Printing _and_ Bookbinding _for_ Schools


                                  _By_

                              S. J. VAUGHN

 Head Department of Manual Arts, State Normal School, DeKalb, Illinois

[Illustration: Logo]

                                  1919
                     PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLISHING CO.,
                          BLOOMINGTON ILLINOIS




                            _Copyright 1912
                  by the Public School Publishing Co._




                         THE ART _of_ PRINTING


Printing is distinctly a social art. Setting type and striking off a
number of impressions presuppose, in the first place, a community to
read what is printed; and in the second place, that the information
printed is of value to this community.

                                            —L. W. WAHLSTROM,
                            _In the Francis W. Parker School Year Book_.




                           TABLE OF CONTENTS:


                                                            PAGE
       Introduction                                            1
       The Art of Printing—Methods and Tools of Composition    5
       Type Setting                                           14
       Rules of Composition                                   25
       Proof Marks                                            27
       Imposition                                             28
       Presswork                                              38
       Cleaning and Distributing                              42
       What to Print and How to Proceed                       45
       Wood Cuts and Metal Plates                             50
       The Equipment—Its Selection and Cost                   56
       Arrangement and Disposition of Equipment               65




                              INTRODUCTION


                  Printing as a Manual Art in Schools.

Woodwork has been quite generally introduced into the high school and
grammar school. With all the defects of the earlier presentation of the
subject, not to speak of those in later efforts, it has made a
surprisingly general appeal, and has met with unusual and deserved
success. Some of the methods employed, tending to place a ban on
originality and thought, have brought it far short of its possibilities
in the aid of intellectual development. To a considerable extent the
woodwork has not touched, as intimately as it might, the vital interests
of the pupils and of the homes; and, by its own limitations, it has not
had an especially strong social bearing. The need is not less woodwork
but more original and thoughtful woodwork, and also a greater variety of
other constructive work which touches more and wider interests and which
may appeal to those not particularly adapted to that one line. In this
way it will be possible to strengthen the places where woodwork is weak.
So far experience with printing in school indicates that it makes quite
as general and permanent an appeal as woodwork.

Printing makes this very strong appeal to the boys because, in the first
place, the printshop comes as near to reproducing a great world industry
in the school as any other line of industrial work. Instead of doing
simply the “roustabout” work of the beginning apprentice the boys are
put to work with the regular shop equipment, and soon are ready to begin
turning out some printing. It is a common thing to hear a boy remark,
“This is just the way they do it down town.” So they look upon printing
as the work of real men, and feel that they are actually taking part in
some of the activities that are potent in the affairs of men. It’s
wonderful, the pull of this feeling of participation in the world’s
work.

Besides this, there is probably no other line of Manual Arts work in
which pupils, grade boys especially, get so practical a working
knowledge of the actual shop work as in printing. This fact is often
turned to good advantage by the boys, for there can scarcely be found a
commercial printshop anywhere which is not glad to employ one or two
boys during vacation time, if they know a little about the work and are
interested.

There is the still further fact that printing offers the concrete
embodiment of rules of punctuation, capitalization, syllabication,
sentence structure, paragraphing, etc. It is an indisputable fact that
work in the printshop influences in a remarkable way the disposition to
observe good form and to follow the best usage in all such matters. It
is a daily occurrence in the school printshop that some boy brings a
text book or newspaper to exhibit what he considers a glaring disregard
of some of these principles of composition.

Printing furnishes a distinctly different type of motor activity from
woodwork, for it is the arrangement of certain unyielding forms within
limited space to produce some desired effect.

In the matter of social significance printing is practically ideal.
Almost every problem is a community project, that is, a number of pupils
combine their efforts to produce it. Practically every task in the
printshop is undertaken with the consciousness of real service to a
great number of people in the school or in the community at large.

It is interesting to note that among the boys in school, the genuine joy
in the production of printed matter does not necessarily arise out of a
sense of the commercial value of the product. The class that has printed
and illustrated a little pamphlet of stories for the second or third
grade are proud and happy immeasurably beyond the pride and happiness
that would come from a job of office blanks worth so many dollars. In
other words, they are happy to the extent that the quality of their work
merits praise, and that they feel able to make others happy by their
services.

The school paper is an enterprise of very much the same nature. It is a
real influence and a genuine service performed for which they expect no
individual return except in the appreciation of those they serve, and
pride in the excellence of their work and the skill it shows. This is
certainly a kind of training for which there is a distinct need just
now.

There is no other one of the Manual Arts that can touch so intimately
the varied classwork, interests, and activities of school life as does
printing, especially when combined with bookbinding.

It brings a freshness and vigor to the elementary reading and language
work; it touches the athletics and social activities through
announcements, programs, and notices in the school paper; it becomes an
important factor in the celebration of special days, and in the
preparation of material bearing on them; and it bears an intimate and
vital relation to art.

Another interesting development is in the relation of printing to the
other lines of constructive work. It has proved extremely valuable to
have the completed problems written up in descriptive articles by the
pupils, and to have the best of these compositions printed.




                          THE ART OF PRINTING























Methods and Tools of Composition.

In printing, composition includes all the steps from receiving the copy
until the type is set up, proofed, corrected, and made up into page
forms.

This discussion presupposes a knowledge of spelling, syllabication,
punctuation, paragraphing, etc., all of which good composition really
includes. Practical rules bearing on these different phases may be found
in various handbooks for the printer.

The first essential in printing is, of course, a quantity of type
properly arranged.

Type is cast from a composition of metals—lead, tin, antimony, and
sometimes copper. This composition is melted and poured into moulds the
size and shape of the desired type.

_Accuracy in Size of Type._ Lead is used as the chief constituent of the
composition, because it shrinks very little in cooling. This makes
greater accuracy possible. Accuracy is an absolute essential in type,
for thousands of pieces of metal must be held together in one form by a
slight pressure at the sides and ends of the form.

Lead alone is too soft to wear well and to retain the shape of the type
under the constant pressure of the printing press. Tin is added to give
hardness, and antimony or copper to give toughness to the type metal.

_Type Described._ Type are small columns of the metal with a letter or
character in relief on one end of each column, as at Fig. 1. The surface
of this relief portion from which the letter or character is printed is
called the face.

The various faces are distinguished by names applied by the foundries,
as “Caslon Old Style,” “Engraver’s Old English,” “Banker’s Script,” etc.

The extreme length of type from the face to the foot is .918 inches, or
about eleven-twelfths of an inch.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 1.
]

The column of metal on which the letter or character rests is the body
or shank of the type (a, Fig. 1) and the distance which the body extends
beyond the edge of the letter or character is the shoulder (b, Fig. 1).

On the side of the body next the base of the letter or character are one
or more nicks (d, Fig. 1). The chief purpose of such nicks is to
indicate the base of the letter or character, and thus to aid the
compositor in keeping the type right side up without constantly
referring to the face of the type.

To the manufacturer, these nicks indicate other things in addition to
that mentioned above, but these need not be detailed here.

The size of the type has to do with the body, and signifies the vertical
distance through the body, or the distance from the nick side to the
opposite side, as from x to x´, Fig. 1.

Of course it is clear that among the large amount of type manufactured,
there must be a great number of different faces on the same size of
body; and that there may be two or three sizes of the same face on the
same size of body.

In order to indicate a specific type, it is necessary to mention its
size and the name by which that particular face is distinguished; as,
“10 point Author’s Roman Wide,” “18 point Pabst Old Style,” “6 point
Caslon Bold Italic,” etc.

_The Point System._ The type manufacturers of this country have adopted
a uniform scale of sizes known as the point system. In this scheme, the
unit or point is .0138 inches, or about one seventy-second part of an
inch. The size of any type is so many points based upon this system.
Twelve points constitute an _em pica_ which is the larger unit of
measurement.

When the printer speaks of dimensions, like the length and width of a
page, he says it is a certain number of ems or picas long and wide. An
em pica is one-sixth of an inch; so a page three inches by five inches
is eighteen by thirty ems pica.

Until comparatively recent years there was no definite standard of type
sizes. Each foundry established its own standards. If a printer wished
to use type from different foundries, it probably was necessary to make
some troublesome adjustments with bits of paper or otherwise to get them
to line properly. (Specimen ^{of words} out of ^{line.})

There was a sufficient similarity in sizes of type to justify the use of
names to indicate certain sizes. The names used to designate the common
sizes from 4½ to 12 point type according to the point system, are as
follows:

                         4½ points—Diamond
                         5  points—Pearl
                         5½ points—Agate
                         6  points—Nonpareil
                         7  points—Minion
                         8  points—Brevier
                         9  points—Bourgeois
                         10 points—Long Primer
                         11 points—Small pica
                         12 points—Pica

        =1. This line is set in 6 point Caslon Bold.=
        =2. This line is set in 8 point Post.=
        _3. This line is set in 10 point Author’s Roman Italic._
        4. This line is set in 12 point Strathmore Old Style.

Some of these names, such as Nonpareil, Brevier, Long Primer, and Pica,
are still in quite general use.

Not only is the height or depth of the body determined by the point
system, but the width or set of the body (cc´ Fig. 1) is also cast on
the point basis. There are no fractional points in the width of type
made on the point set basis. Any number of letters or characters placed
side by side make an integral number of points. This is called point
set.

Also, in case a number of differently faced type with the same body are
used in the same line, they are so cast that the different faces line
with each other as well as if they were all of the same face.

The system goes still further and makes it possible to use different
sizes of type in the same line without difficulty in alignment. This is
done by making the lining of the different sizes vary by points, so that
the difference can easily be built in with leads and slugs, see page 14.
This line has _three different_ =faces= and two sizes of type.

_Spacing of Words and Letters._ Quads and spaces are pieces of metal
shorter than the type, and are used to make blank spaces between words
and at the ends of lines shorter than the measure.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 2.
]

In any size of type there are four kinds of quads. Fig 2 shows the ends
of the 8 and 12 point quads and spaces. An em quad is the square of the
type body. The 10 point em quad is a square quad whose sides are 10
points wide. An eight point em quad is 8 points or one-ninth of an inch
square.

An en quad of any size type is one-half the em quad of that size of
type. A two em quad of any size type is equal to two of the square or em
quads, and a three em quad is equal to three of the square or em quads
laid side by side.

There are four of the thinner blanks in any size of type, known as
spaces. The 3-em space is one-third of the em quad; the 4-em space
one-fourth of the em quad; and the 5-em space is one-fifth of the em
quad. The hair spaces are very thin spaces of copper and brass. These
are very seldomly needed in general work.

The em quad must be clearly distinguished from the em pica. Every size
of type has its em quad; but the em pica is simply the 12 point standard
unit of measurement.

_Type Font._ A quantity of the same size and face of type with an
assortment of the various letters and characters which are used together
is called a font. Sometimes fonts are designated by the number of
certain letters they contain. A font may be mentioned as having so many
capital A’s and so many small a’s.

Type may be bought in weight or job fonts. If bought by weight, it
contains capitals, small capitals, small or lower case letters,
including ligatures (ff, fi, etc.), figures, marks of punctuation,
spaces and quads. Twenty per cent of a weight font is made up of spaces
and quads unless otherwise specified. Job fonts are small assortments of
type, where only small quantities or unusual faces are needed. Such
fonts do not include small capitals, spaces or quads.

Fonts or parts of fonts come from the foundry wrapped in small packages.
The capitals, the small letters, and the quads and spaces come, of
course, in separate packages. The letters are arranged for the most part
in alphabetical order; but there is an occasional insertion of a mark of
punctuation or a thin bodied letter out of regular order to fill out a
line.

In taking the type from these packages, the entire face side of the mass
of type is wet with soapy water. Then, beginning with the first of the
alphabet, a few letters are taken at a time and put into the proper
boxes of the case. This is called laying the case.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 3. NEWS CASES.
]

[Illustration:

  Fig. 4. JOB CASE.
]

_Type Cases._ Type cases, Figs. 3 and 4, in which type is kept are of
two general kinds, news and job. News cases are in pairs, the upper and
the lower case, arranged to occupy a position one above the other on top
of the stand or cabinet, Fig. 5. The upper case contains the capitals,
small capitals, and an assortment of signs and symbols. The lower case
contains the small letters, numerals, marks of punctuation, quads and
spaces. The California job case is about the size of the lower news case
and fits like a drawer into a stand or cabinet. It is arranged to
contain both the capitals and lower case type, but is without boxes for
the small capitals. By reference to Fig. 4, it will be seen that the
left side of the job case is exactly the same as the entire lower news
case, except that the compartments are smaller.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 5.
]

The right side of the job case contains only thirty-five boxes for
capitals instead of forty-nine, as in the capital side of the upper news
case.

It will be observed that the capital letters are in regular order in the
case with the exception of J and U. It is interesting to note that these
two letters were the last to be added to the alphabet, and hence were
simply placed at the last of the alphabet in the case.

In the lower case there is but little regularity of arrangement, except
that the most commonly used letters occupy the most convenient and
conspicuous places. The printer knows the locations of the various
boxes, so that the picking out of a certain letter becomes almost purely
automatic.




                              TYPE SETTING


In beginning to set type, the first tool the printer needs is the job
stick, Fig. 6.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 6.
]

This is the receptacle into which the compositor places the type as he
sets up the form, letter by letter. Sticks are made in great variety,
and almost any length from six inches up. There are the simple,
ungraduated stick, adjusted by the thumb screw; the marked and
perforated stick for nonpareil adjustment by means of a lever, Fig. 6,
and the non-adjustable stick for news or book composition.

The printer sets the stick the length of the desired line. This is done
by placing into it a lead or slug, the desired length, and moving the
clamp up against it tightly enough that the type will not easily fall
forward, and yet loosely enough to allow the lines to be lifted from the
stick without binding.

[Illustration:

  _12 em 2 point Lead_
  Fig. 7.
]

_Spacing of Lines._ Leads (Fig. 7) are strips of metal ¾″ wide, and from
one to five points, inclusive, in thickness. Strips six points and
thicker are called slugs. Leads and slugs are used to space between the
lines of type, bearing the same relation to the lines as spaces and
quads bear to the words. These strips are said to be labor saving when
they are cut ready for use into definite lengths of pica or nonpareil
variations. The standard lengths are from 4 to 25 ems pica. When not so
cut, they are called strip.

[Illustration:

  _12 em 6 point Slug_
  Fig. 7a.
]

A lead or slug generally of the thickness to give the required space
between the lines, and of the length of a line, is placed in the stick,
and the type is set with the top of the letter toward this lead. Then
with the lead or slug in the stick and the stick in the left hand, the
compositor stands upright at the case, picks out the letters and
characters one at a time, and places them, nick out and face up, into
the stick, beginning at the lower left hand corner. Fig. 8. As the type
are put into the stick, they are held there by the thumb of the left
hand. The method of holding the stick at the proper angle to prevent the
type from falling out and to allow the thumb to do its work properly, is
quite an art which it takes time to acquire.

_Justifying lines._—The line of type reads from left to right the same
as printed matter but the letters are inverted. It takes the beginner
some time to accustom himself to this condition, but with practice, it
becomes easy and convenient. Each word except the last in the line, is
followed by a space, or a quad. In ordinary solid matter, that is matter
without leads or slugs between the lines, the three-to-em spaces are
used between words. But the line must come out evenly at the end without
leaving a space or dividing a word improperly. This very seldom occurs
in beginning work, so the young printer sets himself to the task of
justifying the line, that is respacing it so as to remove the
difficulty. Approved methods of spacing and justification may be found
in the list of rules of composition on page 25. Great care should be
observed in getting each line as nearly perfect as possible before
proceeding to the next, for in this way, much trouble and annoyance in
correcting proof are avoided.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 8.
]

When a line has been thus finished and a lead put in above to support
it, the compositor proceeds with the next line exactly as before. It is
wise for the beginner to leave all the work leaded, so as to simplify
the operation of removing the lines from the stick. If it is desirable,
the leads or slugs may be removed after the type is emptied from the
stick. If the last line of a paragraph is not a complete line, it is
filled with quads and spaces, but the spaces should never be placed at
the end or between the quads.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 9.
]

_To Remove Type: The Galley._ When the stick is full or nearly so, the
compositor lays it down and to remove the type catches the first lead
with both thumbs, and the last lead with the first finger of each hand.
Fig. 9. Then he slightly raises the first line. With the remaining free
fingers pressing against the ends of the lines and pushing at the same
time down against the stick, he lifts the type bodily and puts it into
the galley. The first line should go against the closed end and should
read from the lower side of the galley up. The closed end of the galley
should always be at the right as the worker stands at the case.

The galley, Fig. 10, is a kind of rectangular brass tray open at one
end, into which the compositor places the lines of type on removing them
from the stick. Galleys are of various sizes for different kinds of
work.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 10.
]

_Lines and Borders: The brass rule._ In case there are solid lines to be
made in the printed matter, as in Fig. 11, this is done by use of the
brass rule.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 11.
]

This, like leads, may be had either in the strip or in labor saving
lengths; but unlike leads, it is type high, and is designed for the
purpose of making lines, borders, etc., Fig. 12. It may be had in any
thickness, but usually, a very thin face like a hair line or one point,
is put on a heavier body. In such cases the rule is beveled from one or
both sides and is said to be side-faced or center-faced (a and b, Fig.
12). Labor saving brass rule is made up in weight fonts, and may be had
with or without mitres for the corners.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 12.
]

If a rule line shorter than the measure of the type line is to be made,
the blank spaces at the ends of the rule are filled with leads, slugs,
or quads of the same thickness as the body of the rule.

Rule for borders is put around the type form after it is finished. If
the face of the rule is as thick as the body, as at c, Fig. 12, good
corners are made simply by lapping one piece of rule over the end of the
other piece which meets it at the corner.

If the face is thinner than the body, the rule in borders or panels must
be side-faced unless there are mitres. The bevels of the side pieces of
rule are turned in toward the type and those of the end pieces are
turned out. The end rule laps over the ends of the side rules at the
corners, as shown at a, Fig. 12.

Dotted or hyphen lines as seen in Fig. 11, are made by the use of
leaders, which closely resemble quads in that they are of quad sizes.
Leaders, however, are type high, and have either the dot or hyphen
face—so many dots or hyphens to the em. It is not necessary to have a
great variety of leader sizes, since with the point lining system, one
size of leader can easily be lined with another size of type.

_Spacing and Tying a Galley or Job of Type._ When the compositor has
finished setting the type and placed it into the galley, if it is an
advertisement or small job, he proceeds to space it out by the use of
leads and slugs to the required length. The form is then tied up.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 13.
]

It requires considerable care and skill to tie up a mass of type
properly. The form is in the lower right hand corner of the galley. The
compositor takes a cotton string and beginning at the upper left hand
corner, he starts to wrapping the twine around the form from left to
right, drawing it taut just before turning a corner. When the starting
point has been reached, he pulls the twine down across the original end
thus binding it firmly against the metal. After wrapping from three to
six times about the form, a loop is left in the twine, which is forced
by means of a composing rule, Fig. 13, or a lead, down between the type
and the strands. This leaves a small piece of the end projecting as a
convenience in untying. The next step is to take a proof. The galley is
laid on the stone or a table, or the form may be slid from the galley to
the stone, Fig. 18.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 14.
]

[Illustration:

  Fig. 15.
]

_Taking a Proof._ When the tied form has been placed upon the stone or
proof press, it is inked by rolling a small rubber roller (Fig. 14) over
it, the roller having been first well inked by rolling it over an inked
piece of marble, slate or glass. Then the type is covered with a moist
paper, the sponged side up, or a regular proof paper. If there is no
proof press the proof planer, a smooth faced block of hard wood, with
face covered with felt, Fig. 15, is laid on the top of the paper, and
tapped squarely and firmly with the mallet. If the proof planer does not
cover the form, its position is changed and the mallet used again. The
impression left on the paper is the first proof. See proof marks, page
27. In school, it is wise to have the pupils read their own proofs.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 16.
]

_To correct a galley._ Then with the marked proof before him, the
compositor proceeds to correct. If only slight changes are to be made,
such as turning an inverted letter or taking out a capital and putting
in a lower case letter, such changes may be made without lifting the
type into the stick. Often lines or words are transposed, or omissions
or repetitions are discovered. Such errors necessitate respacing and
overrunning, by which is meant the going over several lines respacing
them and crowding a word out of one line into another in order to
correct an error. In such cases, it is well to lift out into the stick,
the lines involved. In the matter of taking out a letter, it is
necessary only to press lightly at both ends of the line with the thumb
and finger of one hand, raising the line about half way out of the form,
and with the other hand to remove the desired letter and allow the line
to slide back into its original position. Bodkins and tweezers are
dangerous and useless instruments in most instances. After the changes
indicated in the first proof have been made, a second proof is taken to
make sure that all corrections have been made, and that no new errors
have crept in. This proof should be submitted to the instructor for
approval. It may be necessary to make a number of proofs before a
perfect impression is gotten. In case of a sufficient quantity of matter
to necessitate its division into pages or columns, the proof is taken in
the galley without tying up, Fig. 16. The form is locked tightly in the
galley by means of furniture and quoins, Fig. 16. This is somewhat like
the lockup described on page 32, except that furniture is placed only on
one side of the mass of type.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 17.
]

_Making up._ When the corrections are made, the matter is properly
divided, the page numbers and headings are placed, and the pages or
columns are tied up. This process is called making up. Fig. 17. When the
printer begins to make up, he has before him a long mass of type, as at
Fig. 16. The length of the page is determined. It includes the page
number, the running head, if there be one, and a nonpareil, or six
point, slug at each end.

A page 18 ems wide might properly be 30 ems long. In this case, the
measure would be 31 ems and a 31 em reglet, (see furniture page 31)
answers well for a measure, as will any long piece of furniture on which
the desired length may be marked. An accurate ruler may be used to
advantage. The length of the first page is usually less than the full
measure and is somewhat arbitrarily determined. It is generally sunken
about one-fourth of the page. After this page is tied up and moved
aside, the page number, the running head and the slug are added to the
remaining column of type and the measure applied for the next page. This
is repeated until the final page is reached, which is usually somewhat
less than the full measure.




                          RULES OF COMPOSITION


1. Spacing between words should appear as nearly uniform as possible,
not only throughout the line but throughout the entire piece of work.

2. For solid, or unleaded matter, the em quad is used to indent the
paragraph, and to follow a period except at the end of a line; the 3 to
em space, between words in the absence of marks of punctuation other
than the comma; the en quad, after a semi-colon and also after a colon
when followed by a lower case letter, but when followed by a capital
letter, the space should be slightly larger, perhaps two 3 to em spaces.

3. The indentation and spaces between words should vary according to the
spaces between the lines. In case of two point leaded matter, the en
quad should be used instead of the 3 to em space and other spaces should
be correspondingly larger.

4. In justifying a line after the spacing has been done _according_ to
the above rules, spaces may be increased at kern letters, f, y, etc.,
between long words, and after semi-colons and colons; or reduced at
slanting letters, at commas, and at the sides of small words. Spaces
should be the same on both sides of very small words, and there should
never be a greater variation in the spacing between ordinary words than
the difference between an en quad and a 3 to em space.

5. Type should stand squarely on foot.

6. Divisions of words at the ends of the lines should be avoided
wherever possible but when divided, the proper division of syllables
should always be made.

7. Avoid dividing short words, or dividing words by cutting off short
syllables at the first or last.

8. Do not loosen the clamp of the stick in order to make it possible to
insert a space.

9. When in doubt about spelling, punctuation, capitalization, or
syllabication, consult authority.

10. Save endless time and trouble by producing a clean proof the first
time.

11. In making up, it is good form to have the first and last lines of a
page full lines. So it is best not to have a paragraph begin with the
first line or end with the last line of a page.




                              PROOF MARKS


[Illustration: Proof Marks.]




                               IMPOSITION


Imposition is the arranging of the type masses in proper order on the
stone, and the fastening of them into the chase.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 18.—BACK VIEW.
]

[Illustration:

  Fig. 18.—FRONT VIEW.
]

The imposing stone, Fig. 18, is a smooth marble slab on which the forms
are placed for locking up ready for the press. The stone may be laid
upon a box, bench or table, but both stands and cabinets are made for
this purpose. It is properly bedded in its “coffin” by placing putty
along the edges of the bed and along any cross supports which may run
under the stone. Then when the stone is placed into this receptacle, it
remains solid and level and free from strain. It should project a short
distance above the frame of the bed in order to render easy the removal
of the forms to and from the galley.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 19.
]

The chase, Fig. 19, is a steel or cast-iron frame, into which the forms
are locked to be put into the press. The size of a press is based upon
the inside dimensions of the chase. A 10 × 15 press is one that
accommodates a 10 × 15 chase. The skeleton chase is a steel chase with a
very narrow frame. This makes the inside considerably larger. A skeleton
chase for a 10 × 15 press is practically 11 × 16, making a clear gain of
almost an inch each way.

When the type has been proofed, corrected, made up, and tied, the form
is slipped from the galley to the stone, and is then ready for the
lockup, Fig. 20.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 20.
]

A chase is put upon the stone in such a position as to form a frame
about the type, which as a rule should occupy the central part of the
space enclosed by the frame. A roller supporter, a, Fig. 20, is placed
in each end of the chase and pieces of furniture are built out solidly
from the type form to one side and one end of the chase.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 21.
]

Furniture, Fig. 21, and b, c, Fig. 20, is the name given to pieces of
wood and metal, which are used to build around the forms in the process
of locking them into the chase. Furniture varies by the em in width and
by 5 to 10 ems in length when cut labor saving. Metal furniture is more
modern and makes possible more accurate work; but for beginners, it has
its disadvantages. The metal is soft and of considerable weight, making
heavier forms; and if a piece is dropped upon the stone or even upon the
floor, which frequently happens, it probably has a corner or an edge
battered. In the lockup, occasionally this small defect may cause the
“pi” of the whole form. Reglets are a kind of wood furniture similar in
size and use to leads and slugs but are largely used as furniture in
locking up forms. In leaded forms which have to be kept for sometime,
reglets are substituted for the leads and slugs. They are very much
cheaper, and they relieve the necessity for large quantities of the more
expensive leads and slugs. Wood furniture, which comes by the case or by
number of pieces, is cheap, durable, not easily injured, and on the
whole, quite satisfactory for school use. A small amount of metal
furniture, which is sold by weight, is desirable in every printshop.

When the furniture has been built in at one side and one end of the form
as indicated above, quoins are placed at the other side and the other
end about midway between the type and the chase.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 22.
]

Quoins, Fig. 22, are devices for locking the forms into the chases.
There are two chief kinds, one consisting of two separate wedge shaped
pieces of hard metal with notched sides, which by the use of a key are
made to slide in opposite directions against each other. The danger of
these quoins in the hands of schoolboys is that, not realizing how
easily good forms are held, they persist in trying to screw the quoin to
the last notch, frequently endangering the chase and ruining the quoins.
The other kind is constructed of two pieces of metal joined by springs
and opened by the use of a key operating a nut which, after a slight
expansion of the quoin, releases its hold and allows the parts to spring
back together. This quoin is safe for the form and for the chase, and is
itself not battered in the process of locking up.

After the quoins have been put into proper position, pieces of furniture
are fitted in on both sides of the quoins.

The pieces of furniture are usually a little longer than the sides of
the form against which they fit. They are always placed around the form
in such a way that they can not bind against each other so as to prevent
the pressure from striking the type squarely, Fig. 20.

With the key, Fig. 22, the quoins are very slightly and uniformly
tightened. Then the planer is used.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 23.
]

The planer, Fig. 23, is a smooth faced block of hard wood similar to the
proof planer, but is usually smaller and not covered with felt. This is
laid on the face of the form on the stone and tapped lightly with a
mallet, in order to make sure that the faces of all the type are at the
same level—no letters projecting so as to be broken or to injure the
rollers, or, at best, to ruin the impressions.

After this, the printer tightens the quoins gradually, giving a slight
turn to each quoin in succession. There is danger of the beginner’s
getting the lockup too tight, causing the form to spring up from the
stone and the chase to spring and even to break. If the composition is
good and the furniture is properly placed, it does not require a very
tight lockup to hold. Before removing the chase from the stone, the
lockup should be tested by raising one side of the chase very slightly
and tapping the furniture to see if any of the type are loose. If the
form holds, it is ready for the press.

_Forms for Four and More Pages._ When there are a number of pages
instead of one to be dealt with, the imposition is considerably more
complicated.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 24.
]

Any piece of printing of four or more pages has an outside and an inside
section. Page one and all the pages that are printed on the same side of
the paper with it constitute the outside section. Page two and all the
pages that are printed on the same side with it are the inside section.
A four page printed sheet is called a sheet folio. The best way to
handle such a four page form is by the work-and-turn method, provided
the press is large enough to accommodate the four pages at one time. By
this method, the pages are arranged as in Fig. 24. Note that in this
form as in any other outside form, page one is at the lower left hand
corner with the foot of the page toward the printer. Margins are
determined by measuring from the front of type pages one and two the
width of the page plus twice the desired margin to the backs of pages
three and four. Then the length of the page plus twice the margin is
measured from the foot of pages one and four to the head of pages two
and three.

In this case, the stock is cut double the length of the finished job.
When it has been printed on one side, and the ink has dried, it is
turned and given the same impression on the other side. Of course, in
printing this second side, care must be taken to reverse the paper so
that pages two and three back up one and four at one end, and one and
four back up two and three at the other end. When the ink of this
impression is dry, the sheet is cut at line XX making two complete
folios from one sheet.

With school boys working on a small press, the four pages are often
handled in two separate forms of two pages each.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 25.
]

When so divided, each pair may be imposed in exactly the same order as
in the four page form. In this case the paper is cut to exact size and
pages one and four are printed on one side. When the ink dries, it is
run through the press again and pages two and three are printed on the
other side, completing the work.

An eight page form, or a sheet quarto, for a sufficiently large press,
may be imposed after the work-and-turn method as in the case of the four
page form. The numbered rectangles in Fig. 25 show the arrangement of
pages in the work-and-turn method of imposing an eight page form. It
will be observed that pages in the outside section of an eight page form
are in the same order as those of a four page form. For a press that can
accommodate only four pages, the inside and outside sections are imposed
exactly in the same order as in Fig. 25, but are used as separate forms.

When we undertake the imposition of an eight page job, we meet the
problem of margin for trim, which has not been encountered in the
previous forms. In an eight page piece of work, there must be two folds
and since the sheets are folded after they are printed and before they
are cut, it is evident that some allowance must be made for trimming the
fold at the top of the pages. Since in folding, the edges are probably
not even, it is necessary to trim them also. Thus it is clear that
allowance must be made for trim around each pair of leaves. Fig. 25
represents a half sheet of standard 25 × 38 paper laid on the eight page
form imposed by the work-and-turn method. The line XX indicates where
the printed half sheet is cut before folding. The dotted lines indicate
the margins allowed for trim after folding. The method of measuring for
the imposition is as follows: Suppose the type pages to be four by seven
inches and centered in the pages, and the margin, after trim, to be one
inch all around each page.

It is apparent then that the backs of type pages 8 and 5 are two inches
from the backs of pages 1 and 4. The location of pages 7 and 6 is
determined by measuring half the length of the half sheet, or 12½ inches
in this case, from the front edges of type pages 1 and 4. The distance
then from 8 to 7 and from 5 to 6 is 2½ inches or 15 ems pica, making ½
inch for trim. One-half of 19 inches, or the other dimension of the half
sheet, measured from the foot of type page 1 to the head of 4, places
the distance of 2½ inches between 1 and 4. This allows ½ inch here also
for trim.

In this work, some prefer simply to fold the paper and use it for
measurement, but in any case when the margins are determined, they are
built in with appropriate furniture and the form is locked up. It is
well to remember that, viewed from the foot of the pages in a form, odd
numbered pages are always at the left of even numbered pages.

In most of the work of this character, the pages are so large that only
two may be accommodated by a small press. In this case, the eight pages
are imposed in pairs as follows: One and eight, two and seven, three and
six, and four and five. It will be observed that the sum of the page
numbers of any pair is always one greater than the whole number of
pages.




                               PRESSWORK


[Illustration:

  Fig. 26.
]

The first thing in the matter of handling a press, Fig. 26, is to have a
clear idea in mind as to the method of its operation; the next is to
make sure that the press is well oiled, well cleaned and the bed and
platen clean of all grit, paper, gauge pins, quadrats, etc.

The throw off, a, Fig. 26, is a lever by use of which the press can be
prevented from printing. This should always be in such position as to
hold the platen, b, away from the bed, c, until the press is ready for
an impression.

An essential part of the press which needs to be mentioned separately is
the rollers, d.

They are a kind of rubbery composition moulded around steel rods or
cores; and when placed on the press, they distribute the ink over the
plate, e, and carry it down upon the type. Of course, they are soft and
pliable and need proper attention to keep them so. There are summer
rollers and winter rollers and neither can be used to advantage out of
season. Winter rollers become too soft for summer, while the reverse is
true of summer rollers used in winter. Seventy degrees is about the
right temperature to insure the proper working of rollers. When they
become permanently hard enough to retain, for a considerable time, the
type impressions, rollers are said to be dead. Much can be told about
rollers by observing the color and the shine of the surface. A dead
roller has a dead, lusterless surface. When rollers are worn out, they
are simply sent to the factory where the old composition is removed and
new composition molded upon the same cores. The chief constituents of
rollers are molasses, glycerine and glue.

_Make-ready._ In preparing the make-ready, a hard surfaced piece of
pressboard is placed on the platen. On top of this, should be from three
to five pieces of book paper for “packing,” covered finally with a
“drawsheet” of tough manila. Now the press is inked by putting upon the
plate, e, a small quantity of ink and allowing the press to run until
the rollers have thoroughly distributed it over the plate. Then the form
is put into the press at c, and care is used to see that the grippers,
f, are properly adjusted so that they do not strike the form and at the
same time, are not far enough out to strike the roller supporters. In
case of interference of grippers, one or both may be removed. When
everything is ready, an impression is taken on the draw sheet and is
examined to see if any type are high, or to discover and correct any
other defect. Then the lower clamp, g, is loosened and while the draw
sheet is thrown back, an impression is taken on the top sheet of the
packing. If a portion of the impression is indistinct, a thin piece of
paper is pasted upon the indistinct parts to give them a slightly
heavier impression. This is known as the overlay. In patching up the
make-ready in this manner, it is very important that the overlay shall
not reach beyond the parts which need building up. If an indistinctness
in an impression is due to worn type or a low cut, it may be remedied by
an underlay. This is the pasting of bits of paper or cardboard to the
foot of the type, or to the back of the cut. In case a portion shows too
heavy an impression, that particular part is cut out of the top sheet of
the packing. Then the draw sheet is clamped down again and a device is
arranged for holding the stock for printing.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 27.
]

For locating the positions of the gauge pins, Fig. 27, or quadrats, the
stock is laid straight across the impression allowing the ends to
project equally over the ends of the impression, and with a sharp
pencil, a mark is made on the draw sheet along the left end of the
stock. Then the stock is slipped down across the impression in such a
way as to allow the edges of the stock to project the distance of the
desired margins above and below the impression on the drawsheet. A mark
is then placed along the lower edge of the stock. The gauge pins or
quads are placed on these two lines, two on the horizontal and one on
the vertical, in such a position as will best hold the stock on the
platen. If quads are used, they are glued to the drawsheet. It usually
takes several impressions on the cut stock to get a perfect adjustment.
In order to prevent the stock from being lifted from the platen by the
ink, a small cord is tied about the ends of the grippers in such a
position as that it strikes the stock above the impression of the type.

Constant care must be exercised to keep the grippers from getting in the
way of the roller supporters and causing considerable injury.

The pupils in school begin operating the press very slowly and by foot
power. The process of feeding is largely a matter of cultivating a
certain ambidexterity and a rhythmic movement of the hands, the right to
place the blank sheet upon the platen, and the left to remove it after
it is printed. Great care must be taken to avoid soiling the stock or
smearing the ink on removing the freshly printed sheets. As skill is
acquired, speed should be increased. Finally the boys are able safely to
feed a motor driven press. When the matter is printed, it is carefully
scattered over the letter boards, table, or shelves to dry, and the
chase is removed to the stone.




                       CLEANING AND DISTRIBUTING


After finishing the job of printing proper, there are still some very
important things to do. The form must be cleaned, the ink thoroughly
removed from the press, and the type thrown back into the proper cases,
or distributed.

The form is cleaned by going over the type, first with a cotton cloth
moistened with benzine, and following with a bristle brush. The press
also must be washed, that is the ink must be removed from the plate and
the rollers. With cotton rags or waste moistened with benzine, the ink
is wiped off the plate. Then the rollers are run upon the plate, and
with the cloth still further moistened with benzine, the rollers are
carefully gone over and all the ink removed. The rollers are then run
down from the plate, which is wiped clean and dry. In case waste is used
in cleaning the rollers, it should be wrapped inside of a cloth to
prevent threads and lint from adhering to them. To the inexperienced,
this matter of cleaning the press, gives the impression of a long,
tedious and dirty task. It proves to be quite an interesting
demonstration for the instructor to wash the press clean, and come
through the process in three minutes with hands scarcely soiled. There
grows up somewhat of a rivalry among the groups or individuals to see
which can wash the press in the shortest time and with the least muss.
In leaving the press, this caution should always be kept in mind; never
allow the rollers to remain on the plate or on a form in the press. Rags
that have become saturated with benzine and ink should be burned or kept
in a closed can.

It is the practice with a great many good printers to leave the ink on
the press over night, after thoroughly oiling it with lubricating oil.
By thus leaving the rollers covered with this soft, oily coat, the
composition is protected from the drying and hardening effects of the
air. Of course there are inks which harden in spite of the oil, such as
gilts, bronzes, bronze blues, reds, etc. Such inks should not be left on
the press longer than necessary.

The next morning, the oily ink is easily removed with a dry cloth.
Sometimes, it is well to follow up with a cloth slightly moistened with
benzine.

In case ink has been permitted to harden on the rollers, it may be
removed by taking the rollers from the press, washing them with
moderately strong lye, using a printer’s scrub brush. After the ink is
removed, the rollers are thoroughly rinsed in water.

When type has been allowed to remain without the ink having been cleaned
off, and the ink has hardened and cemented the type together, it may be
loosened and cleaned with lye. Make a strong solution of lye and
saturate the mass of type with it. Rub the lye in thoroughly with the
scrub brush, leave the lye on the type for two hours and then rinse in
water. Keep repeating this process until the type is loosened and
cleaned.

When a form has been used and is no longer needed, it is called dead
matter and is ready for distribution. To prepare the type for
distribution, a sponge is saturated with soapy water and the top of the
form thoroughly wet, so that the water makes its way down into the small
crevices between the type. If the form is put into a galley, it is
placed in the same position as for tying up. Then the printer takes upon
a slug the last two, three, or four lines and holds them in his left
hand as in Fig. 28, so that the lines occupy the same position as when
in the stick. With the right hand, he picks up one or more words from
the right end of the top line. Standing before his case in the same
position as when setting type, he spells the words back into the case.
It is very important that type be properly distributed, that the
letters, characters, and spaces be put into their proper boxes. This is
interesting work, and beginners delight in it; besides, it is a work in
which considerable skill can quite readily be acquired.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 28.
]

The proper time to rescue a letter from the floor or from a wrong box
into which it has been dropped, is immediately after it has been so
misplaced. Leads, slugs, furniture, and rule should be put at once in
proper positions into their respective places.




                    WHAT TO PRINT AND HOW TO PROCEED


In discussing the matter of the proper printing for the public schools,
let us not forget this general proposition, i. e., that the claim of
printing to a place as a school art must rest upon its force as an
educational factor and not upon the fact that, by a species of child
labor, money may be made or saved.

There may be done some work of a commercial nature, of course, as in any
kind of so-called industrial work, and thereby money be saved for the
institution or the community. But the fact that some of the work results
in financial gain or saving is incidental, although it may help to add
interest and reality to the work. However, the work of the school print
shop should be largely such as, in the absence of the school shop, would
not be printed.

School printing may be grouped loosely into three classes:

1. Material whose content appeals to the pupils and whose merit
justifies permanent form. It is always a happy condition when the matter
which we ask the boys and girls to print appeals to them on its own
merit as something that deserves to be perpetuated. The book idea
presupposes permanency of content. So the book, printed and bound by the
pupils and containing their favorite selections, makes a strong appeal.
Literature classes collect ballads, lyrics, and other forms of
literature for such work. Books of ballads suited to the various grades
might profitably be prepared. The broadsheet idea may be taken advantage
of to popularize national airs, patriotic songs, crisp maxims, rare bits
of humor, etc.

2. Such temporary material as connects intimately with the school work
and does a genuine service. An abundance of valuable material may be
found in connection with elementary reading, nature study, geography,
gardening, constructive work, etc. Stories relating to these subjects
and written by the children may be printed and furnished to the children
for reading matter. The development of dramatization in the schools
offers material for the printshop. A story like “Treasure Island” or
“Kinmont Willie” is read by the boys and girls, who set themselves to
the task of putting it into dramatic form. Pupils take up the work of
printing such a production with the greatest of interest whether it is
the work of their own or of another class. The school paper is a
valuable thing from every point of view. Spelling lists, binders’ notes
inserted in rebound books, programs of school entertainments, Xmas and
Easter cards, etc., come under this second division.

3. This class includes such work as would ordinarily be sent to the
commercial printer. Letter heads, office blanks, report cards, business
notices, official announcements, etc., come under this head. Some of
this can be handled to the profit of both the boys and the school and
without injustice to the commercial printer.

In beginning printing with a class, it is believed to be best to take
advantage of the wide-eyed curiosity and intense interest of the pupils,
simply to make them familiar with the locations of the various parts of
the equipment and the names of the various tools of the printer. Just
the pointing out and reciting of the names of the leads, slugs,
furniture, etc., are sufficient to hold the rapt attention of the class.

During the early period is a good time for investigations by the pupils
as to the origin and development of printing, the story of movable type,
the evolution of the press, the relation of printing to progress, etc.
This plan of having the pupils get as much relevant information as
possible concerning their new activity, under the impulse of this first
enthusiasm, proves to be an effective method of teaching as well as
valuable and timely work for the boys and girls. The same eagerness to
become familiar with the work makes the lay of the cases an easy matter
to get before the class. Almost without exception the boys ask for the
privilege of making individual diagrams of the cases, for pocket
reference. The very irregularity and confusion of the lower case somehow
appeal to the boys, and they take great pride in mastering what seems at
first glance almost a puzzle.

The explanation that j and u were the last letters added to the alphabet
and that they occupy positions in the capital case corresponding to the
time of their additions, makes the lay of the capital case easy to
remember.

Considerable time may well be devoted to just this kind of work.

In familiarizing themselves with the case, the pupils may well begin the
use of the job stick and the practice of properly holding it, by the use
of large type, in setting up their names and such simple matter as they
care to attempt, putting the type back again into the proper boxes. When
simple composition is begun, it is thought best that each piece of work
should run through the typical processes, setting up the type, emptying
the stick, proofing, correcting, tying up, removing to the stone,
locking up, and printing. The presswork for these first efforts may be
done by the teacher by way of demonstrations, so that the pupils become
familiar with the methods of handling a press.

The class should be kept for a considerable time on such work as labels,
name cards, spelling lists, etc., gradually working into the longer
compositions of plain, straight matter.

When it comes to the larger jobs, one piece of work may be divided among
several pupils or even the whole class.

Of course, in all this work, there must be constant reference and
attention to the various rules of composition, such as justification,
spacing, margins, etc.

As the class advances, it is well to have each boy do a little press
work by himself. He will prepare the make-ready, which the instructor
has previously demonstrated, ink the press, set the gauge pins, and run
off the job, under the close scrutiny of the teacher. In handling jobs
of two or more pages, the pupils have experience in proofing, making up
the matter into page forms, and of imposing or locking it up. It is well
to have the list of proof marks conspicuously on the board and to insist
upon the pupils’ use of them in a correct and intelligent way.

At the close of the eighth year and in the high school, the handling of
cuts, tabular work, and the more difficult processes all along the line
is expected.

Not only must the boys use the cuts in printing but they ought to make
the wood cuts, zinc etchings, and copper plates as frequently as
possible from designs and illustrations prepared by themselves.

During the work in printing, the teacher should not overlook or neglect
any illustrative material that may be available, and which may be of
value in setting standards, arousing ambitions, and offering suggestions
for improvement. Visits to commercial print shops are an excellent thing
from the standpoint of all these considerations. In studying the
arrangements of the parts of a broken page, or of an advertisement, it
has proved interesting and profitable to cut out the parts of the
printed matter collected for study, and to reassemble them by pasting
them to another page. The variety in the matter of margins, spacing, and
grouping that can be had by such a treatment, is often really
surprising. Then when there are added the possibilities of different
sizes and kinds of type, the colors of ink, and the colors and textures
of paper, the effects that may be produced are without limit.




                   METHOD OF TEACHING THE LOWER CASE


Each boy has a case before him. The class is told that there are three
little groups of letters to be learned first: _ar_, _is_, _jk_. These
groups are learned first, because they are not consecutive and do not
readily fall into the grouping which is to follow.

After these first groups have been fixed in the mind, it is explained
that the left half of the lower case is made up, for the most part, of
groups of letters which are consecutive in the alphabet. These groups
are: _bcde_, _lmn_ (_h_) _o_, _tuv_. Besides _jk_ on the left side there
is another nonconsecutive group, _qxz_. These groups are repeatedly
pointed out during the explanation. When we come to the group _lmn_
(_h_) _o_, we say “_lmn_ over _h_ to _o_.”

Beginning with _a_, the class repeats several times these groups:
_bcde_, _lmn_ (_h_) _o_, _tuv_, _qxz_. Then it is pointed out that there
are only two groups remaining, and that they are on the right hand side
of the case. They are _fg_ and _ypw_.

When the boys have located the groups a few times, they are tested on
the entire alphabet in order. They begin, _a_, _bcde_, _fg_, and then
they remember the “over _h_ to _o_” expression, which locates _h_ for
them. The next letters, _i_ and _jk_, are in the first groups learned
and hence are easily recalled. Then follows the group _lmno_. If they do
not readily locate _p_, the group _ypw_ is repeated by the teacher. The
letter _q_ is in the corner group, _qxz_, _r_ is in the first group
learned, _ar_, and _s_ is in the second group learned, _is_. The next
letters, _tuv_, are in a group by themselves, and the remaining letters
of the alphabet, _w_, _x_, _y_, _z_, are in the two remaining groups,
_ypw_ and _qxz_.

If at any time, a boy cannot locate a letter, he can be immediately
assisted if the teacher will simply repeat the group in which the letter
is to be found. For instance, if he cannot find _x_, the teacher should
simply say “qxz.”

The location of quads, spaces, numerals, and “points” is only a matter
of a short time, and may be learned at the time the letter boxes are
learned, but can just as well be taught when an explanation of the quads
and spaces is made.

It will be observed that by this plan, instead of learning the positions
of twenty-six separate boxes, the boys learn the positions of the
following nine groups: _ar_, _is_, _jk_, _bcde_, _lmn_ (_h_) _o_, _tuv_,
_qxz_, _fg_, _ypw_, which include the twenty-six.




                       WOOD CUTS AND METAL PLATES


The making of wood cuts and metal plate etchings has proved one of the
greatest sources of interest and educational profit to the boys and
girls. It vitalizes and lends motive to design and illustration, it
requires very little equipment and is a perfectly feasible scheme even
for the seventh and eighth grades.

It is perhaps as well to illustrate the idea with a concrete problem. A
book is being made for instance, by each pupil. He plans a cover design,
a bookplate or an illustration. After the design or illustration is
carefully worked out, it is traced in reverse by means of carbon paper
upon a piece of wood, copper, or zinc. If it is to be a wood cut, the
block is squared up to the proper thickness, about seven-eights of an
inch. Birch, maple, and black walnut have proved very satisfactory for
this work. Of course, in commercial work, boxwood is extensively used
and the design cut on the end grain; but it is very satisfactory and
much easier for the school work, to cut the figure on the side of a
piece of ordinary board. With a small veining tool, such as is used in
wood carving, the design is outlined, care being taken to leave the
edges of the parts to be left in relief sharp and distinct. Then with a
small gouge, chisel or knife, the background is cut away to the depth of
about one-sixteenth of an inch. No care need be taken to make the
background smooth.

Of course, the open grained woods do not give a solid, uniform
impression. This is not at all objectionable as one may see by examining
the wood cuts of the old masters. However, if a dense impression is
desired, this experiment has been tried with good results: After the
design is cut, the face of the block is gone over with a heavy coat of
thick woodfiller. When the filler is dry, it is carefully scraped from
the face of the design. By this simple method, a dense, clear, and
uniform impression is made possible.

If it is to be a metal plate, the pupil simply takes a thick, smooth
piece of copper or zinc, traces the design, and with a water color
brush, he paints with asphaltum varnish the parts of the design to be
left in relief. The back of the metal plate is also covered with a thin
coat of the varnish. Careful examination is made to see whether air
bubbles have caused small holes in the varnish, or anything else has
caused any portion of the design to be left uncovered. When dry, the
acid bath is prepared. Commercial nitric acid is the safest solution. It
is diluted by adding about an equal volume of water to it, making it
from 15% to 20% strong. The diluted acid is poured into a glass or
porcelain tray and the plate put into it. If the acid can be kept moving
by frequently rocking the tray, the etching will be very materially
hastened. It takes from three to five hours to etch deeply a piece of
copper, depending upon the strength and amount of the solution and the
amount of exposed surface to be eaten away. If large surfaces are to be
etched, quite a large quantity of acid is desirable, or else a changing
or strengthening of the solution during the process. As soon as the acid
becomes somewhat burdened with the metal, it ceases to act at all
freely, and even begins to deposit a blue nitrate upon the metal. In
such a case, it is best to put the plate into a fresh solution.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 29.
]

Care must be taken that the acid is not too strong, as the heat
generated by its rapid action softens the varnish and lets the acid
under to play havoc with the design. Numerous bubbles and yellow-green
fumes indicate that the acid should be weakened by the addition of a
small quantity of water.

By observing the progress of the etching occasionally, it can be told
when the proper depth has been reached. Then the plate is heated
sufficiently to soften the varnish, soaked in kerosene or turpentine,
and rubbed clean with a cloth. Or the warm varnish can be removed by
simply saturating the cloth with kerosene, turpentine, or benzine and
rubbing over it.

A block of wood is then prepared for a base so that the mounted plate is
slightly less in thickness than the height of the type. Then with a
punch or a small drill, holes are put into the lower, or background,
part of the metal. Through these holes the plate is fastened to the
block by small tacks or escutcheon pins, the heads being sunken below
the surface of the background. Large surfaces of background should be
sawed out before the metal is mounted upon the block. When the cut is
used in printing, it is brought up to the proper height by the
underlaying of paper or cardboard.

This work is used extensively in connection with such work as cards and
programs for Xmas, Thanksgiving, Easter and other special occasions.
Fig. 29.




                  THE EQUIPMENT—ITS SELECTION AND COST


In planning an equipment for a print shop, as for any other shop, the
more specific the conditions and limitations under which one is placed,
the more intelligently one can go about the undertaking. In the first
place, the following things should be as definitely decided upon as
possible:

1. The grade and number of pupils who are going to handle the equipment.

2. The nature of the work anticipated.

3. Amount of money to be expended.

This is only another way of saying that a school printshop must meet
school conditions. There are a number of points in which the school
print shop differs materially from the commercial job shop. The number
that must be kept at work is an illustrative point.

From the standpoint of durability and of quality of the work to be done,
it is safer, of course, to buy as large a part of the equipment as
possible, new. In other lines of the Manual Arts work, very little
disposition is shown to buy second hand machinery and tools; but there
seems to be a decided tendency to look for old equipment for the
printshop. This, perhaps, arises out of the misapprehension that even a
very small printing plant is very expensive. On the contrary, it will be
seen by reference to the lists on page 58, that a printing equipment is
comparatively inexpensive. Unless one is an expert, or is familiar with
the time and kind of use the goods have been subjected to, it is unsafe
to buy such used goods as type, leads, slugs, rule, furniture, and type
cases, for these may be regarded as perishable; besides, they are
comparatively cheap. So, from the financial standpoint, as well as that
of good work, it is unwise to buy such used material. And when it comes
to the larger, more expensive articles, like the press and the cutter,
it must be considered that they are probably not soon, if ever, to be
replaced, that imperfections are difficult to detect, and that not a
very large reduction, can be had on machines in good repair. But if it
is a question of getting a start in printing by the use of old equipment
or doing without the printshop, by all means let’s have the old
equipment. There are a good many items that can be safely and cheaply
bought second hand. Among these are cabinets, stones and frames, case
stands, lead cases, etc.

It is wise to buy only such staple articles as in a good printer’s
judgment the conditions demand. There is some temptation to buy, out of
a scanty allowance, articles which are not absolutely necessary, or
which may easily be improvised. It is wise to buy the essentials and
such quantities and accessories as make what one buys available to its
full capacity. To illustrate, it is not uncommon to find quite a liberal
quantity of type with an insufficient supply of quads and spaces. This
simply means that the type is available for use only to the extent of
the quad and space supply. This illustration is only typical of a number
that might be made. For school purpose, it is much more satisfactory to
have generous quantities of a few sizes of type of one series, than to
have small quantities of several sizes and series. If the specific
purposes of the shop are clearly in mind, the selection of faces,
quantities, and sizes of type is greatly facilitated.

If it is planned to do very much of the supplementary reading work for
the elementary grades, good quantities of 12 point type should be
provided, including such a special supply of sorts, especially in
capitals, as seems necessary to meet the needs. For instance, it has
been found that in the language and reading work of the lower grades,
the personal pronouns, I and we, are used with great extravagance in
beginning sentences; so the I and W boxes are soon empty. In case some
prominence is to be given to arithmetic work, then larger quantities of
figures, fractions, etc., should be bought than come in the regular
fonts. For general work, there can be no wiser selection than a large
quantity of 10 point type. Of course, where the allowance permits, it is
extremely nice to have small fonts of two or three different faces,
which may be used for variety, initials, display, etc.

It has been found very satisfactory to have large quantities of a few
sizes of body type as previously suggested, and in addition, a few fonts
of a heavier face, duplicating the body type in sizes but with some
larger sizes, and also a small assortment of some nice simple text
letters. In selecting type, a wide, clear, readable face is desirable,
and it is best to select those faces which do not contain hair lines or
complications which make it difficult to get a distinct impression, and
which render the type less durable. It is rather unusual to see a shop
sufficiently supplied with quads and spaces, and especially is this so
where much of the work is widely spaced and where each line is treated
as a paragraph, as in elementary matter.

In order to provide for the small font display type which, of course,
comes in straight letter work, it has been found a good plan to add, in
addition to the regular 20%, 5 pounds each of quads and spaces for each
50 pounds, and 2½ pounds for each 25 pounds of body type.

Everything considered, the 10 × 15 press is preferable for the school as
well as other work. It accommodates large forms, which fact is often
urged against it; but for the smaller work, like the most of the school
work, it is practically as easily handled as an 8 × 12. It is
considerably more expensive but it has a much greater capacity for work
of the more advanced kind.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 30.
]

Of course, cabinets are preferable to open case stands. They are
compact, free from dust and dirt, and of good appearance. However, they
are more expensive than stands, if the matter must be determined by the
question of cost. If one goes to the expense of getting a cutter, Fig.
30, it is the part of good judgment to get one that will be of the
greatest service. So it is advisable to get a 25 or 26 inch cutter. The
difference in cost above that of a twenty-two inch is overbalanced by
the economy and convenience in cutting large stock. In case a large
cutter cannot be bought, small table cutters, which give good service,
may be had at various low prices. The stone mentioned in the $800 list
on this page is practically ideal for the small printshop. It is a 26 ×
44 marble, mounted upon a cabinet which contains a large quantity of
wood furniture, and a number of drawers and letter boards. This stone is
not so much more expensive after all, if one considers the cost of the
furniture and case and the other conveniences.

Probably the general method of selecting equipment for any line of work
is to take an ideal list and by elimination reduce it to within the
limits of the appropriation. The following $800 equipment is the one
selected by the author for his own classes, after several years of
planning and investigation. During this time, a great many school men
who have had to deal with the same problem, and a number of expert
printers were consulted and asked for criticism of the proposed list
under the conditions which the equipment has to meet:

   1 ½ h. p. motor.
   1 10 × 15 Chandler & Price Gordon Press with 3 chases.
   1 Steel chase.
   1 Boston Staple Binder, Style A.
   1 26″ Chandler & Price Paper Cutter.
   1 Utility Imposing Stone Frame and Stone, 26 × 44.
   1 No. 68 New Departure Cabinet (50 cases).
   1 No. 2 Paper and Card Stock Cabinet.
   1 No. 8 Bettis Lead and Slug Case.
   2 Pairs news cases.
   2 Pair 2–3 case tilting brackets.
   1 Metal furniture case.
   1 No. 1 Harris Rule Case.
   5 8¾ × 13 all brass galleys.
   1 12 × 18 all brass galley.
   8 8 × 2¼ Yankee Job Sticks.
   1 18 × 2½ Yankee Job Stick.
   2 Doz. No. 1 Wickersham Quoins.
   2 Keys, No. 1.
   1 Doz. Spring Tongue Gauge Pins.
   1 Quart Success benzine can.
   1 Benzine brush.
   1 No. 2 press brake.
   1 3 × 6 planer.
   1 3½ × 8 proof planer.
   1 2½ × 4½ mallet.
   2 Pair roller supporters.
  20 Pounds 6 Point Authors Roman Wide.
  40 Pounds 8 Point Authors Roman Wide.
  40 Pounds 10 Point Authors Roman Wide.
  20 Pounds 12 Point Authors Roman Wide.
  20 Pounds 18 Point Authors Roman Wide.
   2 Fonts 6 Point Old Roman Black.
   2 Fonts 8 Point Old Roman Black.
   2 Fonts 10 Point Old Roman Black.
   2 Fonts 12 Point Old Roman Black.
   2 Fonts 18 Point Old Roman Black.
   1 Font 24 Point Old Roman Black.
   1 Font 30 Point Old Roman Black.
   1 Font 36 Point Old Roman Black.
   1 Font 48 Point Old Roman Black.
   1 Font 8 Point Engraver’s Old Black.
   4 Fonts 12 Point Engraver’s Old Black, L. C.
   2 Fonts 12 Point Engraver’s Old Black, Caps.
   1 Font 24 Point Engraver’s Old Black.
   1 Font 48 Point Elzeverine Initials.
   5 Pounds 6 point spaces assorted.
  10 Pounds 8 point spaces assorted.
  10 Pounds 10 point spaces assorted.
  10 Pounds 12 point spaces assorted.
  10 Pounds 18 point spaces assorted.
   5 Pounds 24 point spaces assorted.
   5 Pounds 30 point spaces assorted.
   5 Pounds 36 point spaces assorted.
   5 Pounds 48 point spaces assorted.
   5 Pounds 6 point quads assorted.
  10 Pounds 8 point quads assorted.
  10 Pounds 10 point quads assorted.
  10 Pounds 10 point 2- and 3-em quads.
   5 Pounds each 12, 18, 24 point quads assorted.
   5 Pounds each 30, 36, 48 point quads assorted.
  10 Pounds 10 point leaders, three dots to em.
  10 Pounds 8 point leaders, three dots to em.
  50 Pounds each 2 point L. S. leads and 6 point L. S. slugs.
   3 Pounds L. S. brass rule hair line, side centered on 2 point body.
   3 Pounds L. S. brass rule, 1 point face, side centered on 2 point body.
   2 Pounds 2 point L. S. black face rule.
   2 Pounds 4 point L. S. black face rule.
   2 Pounds 6 point L. S. black face rule.
   2 Pounds 10 point L. S. black face rule.
  24 Pounds metal furniture.
   1 Font No. 1 brass and copper spaces.
   4 Font solid brass panel ends.
   1 Set 12 point brass squares.
 100 1×3 brass label holders.
  5M ¼″ Boston staples.

In case this amount of money is not available for a printing equipment,
this list may be modified to come within the necessary limit. By
substituting a smaller press and cutter, by getting stands instead of
cabinets for the type and stone, by eliminating the stock cabinet,
motor, and stapler, and by reducing the quantities of various items, one
may still have an excellent equipment. The following is such a
suggestive list, and can be bought for $400:

 Press, 8″ × 12″ with four chases.
 Cutter, 23½″.
  ½ Doz. job sticks.
  1 Doz. gauge pins.
  1 Doz. quoins.
  2 Keys.
  1 Benzine can.
  1 Benzine brush.
  1 Waste can.
  ½ Doz. brass galleys, 8¾″ × 13″.
 10 Lbs. metal furniture.
  1 Two lb. font labor saving brass rule, 1 point, side centered on
    2 point body.
  1 Two lb. font brass rule, labor saving, 2 point.
 50 Lbs. L. S. leads, 2 point.
 25 Lbs. L. S. slugs, 6 point.
  1 Rule case.
  1 Metal furniture case.
  1 Planer.
  1 Proof planer.
  1 Mallet.
  1 Lead and slug case.
  1 Case wood furniture.
 24 California job cases.
  2 Pairs news cases.
  1 Double case stand, 24 cases.
  1 Stone and frame, 26″ × 44″.
 10 Pounds 8 point type.
 50 Pounds 10 point type.
 25 Pounds 12 point type.
  2 Fonts 18 point type.
  1 Font 24 point type.
  5 Pounds 8 point quads and spaces.
 15 Pounds 10 point quads and spaces.
 10 Pounds 12 point quads and spaces.
  5 Pounds 18 point quads and spaces.
 2½ Pounds 24 point quads and spaces.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 31.
]




                ARRANGEMENT AND DISPOSITION OF EQUIPMENT


If the machinery, cabinets, tables, etc., are compactly and properly
arranged in good relative positions, a good job outfit can be placed and
used in much smaller quarters than at first seems possible. The
printshop is one place where a great amount of floor space between the
various parts of the equipment is not entirely essential. When the
groups or individuals have been set to work, there is no necessity for a
great amount of passing back and forth. This is mentioned for the
benefit of those who feel that printing cannot be installed unless there
is an enormous amount of floor space available. Of course, large rooms
are desirable, but after all, the effectiveness and availability of the
equipment turn on the point of convenient arrangement of related parts,
so that a job may pass easily from one stage to another without
disturbance or interruption. In other words, the arrangement must be
such that all the operations of the job shop may be in progress at the
same time and that without confusion. In the first place, the type
cabinet or case stand should be convenient to plenty of table space so
that the boys may carry their cases back and forth without difficulty.

The proof stand or press and the imposing stone should be of easy access
to those who are working at the type case and at the same time in close
reach of the pressman.

A good position for the press is in a well lighted corner far enough
from the walls to permit easy passing of the pressman for the purpose of
oiling, cleaning, and general care of the press. The motor may be placed
in the corner back of the press and entirely out of the way. The paper
cutter and stock cabinet should be placed as closely together as
possible not to interfere with the action of each other. There cannot
well be too much in the way of drawers, wall cases, and shelving, for
the work of the students, small items of supplies, inks, rollers,
benzine and waste cans, etc. These conveniences can be added here and
there in small, unoccupied spaces, with just a little time and a very
small bit of expense. In this way and this only, can a place be provided
for everything with any assurance that everything, at any one time, may
be found in its place. These repositories should be properly labelled.
Such additional items and conveniences not included in any list of
equipment, are nevertheless among the essentials, and their presence
greatly facilitates and systematizes the work. The matter of table space
cannot be too greatly emphasized. Not only are tables used for rests for
type cases but the make-up galleys are laid upon them for convenience in
work. Proof reading also requires table space.

It seems proper, under this heading to speak of the disposition of the
various sizes of type for the greatest convenience. Of course, the type
ought to be divided and placed so as to be accessible to the greatest
possible number. So, except in very small fonts, each size should be
divided and put into as many cases as can be supplied with working
quantities of type. Thus, fifty pounds of ten point, which is
extensively used in general work, may be divided among five or even more
cases. In this way, ten pupils can be accommodated at the ten point
cases at one time, since two can work, to a very fair advantage, at one
case.

The class works in groups, one setting type, one proofing and
correcting, one making up forms, while the fourth operates the press. At
the same time, there usually are jobs going forward in different kinds
and sizes of type. So, it is difficult to think of needing
accommodations for more than ten students at one size and kind of type
at one time.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

                      The little boy said, “I can
                      not go home.
                      My goat ran into the
                      woods.
                      He will not go home.”
                      Then the boy began to cry.
                      The squirrel tried to make
                      the goat go home.

------------------------------------------------------------------------


                           FIRST GRADE POEMS

                     Do you best your very best,
                     And do it every day;
                     Little toys and little girls,
                     This is the wisest way.

                     See-saw! See-saw!
                     Here we go up and down.
                     See-saw! See-saw!
                     This is the way to town.

                     The world’s a very happy
                       place, where every child
                       should dance and sing,
                     And always have a smiling
                       face,
                     And never sulk for anything.

                       Politeness is to do or say

------------------------------------------------------------------------

   HIGH SCHOOL
 COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT

                                                _Bloomington, Illinois._

                  *       *       *       *       *

    It was late in mild October, and the long autumnal rain
    Had left the summer harvest-fields all green with grass again;
    The first sharp frosts had fallen, leaving all the woodlands gay
    With the hues of summer’s rainbow, or the meadow-flowers of May.
                                                        —Whittier.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

                            PRINT SHOP PRESS

                           _Ye High Schoole._

                  *       *       *       *       *

 ═════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════
              VOL. I.      SIOUX CITY, IOWA, THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 27, 1913.      NO. 1.
 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
         ORGANIZED PLAY         in Sioux City. He visits each school         FLYING THE FLAG
                                about once a week. He starts the pupils
              ————              in some kind of play and the teacher               ————
 THIS IDEA IS BEING CARRIED OUT continues this until Mr Morris returns  H. H. RICE COMMENTS ON THE
         IN SIOUX CITY.         the next week. All pupils are engaged            SUBJECT.

                                      HENRY METZGER      RAYMOND L LINK
       Hawthorne Mother’s Club
            Meets Tuesday                  Chicago Automobile Co.
         September 23, 1913                      AUTOMOBILES
            3:15 o’clock                       and Accessories

                                      1221 North State St.      CHICAGO

------------------------------------------------------------------------


=Series 1, Senior Eighth.=—Print Shop: _Ye Highe Schoole_.

                               =HISTORY=

                 =Senior Eighth Grade, December 1, 1913
                          9:30 to 11:30 A. M.=

NOTE: Answer any ten of the following twelve questions.

         I. For what are the following places to be remembered?

                  _a._ Jamestown. _c._ Harper’s Ferry.
                  _b._ Vicksburg. _d._ Yorktown.

                  *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration:

               +---------------------------------------+
               |             THE SERVICE               |
               |              PHILOSOPHY               |
               |                                       |
               |         ===================           |
               |                                       |
               |           _I Believe in_              |
               |  SINCERITY—That Power of the          |
               |    personality that wins confidence,  |
               |    and establishes satisfaction.      |
               |                                       |
               |  ENDURANCE—The essence of vitality    |
               |    derived from Health and            |
               |    strength.                          |
               +---------------------------------------+

]

------------------------------------------------------------------------




                              BOOKBINDING
                                 _and_
    A COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOR EACH GRADE OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL


                                  _By_

                              S. J. VAUGHN

 Head Department of Manual Arts, State Normal School, DeKalb, Illinois.


                                  1914
                     PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLISHING CO.,
                           BLOOMINGTON, ILL.




                            _Copyright 1912
                  by the Public School Publishing Co._




                           TABLE OF CONTENTS:


                                            PAGE
                        Introduction         106
                        Classes of Bindings  109
                        Case Binding         111
                        Library Binding      122
                        Extra Binding        131
                        Rebinding            140
                        Equipment            145
                        Suggestive Course    147
                        First Grade          151
                        Second Grade         152
                        Third Grade          153
                        Fourth Grade         155
                        Fifth Grade          157
                        Sixth Grade          160
                        Seventh Grade        164
                        Eighth Grade         166

[Illustration: books]




                              INTRODUCTION


There are a number of well defined reasons why bookbinding may justly
claim recognition as an educational factor in our schools.

In the first place, the permanent and vital character of the book in one
form or another has given it a place of respect in all civilizations.
The book is the final form of all enduring literature and indeed of all
enduring thought. It is the epitome of the printer’s, the engraver’s,
the illustrator’s, the designer’s, and the binder’s art, and is the
meeting point of all the crafts.

So the book idea appeals very strongly to people both in and out of
school. Bookbinding is perhaps the most logical and consistent of all
the crafts, in its development from the simple to the more complex
forms. In this easy gradation, is repeated the history of the book
itself and of its development.

From this point of view, books fall into four rather distinct classes.

1. The simplest idea of binding is the holding together in some manner,
a number of single leaves. So the attention is directed simply to
methods of fastening together leaves of related matter for convenience
in handling.

2. After this simple convenience has been met, the matter of protecting
the leaves forces itself upon us, and the attention is turned almost
wholly to devising ways of making durable and beautiful covers. The
various forms of separate covers are made to accomplish these ends.

3. Later, the attention turns back to the book proper and the different
methods of putting together a number of sections which become necessary
in larger books made of folded printed sheets. The emphasis now
naturally falls upon this new feature of fastening sections together,
and so, various methods of sewing are developed.

4. In the fourth division, the emphasis goes upon the covers and the
decoration. Here come in the tooling, lettering, inlaying and such
processes as are usually included in the term finishing.


                       APPLY TO CHILDREN’S WORK.

Not only is the book idea enduring and vital, and its development
logical and consistent, but the book work may be intimately related to
the other activities of the school, the pupil bringing about with his
own effort the satisfaction of his own distinct needs.

In making books for spelling, reading, language, nature study, art,
etc., these needs and relations are evident.

These books with their stories, their covers, and their end papers,
offer abundant material for illustration, design, lettering, etc., in
the art work.

Again, the bookbinding work in its elementary aspects of construction is
peculiarly adapted to children. This is evidenced by the fact, easily
demonstrated, that children do as well in their particular grades of
work as matured but inexperienced people can do in the same grades of
work.

Aside from the logical development and the genuineness of the problems
presented and their intimate relations to the other work, perhaps the
strongest argument in favor of bookbinding in the schools, is the fact
of its adaptability to the conditions of the ordinary school room, with
but little equipment and hence but little expense.

The work may be carried on in the primary and intermediate grades with
as small, but practically the same equipment, as is necessary for such
activities as “cardboard construction” and kindred work.

It will be seen by reference to page 45 how inexpensive even a good
equipment for upper grade and high school work is.

[Illustration: Bookbinder workers]




                          CLASSES OF BINDINGS.


                         Forwarding—Finishing.

In advanced bookbinding, there are the two general divisions of
work:—Forwarding, which includes in new books, sewing, backing, putting
on boards, and covering; and finishing, which has to do with the
lettering, tooling, inlaying, and general decorative treatment.

The elementary and high school treatment of the subject of bookbinding,
such a treatment as is undertaken in the present volume, is almost
wholly concerned with the various processes included in the term
Forwarding, which in rebinding includes a number of other steps not
mentioned above.


             Case Binding; Library Binding; Extra Binding.

Based upon their methods of sewing, backing, covering, finishing, etc.,
there may be said to be three general classes of bindings:—Case Binding,
Library Binding, and Extra Binding. These are arbitrary terms applied to
methods of binding which have been fully established and recognized.

In the modern commercial binderies, all kinds of modifications,
combinations and imitations are made, so that it is often difficult to
tell by external appearances of bindings to what types they belong.

It is a common thing to see a case binding in full leather.

The proper way to have a book bound or rebound is to have written
specifications which indicate details of methods, materials, etc.

The following are typical specifications for Case Binding:—

1. Plates guarded.

2. Sewed all along with five punctures and kettlestitches.

3. Full or half buckram.

4. Glued and backed.

5. Attached back.

6. Commercial silk headband.

7. First and last leaves used as pastedowns.

8. Edges uncut.




                                  II.
                             CASE BINDING.


Case Bindings or casings (for the craft binder refuses to call them
bindings) are those covers which are made separately from the books and
laid on. These covers have the characteristics enumerated in the
specifications and are the unsubstantial covers usually found on modern
cheap, temporary books.

If the book is to be bound from original sheets, each sheet is folded
into a section. Such a section is called a signature. The number of
leaves in a folded sheet or section gives the name to the book. A sheet
folded once, making two leaves, is a folio; twice, making four leaves, a
quarto or 4to; three times, making eight leaves, an octavo or 8vo; four
times, making sixteen leaves, a 16mo; etc. It is seen by this that owing
to the varying sizes of paper, any form of book may vary greatly in
size. However, the following may be taken as a general standard of
sizes:—

                      16mo 5×7 inches.
                      Octavo (8vo) 6×9 inches.
                      Quarto (4to) 10×12½ inches.


                               End Paper

If there have not been left an abundance of blank leaves at the first
and last of the book, at least four folios are cut—two for each end—and
these become the first and last sections of the book.

The sections are now assembled in proper order, a tin is placed between
sections at several places in the book and all are put under heavy
pressure. This is usually done at the last of a recitation, and the book
left in press over night, so that the sections may be perfectly flat.


                           Mark Up—Puncture.

After the book is carefully evened up by knocking the back and head
against the table, it is marked up; that is, a mark is put on each
outside endpaper near the head, so that the head of the book may be
recognized without opening; and then places are marked for five
punctures along the back. The top puncture may be put about
three-fourths of an inch or an inch from the head, and the bottom one
about one and one-fourth or one and one-half inches from the foot. It is
considered that the head should be somewhat stronger, since it must bear
the strain of pulling the book from the shelf.

Then with a small saw or a sharp-edged file, punctures are made across
the back at the marks. These should be just deep enough to reach through
the inside folio of each section.


                       Sewing First Two Sections.

Now the book is ready to sew. It is placed on the table to the left of
the workman with the back toward him and the head to the left. With a
linen thread and a long, slim needle ready, the workman takes up the
section of endpapers lying on top and turns it entirely over, laying it
exactly in front of him with the head to his right. Fig. 14. With his
right hand he inserts the needle into the head puncture, while with his
left hand in the middle of the section between the leaves, he draws the
needle through to the inside and runs it out at the foot puncture. “In
at the head puncture and out at the foot.” The second section is turned
over upon the first, and the needle run in at the foot puncture and out
at the second puncture from the foot. Then it is inserted at the second
puncture from the foot of the first section and immediately run out at
the same puncture but on the opposite side of the thread which runs
along inside the first section. Then apply this unfailing rule when in
doubt as to what puncture to go into:—“Put the needle into a puncture so
located that it will not undo work already done, and that the thread
will not be left exposed on the outside of the book.”

Applying this rule, it is seen that the needle must be put into the
second puncture of the second section. This operation is repeated at
each puncture until the head is reached. When the needle has been drawn
from the head puncture of the second section, the threads coming out of
the two head punctures are pulled up tight and are tied into a double
knot. a Fig. 14. Care must be used in pulling the thread so as not to
tear the paper.


                    Kettlestitch;—Sewing All along.

The third section is now laid on and the needle run in at the head
puncture and out at the second puncture from the head. Now comes the
elusive “kettlestitch.” The needle is run _under_ the second section at
the right of the second puncture and out at the left of the same
puncture, as at b Fig. 14. The thread is drawn loosely so as to leave a
small loop through which the needle is passed. It is now drawn taut and
the needle run back into the second puncture of the third section. This
stitch is made every time the needle comes _out_ of a puncture until the
sewing is finished. When the last puncture is reached, a double
kettlestitch is made and the thread cut a half inch from the knot. This
is what is meant by “sewing all along.” If the original thread should
not be long enough or should break, a new thread is tied on with a
weaver’s knot, Fig. 15, always inside the book and as closely as
possible to the puncture to avoid pulling the knot through the next
puncture.

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 14. Sewing all along.
  a. first two sections tied.
  b. Kettlestitch._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 15._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 16._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 17. Marking of cloth for Case Binding._
]

[Illustration: Book]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 18. Laying on of the cover._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 19. Half cloth cover showing turn-ins at a._
]


                        Backing boards—Backing.

The book is now placed between backing boards with only a small portion
of the book projecting above the boards and then put into the lying
press (1. Plate 1), and clamped up tightly. The part projecting should
about equal the thickness of the cardboard used for the cover.

This book is not to be rounded any more than is absolutely necessary in
the backing. The process of backing is necessary because of a thickened
condition of the back as a result of the numerous threads and perhaps a
few guards that have been added to it. By clamping the book tightly and
hammering the back, the thickness can be reduced by forcing the edges
over the boards as at Fig. 16.

After the book is firmly fastened in the press, the back is covered with
thin glue, which is rubbed in with a stiff brush and then wiped off, so
that it remains only in the little depressions between the sections.
Within about fifteen minutes, the glue reaches a kind of elastic
condition, and then the hammer is brought into use.

By light strokes along the center of the back, and then gradually
farther out toward the end sections, the edges of the sections are
forced away from the center and made to project finally over the edges
of the backing boards, making the joint.

[Illustration:

  PLATE I

  1. Lying Press
  2. Backing Boards
  3. Bone Folder
  4. Paper Cutter
  5. Head Knife
  6. Sewing Frame
  7. Backing Sticks
  8. Letter Press used as Standing Press
  9. Back Saw
  10. Joint Rods
  11. Pressing Tin
  12. Pressing Board
]


                      Super;—Headband;—Back Strip.

When the book is dry, a piece of super or thin canvas is glued to the
back and about one and one-half inches down the endpapers, which are
then cut off along the edges of this super. This forms what is called
the slip. The super should be a little shorter than the book and about
two or three inches wider than the back of the book.

A piece of cotton or silk stock headband is now glued to the back at the
head and projecting about one-eighth of an inch above it. Then a strip
of thick, tough paper, just large enough to cover the back, is glued on.
This finishes the book ready for the cover.


                           Squares;—Foredge.

During the processes just described, while waiting for the glue to dry,
the materials are gotten for the cover. Two boards are cut as wide as
the book and from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch longer. This
makes the squares one-eighth or three-sixteenths of an inch and
determines the width of the joint at the back, since the board must go
forward sufficiently to make the projection at the foredge the same as
at the head and foot. This projection is called the squares.

Several things must be considered in determining the size of the
squares. The most important are protection, strength, and beauty. From
the standpoint of good proportion, of course, the large, thick book
would demand large squares, whereas protection of the edges may not
require them so long; while the strength and durability of the binding
would suggest shorter squares still.

A large book set upon a shelf is forced by its own weight down between
the boards against the shelf, straining or breaking the cover at the
back.


                     Turn-in;—Size of Cover Cloth.

In cutting leather, cloth, and paper, it is a rule to allow
three-fourths of an inch for each turn-in. So this is observed in
cutting material for this cover. To find the size of the cloth for a
full cloth cover, it is necessary to add together the widths of the two
boards, the thickness of the back, the two joints and one and one-half
inches for the turn-ins at the foredge. This sum gives the dimension, of
course, from the foredge of one cover around the back to the foredge of
the other cover. The dimension of the cloth lengthwise of the book is
one and one-half inches greater than the length of the board.

To make the cover, the cloth is laid wrong side up on the table, Fig.
17. Three-fourths of an inch is measured down from the top and a pencil
line is drawn, a, a´. Then the middle of the cloth from left to right is
found and marked as indicated by the crosses. From these central points,
the lines b b´ and c c´ are located which mark the positions of the back
edges of the boards and of course, are as far apart as the thickness of
the book plus the two joints. Then the boards are placed so that they
fit into the right angles formed by lines bb´ and cc´ and aa´, and a
pencil mark as dd´ is made along the foredge and bottom of each board,
completing the rectangles. The strips of cloth outside these rectangles
are the turn-ins.


                                Mitres.

With scissors or a knife the corners are clipped out as at e, which is
called making the mitres. It is clear that if the corner were cut
entirely up to the corner of the rectangle, there would be danger of
exposing the corner of the board, so a distance is left about equal to
the thickness of the board.


                                Pasting.

The surface of the cloth except the back strip between the boards, is
covered with a thin coat of paste, the boards are laid on, and the edges
of the cloth are turned over the edges of the boards and pressed down as
at a, Figs. 18 and 19, care being taken to get the cloth firmly against
the edges of the boards.

With less mature pupils, it is sometimes advisable to put on only one
board at a time, in which case the head and foot of the back strip are
treated as at g, Fig. 17. The cover is now ready for the press. It is
closed in book fashion with a pressing tin or board between the covers.
A piece of clean waste paper is put between each board and the pressing
tin or board. A waste paper and a board are placed on each side of the
cover and all put into the press. The cover should be left in the press
over night. The waste paper is very important. Without it, the tins are
likely to stick to the book and the moisture of the paste to cause rust
which mars the book. This caution is never out of place and can never be
repeated too often, i. e., do not use too thin paste; do not use too
much paste; put on the paste rapidly.


                                Laid On.

Now the cover is ready to be laid on. A strip of tough paper just as
wide and as long as the back of the book, is now pasted along the back
cloth between the boards f, Fig. 17, and inserted under the cloth which
is turned over at the two ends.

If the cover were to be left hollow, the paste would be applied to the
slips only; but in this case, where the back cloth is to be attached,
both the slips and the back, as well as the strip between the boards of
the cover, are thoroughly covered with paste, and the book set into the
cover in its proper position. While the workman supports the book with
one hand, he brings up one side of the cover firmly against the book.
The slip on this side becomes attached to the board. Then the book is
laid down on the side just pasted, while the other cover is pulled
firmly to bring the back cloth against the book, and is then pressed
down upon the paste-covered slip or super b, Fig. 18. Examination is
then made to see if the book is straight in the cover, if the squares
are correct, etc. If it is not straight, it is removed and the process
repeated.

When the cover is on straight, the cloth is rubbed firmly along the back
and into the joints. When it is thoroughly attached at the back, the
book is put lightly into the press, after a tin, inserted between two
papers, has been put between the cover and the book on each side.


                        Paste-downs—Bone Folder.

The next step is the pasting down of the endpapers. The cover is lifted
on one side and a piece of waste paper is placed beneath the endpaper
which is then covered with paste.

This done, the endpaper is drawn back upon the board and rubbed down
with the hands. Then with a bone folder, 3, Plate I, the endpaper and
slip are rubbed under the back edge of the board at the joint.

The cover is now closed upon the book and immediately opened. If it is
found that in closing, the endpaper wrinkles or proves in anyway wrong,
the wrinkles are smoothed out and other defects corrected. If necessary,
the endpaper may be lifted carefully from the board and then put down
again. Then the cover is closed again, and again inspected. If it is all
right, the other endpaper is treated in like manner, and the book is put
lightly into press, not neglecting waste paper and tins, and left until
thoroughly dry.


                                 Paste.

The best paste is made as follows:—Add one-half a teaspoonsful of
powdered alum and a few drops of wintergreen to one pint of flour. Mix
with water to the consistency of cream. Cook until it becomes stiff and
waxlike, stirring constantly. Then pour in some hot water, stir and cook
again until it becomes the desired consistency. Ordinary library paste
or photo mount is not satisfactory.




                                  III.
                            LIBRARY BINDING.


The name Library Binding may be somewhat misleading if one has in mind
the bindings commonly seen in libraries. This binding is practically
what was recommended for the libraries of England by a committee from
the English Society of Arts, appointed to investigate the causes of the
lack of durability in bindings and to suggest remedies for defects
found.

The following specifications indicate the distinguishing features of
this binding:—

  1. Half leather, paper sides.

  2. Sewed on four or more tapes.

  3. Double boards.

  4. French joint.

  5. Zigzag colored endpapers.

  6. Head cut, out of boards, and colored.

  7. Backed and slightly rounded.

  8. Cord inserted under leather instead of headband.

  9. Leather attached to back.


                            Zigzag Endpaper.

After the sheets are folded and pressed as described in the previous
binding, the zigzag endpapers are prepared. In cutting these endpapers,
four sheets of white paper to match the book are cut and folded, two of
the folios being considerably wider than the book so as to allow for the
fold e, Fig. 20. Each leaf of the large folios is folded back about
one-fourth of an inch from the original fold. Then another folio, c, the
same size as the book, is pasted under zigzag e, and the endpapers made
in this way become the first and last sections. Folio b is the colored
endpaper which is not inserted until book is sewed.

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 20. Zigzag end. a, b, c, separate folios._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 21. Sewing Frame and sewing on tapes. a, finished catch or
    crowsfoot stitch. b, the beginning of the catchstitch._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 22. Ready for backing. a, Joint. b, Backing boards. c, Lying, or
    finishing press._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 23. putting on double boards. a, The slip._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 24. Putting on the leather back. a, cord._
]

[Illustration: Book]

The book is now marked up as in the Case Binding except that there are
only two punctures, one about three-quarters of an inch from the head,
and the other about one and one-quarter inches from the foot, in an
ordinary size of book.


                            Sewing on Tapes.

Sewing on tapes requires a sewing frame, Fig. 21, which is prepared for
sewing by tying five tapes to the horizontal bar. The book is then laid
on the floor of the frame with the head toward the right and the back to
the tapes. The head tape is placed one-fourth of an inch to the left of
the head puncture, while the foot tape is placed one-fourth of an inch
to the right of the foot puncture. The other tapes are distributed
equally along the distance between those at the head and foot. All the
tapes are fastened to the edge of the frame floor with thumb tacks. Of
course, that is only one simple frame out of a great variety which may
be made. There are numerous ways of improvising sewing frames. Temporary
frames are often made by tacking small strips to the ends of drawing
boards, and fastening a cross bar to them. In large classes, merely a
board is sometimes used as in olden times, when stiff thongs or strips
of vellum were used. This is not very satisfactory.

The book is laid to the left as in the previous binding, and the
sections are turned in the same way, and laid upon the frame. The end
section is laid with a, Fig. 20, on the floor of the frame and the
needle inserted at the head puncture of the fold between e and d through
folio c, Fig. 20. Then with the left hand, the needle is drawn in and
run back out just to the right of the head tape. Then the needle is run
into the section immediately to the left of the head tape, making a
stitch across the tape. This is repeated at each tape and finally the
needle comes out at the foot puncture. Now the second section is put on,
the needle inserted at the foot puncture and the sewing continued as in
the first section, until the head puncture is reached, when the thread
is tied with a double knot to the original end. The third section is now
put on and treated exactly like the first section until the needle comes
out at the right of the head tape, when a crow’s foot or catch stitch is
made in the following way:—


                      Crow’s Foot or Catch Stitch.

As the needle comes out at the side of the tape, instead of sewing the
thread straight across the tape as before, the needle is run from the
bottom up behind the two previous threads in such a way as to make a
loop knot around them, a and b, Fig 21. Then the needle is run into the
section on the opposite side of the tape exactly as in previous
stitches. This is repeated at every tape until the foot puncture is
reached, where a kettlestitch is made. After the third section, a
kettlestitch is made every time the needle comes out at an end puncture,
and a crow’s foot or catch stitch every third or fourth section.

The remainder of the book is sewed by exact repetitions of the processes
thus far described.

When the sewing is completed, the tapes are cut, leaving them about one
and one-half inches long at each side and a colored folio, b, Fig. 20,
is tipped to the top of each zigzag as at e, and the book is then ready
for gluing, rounding and backing.


                               Rounding.

Rounding, as the name implies, is the process of giving a convex shape
to the back of a book to prevent its becoming sunken or concave. The
book is laid upon the table, and the first few sections are pulled
firmly forward, while with a hammer, the upper edge of the back is
struck lightly, driving the upper sections forward. Then the book is
turned over and the process is repeated on the other side.

A folded sheet of waste paper is tipped (pasted by a very narrow strip
of paste) along the sides of the book at the back.

Marks are placed about one-eighth of an inch from the back, showing the
places for the edges of the backing boards between which the book is put
and all clamped into the lying press, Fig. 22. This done, the back is
thoroughly covered with thin glue which is rubbed in with a stiff brush
and wiped as in the previous book. Within fifteen or twenty minutes,
when the glue has dried sufficiently to be rubbery, the back is pounded
with a hammer, striking first along the center, then gradually toward
the end sections, always with a gliding blow, until the edges have been
forced over the tops of the backing boards, as a, Fig. 22. If this has
been properly done, the back will be smooth and rounding, and the edges
will project over about the thickness of the boards.

The tapes are now pasted down against the outside leaves of the
endpapers, and the super glued on, reaching from puncture to puncture,
and to the ends of the tapes on each side. When dry, the endpapers, to
which the tapes were pasted, are cut off around the edges of the super,
a, Fig. 23. Material is now gotten ready for the cover. Since this book
is to have a French joint, the boards are cut as much narrower than the
book as will make the proper width of joint; and since it is to have
double boards, four boards are cut, two thin and two medium. A thin
board and a thicker one are glued together, all except about two inches
along the back edge, to form one board. The boards, thus glued, are put
into the press, and the leather cut, which is to be one and one-half
inches longer than the board and wide enough to reach around the back
and as far down the sides as desired—the general rule being “more than a
fourth and less than a third.” This, however, is a statement of the most
general kind, and proper widths for the leather are determined to meet
specific conditions.


                       Skiving—Head Cut—Coloring.

With a sharp skiving or head knife, 5, Plate I, the edges of the leather
are pared thin, and also a strip through the middle where the back of
the book goes, is pared, if the leather is quite thick. For this
operation, the leather should be laid on a stone or slate.

The book is now marked with pencil and trysquare where the head is to be
cut, and is placed between two pressing boards with a heavy piece of
cardboard, called the cut-against, between the back pressing board and
the book. In this condition, the book is now put into the cutting press,
Plate II, the front pressing board being pushed down on a level with the
mark on the book and with the top of the press. The plow is run forward
and backward, the blade meanwhile being gradually screwed toward the
book, cutting only a very few leaves at a stroke. With this easy stroke
and slow advance of the blade, if the blade is sharp, the head is left
smooth and ready for coloring. The head is colored with India ink and
when dry, is rubbed with beeswax and burnished with a burnisher made for
that purpose.

[Illustration:

  PLATE II
]


                             French Joint.

Now the book is marked for the French joint, that is, for the location
of the back edges of the boards, and a strip of tough paper large enough
to cover the back is glued on.

Glue is put into the open places left between the layers of the double
boards; then the slips—super, tapes, and pieces of endpapers which were
previously pasted together—are inserted into these openings, Fig. 23,
and the book put into press, where it remains until thoroughly dry.

In putting on the boards, great care is necessary to insure a straight
cover and perfect squares.


                             Half Leather.

It is now time to put on the leather, which is laid, flesh side up, on
waste paper and thoroughly covered with paste. The waste paper is
removed and the book is then placed in its proper position on the
leather and the boards opened down against it with sufficient pressure
to attach the leather to them. Then the ends of the leather are turned
under the back of the book and over the boards, enclosing a cord at the
head as shown at a, Fig. 24. This cord makes a roll instead of a
headband. This done, the leather is thoroughly rubbed with the hands and
forced closely down into the joints. Joint sticks, 10, Plate I, may be
used for this purpose, but care must be used not to mar the leather with
them. Now the book is placed with the foredge in the lying press, and a
cord tied around it lengthwise through the joint to make sure than the
leather holds its position at the joint. When dry, the leather is
trimmed, since the work of getting it onto the book has probably
stretched it, or the paring may have left the edges uneven.

Measurement is made from the foredge back to the points where it is
desired to have the leather extend. With a sharp knife, the surplus
leather is cut off. The book is now ready for the cover papers. Marks
are made on the leather for the one-eighth inch lap of the paper.


                              Cover Paper.

The cover papers for the sides are cut one and one-half inches longer
than the boards and seven-eighths of an inch wider than the distance
from the leather to the foredge of the board. This allows three-fourths
of an inch for turn-in and one-eighth of an inch for the lap over of the
leather.

Then the book is placed on the paper, b, Fig. 24, in such manner as to
have a straight edge of the paper come just to the marks on the leather
and as nearly the same projection at the ends and foredge as possible.
With a lead pencil, a line is drawn on the paper around the board.
Corners for the mitres are cut, always cutting not closer to the pencil
mark than the thickness of the board, as explained in the previous
binding. This done, the paper is covered with paste, the book again laid
on in position indicated by marks, and the turn-ins pasted.

The other board is now treated in the same manner. Great care is
necessary to make sure that the paper fits firmly against the edge of
the board. The bone folder is used here to force the paper against the
edge of the board before the turn-in is pasted down on top.

The paper at the corners usually does not make a perfect mitre, but
laps. This is remedied by taking a sharp knife and cutting through the
lapping papers and removing the pieces cut off.

The book is now put under light pressure until dry. Nothing remains now
but to paste the colored endpapers to the boards, the same as in the
previous binding. It will be seen on opening the book how much
flexibility the zigzag has lent to the cover.




                                  IV.
                             EXTRA BINDING.


  1. Three-quarters Morocco.

  2. Sewed on cords; cords laced into boards.

  3. Flexible back.

  4. Edges cut in boards, head colored.

  5. Rounded and backed.

  6. Zigzag endpapers, colored pastedown.

  7. Head and foot bands, silk thread over heavy cords.

  8. Blind or gold tooled and lettered.


                                 Cords.

The sewing frame is prepared exactly in the same way as in the Library
Binding except that cords are here used instead of tapes, Fig. 25.
Endpapers are cut and prepared zigzag, book marked up and punctures
sawed the same as in the Library Binding.

These are the distinct differences between sewing on cords and on tapes.
With cords, the needle goes in at the head puncture and out on the left
of the cord and then doubles back and from the _right_ of the cord, the
needle is inserted at the same hole through which it came out,
completely encircling the cord with the thread, a, Fig. 25. This is the
whole story of sewing on cords. In the use of tapes, the thread simply
goes back of the tapes, not around them. The kettlestitches are made
just as in sewing on tapes, but there are no catch or crowfoot stitches
as with tapes. When the book is taken from the sewing frame, the back is
rounded. In this process, judgment must be used not to get the back too
convex.

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 25. Sewing on cords. a, stitch around the cord._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 26. Lacing cords into boards._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 27. Detail of holes and trough for cords._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 28. Board pulled down ready for the head to be cut._
]

The book is now put into the backing boards in the press and glued and
backed as described in dealing with the Library Binding.


                             Lacing Holes.

Two boards, as wide as the book and one-fourth of an inch longer, are
cut from heavy tar or mill board. The boards are placed in proper
position closely up against the joint projection of the back, and marks
perpendicular to the back edges of the boards, are made, indicating the
positions of the cords. At each mark and about one-half of an inch from
the edge, a hole almost as large as the cords, is made with an awl from
the outside, and the projections caused by the awl are trimmed off. Then
about one-half inch from these holes, another row of somewhat smaller
holes is made. These holes are not in the lines drawn from the edges of
the boards, as is shown in Figs. 26 and 27, and are punched from the
inside, leaving the projections caused by the awl.

Then a kind of V or trough is cut from each of the first series of holes
to the edge of the board, making a place for the cord to lie, Fig. 27.


                                Lacing.

Now the cords are frayed out and trimmed thin at the ends, and with
paste, the frayed portions are twisted to points and inserted down
through the first holes and up through the others, a, Fig. 26. When the
cords have been drawn tightly and a small amount of paste put around the
holes, the ends are again frayed out and spread about the holes, and
with a hammer, the board resting firmly on a block, the protruding parts
of the board are pounded down about the cords. After this has been done
to all the cords on both sides, the book is left to dry.

The cutting of the edges in boards, is a process requiring the greatest
care. A mark is drawn on the white endpaper indicating where the head is
to be cut. A tin and a piece of heavy cardboard are placed between the
book and the back board. These make a cut-against to protect the cover
from the knife. The front board is now drawn down even with the head
mark, Fig. 28, and prepared in this way, the book is put into the
cutting press.

It is essential to good work that the book be absolutely true in the
press, and that the head mark and the top of the board which has been
pulled down, be on a level with the top surface of the jaw of the press.
The cutting is the same as described under Library Binding, page 27.

The book is now removed, the covers are thrown back, and with a try
square against the head, a mark is drawn on the endpaper, showing where
the foredge is to be cut. With the covers hanging down and a pressing
board and one or two thicknesses of cardboard for a cut-against, the
book is put into the press and the foredge cut. The foot is cut exactly
as was the head.

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 29. Putting on the headband._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 30. Cutting the leather corners._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 31._
  _Pasting on leather corners and cover papers._
  _a, Turn-in of leather._
  _b, Turn-in mitre of leather._
  _c, and d, Turn-ins of paper._
  _e, Taper tied around book._
  _f, End pasted down._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 32. Deep punctures for sunken cords._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 33. Folded paper for hollow back cover._
]

[Illustration: Book]


                          Head and Foot Bands.

It is now time to make the head and foot bands. The book is fastened in
a lying press as shown in Fig. 29, with the head leaning toward the
workman. A needle, into which is tied one end of a long, colored silk
thread is run through the middle of the first section down to the head
puncture and out through the back, the thread being drawn half its
length through. Then a strong piece of cord, considerably longer than
the width of the back, is laid on the head of the book just back of the
boards. The needle end of the thread is brought directly forward over
the cord, while the other end is crossed over the needle end of the
thread, under the cord, and forward over the cord the same as the first
thread. Then changing hands again, this operation is repeated twice when
the needle is run down into the head of the book and out at the back
one-half inch or more below the head but as it comes back over the cord,
it is crossed by the other thread exactly as at first. About every
fourth crossing, the thread should be sewed into the book.

When the cord is covered to the other side of the book, the two threads
are knotted firmly beneath the cord. A small bit of paste is put at the
end of the silk on each side, and the cord cut off. Then a tough piece
of paper reaching from the top cord to the top of the headband is glued
on to hold the band in place.

The foot band is made in exactly the same manner.

Then a strip of paper as wide as the back is glued on and carefully
fitted about the cords.


                      Rubbing Sticks—Band Nippers.

The leather back is put on as in the Library Binding, but much greater
care and patience are required in rubbing down the leather about the
cords and making it adhere strongly to the book at all points. Rubbing
sticks, 7, Plate I, come in good place in this operation. Band nippers
are often used to force the leather against the cords. The leather is
moistened slightly at the head and foot and made to lie down snugly
against the head and foot bands. After this, the leather pieces for the
corners are cut and marked up, leaving a three-quarter inch margin on
the two equal sides of the triangle, Fig. 30. A general rule for the
size of corners is that the altitude of the finished corner triangle
should be about the same as the extension of the back leather over the
side of the book.


                            Leather Corners.

The corners of the leather pieces are cut out just as the corners of the
paper in the previous book. Then the edges are pared thin. The leather
corners are covered with paste, one at a time, a corner of the cover
board is placed in proper position on the leather and the turn-ins
pasted, a and b, Fig. 31. This done, the book is put under light
pressure for a time. The leather is now all trimmed to proper size and
the cover paper marked and cut for the sides. The one-eighth inch lap is
marked on the leather back, and the book laid on the paper as in
previous book. Then with a sharp pencil, points are made on the paper
showing where it must be cut to allow not more than one-eighth inch lap
on the leather of the corners, Fig. 31.

The corners of the paper are cut out, the paper covered with paste, the
book placed in proper position and the turn-ins pasted as at c and d.
Care must again be exercised that the paper comes squarely against the
edges of the boards and fits closely around the edges of the leather.
For such processes, the bone folder is almost indispensable.

The next step is the lining of the boards. A rectangular piece of heavy
paper is pasted on the inside of each cover and fitted snugly against
the edges of the leather and paper turn-ins. After these linings are
dry, the end papers are trimmed and pasted down. In this case, great
care and patience are necessary to make the endpapers attach themselves
to the back edges of the boards. Of course, the outside white leaves are
torn off and the colored pastedowns are drawn back upon the boards as in
the Library Binding, and with a bone folder, the papers are forced
against the back edges of the boards. Then the book is closed and
immediately opened. If in closing, the endpaper is pulled loose or
wrinkled, it is again put into proper order and the book again closed.

When the end papers hold their positions perfectly, the book is
thoroughly protected with paper, tins and boards and put lightly into
press.

Then the head is colored with India ink, a coat of beeswax put on, and a
burnisher used to give it a polish. It is well to leave the completed
book under some pressure for several days.

If, in the process, some paste has gotten on the leather or paper, it
may be removed by the use of a damp cloth, carefully rubbed over the
soiled places.


                              Hollow Back.

In case a hollow back is desired for this book, deep punctures are sawed
at every cord, and the cords which are smaller than in the flexible
binding, are sunken into these punctures, Fig. 32. The sewing in such a
binding is very simple, the thread running along the middle of the
section and behind the cords, with kettlestitches at the head and foot,
the same as in the flexible sewing.

Before the cover goes on, a heavy paper folded as in Fig. 33, making
from three to five thicknesses, is glued by the bottom layer to the
back.

But especially in elementary work where very little gold tooling and
lettering are undertaken, the hollow back is neither necessary nor
desirable. At all events, let us avoid the false cords sometimes seen in
commercial books.




                                   V.
                               REBINDING.


The foregoing work has assumed that the books were to be bound from the
original, unfolded sheets.

In case of rebinding books, the following preliminary steps are
necessary before beginning the sewing:—

1. Taking off old cover. This is done simply by pulling loose the
endpapers and carefully loosening the super. If the glue or paste
refuses to come off, it is covered with a coat of fresh paste, and after
a short time may be scraped off.

2. Cutting sections apart. The leaves are counted until the thread is
reached which indicates the middle of the section. The thread is clipped
and the same number of leaves, disregarding plates, is counted, bringing
us to the end of the section. The counting is necessary because of the
fact that in many books, the first and last few sections are pasted, or
tipped, together, making it difficult to tell where one stops and the
other begins.

3. Beating out the joint. In books which have been rounded and backed,
the first and last few sections especially have a decided bend near the
backs caused by the hammering. This is removed by laying the sections
down on a solid block and hammering them along the joints.

4. Mending, cleaning and guarding. Guards are strips of tough paper
about one-fourth of an inch wide which are used to paste together the
leaves of a folio that have been torn apart, and to fasten plates into
the book. In case of the torn folio, the leaves are laid side by side in
the proper position and a guard, covered with paste, is placed over the
joint where the leaves come together. The leaves are then folded
together creasing the guard in the middle. This general rule as to the
placing of the guards is given in the form of a bull:—“If it is to be
guarded on the outside, put the guard on the inside; but if it is to be
guarded on the inside, put the guard on the outside.” That is, if it is
the outside folio of the section to be guarded, put the guard on the
inside of the folio, so that the ragged edges of the tear may be
gathered up by the glue on the back and that it may not interfere with
the sewing. But if it is an inside folio to be guarded, put the guard or
the outside of the folio. When guarding in a plate, a folio is opened
out, the plate placed on the proper leaf, and the guard put on as in the
case of a torn folio.

5. Cutting new end papers.

After all the foregoing steps, the book is ready to be pressed, placing
the sections upon each other and inserting tins and boards as described
in Case Binding.

When it comes to re-sewing the book and putting on new covers, the
practice is to use any method or any combination of methods that seems
to be demanded by the conditions and size of the book, and the character
of usage which it will probably meet. It is not unusual in commercial
binderies to sew books especially large, heavy books, on tapes or on
sunken cords without regard to the style of cover. This is done
especially where the book has large, thick sections that are difficult
to hold in place. Thus it is seen how far, under some conditions, we
depart from the standard types.

It sometimes happens that the folios are so badly torn at the folds that
to guard them would make the back unusually thick. In such cases, the
overcasting method is used. The back of the book is cut if it is in very
bad condition, and then instead of sewing through punctures over cords
or tapes, several of the leaves are taken and placed in the same
position as a section, and sewed through, whipping over and over, and
going around tapes or cords in the usual manner. It frequently happens
however, that a book is in good condition with the exception of the
cover, in which case, simply a new cover is put on. This necessitates
re-gluing of the back and putting on new super and end papers. Then the
question arises how to fasten in the end papers so that they may be
strong. One method, especially in the case of heavy books, is to put in
a cloth joint. This is a folded strip of cloth about one inch wide, at
each end of the book, with one side of the fold pasted to the outside
leaf. Then when the cover is put on, the other side of the cloth fold is
pasted to the board, Fig. 34. A folio of cover paper is then tipped
against the cloth and the outside leaf pasted to the board; or in many
cases, a separate sheet is used for the pastedown, leaving both leaves
of the end folio free.

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 34._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 35._
  _a, Cloth joints b, End sheets_
]

In the case of marbled endpapers, the folio is cut of paper to match the
book, a piece of super or canvass is put along the fold like a guard,
then the single sheet of marbled paper is pasted entirely over the first
page of the folio which is then tipped in to the cloth of the joint.
Where a book is to be resewed, sometimes single end sheets of heavy
cover stock, together with the cloth for the joint, are folded around
the backs of the first and last sections and sewed in with them, Fig.
35. Then when the boards are put on, the cloth is drawn back over the
edge as before.

Another method of attempting to reinforce and strengthen the first and
last parts of a book is to sew through the endpapers that are to remain
free as “flyleaves” and the leaves of the first half of the first and
last sections. This seems of somewhat doubtful value, although it may be
of some service in the case of a thick, heavy book.

A very practical and easy method of rebinding moderately thin books
which have torn backs, is to sew them in the manner described for a
fourth-grade Language Book, Fig. 40, page 55, and put on a new case
binding. In such cases, care must be used to make the joint wide enough
to allow the boards to come well in front of the stitches; otherwise,
the book would not open without tearing the cover.

Plate III shows a number of library books rebound in this manner by
seventh grade boys.

[Illustration:

  PLATE III

  Library Books Rebound by Seventh Grade Boys.
]




                                  VI.
                               EQUIPMENT.


Equipment for elementary bookbinding, as already indicated in a
preceding chapter, can be made almost entirely to fit the purse.

The statement occurs in text books and has gone the rounds on “good
authority” that very little can be done in the way of bookbinding
without a large and unusually expensive equipment. It is difficult to
understand how such a statement could be made by anyone who is familiar
with craft binding and its simplified forms as they may be worked out in
the lower grades of our schools.

Of course, it is possible to spend any amount for bookbinding equipment,
but there are many schools where good elementary work is being done with
absolutely no equipment except pocket knives, scissors and such other
aids as may be picked up about any school building.

It is entirely possible to adjust the upper grade work so that only a
few will be handling the same processes at the same time, thus making a
small equipment answer the purposes of a good sized class.

For making the typical books under good conditions with a moderate
number of pupils in the eighth grade or high school, the following
equipment may be said to be elaborate, and can be had for about $75:—

                    1 10-inch Card Cutter,
                    6 Lying Presses,
                    1 Plow and Press,
                    2 Letter Presses,
                   12 Sewing Frames,
                    2 Paring Knives,
                    3 Pairs Backing Boards,
                    2 Back Saws,
                    6 Try Squares,
                    3 Hammers,
                    3 Doz. Pressing Boards and Tins,
                    6 Awls,
                    6 Paste Brushes,
                   12 Bone Folders.

Even this equipment may be very materially reduced. Many of the items
may be improvised, made, or furnished by the pupils.

For instance, the sewing frames are of simple construction and offer an
excellent problem for the class in woodwork.

The plow and press are not an essential even in high school work. Most
excellent work may be done by cutting both paper and boards with a sharp
knife guided by a trysquare or straight edge, against a cutting tin. Any
ordinary hammer will do for backing purposes. So this brings us back to
the repeated proposition that much and good bookbinding can be done in
the schools with almost no equipment.




                                  VII.
                           SUGGESTIVE COURSE.


In the previous discussions of the three main types of books,
practically every process used in elementary hand-binding has been
described.

The following outline is the result of several years of effort on the
part of the author, to develop a series of problems involving the
bookbinding processes, meeting some of the constructive needs of the
various grades of the school, and relating in some vital way to the
regular school interests.

It was thought that confusion would be avoided by indicating the methods
and processes of a set of specific problems. It is understood that these
problems are only typical and that from these, a great variety of books
may be worked out in response to special needs. In the practical work of
the class, these problems are not dictated step by step and in detail,
to the pupils; but as far as possible each pupil plans for himself,
size, number of pages, proportions, color combinations, decoration, etc.
A very large part of the value derived from such work, comes from the
necessity of thinking and planning in advance, and from the privilege
and exercise of choice.

Let us assume that we are taking the problem of the fourth grade
spelling book, page 53, Fig. 38. The first thing necessary is the
spelling paper as a basis for our plans.

Each child is given a sheet of paper, say 3½×8 inches. The class is
questioned to bring out the general characteristics of the cover needed,
such as the direction of opening, the necessity for a hinge in the top
cover, etc.

Then the matter of the squares or the extension of the boards is taken
up and the pupils express opinions as to the amount of the extension.
After reasons are given for various opinions, the pupils calculate and
write on the sheets of paper the sizes the boards are to be cut.

Then comes the question of the distance the hinge is to be from the
back. One pupil may answer three inches and another one-half an inch.
Reasons are brought out why neither is satisfactory and also why it may
vary, say, from three-fourths of an inch to one and one-half inches, and
each child writes on his paper the distance he prefers. The same plan is
used with reference to the width of the hinge; and since this may vary
greatly, even from one-fourth to two inches, guided always by the ideas
of good proportion and fulfillment of purposes, the pupils are asked to
write down their preferences.

Then is taken up the question of the proportion of cloth to paper on the
covers. In the first place, it is apparent that constructive
considerations demand that the cloth must reach from the back some
distance beyond the hinge toward the foredge, but how far beyond is a
question of good proportion. It is always found that children vary but
little in their judgments of proportion in this matter. The author has
made this proposition to scores of children:—“Let’s have the cloth and
the cover paper meet at the middle of the cover,” and in the whole
number of children, there has never been one who would agree to any such
an arrangement. When the matter of the cloth has been determined, the
pupils calculate the sizes the pieces of cloth and paper must be cut,
allowing the proper turn-ins. These dimensions are written down with the
other decided points. From this information, the pupils make simple
drawings. From samples of various colors of cloth, paper, and cords, the
pupils select satisfactory combinations. In this, as in all other
matters, if pupils make wrong selections or show poor judgment, it is
the opportunity of the teacher to suggest and to convince them of the
wisdom of some other choice.

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 36._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 37._
]

The material is next marked out and cut. Of course, this is done by each
pupil from the information he has written on his sheet of paper.

The actual pasting of the boards into the cloth and paper requires but
few suggestions or directions if the pupils have gone through the work
of the previous grades. If they have not, then they are asked to place
the board upon the cloth in the proper position, mark around it, and
clip out corners as at a, Fig. 36. When the cloth is pasted on, the same
process is used with the paper allowing it to lap one-eighth to
one-fourth of an inch on the cloth, b. When the covers are completed and
pressed, the punctures are made and the cord tied in.

[Illustration:

  PLATE IV
  1. Tilo Matting Poem Book      2. Nature or Sketch Book      3. Home
    Book
]




                              FIRST GRADE.


1. Home Book.

This is made to contain the freehand cuttings of the house and its
furnishings, the family, the barn, the chicken house, all the animals,
machinery, etc., about the home. It is made up of sheets of manila paper
with colored sheets of the same size for covers. These are all tied
together with a heavy cord through two holes punched at one end. 3,
Plate IV.

2. Nature or Sketch Book.

Made of the same material as the Home Book except that only one colored
sheet is needed. But the sheets are all folded in the middle and three
or four punctures are made with a darning needle or a punch along the
fold. A cord threaded into a large needle is run into the top puncture
and out at the bottom puncture; then back into the second puncture from
the bottom around the thread and out at the same puncture. This is
repeated at each puncture until the top one is reached, where the ends
of the cord are tied together, 2, Plate IV. The book may be made by
finding the middle of the paper, punching the holes and tying the cord
before the folding is done.

3. Portfolio.

This is made of two sheets of paper, one of which is one-half inch
narrower and one inch shorter than the other. The small one is placed
upon the large one in such a way as to leave a half inch strip around
three sides. The two corners of the large sheet are cut out and the
edges pasted and folded over upon the small sheet.




                             SECOND GRADE.


1. Portfolio.

Made of one piece of tough paper by simply cutting rectangles from the
lower corners of the sheet, as shown in Fig. 37 A, and folding the
rectangles a, b, c on dotted lines. The two smaller rectangles are
pasted to the larger one, c.

2. Scrap Book.

Made of single leaves with a two-inch fold at one end. Covered with a
folio of Bristol, reinforced at the back with strip of book cloth, and
tied through five punctures with heavy cord. Fig. 37. See 6, Plate IV.

3. Nature Book.

Cover same as Scrap Book with the addition of pieces of cover paper
pasted on the covers, reaching from the cloth to the foredge. Book made
of folios sewed like 2, grade one. Pasted into cover.

4. Spelling Book Cover.

Made of light boards which are covered with cover paper. Pieces of cover
paper are pasted on the inside as end papers, and are decorated by the
children. The two sides of the cover are fastened together by inserting
rings or cords in holes punched at the end. 5, Plate IV.

5. Language, Poem or Arithmetic Book.

Single leaves covered with folio of crash or burlap, tied with cord
through three punctures, cover lined with one piece of cover paper, and
edges and design of cover worked with coarse thread. 4, Plate IV.




                              THIRD GRADE.


[Illustration:

  _Fig. 37A._
]

1. Spelling Book.

Single leaves with separate boards, covered with book cloth pasted all
over. The top board is cut into two parts, leaving a flexible hinge near
the back. Boards lined with cover paper. Tied through two, three or four
punctures by Japanese method, Fig. 38.

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 38._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 39._
]

[Illustration: Spelling Book]

[Illustration: Language Book]

2. Literature Illustration Book Cover.

Half cloth. Narrow boards, leaving wide limp back of book cloth. Back
reinforced with super and boards lined with cover paper. Two or three
boles are punched from side to side, and tied with heavy cord or
fastened with rings. Fig. 39.

3. Portfolio.

Made of one long, narrow piece of cover paper or Manila board. The
bottom third is folded up to form the body of the portfolio, and the top
third is folded down for the hap or cover. Two strips of cloth are
folded and pasted to the ends of the portfolio to hold the front and
back together.

4. Nature Book.

One section sewed with five punctures, same as number 2, grade one,
covered with heavy marbled boards, with buckram back, super put on, and
first and last leaves used as pastedowns.

5. Poem Book Cover.

Made of two boards. Joint made in top board as in Spelling Book. Boards
are covered with crash and lined inside with cover paper. Tied with
heavy cord through four punctures.

6. Japanese Book.

The book part is made by folding a long piece of paper first one way and
then the other until it is all folded accordion fashion. Boards are
covered with cover paper and pasted to the first and last pages.




                             FOURTH GRADE.


1. Portfolio.

Made of heavy cover paper, with some method devised by the class for
increasing and decreasing the thickness of the portfolio.

2. Clipping Envelope.

Made of one piece of heavy cover paper or light Manila board. Rectangles
a little longer than half the body of the envelope, are folded over and
pasted. The small flap at the bottom is folded up and pasted. See Fig.
39 A.

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 39A._
]

3. Spelling Book.

Same as that of third grade except with half instead of full cloth
covers. See Fig. 38.

4. Language, Geography or History Notebook.

More than one section. Sheets folded and cut. Sections arranged in book
form, and a colored folio tipped in to the second endpaper on each side.
The book is marked up for a sawed puncture one-half inch from each end,
and for stabs immediately under the sawed punctures and every half inch
along the side and about one-fourth of an inch from the back, a, Fig.
40. The stabs are made with a sharp punch or awl.

A needle is put on each end of a long linen thread. Then with the thread
lying in the head puncture, a needle is inserted from each side into the
head stab and the thread drawn through. The needles are then run into
the next stab and then into the next, until the foot puncture is
reached. Here the threads are brought up and tied so that the knot sinks
into the sawed puncture.

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 40._
]

A piece of super is now thoroughly pasted upon the back and about one
and one-half inches down the endpapers. These outside leaves of the
endpapers are cut off at the front edge of the super and a piece of the
cover paper as long as the book and as wide as the super is glued on, b,
care being taken to have it fit flat across the back with sharp turns at
the edges.

The boards having been covered separately, except lining, are now pasted
on about three-eighths of an inch from the back or one-eighth of an inch
in front of the stitches. The book is now put lightly into press. When
dry, the colored endpapers are pasted to the covers and the book again
put into press.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 41.
]




                              FIFTH GRADE.


1. Nature Book.

One section. Large sheet folded and cut or torn to proper size. Sewed
through five punctures. Bound in full or half cloth. Case binding. Super
put on and first and last leaves pasted to covers by closing the cover
on the paste-covered endpapers. Fig. 41.

2. Spelling Pad.

Made like the top cover of the spelling book shown at Fig. 38, except
that it has cloth corners, which are put on the same as the leather
corners of the Extra Binding, Fig. 31. Four punctures are made and the
narrow part is turned over and tied as at Fig. 42.

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 42._

  _Spelling Pad_
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 42A._
]

3. Soft Leather Cover.

This makes a nice gift for Christmas. The cover is removed from a small
book, a folio of cover paper is tipped to each side for end papers, and
the book is pasted into a cover of velvet sheep skin.

4. Re-cover.

Some library book or book of the pupil’s.

New super put on, new endpapers tipped in, and a new half cloth case
binding made and laid on. Boards as wide as the book and three-eighths
of an inch longer. Cloth as wide as desired and one and one-half inches
longer than the boards. Cover paper as long as the cloth and
seven-eighths of an inch wider than the distance from the back cloth to
the foredge of the board. Cloth is folded lengthwise and creased only at
the ends, as at a and b, Fig. 42 A. A line c d is drawn ¾ from one end.
Lines h f and g e are drawn. The distance of these lines from a and b is
half the thickness of the book, plus one joint. The boards are pasted
into the angles d h f and c g e, and the cover is put lightly into
press. The cover paper is marked up and pasted on exactly as described
in Library Binding, page 30.

5. Post Card Book.

Loose leaves of cover paper 7″×11″. Cover made exactly like the fourth
grade spelling book at Fig. 38, except that it must be much larger in
order to accommodate the larger leaves.

Various devices may be used to hold the cards, but the best method
perhaps, is to cut slits for the corners.

6. Rebind Straight Back Book.

  a. Old cover torn off.

  b. Sections cut apart.

  c. Mended and guarded.

  d. Endpapers cut.

  e. Sewed all along with five punctures. Consult Case Binding, Fig. 14.

  f. Back glued.

  g. Half cloth case binding made and put on.

7. Magazine Cover.

Case binding in full cloth. Inside of back lined with a strip of book
cloth. A one inch piece of cloth or leather runs lengthwise inside of
each board to hold the leaves of the magazine. These strips are fastened
by turning the ends and pasting them under the end papers, similar to
that shown in photograph, Fig. 52.

8. Art Book.

Several sections sewed all along. Heavy gray paper for mounting drawings
and pictures. Original work on cover, using combinations and
modifications of previous problems. After the book is bound, a
sufficient number of leaves may be cut out along through the book to
prevent too great thickness at the back.




                              SIXTH GRADE.


1. Portfolio.

Simply a case binding in half or full cloth, with a cloth pocket inside
of each cover. Each pocket is made by taking a piece of cloth one inch
wider and two inches longer than the board, and folding the edges of one
side and the two ends and pasting to the board. Then the cover is
finished according to the method of making a case binding.

2. Memorandum Book.

One section with a small folio of Manila board outside. Cover is made of
one piece of buffing, which is cut ¾″ longer and wider than the finished
cover. A piece of tough paper exactly the size of the finished cover, is
pasted on the inside of the buffing, leaving about a three-eighths inch
margin all round. A piece of Manila board as wide as the paper, is laid
on the paper at each end. These boards should be short enough to leave a
three-quarter inch space at the middle of the leather for the back.

The projecting edges of the leather are now turned over and pasted to
the Manila board. End papers as long as the Manila boards and one-fourth
inch narrower, are now pasted on. After the cover has dried in press,
the ends of the outside folio of the book are inserted under the
unpasted ends of the Manila boards of the cover.

3. Binding from Original Printed Sheets.

Small book like “Printing and Bookbinding,” “He Knew Lincoln,” “Man
Without a Country,” or “The Other Wise Man.” Arrangements can be made
with publishers to furnish unfolded printed sheets at reasonable prices.

Sheets are folded and pressed—not cut.

Sewed all along with five punctures.

Typical case binding.

Full cloth.

Edges untrimmed.

4. Rebind Sets of Books.

Case bindings in full cloth, each pupil making a number of covers at one
time.

Where several books are to be uniformly bound, a spacer is used to
locate the positions of the boards on the cloth, instead of repeating
the measurements on each cover. The spacer, Fig. 43, may be made of
press board, tin, celluloid, or other material. By placing the spacer at
the middle of the cloth at the head, the angles are located for the
corners of the boards.

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 43._
]

5. Envelope File.

A number of envelopes are made according to the plan indicated by Fig.
39 A, page 55. With two pieces of cloth folded back and forth, the ends
of the envelopes are bound together as shown in Fig. 44.

A case binding in half cloth is made similar to the Literature
Illustration Book, Fig. 39, making plenty of allowance at the back for
the thickness of the envelopes. When the cover is completed, the bottom
envelope is pasted firmly to one of the boards, as shown at Fig. 45.

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 44._

  _Envelope File_
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 45._
]

[Illustration:

  _Desk Pad_

  _Fig. 46._
]

6. Desk Pad.

Made of one piece of heavy cloth board. A piece of cover paper one and
one-half inches longer and wider than the board, is pasted to one side
and the edges turned over. Thin leather corners or end strips are now
put on as indicated at Fig. 46, with only the turnovers pasted. Then the
under side of the board is covered with a piece of cover paper about
one-half inch shorter and narrower than the board.

The leather may be decorated by tooling, cutting, or coloring.

7. Note Book Cover.

Stiff boards with cloth back and corners, and paper sides. Corners are
put on the same as the leather corners in the Extra Binding, Fig. 31.

Two strips of board are cut three-quarters of an inch wide, and one inch
shorter than the cover. A piece of cloth is cut as long as the strips of
board and four inches wider than the back of the cover. One of these
strips of board is now pasted one-half inch from each long edge of the
cloth. The other sides of the strips of board are covered with paste and
the cloth is folded over upon them.

Fig. 47 shows the end of this part which is pasted inside of the back of
the cover, the one-half inch projections of the cloth being attached
firmly to the boards. End papers are put in and holes for the cord are
now punched through these three-quarter inch strips, and the leaves are
tied in place. Finished cover shown at Fig. 48.

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 47._
]

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 48._
]




                             SEVENTH GRADE.


1. Decorative Binding.

Blank book or magazines sewed on colored tapes, ribbons or strips of
leather with coarse silk thread in decorative stitches, Fig. 49.

Boards are bound separately in fancy cover papers.

Tapes are laced through the boards and tied at foredge. Colored
endpapers pasted to covers.

Tapes and stitches left exposed at back.

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 49._
]

2. Portfolio.

Three rectangular pieces of tar or cloth board are cut, two larger ones
for the body of the portfolio and one smaller one for the lid or flap.
The large pieces are lined with paper on the sides which are to go
inside. This prevents warping when the outside covering is put on. A
strip of book cloth or buckram is cut about two inches wide and long
enough to reach around one side and the two ends of the body of the
portfolio. This strip is folded lengthwise in the middle with the wrong
side out. Then each half is folded lengthwise in the middle, turning the
wrong side in.

Thus folded, the strip is pasted around the ends and bottom edges of the
two large boards, mitering all the corners. Fig. 50. Then the flap is
attached by means of two strips of cloth, one above and one below, and
the edges are bound to correspond with the body. Then cover paper is
pasted on all the uncovered surfaces of the boards, lapping one-eighth
of an inch over the edges of the cloth wherever the paper and cloth come
together. Scores of modifications may be made of this style of
portfolio.

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 50._

  Showing only the cloth on the edges.
]

3. Limp Leather Binding.

Pupil’s blank or printed book.

Sewed all along or on tapes. Colored endpapers sewed in. Bound in one
piece of sheep or calf. Cover is used for dyeing and tooling in
decoration. Book put into cover by pasting book and fitting leather
closely about it and then pressing.




                             EIGHTH GRADE.


1. Book for Mounting Drawings and Pictures.

Heavy cover paper is used for this book and is cut into large folios.
Then strips of the same paper about one and one-half inches wide and as
long as the book is high, are folded lengthwise in the middle. One of
these folded strips is fitted over the back and one inside of each
folio, Fig. 51, except the first and last. This provides for the pasting
of a mount on each page of the book without making the body of the book
thicker than the back. Sewed on tapes. Cover treated exactly as that of
the Library Binding, page 27.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 51
]

It is much easier to handle this problem by making the book of regular
sections instead of using the one and one-half inch strips, and then
cutting out every 3rd or 4th leaf after it is completed. These leaves
are not wasted. They may be used for smaller books.

2. Typical Library Binding. See page 22.

                   Half leather.
                   Sewed on tapes.
                   Double boards.
                   French joint.
                   Backed and rounded.
                   Head cut and colored.
                   Cord inserted instead of headband.

3. Portfolio.

Bound in leather and paper or cloth. Three boards are cut the same size.
The joints between the boards are treated exactly like the back of a
case binding, except that leather is used and that the inside of the
joints are also lined up with leather. Small boards for the flaps are
joined in the same manner to the ends of the middle board. Fig. 52 shows
the portfolio with only the leather pasted on. The cover paper or cloth
is cut and pasted exactly like that of the Library or Extra Binding.

[Illustration:

  _Fig. 52. Showing part of portfolio with only the leather pasted on._
]




                       List of Bookbinders Terms.


  BACK.—The back of a book is the part where the leaves are fastened
      together, and does not include the sides of the cover.

  BACKING.—The process of hammering the back in order to drive the extra
      thickness due to sewing, over the edge of backing boards making
      the joint. Fig. 22.

  BACKING BOARDS.—Steel faced boards between which the book is placed
      while backing. b, Fig. 22.

  BAND, OR RUBBING STICKS.—Sticks used in rubbing the leather down over
      the cords, or bands, in the Extra Binding. 7, Plate I.

  BEATING OUT JOINT.—Hammering the back of the section of an old book in
      order to straighten out the part turned over in the process of
      backing when first bound. No. 3, page 40.

  BLIND TOOLING.—Putting a design upon the leather with hot tools
      without using gold leaf.

  BOARDS.—The stiff sides of the cover.

  BONE FOLDER.—A bone tool for folding paper and cloth. No. 3, Plate I.

  BUFFING.—Thin cowhide used in binding.

  CASE BINDING, OR CASING.—Where the book and the cover are made
      separately and then pasted together. Pages 11 and 14.

  COLLATING.—Gathering together the sections of a book in the proper
      order.

  COVER PAPER.—Heavy paper used on the covers of books.

  CROWFOOT STITCH.—The stitch used at the tapes in Library Binding. a
      and b, Fig. 21.

  DOUBLE BOARDS.—Two boards glued together to make one side of the cover
      in Library Binding. Fig. 23.

  END PAPERS.—The blank leaves at the first and last of the book.

  EXTRA BINDING.—Book sewed on cords and bound in full or three-quarters
      leather. Page 31.

  FINISHING.—The part of bookbinding that has to do with the decoration,
      tooling, lettering, etc. Page 9.

  FINISHING, OR LYING PRESS.—A press for holding the book while the
      “finishing” is in progress. No. 1, Plate I.

  FLEXIBLE.—In Extra Binding where leather is attached directly to the
      back of the book.

  FOLIO.—A sheet folded once, making two leaves.

  FOOT, OR TAIL.—The bottom of the book as it is held upright.

  FOREDGE, OR FORE-EDGE.—The edge of the book opposite the back.

  FORWARDING.—All the work of binding a book until it is ready for the
      finishing. Page 9.

  FRENCH JOINT.—Wide space left between the edges of the boards and the
      back of the book in the Library Binding.

  GOLD TOOLING.—The use of gold leaf to cover the lettering or
      ornaments.

  GUARD.—A strip of paper used to mend a torn folio or to fasten in a
      plate. No. 4, page 40.

  HALF LEATHER.—A book bound with a strip of leather at the back and the
      boards covered from the leather to foredge with paper or cloth.

  HEAD.—The top of the book as it stands upright.

  HEADBAND.—A piece of cloth or cord at head of book to strengthen back.
      Fig. 29.

  HEAD KNIFE, OR SKIVING KNIFE.—A knife used for paring the edges of the
      leather. No. 5, Plate I.

  HINGE.—The part of the cover at the joint where the cover bends on
      opening. It usually refers to a separate piece of cloth or leather
      used to strengthen cover at this point.

  HOLLOW BACK.—Where the cover is not pasted directly to the back of the
      book. Fig. 33.

  JOINT.—The narrow space between the board and the back, and also the
      projection of the back formed by the process of backing.

  JOINT RODS.—Small rods used to press down the leather or cloth at the
      joint. No. 10, Plate I.

  KETTLESTITCH.—A stitch used in all types of sewing but especially in
      sewing all along. b, Fig. 14.

  LAYING ON.—Attaching the casing to the book.

  LIMP COVER.—Cover without boards.

  LIBRARY BINDING.—The type of book which is sewed on tapes, has a
      French Joint and double boards. Page 22.

  OVERCASTING.—Method of sewing books which are badly torn and cannot be
      dealt with in sections.

  PLATE.—Picture or other special matter on a separate leaf which is
      fastened into the book.

  PLOW AND PRESS.—The plow is for cutting the edges of books. The press
      holds the book while the cutting is in progress. Plate II, P. 28.

  PRESSING TINS AND BOARDS.—Small pieces of tin and board to protect the
      book while in press. Nos. 11 and 12, Plate I.

  PUNCTURES.—Holes sawed or punched in the book for sewing or tying.

  ROUNDING.—Process of making the back of a book curved.

  SECTION.—Part of book made from one folded sheet of paper.

  SEWING ALL ALONG.—Method of sewing a book with kettlestitches and
      without tapes or cords. Fig. 14.

  SEWING FRAME.—Frame on which the books are sewed. No. 6, Plate I.

  SIGNATURE.—Small figure or letter at the bottom of the first page of a
      section to indicate the order of the sections.

  SLIPS.—The tapes, super, and endpaper pasted together to insert in the
      double boards of a Library Binding. a, Fig. 23.

  SPACER.—A device for determining the position of boards in
      casebinding, instead of measuring. This is used only where a
      number of the same kind of books are being bound uniformly.

  SPLIT BOARDS.—In the Library Binding, Split Boards are sometimes used
      instead of double boards. These are simply single boards split at
      one edge for the insertion of the slips.

  SQUARES.—The distance the boards project beyond the edge of the book.

  STAB SEWING.—Where books are sewed from side to side through holes
      punched with an awl. Fig. 40.

  SUNKEN CORDS.—Where book is sewed on cords sunken into large
      depressions sawed across the back. Fig. 32.

  SUPER.—Thin cloth put on back of book to strengthen the attachment to
      the cover.

  TAIL.—Same as foot. Part of Book at bottom of page.

  TAPES.—Pieces of tape to which book is sewed in Library Binding. Fig.
      21.

  THREE-QUARTERS LEATHER.—Cover with leather on back and corners.

  TIP.—To attach a sheet of paper by a narrow strip of paste.

  TURN-IN.—The ¾″ parts of leather, cloth and paper turned over board,
      etc.

  WEAVER’S KNOT.—A knot used to attach a new thread to an old one. It is
      made as follows: Hold old thread between thumb and finger, place
      the end of the new thread under the end of the old thread. Then
      loop the new thread around its own end. Draw the end of the old
      thread down over the new thread into the loop. This forms the
      knot; now draw the threads tight. Fig. 15.

  ZIGZAG.—A kind of fold made in the end folios of Library and Extra
      Bindings. Fig. 20, page 23.

------------------------------------------------------------------------




                          TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES


 1. Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and variations in
      spelling.
 2. Renumbered the Bookbinding section by adding 100 to all of its page
      numbers.
 3. Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings as printed.
 4. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.