogr. Mag._,
vol. xiv, pp. 591-9 [1898].

351. =⸺.= In the Valley of the Orinoco. _Geogr. Journ._, vol. xiii, pp.
39-50, map [1899].

     =Selwyn, W. S.= _See_ =Passarge, S.=

352. =Wears, W. G.= Prospects of Gold Mining in Venezuela. Plan. 8vo.
_London_, 1888 [2 editions].

353. =Anon.= Journal of a Trip from San Thomé de Angostura, in Spanish
Guayana, to the Capuchin Missions of the Caroni. _Quart. Journ. Sci._,
vol. viii, pp. 260-87; vol. ix, pp. 1-32 [1820].

354. =⸺.= Die Expedition der Herren Dr. Blair, Holmer und Campbell nach den
Goldwäschen von Caratal in Venezuela, im Spätsommer 1857. _Zeitschr. Ges.
Erdk. Berlin_, n.f., bd. iv, pp. 365-78. Map [1858].

_See also_ Nos. 21, 34, 85, 97, 102, 123, 193, 245.


XIV. THE TERRITORIO AMAZONAS.

355. =Chaffanjon, J.= Le Bassin de l’Orénoque. _Gazette Géogr. Paris_, t.
ii, pp. 201-4 [1885].

356. =⸺.= Das Becken des Orinoco. _Ausland_, bd. lix, pp. 323-7 [1886].

357. =⸺.= L’Orénoque et ses Sources. _Bull. Soc. Géogr. Comm. Bordeaux_, t.
x, pp. 682-8 [1887].

358. =⸺.= Exploration du bassin de l’Orénoque. _Compt. Rend. Soc. Géogr.
Paris_, 1887, pp. 97-100.

359. =⸺.= Mon dernier Voyage au Vénézuéla. _Bull. Soc. Géogr. Comm. Paris_,
t. x, pp. 9-20 [1887-8].

360. =⸺.= Un Voyage au Vénézuéla. _Bull. Soc. Géogr._ & _Mus. Comm. St.
Nazaire_, t. iv, pp. 13-25 [1888].

361. =⸺.= Le Bassin de l’Orénoque. _Rev. Géogr. Internat. Paris_, t. xiii,
pp. 64, 133-5 [1888].

362. =⸺.= Voyage à travers les Llanos du Caura, et aux sources de
l’Orénoque. _Jour. du Monde_, t. lvi, pp. 305-84. Sketch map [1888].

363. =⸺.= Voyage au sources de l’Orénoque. _Bull. Union Géogr. Nord.
France_, t. ix, pp. 97-147 [1888].

364. =⸺.= L’Orénoque et le Caura. 2 maps. _Paris_, 1889.

365. =Hübner, G.= Reise in das Quellgebiet des Orinoco. _Deutsche
Rundschau Géogr._, bd. xx, pp. 14-20, 55-65 [1897].

366. =Humboldt, F. H. A. v.= Note sur la communication qui existe entre
l’Orénoque et la rivière des Amazonas. _Journ. École Poly._, t. iv, pp.
65-8. Map [1810].

367. =⸺.= Ueber die Verbindung zwischen dem Orinoco und Amazonen fluss.
_Zach’s Monatl. Correspondenz_, bd. xxvi, pp. 230-35 [1812].

368. =Michelena y Rojas, F.= Exploracion Official por la primera vez
desde el Norte de la America del sur siempre par Rios.... Map. 8vo.
_Brussels_, 1867.

369. =Montolieu, F.= L’Ynirida. _Bull Soc. Géogr. Paris_, sér. 6, t. xix,
pp. 289-301 [1880].

370. =Morisse, L.= Le Caoutchouc du Haut-Orénoque. _Arch. Miss, Sci.
Litt. Paris_, sér. 4, t. i, pp. 177-200 [1891].

371. =Rusby, H. H.= Concerning Exploration upon the Orinoco. _Alum.
Journ. Coll. Pharm. N.Y._, vol. iii, pp. 185-91 [1896].

372. =Schomburgk, R. H.= Journey from Fort San Joaquim, on the Rio
Branco, to Roraima, and thence by the Rivers Parima and Merevari to
Esmeralda on the Orinoco in 1838-9. _Journ. R. Geogr. Soc._, vol. x, pp.
191-247 [1841].

373. =⸺.= Journey from Esmeralda on the Orinoco to San Carlos and Moura on
the Rio Negro.... _Ibid._, pp. 248-67 [1841].

374. =Stradelli, E.= [Expedition up the Orinoco.] _Boll. Soc. Géogr.
Ital._, ser. 2, t. xii, pp. 354-6, 500 [1887].

375. =⸺.= Nell’ alto Orinoco. _Ibid._, ser. 3, t. i, pp. 715-44, 832-54.
Map [1888].

376. =Tavera-Acosta, B.= Rio Negro. Pp. 149. 8vo. _Ciudad Bolivar_, 1906.

377. =Anon.= Robert Schomburgk und seine Reise in Guyana, am Orinoco, &c.
_Globus_, bd. xiv, pp. 151-4, 186-9 [1868].

378. =⸺.= J. Chaffanjon’s Reisen im Gebiete des Orinoko und Caura.
_Globus_, bd. lvi, pp. 70-74, 88, 99, 195, 212, 231 [1889].

_See also_ Nos. 148, 160, 161, 245, 265, 327.


XV. RESOURCES, COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT, COMMUNICATIONS, &c.

379. =Berthelot, S.= Notice sur les nouveaux établissements agricoles
fondés au Vénézuéla. _Bull. Soc. Géogr. Paris_, sér. 2, t. xviii, pp.
37-55 [1842].

380. =Briceño, M. de.= La gran cuestion fiscal de Venezuela.... Reforma
del sistema aduanero. 8vo. _Carácas_, 1864.

381. =Carruthers. J.= The Trincheras Steep Incline on the Puerto Cabello
and Valencia Railway, Venezuela. _Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng._, vol. xcvi, pp.
120-30 [1888-9].

382. =Church, G. E.= The Venezuela Central Railway and its Sources of
Traffic. 8vo. _London_, 1888.

     =Diaz, M. V.= _See_ =Rojas, A.=

383. =Engel, F.= Die Fahrstrasse von La Guayra nach Carácas. _Globus_,
bd. xiv, pp. 334-7 [1868].

384. =Ernst, A.= A Descriptive Catalogue of the Venezuelan Department at
the Philadelphia International Exhibition. 12mo. _Philadelphia_, 1876.

385. =⸺.= La Exposicion Nacional de Venezuela en 1883. Fo. _Carácas_, 1884.

386. =Fiebeger, G. J.= Report on Bermudez Asphalt. _Rep. Operat. Eng.
Dept. D.C._, 1894, pp. 143-6.

387. =Heinke, E. H. A.= “La Guaira and Carácas Railway.” _Proc. Inst.
Civ. Eng._, vol. cx, pp. 299-303 [1892].

388. =Hortensio, G. and M.= Literatura venezolana. 2 vols. _Carácas_,
1883.

     =Houston, J. L.= _See_ =Punchard, W. C.=

     =Humbert, J.= _See_ =Vincent, L.=

389. =Magliano, R.= L’Industrie delle Miniere e del Caffe nel Venezuela.
_Bol. Ministr. Afari Esteri_, 1891, vol. ii, pp. 357-60 [1891].

390. =Navarro, E.= Venezuela. Ferrocarriles, comercio y navegacion. _Rev.
Géogr. Col. y Mercantil_, t. iv, pp. 182-219 [1907].

391. =Oppel, A.= Die wirtschaftliche Verhältnisse von Venezuela.
_Globus_, bd. lvii, pp. 171-4 [1890].

392. =Palacio, R. M.= El Progreso de Venezuela. 8vo. _Carácas_, 1877.

393. =Plümacher, E. H.= Petroleum Deposits in Venezuela. _Rep. Comm. Rel.
U.S._, 1880, pp. 11-16.

394. =⸺.= Petroleum Development in Venezuela. _Rep. Cons. U.S._, vol. xxi,
pp. 556, 557 [1887].

395. =Plümacher, E. H.= Asphalt and Petroleum Deposits in Venezuela.
_Ibid._, vol. xxvi, pp. 487-91 [1888].

396. =Punchard, W. C.= and =J. L. Houston=. La Guaira Harbour Works.
_Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng._, vol. cxv, pp. 332-42 [1893-4].

397. =Quievreux, H.= La pêche des perles au Vénézuéla. _Rev. Maritime_,
t. cxlvi, pp. 444-8 [1900].

398. =Richardson, C.= On the Nature and origin of Asphalt. _Journ. Soc.
Chem. Ind._, vol. xvii, pp. 13-32 [1898].

399. =⸺.= The Modern Asphalt Pavement. _New York_, 1905 and 1908.

400. =Rizzetto, R.= Un episodio della Emigrazione Italiana nel Venezuela.
_Boll. Soc. Géogr. Ital._, t. ii, pp. 141-56 [1886].

401. =Rojas, A.= and =M. V. Diaz=. Apuntes para el repertorio de plantas
utiles de Venezuela. 8vo. _Carácas_, 1866.

402. =Ruiz, P. M.= Anuario Estadístico de Venezuela, 1908. Pp. lxxx, 495.
_Carácas_, 1910.

403. =Schottky, A.= Die Kupfererze der Districtes von Aroa, Venezuela.
Pp. 36. _Breslau_, 1877.

404. =⸺.= Ueber die Kupfererze des Minen-Districtes von Aroa in Venezuela.
_55 Jahresber. Schles. Ges. Kultur_, pp. 45, 46 [1878].

405. =Sievers, W.= Die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung Venezuela’s und die
deutschen Interessen daselbst. _Die Natur_, bd. li, pp. 61-4 [1902].

406. =Vincent, L.= and =J. Humbert=. L’instruction publique au Vénézuéla.
_Bull. Soc. Géogr. Comm. Bordeaux_, t. xx, pp. 241-6, 381-9, 422-30
[1897].

407. =Anon.= The London Venezuelan Guyana Mutual Emigration Society.
Prospectus, with Code of Laws, etc., in the Settlement and Colony of
Pattisonville. 12mo. _London_, 1869.

408. =⸺.= Petroleum in Venezuela. _London Iron Trades Exchange_, vol.
xxviii, p. 397 [1880].

409. =⸺.= Les Sources du Pétrole de Vénézuéla. _Ann. Industr._, t. xix, p.
393 [1887].

410. =⸺.= The Asphalt Deposits of Venezuela. _Eng. Min. Journ._, vol. lxxi,
p. 303 [1901].

411. =⸺.= Der Bermudez Asphalt-streit. _Asphalt Teerind. Zeit._, bd. v, pp.
287, 288 [1905].

_See also_ Nos. 68, 69, 70, 132, 281, 291, 314, 316, 326, 342, 345, 346,
352, 370.




INDEX

_Names of persons in capitals._


  A

  Aborigines (119-134);
    bibliography, 302-304;
    measures for civilisation of, 79, 97, 234

  Achaba, Mt., 220

  Administrative divisions, 108, 109

  AGUIRRE, LOPE DE, 74-76

  ALDAMA, JUAN DE, 200, 201

  ALFINGER, AMBROSIUS, 71, 72, 151

  Altagracia (Zulia), 154

  AMALIVACA, legend of, 64

  Amazon basin, communication with Orinoco, 232-234

  Amazonas territory, 223-234;
    population, 273;
    bibliography, 310, 311

  Amazons, villages and communities of, 123, 124

  Améha, Mt., 220, 221

  AMPIES, JUAN DE, 71, 72

  Andes of Venezuela, 31, 32, 157-170;
    principal heights, 282;
    bibliography, 306, 307

  ANDRÉ, E., 49, 220, 221

  Angostura. _See_ Ciudad Bolivar

  ANZOÁTEGUI, General, 89

  Anzoátegui, State of, 199-202, 208;
    population of, &c., 269

  Apure, State of, 199, 258;
    population of, &c., 269

  Aragua de Barcelona, 202;
    population and climate, 282

  Aragua de Maturín, 188

  Aragua, State of, 143-145;
    population of, &c., 269

  Arawak Indians, 125, 133

  Araya, Castle of, 69, 70, 185;
    Salina of, 244

  Area of the Republic, 25

  Arecuna Indians, 122

  Areo, 207, 208

  ARIAS, DOMINGO, 186

  Arichi, Mt., 220

  ARISMENDI, JUAN BAUTISTA, 87, 90

  Army, 117, 118

  Aroa, 173, 174;
    copper-mines of, 246

  Arrowroot. _See_ Manioc

  Asphalt, 45, 46, 150, 188, 190, 191, 202, 203, 245

  Asunción, 182;
    foundation of, 70;
    population and climate, 281

  Atabapo, River, 224

  Atures Rapids, 225, 226

  Atures (town), 227

  AYARES, PEDRO, 216


  B

  Bailadores, 167;
    copper near, 245

  Balatá, 49, 212, 215, 218, 250

  Baniba Indians, 125, 130-133, 230

  Banking, 113, 239, 240

  BARALT, R., 97, 152

  Barbacoas, 209

  Barcelona, 199-202;
    salt of, 244;
    railway to Guanta, 255;
    population and climate, 281

  Baria Indians, 125

  Barinas, 210;
    population and climate, 282

  BARING BROTHERS, 242

  Barquisimeto, 172, 247;
   population and climate, 281

  Barrancas, 192

  BASTIDAS, DON RODRIGO DE, 73

  BATES, H. W., 53

  _Bejucal_, 48

  BERMUDEZ, GEN. JUAN, 87

  “Bermudez” Asphalt Lake, 188, 203, 245

  BERRIO Y ORUÑA, DON ANTONIO DE, 78

  Betijoque, 169

  Bibliography, 287-314

  Bifurcation of the Casiquiare (Orinoco and Amazon), 230, 232, 233

  Birds, 55-58

  Birth-customs, Indian, 128

  Bishop of Coro, first, 73

  BLANCO, GUZMAN, 100, 101

  BOBADILLA, DON FRANCISCO DE, 231

  Bobures, 165

  Boconó, 169;
    population and climate, 281

  BOLIVAR, SIMON: early life and character of, 87;
    dispatched to England, 82;
    work as liberator, 87-95;
    death, 95;
    publicly honoured, 97, 98

  Bolivar Railway, 145, 158, 172-174, 255

  Bolivar, State of, 211-222;
    population of, &c., 270;
    Bibliography, 308-310

  Botany, 47-52;
    Bibliography, 294-297

  BRASCHI, SÑR. ANTONIO, 169

  Brazil, frontier with, 106

  Brazil nuts, 49, 228

  British Guiana, frontier with, 107, 108;
    dispute over, 102, 103

  British legion, 91, 93, 94

  British trade with Venezuela, 266, 267.
    _See_ Trade

  Budget, 283, 284

  Burial-customs, Indian, 121, 128

  BURKE, WILLIAM, 85


  C

  Cable Company, 254

  Cadupinapo Indians, 122

  Caicara, 221

  Calabozo, 209;
    population and climate, 282

  Callao goldfields, 213-217, 246

  Camaguan, 209

  CANADIAN-VENEZUELAN ORE CO., LTD., 244

  Cannibalism of the Conquistadores, 72;
    alleged cannibalism of Indians, 122, 123

  Caño Colorado, 203

  _Caños_, 29

  Capatárida, 178;
    tobacco of, 249

  Capital, returns on, 243;
    British capital in Venezuela, 266

  Capitania General of Venezuela established, 80

  Capuchin missions, 79

  Carabobo, Battle of, 93, 94

  Carabobo, State of, 145-148;
    population of, &c., 270

  Carácas, 138-141;
    foundation of, 76;
    university founded, 80;
    Junta of, 82;
    brewery, 251;
    Academy of History, 251;
    telephones, 254;
    tramways, 256;
    population and climate, 281;
    bibliography, 304, 305

  Carache, 169, 170

  Carapo, 218

  Caratal, 216

  Carenero-Rio Chico Railway, 142, 143, 255

  Carib Indians, 122-125

  Caribbean Hills, 29, 30;
    towns of, &c., 135-148, 181-192;
    bibliography, 304, 305, 307, 308

  _Caribe_ (fish), 59

  Caroni, River, 213, 218, 219

  Carora, 176

  Carúpano, 188, 189;
    sulphur near, 245;
    population and climate, 281

  Caruzana Indians, 125

  “_Casa Fuerte_,” Barcelona, 90, 200, 201

  Casiquiare bifurcation, 230, 232, 233

  Cassava. _See_ Manioc

  CASTELLON, JACOME DE, 70

  CASTRO, CIPRIANO, 103, 104, 176, 189, 190

  CASTRO, JULIAN, 99

  Cataniapo, River, 227, 228

  Catatumbo, River, 33, 153

  Cattle. _See_ Stock-farming

  Caura, River, 219-221

  Ceiba tree, 49

  Central Railway, 141, 142, 255, 256

  Centralists. _See_ Oligarca

  CHALBAUD, GEN. R. D., 226

  Chama, River, 164

  CHAMBERLAIN, COL. C., 201

  Chaparro, 50

  _Chimo_, 46

  _Cienagas_, 28

  Cinchona, 50, 52

  Cinnabar, 222

  Ciudad Bolivar, 212;
    Congress of Angostura, 91;
    population and climate, 282

  Climate, 33-36, 196, 222, 281, 282

  Coal, 44, 45, 150, 159, 161, 176, 202, 243, 244

  Coche (island), 185;
    salt of, 244

  Cocoa, 141-143, 155, 159, 188, 248, 249;
    wild, 228, 248

  _Cocuiza_ (fibre). _See_ Fibre

  CODAZZI, COL. A., 97, 251

  Coffee, 141-143, 159, 161, 248

  Coinage, 112-114, 239

  Cojedes, State, 199, 210;
    population of, &c., 270

  Cojoro;
    Harbour of, 151

  Colombia;
    frontier with, 106, 107

  Colombia;
    Republic of Great, 92, 94, 95

  Colón, 161

  Colonisation, 234, 263, 264;
    Bibliography, 313

  COLUMBUS, 64, 65

  Communications, 252-260, 266;
    Bibliography, 312-314

  COMPAÑÍA ANÓNIMA DE NAVEGACION FLUVIAL Y COSTANERA, 226

  COMPAÑÍA DE PETROLEO DE TÁCHIRA, 161, 245

  COMPAÑÍA GUIPUZCOANA, 80, 209, 236

  _Conquistadores_;
    character of the, 61, 62;
    cruelties of, 66-70

  Constitution of Venezuela;
    of 1811, 85, 86;
    of 1819, 91;
    changes in, 104, 105;
    modern form, 109

  Copaiba-balsam, 49, 155, 219, 250

  Copper, 45, 143, 159, 173, 174, 228, 245, 246

  Coro, 177, 178, 247;
    foundation of, 71;
    population and climate, 281;
    first bishop of, 73;
    coal of, 243;
    Coro-La Vela Railway, 178, 256

  Cotton, 144-146, 170, 172, 249

  CRESPO, President, 101, 102

  Cristobal Colón (Puerto), 189, 190

  Cúa, 143

  Cuacua Indians, 122

  Cubagua (island), 183, 184;
    history of, 67, 70, 73

  Cuchivero, River, 221, 222

  Cucuhy, 234

  _Cuestas_, 169

  Cumaná, 185, 186;
    foundation of, 69, 70;
    population and climate, 281

  Cumanacoa, 186

  Cura, 218

  Curaçao, 179, 180

  _Curare_, 124, 227

  Curasicana Indians, 122

  Curataquiche, 208

  Currency, 112-114, 239


  D

  Debt of Venezuela, 240-243, 285

  DE LESSEPS, F., 138

  Delta Territory, 191, 192;
    Indians of, 125-130, 191;
    population, 273;
    Bibliography, 307, 308

  DISKONTO GESELLSCHAFT (BERLIN), 242

  Dividive. _See_ Dye-woods, &c.

  Dominican missionaries, 67, 68

  D’ORBIGNY, A., on Quichuas, 130

  DRAKE, SIR F., 77

  Duaca, 173

  DUDLEY, SIR R., 45

  Duida, Mt., 230, 231

  Dye-woods, 51, 170, 191


  E

  Earthquakes, 43, 44, 86, 164, 185

  Education, 112, 234, 251, 266

  Egret-plumes, 57

  Ejido, 165

  El Callao, 215-217;
    goldmine of, 246

  El Cobre, 162

  “EL DORADO,” legend of, 73, 78, 79;
    origin of, 63, 64

  Erewato, River, 220

  Escuque, 169

  Esmeralda, 224

  Estanques, 165

  Ethnology, 119-134;
    Bibliography, 302-304

  Executive; departments of, 110, 117, 118


  F

  Falcón, State of, 177, 178;
    population of, &c., 270;
    Bibliography, 307

  FAXARDO, FRANCISCO, 74

  Federal District, 135-141;
    population, 273;
    Bibliography, 304, 305

  Federalists. _See_ Liberal

  FEDERMANN, NICOLAUS, 73

  Fibre, 172, 178, 189

  Finance; National, 264-266, 283-285

  Foreigners; laws relating to, 111

  Franciscan missionaries, 67, 68, 79

  FREITES, PEDRO MARIA, 90, 201


  G

  Galera; La, 41

  GENERAL FINANCE AND CREDIT CO., 242

  Geology, 38-46;
    Bibliography, 292-294

  German residents, 152, 212, 239

  Gibraltar, 154, 155;
    occupied by patriots in 1821, 93

  Goajiro Indians, 119-122, 155

  Goat-farming, 150, 176, 178, 247

  Gold, 45, 159, 165, 189, 213-217, 228, 231, 232, 236, 246

  GOMEZ, GEN. JUAN VICENTE, 104, 105, 145, 265, 266

  Government; policy of, 265, 266

  GRAMONT (buccaneer), 155

  Great Táchira Railway, 154, 256

  Great Venezuelan Railway, 143-146, 256

  _Guacharo_ (bird), 56, 57;
    cave of, 187

  Guaharibo Indians, 125, 231

  Guahibo Indians, 125

  Guaica Indians, 126

  Guainia River, 233, 234

  Guaipunavi. _See_ Puinabi

  Guaiqueria Indians, 67

  Gual and España Revolution, 80

  Guanare, 210;
    population and climate, 282

  Guaniamo, River, 222

  Guano, 180

  Guanta, 202

  Guarapiche River, 203

  “_Guarapo_,” 137

  Guaraunos. _See_ Warraus

  Guareca. _See_ Wareca

  Guárico, River, 195

  Guárico, State of, 199, 209;
    population of, &c., 270

  Guasipati, 215;
    population and climate, 281

  Guatavita Indians, 63

  Guaviare, River, 224

  Guayabal, 209

  Guayana, 26, 27, 211-234;
    geology of, 38-40;
    trees and plants of, 47-50;
    goldfields of, 213-217, 246;
    cocoa, 248;
    old roads in, 257;
    possibilities of, 263;
    bibliography, 308-311

  Guayana Vieja, 192, 210;
    foundation of, 78;
    taken by Raleigh, 79

  Guayungomo. _See_ Maquiritare

  GUERRA, L. and C., expedition to West Indies, 66

  Guipuzcoana Company. _See_ Compañía Guipuzcoana


  H

  HARRISON, J. B., 45

  Headless men, 123

  Health, public, 36, 37, 111

  History, 61-105;
    Bibliography, 297-302

  Hospitality, 115, 165, 166, 205, 206

  Hot springs, 44, 168, 169

  HUMBOLDT, F. H. A. VON, 46, 56, 209, 225

  HUTEN, PHILIP VON, 73

  HYLACOMYLUS, MARTIN, 66


  I

  Imataca Mts., 192;
    iron of, 244

  IM THURN, SIR E., on Arawaks, 133

  Independence, Declaration of, 83

  Industries, 250, 251

  Inirida, River, 224

  Insignia of the republic, 118

  Iron, 45, 192, 228, 244


  J

  _Jefe Civil_; functions of, 110

  Jesuit missions, 79, 122, 133, 134

  Justice, administration of, 111


  K

  KARSTEN, H., 44

  KINGSLEY, C. (“Westward Ho!”), 77


  L

  La Ceiba Railway, 158, 169, 255

  La Grita, 162, 163

  La Guaira, 135-137;
    population and climate, 281

  La Guaira-Carácas Railway, 137, 138, 255

  LA GUAIRA HARBOUR CORPORATION, 136

  Lagunillas, 165

  “_Lajas_,” 220;
    minerals in, 228

  LANDAETA ROSALES, MANUEL, 201

  Languages; Indian, 126

  Lara, State of, 171-173, 175-177;
    population of, &c., 271

  Las Aves Islands, 180

  LAS CASAS, BARTOLOMÉ DE, 69, 70, 185

  “_Las Laderas_,” 166

  Las Trincheras hot-springs, 44

  La Vela, 178

  La Victoria, 144;
    population and climate, 281

  Lead, 45

  LEDESMA, DON ALONSO ANDREA DE, 77

  Legislature of Venezuela, 110, 111

  _Liberal_ party, 97

  LIDUEÑA, GONZALO PIÑA, 154

  Liquid fuel, 262, 263

  Llanos, 27-29, 193-210, 246, 247;
    houses on, 204-207;
    commercial possibilities of, 262;
    bibliography, 308

  Lobatera, 161

  LOSADA, DIEGO DE, founder of Carácas, 76

  Los Apartaderos, 167

  Los Castillos (de Guayana), 192

  Los Roques Islands, 180

  Los Teques, 143, 144;
    population and climate, 281


  M

  Macanao, 182

  Maco or Macapure Indians, 122

  Macusi Indians, 122

  Macuto, 136

  Mahogany, 49

  Maipures Rapids, 225, 226

  Maiquetia, 136

  Maiquetia-Macuto Railway, 136, 255

  Mandawak Indians, 126

  Manganese, 228

  Manioc, 116, 131, 142

  Mapoyo. _See_ Cuacua

  Maquiritare Indians, 122, 221, 232

  Maracaibo, 149-153;
    Indians in, 120;
    Bank of, 240;
    coal of, 243;
    Lake of, 33, 149, 150, 153, 154, 156;
    “Lights” of, 156;
    salt of, 244;
    population and climate, 281

  _Maracas_ (rattles), 124, 125

  Maracay, 144, 145

  Marapizano. _See_ Caruzana

  Margarita (island), 181-183;
    named by Columbus, 65

  MARIÑO, SANTIAGO, 87-90, 94, 96, 265;
    deserts Freites, 90

  Maroa, 233

  Marriage customs; Indian, 125, 128, 131-133

  Marriage laws, 111

  Massacre of Spaniards by Indians, 231, 232

  Maturín, 202-208;
    population and climate, 282

  MEAT PRODUCTS SYNDICATE, 147, 247, 249

  Medicine-men, 121, 122, 130

  MENDOZA, DON JOAQUIN MORENO DE, 212.

  Merevari River, 232.
    _See also_ Caura

  Mérida (city), 163-165;
    population and climate, 281

  Mérida; Cordillera of, 32;
    Sierra Nevada of, 32, 164, 165, 282

  Mérida, State of, 163-167;
    population of, &c., 271

  “_Mesas_”; 28, 163, 194

  _Mestizos_; rising of, 88;
    transfer support to patriots, 92

  Milk; vegetable, 155

  Mineral wealth and mining, 44-46, 148, 159, 173, 174, 243;
    early exploitation, 74

  MIRANDA, DON FRANCISCO, 81, 82;
    dictatorship and death, 86

  Miranda, State of, 141-144;
    population, &c., 271

  Missions, 67, 70, 79, 80, 133, 134

  MONÁGAS; General, 89, 98, 99

  Monágas; State of, 187, 188, 199, 202-208;
    population, &c., 271

  Montalbán, 146

  MONTEVERDE, DON DOMINGO DE, 86, 88

  Mora (tree), 48, 49

  MORALES; General, 89, 94

  MORGAN; SIR HENRY, sacks Gibraltar, 155

  MORILLO; General, 89, 90, 92

  Mosquitoes, 221;
    mistaken use of name, 59

  Motatán, 168

  Motilones Indians, 155

  Mucuchíes, 167


  N

  Naiguatá (Peak), 29;
    height of, 282

  Naricual coalmines, 202, 244

  Navy, 117;
    dockyard, 147

  New Andalusia; Eastern Venezuela, 50;
    named by Ojeda, 65

  New Cadiz, 70, 73, 183, 184

  Nichare, River, 220

  NIÑO, PEDRO ALONSO, 66

  Nirgua, 175

  Nueva Esparta; State of, 181-185;
    population, &c., 271;
    Bibliography, 307, 308


  O

  OCAMPO; GONZALEZ DE, 69, 70

  Ocumare de la Costa, 148

  Ocumare del Tuy, 141;
    population and climate, 281

  Oil-bird. _See_ Guacharo

  Oil-fields, 263. _See_ Petroleum, &c.

  OJEDA, ALONSO DE, first to land in Venezuela, 65, 149;
    his father, 68

  O’LEARY, DANIEL F., 91, 201

  _Oligarca_ party, 97

  ORDAZ, DIEGO DE, 72

  Orinoco, 211-234;
    steamers on, 212, 224, 225, 258;
    climate of, 222

  Ortiz, 209

  Otomak tribe, 122

  OVIEDO Y BAÑOS, the historian, quoted, 74


  P

  PACHECO, ALONSO DE, 73, 151

  PÁEZ, JOSÉ ANTONIO, 90, 95-97

  Pampatar, 182

  Panama Canal; importance of, to Venezuela, 261-263

  Pao copper-mine, 245

  Pará; Falls of, 220

  Paragua, River, 219

  Paraguana, 178

  Páramos, 162, 167, 169;
    vegetation of, 52

  Pareca Indians, 122

  Paria; Gulf and Peninsula of, 189, 190

  Parima, Mts., 224

  Pasimonabi Indians, 126

  PATERSON, MAJOR S., 222

  Pauare Indians, 122

  Pearl-fisheries, 182, 184, 236

  Pedernales, 190, 245

  Pedraza, 210

  Pericos, 224

  Petare, 141, 142

  Petroleum, 45, 46, 150, 159, 161, 169, 177, 183, 185, 186, 188, 190,
        191, 245, 262, 263

  Philanthropic institutions, 111, 112

  Phosphate of lime, 180

  Piapoco Indians, 125

  PIAR, MANUEL, 87, 89, 90

  Piaroa Indians, 125, 227

  PIMENTEL, DON JUAN, 76

  Pimichin, 234

  PLASSARD, on Warraus, 129, 130

  PONCE DE LEON, DON DIEGO, 76

  Population, 26;
    density of, 109

  Porlamar, 182, 183

  Portuguesa chain, 31

  Portuguesa, State of, 199, 210;
    population, &c., 272

  Post Office, 252-254

  Pregonero, 162

  Press, 118

  PRESTON, SIR AMYAS; takes Carácas, 77, 78

  Protective duties, 144, 146, 250, 251

  Puerto Cabello, 147, 148;
    and Valencia Railway, 147, 256;
    Meat Syndicate and, 247;
    population and climate, 281

  Puerto San Juan, 188

  Puerto Sucre, 185

  Puerto Tablas, 213, 214

  Puerto Villamizar, 154

  Puinabi Indians, 125

  Punceres, 188

  Putucual; Lake of, 30


  Q

  Quíbor, 176

  Quichua Indians, 125

  Quinine. _See_ Cinchona


  R

  Railways, 154, 158, 159, 255, 256, 266;
    Bibliography, 312-313

  RALEIGH, SIR WALTER, 78, 79, 192

  Raudales. _See_ Rapids

  Religions, 121, 129, 130, 131, 133, 208

  Revolutions; of Gual and España, 80, 81;
    Wars of Independence, 82-94;
    internal, 95, 98-105

  Rice, 220, 221

  Rio Caribe, 189

  Rio Chico, 143

  Rio Negro, 233, 234

  RIVAS, FRANCISCO ESTEBAN, 201

  Roads, 137, 158, 159, 170, 172, 214, 246, 256-258, 266

  “_Rocas pintadas_,” 63

  RODRIGUEZ, CRISTOBAL, 197

  RODRIGUEZ, SEÑORITA DOLORES, 291

  ROJAS, DOÑA JUANA DE JESUS, 201

  ROLANDO, GEN. A., 201

  Rubber, 49, 50, 147, 220, 227, 229, 230, 249, 250

  Rubio, 160, 161


  S

  Saliba Indians, 125

  Salón Elíptico, 139

  Salt, 46, 150, 155, 185, 186, 244

  San Antonio (Monágas), 187

  San Antonio (Táchira), 161

  San Carlos (Cojedes), 210;
    population and climate, 282

  San Carlos (Rio Negro), 233

  San Carlos (Zulia), 155

  San Cristobal, 159, 160;
    population and climate, 281

  San Felipe, 174;
    population and climate, 281

  San Felix, 213, 214;
    massacre of, 90

  San Fernando (de Apure), 199;
    population and climate, 282

  San Fernando de Atabapo, 224;
    Population, 282

  San Luis, 177

  San Pedro (de Coche), 185

  Santa Ana, 93, 169

  Santa Barbara Railway, 154, 158, 256

  “Santa Barbara,” Savannah, 234

  Santa Rita, 154

  Santa Teresa, 142

  Sarrapia. _See_ Tonka-bean

  Sarsaparilla, 222

  SCHRÖDER, MR. VICE-CONSUL (Maracaibo), 152

  Seasons, 34-36

  Seboruco, 163;
    copper of, 245

  Segovia Highlands, 30, 31;
    rocks of (Segovia Group), 41.
    _See_ Falcón, Lara, &c.

  Sernambi, 250

  Serrania Costanera, 29;
    Heights of, 282

  Serrania Interior, 29;
    Heights of, 282

  Shipping, 258-260

  Sicapra, 218

  Sierra Nevada of Mérida, 32;
    Heights of, 282.
    _See_ Mérida

  SIEVERS, DR. W., 41, 153

  Silla Peak, La, 29;
    Height of, 282

  Silver, 159

  Sinamaica, 155

  Sipapo River, 227, 228

  Siquisique, 177

  Slavery, abolition of, 99

  SOTO, FRANCISCO DE, 70

  SOUBLETTE, President, 98

  SPEYER, GEORGE VON, 73

  SPIRA, JORGE DE. _See_ SPEYER, GEORGE VON

  Starch. _See_ Manioc

  Stock-farming, 143, 150, 197, 198, 227, 232, 246, 247, 262

  SUCRE, JOSÉ DE, 87, 185

  Sucre, State of, 185-190;
    Population, &c., 272;
    Bibliography, 307, 308

  Sugar, 137, 144, 161, 249

  Sulphur, 46, 189, 245

  Surveys, 251


  T

  Táchira, State of, 159-163;
    Population, &c., 272;
    Táchira Railway, 154, 256

  Tamanaco tribe, 122

  Tanneries, 250

  Tanning barks, 51

  Taparita Indians, 122

  Táriba, 162

  TAVERA-ACOSTA, quoted, 122, 125, 126, 130, 227

  Telegraphs and telephones, 254

  _Tierra caliente_, _templada_ and _fria_, 34-36;
    vegetation of, 50-52

  Timber, 150, 155, 159, 219, 228

  Timotes, 168

  Tobacco, 155, 159, 187, 249

  Tocuyo, 175, 176;
    foundation of, 73

  Tonka-beans, 49, 219, 220, 250

  Torbes, River, 159, 160, 162

  Tovar, 167

  Trade, 235-251;
    British trade with Venezuela, 266, 267;
    statistics, 274-280;
    Bibliography, 312-314

  Transport. _See_ Shipping, Roads, &c.

  Travelling; difficulties of, 257

  Trona. _See_ Urao

  Trujillo (city), 168;
    armistice of, 92;
    population and climate, 281

  Trujillo, State, 168-170;
    population, &c., 272

  Tucacas, 172, 173, 246

  Tucupita, 191;
    population and climate, 282

  Tumeremo, 218

  Tupuquen, 216

  Turimquiri (peak), 29;
    height of, 282


  U

  Uaica Indians, 122

  Uajiba. _See_ Guahibo

  Uayamara Indians, 122

  Uayungomo. _See_ Maquiritare

  Uiquire Indians, 122

  Universities, 80, 251

  Upata, 214

  Uracá, 161, 162

  Uracoa; reported gold near, 45

  _Urao_, 46, 165

  URDANETA, GENERAL, 98

  Urica, 208

  URPIN, JUAN, 199

  URRE, FELIPE DE. _See_ HUTEN, PHILIP VON


  V

  Valencia, 145, 146;
    Lake of, 30, 145;
    population and climate, 281

  Valera, 168, 169

  Vargas (town). _See_ El Cobre

  VARGAS, President, 96, 97, 265

  Venamo valley, 217

  _Venezuela_; origin of name, 65

  Venezuelan Railway. _See_ Great Venezuelan Railway

  Ventuari, River, 230-232

  VESPUCCI, AMERIGO, fraudulent claims of, 65, 66

  Vichada River, 229

  Villa de Cura, 145;
    population and climate, 281

  Vineyards, 146


  W

  Waiomgomo. _See_ Maquiritare

  WALDSEEMUELLER, M. _See_ HYLACOMYLUS, M.

  WALL, G. P., 40, 42, 44

  Wareca Indians, 125

  Warrau Indians, 125-130, 191

  Water power, 226, 227, 256

  Waterways, 210, 258

  Welser, rule of the, 71-73

  Wheat, 141, 144, 159

  Women; education of, 112


  Y

  Yabarana Indians, 122

  Yaracuy; State of, 173-175;
    population, &c., 272

  Yaritagua, 175

  Yaruro Indians, 126

  Yavita, 234

  Yavitera Indians, 125


  Z

  Zamora; State of, 199, 210;
    population, &c., 273

  ZARAZA, General, 89

  Zaraza (town), 209

  Zoology, 52-60;
    Bibliography, 294-297

  Zulia, State of, 149-156;
    population, &c., 273;
    Bibliography, 306


UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED, THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON.


[Illustration: Map of THE UNITED STATES OF VENEZUELA

INCLUDING THE RESULTS OF THE LATEST SURVEYS

BY LEONARD V. DALTON, B. SC., F. R. G. S.]