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[Illustration: Portrait of a man]




  THE

  UNDERTAKERS’ MANUAL:

  A TREATISE OF

  USEFUL AND RELIABLE INFORMATION;

  EMBRACING COMPLETE AND DETAILED INSTRUCTIONS FOR
  THE PRESERVATION OF BODIES.

  ALSO, THE

  MOST APPROVED EMBALMING METHODS;

  WITH

  HINTS ON THE PROFESSION OF UNDERTAKING.


  BY AUGUSTE RENOUARD.


  ROCHESTER, N. Y.
  A. H. NIRDLINGER & CO., PUBLISHERS.


  Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by
  AUGUSTE RENOUARD,
  In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C.




TABLE OF CONTENTS.


                                                                 PAGE.

  Introduction,                                                    iii

  To the Profession,                                               vii

  Undertaking as a Profession,                                       5

  Embalming,                                                        12

  The Laboratory,                                                   17

  Drugs and Chemicals,                                              21

  Post Mortem Examinations,                                         30

  Preservation of Bodies,                                           36

  State of Body after Death,                                        41

  Death from Poisoning,                                             44

  Embalming Bodies,                                                 49

  The Arterial System,                                              56

  Animal Matter,                                                    64

  Thrombosis and Embolism,                                          70

  Process of Embalming,                                             76

  Explanation of Terms,                                             91

  Of Animal Chemistry—Section one,                                  96

      ”    ”    Section two,                                       115

  Gannal’s Process of Embalming,                                   123

  Embalming by Maceration,                                         128

  Laws of Health,                                                  130

  Embalming Process of Worth and Durand,                           142

  Miscellaneous Duties,                                            146

  Rapid Decay of the Human Structure,                              157

  Practices which must be Abolished,                               169

  Management of an Undertaking Establishment,                      175

  Modifications in Embalming Bodies,                               182

  Chlorine: its Properties and Uses,                               186

  Instruments,                                                     191

  Gaseous Compounds,                                               197

  General View of the Circulating Apparatus,                       200

  Glossary and Index,                                              209




INTRODUCTION.


The author of this book has labored diligently, and, as I think,
with remarkable success, to occupy an original and unique field
in American literature. Hitherto, a complete treatise on the
important profession of Undertaking has been unknown. In fact,
until the establishment of “THE CASKET” (to which Mr. RENOUARD has
been a regular contributor from the beginning), there never had
been published anything concerning the duties and amenities of the
undertaker. There seemed to be a vague notion that there was nothing
to write about, and so of course nothing had been written calculated
to raise the profession to its proper dignity, and at the same time
put it in the light in which a correct estimate of it could be
obtained by the public. To be sure, there had been, and occasionally
continues to be, diatribes in the secular and religious press on the
“pomp,” “extravagances,” “oppression,” etc., etc., of funerals, and
plentiful rhetoric, couched in burlesque, sneer and satire, on the
methods of the undertaker; but a volume of sound sense, practical
advice and valuable information for every one connected with the
business never appeared important enough to command the serious
thought and arduous labor of formulating into a Manual.

This work, however, has at last been accomplished by one of their
number; a gentleman who, by education, industry and taste, is fully
qualified for so important an undertaking. How successfully, the
following pages amply testify. To occupy a great deal of space
with complete instructions for the preservation of dead bodies was
absolutely necessary, for without such instructions the book would
fail of its mission and be absolutely valueless. To impart this
important information, required the author to devote page after page
to explaining Physiological Chemistry and Anatomy to the profound
study of which he has devoted the best years of his active life.

The more closely these pages are studied, the more satisfactory will
be the knowledge gleaned by the student. Let no one, however, say
that these chapters are burdened with unnecessary technical terms,
for no scientific information can be imparted without employing the
words and phrases which long usage by scientists has sanctioned.
And if any individual supposes he can master the details without
laborious study, and without commencing with the rudimentary
principles, he may as well stop before beginning, for he will
spend his time in vain and his strength for naught. The study of
the facts herein inculcated will, however, become, as the study
of any important subject becomes to the earnest student, not only
interesting, but really fascinating.

I therefore take especial pleasure in commending this Manual to all
undertakers and their assistants, being fully persuaded that it
will materially assist them in becoming more proficient in their
profession. And as the years roll on, I am quite confident that the
attainment of more accurate knowledge will be demanded, and more
exacting duties required, of the undertaker; hence, he who acquires
the valuable information which this book imparts will be _the
successful undertaker_ of the future.

  THOMAS GLIDDON.

_Rochester, N. Y., June 1, 1878._




TO THE PROFESSION.


In presenting this book to the American undertakers, the object
is to instruct, as well as to create interest in the profession,
by developing scientific facts which are necessary to promote the
avocation of an undertaker to the rank which it deservedly ought to
occupy.

The several chapters, which may at first sight seem dry and
superfluous, are nevertheless essential to a clear and thorough
understanding of the several processes of embalming given in
this book. Had these seemingly arid dissertations been left out
altogether, the work of embalming and of preserving bodies would
have proved a sore puzzle to many; and it was found necessary to
elucidate the _modus operandi_ of each process, by giving reasons for
the use of the chemicals, their mode of action, and the results to be
expected by a careful and discriminate use of them.

The names of the chemicals and the quantity to be used was not
found sufficient in instructing undertakers; but, to satisfy the
investigating propensities of all, and to make every one thoroughly
conversant with the means employed, the nature and properties of the
different chemicals used have been explained at length.

As to the chapters devoted to anatomy, the arterial circulation
and the different parts of the human structure, they will be found
indispensable in this work, and, when thoroughly understood, will be
found to greatly facilitate the work of the operator.

How can the embalmer find the point of injection, or go on with
his work, if he be totally ignorant of the places of the different
organs, the courses of the veins and arteries, their relations and
relative positions? It is, then, an undeniable fact, that without
this knowledge the embalmer will accomplish his task more or less
well, and without knowing with any degree of certainty if the process
of injecting is complete, or if the parts intended to be injected
have been reached by the fluid.

Closely allied to this are the conditions of the body after death,
as governed by circumstances which may affect it, and thereby modify
the treatment thereof—admitting that different modes of treatment
are required by different cases. How, then, is the undertaker to
discriminate, if he be not warned beforehand, or if his knowledge
does not teach him what course is the best to follow? And how is this
knowledge to be gained, if he has not made it a point to study at
least that part of the human organism with which he may have to deal?

As the different processes given in this book for the preserving and
embalming of bodies are founded upon practical experiments, based
upon purely scientific principles, it becomes, then, necessary that
these principles be fully explained, so as throw sufficient light on
points which might otherwise remain obscure.

What has been said about anatomy applies equally well to the study
of animal chemistry. The constituents of the human body, fluid and
solid, have all more or less different properties, as also their
composition varies to a great extent. It is, therefore, a point
of material importance for undertakers to know and understand
their formation, the causes which may accelerate their decay or
putrefaction, and also the means which may be employed to the best
advantage to counteract their tendency to disintegration.

All the points above mentioned being understood, it follows therefrom
that the knowledge thus imparted will prove of great utility to the
profession, although it may appear at first sight an unwarrantable
waste of time and a mass of technicalities.

It may also be useful to repeat here certain injunctions as to the
dangers to be encountered in the handling of the dead, and also of
the proper care to be exercised by undertakers in avoiding to rush
heedlessly into danger and aggravate the perils of their calling.

The public at large have but a very imperfect idea of the dangerous,
and even, in some cases, repulsive, character of our profession. The
undertaker, and the perils attending in many instances the discharge
of his duties, as a general thing, are very seldom thought of by
those outside of the profession. To a great many the business of the
undertaker has something dreadful and appalling about it; and without
very well understanding themselves the nature of the feeling, it is
always associated with the horrible.

This impression, which seems to have grown in the minds of the
majority, is altogether an erroneous one, which ought to be
eradicated from public sentiment. Undertakers, as a class, are
men useful to society; their calling, far from being horrible and
loathsome, as the ignorant and shallow minded are pleased to call it,
is one which requires a great deal of self-denial, and which often
brings to the surface the finest traits of human nature.

Granted that our profession is one fraught with dangers, it becomes
incumbent upon professionals to protect themselves against them by
all the means that knowledge, experience and science may suggest.
One great mistake, and one which has been repeated too often, is
the false security some may place in the use of strong liquors to
combat and render void the deadly effects of contagion. This has been
a stumbling block to many; and without incurring the accusation of
being a fanatic in regard to temperance, we may safely assert that a
great many of our professionals have fallen victims to the effects of
alcohol, which, being used at first as a sort of medical preventive,
soon assumes full sway over the mind, and baffles their best efforts
to resist it.

If we are to look anywhere for a preventive of contagion and
infection, we must look to the directions and remedies which medical
science holds in store; and also to the undisputable fact, that in
the caution used and the care exercised in handling bodies, assisted
by a discriminate judgment, lies our best pledge of safety.

As it has been remarked before, the different modes of preserving and
embalming bodies given in this book are not mere speculations as to
probabilities, nor are they simply mere recipes picked up at random;
but they are the results of long practice and successful experiments,
which have demonstrated, in a most satisfactory manner, that the
advantages claimed for these same processes are well founded and
worthy of credit.

The long chapter on chemistry and physiology is, therefore, not only
essential to the full understanding of the methods given, but it is
also intended as a proof of the judicious selection of the chemicals
that are employed in the operation of embalming, as also of the
system upon which this operation is based.

It must not be supposed that all the known modes of embalming and
preserving bodies are to be found in this book, nor was it ever
intended to have it so; only those that are known to be reliable,
and which have been found to give entire satisfaction, have been
elucidated.

There are other methods, which are also said to be good; but, until
they are found by actual and practical experiment to be worthy the
merits claimed for them, they shall not be made public. However,
should they prove to be equal, if not superior, in one way or
another, to the methods herein illustrated, we will bring them out in
the course of time to the notice of the profession.


UNDERTAKERS AND THEIR ASSISTANTS.

Among the many things important to undertakers to bear in mind is
the discretion that must necessarily be employed in the choice of
their help and assistants. To a great number this caution will seem
trivial and perhaps superfluous; but we hope those who may think so
will change their opinion after reading attentively the following.

We have stated at the commencement of this work that every man cannot
be an undertaker; it is equally true, also, that every man cannot
fill with credit and satisfactorily the position of assistant to an
undertaker. As a good, efficient assistant can, to a great extent,
enhance the repute and promote the interests of his employer, so it
is that a careless, inattentive, self-conceited man may and will
cause harm in the same ratio.

A first-class assistant should consider the interests of his employer
as closely his own as though they were so in fact, and perform his
duties outside the store with as much promptitude, thoroughness
and correctness of deportment as if he were under the immediate
supervision of his employer.

A slovenly appearance in public should be guarded against; and a
man who does not care for his personal appearance seldom possesses
much regard for anything else; moreover, it is not beneficial to the
establishment with which he may be connected.

Trustworthiness is also to be looked after in such parties, not
only so far as immediate honesty is concerned, but also in the
punctual discharge of his duties. The profession of an undertaker
is confining and exceptional in its nature, and requires constant
attention. Pleasure and amusements are a secondary consideration;
and any man accustomed to self-indulgence in the above to any extent
should scrupulously keep out of the business, and select some other
means of livelihood more congenial to his tastes. As an assistant may
be called upon to exercise his functions at any hour of the day or
night, he must be ready, and constantly so, to answer any call made
upon his services.

An assistant should also enjoy sound health and a strong
constitution, as the strain upon his physical powers may be placed to
a severe test at times. He should be a man of some social standing,
and be a thorough master of his profession, as he may at times be
called upon to officiate instead of his employer, and any show of
ignorance or neglect on his part will not only be a stigma upon
himself, but will also reflect discredit upon the name of the party
whom he may be serving.

An ill-mannered, boorish assistant is a plague to any establishment;
so is also the self-conceited, foppish, ignorant one. The first is
liable to give offence by the rudeness of his speech and manners;
the last will surely alienate the good will of patrons by his
overbearing demeanor and shallow pretensions to a knowledge which he
does not really possess.

A good assistant should know all that pertains to his business, not
in superficial and light manner, but in thorough, complete fashion.
He must be able to not only line a casket, but manufacture his own
lining if necessary; to take charge of all the details of a funeral;
assist physicians in a post mortem examination, if required so to
do; or properly embalm a corpse. On the other hand, it must be
conceded that such a man as I have described is a valuable one for an
assistant, and ought to receive a generous remuneration, and also be
made to feel that he is appreciated.


CONCLUSION.

My effort in this little volume has been to offer to my professional
brethren the means employed by the most eminent chemists, both in
this country and Europe, to preserve bodies, and the methods given
are the best known to modern science. I have also tried to make them
feel aware of the necessity of knowledge, and shall feel happy if by
so doing I have helped to raise our profession to the standard it
really deserves.




UNDERTAKING.


It may not be amiss at the commencement of this work, to say a few
words about the profession of an undertaker, and undertakers as a
class.

Among the many who have chosen


UNDERTAKING AS A PROFESSION,

and carried on the business for years, there exists a certain class
who, although pecuniarily successful, do not have a very clear idea
of the requisite qualities indispensable to the general make up of
a first-class professional. Others seem to ignore the multitudinous
duties, the performance of which will bring either credit, or blame,
to themselves, according to the degree of tact or skill exhibited in
the discharge thereof.

A great many have gone into the business simply because it is
represented to them as a _money making_ profession; others, because
their fathers being undertakers have thought proper to train them to
it, although their mercantile ideas may run in another direction. And
again, some without capital will try and battle against competition,
merely to make a living; but above all, there is that class of men
who, entirely ignorant of the rudimentary knowledge of the business,
having means, and regardless of the qualifications necessary to
insure success, plunge right into it with the idea that it is a safe
investment for surplus funds, a genteel employment, and one which,
according to their notions, does not require any extraordinary amount
of brains or labor.

Is it then a matter of astonishment if so many of our undertakers
fail, or find themselves unable to cope with some more favored rival?
To them it is a source of wonder, but to a discriminating public the
cause is soon apparent.

It is safe to assert that every one cannot be an undertaker; in this
profession, a man is more than in any other the architect of his
own fortune; his success depends altogether upon his tact, skill,
discrimination and untiring efforts to please those who may honor him
with their trust. No small matter is it for an undertaker to perform
his solemn duties with credit to himself and to the satisfaction
of all present; sorrow has not so blunted all other feelings in
relations and friends as to make them relax their lynx eyed vigilance
of every motion of the undertaker while performing the delicate
duties of his avocation.

He must be endowed with the soft touch of a woman in the handling
of the dear remains; his work must be performed in silence, with
soft tread and expedition; his presence in the house is a constant
reminder to all of the irreparable loss which has bereft the family
of one of its members.

He must be quick of perception and ready of expedients, as there is
often no time left for reflection. To hesitate at times would be
taken for ignorance, and prompt action is the only means at hand to
retrieve himself.

A clear head and a cool judgment are among the most necessary
qualities. Urbane and affable in his manners; your first-class
professional is an accomplished gentleman; his knowledge of the
world and daily contact with people of all conditions allow him to
assimilate himself with quiet dignity with persons of all rank in the
social scale of life.

Well dressed, yet without ostentation, punctual in his engagements,
without the flurry of general transactions, he will treat his more
wealthy customers with deferential politeness without cringing, as
also will he bring in his dealings with his more modest patrons
none of the _hauteur_ characteristic of a narrow mind and a lack of
education.

Perfect equanimity of temper is a transcendent virtue in an
undertaker. Mistakes and delays will happen in spite of the most
careful preparations and the best laid plans; accidents, unforeseen
and unthought of, will occur suddenly; it is then that a clear headed
man will find some prompt means to remedy all before any one of those
present has taken notice of anything amiss.

Good taste is also eminently one of the requisite attributes to
be displayed in the easy, informal laying out of the remains, the
attitude of repose devoid of the conventional rigidity of limbs; in
the chaste trimmings of the casket, rich with elegance, but without
overloading with useless ornaments. How many so-called undertakers
will calculate the beauty of a casket by the accumulation of silver
ornaments promiscuously scattered on the top and sides; to such the
profusion of flashy trimmings is the standard of elegance.

The floral decorations either in the house or the church must also be
in accordance with the spirit of the scene. Good taste will likewise
dictate to the undertaker that any attempt at a lachrymose or woe
begone cast of countenance on his part, will not be regarded by his
patrons as a criterion of his sympathies for the bereaved family, but
rather as a hypocritical mask assumed for the occasion. A decorous,
quiet bearing is by far better appreciated by friends and mourners.

The master head of a really good undertaker will show itself in every
small detail and appointment of a funeral pageant; the carriages
will quietly form without confusion, and either receive or deliver
their occupants without orders being vociferously shouted from one
end to the other of the line; everything will work without bluster or
any noise which may grate harshly upon the ears of sorrow stricken
friends or parents.

On the contrary, how is it with one who is not a proficient? His
advent into the house of mourning is heralded by unusual bluster,
and the often contradictory orders given to an assistant. Questions
without number are asked from friends of the family or those present,
about the time of the funeral, number of carriages required, etc.,
inquiries which are altogether out of place at the time, and ought to
be postponed until those having charge of the arrangements will make
the wishes of the family known to the undertaker, at his office or
place of business.

Nervousness is manifest with some as soon as they commence handling
a corpse, and is apparent through all the details of a funeral. Let
any incident take place and everything is immediately thrown into
hopeless confusion, as the undertaker himself feels more at fault
than any one else.

With others, again, a funeral is made a public display of their
personal authority; it is to them an occasion to conspicuously show
in an ostentatious manner that the job is theirs; the management of
it in their hands; they intend to run it according to their notions,
with the utmost disregard of anyone else’s wishes in the matter. The
undertaker is, however, but a public servant; a well-bred man will
not try to coerce people into following his own ideas in regard to
certain matters and utterly disregard their views of the same.

A direct conflict with the mourners in regard to some point of
funeral etiquette will not place the undertaker in a very enviable
position, whereas a sensible suggestion, deferentially offered
to their better judgment, will win a ready assent and establish
his reputation as a man thoroughly posted and well qualified for
the business. Should the point be insisted upon by the family,
and although it may be, in the undertaker’s opinion, a breach of
established rules or customs, it is his duty to quietly submit and
thereby show his moral sense of the solemnity of the occasion, which
is ill-timed for a controversy of any kind.

Some undertakers have been known to extol the cheapness of their
wares in the house of mourning, drawing aside some of those present
and stating confidentially that such a casket never was sold so
low, and were it not for the particular regard they entertain for
the family, the regular price would have been charged. This mode
of philanthropic advertising has seldom brought any trade to the
one that had resorted to it. The best advertising medium for an
undertaker consists in the manner his business is carried on, in
the style and appointments of his livery, and above all in his
own deportment in public, the integrity of his character, and his
punctuality in meeting his business engagements.

As the assertion was made at the beginning of this chapter that every
man cannot be an undertaker, the above enumerated qualities requisite
to the make up of a first-class professional will prove conclusively
that such is the case.

Before fully entering upon the text forming the subject of this book,
I have thought it advisable as an introduction, to stimulate the
zeal of undertakers in self-improvement by illustrating, in brief
outlines, the necessary qualities of a popular sexton and exposing
_per contra_ the faults others are guilty of. Let not therefore, the
reader accuse me of severe criticism, for my aim has been only to try
and elevate our profession above its common standard.

That the duties of an undertaker require a larger quota of delicacy,
tact, and knowledge of human nature than generally falls to the lot
of most men, no one will deny; but it is also a well known fact that,
unless he be the busiest professional in one of the largest cities,
an undertaker has ample time for SELF-IMPROVEMENT and CULTURE.

It is high time the business of undertaking be truly, and really,
raised to the rank of a profession; let every undertaker be convinced
that his calling is a solemn and responsible one, and our ranks will
soon be free from the few interlopers who, so far, have impeded our
progress toward a just recognition from the public for a class of men
whose services are often very little short of self-sacrifice.

The physician has an office of great responsibility thrust upon him;
into his hands we blindly confide the lives of relations and friends,
hoping and expecting that his medical knowledge, his experience and
skill, may save the existence of some one dear to us.

And after science has been baffled and death claims his victim, the
undertaker is the one to whom we look to perform the last sad duties.
To him we intrust the care of the beloved remains, relying entirely
upon his experience and good judgment in such matters, to carry out
in a manner becoming to this age of christian feeling, the ceremonial
of sepulture with the deferential respect due to the dead.




EMBALMING.


It has been a custom among ancient nations to preserve the bodies
of the dead for a long period of time. Even to this day we find
traces of it in the mummies of Egypt and the sarcophagi of Etruria.
Their method of achieving this result may not have been strictly in
accordance with the principles of modern science; certainly their
success would hardly be satisfactory to the more refined taste of
our generation. Still their discoveries in this art have been such
that they have commanded the respect of modern savants. They also
show conclusively that the sciences of chemistry and physiology, even
at that remote period, had attained a certain degree of prominence
among their scientific men. Many of their discoveries were no
doubt accidental, still we must give them credit for the spirit of
investigation which actuated their researches, and carried them on
undaunted through the many disappointments they must certainly have
encountered before they satisfactorily solved the problem.

The imagination is carried back to the time when the mysterious
worship of Osiris and Isis was flourishing on the banks of the river
Nile, when the Sphinx uttered, or was thought to utter, the sacred
oracles of Thormes, and before the pyramids had entombed a long
generation of kings.

A great number of persons cannot revert to the science of embalming
without placing it among the lost arts; to them a mummy is the
contemporary of a mysterious past dimly perceived through the long
vista of succeeding generations; a tangible proof of that much
vaunted ancient civilization, which as they express regretfully will
never be found again. A thorough elimination of the subject would
convince those unsophisticated mourners that the loss is not quite
an irreparable one. Let us divest a mummy of his bitumen-coated
and fire-scorched bandages; we will then have before us a mass of
blackened and hardened cement-like substance, shrunken and emaciated
to almost a skeleton, and bearing semblance to the form of a human
organism, only so far as the shape of the osseous frame has retained
its symmetry. The lips have shrunk apart so far as to expose the row
of white teeth, the sockets of the eyes are empty, the cheek bones
are prominent, the whole covered with patches of the dark and almost
petrified epidermis. Such is the picture a mummy presents to our view
when denuded of its envelope

It is not to be wondered at, therefore, if some associate this
repulsive image with the idea of modern embalming. Our present object
in preparing bodies is two-fold: In the first place we desire to
keep perfect for a certain length of time the remains of those who
have been dear to us while living; but when desiccation has begun,
when the roundness of the lines loses itself into the more angular
shrinkage of the tissues, then we may take, and without any feeling
of horror, a last look at the body, and consign it, not to slow, foul
corruption, but to the gradual drying of the organic substances,
without the horrible accessions of decay and putrefaction.

In view of all this, and with the help of modern chemistry, it is not
singular that the art of embalming should have received a new impetus
in this country and Europe, especially here, where it is customary to
send back and over long distances the bodies of those that have died
far from home. This usage has already brought about some astonishing
results. The large majority of our first-class undertakers have taken
the matter in hand; they vie with each other in trying to perfect
themselves in an art which is daily growing into favor. Almost every
day a new antiseptic is, if not discovered, at least brought to
exercise its functions in the preservation of organic substances. Of
late, new methods have been inaugurated on all sides, and among the
number there are certainly some which are deserving all the merits
claimed for them.

It behooves all professionals to exert their ingenuity to bring this
science to a satisfactory issue. Many of the preparations sold under
the name of preserving liquid are good; others are not. How then are
undertakers to discriminate? By what means can the merits of the one,
and the utter worthlessness of the other, be determined? There is
but one way, and that is an infallible one, of finding out the best
method and preparation, and that is simply by experimenting, until
the real means, which is the only true one, has been hit upon.

It may also be objected to, with reason that a certain process has
been known to work effectually in some cases, whereas the same
method employed in a similar manner has proved a signal failure in
another instance. To this but one cause can be assigned, and that is
the utter ignorance on the part of the operator of the properties,
antiseptic and otherwise, of the materials he is employing, also
of the different conditions, which will according to existing
circumstances modify their action and govern their effect. To use a
certain preparation simply because it is highly recommended by some,
without knowing the constituents thereof, is very little short of
foolhardiness. How is it possible for the operator to employ it with
discrimination and judgment? Should he be successful, well and good;
the end would be obtained without he being the wiser for it. Should
it be otherwise, and the result prove unsatisfactory, how is he to
account for the failure, and how to guard against a repetition of the
same in the future?

A good embalmer, one that really understands his business, does not
have recourse to ready-made preparations for preserving bodies; but
he chooses the chemicals according to the properties each is known
to possess. His experience of their relative actions teach him
beforehand how they will work out the result he anticipated. I do
not mean that every undertaker and embalmer should be an Orfila in
regard to Chemistry, nor is it expected that his knowledge of Anatomy
should enable him to fill the chair of demonstrator in a dissecting
room, but to achieve real, legitimate success, an embalmer ought to
possess a thorough knowledge of the drugs he is manipulating, their
individual effects, singly and collectively, and under different
circumstances, upon subjects of different natures. A certain amount
of the acquaintance with the anatomy of the human body is not only
required, but strictly necessary; a gash of the knife upon some
vessel of the arterial system might jeopardize the success of an
otherwise satisfactory operation.

It is this rudimentary knowledge of Physiological Chemistry and
Anatomy we shall endeavor to explain in this book, with complete
instructions upon the best methods which have been heretofore and are
now employed in the preservation of bodies.




THE LABORATORY.


Before fully entering upon the subject of Embalming, it may not be
out of place to make mention of the room devoted to that purpose.

As a general thing, undertakers will find it to their advantage
to have set aside, either in the rear part of their store or at
some other convenient point of the building, a room of moderate
dimensions, exclusively for the purpose of preparing bodies. It may
also be used either for the purpose of holding inquests, post mortem
examinations, and as a morgue.

Although the purpose for which it is intended, be that of a
laboratory or room where the embalming of bodies may be carried on,
undisturbed by the traffic of the warerooms or the office, it will be
found useful for the above named objects. Very often physicians, who
may be wanting to investigate the immediate cause of death in some of
their patients, and who cannot prosecute the necessary investigations
either in their own office or at the house of the deceased, will
avail themselves, with pleasure, of the opportunity thus offered
to them. The advantages of this arrangement to the undertaker are
obvious and require no explanation.

The room should be well ventilated and lighted, and everything so
arranged as to be within reach; a sink with a water faucet should
occupy a corner of the room; in the center an embalming board, with
longitudinal grooves, on trestles, the head elevated about a foot
higher than the feet, so as to allow all liquids to run down and be
collected in a pail at the lower extremity, without unnecessarily
soiling the floor; a closet or cupboard for chemicals, which, by the
way, ought always to be kept locked up. It is also necessary to keep
a certain amount of the preparation used in daily practice, already
mixed for use at a moment’s notice. The preceding recommendation will
prevent mistakes, and do away with the confusion generally attendant
upon a hasty call.

A very useful custom, and one that cannot be too highly praised, is
that of keeping all needful articles for laying out and keeping a
body, in a neat morocco satchel, which can be carried about in the
hand without the least inconvenience. The contents should include
all that is necessary to preserve bodies, say for five or six days,
without the use of ice. The annexed list will furnish the explanation:

Two sponges for washing purposes. They can be, when dry, kept in a
very small compass; these should be thoroughly cleaned after using,
and immediately returned to their place.

A small post mortem case, containing a cartilage knife, two scalpels,
one catheter, one pair scissors, chain and hooks, nippers, hook to
raise arteries, and four crooked needles, assorted; also a skein of
surgeon’s silk. These instruments should be carefully cleaned before
returning to the case.

Two pint bottles containing antiseptic solution for injecting stomach
and bowels. I have here mentioned two pint bottles, in place of a
quart bottle, for this reason: the two former are easier carried,
less liable to break, and thus more convenient than the latter.

An eight-ounce vial, containing a concentrated solution for the
complexion; it can be diluted to suit when using.

Some cotton for stopping air passages and rectum.

Two cups for collecting blood from the jugulars, should the veins be
so congested as to require emptying of their contents.

An eight-ounce, black rubber syringe, for injecting either the
stomach, lungs or bowels; this should be well cleansed after using,
and also the leather forming the head of the plunger be saturated
with glycerine; it will keep it moist and free from getting sticky,
which generally happens when oil is used for that purpose.

A bottle of some pungent, aromatic, acidulated liquid, which will
serve, not to absorb, but to disguise the smell, always more or less
unpleasant, of a corpse.[1]

An eight-ounce bottle containing tannic acid to dust in cavities of
the thorax or abdomen before closing the wounds.

And last, but not least, a one-ounce bottle of liquid muriate of
ammonia, which is invaluable to cauterize any scratch, abrasion of
the skin, or cut, on the hands of the operator while at work.

I would here advise that some adhesive plaster be also a part of the
contents.

The following chapters on chemicals may be found, by some, dry and of
no consequence; but to a sensible person, and a shrewd undertaker,
it will be apparent that, unless possessed of some knowledge of
physiological chemistry and morbid anatomy, it will be impossible
for him to judge, with any degree of certainty, what means are to
be employed to secure success in embalming. It will also be found,
by the more enlightened mass of the profession, that a thorough
examination of the causes of putrefaction and the means to counteract
the same, are essential to a successful practice.

How, then, can such means be resorted to? How is it possible for an
undertaker to prosecute the business of embalmer satisfactorily, if
he has not in his hands all the information necessary to perform his
labors, with credit to himself and satisfaction to his employers? The
only resource he has consists in the complete knowledge acquired from
study and experience, and the following chapters will pave the way to
the desired result.


FOOTNOTES:

[1] I have found by experience that vinaigre de bully, an imported
toilet article, completely answers the purpose in this case, when
slightly sprinkled over the clothes of a corpse.




DRUGS AND CHEMICALS.


As it is of the utmost importance for the operator to get familiar
with the drugs or chemicals he is called upon to handle, the history
and properties of each one will be detailed at length in the
following chapters:

_Acetic Acid._—The acid liquid distilled when charcoal is prepared
from wood, in close cylinders without access of air, contains this
valuable acid in a very impure state; by subjecting this to further
distillation the liquid is collected which is known as wood vinegar,
or pyroligneous acid. By saturating this acid with lime, acetate
of lime is produced, which by decomposition with sulphate of soda,
furnishes sulphate of lime and acetate of soda; the latter salt
being crystallized in a state of purity yields, by distillation with
sulphuric acid, pure hydrated acetic acid in solution in water.

Acetic acid is also produced by the oxydation of alcoholic liquids,
especially cider and wine, and in this impure and diluted form is
called vinegar. In chemical works it is generally classed among the
derivatives of alcohol.

_Camphorated Acetic Acid._—This is largely used as a pungent and
refreshing perfume, to remove fetid odors from bodies. Take of

  Camphor,        half ounce,
  Acetic Acid,    6½ fluid ounces.

Pulverize the camphor by means of a few drops of alcohol and dissolve
it in the acetic acid.

_Aromatic Vinegar._—This is another pungent and reviving perfume,
formerly deemed a preventive of contagion, and which will be found
very useful in removing foul smells from the chamber of death. Take of

  Camphor,                       2 ounces,
  Alcohol, sufficient quantity to pulverize the Camphor,
  Oil of Cloves,                 1 fluid ounce,
  Acetic Acid, very strong,     12 fluid ounces.

_Acetone, or Pyroacetic Spirit, and Pyroxilic Spirit, or Wood
Naptha._—These are products of the distillation of wood, which are
separated from the acid liquors after they are saturated with lime by
simple distillation and rectification.

Owing to its cheapness, pyroxilic spirit has been extensively used in
England, as a substitute for alcohol in the arts and manufactures.

_Uses of Crude Pyroligneous Acid._—This acid having been incidentally
described as the source of the acetic acid of commerce, it may be
proper in this place to notice its uses. It acts on the principle of
an antiseptic and a stimulant; the former property being chiefly due
to the presence of creasote.

Several cases in which it was successfully employed in the
preservation of animal matter are reported by Dr. T. Y. Simmons, of
Charleston, S. C. The crude acid has been so advantageously used for
the above purpose that Mr. Wm. Ramsey was led to perform with it some
very interesting experiments. Some fresh fish, simply dipped in the
acid and afterwards dried in the shade, were effectually preserved,
and when eaten, at the end of eight months, were found very agreeable
to the taste. Fresh beef, dipped in the acid in summer for the space
of a minute, was perfectly sweet the following spring.

_Carbolic Acid, or Phenylic Acid._—It occurs in castor and the urine
of many domestic animals.

Coal tar is distilled, the product between 300° and 400° is saturated
with a strong solution of potassa, the oil is removed, the salt
decomposed by muriatic acid; the carbolic acid washed with water,
dried with chloride of calcium, rectified, cooled to about 12° F.,
the liquid decanted and the crystals quickly dried. It is in long
colorless needles; not very soluble in cold water; more so in hot
water; in all proportions in alcohol and ether; also soluble in
concentrated acetic acid.

_Commercial Creasote._—When obtained from coal tar is always
contaminated with phenylic acid (carbolic acid.) Indeed, it is said
that phenylic acid has been sold for creasote, which it closely
resembles in properties. How far these properties may be similar,
deserves to be studied; for if they should prove to be the same,
the fact would lead to its substitution as a substance to be easily
obtained pure, for the variable creasote.

Of all the properties of creasote, the most remarkable is its
power of preserving animal matter; this property has suggested its
name, derived from two Greek words which mean flesh preserver. Dr.
Christison finds that creasote water is as good a preservative
of anatomical preparations as alcohol, with the advantage of not
hardening the parts; it is probably to creasote that the antiseptic
properties of pyroligneous acid are owing.

_Tannic Acid._—Some powder of nut galls is macerated in a bottle,
with just enough ether to moisten it, for 24 hours, and then
expressed in a powerful press; and the process of maceration and
expulsion is repeated in the same way until the powder is exhausted;
the liquors are mixed, the ether distilled off, and the residue dried
by means of a water bath.

Properties: Pure tannic acid is solid, uncrystallizable, white or
slightly yellowish, inodorous; very soluble in water, and much less
soluble in alcohol and ether, and insoluble in the fixed and volatile
oils.

Tannic acid precipitates solutions of starch, albumen and gluten, and
forms with gluten an insoluble compound which is the basis of leather.

_Chromic Acid._—To 100 parts, by measure, of cold saturated solution
of bichromate of potassa, 150 parts of sulphuric acid are added and
allowed to cool; the sulphuric acid unites with the potassa, and
the chromic acid crystallized in deep red needles, very soluble and
deliquescent.

It is a powerful oxydizing and bleaching agent. Small animals, as
mice, etc., after being immersed in the acid were so completely
dissolved after 20 minutes, that no traces were left of either their
claws, hair, bones or teeth.

_Sulphurous Acid._—It is prepared by exposing to heat a mixture of
one part concentrated sulphuric acid with one part of mercury, or
one-third part of copper filings, washing the gas by passing it
through a little water, and condensing it in water which is well
cooled. Professor Proctor directs the gas evolved from four ounces
of copper turnings, and eight fluid ounces of sulphuric acid, to be
condensed into four pints of water.

Sulphurous acid is a gas which dissolves largely in water and has a
smell of burning sulphur.

_Liquor Chlorinated Soda—Labarraque Disinfecting Solution._—It is
prepared as follows:

  Chloride of Lime,         1 pound,
  Carbonate of Soda,        2 pounds,
  Water,                    1½ gallons.

Dissolve the carbonate of soda in 3 pints of water by the aid of
heat; to the remainder of the water add, by small portions at a
time, the chloride of lime, previously well triturated, stirring the
mixture after each addition; set the mixture by for several hours
that the drugs may subside, then decant the clear liquid and mix it
with the solution of carbonate of soda. Lastly, decant the clear
liquor from the precipitated carbonate of lime, pass it through a
linen cloth and keep it in bottles secluded from the light.

It is a colorless alkaline solution, having a faint odor of
chlorine, and an alkaline taste; it owes its antiseptic properties
to containing hypoclorous acid which is readily liberated by the
addition of even a weak acid and, on exposure to the air, by the
absorption of carbonic acid.

One of its principal uses is to purify the air in dissecting rooms
and hospitals, in which case it acts by decomposing sulphurated
hydrogen, against which gas when inhaled, it is also an antidote.

_Nitrate of Lead._—Take of litharge 4½ ounces; dilute nitric acid
one pint. Dissolve the litharge to saturation by the aid of a gentle
heat; filter, and set the liquor aside to crystallize; concentrate
the residual liquid to obtain more crystals. This is a beautiful
white salt, of a sweet astringent taste and soluble in 7½ parts
of water and in alcohol. It has recently been found useful in the
correction of fetid odors, dependent upon the presence of sulphurated
hydrogen or hydrosulphate of ammonia, which it decomposes.

It will not prevent the putrefaction of animal matter, but it will
be found extremely useful, as a disinfectant of putrescent animal
fluids.

_Ledoyen’s Disinfecting Fluid_.—Which is greatly esteemed abroad, is
a solution of this salt in water, in the proportion of two ounces of
salt to one pint of water.

_Corrosive Sublimate._—By the action of boiling sulphuric acid on
mercury, the hipersulphate is first formed. When this is heated
with common salt mutual exchange takes place, and bichloride of
mercury and sulphate of soda, the former of which sublimes are
produced. Corrosive sublimate is in heavy, white crystalline masses,
of a styptic and metallic taste, soluble in about 20 parts of cold
water, much more so in alcohol. A solution of corrosive sublimate
precipitates albumen and forms with it a definite insoluble compound,
to which property its use as an antiseptic is due.

Corrosive sublimate has the property of retarding putrefaction.
Animal matters immersed in its solution shrink, acquire firmness,
assume a white color, and become imputrescible. On account of
this property it is usefully employed in preserving anatomical
preparations. We have seen a head prepared in this manner which had
for seven years resisted the attacks of decay and insects, and been
subjected to all changes of temperature.

_Hyposulphite of Soda._—This salt may be economically prepared
by the following process: 16 ounces finely powdered carbonate of
soda are mixed with 5 ounces flowers of sulphur, and heated in a
porcelain dish with constant agitation until it takes fire and burns
to sulphite of soda; this is dissolved in water and boiled with
sulphur and thus forms hyposulphite acid; it is then evaporated to
crystallization.

It is easily soluble in water; the solution gradually deposits
sulphur; 1 to 4 ounces dissolved in the necessary quantity of water,
and with the subsequent addition of 3 fluid ounces of sulphuric acid
for each ounce of the salt, will liberate the hyposulphurous acid,
which immediately decomposes into sulphur and sulphurous acid.

_Solution of Chloride of Zinc_.—Made in the proportion of 1 ounce
of chloride of zinc dissolved in 1 pint of water. It is a powerful
deodorizing and disinfecting agent in neutralizing noxious effluvia
and in arresting animal and vegetable decomposition.

The concurrent testimony of a number of observers shows that it
acts as an excellent disinfectant for hospitals, dissecting rooms,
etc. When injected into the blood vessels, it preserves bodies for
dissection without injuring their texture. The advantage is claimed
for it, that while it destroys putrid odors, it has no smell of its
own.

_Alumina._—Dissolve alum in six times its weight of boiling water,
add solution of carbonate of soda in slight excess, agitate for a few
minutes, filter, and wash the precipitate with distilled water; the
product is hydrate of alumina.

_Acetate of Alumina._—A solution of this salt is obtained by
saturating acetic acid with hydrated alumina and cannot be evaporated
without the loss of acetic acid. It has a faint smell of acetic acid
and a sweetish taste, and possesses strong antiseptic properties.

_Sulphate of Alumina._—Saturate diluted sulphuric acid with hydrated
alumina, evaporate and crystallize; it is in thin, flexible plates,
of a pearly lustre, sweet and astringent taste; soluble in twice
its weight of cold water, but not in alcohol. Its chief use is as
an antiseptic; a solution of 1 pound to a quart of water is used to
preserve dead bodies; as a lotion it may be used in a somewhat less
concentrated form.

The salts of alumina have been ascertained by Mr. Gannal to be
powerful preservatives of animal matter. Among these the sulphate
is to be preferred on account of its easy preparation and moderate
price. Its aqueous solution was found by Mr. Gannal to be very
effectual in preserving bodies, when injected into the blood vessels;
in the summer season bodies were preserved for thirty days or more;
in the winter for _three_ months.

For use in the winter, a quantity of the solution sufficient for
injecting one body, may be made by adding a pound, avoirdupois, of
the salt to a quart of water; for use in warm weather, the solution
must be saturated.




POST MORTEM EXAMINATIONS.


Before commencing the work of embalming, and even while laying out a
corpse, it is always necessary to make an inspection of the surface
of the body. The minuteness of this inspection will depend upon the
character of the case, and, in a great measure, dictate the course of
treatment to be followed so as to insure success. It also behooves
the operator, for his own safety, to look for evidences of skin
diseases, ulcers, abscesses, etc.; the glands, penis and prepuce are
to be carefully examined for syphilitic cicatrices.

It is customary to find certain changes in the external appearance of
the body, which are due to the cessation of vitality in the tissues
and the commencement of decomposition. I speak now of bodies which
have not yet been buried, and which have been kept in the ordinary
way, partly covered by a shroud, and lying on the back, in a loosely
covered coffin.

If the bodies have been left in their ordinary clothes, the
appearances are just the same. In such bodies, one of the first
noticeable changes is the paleness of the skin and its mottling with
irregular livid patches. After a short time the blood settles in
the vessels of the more dependent portions of the body, and the skin
which covers the back of the trunk and extremities becomes of a livid
red color.

In many cases, if we cut through the skin, we find the tissues
beneath congested and infiltrated with bloody scum; in bodies which
have been kept for a number of days in cold weather, this red color
is also seen on the anterior portions of the body, especially on the
face and neck. In hot weather, the red color is very soon altered by
decomposition; if the epidermis has been detached at any point, the
skin beneath this is dry, hard and red. In warm weather, we may find,
for a few hours after death, broad, bluish lines, corresponding to
the cutaneous veins, ramifying in the skin of the neck and thorax.
These lines are formed by the escape of the coloring matter of the
blood from the vessels.

Within a few hours after death, even in cold weather, there is
usually some escape of bloody froth and mucous from the mouth and
nose. If the eyelids are not closed, the conjunctira and cornea soon
become dry, brown and hard, the eyeballs also become flaccid. After
a considerable time the skin of the abdomen becomes green; still
later, decomposition fairly sets in. The entire body is of a dark
green color; the tissues are infiltrated with serum, the abdomen is
distended with gas, then the color changes from a green to a reddish
brown; the epidermis is detached; the skin is covered with maggots;
the entire body is swollen from the formation of gases; the face
can hardly be recognized; the nails drop off, and the scalp becomes
detached.

When a body is in this condition it can hardly be determined whether
a month or five months have elapsed since death occurred. After
this all the soft parts change into a formless, pustulent mass. The
cavities are open, the viscera are indistinguishable, and the bones
are left bare.

The rapidity with which these changes take place, varies under the
influence of a great number of conditions. The bodies of infants
usually decompose more rapidly than those of adults; fat bodies
putrefy quicker than lean ones; the bodies of persons who die
suddenly from violence, decompose less rapidly than the average,
unless the body be considerably mangled. Exhausting diseases, fevers,
and the puerperal condition, are followed by rapid decomposition,
as is also death from suffocating gases. Poisoning by alcohol, by
arsenic, and by sulphuric acid, may preserve the bodies for an
unusual length of time. Atmospheric air, moisture, and warmth,
quicken decomposition. At the same temperature, a body which has been
for one week in the air, one which has been two weeks in the water,
and one which has been eight weeks buried in the usual way, will all
exhibit the same degree of decomposition.




THE RIGOR MORTIS.


It is proper to notice whether or not the body is in the condition
of post mortem rigidity. More attention has, perhaps, been given to
this post mortem condition than it well deserved. According to Kühne,
the rigor mortis is produced by a change in the muscular fibres; the
fibres first lose their contractibility, then there is coagulation
of the myosine and loss of elasticity. When this acidity has reached
its height, muscle becomes softer, and the rigor mortis gradually
disappears; finally, the acid condition is succeeded by an alkaline
fermentation, and decomposition ensues.

The rigor mortis generally begins in the muscles of the lower jaw
and back of the neck; it then extends to those of the face, neck,
thorax, arms, and finally, the legs; it usually disappears in the
same order; it generally begins in from eight to twenty hours after
death, but often much sooner. The bodies of persons killed on the
field of battle, and of those who have been drowned, sometimes seem
to be overtaken by the rigor mortis at the very instant of death; the
bodies retain the same position, and the face the same expression,
which they had in the last moments of life. The rigor mortis may
continue for from one to ten days, generally, but not always; death
from narcotic poisons is followed by a short and feeble rigidity.
While death by lightning is followed by rapid and intense rigidity,
in young children, it is feeble and of short duration. The degree and
duration of rigor mortis after death from violence, from different
diseases, etc., is stated so variedly and contradictorily by
different observers, that no definite rules can be given concerning
it.

The temperature of the normal living body is 98° to 99° F. In
illness, the temperature may be increased several degrees. After
death, the body generally cools to the same point as the surrounding
air; this is said to take place in from fifteen to twenty hours.

Taylor, from the examination of one hundred bodies, states that the
average heat of the skin of the abdomen, at a period of two to three
hours after death, is 77°; at four to six hours, 74°; at six to eight
hours, 70°; at twelve hours, 69°. The internal viscera retain their
heat longer than the surface of the body.

It is said, that, after sudden death from accidents, apoplexy, acute
disease and asphyxia, the body retains its heat for an unusually
long period. It is both asserted and denied, that after death from
hemorrhage the body cools rapidly; the body of an adult cools more
slowly than that of a child or an old person; that of a fat person
more slowly than that of a lean one.

In some cases there is an exceptional retention and even an increase
of heat in the dead body. Dr. John Davy reports, that in case of
death from rheumatism, after the viscera had been exposed for several
minutes, the temperature of the left ventricle of the heart was 113°,
and that of the liver 112°. In a second case, six hours after death,
the temperature of the heart was 108°. It is stated that after death
from yellow fever and cholera, the temperature increases for several
hours after death. There are also recorded a number of instances in
which the body retained its heat for several days, without known
cause.

It will be seen from what has been said, that if we are called upon
to pronounce upon the length of time that has elapsed since death,
in a given case, this is only to be done approximately, and it is
probably necessary to take into consideration the cause and manner of
death, the condition of the individual, the state of the atmosphere,
the manner in which the body has been kept after death; and even
after making these allowances, we can only say that a person has
probably been dead for such and such a time.

This chapter may prove tedious to some, but it is, however, an
undeniable fact, that the preceding information (compiled from the
Morbid Anatomy of F. Delafield, M. D.), is of the utmost importance
to the professional undertaker. The external examination of the
body, before handling, is a matter not to be neglected. Should any
syphilitic sores or foul ulcers be present, the utmost caution must
be used in handling the body, as the pus, which is a most virulent
poison, might find its way into the system through some abrasion of
the skin. The effects of this poison are such, that, should it not
prove fatal, it will leave in the system traces that can never be
completely eradicated. This chapter also contains information of such
character as will be found needful to fully understand the subsequent
chapters.




PRESERVATION OF BODIES.


The following process is intended to preserve bodies without the use
of ice, merely until the time of the funeral may arrive. Sometimes,
this ceremonial may be delayed for three or four days, or until some
member of the family, who may be at some distance, can arrive. It is
also intended to take the place of the cumbrous refrigerator, and
substitute for the labor of removing ice, carrying the box to and
from the residence, the more simple and less laborious process of
injecting the abdominal viscera.

The first step to be taken upon arrival in the chamber of death, is
to create a current of fresh air, by lowering the upper part of a
window, or of a couple of them, if there be no transom light over the
door.

Next, remove the body from the bed and place it on a cooling board;
this board ought to be elevated about one foot at the head; also, the
head of the body should be raised at an angle of about forty-five
degrees; this disposition of the body will allow the fluids contained
in the circulatory system to go down of their own gravitation, and
leave the face, neck, and upper part of the body uncongested, and
therefore free from the purple spots that gradually discolor the face
and neck.

The head is raised on the cooling board at the proper elevation as
directed above, by means of a head rest attached to the cooling
board, and provided with a catch resting on a cog scale, which allows
the rest to be raised or lowered at will.

The mouth must next be firmly closed by means of a ligature, tied
firmly round the head and passed under the apex of the chin; this
ligature should be kept in place until the rigor mortis has firmly
set the jaws together.

A great improvement for the above purpose upon the old way of tying
a cloth or a handkerchief round the head, is to use a band of some
wide, elastic fabric, of which several sizes must be kept on hand,
as when this ligature presses too tightly it leaves upon the face,
especially on fat persons, unsightly wrinkles.

The eyes must next be attended to; the lids must be brought together
firmly, avoiding at the same time interference with the lashes or the
creation of wrinkles of the skin on the corners; then fold up neatly
some small pieces of linen, well saturated in the following solution,
which is also to be used to moisten the face with:

Alum, 8 ounces; Corrosive Sublimate, 2 ounces; Water, 1 gallon.

The linen pads should not exceed the size of a quarter dollar, and
thoroughly saturated in the above solution before applying to the
eyes. The face, after washing with soap and water, should be well
moistened with the same solution, and a cloth laid carefully and
evenly over the features, so as to come into direct contact with
every part of them; this cloth must be kept moist with the above
solution, and remain over the face until such time as the body is
placed in the coffin, when the cloth may be removed previous to the
lid being closed. This solution should be diluted with one-half water
for use on children or persons whose skin is very fine. It must also
be kept from a very strong light, in a glass bottle, and should, when
used, never be mixed in a metallic vessel, but in a bowl, cup, or
some dish of queens-ware or china.

The next step to be taken consists in preventing frothing or purging
from the mouth and nostrils; also keeping down generation of gases,
and swelling of the stomach and bowels.

For this purpose an incision about 4 or 5 inches in length is made in
the abdomen, above the transverse arch of the colon; this incision
will reveal the colon and upper part of the large intestines, also
the stomach, a little to the left.

If the bowels are distended with gas, puncture first the colon and
some of the smaller intestines, and, after expelling the air by
firmly pressing on the abdomen, inject into the bowels about eight
ounces of the following solution: Dissolve in one gallon of water as
much alum as the water will take up, shaking at intervals; then pour
off the clear liquor, and add to it two ounces chloride of zinc and
two ounces corrosive sublimate. Keep this injecting solution in a
cool, dark place.

The bowels being injected, the stomach must be emptied of its
contents by puncturing its walls, and by pressing gently upon its
outer surface in a downward direction; the matter contained in it
will be forced out into the pleural cavity, and can then be either
sponged or scooped out; the stomach is then to be injected in a
similar manner as the bowels; some of the injecting fluid may be then
poured between the interstices of the bowels, about (6 or 8 ounces),
and some cotton batting be laid evenly over the bowels; this cotton
should be well saturated with the solution after it is properly
laid in its place. The lips of the wound may then be neatly brought
together and sewed up.

It will be readily understood by the above described operation, that
no gases can be generated in either the bowels or the stomach, as
the injecting fluid in those parts of the viscera will effectually
prevent their formation; and this being the case, the purging at the
mouth and nostrils, which is the result of the escape of gas driving
out the contents of the stomach, is avoided. The expansion of the
abdominal viscera, or the bowels, is also prevented by the same cause.

In some instances, when the body is that of a stout, fleshy person,
or especially when some length of time has elapsed from the time of
death until the undertaker has been called in, and particularly if
the body has been reclining in a horizontal position, the face, neck
and shoulders, will be found highly congested with blood; the face,
in fact, may be swelled and of a purple appearance, owing to the
extravasation of blood into the capillary vessels under the skin.

In such cases, and after the body has been removed and placed into a
proper position on the cooling board, if the blood is not carried to
some lower part of the body by its own gravitation, it may be found
necessary to cut into the jugular veins on either side of the neck,
an incision about one quarter of an inch in length; through this
opening the congested blood may be let out, and the face will soon
recover its original color. This process, which occupies about twenty
minutes, will be found preferable to the use of ice, especially
when the corpse is at some distance from the undertaker’s place of
business; or when it would be almost impracticable to carry a large
and cumbrous ice box, besides the labor and bustle occasioned in the
house of mourning by the carrying in and out of the box, ice, etc.

It is also well understood that this process can not be applied where
the corpse is that of a person who has died of some contagious or
infectious disease. Besides the danger to the operator in this case,
it is not customary to retain for any length of time the remains of
those who may have died from the effects of an epidemic.

To the solution for injecting, as given above, must be added one
ounce of creosote to the gallon of liquid, when the preparation is to
be used in warm weather.




STATE OF THE BODY AFTER DEATH.


As the object of this book is to give, not only the best modes of
preserving and embalming bodies, but also to make comprehensive to
our professionals the _modus operandi_, it is a most important matter
to them that the different conditions of a body, as influenced by
the cause of death, should be made a study of, and fully understood,
before proceeding any farther. These different circumstances may so
influence the state of the body, that the process of embalming, as
given hereafter and as usually practiced, may not be successful.

I repeat an assertion already made, that one body having been treated
successfully in a certain manner, yet the same method may fail in
another case. Although the same chemicals may have been used in both
instances, and given full satisfaction in the first, they failed to
accomplish their object in the last.

It is a well known fact that the arterial system must be intact
and without lesions, if the injecting fluid is to be carried
in a thorough manner, and by the natural channels through the
body—therefore any rupture in the arteries may cause the fluid to
escape at that point, and fill the neighboring cavities. The result
would certainly not in that case be satisfactory to the operator;
for as the fluid would thus be arrested in its course, and fail to
permeate the tissues through the arteries, veins and smaller vessels,
the corpse would soon putrefy in consequence.

Destructive inflammation of the surrounding tissues may invade and
destroy the walls of an artery. Thus, ulceration of the brachia,
bronchial glands, and œsophagus, may perforate the aorta; gangrene of
the lungs, the pulmonary arteries, ulcer of the stomach, the gastric
arteries, etc.

Let us suppose that the operator chooses the femoral artery as a
point of injection. The injecting fluid will fill the arteries of
the abdomen and the thorax until it reaches a point where the walls
of the arteries are ruptured, and then will lose itself into the
surrounding cavities, thereby failing to reach the upper portion of
the body. It will of course, in an instance of this kind, be found
necessary to inject again at some other point situate in a higher
part of the body, as for instance, the axillary artery. It is,
therefore, easily understood that—

1st. The cause of death may so affect the arterial system that the
point selected for injecting may not be the proper one.

2d. That it may be necessary to inject the body at different points.

3d. That, in many cases, the cause of failure does not lay in the
lack of antiseptic properties of the chemicals used, but in the need
of discrimination on the part of the embalmer, in choosing the
proper place for injecting, and also in his ignorance of where that
place should be.

It is, therefore, patent, that should the course of the arteries
and veins be not readily understood by the operator, it will be a
rather hard matter for him to discover the cause of his failure. This
want, we will try to supply in the following chapters, by giving
in detail the course of the blood vessels, also of the different
positions of the several parts of the viscera, which it is necessary
for the embalmer to be acquainted with, and which it is absolutely
indispensable to know, so as to fully comprehend the instructions
given further on in this book.




DEATH FROM POISONING.


_By Sulphuric Acid._—There does not seem to be any lesions of the
arteries after death, as the stomach is the only part which might
be perforated, as also the adjoining viscera might be blackened and
softened by the action of the acid. The blood is thickened, sirupy
acid, and the body may be partially preserved from decomposition.

_Nitric Acid._—In this case the stomach will be found to contain a
viscous, sanguinolent yellow or greenish fluid, which must be got rid
of before injecting. The lungs will also be found highly congested,
and the blood must therefore be emptied out. The acid, Nitrate of
Mercury, and Muriatic Acid, produce about the same changes after
death as those of Nitric Acid.

_Oxalic Acid._—The stomach will be found to contain a dark, brown,
mucous fluid, but in some cases of death from this poison there are
no well marked lesions.

_Oxalate of Potash_ produces the same changes.

_Potash-Soda._—These alkalies and their carbonates are rarely used as
poisons. Cicatrices and strictures of the œsophagus and stomach may
be produced.

_Ammonia._—The vapor of strong ammonia may cause death from
inflammation of the larynx and air passages. But the strong solution
of Ammonia produces corrosion of the mouth, œsophagus and stomach.

_Nitrate of Potash._—In some cases, there is intense congestion of
the stomach, and sometimes perforation of that organ.

_Phosphorus._—The post mortem appearances vary with the length
of time which lapses before death. If death takes place in a few
hours, the only lesions are those produced by the direct action of
the poison. The contents of the stomach, which must be evacuated,
are often mixed with blood, and may have the peculiar smell of
phosphorus. It is said that the mucous membrane of the stomach may
emit a phosphorescent light in the dark. If death does not ensue
until after several days, the lesions are more marked; the body is
usually jaundiced, and there may be found a congestion of the liver,
or there may be a small hemorrhage in the liver tissue.

_Arsenic._—The stomach may be empty, or contain mucous mixed with
blood, and the intestines contain a white, rice-water fluid, which
must be emptied out.

_Corrosive Sublimate._—The stomach is usually contracted; there
are inflamed and congested, sometimes _gangrenous_, _patches_ of
the mucous coat. The intestines may appear normal, or there may be
patches of congestion. In both preceding cases it must be borne in
mind that the poison may be absorbed by the skin, therefore the
operator should use great care in manipulating the stomach and bowels.

_Vegetable Irritants._—Aloes, colocynth, jalap, gamboge, scammony,
savin, croton oil, colchicum, veratria, turpentine; all these drugs
produce congestion and inflammation of the stomach and bowels.

_Sulphate of Copper—Verdigris._—The post mortem appearances have
only been observed in a moderate number of cases; the stomach may be
unchanged, or there may be patches of gangrene and inflammation, and
even perforation.

_Tartar Emetic._—In this instance the lesions are not constant, but
the lungs may be engorged with blood.

_Opium._—The post mortem appearances of persons who have been killed
by the preparations of opium, are negative. Intense congestion of
the brain and lungs are spoken of by most authors, but they seem to
depend chiefly on the way in which the patient dies, rather than on
any specific action of the drug.

_Prussic Acid._—The skin is usually livid, and the muscles
contracted; the stomach is congested, and the veinous system
unusually full of blood. The most characteristic condition, when
this acid is present, is the odor of bitter almonds exhaled from the
stomach and tissues.

_Alcohol._—The different preparations of alcohol may, when taken
in large quantities, produce sudden coma and death. The bodies are
said to resist decomposition for an unusual length of time. There is
congestion, and sometimes extravasation of the blood in the brain;
the veins everywhere are full of blood, and the bladder distended
with urine. Chronic alcoholic poisoning is of a different nature; in
this latter case the brain appears normal, but the lungs are usually
congested.

_Strychnia—Nux Vomica._—In cases of poisoning from these, the
cramping and contraction of the muscles relax after death, but the
brain is always congested with blood.

_Corium, Aconite, Belladona, Lobelia, Digitalis, Stramonium,
Veratrum._—All these poisons produce congestion of the brain, lungs
and stomach.

_Carbonic Oxide._—This gas is produced from burning charcoal, and
forms the poisonous ingredient of illuminating gas. For post mortem
appearances, see death from suffocation.

_Carbolic Acid._—A number of deaths from this poison have been
reported in the last few years. In this case, the stomach, lungs and
intestines are intensely congested.

_From Lightning._—In persons killed by lightning the internal viscera
may be so lacerated and disorganized that the injection of the
embalming fluid may be rendered impossible.

_Drowning._—Persons who have been drowned usually die from asphyxia.
The lungs are generally congested, the stomach contains some of
the fluid in which the person may have been drowned, and must be
emptied. The abdominal viscera may also be congested, but the blood
generally remains fluid throughout the body, and is easily removed.

_Strangulation._—In this instance the carotid arteries are generally
ruptured; the heart, the lungs and the viscera, are usually
congested. In death from suffocation the same symptoms are present.
In cases of sunstroke, decomposition sets in very rapidly, and
requires an immediate check; the lungs will frequently be found
congested.

_Epidemic, Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis._—In many cases the skin of
the body and face may show purpuric patches. The rigor mortis is
pronounced and long continued, but decomposition sets in early.
The intestines may be swollen, and even ulcerated, and the lungs
congested.

The character of the disease almost precluded the idea of preserving
the body after death. However, should the request be insisted upon,
too many precautions cannot be taken, for the disease is of a
virulent character.




EMBALMING BODIES.


The board generally employed to lay the body on while the operation
of embalming is being performed resembles any ordinary cooling board
with an adjustable head-rest, but it is also provided with a rim,
extending all around, and raised about one inch above the level of
the board; this rim stops at the foot, where the board remains open
in all its width. There are also longitudinal grooves running the
full length of the board.

The usefulness of this arrangement is obvious, as the liquids which
are used during the washing and embalming of the body run down the
grooves—the board being raised at the head about one foot during the
operation—and can easily be collected in a pail placed under the foot
of the board. This will do away with soiling the floor or carpet, as
is often the case with the common board in use. The rim around the
board will also prevent any liquid from dripping over the sides, and
will save a great deal of annoyance and trouble.

The greatest precaution must be used by the operator. All useless
and unnecessary talk must be avoided while at work; the mind must
be concentrated upon the work in hand. The knives, needles and
other instruments must be carefully laid away on a stand within easy
reach of the operator, and not be left laying about the board, under
sponges, towels, etc.; these might be grasped thoughtlessly, and
in doing so a gash might be inflicted, which, if not fatal, at all
events would certainly prove very serious.

Before commencing the operation, and after the body has been
thoroughly cleansed with soap and water, let the operator anoint and
rub his hands with either lard or sweet oil; not so much so as to
soil any article used, but let a vigorous rubbing force the oil into
the pores of the skin until the hands are almost dry.

The eyes and the mouth being carefully closed by the usual means, let
the body be well saturated with the following solution:

  Sulphate alumina,         2 lbs.
  Corrosive sublimate,      2 ounces.
  Water,                    1 gallon.

A cloth moistened with this solution may be laid on the face, and
remain while the operation is being performed. This solution should
not be wiped off, but it should be allowed to dry on the body; the
water will evaporate and leave behind it a thin coating of the
salts, which by penetrating the pores of the skin will render it
imputrescible.

Next, an incision about five or six inches in length is cut
transversely from right to left in the abdominal region, over the
stomach, about one inch in a line below the curvature of the lower
ribs. Through this opening is revealed the stomach on the right, the
liver and gall bladder on the left, the transverse arch of the colon
in front, and below the smaller intestines.

If the stomach is distended with food or gas, it must in all cases
be emptied of its contents and injected. For this purpose, puncture
the walls of the stomach on the side exposed to view, and passing
the left hand gently between that organ and the ribs, press down,
so as to force the contents out and through the opening made. Then,
after the stomach is completely emptied, inject with the following
solution, which we shall designate, for the sake of avoiding
mistakes, by the name of


EMBALMING FLUID.

  Corrosive sublimate,      2 ounces.
  Chloride of zinc,         4    ”
  Creasote,                 4    ”
  Alcohol,                  1 gallon.

The chloride of zinc and corrosive sublimate must be first dissolved
in the alcohol, and the creasote then added.

The small intestines must then be gently and carefully drawn out, and
allowed to lay on the right side of the abdomen; this will reveal
in the abdominal region a cavity, which may or may not be filled
with serum, according to circumstances. At any rate, should there
be any liquid, it must be carefully pumped out or sponged off until
perfectly dry.

The cavity is then to be sprinkled heavily with tannic acid. The
small intestines must then, and before being replaced, be next
attended to. If inflated with nothing but gas, a simple puncture
at different points, so as to favor the escape of the gas, and a
moderate injection through the aperture, will suffice.

If, however, the intestine should be found congested with blood, or
some other substance, the contents must be emptied by the following
method: Seize firmly, between the two forefingers of the left hand,
the intestine, at the lowest point you can reach, and with the right
hand draw the intestine through the fingers of the left; this will
have the effect of forcing the contents of the intestine forward
in front of the fingers of the left hand. After the matter has so
accumulated that the progress is impeded, the intestine must be cut,
the matter extracted, the part which has thus been emptied, injected
with the embalming fluid, and then tied up. This operation must be
repeated until the whole of the intestines, small and large, have
been emptied and injected, and then the whole is to be replaced into
the cavity.

About four ounces of the embalming fluid must be poured over the
intestines, and the wound neatly sewed together.

It may be found necessary before closing the opening to lay a
thickness of cotton batting over the bowels and under the walls of
the abdomen.

Should the lungs be congested with blood, they must be emptied. This
object may be attained either by pressing upon the lower part of the
thorax, which will have the effect of forcing the blood out through
the nostrils and mouth; or else the diaphragm separating the thoracic
cavity from the abdomen may be cut through, and the extravasated
blood can therefore be got out through the opening. The injection of
the thoracic cavity can also be performed through the same opening.
The utmost caution must be used in perforating the diaphragm, as some
of the arteries might be wounded by a careless use of the knife.

The above operation may be performed before closing the wound in the
abdomen or replacing the intestine into the cavity, as it will then
leave more room to collect the fluid which may escape from the lungs.

The lungs should in all cases be well injected, either through the
trachea or by the process given above. The air passages must be
carefully stopped with cotton. The mouth being closed, the nostrils
are about the only air passages which require the attention of the
operator. The eyes, after a few days, are liable to sink in the
sockets, which gives the body an unnatural appearance. Mr. John C.
Rulon, of Philadelphia, has invented a wax shell, which, after being
introduced under the eyelids, prevents the sinking of the eyes.

The arterial system is to be injected, and next requires attention.
Before commencing to inject the arteries, the jugular vein on the
left side of the neck must be punctured so as to allow the blood to
escape. In some subjects, the flow of blood will be very copious, in
which instance the jugular veins must be opened on both sides of the
neck; at other times the flow of blood will be very limited, and even
the opening of the veins has sometimes been found quite unnecessary.

The femoral artery is the vessel generally chosen for injecting, at
a point below the arch about eight inches from and below Poupart’s
Ligament. After the artery has been raised, a small incision is
punctured into the coat of the artery, large enough to admit the
nozzle of the injector, and the canula is carefully pushed upwards
into it as far as its length will allow; the artery is then safely
and firmly fastened around it, and everything is then ready for
injecting.

On the mode of injecting depends, in a great measure, the success
of the operation. With some of the instruments now employed, the
pressure of the injecting fluid is so strong and sudden as in some
instances to rupture the walls of the arteries at some weak point,
and fill the cavaties of the thorax and abdomen; sometimes even the
liquid has been forced in with such force and in such quantities as
to burst the arteries, and, after filling the chest, to pour out in a
stream from the mouth and nostrils.

In the above instances, it stands to reason that neither the arterial
nor venous systems have been properly injected.

The injection should be performed in a slow, regular manner. After
a quart of the embalming fluid (the composition of which has been
given above) has been injected, the operation should be suspended
for about ten minutes, after which it should be renewed in the same
manner, until a gallon and a half or two gallons have been injected.
Sometimes the quantity injected need not be so great, as for instance
in the case of a person much emaciated by long illness, or if the
subject be a child.

The jugular veins must be kept open so long as the flow of blood
continues, but they must be closed as soon as the embalming fluid
makes its appearance. The best manner of closing the veins is by
introducing into the jugulars a small pad of cotton, and neatly
sewing up the opening.

It should be remembered that the cloth moistened with the solution
for the face should be kept on, well saturated, while this operation
is being performed, and even for a few hours after the body has been
dressed.

A body prepared in this manner has been kept, in a wooden coffin,
in a dark and moderately cool place, for the space of nine months
without any perceptible change. After that time the shrinking of
the tissues took place, and the body was slowly drying up and being
desiccated without in the least decaying or putrefying.




THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM.


To understand thoroughly the process of embalming as described in
the preceding chapter, it will be necessary to give here a brief
explanation of the circulatory system; also to explain the position
of the different parts of the viscera, to which reference has been
made.

The arteries commence from the great arterial trunk, called the
aorta, and their branches are distributed to all parts of the
system; they are dense in structure, and preserve for the most part
their cylindrical form when emptied of their blood, which is their
condition after death.

The aorta arises from the left ventricle, at the middle of the root
of the heart; it ascends at first forwards and to the right, then
curves backwards and to the left, and descends on the left side of
the vertebral column, to the fourth lumbar vertebra; here it is
divided into the arch and descending aorta.

It should be here remembered that most of the branches, which spring
from the great artery and vein, are double, that is, each right
branch has a corresponding one on the left side—so that there are,
for instance, the right and left carotid arteries, the right and
left jugular veins, etc. From the arch of the aorta are sent off
those arteries which are distributed to the head and arms; the
principal ones among these are named as follows:

The carotid artery, which ascends in the side of the neck and divides
into the temporal artery which is distributed in the temple, and the
facial artery which supplies the face, and also sends a branch called
the _internal carotid_ to the parts within the skull. The sub-clavian
artery, lying beneath the clavicle, or collar bone—that part of
the continuation of this artery which passes through the axilla or
arm-pit, is called the axillary artery; its continuation in the upper
part of the arm, the brachial artery; and in the fore-arm it divides
into the radial and ulnar arteries, which are distributed to the
hands and fingers.

The principal branches of the descending aorta are as follows:

The iliac artery, which on passing into the thigh becomes the
femoral artery, and, in the leg divides into the tibial and peroneal
arteries, which form numerous branches for the supply of the leg and
foot.

Before dividing into the iliac arteries the descending aorta gives
off several important branches, as the cœliac artery, from which the
stomach and liver are supplied; the renal artery, which goes to the
kidneys, and the mesenteric artery to the intestines; besides many
other sub-divisions in various parts of its course.


THE VEINS.

The veins are the vessels which return the blood to the heart, after
it has been circulated by the arteries through the different tissues
of the body; they are much thinner in structure than the arteries, so
that when emptied of their blood they become flattened and collapsed.

The veins of the trunk may be divided into, the superior vena cava,
with its formative branches, and the inferior vena cava with its
formative branches.

The superior vena cava is formed by the junction of the right and
left vena innominata; it is a short trunk about three inches in
length; it descends perpendicularly on the right side of the arch
of the aorta, and terminates in the upper part of the right auricle
of the heart. The right vena innominata receives the veins of the
neck, which return the blood from the head as follows: The internal,
external and anterior jugular veins—the external jugular vein being
the one which is ordinarily open to let out the extravasated blood
from the head—it will not be amiss to describe its course; it
descends the neck in the direction of a line drawn from the angle
of the lower jaw to the middle of the clavicle or collar bone, and
terminates into the sub-clavian vein; it is variable in size, and
replaced by two veins. The sub-clavian vein becomes the axillary vein
near the arm-pit, and opens into the brachial veins down to the bend
of the elbow, where it is divided into several branches which supply
the fore-arm and the hand.

The inferior vena cava is formed by the union of the two common iliac
veins; it ascends along the front of the vertebral column or back
bone, and, passing through the fissure in the posterior border of the
liver, terminates into the inferior part of the right auricle of the
heart. Its branches are the lumbar veins, three or four in number,
which collect the blood from the muscles and integuments of the loins
and spinal veins; the renal veins, which return the blood from the
kidneys, and the hepatic veins in the liver.

The common iliac veins, which, by their union form the inferior vena
cava, are in turn formed by the union of the internal and external
iliac veins; the external iliac vein passing into the thigh becomes
the femoral vein, and is found in the same sheath with the femoral
artery; further below it becomes the popliteal vein; about one
inch and a half below Poupart’s ligament in the upper part of the
thigh, the femoral vein receives the internal saphenous vein, which
commences at the inner side of the foot and great toe; it ascends in
front of the inner ankle and along the inner side of the leg; it then
passes behind, and along the inner side of the thigh to the saphenous
opening, where it pierces the sheath of the femoral vessels and
terminates as above stated, in the femoral vein.

The above explanation of the circulatory blood vessels is given only
for one side of the body—the right side. The other vessels branching
off from the two great trunks, the aorta and the vena cava, on the
left side are the same, with very slight modifications.


DIGESTIVE ORGANS.

The œsophagus is a slightly flexuous canal, inclining to the left in
the neck, to the right in the upper part of the thorax; it commences
at the termination of the pharynx, which is a musculo-membranous sac,
about four inches in length, and communicating with the cavity of
the nose and mouth; the œsophagus then passes behind the arch of the
aorta to the œsophagal opening in the diaphragm, where it enters the
abdomen, and terminates into the stomach.

The stomach in man is an oblong, membranous bag, placed obliquely
across the abdomen and just below the diaphragm; its average capacity
in the adult is about one quart; it has two openings, one towards the
heart called the _cardiac orifice_, which receives the food from the
œsophagus, and the other at the right or small end of the stomach,
called the pyloric orifice, for the transmission of food to the small
intestines.

The small intestines, about twenty-five feet in length, are coiled in
various directions, and terminate into the large intestine, called
the colon, which is about five feet in length, and resembles in
appearance a long sac divided into numerous pouches.

The pancreas is a long narrow gland, situated partly behind the
right side of the stomach, and within the first curve of the small
intestine.

The liver is the largest gland in the body; it is situated on the
right side, below, and in contact with the diaphragm, and is divided
into several lobes. At its lower side is the gall bladder, into which
the bile is poured after being secreted. Its duct opens into a duct
leading direct from the liver, and forms with it the common bile
duct, through which the bile is poured into the small intestine, at
the same point with the duct from the pancreas, until, at length, it
is carried with the food into the larger intestine or colon, from
whence it is excreted from the system, through the rectum.


ORGANS OF RESPIRATION.

The lungs are supplied with air through the larynx and the trachea.

The larynx is an irregular cartilaginous tube, forming the upper part
of the windpipe, as the whole tube is commonly called.

The larynx is situated immediately below the root of the tongue, and
forms the protuberance in the front part of the neck, called Adam’s
apple.

The trachea, which is a continuation of the larynx, is composed of
about eighteen cartilaginous rings, connected together so as to form
a tube, which is capable of maintaining a uniform size. On entering
the chest, the trachea divides into two trunks, called bronchi, one
of which goes to the right, and the other to the left, lung. As
soon as the bronchi enters the lungs they branch off into numerous
divisions and sub-divisions; their ultimate extremities terminate in
air cells.

The lungs occupy the greater part of the chest, the heart being the
only organ of much volume, which it includes in it.

The chest, or thorax, is a cavity closed on all sides from the
entrance of air, and its bony walls afford an admirable protection
to the delicate organs included within it. The walls of the thorax
are formed by the breast-bone in front, by the ribs and spine on the
sides and back, and by the diaphragm below.

The diaphragm, as has been stated in a previous part of this chapter,
is a large muscular partition, which separates the chest from the
abdomen.

The explanations given in this chapter upon the arterial and
venous circulation, also upon the names, places and relations of
the abdominal and thoracic viscera, will be found of the utmost
importance, to understand fully the process of embalming already
given, and also the other methods which will be stated hereafter.

Although briefly enunciated, this review of the anatomy of the parts
of the human body, which the embalmer must be conversant with, will
be found quite sufficient for the purpose.

It will be seen, that even after the arterial and venous systems
have been properly injected, there still remains a prolific source
of putrefaction in the liquids contained in the intestines, and the
thoracic viscera; for instance, the fecal matter contained in the
intestines, and the undigested food in the stomach at the time of
death, must all be evacuated, and the organs containing them properly
cleaned and injected, and unless this be done fermentation will set
in, and be followed by rapid decay of the surrounding tissues. It is
true the arteries and veins extend their branches to all parts, and
to every organ of the body, but it is also an undeniable fact that
the contents of those organs which are prone to putrefy will carry
the infection to the vessels containing them.

The stomach and bowels are emptied of their contents for the mere
reason that these same contents are already undergoing a process of
fermentation, which will generate into rapid decay and the emission
of noxious gases.

In certain cases of consumption, the lungs are gangrenous and decayed
long before death takes place; it will then be found necessary to
introduce through the trachea some antiseptic fluid which will stop
the progress of decay.

It is also necessary that the names of the different organs mentioned
in this work should be explained, so as to make the use of technical
words comprehensive to every undertaker who is not supposed to be
familiar with the terms of the dissecting room or the human organism
in general.

Besides the knowledge of the information given in the preceding pages
will enable the embalmer to follow the workings of the embalming
process in all its details, and enable him to discover the causes
of failure in certain cases; also to use the proper means in the
achievement of success.




ANIMAL MATTER.

PRESERVATION AND PUTREFACTION.


From the great complexity of the composition of animal substances,
their decomposition is more rapid and its products more diverse than
in the case of organic bodies of vegetable origin. While the carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen give origin to the various kinds of ulmine and
other substances of the same class, the nitrogen is generally valued
as ammonia, and the sulphur as sulphurated hydrogen. It is the
presence of these bodies that give to the putrefying substances the
disagreeable odors by which that process is distinguished from mere
mouldering and rotting.

Even during life, the constituent particles of the body are in a
continual state of change, being absorbed and thrown out of the
system, while others are assimilated in their place. Any part of our
constituents, liquid or solid, which become unfitted for this vital
function, is thereby killed, and must, if not got rid of, induce the
death of the individual.

Hence, precisely the same means which give to the animal substances
the fixity of constitution which belongs to true chemical compounds,
and thus preserve them from decomposition by the disturbing action
of their own elements (as when we coagulate albumen by an acid, by
corrosive sublimate, or by sulphate of copper), produce if applied to
the living body the death of the part or the whole being by depriving
the blood or the tissue of the mutability of constitution, which is
required for the functions of the animal frame.

It is thus that the generality of metallic poisons act in producing
death. Being absorbed into the system, they unite with the albumen
and fibrine of the blood, and converting them into the insoluble
compounds which we form in the laboratory, unfit them for the
continual absorption and secretive offices, which, as organs, while
they live they must fulfill. If the injury be local and limited in
extent, the part so coagulated may be thrown off, and after a certain
time the functions return to their proper order. If the mass, or the
importance of the affected parts be greater, the system cannot so get
rid of the portions which have thus been removed from the agency of
life, to submit to merely chemical laws; on the contrary, the vital
powers of the remaining portions of the animal are so much weakened
in the effort that general death is caused.

For putrefaction it is thus necessary: 1st. That the force of
vitality which governs so completely the mere chemical tendencies of
the elements of our tissues be removed.

2d. That there shall not be present any powerful chemical reagent
with which the organized material matter may enter into combination
and thus the divellent tendencies of the affinities of its elements
be overcome.

3d. That water be present in order to give the necessary mobility.

4th. That oxygen be present, or at least some other gas, into the
space occupied by which the gaseous products may be diffused; and
lastly, that the temperature shall be within moderate limits,
putrefaction being impossible below 32° or above 182°.

The agency of the first of these preventive powers need not be
further noticed. The second is extensively employed for embalming
purposes, and in the preparation of bodies for anatomical studies,
by baths, or injections into the arteries of solutions of corrosive
sublimate, acetate of alumina, sulphate of iron, tannin, wood
vinegar, and creasote; this last body, however, does not appear
to act by direct combination, but by the complete (catalytic)
coagulation it produces in all the tissues of the body that have
protein for their base.

The necessity for the presence of water is shown by the fact that by
drying the animal substances they are completely preserved. It is
thus that the bodies of those perishing in the Arabian deserts are
recovered years subsequently, dried, but completely fresh.

Alcohol and common salt both act in the preservation of bodies
by their affinity for water. If a piece of flesh is covered with
salt, the water gradually passes from the pores of the flesh, and
dissolving the salt forms a brine, which does not wet the flesh, but
trickles off its surface; the water necessary for putrefaction is
thus removed.

Fourth, by excluding oxygen, the putrefactive process is retarded,
precisely as the fermentative action of the gluten in grape juice
cannot begin until a certain quantity of oxygen be absorbed. It is
thus that meat that is sealed up in close vessels and then boiled
for a moment is preserved; the small quantity of oxygen of the air
remaining then in the vessel is absorbed, and the produce of that
minute change being coagulated by heat it cannot proceed farther.

A high temperature stops putrefaction by coagulating the azotized
materials; a temperature below 32° by freezing the water acts as if
the tissues had been dried; in both cases putrefaction is arrested.

During putrefaction, at a stage prior to any fetid gas being evolved,
a peculiar organic substance is generated, _possessed of intensely
poisonous properties, and the blood of persons who have died from its
effects is found to be quite disorganized and irritating when applied
to wounds_.

This and the blood of over-driven cattle are found to produce effects
similar to those of venomous reptiles, and the wounds received in
dissection are sometimes followed by similar fatal consequences.
The communication of disease in this way has recently been very
ingeniously ascribed by Liebig to the general principle of the
communication of decomposition by contact.

The small quantity of diseased organic matter originally introduced
into the system by absorption, acts as a ferment and reproduces
itself in the mass of the blood, until this becomes unfitted for the
performance of its functions and the animal is killed; the active
principle being thus copiously present, is exuded from the skin
and lungs and gives a contagious character to the disease, or it
remains only in the blood, or is secreted in _pustules_, constituting
infection, by which the disease may be communicated to some other
person.

This brief enumeration of the process of putrefaction will, to a
certain extent, elucidate the process of embalming given in this
book; it shows that the different methods herein explained, fulfill
the conditions necessary to stop the progress of decomposition.

A most important point, and one which ought not to be passed upon
without serious consideration is, the communication of disease by
contact and absorption.

In a former part of this work, it has been suggested that too much
care cannot be used in handling the bodies of persons who have died
of certain diseases, especially when their bodies are to be subjected
to the embalming process, which operation is rendered extremely
dangerous to the embalmer from the fact that the hands must,
perforce, come into direct contact with the denuded tissues, the
blood, or some vitiated secretion of the body.

We shall, in the following chapter, find instances when the
decomposition of certain parts of the body has taken place even
before death. It is obvious that in such cases the utmost caution is
necessary to avoid serious results.




THROMBOSIS AND EMBOLISM.


Sometimes during life, some portion of the body is in a condition of
gangrene, that is, the tissues are not only dead, but decomposing.
With the evolution of gases, the softening and liquefaction of the
solid parts, and the development of minute organisms, either animal
or vegetable.

The bodies of persons who have died from such causes, _decompose
with unusual rapidity_. The inner coats of the vessels are often
stained with the coloring matter of the blood. The viscera are soft
and flabby, the stomach may be swollen, and the kidneys congested and
degenerated.

People who have suppurating wounds or abscesses may, without much
change in the wounds or abscesses, be seized with rigors followed by
fever, become jaundiced and die.

In such persons after death, the same tendency to rapid
decomposition, and all the symptoms of the preceding cases are to be
found.

There is no way of accounting for the rapid decay in the preceding
cases, except by supposing that the pus from the original wound or
abscess in some way infects the system, and renders the tissues prone
to putrefy.

There is another modified condition of the body very different
from the two preceding. Either in consequence of wounds, injuries,
inflammations, abnormal conditions of the system, or changes in the
venous walls, the blood may become coagulated during life and form
thrombi in the veins.

These thrombi may become organized, or they may soften, break
down, and their fragments be carried into the circulation; by
their mechanical action in obstructing the vessels, they produce
extravasation of blood.

By the irritative character of the thrombi themselves, they excite
inflammatory action in the adjoining tissues; in this way are
produced multiple abscesses. Therefore, we find in persons who die
under such conditions, abscesses in the brain, heart, lungs, kidneys
and intestines; further we may find purulent inflammation and
abscesses in the connective tissues.

It is now necessary to explain the nature and composition of both the
thrombus and embolus, and how, through their mechanical agency, the
process of embalming may become seriously impaired, if not altogether
arrested. A thrombus is a clot, composed principally of the fibrine
of the blood, formed during life in the cavities of the heart, the
arteries, the veins, or the capillaries.

An embolus is a solid body, usually a portion of a thrombus, carried
by the blood current into some artery or capillary, and becomes fixed
there. A thrombus may entirely fill the cavity of a vessel, or it
may only form a layer on its wall, or it may project from a smaller
vessel into a larger one.

An embolus may completely or only partly plug up a vessel; it may
remain alone or a thrombus may be formed around it.

A thrombus may merely become harder and whiter in time, or it may
become organized, or it may degenerate, soften, and change into a
mass of puriform fluid and _gangrenous looking fibrine_, or it may
calcify.

The production of thrombi is due to various causes.

(1.) Spontaneous thrombi are produced by any cause which seriously
weakens the whole system, as old age and chronic exhaustive diseases.
They are usually formed in the veins of the lower limbs and pelvis,
and in the sinuses of the dura mater.

(2.) Compression of the vessels by ligatures, tumors, dislocated
bones, and inflammatory exudation. _Pneumonia_ may produce
_thrombosis_ of the _pulmonary veins_. _Phthisis_ may produce
_thrombosis_ of the _pulmonary arteries_.

(3.) Thrombi may form into capillaries or small veins, and increase
until they project into larger veins.

(4.) It may also form when there is inflammation, especially of a
gangrenous and suppurative nature, in the parts around a vessel.

The causes of embolism are also various.

(1.) Fragments of thrombi in the veins are the most frequent material
of emboli.

(2.) Thrombi of the heart, vegetations on the valves and on the walls
of the aorta.

(3.) Portions of the inner-coat of the aorta may become detached and
form an embolus; also portions of tumors which project in the veins,
and fat may form emboli.

In a considerable number of cases, it is impossible to find any
source for embolus. It must be remembered, however, in emboli, in
connection with wounds, that not only the veins of the wounded region
are to be examined, but also those of the pelvis.

The consequences of thrombosis vary with the situation of the clot;
thrombi in the arteries produce either a lack of circulation in the
region supplied by the artery, or else intense congestion from the
collateral circulation. Later there may be inflammatory changes,
softening, or gangrene. Thrombi in the veins produce inflammation in
and around the vein, thickening of the skin and connective tissue,
gangrene and hemorrhage.

The consequences of embolism vary with the character of the embolus
and its situation. A simple plug of fibrine in a vessel only produces
changes in the circulation, but a plug from a gangrenous thrombus has
a tendency to excite suppurative inflammation wherever it lodges.

The size of the artery thus obstructed, and the character of its
collateral circulation also lead to a variety of results. If a large
artery is stopped, the part becomes empty; if a small one the part
may become extravasated with blood from the collateral circulation.
Thus, if the large arteries supplying the extremities are obstructed,
paralysis of the muscles, and finally dry gangrene, ensue.

Emboli of the pulmonary arteries produce sudden death; of the
coronary arteries, sudden death; of the cerebral arteries, softening
of the brain; of the retina, sudden blindness; of the mesenteric
arteries, congestion and gangrene of the intestines.

Abscesses are also produced. This takes place when the embolus is
of an irritative and gangrenous nature. Large abscesses are only
found in the lungs and liver, therefore the mechanical results of an
embolus produce the following condition of affairs: A set of vessels
are first emptied of their blood, and the nutrition of their walls
thus impaired; after a time these vessels are filled up from the
veins, their abnormal walls can no longer resist the blood pressure,
and hemorrhage takes place.

After an hemorrhagic infraction is formed, the subsequent changes
are of a degenerative character. The blood loses its coloring matter
and breaks down into a mass of granules, forming a dry, yellow,
wedge-shaped mass, or it may break down and form into a puriform
fluid, or it may be surrounded by a zone of inflammation or of
gangrene.

The above condition of the system will explain why and under the
circumstances enumerated, the injection of a blood vessel may
be brought to a sudden stop without any apparent cause, and the
injecting fluid flow back towards the injecting point.

The various causes for such a result have been clearly demonstrated,
but with the knowledge of these causes as previous stated, the remedy
can be applied without much trouble. It can be estimated by the
amount of fluid injected, about to what extent the vessel has been
filled, and by following its course the point where the obstruction
is, can be easily ascertained.

By reopening the vessel at a point above, the injection may still be
carried on successfully, or the corresponding vessel on the other
side of the body may be used for that purpose.

It is then that even a limited amount of knowledge of anatomy of
the human body will be found of immense advantage to the operator,
inasmuch as it will trace the cause of action, to be followed in this
case, and will enable him to do so with success.

If, on the other hand, too great a pressure is brought to bear, so as
to remove the obstruction by the mere weight of the fluid injected,
the walls of the vessel may not be able to resist the strain, and the
injecting fluid loses itself in the surrounding tissue and cavities,
thereby failing to accomplish its mission.




PROCESS OF EMBALMING.


The following process is more laborious and requires more time than
the one already given, but at the same time it is more complete and
lasting, and when the operation is skillfully and properly performed,
the body may be said to be embalmed for an indefinite period of time.

But to carry out this process to a successful issue, it will be found
strictly necessary to study well, and bear in mind, all the details
of the operation.

It would be impossible to omit any part of the process and still
expect the same results, for, after repeated experiments and trials
under favorable and adverse circumstances, the result has always
proved to be the same. Still, this process is regulated by the same
laws and governed by the same conditions which affect a body under
all circumstances. An explanation of these conditions has already
been given, and it will be found that a thorough knowledge of these
will materially assist the operator in his work.

Let us suppose, for one moment, that a man entirely unacquainted
with the causes which may affect the morbid conditions of the veins
and arteries, goes recklessly on, and commences to inject some part
of the circulating system; if that system is in a normal condition
the injection will prove successful; if not, the worst consequences
may follow. How is he then to remedy his mistake? His very limited
knowledge, if he has any, will be of no avail to him. It is in the
lack of a sufficient understanding of the human organism that the
cause of many failures is to be found. When the proper antiseptics
are used, the fault does not lie in the inefficiency, but in the
manner in which they have been employed.

It is unnecessary to repeat here what we have before stated, that in
order to understand thoroughly the process of embalming, the operator
must make himself familiar with the explanations already given, and
also with those which shall be found hereafter.

It will be seen in the following pages that the mode of treatment to
which the body is subjected in this process, is entirely different
from that which has already been given.

The completeness of this process will be readily understood after
a careful study of its details, and if strictly followed in every
particular, will be found not only satisfactory in its results, but
also lasting for an indefinite period of time.

It is well enough to say here, that a metallic casket is not required
to assist in keeping the body after it has been treated according
to the following method. Quite the reverse, a wooden casket will
answer the purpose much better, as the body is rendered perfectly
inaccessible to the attacks of the ambient atmosphere by the external
covering which encases the body, in its transparent and elastic
coating, impervious alike to air and moisture.

The body should be placed on a table about four feet high, and
elevated nearly six inches at the head; it must be here borne in mind
that, to perform the following operation successfully, the operator
should be left alone to his work, in a room free from intrusion,
where idle questioning from standers by, or the talk of the usual
routine of business, will not disturb him. And as it may require
some time to complete the work, it were better that the remains were
brought to the undertaker’s establishment, where there is generally,
or ought to be, a room set apart for this branch of the business.

The body is first washed clean with soap and tepid water, so as to
remove every particle of fat or greasy substance which might obstruct
the pores of the skin, and thereby prevent the salts contained in
the bathing lotion to penetrate the tissues and produce the desired
effect.

The body must then be thoroughly dried by means of clean towels, and
be well saturated with the following lotion:

  Acetate of Alumina,        1 pound.
  Sulphate of Iron,          4 ounces.
  Corrosive Sublimate,       2 ounces.
  Water,                     1 gallon.

The body is to be kept constantly moist with the aforesaid solution,
and as soon as evaporation has dried up the surface of the skin,
a new application of the solution becomes necessary; in fact, the
process should come as near complete immersion as possible. The eyes
must be well closed. To avoid the sinking, which after a certain
time must inevitably take place, and which will disfigure the best
prepared corpse, I would here suggest the use of the wax shells, to
be inserted under the eyelids—these shells, as stated in a previous
chapter, are manufactured by JOHN C. RULON, of Philadelphia, and can
be had by the quantity on very moderate terms—to keep the eyelids in
their place; the outside of the shell must be coated with white gum
shellac, dissolved in alcohol.

After the insertion of the shells thus coated, the lids are brought
together and held in place by the fingers. Shelac dries quick, and in
about five minutes’ time it will be found that the gum has acquired
enough of consistency to hold the lids together. As a matter of
course it will get harder in time and prevent the lids from starting
apart.

The operator will then cut a straight line through the skin with a
scalpel, the line to extend from the superior part of the sternum to
the umbilical region.

Another incision of the skin is to be made at right angles from the
first, about six inches in length, and one inch below the lower bend
of the last rib.

Then, with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, seize the skin
firmly at a point where the two lines intersect each other, and with
the scalpel held in the right hand, carefully separate the skin from
the fascia underneath. This operation is repeated on the four sides,
and the flaps of the skin turned over the sides of the body. This
will leave exposed to view a diamond shaped opening of the epidermis,
with its apex reaching above to the superior portions of the sternum,
and the lowest angle reaching to within two inches of the navel;
the two lateral points extend on both sides of the body from the
region of the stomach to the liver, and almost immediately above the
transverse arch of the colon.

To cut through the abdominal fascia, carefully puncture it above
the stomach, so the opening will be large enough to admit the
forefinger of the right hand being introduced through the opening;
then holding the scalpel with its edge upwards, the back resting
along the extended forefinger, introduce both into opening, and cut
from downward upwards into the fascia of the abdomen in a straight
line across from the stomach to the liver in a similar way to that
above described for cutting through the skin. This last incision is
to follow the same course as the one cut in the epidermis, and will
extend from one to the other lateral angles of the diamond shaped
opening in the skin. This opening will reveal the stomach on the
left, the liver on the right, and the transverse arch of the colon
immediately beneath.

Then another cleaving of the fascia is to be performed, downwards and
in a similar manner, from the middle of the transverse opening to
within two inches of the navel; this last opening exposes the small
intestines.

The reason why the cutting of the fascia of the abdomen should be
performed in this manner, that is, with the scalpel being held edge
upwards along the extended forefinger, is obvious; the forefinger in
this case acts as a guide to the scalpel in dividing the tissues, and
also protects the viscera from being wounded by the sharp point of
the knife.

The abdominal viscera being thus exposed, the lungs, heart and other
parts of the thoracic viscera must also be uncovered. For this
purpose, and with the cartilage knife separate the ribs from the
sternum about two inches on either side of the latter; commencing
from the second rib down to the last one, and extending to the
transverse opening made in the abdomen, it will be found that the
ribs at that distance from the sternum are attached to it by a
cartilage, which it is very easy to cut in children, harder in
adults, and it may sometimes be indispensable to use a saw on old
persons. This cutting through the ribs must be carefully performed,
for fear of wounding some of the organs which lay immediately beneath
and against the ribs.

The sternum being thus freed from the ribs, it can be turned back
over and against the face, and will reveal through the opening thus
made, the lungs, the heart, the arch of the aorta, etc.

The operator should use extreme caution whilst performing this
operation, as the jagged and sharp edges of the ribs might cut
through the skin and inflict a wound, should the hand be suddenly
brought in contact with them. It is also necessary to enjoin again
forcibly, the recommendation made before, of keeping the body well
saturated with the lotion while the work is progressing.

The bowels must then be carefully displaced, and all fluid or serum
found between or under the intestines be completely sponged out; the
intestines must also be emptied of their contents by the process
which has already been given in the first method of embalming; also
the stomach, the gall bladder, all the organs, in fact, which contain
foreign elements prone to putrefy. The bladder can be emptied of the
urine by means of a catheter, introduced into the urinary canal.

All the organs which shall have been emptied of their contents, as
also the intestines, the bladder, and the others, must be injected
with the following solution, or embalming liquid:

  Corrosive Sublimate,    2 ounces.
  Chloride of Zinc,       3 ounces.
  Alcohol,                ½ gallon.

Dissolve the corrosive sublimate and the chloride of zinc into the
alcohol; then after the salts are completely dissolved, add

  Pyroligneous Acid,      ½ gallon.
  Creasote,               4 ounces.

Stir briskly with either a glass or wooden rod and the liquid is
ready for use. The above solution, which ought always to be prepared
in advance and kept on hand, must be enclosed in green glass
bottles, well stoppered, and kept in a dark and cool place. Metallic
vessels should never be used to hold the embalming liquid; neither
the solution employed to bathe the body. A glass or china vessel must
be used in either case.

As to puncturing the different organs for the purpose of emptying
their contents, the manner for doing so has clearly been given in
the first process for embalming bodies, but great care must always
be used so as not to perforate any of the vessels of the circulatory
system.

The next step is to inject the arterial system. For this purpose a
different point for injecting the system is selected from the one
pointed out in the former process. By removing the small intestines
out, and on the right side of the body the descending branch of the
aorta is exposed to view. In its course downwards, the aorta lies on
the vertebral column to the left of the middle line, and terminates
on the fourth lumbar vertebra, by dividing into the two common iliac
arteries. The descending branch of the aorta is then punctured so
as to admit the nozzle of the injector; this is introduced into the
opening in an upward direction, and the walls of the artery are then
tied firmly, but not so as to cut through, around the nozzle. After
the artery has been thus prepared, and before injecting, the vena
cava must be perforated at a point corresponding with the incision
practiced in the descending portion of the aorta where the nozzle of
the injector is inserted.

The inferior vena cava ascends _along the front of the vertebral
column_, and to the right of the abdominal aorta. The object of
severing this vein is to give the blood in the upper portions of the
body a means of escape, as the fluid is forced through and up the
arteries of that part and returning through the veins forces the
blood through the opening.

After the upper portion of the body has been injected with about half
a gallon of the embalming liquid, the nozzle of the injector must
be reversed and the lower parts injected in a similar manner with
about the same amount of liquid; the injection must then be stopped
for the space of about three hours, and all the blood which may have
escaped from the opening made in the vena cava into the cavity of the
intestines must be sponged out as it fills up the space left.

The mode of injecting is also of extreme importance. The injection
should be done slowly and steadily, as a strong, sudden forcing up of
the liquid into the arteries might occasion a rupture of their walls
should some point be weakened from some cause arising from previous
sickness, or from lesions as described in a previous chapter.

The injection may then be renewed and more liquid be injected, until
a sufficient quantity has been used. As there are no rules laid down
for the amount of liquid to be injected, it is left altogether to the
discrimination and good judgment of the operator.

The bodies of children and old persons will require less liquid
than adults up to the age of forty. The bodies of persons killed by
accident or some sudden cause, will require a larger amount of liquid
than those of persons who are emaciated by long illness, as, for
instance, consumption.

After the arterial and venous system have been thus completely
injected, the intestines must be replaced in the abdominal cavity.

The brains must next be removed, and this operation is one which
requires extreme caution, as will be seen by the following
explanation of the process.

The body is turned on the right side, and, by means of a trephine, a
round hole is cut into the back of the skull, about two inches above
the cerebellum; the piece of bone thus taken out is preserved so as
to be replaced into the opening after the operation is finished.
Previous to cutting through the skull, a small incision in the shape
of a cross, about two inches in length, each way, must be cut in the
skin. The object of this is to leave the bone denuded after the skin
has been detached from the bone, and also to bring the parts together
by sewing, after the brain has been removed.

Through the opening thus made in the skull, the brain, or the portion
of it which can be reached, is easily removed by means of a small,
slender spoon, with a long handle, made for the purpose. The cavity
thus made in the head is to be filled with the following:

Take two gallons or more of water, and saturate with alum, as
much as it will dissolve; then mix with plaster of paris to the
consistency of _very thin paste_, and fill the cavity of the brain;
some cotton may then be introduced to keep the mixture inside; the
round piece of bone cut from the skull is then replaced, the flaps
of the cut in the skin brought together and neatly sewed up; if
this operation is carefully performed, the cuts thus made cannot be
perceived under the hair.

Great caution should be exercised while removing the brain, in not
wounding any of the veins and arteries which are inside that part of
the skull, and with a little care this can be easily avoided.

The body is then turned again on the back, in the former position,
and all the cavities in the thorax and the abdomen, between and under
the intestines, the liver, the lungs and the heart, must be well
cleaned and dried with a sponge of all liquid or serum that might
be found; pulverize some tannic acid into fine powder, and sprinkle
heavily around and between the organs of the thorax and the abdomen;
the sternum is then replaced over the thoracic opening, the flaps of
the skin temporarily brought back over the abdomen, and the body,
being enveloped in a sheet or some linen cloth, well saturated with
the _lotion for the face_ as given in the first part of this chapter.

The face, hands, feet, in fact every inch of the surface of the body,
above and under, is to be covered with the cloth, tightly wrapped
around it and well saturated as above directed.

The body must be kept in this condition for about twelve hours, when
the cloth is to be removed; the sternum is then raised again and the
skin over the abdomen thrown back; a mixture of plaster of paris and
alum, prepared as described above, is then poured over the whole of
the thoracic and abdominal viscera, being careful to fill completely
all the interstices existing between and under the different organs
and the intestines.

This composition, or cement, must be brought up to a level with the
ribs in the thorax, and cover the viscera in the abdomen; after
the cement is set, or nearly so, sprinkle a plentiful quantity of
powdered tannic acid on the top of it.

Then bring the sternum down to its proper place between the ribs,
and also the internal fascia of the abdomen over the viscera; and
last, the flaps of the skin are brought together and neatly sewed
up, taking a stitch alternately under and above the skin. Should the
mouth have a tendency to remain open, or the lips be too far apart,
sew the lips together with surgeon silk, passing the needle up inside
of the lip, near the gums, also through the nether lip in a similar
manner, from one corner of the mouth to the other, where the last
stitch can be tied up in a slip knot.

Before the mouth is sewed up it is always necessary to fill the
inside of the mouth with cotton, well saturated with embalming
fluid. In case a great number or all the back teeth be missing,
which might cause a sinking of the cheeks, and thereby to a great
extent disfigure the body, introduce some cotton, prepared as above,
between the gums and the cheeks; it will give the body an appearance
more natural, and less emaciated. This rule ought to be applied not
only in embalming, but also at ordinary times. When laying out a
corpse, the mourners and friends of the family will always appreciate
anything of the kind, which tends to beautify the remains and divest
death of its hideousness.

The nostrils must also be filled with the same composition of alum
and plaster of paris; let the cement be thin enough in this case,
so it may be injected into the _nasal fossea_ by means of an India
rubber syringe, until the nostrils are completely full; then hold it
in place with some cotton wads saturated with embalming fluid.

After the body has been so far prepared, it remains to encase it
into a transparent and elastic covering, which will prevent the
attacks from the atmosphere, and, at the same time, render the
body impervious to moisture. For this purpose, procure from some
first-class druggist some Canada balsam (it must be fresh and
perfectly colorless, as it is prone to grow thick and yellow in
time); then procure a vessel—a glass jar with large mouth should be
preferred; this jar should be large enough to hold twice the amount
of Canada balsam on hand; bring the jar near the fire, if it is in
winter, and submit the balsam to a gentle heat until it is liquefied;
so soon as the balsam has attained the consistency of thin honey, add
to it the same amount of the best spirits of turpentine that can be
obtained, and stir with a glass rod until the balsam and turpentine
have been thoroughly mixed; then apply the mixture on the body by
means of a camels-hair brush, very wide, and similar in shape to the
brushes generally employed for moistening the paper used in copying
letters.

A single thin layer of this mixture is quite sufficient, and should
be evenly applied to any part of the body, where the growth of hair
is not sufficient to exclude the approach of the atmosphere.

It will require but a very short time for this varnish to dry, and
then the body will be ready for either burial in a crypt, easy of
access, or for transportation to some foreign country.

In the course of time the organic tissues will dry and desiccate,
the bony prominent parts of the joints may become more angulous, the
skin may assume a slightly yellow tinge, but the features will always
be natural and recognizable; the skin will never shrivel up and
shrink back, exposing the teeth, as is generally the case with the
Egyptian mummies; and, above all, putrefaction with all its repulsive
hideous accessories, will never take place; nor will noxious gases or
offensive odors be emitted.

A wooden casket will also be found preferable to a metallic one, as
the free admission of air will favor the drying up of the tissues and
the absorption of whatever little moisture which might find its way
out of the only opening not hermetically sealed—the mouth.

Undertakers will find this process to be, without any exception, the
best method of embalming ever employed; bodies prepared as above
can be shipped to the most distant points across the seas; or, can
be preserved for an indefinite period of time in some family vault,
where the surviving members can at any time obtain a vision of the
body without having their sensibilities shocked by the horrible
picture of slowly decomposing animal matter.

It must not be forgotten, that, if the above process is slow, long
and tedious, requiring a good deal of labor and delicate handling,
the results obtained are equally important, and the compensation
commensurate with the magnitude of the undertaking.




EXPLANATION OF TERMS.


_Sternum._—One of the bones of the thorax; is situated in the middle
line in the front of the chest, and is oblique in direction, the
superior end lying within a few inches of the vertebral column, the
inferior being projected forward so as to be placed at a considerable
distance from the spine. The bone is flat or slightly concave in
front, and marked by five transverse lines, which indicate its
original sub-division into six pieces. It is convex behind, broad
and thick above, where it presents a concave border, and narrow at
its junction with the middle piece. It is divided into the superior
piece or manubrium, the middle piece or body, and the inferior piece,
which is the smallest of the three, and varies in appearance, being
sometimes pointed, at other times broad and thin, and again, at other
times, perforated by a round hole. The seven true ribs are attached
at each side of the sternum by means of the costal cartilage.


_Abdominal Region._—The abdomen is the inferior cavity of the trunk
of the body; it is bounded in front and at the sides by the lower
ribs and abdominal muscles, above by the diaphragm, and below by the
pelvis, and contains the alimentary canal, the organs subservient to
digestion, viz.: the liver, pancreas and spleen, and the organs of
excretion, the kidneys and the supra-renal capsules.

The abdomen may be divided into three regions; in the upper region
will be seen the liver, extending across from the right to the left
side, the stomach and spleen on the left, and the pancreas and
duodenum behind; in the middle region is the transverse part of the
colon, with the upper part of the ascending and descending colon,
omentum, small intestines, mesentery, and behind, the kidneys and
supra-renal capsules; in the inferior region is the lower part of the
omentum and small intestines, ascending and descending colon, and
ureters.

_Fascia_ (from fascia, a bandage) is the name assigned to laminæ
of various extent and thickness, which are distributed through
different regions of the body for the purpose of investing or
protecting the softer or more delicate organs. From a consideration
of their structure, these fasciæ may be arranged into two groups:
areolo-fibrous fascia, and aponeurotic fascia.

The areolo-fibrous fascia is best illustrated by the common
subcutaneous investment of the entire body, the superficial fascia.
This structure is situated immediately beneath the integument over
every part of the frame, and is the medium of connexion between that
layer and the deeper parts; it is composed of areolar and elastic
tissues, and contains an abundance of adipose cells. The fat, being
a bad conductor of caloric, serves to retain the warmth of the body,
while it forms at the same time a yielding tissue, through which
minute vessels and nerves pass to the skin without incurring the risk
of obstruction from injury or pressure.

The aponeurotic fascia is the strongest kind of investing membrane;
it is composed of tendinous fibres running parallel with each other
and connected by other fibres of the same kind passing in different
directions, together with areolar tissue and fine elastic fibres.
In the limbs, it constitutes the deep fascia, inclosing and forming
distinct sheaths to all the muscles and tendons. It is thick on the
outer and least protected side of the limb, and thinner at its inner
side.

The _Skin_ is the exterior investment of the body, which it serves
to cover and protect. It is continuous at the aperture of the
internal cavities with the lining membrane of those cavities, the
internal skin or mucous membrane, and is composed essentially of two
layers—derma and epidermis. The derma or cutis is chiefly composed
of areola-fibrous tissues, besides which it has entering in its
structure elastic tissues and smooth muscular fibre, together with
blood vessels and nerves. The epidermis or cuticle (scarf-skin)
is a product of the derma, which it serves to envelop and defend.
That surface of the epidermis which is exposed to the influence of
the atmosphere and exterior sources of injury is hard and horny in
texture, while that which lies in contact with the under layer is
soft and cellular.


_Viscera._—The viscera of the human body are situated in the three
great cavities—cranio-spinal, thorax and abdomen. The viscera of
the cranio-spinal cavity are the brain, with the spinal cord, and
the principal organs of sense. The viscera of the chest are, the
central organs of circulation, the heart, the organs of respiration,
the lungs. The abdominal viscera admit of a sub-division into those
which properly belong to that cavity, viz.: the alimentary canal, the
liver, pancreas, spleen and kidneys; and those of the pelvis, the
bladder and the internal organs of generation.


_Cartilage._—In the structure of joints, cartilages serve the double
purpose of a connecting and separating medium; in the former capacity
possessing great strength; in the latter, smoothness and elasticity.
For instance, the costal cartilages unite the ribs with the sternum
and form the point of separation by the knife, when it is desired to
raise the sternum, as in the preceding process of embalming.


_Gall Bladder_ is the reservoir of the bile; it is a sac situated in
a fosse on the under surface of the right lobe of the liver.


_Pancreas._—It is a long, flattened, conglomerate gland; it is
about six inches in length, and is situated transversely across the
posterior wall of the abdomen and behind the stomach.


_Supra-Renal Capsules_ are two small, yellowish and flattened bodies
surmounting the kidneys, and inclining inwards and towards the
vertebral column.


_Kidneys_ are the secreting organs of the urine; they are situated in
the lumbar region, and at each side of the vertebral column.


_Pelvis._—The cavity of the pelvis is that portion of the great
abdominal cavity which is included between the bones of the pelvis.
The viscera of the pelvis in the male are the urinary bladder,
prostrate gland and rectum.


_Bladder._—It is a hollow, membranous viscus, triangular and
flattened against the pubes when empty, ovoid when distended, and in
front of and upon the rectum.


_Circle of Willis._—The communications established between the
anterior cerebral arteries in front and the internal cavities and
posterior cerebral arteries behind, by the communicating arteries,
constitute the remarkable vascular communication at the base of the
brain called the circle of Willis.




OF ANIMAL CHEMISTRY.

SECTION ONE.


The purpose of the present chapter, so far as our knowledge extends,
is to describe the chemical history of those bodies which are
characterized as being rather organized than organic; as constituting
not merely a product of the vital operations of the being, but the
mechanism itself by which these vital operations are carried on;
as making part of the tissues essential to its proper organization
and life; and as being, while in connection with the animal and
participating in its life, protected from the truly chemical
reactions of their proper elements, which after the death of the
animal, especially when in contact with air or water, rapidly assume
simpler forms of union, and breaking up the complex animal tissue
into a crowd of binary compounds, under the change well known as
putrefaction.

In connection with these substances which form the basis of the
organs and tissues of the animal frame, will be brought under survey
the processes by which, from the atmosphere or from the materials
of our food, the substance of our organs is continually renewed,
their growth provided for, and the conditions necessary for the
continuance of life and health maintained. The following elucidation
of the materials which enter into the composition of the human body
is of extreme importance, as it will help to demonstrate why the
chemicals employed in the former processes of embalming have been
selected in preference to others.


_Of Fibrine._—This substance constitutes the basis of the muscular
tissue, and forms an important constituent of the blood. In the
latter it exists dissolved during life, but separates after death or
extraction from the body, producing, with the coloring material, the
phenomenon of coagulation. In the muscles the fibrine is arranged in
a truly organized and living condition, constituting the contractile
fibres, in which it is so interwoven with nervous and vascular
filaments as to render its isolation impossible. To obtain pure
fibrine, therefore, we have recourse to blood, which, if immediately
on being drawn it be briskly agitated with a little bundle of twigs,
does not coagulate, but the fibrine is deposited on the twigs in
soft, tenacious masses, which, being washed to remove any adhering
coloring matter, and digested in alcohol and ether to remove any
traces of fatty substances which may adhere to it, constitute pure
fibrine; which may be dried by a gentle heat, and appears then as
a yellowish, opaque mass, hard, tasteless and inodorous. If it be
at all transparent, this results from traces of adhering fat. It is
insoluble in water, alcohol and ether; it absorbs, however, so much
water as to treble its weight, and thereby recovers the volume,
softness and flexibility it possessed before being dried.

If sulphate of soda or nitrate of potash be added to newly drawn
blood, its coagulation is prevented; and if fibrine be digested in a
strong solution of nitre, it dissolves, forming a thick liquid, which
is coagulated by heat, by alcohol, by acids, and is precipitated by
the _salts of mercury_, _lead_ and _copper_, and by yellow prussiate
of potash. This property of fibrine will again come under our notice.


_Of Albumen._—This substance is even more extensively distributed
through the animal frame than fibrine. Like fibrine, it exists in two
conditions, one soluble and one insoluble in water; but whereas the
fibrine becomes insoluble almost instantly on being withdrawn from
the body, albumen may retain that state for an indefinite time, and
its history is therefore more complete. In its soluble form it exists
in the blood, in the serous secretions, in the humours of the eye; in
the soluble or coagulated form it constitutes a portion of most of
the solid tissues.


_Soluble Albumen._—This is obtained in the solid form by evaporating
to dryness, at a temperature which does not exceed 120°, the serum
of blood; the dry mass is yellow, transparent, hard, tough, and
contains, besides the albumen, the salts and some other constituents
of the blood in minute quantities; these are extracted by digestion
in alcohol and ether, which leave the albumen pure. When thus
completely dry it maybe heated beyond 212° without passing into the
coagulated condition; if digested in cold water it gradually swells
up and finally dissolves. This solution, when heated to a temperature
between 140° and 150°, coagulates; if dilute, the solution may even
be heated to 165° without coagulating, and when present in very small
quantity the albumen may not separate until the water boils.

When once coagulated in this manner, albumen is totally insoluble
in water; it is then changed into its second form. The solution
of albumen is precipitated by _alcohol_, by _acids_ and _metallic
salts_, exactly as the solution of fibrine in saltpetre; the only
distinction that can be drawn between the two is that the saline
solution of fibrine is partially decomposed by the addition of a
large quantity of water.

The precipitates yielded by a solution of albumen with metallic
salts are mixture of two distinct substances, one a compound of
albumen with the acid, the other a compound of albumen with the
metallic oxide; the former is generally somewhat soluble, the latter
insoluble, and hence results the application of albumen as an
antidote to mineral poisons, as corrosive sublimate and blue stone.

Albumen is also coagulated by many organic bodies, as tannic acid
and creosote, which acts catalytically, as a very minute quantity
of it coagulates a large quantity of albumen, without entering into
combination with it.


_Of the Gelatinous Constituents of the Tissues._—When the skin,
cellular or serous, tissues, tendons, and some forms of cartilage,
as that of bones, are boiled in water, they dissolve in great part
and form a solution which gelatinizes on cooling. Some of these
tissues, as the skin, dissolve easily and almost completely; others
dissolve but partly, and leave behind a quantity of coagulated
albumen. In most kinds of cartilage a very prolonged boiling is
necessary to extract a sensible quantity of gelatine. These various
tissues are thus found to consist of albumen and gelatine, united
in various proportions, and each presenting various degrees of
condensation of texture; but by boiling they may be completely
separated from each other.

Gelatine is insoluble in alcohol and ether. When a solution of
gelatine is long exposed to the air, it undergoes a commencement of
putrefaction, and loses its property of gelatinizing.

The action of reagents on gelatine is in some cases of high interest,
it is not precipitated by solutions of either ordinary or basic alum,
but if a solution of common salt be also mixed, the gelatine falls
down, combined with alumina, as it decomposes the muriate of ammonia
which is then formed. On this principle is founded the manufacture of
white leather, by a kind of tanning with alum.

The most important compound of gelatine is that with tannic acid,
which constitutes ordinary leather; this reaction is so distinct that
one part of gelatine in five thousand of water is at once detected by
the infusion of galls.

Many chemists consider that gelatine is merely a product of the
decomposition of albumen and fibrine by boiling water, and not a true
constituent of the tissues; but this idea is thought to be incorrect,
on the following grounds: First, pure fibrine or albumen gives no
gelatine by boiling; second, in the process of tanning, the tannic
acid combines with gelatine in a skin which has never been boiled;
and third, that we can easily understand why some tissues give more
gelatine than others by the different degrees of condensation of
their structure. But it is rather considered that gelatine bears the
same relation to the tissues of the skin or cellular membrane that
protein does to the fibrine of the blood, being really a product of
its death and decomposition, _though the only representative of it
which we can have_.


_Of the Fatty Constituents of the Tissues._—The fatty bodies,
although contributing essentially to the support of the animal frame,
are mere secretions, and do not form any portion of its organized
tissues. The substances properly included under the present head are
the constituents of the nervous tissue, such as it is found in the
brain, the spinal cord and the nerves.

In the composition of the brain, it is easy to distinguish three,
perhaps five, distinct substances of a fatty nature; the most
characteristic and important is called cerebrote; in composition it
resembles albumen, containing a large quantity of nitrogen.


_Saline, and Extractive Constituents of the Tissues._—We find in all
the animal tissues small quantities of a great variety of salts,
the same as those which will be hereafter noticed as existing in the
blood, to the presence of which in the substance of the tissues they
are probably due. In the tissue of the bones and teeth, however,
these saline matters are deposited in much greater quantities, and in
disease and old age bony deposits occur in all those tissues, which
yield true gelatine on boiling. The composition of the bones will be
hereafter noticed.


_Of the Composition of the Tissues and of the Secretions in Health
and Disease._—Having described thus individually the constituents
of the tissues, we shall now present such results as have been
hitherto obtained as to the quantitative composition of the organized
tissues formed by their reunion, their secretory products and morbid
alterations.

The skin of animals is a congeries of finely constructed organs,
sensitive and secretory, imbedded in a peculiar tissue, which is one
of those most yielding gelatine, whence the process of tanning skins.
On the surface of the skin there is secreted a substance, which,
though varying in anatomical structure and appearance exceedingly,
as it forms the fine epidermis, the nails, the hair, etc., is yet
throughout all their shapes identical in chemical character, and
may be described as the same substance. The principal mass of hair
is composed of the same substance as horn, but the color is due to
an oil which may be extracted by ether. If by virtue of the sulphur
contained in hair a solution of litharge in some limestone water
blackens it, a solution of nitrate of silver will also blacken the
hair, but by a deposition of the metal.

The perspiration from the skin varies in nature according to the
part of the body; it is generally acid, contains traces of albumen,
fatty matter and the salts of the blood; it often contains, also,
an odoriferous, volatile principle, characteristic of the animal by
which it is secreted.


_Cellular and Serous Tissues._—These tissues are constituted of
gelatinous materials similar to that in the skin, and hence dissolve
by boiling water, being converted into gelatine. In the natural
condition of these membranes their surface is moistened by a watery
liquid, which, accumulating in excessive quantity, gives rise to the
dropsies of the cavities, or of the cellular tissues. This serum
of the cavities is clear and colorless. The cells of the cellular
tissues, in which fat is usually deposited, are often filled up by an
albuminous material having considerable analogy with casein; it is
thus that the diffused hardening of the cellular tissue and the local
white tumors have their origin.


_Of the Muscular Tissue._—From what has been already said of fibrine,
it is evidently the essential element of the muscular tissues, and
forms with water almost the whole of their parts.


_Of the Bones._—In vertebrated animals with osseous skeletons the
earthy material, in all cases, consists principally of phosphate of
lime, with phosphate of magnesia, carbonate of lime and soda. By
digesting a bone in dilute muriatic acid, all of these inorganic
salts are removed, and the cartilage remains, preserving perfectly
the form of the bone.

The teeth present, in their combinations, the greatest analogy to
bone; the principal and organized substance of the teeth is indeed
true bone, containing indeed less cartilage and more phosphate of
lime than other bones. The enamel, which is an inorganic secretion
from the surface of the long tooth, is almost destitute of any animal
matter.


_Of the Composition of the Blood._—Blood is, in the higher classes
of animals, an opaque, thick, red fluid; it has a salty and nauseous
taste, and a peculiar smell, resembling that of the animal whence it
has been derived.

When the blood of any red blooded animal is allowed to rest, it
gradually forms a soft jelly, from which, after some time, a thin
yellowish fluid (serum) separates, while the red jelly or coagulum
contracts in volume and acquires great consistence. If this
coagulation of the blood takes place slowly, the upper portion of
the coagulum becomes white or pale yellow; forming thus, the buffy
coat. There is no doubt that the blood, while in connection with the
animal, participates in its life, and the phenomena of coagulation
are to be referred to a new arrangement of its materials consequent
on the loss of that vitality.

The serum of the blood, when coagulation has been perfect, is of a
yellowish, sometimes greenish, color; its taste is dull and salty;
it is thick fluid, like olive oil; when heated to 140° it coagulates.

If we examine under the microscope the appearance presented by blood,
we find that it consists of a great number of red particles swimming
in a nearly colorless liquor. These red particles are flattened
disks; in man they are round. Their size is variable, being in man
from one four-thousandth to one eight-thousandth of an inch in
diameter, but larger in other animals.

The blood contains a large quantity of _albumen_, partly dissolved
and remaining in the serum after coagulation, partly in a solid
state, forming the great mass of the globules.

In the living body the blood also contains fibrine in solution, but
this separates soon after extraction from the body; it assumes a
solid form, and investing, as a sponge, the red globules, forms with
them the coagulum.

The fibrine is thus the element active in the coagulation of the
blood, the globules being but passively engaged in it. In addition
to this essential organic element, the blood contains a variety of
salts, as common salt, phosphate of magnesia, ammonia and lime,
lactates of soda and magnesia. The best analyses of the blood are
those of Lecanu, and the results for blood and serum are that they
contain, in the human subject of each sex:

  Water,      75.00
  Albumen,     5.00
  Globules,    7.14
  Fibrine,      .20

The fatty substance of the blood is a mixture of cholesterine
with stearic and oleic acid and a peculiar fatty substance termed
seroline, the history of which is yet incomplete. None of the fats of
the brain, however, seem to exist in the blood.

The chemical history of fibrine and albumen having been already
given, it remains only to describe the peculiar coloring matter,
for the most accurate knowledge we possess concerning which, we are
indebted to Lecanu’s elaborate researches on the blood.

Pure hematosine or coloring matter, when it is coagulated, is a
dark brown mass, tasteless and inodorous; when heated it does not
smell, but swells up and evolves ammoniacal products; it is insoluble
in water, alcohol and ether; _it forms, with the mineral acids,
compounds which are insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol_.

By caustic alkalies it is dissolved with a red-blood color, and
these combinations are soluble in water, alcohol and ether.
Hematosine contains neither phosphorus nor sulphur, but iron in large
quantities. The state in which iron exists in hematosine has been,
up to the present day, an object of much discussion among chemists;
but with the knowledge we now possess of hematosine in its pure form,
we must consider the iron to be an integral part of its organic
constitution, as sulphur in albumen, or arsenic in alkarsine, and
the opinion of its being oxydized and combined with the true organic
element as a kind of salt can no longer be supported. If a solution
of hematosine be acted on by chlorine gas, a white, flocculent
precipitate is produced, and the solution contains chloride of iron.

Although hematosine is the coloring principle of the globules of the
blood, it is present but in very small quantity; one hundred parts
of dried globules containing but four to five parts of hematosine;
in the blood globule the hematosine exists in its uncoagulated
state, and possesses properties somewhat different from those of its
coagulated form.

A solution of the colored blood globules in water, when exposed
to the air, becomes of a brighter red color, being thus partially
arterialized; it is _coagulated also by alcohol and by acids_; the
hematosine then passes into the condition of insolubility, already
described.

The colorless ingredient in the blood globules has already been
spoken of as being albumen, with which, indeed it is identical
in properties, but differ in some points. It has been termed
globuline. In its uncoagulated condition it can not be separated from
hematosine, and is there distinguishable from albumen, principally
by being insoluble in even a very dilute saline solution, which
dissolves albumen readily. It is, hence, that the globules of the
blood swim unaltered in the serum, but are readily dissolved by pure
water.

If the blood, when extracted from the vein, is received into a vessel
containing a solution of glauber’s salt, coagulation is prevented,
as the fibrine remains dissolved, and by filtering the liquor so
obtained, the serum and water pass off and the globules remain,
mixed only with little of the salt. The globuline cannot, however, be
separated from hematosine, except by acids, which, as described in
the preparation of hematosine, then combine with the globuline.


_Alteration of the Blood in disease._—The examination of the state
of the blood in disease, although presenting important relations
to pathology and to practice, has been conducted in a manner too
disconnected and superficial to produce any satisfactory results.
This branch of chemical pathology has, however, been taken up by the
illustrious Andral and Gavaret, who have published the result of the
analysis of the blood in three hundred and sixty cases of disease.

Their researches have enabled them to recognize four classes of
diseases, in which the composition of the blood is essentially
altered, though in different ways.

The first class presents as a constant alteration, an increase in
the quantity of fibrine; it includes diseases remarkably different
in their locality and form, but all belonging to the class of acute
inflammations in some cases of morbid deposition, as in tubercle and
cancer, a similar increase in the quantity of fibrine is found, but
it may be doubted whether it be due to abnormal growth or to the
inflammatory action which accompanies it.

In the second class the fibrine remains stationary, or even
diminishes in quantity, while the globules increase in proportion to
the fibrine. The diseases which belong to this class, are, continued
fevers without local inflammation, and some form of cerebral
hemorrhages.


_Cerebral Hemorrhages._—In the third class, the fibrine remaining
unchanged, there is a remarkable diminution in the quantity of
globules; of these diseases, chlorosis may be taken as an example,
and in the fourth class it is no longer the fibrine or the globules
which are the subject of the morbid change, but the quantity of the
albumen in the serum is diminished; of this class of affections is
Bright’s disease.

It has been observed, that in cholera the blood becomes so thick as
to arrest the circulation, and contains from thirty to forty-five per
cent. of solid matter; it is then, also, less strongly alkaline than
healthy blood; this is connected probably with the matters vomited
and evacuated, which are strongly alkaline, and contain a quantity of
albumen.

The blood has been found, occasionally, in cases of Diabetes
Mellitus, to contain traces of sugar. The great discordance of the
results obtained, may result, perhaps, from the sugar contained in
the blood only for a short time after meals, and then being rapidly
evacuated by the kidneys. In the jaundice the green coloring matter
of the bile has been found mixed with the blood.

Other observations of morbid constituents of the blood are too
indefinite to justify me in occupying space with them.


_Color of the Blood._—In the living body, the blood in the veins and
arteries is well known to differ essentially in color; in the former
being of a dark purple-red, in the latter of a bright vermilion
color. The change from the venal to the arterial state occurs during
the passage of the blood through the capillary vessels of the
lungs, where it is exposed to the action of an extensive surface of
atmospheric air; while the arterial blood, in traveling the general
capillary system of the body, assumes the red, dark condition in
which it is carried back to the heart by the veins. Yet, although the
vital properties of the blood depend essentially upon this change
of color, we are not able to connect it with any alteration in the
composition of the constituents of the blood, or even in their
relative proportions.

Arterial and venous blood contains sensibly the same quantity of
water, fibrine, globules, albumen and salts; and, by analysis, the
composition of those bodies is found to be identical, no matter what
kind of blood they may be derived from. To trace the difference of
nature between arterial and venous blood, it is therefore necessary
to study it under different points of view than its approximate or
elementary composition. So far as we have yet explained it, the air
which has been employed in respiration, is found to have undergone
an important change of constitution; its volume is but slightly,
if at all, altered; but a quantity of oxygen has disappeared, and
is replaced by carbonic acid, in generally equal volume. Air
which has been once respired is found to contain from three to
four per cent. of carbonic acid, and if the same quantity of air
be continually breathed, the animal dies with all the symptoms of
narcotic poisoning. When the carbonic acid has accumulated to from
eight to ten per cent., the action of the air in expiration is
therefore to remove carbon from the blood. The quantity so taken
from the system in twenty-four hours is very large, and makes up the
principal portion of that element which we take in with our food;
yet, such is the activity with which its assimilation provides, that
no perceptible change in the solid elements of the blood can be
perceived.

It was, at one time, a much disputed point, whether the carbon so
separated from the system was directly excreted from the lungs, and
carried off as it were, by contact with the oxygen of the air, or
whether the oxygen was first absorbed by the blood and carried by
the circulation to every portion of the body, where it combined with
the carbon, which was there present in excess, and the carbonic acid
so produced, being dissolved by the venous blood, was thrown off on
arriving at the surface of the atmosphere, in the lungs. The progress
of science has, however, finally decreed in favor of the latter view,
to which the fullest confirmation has been given by the careful and
elaborate researches of Magnus.


_Gases in the Blood._—It was found that both arterial and venous
blood contain dissolved quantities of gases, oxygen, nitrogen and
carbonic acid, which amount to from one-tenth to one-twentieth the
volume of the blood; the proportions of these two gases to each other
are different in arterial and venous blood; the oxygen in arterial
blood being about one-half of the carbonic acid, while in the venous
blood it seldom amounts to more than one-fifth; the difference is
greatest in young persons, and probably is proportional to their
activity of nutrition.

The quantity of nitrogen appears to be the same in both kinds of
blood, making from one-fifth to one-tenth of the gaseous mixture.

The physico-chemical conditions of respiration are simply explicable
upon these results, by the principle of gaseous diffusion, the fine
lining pulmonary membrane being permeable to gases. When the venous
blood arrives at the surface of the lungs, a portion of the carbonic
acid which it contains is evolved, and a quantity of oxygen gas
absorbed in place of it; these two quantities are not necessarily
equal at each moment, though ultimately they become so, and hence
the volume of oxygen absorbed is generally, though not universally,
equal to that of the carbonic acid given out. There appears, from the
presence of nitrogen in equal quantity in both kinds of blood, to be
an absorption and evolution of that gas, simply from physical laws,
and independent of any application of it to the nutrition of the
animal; hence the volume of nitrogen in air is sometimes increased,
and at others diminished, by respiration, and a man evolves much
nitrogen when respiring an atmosphere of oxygen and hydrogen,
while it has been shown that the rate of nutrition of a man is
proportionate to the quantity of nitrogen it receives as food, and
that none of that principle is really assimilated from the air.

It is still by no means easy to decide upon the changes of color
which occur in the blood during respiration; for this should appear
connected, not merely with the presence of certain gases in the
blood, but upon a true change in the composition of hematosine, which
analysis cannot direct.

Stevens first attracted the attention upon the influence which saline
bodies have upon the color of the blood. If dark, venous blood is put
in contact with a solution of common salt, glauber salt, nitre, or
carbonate of soda, it becomes as vermilion colored as if it had been
truly arterialized; on the contrary, the presence of carbonic acid
impedes this action, and gives to blood, so reddened by a salt, not
in excess, the dark tint of venous blood.

If we consider, therefore, the arterial tint to be due to the
material combination of the coloring matter with the saline
constituents of the serum, this will be darkened, when, by passing
through the capillary system, the blood takes up an excess of
carbonic acid; and again, in the lungs, when the carbonic acid is
replaced by oxygen, the vermilion color is restored, not by any
active agency of the oxygen, but by the natural tint of saline
hematosine becoming evident.

Although this theory of the change of color is by no means free from
objection, it still appears to be better founded than any other that
has been proposed.


_Animal Heat._—The phenomena of respiration consisting mainly in
the conversion of carbon into carbonic acid by union with oxygen,
the heat which is developed in the body of all red blooded animals
has been naturally referred to that source; and as we know that
the change from the arterial to the venous condition of the blood
occurs at every point of the system, the almost complete equality
of temperature throughout the body in health is explained. That
the great source of heat is the respiratory process, is abundantly
proved by the temperature being highest in those animals, and in the
same animal, at those periods when the circulation is most rapid
and the quantity of air consumed the greatest. But it has been
calculated that the heat evolved by the combustion of the quantity
of carbon thrown off from the body in twenty-four hours is no more
than eight-tenths of the quantity generated in the body during that
time, and the origin of the remainder must be found in the action of
the muscles and the nervous power, which appears of itself to be a
distinct source of animal heat.




ANIMAL CHEMISTRY.

SECTION TWO.

_Composition of the Digestive Organs and of their Secretions—Chemical
Phenomena of Digestion_.


_Mucus._—The living membrane of the alimentary canal is moistened
with a liquid possessing many of the characteristics of vegetable
mucus, but containing nitrogen. It is a thick, tenacious substance,
which contains, dissolved in the water through which it is diffused,
the ordinary salts of the serum of the blood; it swells up with water
to a considerable mass, but without dissolving; it dissolves in
alkaline liquors, and is precipitated therefrom on the addition of an
acid and the tincture of galls; the mucus from different parts of the
mucus membrane is, however, by no means identical in properties.

The liquid secreted by the internal surface of the stomach—the
gastric juice—which exercises an important influence on digestion,
differs essentially in its character from mucus. When the stomach
is empty and contracted, it contains ordinary mucus; but if even
indigestible substances are introduced, and still more, after taking
proper food, a liquid is abundantly poured out, which is colorless
or pale yellow, and contains a very small quantity of solid matter
(two per cent.), which consists principally of inorganic salts
(common salts and sal ammoniac, with a trace of a salt of iron); it
is specially characterized by the presence of a notable quantity of
free muriatic acid, the proportions of which vary with the activity
of the digestive powers at the time. This gastric juice possesses
the remarkable property of softening down and dissolving fibrine and
albumen, and thus converts the masses of food into the uniform pulp
(chyme), from which the absorbing vessels of the small intestines
take up the nutritious elements.

If we form an artificial gastric juice by mixing together the
muriatic acid and salts in the right proportions, it is found to
be totally incapable of dissolving the materials of the food,
and, indeed to be quite inactive towards digestion. The organic
material of the gastric juice, although its quantity be so minute,
is, therefore, essential to its powers, and these may be perfectly
conferred upon the previously inactive, artificial juice, by the
addition of a little of the mucus of the stomach or by steeping
in the acid liquor, for a short time, a small portion of a mucous
membrane, and filtering the liquor; for this purpose it is not even
necessary to use the mucous membrane of the stomach, for that of the
bladder has been found to answer equally well. The substance which is
dissolved out of the membrane in these cases has been termed pepsine.
It has not been obtained in a truly isolated or pure form, but its
properties are very remarkable. For its full activity it requires
the presence of a free acid, as the artificial gastric juice becomes
much less active in dissolving food when neutralized by an alkali,
though it retains other properties, as that of coagulating milk-like
rennet. If the artificial juice be precipitated by nitrate of lead,
the precipitate washed, and then decomposed by sulphuret of hydrogen;
the solution thus obtained possesses all the digestive powers of
the juice. Hence, the pepsine and muriatic acid act together, by
combining with oxide of lead.

Pepsine appears to be completely decomposed by contact with alcohol
or boiling water; its powers are also destroyed by deodorizing
substances; the solution of albumen and fibrine in gastric juice
differs essentially from their solution in muriatic acid, as in the
former case the quantity of acid is very minute, in relation to the
quantity of material dissolved, and after solution the acid remains
quite uncombined.

The action of the stomach in digestion, appears, therefore, so far as
our actual knowledge extends, a purely catalytic fermentative action;
one in which the active excitant is an organic substance (pepsine),
secreted by the mucous surface, and whose properties are developed by
the presence of muriatic acid, which is secreted at the same time.
The new products into which the food, fibrine, albumen, gluten,
starch, oils, sugar, etc., are converted, and which collectively
constitute the white uniform pulp, termed by physiologists chyme,
have not been made the subject of accurate chemical researches.

In the mouth the mass of nutritive material is acted on by a liquid
which is secreted by the salivary glands, the saliva. It is alkaline,
and holds in solution not one per cent. of solid matter, which
contains some carbonate of soda and common salt, admixed mucous, and
a peculiar organic body, termed salivary matter.

This last substance is soluble in water; its solution is not
coagulated by heat, nor precipitated by tincture of galls, corrosive
sublimate, acetate of lead, nor by acids. The pancreas, so similar
in structure to the salivary glands, has a different secretion;
it contains no salivary matter, but albumen and some salts; it is
generally slightly acid.


_Composition of the Bile._—The precise part which this remarkable
secretion performs in the animal economy is not yet fully known; it
has been the subject of repeated and accurate chemical examination,
although, from the facility with which its elements are transferred
into other bodies, by the action of the reagents employed, every
succeeding analysis has led to different results.


_The Coloring matter of the Bile._—is present during health but in
small quantity, but in disease it sometimes accumulates so as to
form solid masses. When pure, it is a reddish-yellow powder, which
is scarcely soluble in water or in alcohol, but dissolves easily in
a solution of caustic potash. This solution is of a clear yellow
color, but when exposed to the air it becomes deep green, absorbing
oxygen. This change is remarkably produced by nitric acid, and it is
indeed the reaction by which the presence of the bile in the serum of
the blood, in the skin, in the urine, and eyes, etc., may be shown in
cases of jaundice.


_Chyle and Lymph._—The nutritive materials extracted from the food by
the absorbing vessels of the intestines, is thrown into the thoracic
duct, where it meets with another fluid, which is transmitted to
the same vessel from all parts of the body by the colorless veins
or lymphatics. The fluid from the intestines is termed chyle; that
from the body is generally termed lymph. It is the mixture of these
that has alone been examined, for the vessels which carry either
separately are too minute to allow of the extraction of their
contents in a pure form.

When taken from the thoracic duct, a few hours after a meal, when,
probably, the chylous element prevails, it is whitish, opaque,
liquid, like milk, with generally a reddish shade; a short time after
separation from the body, it coagulates; the clot is at first pale,
but it soon becomes light crimson red; the milkiness of the serum is
due to the presence of oil; it contains albumen, and coagulates by
heat; except that it is more dilute, and that the hematosine is for
the most part absent, the chyle and lymph have the same composition
as the blood. It appears to vary, however, with the nature of the
food, as Dr. Prout found the chyle of persons fed on vegetables to
contain a much smaller quantity of albumen than when they had had
animal food.

Dr. Prout also indicates in chyle the presence of a substance which
he terms incipient albumen, which is not coagulated by heat, except
after the addition of acetic acid; the properties of this form of
albumen, however, are not fully known.


_Constitution of the Urine in Health and Disease._—The nature of this
secretion has at all times been an object of considerable interest to
the chemist, from the indications which changes in its composition
give of diseases of important organs and from the number and interest
of the different organic substances it contains. As in almost all
other branches of animal chemistry, Burzelius first determined its
composition, and lately Lecaner has ascertained with great care
the limits to which the proportions of its ingredients may vary in
health, and this established a correct basis of comparison for urine
in the various conditions of diseases.


_Of the Urine in Disease and after Death—Urinary Calculi._—To the
chemist, the indications of disease of the urinary and digestive
organs, formed by changes in the composition of urine, are most
valuable. The majority of the substances which are taken into the
circulation, but are incapable of assimilation to our organs, are
thrown off by this secretion, and hence a variety of medicinal
substances may be traced to it after having been ingested,
sometimes quite unaltered, at others modified in their natures.
Thus if alkaline salts of organic acids be taken into the stomach,
the organic material is oxidized, probably during the action of
respiration, while the alkali passes into the urine in the state
of carbonate. If, however, the organic acid be taken uncombined,
it escapes decomposition, and, passing into the urine, produces an
abundant precipitate of salts of lime. In the case of the tartaric
acid and oxalic acids, some organic bodies, as aspharagine and the
oil of turpentine, are decomposed, and the products which they form
are execreted, giving to the urine peculiar odors; in the latter case
like that of violets.

The majority of coloring matters are thrown out of the system by this
secretion, while others are not so given off.

The mineral acids—alcohol, camphor and most metallic salts—do not
pass into the urine to any sensible degree.


_Urine in Diabetes._—The most remarkable change in the nature of
urine occurs in Diabetes Mellitus, it is voided in great quantity; it
is found to contain a great quantity of grape, sugar, and very little
urea.

It was supposed that in this disease urea ceased to be formed by
the system, and was replaced by sugar; but it has been shown that,
although the quantity of urea is very small in any one specimen
of urine, yet the total quantity is so much increased that in
twenty-four hours the natural quantity of urea is secreted; the
secretion of sugar being an act of faulty digestion, and totally
unconnected with the urea. These results have been fully confirmed by
experience.

The diabetic urine sometimes contains albumen, which arises from
complications of other forms of disease.

All that has been said in the former chapter about the solid and
fluid constituents of the human body may, at first sight, and to a
great many, seem to be superfluous and out of place in a work of
this kind. It is true that the different modes of preserving bodies,
as explained in this book, do not require this long dissertation on
animal chemistry in order to be understood; still, when we consider
that the chemicals used in these different processes have an object
to accomplish, it must be granted that a thorough knowledge of the
constituents of the body, their composition and chemical proportion,
will, to a great extent, explain the reason why these same chemicals
are used in preference to others.

The secondary object, which is not less important, consists in the
fact that a thorough knowledge of the animal chemistry of the human
organism is most necessary to understand the different changes which
take place in the formation of the different juices and tissues of
the body, when they enter into combination with the chemicals, the
object of which is to render them imputrescible.

However, the study of these combinations affords a simple and clear
explanation of the means resorted to in order to preserve bodies.




GANNAL’S PROCESS OF EMBALMING.

WITH MODIFICATIONS.


This process, which has been successfully employed in Europe
for a long time, for the purpose of embalming bodies and for
the preservation of anatomical preparations, is still practised
extensively, owing to the cheapness of the materials used and to the
simplicity of the modus operandi.

The embalming fluid in this instance is composed as follows, viz.:

  Sulphate of alumina,      4 pounds.
  Arsenious acid,           4 ounces.
  Creasote,                 4 ounces.
  Water,                    1 gallon.

To prepare this fluid, an explanation of its constituents is required.

There are two different kinds of arsenious acid, the opaque and the
transparent. This latter variety (the transparent) should be selected
in preference to the other, on account of its greater solubility;
the acid must also be procured in crystals, and not in powder, as it
will, in the first place, dissolve quicker, and will not be liable to
be adulterated. The water must then be heated to 55°, and the acid
dissolved in it. The sulphate of alumina is then to be added, and,
after being completely dissolved, let the solution cool off to the
usual temperature; then add the creasote, and, after stirring gently,
the solution is ready for use.

Lay the body on an inclined board, as described in a former chapter,
and, after thoroughly cleansing with water and soap, saturate well
with a concentrated solution of alum; the body should be kept well
moistened with the solution, as prescribed in the processes of
embalming already given, until the operation is completed.

Through an opening made in the skin of the abdomen, and immediately
over the transverse part of the colon, the bowels and the stomach
will then be revealed, which must be emptied of their contents and
properly cleaned, and injected with the above preparation.

After the contents of the abdomen have thus been treated, the whole
abdominal viscera is to be heavily sprinkled over with tannic acid,
until the acid forms a layer about one-half inch in thickness between
the bowels and the skin of the abdomen; the flaps of the skin are
then brought together and neatly sewed up.

The femoral vein is then opened. The femoral vein ascends the thigh
in the sheath of the femoral artery, and, entering the pelvis beneath
Poupart’s ligament, becomes the external iliac vein. In the lower
part of its course, it is situated on the outer side of the artery;
it then becomes placed behind that vessel, and at Poupart’s ligament
lies to the inner side. It receives the muscular veins and propenda,
and, through the saphenous opening, the internal saphenous vein.

The blood, in some cases, will issue very freely, and the flow of it
must continue until the embalming fluid makes its appearance.

To inject the circulatory system, extend the left arm at a right
angle with the body, and open the axilliary artery about three
inches from the arm-pit. The axilliary artery is a continuation of
the sub-clavian artery; it passes through the axilla or arm-pit
into the arm, and is called the axilliary artery; that part of its
continuation into the upper arm is called the brachial artery, and in
the fore arm it divides into the radial and ulnar arteries, which are
distributed to the hand and fingers.

Through the opening thus made in the axilliary artery two gallons of
embalming fluid may be injected, or such quantity as may be found
necessary to completely fill the arterial and venous systems.

After the blood has ceased to flow from the opening in the femoral
vein, the wounds must be sewed up, and the body, anointed with the
solution, left to dry in a cool, well ventilated place.

The surface of the body and also the face may be mottled in some
places with white spots, but the skin will soon assume a uniform
color, and the blotches will disappear.

After the solution on the body has become sufficiently dry and has
penetrated the pores of the skin, the excess of moisture must be
wiped off with a clean towel.

The nostrils should be hermetically sealed, by introducing into them
some cotton, well saturated with gum shellac dissolved in alcohol.

The eyes must be well closed, and, if no other means at hand, the
lids must be sewn together with a small circular needle, and some
silk, saturated in spirits of turpentine.

The body is then saturated with a thin coating of turpentine; and
after the turpentine is dry, the clothing can be put on, and the body
is then ready for interment.

As shown by the preceding, this process is very simple, and has given
satisfactory results in all cases, although the amount of embalming
liquid and the composition thereof vary in all cases, and according
to the temperature of the season and country.

For instance, if the body to be embalmed is that of a very fleshy
person, and it be in the summer season, when animal substances are
more prone to putrefy than at other seasons, the embalming fluid must
be altered as follows, in its quantitative composition:

  Sulphate of alumina,              6 pounds.
  Arsenious acid, transparent,      4 ounces.
  Creasote,                         6 ounces.
  Water,                            1 gallon.

For the minor parts of this process, as, for instance, the closing of
the eyes, mouth, etc., the reader is referred to previous processes
already given in former chapters.

The most reliable composition yet found for embalming purposes,
and the one which has given the most satisfactory results, is the
following:

Alcohol, one gallon; dissolve into it eight ounces of corrosive
sublimate, and, after complete solution, add two pounds of creasote.
This solution, for injecting purposes, has never failed to accomplish
the purpose, and has given the most astonishing results. The only
objection to its use, but one which does not in reality carry any
weight with it, is the fact that the solution will produce a white
scar on the skin of the body wherever it may be dropped; but a
very moderate amount of care in the use of it will preclude the
possibility of such an accident.

The embalming of bodies by injection has so far occupied our
attention. We will hereafter pass briefly in review the process of
maceration employed in the preservation of bodies.




EMBALMING BY MACERATION.


The process of embalming bodies, as at first practised, was founded
on the principle of complete immersion of the body into some bath
composed of antiseptics, which, by being absorbed by the system,
rendered the tissues imputrescible, much in the same way as we now
preserve anatomical preparations by immersing in alcohol.

At the commencement of this century a process of embalming was
brought out in Europe, and succeeded very well for some time;
but after a certain period, Mr. Gannal and others inaugurated a
new system of preserving the dead, and the process of maceration
was abandoned, and has not since been revived to any extent. The
following is the manner of treatment to which a body was subjected in
the above process:

The body was washed thoroughly with soap and water; then the abdomen
was opened and the sternum raised; the thoracic as well as the
abdominal viscera was then removed altogether, as also the brain.

The body was then immersed for one week in a strong solution of alum
and nitrate of potash; the body was then taken out and the cavities
filled with tow and powdered arsenic; the bowels, lungs, liver, etc.,
in fact all the viscera, were buried separately.

The body was then completely buried in dry sand for the space of
ten days, to absorb all the moisture contained in the tissues, and
was then dressed in the funeral habiliments and placed in a leaden
coffin, hermetically sealed; a small, thick glass, immediately over
the face, allowed the friends to obtain a view of the features.

This process has been found objectionable for a good many reasons; in
the first place, the eviscerating of the body is a repulsive feature
of it, and not to be had recourse to when less barbarous means are at
hand; secondly, the skin of the body assumes a yellow and wrinkled
appearance, which, if it does not entirely destroy the cast of the
features, alters the general appearance so much as to render them
very different from the natural appearance.

At any rate, the method of preserving bodies by the above means has
entirely fallen into disuse, and as, with our perfected improvements
in this branch of the undertaking business, we are able to do
away with the most repugnant features of it, this system has been
superseded by the less objectionable and more effective arterial
injections.




LAWS OF HEALTH.


Undertakers, like physicians and all those who may be called at any
time of the day or night to make use of their physical and mental
faculties, whose duties compel them to breathe the foul effluvia of
the sick chamber, or the noxious gases generated by the dead, even to
come into direct contact with every variety of contagious or epidemic
disease—such professionals find it to their interest and physical
welfare to observe certain rules of living in accordance with the
requirements of their calling.

It is a matter of great importance that their diet, clothing and
habits be regulated by certain laws, which will, to a great extent,
reduce the dangers to which they are exposed in the discharge of
their duties.


DIET.

Man is less uniform in his diet, and suffers more in consequence
of it, than any other animal. All other animals are directed by
instinct to select only those substances which are best adapted
to their wants. Man is endowed with reason to enable him, by the
exercise of thought and reflection, to make his choice of food. He
should, therefore, select his daily food with as much forethought
and care as he would select the materials for his dwelling. He should
consider, not what will gratify his taste, but what will build up
and strengthen his bodily structure, and secure most perfectly the
highest and most permanent enjoyment of all his faculties.

The kind of food which each individual should select is by no means
uniform; the climate, the season of the year, the occupation,
the temperament, the age, the habits of life, and various other
circumstances which might be mentioned, demand modifications of diet.


MODIFICATIONS OF AGE.

The constituent elements of the body are not found in the same
relative proportions at different periods of life, or in different
individuals of the same age. In middle life the muscular system
predominates, and the body is remarkable for the compactness of its
fibres, its strength, and its power of endurance.

In the child there is an excess of fluids, which renders the body
more plump and round and the form beautiful, though more frail and
delicate than at a later period. In advanced age, the soft tissues
become greatly diminished, and the form wrinkled and wasted.


CLIMATE.

The inhabitants of cold climates require those articles of food
which produce the largest amount of animal heat, such as oil,
tallow and fat meats, which contain from sixty-six to eighty per
cent. of carbon. The natives of the arctic regions consume enormous
quantities of fat and oil, and seem to relish them as great luxuries;
the inhabitants of tropical regions subsist mainly on rice, fruits,
vegetables and lean meats. It would be impossible to live in
Greenland on the plaintain and rice of the Hindoo, or in Hindostan on
the seal fat and whale oil of the Greenlander.

In temperate climates we require different kinds of food at different
seasons of the year. In winter we consume larger quantities of fat
meat and carbonaceous food, and in summer more fruit and vegetables.
Were we to indulge in the summer in the same diet which we might
find highly conducive to health in the winter, the system would
soon become burdened with an excess of carbonaceous matter, and
induce congestion and inflammatory diseases. It is therefore highly
important that each person should possess some knowledge of the
properties of different articles of diet, and select from time to
time those which he may think most suitable to his own organization.

Different substances are nutritious in proportion as they yield, when
digested, those elements which are found to exist in the different
tissues of the body. Animals do not possess the power of forming
new elements, or of converting one element into another, and it
necessarily follows that the elements of their growth and nutrition
must be derived from the food which they take.

The largest part of nearly all the substances which make up the human
body are composed of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon, and
different substances are regarded as nutritious in proportion as they
furnish these essential elements of our organization. In general,
those substances may be regarded as the most important articles of
diet which furnish, with the greatest facility of digestion, the
largest amount of these elements.

Milk is regarded, perhaps correctly, as the plainest and simplest
kind of food. Cow’s milk is composed of:

  Casein,             4.48
  Butter,             3.13
  Sugar of milk,      4.77
  Various salts,       .60
  Water,             87.00

Milk, being furnished by nature as the only food for the young of the
mammalia during a certain period of their existence, contains all the
elements necessary to the nutrition and the growth of the body. Out
of the casein are formed the albumen and fibrin of the blood. The
butter serves for the formation of fat, and contributes, with the
sugar, to the support of animal heat, by yielding carbon and hydrogen
to be burnt in the lungs. The earthy salts (phosphate of lime, etc.)
are necessary for the development of the bones, the iron required for
the blood, corpuscles and the hair.

In this country, meat constitutes an important part of the diet of
almost every family. As a general rule, animal food is more easily
digested, contains a greater amount of nutriment, and is more
stimulating than any of the varieties of vegetable food.

As minuteness of division and tenderness of fibre facilitate
digestion, young meats are more tender than old; thus, roasted pig
is more speedily digested than broiled pork; steak and boiled lamb
sooner than boiled mutton. Still, there are some exceptions to the
digestibility of young meats, veal, and with some persons lamb, are
slower of digestion than beef or mutton.

The vegetable kingdom greatly exceeds the animal in the number and
variety of the aliments which it furnishes to man. It is well known
that the four essential elements, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and
nitrogen, which form an important part of all animal compounds, are
also to be found in great abundance in all vegetable compounds; it is
owing to this fact that different animals are nourished equally well
on an exclusive diet of either. The lion, tiger and other animals
which live exclusively on animal food, give no evidence of being
better nourished than the deer, the ox, and animals which subsist
wholly on vegetable food; but the apparatus for digestion in each
class is constructed with an evident adaptation to the kind of diet
on which the different animals subsist.

In man the digestive apparatus is more extensive than in flesh-eating
animals, but is less complicated than in those which are confined
to vegetable food alone. Man is therefore omnivorous, both in his
structure and in his habits.

But the universal tendency of mankind gives preference to a mixed
diet. The most perfect development and the greatest individual vigor
are to be found among those races in which a mixed diet is the
prevalent habit.

During the warm season vegetables and fruits may be made the means of
great mischief or of great good. Perfectly ripe fruits or vegetables
are highly useful and well adapted to the wants of the system at that
season of the year; yet they may become, and often are, a prolific
source of disease. So frequently is this kind of food a cause of
bowel complaint that city physicians discard it wholly from the diet
of children not under their immediate supervision.

Vegetables and early fruits that have been long exposed, in a
malarious or filthy market, or in transportation, are unquestionably
dangerous articles of food for all persons. But the injurious
consequences which follow the use of ripe and wholesome vegetables
and fruit are, in almost all cases, the results of imprudence. They
are either in an improper condition to be used as food, or the
quantity is too great, or they are taken at improper hours.

In either case there is a great change in the usual diet. Instead
of a lack of refrigerant food, there is now an excess of it. Active
fermentation takes place in the process of digestion, and results in
serious derangement in the alimentary canal, which leads to cholera
morbus, diarrhœa or dysentery.

During warm weather vegetables and fruit are to be regarded as safe
only when used as an accompaniment to other food; they are not
adapted to meet all the wants of the system, and therefore should not
constitute a full meal at any time. In the country, where this kind
of food is enjoyed daily in a proper condition to be eaten, injurious
consequences are quite rare, and then they are the result of an
excess, or of an indulgence of an appetite at irregular hours.

Much care is also requisite to prevent imperfect mastication of this
kind of food. Orange peel and the skins and stones of cherries, plums
and grapes are wholly indigestible, and often cause serious mischief
when swallowed. Cucumbers, green potatoes, green fruit of all kinds
should be wholly discarded from the diet.


DRINKS.

Water in some form is more essential to our existence than any of the
solid aliments we have yet considered, and is next in importance, in
the performance of the vital process, to the air we breathe. Water
enters into the formation of all the various tissues of the body, and
constitutes a very large proportion of the human system. The blood
contains about eighty per cent., the flesh about seventy-six per
cent., of water; and of the entire human body, at least seventy-five
per cent., or three-fourths of its weight, is water. The most
important purposes in the animal economy are accomplished through
this medium.

In the blood, the solid vital elements are transported by the
medium of water from one part of the body to another, in a form and
condition to promote the vital changes which are constantly taking
place.

In exhalation, secretion and absorption, the presence of water is
indispensable. It acts as a solvent of various alimentary substances,
and thus assists the stomach in the act of digestion; though when
taken in large quantities immediately after eating it dilutes the
gastric juice and hinders digestion.

Water enters more or less largely into the composition of all
alimentary substances, and is taken into the stomach in a pure state,
or forms the principal part of the various kinds of drinks in use.

Water is unquestionably the natural drink of adults, and meets the
wants of the body more perfectly than any of the artificial liquids
which are regarded as improvements on water. Whenever a man is
left to the cravings of instinct, unbiased by a vicious appetite,
he invariably resorts to water as the natural means to quench his
thirst, cool his system, and invigorate his wasting strength.

When we say that water is the only fitting drink for man’s daily and
habitual use, we are sustained by the facts of the case. Water is
the only liquid which is necessary to the formation, development and
support of his frame; it is equal to all the exigencies of thirst,
for the relief of present inconvenience, and of dilution, by mixing
with his blood and other fluids, to prevent further sufferings and
disease.


DIGESTIBILITY OF ALIMENTARY SUBSTANCES.

The facility with which alimentary substances are digested, depends
on a variety of circumstances. Some kinds of food are naturally
more difficult of digestion than others. This is especially the
case with oily and fatty substances, which contain a large amount
of nutritive matter in a concentrated form. Tenderness of fibre
renders the digestive process more easy; and, therefore, all those
circumstances which affect the texture of flesh have an influence on
its digestibility. Violent muscular exertion previous to the death
of the animal renders the flesh more easy of digestion. The flesh of
young animals, though more tender than the flesh of adult animals,
is frequently not so easily digested. Of adult animals, the youngest
will be found more tender and digestible than old animals. Vegetables
are generally more slowly digested than meat. Minute division
facilitates digestion; hence, if food is properly masticated, the
process of digestion will be more rapid than otherwise.

Some variety of food is unquestionably more agreeable and more
conducive to health than a diet limited to one or a few simple
articles. Accordingly, we find that, whenever the condition of men
will admit of it, they universally make use of more or less variety
of alimentary substances, and that variety increases very much in
proportion to the wealth and ability which exists to gratify the
desires of the palate.

Too great a variety of alimentary substances is always injurious when
it becomes a temptation to excess. Thus, a much larger amount of
food is taken than the wants of the body require, and more than the
digestive organs have the capacity to dispose of.

It is impossible to point out to each individual the kind of diet
which will suit best. This, to some extent, must be a matter of
personal observation and experience. Peculiarities of constitution,
habits of life, age, sex, etc., require modifications of diet in
accordance with the natural wants of each individual.

Abstinence from all that is found or suspected to be injurious,
uniform hours and temperate indulgence should be observed by all who
value lasting health more than the mere temporary gratification of
the palate.


CLOTHING.

Dress does not make the man, but it is often indicative of his
character. Some men dress in such a manner as to indicate that they
estimate themselves by the cost per yard of the garments they wear;
others dress so as to carry an impression of perfect indifference to
the feelings and sentiments of those around them. Both are wrong.
Our personal appearance, which depends to a great extent on dress,
is a matter of some consequence; and the man who wholly disregards
the customs and habits of others in this respect will be very likely
to be indifferent to the sentiments and feelings of society in other
particulars, and at least may be in danger of passing for less than
his true worth. But the fop, whose only accomplishment is the dress
he wears, is usually despised as thoughtless and vain.

The style of dress which is most to be commended is that which will
not draw attention either for its gaudiness or its plainness. The
external appearance of our clothing should always be regarded as
less important than its practical uses, inasmuch as bodily health is
infinitely more important than personal appearance.

During the warm season we require clothing which will protect the
body without retaining too large an amount of heat. For this purpose
we prefer, in summer, materials which are good conductors of heat.
Cotton and worsted, though not as good conductors as linen, are
usually found sufficiently cool for the temperature of the Northern
States, where the climate is so changeable that there are but few
days in the season when linen can be worn with safety.

Winter clothing should correspond somewhat with the exposure, both
in quality and amount. The object to be sought in winter clothing
is, not to produce heat, but to retain the heat which the body is
constantly evolving.

Woolen is one of our best non-conductors of heat, and all garments
formed from this material are regarded as warm clothing. All kinds
of furs are good non-conductors, but they are liable to two serious
objections: First, furs are too warm for ordinary exposure, and cause
too great a change of temperature when they are removed; second,
they prevent the escape of perspiration, and confine it within the
garments usually worn inside of the fur.

The amount of clothing should depend on the constitutional vigor and
the exposure of each individual. Indoors we require less than during
an outdoors exposure; less when taking active exercise than when
inactive. The amount of clothing, therefore, should be sufficient to
insure a constant and uniform protection against sudden changes.

It is especially injurious to bundle up the face and neck with fur
collars and shawls, which are so warm that colds will be induced when
they are removed.

In a changeable climate, the constant wearing of flannel under
garments next to the skin should be recommended. Flannel absorbs the
perspiration and preserves a uniform temperature of the surface of
the body, and prevents that sense of chilliness which we are liable
to experience without flannels.




EMBALMING PROCESS

OF WORTH AND DURAND.


This process, often employed in Europe, has given very satisfactory
results, and seems to deserve a good deal of attention. The mode
of proceeding differs in some particulars from the methods already
given; also the preparations used in this process are very different
from the others, although the principles upon which it is founded are
the same.

The solution employed as an injecting fluid in this process is as
follows:

  Arsenious acid,         3 ounces.
  Carbonate of soda,      4 ounces
  Water,                  3 quarts.

Dissolve the arsenious acid and soda in hot water, in a glass or
porcelain vessel, and, after solution, let the liquor cool off;
then add enough of water to make up a gallon of the mixture. In the
making and using of this preparation a great amount of care should
be exercised, as it must be borne in mind that arsenious acid is a
violent poison.

The stomach is then opened, as described in former chapters, and
emptied of its contents; the bowels, also, must be subjected to the
same process. The trachea is punctured, and the bronchial tubes
completely filled with the solution through the opening thus made.
The stomach and intestines should also be injected with the solution,
and also the surrounding parts.

The main point of injection is the common carotid artery. Before
injecting the stomach and bowels, and before replacing the intestines
into the abdominal cavity, the inferior vena cava is punctured a
little below the renal vein, and the flow of blood allowed to take
place in the cavity, from whence it may be either sponged or pumped
out.

The right carotid artery is selected as the point of injection,
instead of the left, for the following reasons: The right common
carotid artery is shorter than the left; it is also more anterior,
and, in consequence of proceeding from a branch instead of from the
main trunk, is larger than its fellow.

The common carotid artery in the neck is inclosed in a fibrous
sheath, which also contains the internal jugular vein lying to the
outer side of the artery, and the pneumogastric nerve, which lies
between and behind both; the sheath rests on the vertebral column.
To the inner side of the carotid is the trachea and larynx; to its
outer side, and inclosed in its sheath, the jugular vein. It may be
inferred from the above that the jugular vein in the neck is in close
proximity with the carotid artery, and great care must be exercised
in puncturing the artery not to injure the vein lying at its side.

After the injection has proceeded upwards, until the arteries of the
head and neck are filled, a very small puncture may be cut into the
jugular vein, and the blood allowed to escape at that point and for a
few minutes, until the flow decreases, when the vein may be tied up.

The nozzle of the injector is then turned in a downward direction,
and the injection continued until a sufficient quantity of the liquid
has been injected.

The artery is then tied up, and the wound neatly brought together
and sewed up. The blood which may have escaped from the vena cava
is taken out of the abdominal cavity, and the stomach and bowels
injected with the solution. Some of the same solution may also be
poured around the bowels before and after their being replaced in
their former position, and the opening in the abdomen is then closed.

Another preparation, which has been employed with some success, was
as follows:

  Hyposulphite of soda,      12 ounces.
  Sulphuric acid,             6 ounces.
  Water,                      1 gallon.

The sulphuric acid liberates the hyposulphurous acid, which
immediately decomposes into sulphur and sulphurous acid. It is to the
antiseptic properties of the sulphurous acid that this preparation
owes its preserving qualities.

A strong solution of bichromate of potash has also been used several
times for an injection, but the result has not always proved
satisfactory, as the liquid, when concentrated, is too much of an
oxydizing agent.




MISCELLANEOUS.


When the services of the undertaker are required, the party or
parties—generally some friend of the deceased—who may have charge of
the arrangements will, in a few words, make the undertaker acquainted
with the nature of the case and the particular duties he is expected
to perform.

Sometimes they will there and then select the style of case or
casket, order the carriages, and arrange all the other details of the
funeral. At other times, again, these particular points are to be
decided upon only after consulting the wishes of the family in this
respect.

In either case it is the undertaker’s most imperative duty to hasten
to the house of mourning with all the implements necessary for
washing, laying out, dressing, and if necessary preserving the body.
That is, where the party has died at his own house; for, in many
cases, where death has taken place either at a hotel, boarding house,
or any other place of a like public character, the proprietor thereof
may wish the remains removed, at as short notice as convenient, to
the rooms of the undertaker, where the remains may be properly cared
for without any annoyance or discomfort to the other inmates.

Before the undertaker brings in any of the appliances necessary to
the laying out of the corpse, it will be well for him to make his
entrance unincumbered, and be introduced to the persons present. He
must also view the remains, and make such arrangements or alteration
in the furniture of the room as may be necessary to facilitate the
operation of laying out, washing, etc.

The assistant may then be called in, and he shall dispose of
the funeral implements according to the directions given by the
undertaker. After the preliminaries have thus been disposed of, none
but the intimate friends or relatives of the deceased are allowed
to remain while the work of dressing the corpse is being performed.
This is subservient to the wish and good judgment of the undertaker,
who is supposed to be vested with powers of expelling those whose
presence is not justifiable, or retaining others who may have claim
to the privilege.

It should be here borne in mind that the work must be done as
silently and noiselessly as the nature of the case admits of;
and that any subject of discourse between the undertaker and his
assistant, not immediately connected with the matter in hand, is very
much out of place, and will be regarded by the persons present as a
lack of good manners, not to say a disrespectful behavior.

Let it be also remembered that a mortuary chamber is not the place
fitly chosen to consummate the ulterior arrangements of the funeral,
but some other apartment in the house, or even the undertaker’s own
office, are the proper places to perfect subsequent proceedings.

The laying out and dressing of the body being completed, the
assistant may retire, after having carefully removed whatever
articles may have been used in the process; while the undertaker,
who may have some directions to give about the proper care of the
body until the time of burial, or some instructions to receive from
the persons in charge of the funeral, will wait until every point is
settled; or some other time and place may be selected for the purpose.

It is not the sphere of the undertaker, especially at such time, to
press with questions the parties whom he may chance to serve; but he
will abide his time and accept their decisions with becoming respect,
unless some imperative object should make it incumbent upon him to
hasten the proceedings, as, for instance, the danger of contagion
from some infectious disease, or some other equally important reason.

In the matter of dressing the body, especially if it be that of a
lady, this duty is usually performed by some lady attached to the
establishment, or by some lady friend of the deceased, although the
undertaker is often called to perform this office himself. It is at
such a time that good taste and refinement will show conspicuous in
the professional undertaker.

The same may be said about the floral decorations and the ornamenting
of the casket; a certain amount of good sound common sense and
discrimination should be used in both cases.

Some parties will consider it a mark of good taste to have but a few
elegant and well chosen gold or silver trimmings, while others would
consider a superfluity of these as needful to the complete decoration
of the casket. This part of the business must be well understood by
the undertaker, and it requires a certain amount of tact to pamper
successfully to the taste of the different parties he may be called
upon to serve.

The remains, after being placed in the coffin a few hours previous
to the time of the funeral, do not require much of his attention,
but he is expected to be on hand at the specified time. As the
hearse and carriages arrive at the house of mourning and take the
places allotted to them without confusion or unnecessary noise, the
undertaker will see that each carriage driver has his place assigned
in the _cortège_ and observes the directions given him.

The assistant stands ready to receive the casket and help the pall
bearers in placing it properly in the hearse; he will also see that
each carriage approaches in time and receives the occupants, as his
employer may direct. Should the religious ceremonies be performed
in the house of the deceased, his duties will end there until the
cemetery is reached; should, however, the services be performed at
some public place of worship, it will be his duty to precede the
arrival of the procession, to see that everything is in readiness,
to give timely warning to the sexton, and to assist in removing the
casket from the hearse; also in preserving order in the loading and
unloading of carriages; while the undertaker takes the lead in the
carrying of the remains into the church, and will see that the casket
is laid up with proper care at the place appointed.

The undertaker is expected to occupy a position not far remote from
the officiating clergyman, so as to be within hearing of the latter
should it be necessary for him to request some service or make some
inquiries.

The funeral services over, the undertaker is expected to lead the
march out of the church, preceding the casket bearers, but following
the minister, who, in many instances, will walk at the head as far as
the door.

The assistant will be found ready to assist in placing the casket in
the hearse, as before mentioned, and will also have the carriages
move up in the right order, open and close the carriage doors, while
the undertaker ushers the occupants into the vehicles.

The undertaker may also require the services of an assistant at the
grave, but this will depend in great measure upon the nature of the
funeral itself, whether it be of a certain magnitude, or if it be one
of less importance.

This brief elucidation of the duties of an undertaker in the
discharge of his functions is not given as a general rule to be
strictly adhered to without any exception, but merely as a ground
plan to work upon, and to be subject to different modifications, as
circumstances may require.

One undisputable fact is, that in the general management of a
funeral pageant, and for the better and more systematic working of
the details, especially if the funeral is one on a large scale,
the services of a well trained assistant will be found almost
indispensable to the undertaker, and will be conducive of the
happiest results in securing perfect system, dispatch; and also in
preventing delays and mistakes, which might otherwise happen where
the responsibility and the smooth working of the whole rests upon one
man.

The laying out, washing, dressing, etc., of a corpse, under any
and every circumstance, ought to be so systematized and arranged,
that either the undertaker or his assistant may be able to perform
these duties alone and singly, with ease and promptness, should
circumstances so require.

As the undertaker is supposed to understand the wants required by
different cases, it will be his duty, so soon as he is acquainted
with the nature of the cause of death, to take such steps as his
experience will suggest, as regards the safety of those who may trust
him with the care of properly disposing of the remains.

Should the disease be of a contagious or infectious character, it
will be incumbent upon the undertaker to see that perfect ventilation
be established in the chamber where the body lies; that all cloths
which are removed from the corpse be disposed of in a cautious
manner; that the bed-clothes be either carried immediately out of
the room and exposed outside to the light and heat of the sun, or
be burned up, if the character of the disease be so dangerous as to
require it.

He will see that proper means of disinfecting the house be used, so
as to a great extent neutralize, if not completely destroy, the germ
of the epidemic.

A good preparation to combat noxious and poisonous miasma, besides
the other disinfecting liquids which have been enumerated in previous
chapters, consists of the following:

  Nitrate of potash (saltpetre),      6 ounces.
  Water,                              2 quarts.
  Sulphuric acid,                     4 ounces.

Dissolve the nitrate of potash in the water. If the water be
moderately warm it will dissolve quicker. For this purpose use a
large _china_ wash bowl (no metallic vessel), which must hold at
least twice the amount of the solution, or about one gallon. When the
solution is completed, gradually pour into it the sulphuric acid; it
will effervesce, and care must be taken not to let any of it fall
on the carpet, as it will not only destroy the color but also the
texture of the fabric; the effervescence will, however, soon subside,
and the foul effluvia of the room will soon lose its offensive odor.

This fumigation has been successfully employed in Southern cities, in
times of severe epidemics.

Although it may be questioned by some whether or no these measures
come within the sphere of the undertaker’s duties, it is by no means
a reason why they should be discarded by our professionals, or why
undertakers should not be familiar with all the means that will tend
to enhance the success of the profession, as well as to promote the
comfort and safety of those whom they may be called upon to serve;
besides the credit they will receive from the family for their well
directed efforts in securing their approval.


CHLORIDE OF LEAD AS A DEODORIZER AND DISINFECTANT.

Dr. R. H. Goolden calls attention in the _Lancet_ to the value of
chloride of lead, which he says is the most powerful deodorizer and
disinfectant. To prepare it for use, he directs to take half a drachm
of nitrate of lead, dissolve in a pint or more of boiling water; then
dissolve two drachms of common salt in a bucket of water, and mix the
two solutions together; allow the sediment to subside.

The clear supernatant fluid will be a solution of chloride of lead.
A cloth dipped in this solution and hung up in a room will sweeten
a fetid atmosphere instantaneously; or if the solution be sprinkled
over the bed-clothes or clothing of a fast decomposing body, it will
produce a like result.

Even the tarnishing of gold and silver ornaments may be prevented,
by a rag dipped in the solution being hung up in the room or window
where they are exposed.

He relates some striking instances of the instantaneous and efficient
action of this preparation.


DANGERS OF ABSORPTION OF CARBOLIC ACID.

Undertakers and others using carbolic acid to some extent should
always use extreme caution in the handling of it.

The carelessness with which certain papers take up some popular
recipe is not always without its dangers. For instance, there
appeared lately in some public print an article upon the poison
of vipers, which is very similar to that of the virus from a
putrefying corpse; the article recommended that carbolic acid should
be immediately introduced into the wound, the acid to be mixed
with alcohol in the proportion of two to one. Observe the off-hand
manner with which a toxic agent is spoken of, as if it were the most
inoffensive thing in the world.

In order to try the experiment, a cat was selected, upon whose skin,
denuded of hair alone, a saturated solution of carbolic acid in
alcohol, with an equal quantity of water, was rubbed; this produced
no effect; but when the same solution was rubbed into a scratch upon
the end of the nose two or three times, the animal fell immediately
into convulsions and very shortly succumbed. Prussic acid could not
have acted more promptly. The moral of this experiment is obvious.


DISINFECTANTS.

Dr. Baxter has executed a great number of very careful experiments,
with a view to testing the different disinfecting properties of the
so-called disinfectants commonly used. Evidence was adduced to show
that carbolic acid, sulphur, permanganate of potash and chlorine
are all endowed with true disinfectant properties, though in very
varying degrees. The effectual disinfectant operation of chlorine
and permanganate of potash appeared to depend far more on the nature
of the medium through which the particles of infective matter
are distributed than on the specific character of the particles
themselves.

A virulent liquid cannot be regarded as certainly and completely
disinfected by sulphur, unless it has been rendered permanently and
thoroughly acid. No virulent liquid can be considered disinfected by
carbolic acid, unless it contains at least two per cent., by weight,
of the pure acid.

When disinfectants are mixed with a liquid, it is very important to
make sure that they are thoroughly incorporated with it, and that no
solid matters capable of shielding contagion from immediate contact
with its destroyer be overlooked.

Aerial disinfection, as commonly practised in the sick room, is
either useless or positively objectionable, owing to the false sense
of security it is calculated to produce.

To make the air of a room smell strongly of carbolic acid, by
scattering carbolic powder about the floor, or of chlorine, by
placing a tray of chloride of lime in a corner, is, so far as the
specific destruction of contagion is concerned, an utterly futile
proceeding.

The practical result of these experiments goes to prove, first, that
dry heat, when it can be applied, is probably the most perfect of
all disinfectants; second, that the old plan of stopping up crevices
and fumigating with sulphur and charcoal is more efficacious than
any other proceeding with more modern disinfectants; third, that the
use of carbolic vapor for disinfecting purposes should be abandoned,
owing to the relative feebleness and uncertainty of its action.


A RELIABLE SIGN OF DEATH.

This sign consists in the absence of contraction of the pupil, after
puncture of the cornea and evacuation of the aqueous humor. When the
pupil contracts, life is still present; when it remains immovable, it
is a certain sign of death. The puncture of the cornea may be made
with a cataract knife, or even an ordinary lancet. It is a harmless
operation.




RAPID DECAY OF THE HUMAN STRUCTURE.


Under this heading, we will present to our readers an essay upon
the causes of the dissolution of the human body. The writer, Mr. W.
W. BALL, of Bangor, Michigan, who published the following in THE
CASKET of March, 1877, has kindly allowed us to republish it, for
the benefit of those who have not read it, and also as a proof that
the theories advanced in this volume cannot be refuted. We give the
article at length. The statements advanced in the essay, also the
course of treatment adopted in the preservation of bodies, will be
found to possess great similarity with the different methods herein
given.


  BY W. W. BALL.

  As soon as the vital action ceases, decomposition ensues in the
  substances which were before the very elements of life, viz.:
  blood, lymph, chyme, chyle and gastric juice, become active agents
  in its destruction.

  In the blood, the most important agent during life, as soon as
  life ceases it becomes one of the first to produce that blackened,
  putrid and sloughing condition we find shortly after death. The
  blood being

  left in every part of the body, it breaks up and forms new
  compounds, of which only a general outline is attainable, for want
  of definite chemical analysis or microscopical observation. The
  fibrine and serum separate; the former, which contains most of the
  red corpuscles, albumen, saline and fatty substances, glutinates or
  coagulates on the sides of the vessels themselves, while the serum
  permeates the surrounding tissues, uniting with oxygen carried off
  from the pulmonary structure during life, and these, having an
  affinity for the tissues, form those compounds termed sulphuretted
  and carburetted hydrogen gases, giving rise to that effluvium which
  characterize deceased bodies.


CONDITION OF THE BLOOD.

After death the blood is found in two forms. This is owing to certain
diseases and circumstances. The first is encountered when death
has ensued after a long stage of sickness. The vital fluids become
exhausted by disease, and the organs of circulation become too weak
to perform their office of circulating the fluid they contain; hence,
dissolution takes place in the blood from want of constant and rapid
action. Thus the fibrine becomes lodged and coagulated in the veins
and capillary system. The fibrine and serum separate, leaving the
fibrine coagulated or clotted, and the serum, a transparent, fatty or
oily liquid, permeates the tissues of the flesh. Usually the arteries
are found without any blood remaining in them. In instances of this
kind there will be no difficulty encountered from the corpse turning
black, as the gases cannot force the blood to the surface into the
capillary system, because the fibrine is lodged elsewhere, but the
flesh may turn brown or saffron color to some extent.


DIFFICULT CASES.

The second condition of the blood is found when death resulted from
accident or short duration of sickness. In these instances there is
usually a large abundance of fluids remaining in the system. These
foster fermentation in every structure, and evolve the gases so
rapidly as to cause the cavities of the thorax and abdomen to become
extended to their utmost capacity with gases that induce the blood
to leave the vessels in the thorax and appear at the surface in the
capillary system. In this instance the fibrine and serum of the blood
remain together in an inky or eccymosed condition.

Thus it is observed that the gases are so rapidly evolved by the
destructive fluids, that before the fibrine coagulates it is forced
from the vessels of the thorax (especially the superior vena cava),
and caused to appear above the surface into the neck and face. The
great pressure of the gases depresses the vessels of the thorax in
the same manner that it does the stomach when purging takes place,
which occurs invariably whenever the stomach contains any movable
matter. The lymph, chyle and chyme, which are the same or similar,
as soon as death ensues take on new molecular changes; the lymph
especially, which is retained in all the glands and vessels of the
lymphatic system, enters into the process of decomposition, fostering
putrefaction in the whole structure; while the gastric juice, a
peculiar fluid so subservient to digestion, which affects the food
only during life, immediately attacks the substances of the stomach
when life is extinct, in the same or similar manner as it affected
the food during life, corroding and completely destroying everything
with which it comes in contact, as there is no vitality to resist its
action. Elements having other affinities, and the organism generally,
hurry back to their primeval state. Nature knows no delays. The work
to be done is to disorganize the body and destroy its form. This is
the work of heat, moisture, air and germs in unison, causing the
fluids and tissues of the body to decay rapidly, while the albumenoid
matters are decomposed into fetid gases escaping into the air, which
in a short time accomplish the work of dissolution, leaving the
body a mass of corruption and the receptacle of myriads of germs of
microscopic beings. The corpse is their natural aliment, and death
their chosen laboratory.

The products of putrefying animal matter are carbonic acid, water,
ammonia and carburetted hydrogen gases, which are generally mixed
with various portions of phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen
gases. The blackened or mortified appearance in those instances is
usually caused by the eccymosed or dark blood from the vessels
of the thorax (especially the superior vena cava). The great
pressure of the gases in the abdomen and thorax prevents the liquid
from gravitating to the regions of the heart and large vessels,
producing the black and livid appearance of the face and neck by
its retention in the capillary system of the epidermis. Man has
been facetiously described as twelve pounds of solid matter wet up
with six pails of water; hence, the great abundance of water in
the human structure gives the necessary mobility for putrefaction.
This is proven by this fact: that by drying the animal substances
they are completely preserved. It is thus that the bodies of those
perishing in the Arabian deserts are recovered years subsequently,
dried, but otherwise fresh and life-like. This fact also proves
that the atmosphere and climate in Asia is far more favorable for
the preservation of animal substances than in this country, and the
writer thinks it has far more to do in preserving the many thousand
mummies of the ancient Egyptians than any art or untold science. If
it were not for want of space, I would dwell more upon this subject;
but as the public generally have no desire to be wafted into untold
centuries, I shall confine this writing to further the progress of
science in this direction, if possible. Having no secret nostrum to
impose upon the public, I will offer a few hints which I hope will
prove to be of importance to the profession generally.


EMBALMING PROCESSES.

For chemical embalming, it is well known to those having experience
as undertakers and embalmers, that in order to successfully perform
this kind of work, it requires knowledge as well as experience. The
various circumstances encountered necessarily govern the work. In
the writer’s experience, he finds that when difficult and obstinate
cases are to be retained for some length of time (especially in warm
weather), it will be necessary to complete the work with care. A very
important matter in this work is to renovate the stomach thoroughly;
then, with simple instruments, similar to an aspirator needle or
trocar, give vent to the gases and thus expel them from the cavities
of the system. Then, with pump, draw off or force out the fluids and
gases from the organs of circulation, and in this manner disinfect
the body as far as possible. Elevate the head and shoulders for the
purpose of letting the inky fluid gravitate from the capillary system
of the face to the large vessels of the thorax. This will renew the
life’s characteristics in a remarkable and satisfactory manner, if
the gases be properly removed.

A simple method of disposing of the gastric juice of the stomach is
to inject into the nose or mouth one or two ounces of an aqueous
solution of any powerful antiseptic, similar to those mentioned
in this article, and after a few moments carry the head off the
bed, and, by gently pressing the stomach, empty its contents. This
will prevent further difficulty from purging, if refilled with
the solution and carefully sealed. Insert an instrument into the
trachea, and thus give vent to the gases in the lungs, and inject
full of the solution. In the same manner dispose of the gases from
the thorax, and fill with solution. Also, the abdominal cavities,
by completing thus, will preserve the viscera. The reagents or
coagulants spoken of render the albumenoids or azotized material
incapable of putrefaction, by the impervious nature of the compounds
it forms of all substances that have protein for their base, as the
tissues readily absorb the preserving solutions after being prepared
as mentioned above. This unites the antiseptic and deodorizing agent
with the very substances that it is necessary to render inactive in
order to successfully retain the remains of deceased persons.


DEODORIZING AGENTS.

The following are very good antiseptics and deodorizing agents:
Chloride of zinc, corrosive sublimate, hyposulphite, oxymuriate of
mercury, carbolic acid, bicarbonate of potassa, aqueous solution of
alumina. The two latter may be rendered more subservient by combining
them with the higher oxides. The metallic salts are much the best for
chemical embalming, if properly used. The remains of drowned persons
may be prepared in the manner as above, with no small degree of
success, as giving vent to the gases and freely applying antiseptics
and deodorizing agents will readily correct, to a great extent, the
difficulties thus encountered by this process. We have removed the
most destructive fluids, or effected a combination with them, thus
preventing the fermenting process and dispersing the gases, rendering
the body absolutely free from those disagreeable and noxious
odors which are termed phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen
gases, as well as low types or germs of disease, while the life’s
characteristics in this state of preservation invariably present a
most pleasant appearance, allaying all natural repugnance to the
dead, as they seem so natural and life-like, and remain in this
state of preservation for a great length of time, either in transit
or various changes of atmosphere, while this manner of operation is
simple and without complication, affording appropriate means that
undertakers may apply successfully and save themselves annoyance,
time, labor and expense, by a little practice and observing closely
the directions herein given.

The enlightenment of the public demands more attention to these
important matters, as there is no necessity for the untimely and
indecent burial of the loved but unfortunate victims of mortality,
when due observance is given to the progress of art in modern
science. To successfully retain the dead for such a period of time as
will enable the bereaved friends to make such arrangements for burial
as the occasion may require, without the necessity of mutilating
or eviscerating in the horrible manner that has been practised in
many instances, has been the design of the writer, who has devoted
much time in the work, and hopes, with the aid of others, in the no
distant future, to make such additional suggestions and contributions
as will practically apply to the wants of the profession, as well as
meet the approbation of a grateful public.

Scientific research has defined and established those fixed laws of
nature with that precision whereby organic matters may be traced
to their simple elements. We will herein endeavor to very briefly
trace, as far as possible, the chemical changes that are observed
in dead animal matter. We assert that in the majority of cases
(with a given temperature maintained), the first described subject
will be the first to become an uncontrollable mass from the agents
of putrefaction; first, simply by the abundance of those fluids
contained in subjects that immediately become active agents of
dissolution, while such agents have been completely exhausted by the
disease of the second.

The apparent healthy condition of the flesh after death is produced
by the favorable temperature that is maintained, dryness of the
atmosphere, etc., together with the general favorable conditions
of the subject, which will render the preservation of such remains
quite perfect, in some instances for a surprisingly long time. It is
shown that disease of long standing completely exhausts the vital
fluids before death, especially when the functions of the body have
failed to produce the necessary nutrition. Thus it will be observed
that the process of decomposition is very different than when the
system is full of albumenoids and watery fluids, notwithstanding the
tissues may have been seized upon by putridity before death. With
consumptives, the disease reduces the flesh to dry parchment, or
nearly so, leaving but a very small portion of water in the system.
Hence, as putrefaction is impossible in the absence of moisture,
and the active agent, albumen, equally reduced, decomposition of
such substances that remain ensues only by a process of decay,
slow combustion or oxidation, the slowly uniting of oxygen with
the substance. In this the constituent parts of the animal tissues
break up into simpler compounds by the chemical changes that nature
produces, and differs from other forms of putrefaction only by the
length of time employed. In cases like typhoid fever, the flesh,
after death, assumes more of a putrid and sloughing condition, as
the fluids are not so completely exhausted as in the former disease,
thus leaving more of the active agents in the body for its immediate
destruction.

When death is the result of a putrid malady, putrefaction begins
almost immediately when the body grows cold; its effects are
noticeable much sooner when the atmosphere is warm. In general, in
our climate, the work of decomposition becomes evident after from
thirty-five to forty hours. Its first effects are noticeable on the
skin of the stomach; this takes on a greenish discoloration, which
soon spreads and covers the whole surface of the body; at the same
time everything is seized upon by what is termed putridity; the moist
parts soften and decay; little by little the flesh sinks and grows
watery, and is thus carried away or burned up by the air’s oxygen.

And now, dear reader, we would impress your mind with the fact that
the moment of the appearance of putrefaction absolutely varies with
the degree of outward temperature, the causes of death, and the
general condition of the remains, and just in accordance to the
quantity of fluids remaining in the system. The degree of difficulty
in retaining the life’s characteristics are encountered, first,
because of the albumenoids, the active agents of putrefaction;
second, the large per cent. of water they contain; hence we have
the necessary mobility of putrefaction, and the very substances
that are most prone to the active ferments, united with the agents
of disorganization, vibrois and bacteria, or rather the germs of
those thread-like corpuscles which penetrate the skin and wind their
way through the ducts into the vessels of circulation, which seem
to conduct the rabid element to every structure. The living germs
that collect on the surface of the body and in the digestive canal,
develope, multiply, pierce into all the points of the organism, and
produce in it a complete separation of all the tissues and humors.

When persons have been killed suddenly, there being no disease to
tamper with the functions of the body, the process of nutrition would
be complete until the very moment the vitality is removed; hence
the supply of fuel for this fire of dissolution. The corruption of
these animal matters is not more possible than the fermentive action
of gluten in grape juice, and precisely the same. When these animal
matters maintain a high temperature, the products formed are said to
be destructive distillation.

Many cases are recorded of similar stages of decomposition, which is
an apparent spontaneous combustion, renewing the normal temperature
of life, many times giving flushness to the cheeks, and thus
appearing to have life renewed, notwithstanding the body had been
cold for many hours previous to this phenomenon taking place, the
result of a peculiar chemical action. But these instances seldom
or never occur, while the difficulty encountered is in completely
reducing the heat from the bodies of those persons killed by
accident, which fact renders the successful preservation of such
remains for any length of time utterly impossible, as the fetid gases
are evolved in such great abundance as to literally cook the flesh
and escape into the air. Developed in the cadaverous odor, a pungent
and ammoniacal stench, except there be prompt application of some
powerful chemical reagent, with which the organized material may
enter into combination and thus overcome the delivellant tendencies
of the affinities of its elements. If ice is used and the temperature
of the body reduced below 32°, the water in the system is frozen,
which acts as if the tissues had been dried, and putrefaction is thus
arrested for such time as the proper temperature is maintained.




PRACTICES WHICH MUST BE ABOLISHED.


Some usages which seem to be sanctioned by long practice, but not by
any remarkable amount of good judgment, ought to be discountenanced
and done away with, simply upon the ground that these acts conflict
directly with all sanitary laws, and to a great extent endanger
the lives of the persons who may be present. Still, these repeated
transgressions upon the common precautionary measures against
contagion are not the result of a desire to do wrong, neither do they
always arise from sheer ignorance, but they are almost always caused
by an utter disregard of even the simplest prudence.

For instance, how often, where a child has succumbed to the attack
of some infectious disease, like scarlet fever, diphtheria, etc.,
how often will parents, regardless of the contagious character of
the disease, insist upon kissing the pallid lips of the corpse, and,
moreover, invite other children to follow the same dangerous practice.

And again, another prolific source of disease lies in the fact that
funeral services will be conducted in a close, warm, ill ventilated
room, crowded with a sympathizing audience, in close proximity to a
corpse emitting foul and infectious effluvia, and inhaling these into
the system. It is true that these same noxious gases may not always
be detected by the smell, as the floral ornamentations, the crowded
state of the room, etc., all tend to disguise any unpleasant odors;
but the germ of contagion is still there and actively at work.

It is a fact, patent and undeniable, that carelessness in the keeping
and disposing of bodies is an act of guilty neglect, and the sooner
the community be made acquainted with the danger attending such
practices as those above spoken of, the better it will be for the
enforcement of those sanitary measures which are necessary in every
well regulated city or town.

We have already spoken of dangers to be encountered in the handling
of bodies, but the subject is of so much importance to undertakers,
and concerns the profession so closely, that it may not be amiss here
to renew our former cautions, also to add a few more suggestions,
so as to modify the danger thereof, even if it cannot be completely
eradicated.


DANGERS ARISING FROM HANDLING THE DEAD.

To those who, like physicians, students and nurses, are almost
constantly thrown into direct contact with every form of epidemic,
contagious and infectious diseases, the dangers arising therefrom
are considerable. But undertakers are exposed to a still greater
risk, namely: that of handling the remains of those who have died
from the effects of those same diseases. Not only do they have to
guard against the infectious character of the contagion, but they
have also to protect themselves against the malignant effluvia which
emanates from the victims of the contagion after disintegration of
the body has taken place, the nauseous and sickening gases which are
generated by decay, and the deadly virus which may be innoculated
into the system, either through some puncture or abrasion of the
skin; the virulent effects of the poison may be carried carelessly
to the mouth, the nose or the eyes by a thoughtless action. Too
much care cannot be exercised by undertakers in handling a corpse,
especially if the subject is known to be afflicted with some
infectious or malignant complaint.

Still, the precautions generally in use among undertakers, and the
different preparations that are commonly recommended as preventives,
are useless in most cases, as there are conditions of the system
which will increase the danger, and in some instances leave it
open to the insidious attacks of disease and contagion. Too much
importance has been attached, so far, by undertakers, to the
artificial means devised by some, under the names of preservatives,
antidotes, etc., etc. The reliance placed on them, in a great
many cases, has proved futile, and although some possess real and
undisputed merit, they proved ineffectual when the system has been
influenced by the following


CONDITIONS OF THE SYSTEM,

which will increase the danger of contagion:

_Fear._—Almost in every case, if a person is brought in sudden
contact with the remains of one who has died of either cholera, small
pox, yellow fever, or any of those terrible epidemic and contagious
diseases which will in a few weeks decimate a populous city, the
feeling will be one of repulsive horror; in some this feeling will
amount to absolute fear, which will show itself in the dilated pupil,
the bleached countenance, and the momentous forebodings which assail
the mind and predispose the system to the attacks of the disease. In
this case, the mind influences the body to such an extent that the
disease has already fastened itself upon the system, before the first
symptoms are felt.

Another and potent cause of danger is that which proceeds from
a debilitated condition of the system, the causes of which are
numerous: over-exertion of either the body or the mind; labor carried
on incessantly without due regard to relaxation; imperfect nutrition,
or long fast, are all causes which will tend to render the system
more vulnerable to the aggressions of sickness.

But the most pernicious and fatal of all mistakes, is that of
using stimulants to ward off the effects of contagion. How many
of our professionals and their assistants have given way to the
use of ardent spirits, under the delusion that it was absolutely
necessary, to avoid the noxious effects of infectious diseases. It
is a well authenticated fact, and one worthy of notice, that persons
who generally indulge in the use of spirituous liquors, even in a
moderate quantity, are those who are first attacked by epidemic or
contagious diseases, and who almost always fall victims to it. Take,
for instance, the case of a surgeon about to perform a dangerous
operation. His first inquiry will be about the habits of the patient;
he knows well enough that a man addicted to drink will not bear up
under the trial.

The only means we have to protect ourselves from the dangers of
infection from dead bodies are, first, a perfect ventilation of the
room where the remains lie, so as to obviate the bad tendency which
the air of the death-chamber might have upon the system. Attention
must also be paid to the diet; the food eaten should be generous and
nutritious, and it is proper to take a _small quantity_ of wine at a
time when the body and mind are debilitated by long and exhaustive
manipulation of the dead, but avoid all excess of fluids or solids.
_Temperance is strictly necessary._

Wounds received while handling a corpse should not be neglected;
if a simple abrasion, it should be covered; if pricked, the liquid
muriate of ammonia or caustic potass are recommended to be applied
as cauteries. These are the early measures to be pursued; but after
absorption has taken place, a different course must be practised,
and a good physician consulted without delay. The garments ordinarily
worn should never be brought into direct contact with the remains of
a person tainted with some infectious disease.

But it is to the hands we must pay particular attention. Gangrenous
or syphilitic sores may be found on a subject, in which case extreme
caution must be exerted; the hands should be first well rubbed with
lard or sweet oil mixed with carbolate of camphor, and thoroughly
washed after the handling of the body is over; then the hands should
be well soaked in chlorinated soda (Labarraque solution), as the
disinfecting properties of chlorine will be found here particularly
useful.

If the above suggestions are faithfully followed, they will be
found to greatly diminish the dangers attending the handling of the
dead—dangers which can never be entirely avoided.




MANAGEMENT AND DISCIPLINE

OF AN UNDERTAKING ESTABLISHMENT.


Much of the success of an undertaking establishment will be
dependent, not only upon the head of the firm himself, but also
upon the discipline maintained among those to whom the details of
the business are entrusted; and the difficulties surrounding proper
management will increase as it extends and involves the employment
of more numerous operatives, unless the general duties of all are
specifically laid down, and the particular duties of each well
defined and insisted upon.

The rules which follow were prepared by a gentleman of considerable
experience and unusual success in business; they were designed for a
store employing three assistants.

Although, of course, they require modifications to suit the
circumstances of different establishments, their general tenor is
adapted to all, and the high tone of professional and moral aptitude
they require renders them worthy the acceptance of every assistant
who would deserve the approval of his employer, and of every employer
who desires the best interests of his assistants.


SPECIFIC DUTIES OF THE FIRST ASSISTANT.

1st.—To see that the specific duties of the other assistants are
promptly and well performed.

2d.—To attend to mail orders from dealers in the country; select the
goods to be packed up and sent out; to wait on customers, etc., that
the two other assistants may not be hindered in the performance of
their duties.

3d.—He is to attend to the laying out of bodies; and in the absence
of the proprietor, or if the pressure of business should require it,
he is to take charge of the funerals, with the assistance of the
second assistant.

4th.—In case of the absence of either of his juniors, to take the
place of the second assistant.

5th.—He is to take charge of the books, collections, etc., should the
proprietor wish him to do so.

6th.—He is to take knowledge of and properly note any articles that
may be needed for the store, including goods to be purchased and work
to be attended to.

7th.—To see that the stock of goods is well supplied with those
items which are generally kept by the quantity. Should the place of
business be remote from any manufacturing firm of undertakers’ goods,
such as coffins, hardware, caskets, etc., he is to keep a faithful
and strict account of the sizes, styles and grades of caskets and
coffins on hand, as also of the needful requirements in that line;
he should also call the attention of the proprietor to the quality,
style, etc., of the goods needed, and place in the hands of his
employer a list of the goods to be ordered, or likely to be called
for.

8th.—To keep a note book of what is necessary to be done in the
ordinary business of the store, and to designate employment for the
other assistants.

9th.—He is to superintend, and if need be to help, in the lining and
trimming of coffins, and, in the absence of the proprietor, to attend
to the embalming and preserving of bodies.

10th.—In short, he must, during the absence of the proprietor, take
entire charge of the store, and be alone responsible for its business.


SPECIFIC DUTIES OF THE SECOND ASSISTANT.

1st.—It will be his duty to dust the cases, desks, etc., thoroughly
every morning. This service must be performed before breakfast, and
as often repeated through the day as necessary.

2d.—In the absence of the third assistant, he is to perform his
duties.

3d.—He shall assist the proprietor, or the first assistant, in the
laying out, washing and dressing of bodies; and also at funerals, in
the management of the hearse and carriages.

4th.—He is to trim caskets according to the directions of the first
assistant, and follow the instructions given him as to the choice of
materials used in their ornamentation.

5th.—He shall see that a sample of each size, style and grade of
coffin and casket be always on hand in the show room, and ready to be
turned out in the shortest space of time possible.

6th.—He is to keep an exact record, in the book devoted to that
purpose, of the name, residence, cause of death, age and place of
burial, of all parties which may have been interred by the firm. This
register must always be posted up to date.

7th.—It will be his duty to clean the show cases, work room, and the
stock in general, once a week, and oftener if necessary.


SPECIFIC DUTIES OF THE THIRD ASSISTANT.

1st.—He is to open the store in the morning; make the fire, and
attend to it through the day; sweep out the store; wash the windows;
and see that all tools and implements are in their proper place and
ready for instant use.

2d.—It shall be his duty to keep cooling boards clean and tidy; to
have palls, stools and pedestals dusted and in shape.

3d.—It shall be his duty to pack goods and make boxes when required.

4th.—It will be required of him to do such errands as the business of
the store may demand, and also to close the store at night.


GENERAL REGULATIONS OF THE STORE.

1st.—Business hours will include the time between breakfast and six
o’clock, P. M., except when special duty may require it otherwise.

2d.—During business hours, all hands must be employed at some regular
store duty.

3d.—As waiting on customers is a duty which requires most knowledge
and experience, the first assistant must always serve when there is
one customer; the other assistants may help if need be.

4th.—The first assistant must always take that part of the duty which
requires most knowledge and skill. This order of duty must never be
deviated from, if circumstances will admit of it.

5th.—All other duty must give way to that of waiting on customers.

6th.—Every person entering the store, whether pauper or president,
infant or adult, white or colored, must be treated with courtesy and
kindness.

7th.—Boisterous mirth and a sullen temper are to be equally avoided,
as productive of neither business nor business character. The
acquisition of a uniformly cheerful temperament is an attainment
worth far beyond the price it usually costs.

8th.—There are to be no masters and no servants. Each one is to feel
conscious of the fact that the performance of the duties assigned
to him is just as necessary and as important as what pertains to
any other hand in the store. All useful employment is honorable;
indolence is a disgrace.

9th.—An afternoon of every week will be devoted to the cleaning of
the store, in which all must share as occasion offers.

10th.—As neatness, order and cleanliness are necessary, and not mere
accomplishments, in an undertaking establishment, all are required to
practice them constantly.

11th.—Assistants should be rather select in the choice of their
acquaintances; while the occasional visit of a well behaved friend
will be countenanced, lounging in the store will not be tolerated.

12th.—Each assistant shall have, if business permits, one afternoon
and evening every week, and every other Sunday; the afternoon will
comprise the time between twelve o’clock at noon and six o’clock P.
M.; the evening, between six o’clock P. M. and the closing of the
store. These privileges must not be interfered with unnecessarily.

13th.—No assistant residing in the house will be allowed to be absent
at night after the closing of the store, without special permission.

14th.—A vacation of two weeks every year will be allowed each
assistant.

15th.—It is not the wish of the proprietor that any of his employes
should extol the goods beyond their merits to advance his pecuniary
interests, or to say or do aught in the performance of his duties
that he would not be willing that others should say or do to him
under the same circumstances.

A cheerful compliance with the foregoing rules is confidently
expected, and the repeated infraction of a regulation of the store
will be cause for dismissal.

In certain establishments, where a driver is kept for the purpose of
taking care of horses and driving the hearse or other vehicles, this
employe shall be under the immediate supervision of the proprietor.




MODIFICATIONS IN THE MODE

OF EMBALMING BODIES.


There are modifications in the processes used for the preservation of
bodies, which are governed by circumstances affecting the different
conditions of the body at the time of death. Although we may lay
general rules for the quantity and variety of antiseptics used
in embalming, there are certain cases where the quantity of the
chemicals which enter into the composition of the injecting fluid
must be either increased or curtailed, as well as the amount of the
injection.

It would require the scope of a cyclopedia to give in detail the
proportions of each constituent in the number of different cases
which may come under the notice of the embalmer.

The mode of operation in all cases may be the same, but the nature
and quantity of the injection will vary, first, with the climatic
circumstances of the atmosphere; second, with the cause of death;
third, with the age of the deceased; fourth, with the state of the
body after death; fifth, with the length of time which has elapsed
since death took place.

It has been demonstrated in a previous chapter that a high
temperature is conducive to rapid decomposition of organic matter,
also that a warm, moist atmosphere will operate in the same manner;
it is therefore incumbent upon the operator to guard against these
two agents of putrefaction by keeping the body in a moderately
cool and well ventilated place until the work of preserving is
accomplished; also to give the antiseptics employed time to
successfully destroy and render harmless the dangerous effects of the
heat.

It must not be understood by the preceding caution that a body cannot
be embalmed in an ordinary room during the heat of the summer, but
the suggestion herein given is solely for the purpose of facilitating
the operation and rendering the success certain; besides, as it has
been illustrated in some of the processes precedingly given, the
strength as well as the quantity of the injection have been increased
when used during the warm season.

As to the modifications to be observed in the treatment of bodies,
when the cause of death is taken into consideration. It has formed
the subject of some chapters to show that, in cases where death is
the result of a certain class of diseases, the body is more prone to
putrefy than in others; whilst in other cases, again, the body is to
a certain extent preserved from corruption by the agents which have
proved fatal to the organism; as, for instance, when death has been
the result of poisoning, either by alcohol or arsenic.

The age of the person deceased, and the condition of the body after
death, as also the length of time elapsed since death took place, as
affecting the mode of treatment, have all been discussed in a former
part of this work, and it would hardly be necessary to have a new
elucidation upon the same subject.

The important point we wish to impress now upon the minds of
our professionals is, that circumstances in this case are to be
strictly investigated; also, that a uniform treatment of all cases,
however different the circumstances and conditions, will not prove
successful; and that a thorough knowledge and experience are
necessary to achieve satisfactory results.

Discrimination and judgment are to be used in every case. Some
are too ready to condemn a certain process, or to question the
properties of some antiseptics, because their first trial of either
has proved an ignominious failure; whereas the real cause of all the
trouble lies in their ignorance of the laws which govern the mode of
proceeding, and the use of the chemicals placed at their disposition.

Others, again, are prone to extol the merits of some preparation,
the component parts of which they do not know, but it may have done
them good service in several instances; and when, contrary to their
expectations, it fails to answer the purpose, they lose faith in it,
discard it altogether as worthless, and never entertain the idea
that an alteration in the quantity used, or in the combination and
strength of the constituents, is the real source of mischief.

Hence, it is a fact not to be denied that a diagnosis (if it may
be called so) is necessary before the work of embalming be entered
into. And he who would endeavor to preserve the body of a stout,
fleshy person by the same means employed in the preserving of a body
emaciated by long sufferings, and under different conditions of
temperature, might not meet with a success equal to his expectations.




CHLORINE:

ITS PROPERTIES AND USES.


_Chlorinated Lime._—In consequence of its powers as a disinfectant,
chlorinated lime is a very important compound in its application
to medical police; it possesses the property of arresting or
preventing animal or vegetable putrefaction, and perhaps of
destroying pestilential and infectious miasma. It is used with
advantage in preventing bodies from exhaling an unpleasant odor
before interment in the summer season. In juridical exhumations its
use is indispensable, as it effectually removes the disgusting and
insupportable fetor of the corpse.

The mode in which it is applied in these cases is, to envelope the
body in a sheet completely wet with a solution made by adding about
one pound of the chloride to a bucketful of water. It is employed
also for disinfecting dissecting rooms, vaults, cemeteries and other
places, which exhale offensive effluvia.

In destroying contagion and infection it appears to be highly
useful. In short, all places deemed infectious from having been the
receptacle of virulent disease may be more or less disinfected by its
use, after having undergone the ordinary process of cleansing.

Chlorinated lime acts exclusively by its chlorine, which, being
loosely combined, is disengaged by the slightest affinities. All
acids, even the carbonic, disengage it; and as this acid is a product
of animal and vegetable decomposition, noxious effluvia furnish
the means, to a certain extent, of their own disinfection. But the
stronger acids disengage it more freely, and amongst these sulphuric
acid is the most convenient. Accordingly, the powder may be dissolved
in a very dilute solution of this acid; or a small quantity of the
acid may be added to an aqueous solution already formed, if a more
copious evolution of chlorine be desired than that which takes place
from the mere action of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere.

The great and only objection, so far, against the use of chlorinated
lime by the profession, has been the strong smell of the chlorine
evolved; but taking into consideration the great antiseptic
properties, and also the strong bleaching and disinfecting qualities
of the chlorine, we find that it cannot be overlooked as an agent of
major importance in the preservation of bodies.

There are certain modes of using the chlorinated lime whereby the
offensive odor can be to a great extent diminished, if not altogether
done away with. When used in its crude state, it will be found
difficult to handle; besides, it could not be used for the purpose of
an injection; it needs, then, a certain amount of preparation before
it be used in a liquid form. The following has been given as the
simplest manner of preparing it for injecting:

Take, of chlorinated lime, one pound, carbonate of soda, two pounds,
water, one gallon; dissolve the carbonate of soda in three pints of
water by the aid of heat; to the remainder of the water add, by small
portions at a time, the chlorinated lime, previously well triturated,
stirring the mixture after each addition. Set the mixture by for
several hours, that the dregs may subside; then decant the clear
liquor, and mix it with the solution of carbonate of soda. Lastly,
decant the clear liquor from the precipitated carbonate of lime, pass
it through a linen cloth, and keep it in bottles secluded from the
light.

The London _Pharmacopœia_ gives a still better process for preparing
it, for reasons which will be given hereafter:

Take, of carbonate of soda, one pound, water, forty-eight fluid
ounces, chloride of sodium (common salt), four ounces, black oxide
of manganese, three ounces, sulphuric acid, two fluid ounces and a
half; dissolve the carbonate of soda in two pints of water; then put
the chloride of sodium and the binoxide or black oxide of manganese,
rubbed to powder, in a retort, and add to them the acid, previously
mixed with three fluid ounces of water, and cooled. Heat the mixture,
and pass the chlorine first through five fluid ounces of water, and
afterwards into the solution of the carbonate above directed. Upon
the addition of muriatic acid, both these solutions emit carbonic
acid and chlorine together.

The foregoing given preparation will be found to answer the purpose
for disinfecting, injecting and preserving corpses. For injecting
purposes, the solution should be used fresh, and the muriatic acid
only added to it, for a more copious liberation of both carbonic acid
and chlorine, when ready to inject the liquid, as the antiseptic
properties of the solution depend altogether on its gaseous
evolutions.

To inject the solution, it will be found that the axillary artery on
the left side is a good point; also, the right jugular vein should
be punctured, so as to facilitate the flow of blood from the head.
But to make the operation complete, and to be sure of a perfect and
thorough injection, the ascending aorta should be injected, and the
inferior vena cava severed at a corresponding point. This mode of
injecting has been described in a former chapter.

It is not possible to specify here the amount of liquid to be
injected; but as a general rule there should be enough of the
solution injected to fill the circulatory system, and the injection
be continued until after the blood has ceased to flow from the wound
in the vena cava and the injecting fluid appears in its place.

When injected with this solution, a corpse may present for a few
hours afterwards a bloated and swollen appearance, and the face and
body may be marbled over with white spots; but these symptoms will
soon disappear, the body will collapse again to its normal size, and
the color become of a uniform shade.

To preserve bodies during the summer season for a few days and
without ice; also to prevent the swelling up of the abdomen and the
purging at the mouth and nostrils, open the stomach, as explained
in a previous chapter, empty out the contents, and inject into it
some of the above solution; the bowels must be treated in the same
manner, and also inject the lungs through the nostrils, by producing
artificial respiration. If the liquid cannot be injected in this
manner, cut into the trachea an incision large enough to admit of
the nozzle of the injector being inserted, and pour in the necessary
quantity.

If any fetor is exhaled from the corpse after being placed in the
coffin, a sponge well saturated with the solution and being placed
at the feet of the corpse will remove all foul effluvia; or better
still, a china or porcelain bowl filled with the solution may be
placed inside the case until a few minutes before the funeral and the
screwing down of the lid.

The air of the room may also be purified by saturating some cloths
with the solution and hanging them in different parts of the
apartment. The vessels containing excretions should not be neglected,
and some of the solution poured into them.

In fact, undertakers will find the above solution to be adapted to
all purposes of disinfecting, deodorizing and preserving corpses.




INSTRUMENTS.


Undertakers will find it to their advantage to possess instruments of
the best materials and make; they are always cheaper in the end, as
they will resist the wear and tear to a greater extent, and will not
be liable to get out of order when most needed.

Especially in injecting apparatus should a great amount of care be
exercised about the selection. The greatest danger to be guarded
against is corrosion, as all injecting fluids which are now in use
contain more or less of either acids or metallic salts, all of which
will attack and corrode, to a lesser or greater extent, the metals
and other substances with which they come in direct contact.

Any injector, therefore, so constructed as to be free from danger
to its mechanism from the corroding effects of the liquids above
mentioned, will be the one to be chosen. According to the statements
above given, any part of an apparatus which is required to operate
with a certain degree of nicety must be kept from the corrosive
effects of the fluids, and this result is to be gained only by the
peculiar construction of the apparatus.

In the greater part of the injecting pumps now manufactured and in
use in this country, the body of the pump, which contains the working
part of the apparatus, is also filled with the liquid while in use;
and, therefore, this part, which ought to be protected from injury,
is constantly immersed in the strong corrosive solution during all
the time that the injector is being worked.

The result of this constant corroding action upon the apparatus will
soon show itself in the working of it, and constant repairs will be
found necessary to keep it in order or in a state of comparative
effectiveness.

It must be well remembered, that upon the working of the apparatus
depends, to a great extent, the good or poor success of embalming;
also, that upon the manner of using an apparatus, of whatever
description it may be, the length of its duration and its
effectiveness will be in the same ratio.

The automatic apparatus of Girard, for injecting purposes, is a
marvel of simplicity and durability; there is no piston or force
pump, which is liable at any moment to get out of order; no valves,
which will wear out by friction, or leak from the effects of the
liquid used.

The force used in ejecting the fluid is that of a gas, highly
antiseptic in its nature, and which, being generated inside of
a cylinder, saturates the injecting fluid (itself an antiseptic
solution), and by its expansive force propels it into the arteries of
the body.

All the appliances necessary to the perfect working of the apparatus
are condensed into a small compass. The amount of gas generated can
be increased or diminished at will. A pressure gage indicates the
force of expansion acquired by the gas. A glass tube, similar to
the water tube in use on some boilers, and with a graduated scale
attached, shows both the amount of liquid used and also the quantity
remaining in the apparatus; while a relief-cock insures safety to the
operator against too rapid an accumulation of gas.

This last danger need scarcely be apprehended, as, after the
pressure gage indicates the force of expansion required, the further
generation of the gas can be entirely stopped, until the vacuum
created by the outflow of liquid needs to be replaced by a new supply
of gas. For it is a fact well understood, that the force of expansion
of the generating power decreases in the same proportion as the
volume of the liquid is diminished, thereby causing a greater vacuum
in the apparatus.

The inside of the apparatus is thickly coated with lead, as that
metal is not sensibly acted on by either muriatic or sulphuric acid,
except at very high temperatures.

The jet or stream of liquid can be regulated by a screw cock,
attached to the neck of a metallic tube reaching to the bottom of
the apparatus, inside, and provided at its inner extremity with a
perforated bulb, which, acting as a filter, prevents any impurity or
sediment from finding its way into and stopping the circulation of
the fluid through the arterial system; at the same time it prevents
any excessive amount of pressure upon the rubber tube five or six
feet in length, which is connected with the delivery tube outside,
and at the end of which the nozzle is attached.

The nozzle or cannula itself is a very important part of the
apparatus, and is of a peculiar shape; it consists of a thin copper
tube about eight inches in length and a little over an eighth of an
inch in diameter; it is to be inserted at full length, or nearly so,
into the artery to be injected, as by doing so it meets a point where
the walls of the artery are strengthened by the surrounding tissues.

The shape of the apparatus is that of an elongated cylinder, rounded
off at both ends, resembling somewhat a soda fountain; it stands
upright, upon four curved legs about four inches in height, and
possesses a symmetrical and substantial appearance.

The other apparatus—Ronsard’s—is about similar in construction, but
the power exerted in forcing out the liquid is not gas, as in the
former apparatus, but compressed air, forced into the body of the
reservoir by means of a pump.

The body of the apparatus consists of a cylinder holding about five
gallons; this constitutes the reservoir containing the liquid to be
injected. Outside of this cylinder and running alongside of it is the
body of the pump. The pipe communicating the air forced inside the
cylinder above the liquid enters the bottom of the reservoir, and,
passing through the liquid, runs along the inner side of the vessel
until it has reached a point almost to the top of the cylinder. In
the center of the apex at the top of the cylinder is a small funnel
connected to a pipe running inside of the apparatus; this pipe, which
is furnished with a cock, is intended to conduct inside the apparatus
the liquid poured in at the funnel; it will act also as a relief
cock, should it be found necessary to relieve the pressure on the
liquid.

This apparatus is not provided, like the other, with a pressure gage,
from the fact that the pressure being the result of a mechanical
cause, the operator will soon be able to judge the amount of pressure
by the number of strokes of the piston.

The delivery pipe is similar in every respect to the one in the
apparatus described formerly; the graduated tube outside showing the
quantity of liquid inside the apparatus is also the same; in fact,
the similarity between the two is striking. But the principal feature
of the apparatus, and that which recommends it to the profession, is
the perfect isolation of all the working parts of the apparatus from
direct contact with the liquid injected. The greatest objection in
this case, as in the other, is removed, as the most important part of
the work, namely: that of compressing the air, is performed without
any danger to the generator.

Another apparatus—that of Waldon—combines the two systems in one, and
can be operated with equal facility either by means of compressed
air or by means of gaseous expansion.

Still, these instruments require a certain amount of familiarity in
the handling before they can be operated with efficiency, as, to a
person not fully conversant with their mechanism, they may prove
awkward.

The instruments of Messrs. G. Tiemann & Co., of New York, which I
have employed so far very successfully, could be rendered perfect by
adopting some modifications in their make.




GASEOUS COMPOUNDS.


Too little attention has been paid heretofore to the antiseptic
powers of certain gases. It is a well known fact, that some of the
gases which are the result of animal and vegetable decomposition are,
to a certain extent, the means of their own disinfection; hence,
some of these are endowed with deodorizing as well as antiseptic
properties.

We have already given at length the properties of chlorine. Carbonic
acid gas is another of those antiseptic agents which will occupy our
attention.

It exists in the atmosphere as a product of combustion and of
the respiration of animals; it is a result, also, of the slow
decomposition of most vegetable substances, and is evolved in great
quantities from the ground in volcanic countries. In the formation of
sugar it is produced in abundance, along with alcohol.

For the purposes of the chemist, it is generally prepared by
decomposing marble by means of some stronger acid. From its cheapness
and the solubility of the residual salt, muriatic acid is generally
employed.

The properties of carbonic acid are very remarkable; it is perfectly
colorless and invisible; it is irrespirable, producing, when an
attempt is made to breathe it, violent spasms of the glottis. If it
be respired mixed with air, even in the proportion of one to ten, it
gradually produces stupor and death, acting as a narcotic poison.
Hence, when disengaged in large quantities, whether by natural
operations or in process of manufacture, it accumulates in all
cavities within its reach, and may cause fatal accidents to animals
who enter unadvisedly.

Carbonic acid does not support combustion; a taper plunged into a jar
full of the gas is instantly extinguished. Carbonic acid is also a
check on putrefaction, and arrests decay.


SULPHUROUS ACID.

Sulphurous acid exists at ordinary temperature and pressure in the
gaseous form; it is one, however, of the most easily liquified
gases. It is produced always when sulphur burns, either in air or
in pure oxygen; sulphur not being capable of passing directly to a
higher degree of oxydation. In the burning of sulphur, the volume of
sulphurous acid gas formed is exactly equal to the amount of oxygen
consumed.

Sulphurous acid gas may also be simply prepared by heating three
parts of flowers of sulphur with four of peroxide of manganese. The
reaction is very simple: one part of the sulphur uniting with the
metal, and another with the oxygen, form sulphuret of manganese and
sulphurous acid.

Another and quicker way to obtain this gas in small quantities is, to
decompose a solution of hyposulphate of soda, by adding muriatic acid
to it, so as to liberate the hyposulphurous acid, which immediately
decomposes into sulphur and sulphurous acid.

Sulphurous acid is absorbed by water. It is colorless and
transparent, possessing an odor peculiarly irritating (the smell of
burning sulphur), and cannot be breathed. It is not combustible,
nor does it support combustion. Water dissolves about thirty-seven
times its volume of sulphurous acid; the solution possesses the
properties of the gas in a very high degree, and bleaches vegetable
colors with great power; when kept for some time it gradually absorbs
oxygen, and the sulphurous becomes changed into sulphuric acid. The
sulphuric acid is one of the feeblest acids, and is expelled from its
combinations by almost all but the carbonic acid.

As has been demonstrated, all these gases are absorbed by water,
and a saturated solution possesses the properties of the gases
themselves.




PHYSIOLOGY.

GENERAL VIEW OF THE CIRCULATING APPARATUS OF MAN.


The course and relative positions of the principal arteries and veins
of the Systemic circulation are shown in this plate. The arteries
commence from the great arterial trunk, called the aorta, and their
branches are distributed to all parts of the system. The venous
branches, which accompany the arteries, unite into two great veins,
the superior and inferior vena cava, which convey the blood back to
the heart.

_a_, The left ventricle of the heart. _b_, The right auricle. _c_,
The superior vena cava. _d_, The root of the pulmonary artery. _e,
e_, The aorta, which is seen arching backward over the heart, and
passing downward into the abdomen, where it divides into its two
great branches, the iliac arteries, through which the blood passes to
the lower extremities. _f_, The inferior vena cava, which accompanies
the descending aorta and its branches, and returns the blood from the
lower extremities. The dotted lines represent the outlines of the
kidneys.

[Illustration: full body drawing]


PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF THE AORTA AND VENA CAVA.

It should be remembered that most of the branches which spring from
the great artery and vein are double—that is, each right branch has a
corresponding one at the left side—so that there are, for instance,
the right and the left carotid arteries, the right and the left
jugular veins, etc.

From the arch of the aorta are sent off those arteries which are
distributed to the head and arms. The principal ones among these are
named as follows:

_g_, The carotid artery, which ascends in the side of the neck, and
divides into the temporal artery, _h_, which is distributed in the
temple, and the facial artery, _i_, which supplies the face; and also
sends a branch, called the internal carotid, to the parts within the
skull.

_j_, The sub-clavian artery, lying beneath the clavicle or
collar-bone. That part of the continuation of this artery which
passes through the axilla or arm-pit is called the axillary artery,
_k_; that which lies in the upper arm, the brachial artery, _l_; and
in the fore-arm it divides into the radial and ulnar arteries, _m_,
_n_, which are distributed to the hand and fingers in the manner
indicated in the plate.

The principal branches of the descending aorta are named as follows:

The iliac artery, _o_, on passing into the thigh becomes the femoral
artery, _p_, and in the leg divides into the tibial and peroneal
arteries, _q_, _r_, which form numerous branches for the supply of
the leg and foot.

Before dividing into the iliac arteries, the descending aorta gives
off several important branches, as the cœliac artery, from which the
stomach and liver are supplied; the renal artery, which goes to the
kidneys, and the mesenteric artery, to the intestines; besides many
other sub-divisions in various parts of its course.

The branches of the vena cava generally accompany those of the aorta
in their distribution, as shown in the figure, and are often called
by the same names. The principal divisions of the superior vena cava
are: The jugular vein, _s_, which accompanies the carotid artery the
sub-clavian vein, _t_, which accompanies the artery of the same name,
and receives the blood from the arm and hand.

The inferior vena cava, like the aorta, divides into two great
branches, the iliac veins, _u_, the sub-divisions of which accompany
those of the arteries, and are called by the same names. The manner
in which the superficial veins ramify and anastomose with each other
is shown on the upper and lower extremity of the left side.


ORGANS OF DIGESTION.

FIGURE 1.—_General View of the Digestive Organs of Man_.—This
figure is intended to give a general idea of the forms and relative
positions of the organs of digestion.—_a_, The œsophagus. _b_, The
stomach. _c_, The duodenum, _d_, _d_, _d_, Convolutions of the small
intestine. _e_, The cœcum. _f_, Appendix of the cœcum. _g_, Opening
of the small into the large intestine. _h_, The ascending colon. _i,
i_, Transverse arch of the colon. _j_, The descending colon. _k_,
The liver. _l_, The gall-bladder. _m_, The pancreas, mostly covered
by the stomach. _o_, The spleen.—In this figure, the liver is raised
up and the transverse arch of the colon drawn down, in order to show
parts which they cover when in their natural situation.

[Illustration: Fig. 1]

FIGURE 2.—_General Aspect of the Abdominal Viscera_.—In this
figure, the anterior walls of the abdomen are removed, so as to
show the organs in their natural positions. The small intestine is
removed.—_a_, The liver, situated beneath the right arch of the
diaphragm. _b_, The stomach. _c_, Epiploa, or floating folds of
the peritoneum. _d_, Summit of the gall-bladder. _e_, _e_, Large
intestine, showing all its courses.

[Illustration: Fig. 2]


ORGANS OF CIRCULATION.—HEART AND LUNGS.

FIGURE 1.—_Front View of Heart and Lungs_.—Both organs are stripped
of their envelopes, the pleura and pericardium. The right lung is
drawn aside, so as to uncover the heart and large vessels. The left
lung is deeply dissected, to show the distribution and mode of
ramification of the air-tubes and blood-vessels.

[Illustration: Fig. 1]

_a_, The larynx. _b_, The trachea.—The right lung is somewhat shorter
than the left, and is divided into three lobes, _c_, _d_, _e_; while
the left lung has but two lobes, _f_, _g_. The surface of the lobes
is sub-divided into lobules, by the intersection of great numbers
of depressed lines. _h_, Right auricle of the heart. _i_, Right
ventricle. _j_, Left auricle. _k_, Left ventricle. _l_, The aorta.
_m_, The pulmonary artery. _n_, Left pulmonary veins.—These veins
are four in number, two for each lung; and they return to the heart
the blood which has been conveyed into the lungs by the pulmonary
artery. The division of the pulmonary artery into right and left
branches cannot be seen in this figure, being hidden by the aorta.
_o_, The superior vena cava. _p_, Root of the right innominate
artery, springing from the arch of the aorta. _q_, Root of the left
sub-clavian artery. _r_, Root of the left carotid artery.

[Illustration: Fig. 2]

FIGURE 2.—_Back View of the Heart and Lungs._—_a_, Larynx. _b_,
Trachea. _c_, Right bronchus. _d_, Left bronchus. _e_, Left auricle
of the heart. _f_, Left ventricle. _g_, Right pulmonary veins. _h_,
Left pulmonary veins. _i_, Left pulmonary artery. _j_, Section of
the aorta. _k_, Trunks of the brachio-cephalic veins (those which
belong to the arms and head). _l_, The opening of the inferior vena
cava.—The sub-divisions of the pulmonary arteries and veins, and of
the air-tubes or bronchi, are seen accompanying each other in the
left lung in both figures.




GLOSSARY AND INDEX.


  A

  ABDOMEN (L. _abdo_, to hide). So called from its containing the
  intestines, &c.

  ABDUCTOR (L. _abduco_, to draw from). _Abducent._ A muscle
  whose office is to draw one part of the body away from another.

  ABSORPTION. The act or process of imbibing or swallowing.

  ABSORBENTS. Vessels which imbibe, as lymphatics and lacteals.

  ALBUMEN (L. _albus_, white). Albumen is of two kinds, animal
  and vegetable: 1. _Animal albumen_ exists in two forms, the
  liquid and the solid. In the _liquid_ state, it is a thick, glairy
  fluid, constituting the principal part of the white of egg. In
  the _solid_ state, it is contained in several of the textures of the
  body, as the cellular membrane, the skin, glands and vessels.—2.
  _Vegetable albumen_ closely resembles animal albumen, and has
  been found in wheat, rye, barley, peas and beans.

  ANASTOMOSIS (Gr. _aná_, through, and _stoma_, a mouth). The
        communication
  of vessels with each other, as of the arteries with the
  veins, which, by touching at numerous points, form a net-work
  or reticulation. See _Inosculation_.

  ANATOMY (Gr. _anatémnō_, to cut up). The science of organization;
  the science whose object is the examination of the organs
  or _instruments_ of life. Animal anatomy is divided into _human
  anatomy_ and _comparative anatomy_, according as it treats of the
  organization of the human body, or of that of other animals.

  AORTA (Gr. _aèr_, air, _teréō_, to keep; as having been formerly
        supposed
  to contain only air). The great artery of the heart. It
  is distinguished into the _ascending_ and _descending_.

  AQUEOUS. Watery.

  ARACANOID MEMBRANE (Gr. _arachnē_, a spider, and _eīdos_, likeness).
  The fine _cobweb-like_ membrane situated between the
  dura and pia mater. It is the serous membrane of the cerebro-spinal
  centers.

  ARBOR VITÆ. Literally, _tree of life_. A term applied to the
  arborescent appearance presented by the cerebellum, when cut
  into vertically.

  ARTERY (Gr. _aèr_, air, and _teréō_, to hold). A vessel which carries
  the blood from the heart; formerly supposed, from its being
  found empty after death, to contain only air.

  ARYTÆNOID (Gr. _arútaina_, a ewer, and _eīdos_, likeness). A term
  applied to two triangular cartilages of the larynx.

  AUDITORY (L. _audio_, to hear). Belonging to parts connected
  with the sense of hearing.

  AURICULA (L. dim of _auris_, the ear). An auricle; the prominent
  part of the ear. Also, the name of two cavities of the heart.

  AUTOMATIC MOTIONS (Gr. _automatos_, of his own accord). Those
  muscular actions which are not dependent on the mind.


  B

  BILIS. Bile, gall, or choler; the secretion of the liver. A term
  employed to characterize a class of diseases caused by a too
  copious secretion of bile.

  BRONCHUS (Gr. _bróngchos_, the windpipe, from _bréchō_, to moisten).
  The windpipe; a ramification of the trachea; so called from
  ancient belief that the solids were conveyed into the stomach by
  the œsophagus, and the fluids by the bronchia.

  BRONCHIAL-TUBES. The minute ramifications of the bronchi, terminating
  in the _bronchial cells_, or air cells of the lungs.

  BRONCHITIS. Inflammation of the bronchi or ramifications of the
  trachea.

  BURSÆ MUCOSÆ (_mucous bags_). Small sacs situated about the
  joints, being parts of the sheaths of tendons.


  C

  CÆCUM, or CŒCUM (L. _cæcus_, blind). The first part of the colon
  or _blind_ intestine.

  CALLUS (Latin, _hardness_). New bone, or the substance which
  serves to join together the ends of a fracture, and to restore
  destroyed portions of bone.

  CAPILLARY (L. _capillus_, a hair). Resembling a hair in size; a
  term applied to the _vessels_ which intervene between the minute
  arteries and veins.

  CAPSULA (L. dim. of _capsa_, a chest). Literally, a little chest. A
  capsule or bag, which incloses any part.

  CARBON (L. _carbo_, a coal). A substance well known under the
  form of coal, charcoal, lamp-black, &c. In chemical language,
  it denotes the pure inflammable principle of charcoal; in its
  state of absolute purity it constitutes the _diamond_.

  CARBONIC ACID. Carbon and oxygen combined.

  CARDIA (Gr. _kardia_, the heart). The entrance into the stomach;
  so called from being near the heart.

  CARDIAC (Gr. _kardia_, the heart). Relating to the heart.

  CAROTID (Gr. _karóō_, to induce sleep). The name of two large
  arteries of the neck; so called from an idea that tying them
  would induce stupor.

  CARPUS (Gr. _karpós_, fruit). The wrist. The _ossa carpi_, or carpal
  bones, are eight in number, and form two rows.

  CARTILAGE. Gristle. It is attached to bones, and must be distinguished
  from the ligaments of joints and tendons of muscles.

  CEREBELLUM (dim. of _cerebrum_). The little brain, situated behind
  the larger or cerebrum.

  CEREBRUM (Gr. _káre_, the head). The brain; the chief portion of
  the brain, occupying the whole upper cavity of the skull.

  CEREBRO-SPINAL. System.

  CERVIX. The neck; the hinder part of the neck. The fore part
  is called _collum_.

  CHEST. _Thorax._ An old English term, commonly traced to the
  Latin _cista_.—“When it is considered that the same word was
  anciently used for a _basket_, the appropriation of it to the human
  thorax will appear quite natural to any one who has ever seen a
  skeleton.”—_Forbes._

  CHYLE (Gr. _chulòs_, juice). The milk-like fluid absorbed by the
  lacteal vessels.

  CHYLIFICATION (L. _fio_, to become). The process by which the
  chyle is separated from the chyme.

  CHYME (Gr. _chumòs_, juice). The semi-fluid matter which passes
  from the stomach into the duodenum.

  CHYMIFICATION (L. _fio_, to become). The process by which the
  aliment is converted into chyme.

  CLAVICULA (dim. of _clavis_, a key). The clavicle, or collar-bone;
  so called from its resemblance to an ancient key.

  COCCYX (Gr. _kókkux_, a cuckoo). The lower end of the spine; so
  called from its resemblance to a cuckoo’s beak.

  COLON (Gr. _kolīn_, quasi, _koīlon_, hollow). The first of the large
  intestines, commencing at the cœcum, and terminating at the
  rectum.

  COMA (Gr. _kōma_, drowsiness, from _kéō_, to lie). Drowsiness;
  lethargic sleep; dead sleep; torpor.

  COMMISSURE (L. _commissura_). To joint or sever the place where
  two bodies or parts of a body meet and unite.

  CONDYLE (Gr. _kóndulos_, a knuckle). A rounded eminence in the
  joints of several bones, as the humerus and the femur.

  CONGESTION (L. _congero_, to amass). Undue fullness of the
        blood-vessels.

  CONJUNCTIVA (L. _conjungo_, to unite). The mucous membrane
  which lines the posterior surface of the eyelids, and is continued
  over the fore-part of the globe of the eye.

  CORIUM. Leather. The deep layer of cutis, or true skin, forming
  the basis of the support of the skin.

  CORPUSCULUM (L. dim. of _corpus_, a body). A corpuscle, or little
  body.

  CRANIUM (Gr. _kára_, the head). The skull, or cavity, which contains
  the brain, its membranes and vessels.

  CRICOS (Gr. _krikíos_, a ring). Whence crícoïd, the name of the
  ring-like cartilage of the larynx.

  CRYSTALLINE (Gr. _krústallos_, ice). A term applied to the lens of
  the eye.

  CUTICLE (L. dim. of _cutis_). The epidermis or scarf-skin.

  CUTIS (Gr. _kútos_, the skin). The true skin, as distinguished from
  the cuticle, epidermis or scarf-skin.


  D

  DEGLUTITION (L. _deglutio_, to swallow). The act of swallowing.

  DIAPHRAGM (Gr. _diàphragma_, a partition). The midriff; the
  transverse muscular partition which separates the thorax from
  the abdomen.

  DIGESTION (L. _digero_, from _diversim gero_, to carry into different
  parts). In _Physiology_, the change of food into _chyme_ by the
  mouth, stomach and small intestines; and the absorption and
  distribution of the more nutritious parts, or the _chyle_, through
  the system.

  DORSUM (Latin). The back; the round part of the back of a
  man or beast. Whence _Dorsal_, appertaining to the back, as
  applied to a region, ligaments, &c.

  DUODENUM (L. _duodeni_, twelve). The twelve-inch intestine; so
  called from its being equal in length to the breadth of twelve
  fingers. The first portion of the small intestines, beginning
  from the pylorus.

  DURA MATER (_hard-mother_). The outermost membrane of the
  brain.


  E

  EFFLUVIA (L. _effluo_, to flow out). Exhalations, vapors, &c.

  ELASTICITY. The property or power by which a body compressed
  or extended returns to its former state.

  ENAMEL. The hard exterior surface of the teeth.

  ENCEPHALON (Gr. _èn_, in, _kephalē_, the head). The brain; the
  contents of the skull, consisting of the cerebrum, cerebellum,
  medulla oblongata, and membranes.

  EPIDERMIS (Gr. _epi_, upon, and _dérma_, the skin) The cuticle, or
  scarf-skin; the thin, horny layer which protects the surface of
  the integument.

  EPIGLOTTIS. A cartilage of the larynx, situated above the glottis.

  EPIPLOON (Gr. _plēo_, to sail). The omentum; a membranous expansion
  which _floats_ upon the intestines.

  EPITHELIUM (Gr. _títhēmi_, to place). The cuticle on the red part
  of the lips, and on the mucous membranes in general.

  EXCRETION (L. _excerno_, to separate from). A general term for
  the perspiration, fæces, &c., which are separated and voided
  from the blood or the food.

  EXPIRATION (L. _expiro_, to breathe). That part of the respiration
  in which the air is expelled. Compare _Inspiration_.

  EXUDATION. _Transpiration._ The flow of liquid from the surface
  of the skin or membrane, an ulcer, &c.


  F

  FACIAL (L. _facies_, the face). Belonging to the face; as _facial
  nerve_, _facial vein_, &c.

  FALX. A scythe or sickle. The _sickle_-like processes of the dura
  mater, situated between the lobes of the cerebrum and cerebellum.

  FASCIA (L. _fascis_, a bundle). Literally, a scarf or large band.
  Hence it is applied to the aponeurotic expansion of a muscle.


  FASCICULUS (L. dim. of _fascis_, a bundle). A little bundle; a
  handful. Thus, a muscle consists of _fasciculi_ of fibres.

  FAUCES. The gullet or upper part of the throat; the space surrounded
  by the vellum palati, the uvula, the tonsils, and the
  posterior part of the tongue.

  FEMUR, FEMORIS. _Os femoris._ The thigh-bone; the longest,
  largest and heaviest of all the bones of the body.

  FIBRE (L. _fibra_, a filament). A filament or thread, of animal,
  vegetable or mineral composition.

  FIBRIL. A small filament or fibre, as the ultimate division of a
  nerve. The term is derived from _fibrilla_, L. dim. of _fibra_, a
  filament.

  FIBRIN. A tough, fibrous mass, which, together with albumen,
  forms the basis of muscle.

  FIBRO-CARTILAGE. Membraniform cartilage; a substance intermediate
  between proper cartilage and ligament.

  FILAMENT (L. _filum_, a thread, _forma_, likeness). Thread-like;
  applied to the papillæ at the edges of the tongue.

  FISSURE. A cleft; a longitudinal opening.

  FLEXOR (L. _flecto_, to bend). A muscle which bends the part into
  which it is inserted. Its antagonist is termed _extensor_.

  FLUIDS. Substances which have the quality of fluidity, and are,
  in consequence, of no fixed shape.

  FOLLICLE (L. dim. of _follis_, a pair of bellows). Literally, a little
  bag or scrip of leather. In anatomy, a very minute secreting
  cavity.

  FORAMEN (L. _foro_, to pierce). An opening.

  FOSSA (L. _fodio_, to dig). A ditch or trench; a little depression,
  or sinus.

  FUNCTION (L. _fungor_, to discharge an office). The office of an
  organ in the animal or vegetable economy; as of the heart in
  circulation, of the leaf in respiration, &c.


  G

  GALL-BLADDER. A membranous reservoir, lodged in a fissure on
  the under surface of the right lobe of the liver, and containing
  the bile.

  GALL-DUCTS. These are the _cystic_, proceeding from the gall-bladder;
  the _hepatic_, proceeding from the liver; and the _ductus
  communis choledochus_, resulting from the union of the two
  preceding.

  GANGLION (Gr. _gangglíon_, a nerve-knot). A small nervous center,
  or an enlargement in the course of a nerve, sometimes termed a
  _diminutive brain_.

  GASTER. The Greek term for stomach.

  GASTRIC (Gr. _gaster_, the stomach). Pertaining to the stomach; as
  the gastric juice, &c.

  GASTRIC JUICE. The peculiar digestive fluid secreted by the
  stomach.

  GELATINE (L. _gelu_, frost). The principle of jelly. It is found in
  the skin, cartilages, tendons, membranes and bones. The purest
  variety of gelatine is _isinglass_.

  GLAND (L. _glans_, _glandis_, an acorn). A soft body, composed of
  various tissues, vessels, nerves, &c., usually destined to separate
  some fluids from the blood.

  GLENOID (Gr. _glēne_, a cavity, _eīdos_, likeness). The name of a
  part having a shallow cavity; as the socket of the shoulder joint.

  GLOBULES RED (L. dim. of _globus_, a ball). The red coloring
  matter of the blood; a peculiar animal principle.

  GLOSSA, or GLOTTA (Gr. _glōtta_). The tongue; the organ of
  speech. _Glosso._ Terms compounded of this word belong to
  nerves or muscles attached to the tongue.

  GLOTTIS. The aperture of the larynx between the arytænoïd
  cartilages. It is covered by a cartilage called the _epi-glottis_.

  GRANULE. A small particle.


  H

  HÆMATOSIN (Gr. _haima_, blood). A characteristic constituent of
  the blood, derived from the globules.

  HÆMORRHAGE. A rupture of a blood-vessel; a bursting forth of
  blood; loss of blood.

  HEPATIC. A term applied to any part belonging to the liver.

  HUMERUS. The bone of the upper arm.

  HUMOR (L. _humeo_, to be moist). An aqueous substance; as the
  humors of the eye.

  HYGIENE (Gr. to be well). Health; the preservation of health;
  that part of medicine which regards the preservation of health.

  HYOIDES (the Greek letter _upsilon_). A bone situated between
  the root of the tongue and the larynx.

  HYPOGASTRIUM. The lower anterior region of the abdomen.

  HYPOGLOSSAL. The name of the _lingualis_, or ninth pair of
  nerves, situated beneath the tongue.


  I, J

  ICHOR. A thin, acrid discharge, issuing from wounds, ulcers, &c.

  JEJUNUM (L. _jejunus_, hungry). The upper two-fifths of the small
  intestines; so named from this portion being generally found
  _empty_.

  ILEUM (to turn about). The lower three-fifths of the _small
        intestines_;
  so called from their convolutions or peristaltic motions.

  ILIAC BONE. Another name for the _os innominatum_, derived
  from the circumstance that this compound bone supports the
  parts which the ancients called _ilia_, or the flanks.

  ILIAC REGION. The region situated on each side of the hypogastrium.

  INDEX (L. _indico_, to point out). The forefinger; the finger
  usually employed in _pointing_ at any object.

  INFRA-SPINATUS. A muscle arising from the scapula below the
  spine, and inserted into the humerus.

  INNOMINATUS (L. _in_, priv., _nomen_, name). Hence, _Innominatum
  os_, a bone composed of three portions, viz: 1, The _ilium_, or
  haunch-bone; 2, The _ischium_, or hip-bone; 3, The _os pubis_, or
  share bone.

  INTEGUMENT (L. _in_, and _tego_, to cover). The covering of any
  part of the body, as the cuticle, cutis, &c.

  INTER-COSTAL. The name of two sets of muscles between the
  ribs—the _external_ and the _internal_.

  INTESTINES (L. _intus_, within). That part of the alimentary canal
  which extends from the stomach to the anus.

  JUGULAR. Belonging to the neck; applied chiefly to the principal
  veins of the neck.


  K

  KINGDOM. A term denoting any of the principal divisions of
  nature. Thus we have the _organic kingdom_, comprehending
  substances which organize; and the _inorganic kingdom_, comprehending
  substances which crystallize.

  KNEE-PAN. Patella; the small round bone at the front of the
  knee-joint.

  KIDNEYS. Two oblong glands, which secrete the urine.


  L

  LABIA. The lips. They are laterally united by means of two
  acute angles, which are called their _commissures_.

  LABYRINTH. The name of a series of cavities of the inner ear,
  viz: the vestibule, the cochlea, and the semi-circular canals.

  LACHRYMA. A tear; the fluid secreted by the _lachrymal gland_,
  and flowing on the surface of the eye.

  LACTEALS (L. _lac_, milk). Numerous minute tubes which _absorb_
  or take up the chyle, or _milk-like_ fluid, from the alimentary
  canal.

  LACTIC ACID (L. _lac_, _lactis_, milk). An acid produced whenever
  milk—and perhaps most animal fluids—become spontaneously
  sour.

  LAMINA. Literally, a small plate of any metal. A term applied
  to the foliated structure of bones or other organs.

  LARYNX (Gr. _larungx_, the larynx). The superior part of the
  trachea, situated immediately under the os hyoïdes.

  LENS (L. _lens_, _lentis_, a bean). Properly, a small roundish glass,
  shaped like a _lentil_, or bean.

  LIGAMENT (L. _ligo_, to bind). A membrane of a flexible but
  compact texture, which connects the articular surfaces of bones
  and cartilages; and sometimes protects the joints by a capsular
  envelope.

  LINGUA (L. _lingo_, to lick). The tongue; the organ of taste and
  speech.

  LIVER. The largest glandular apparatus in the body, the office of
  which is to secrete the bile.

  LUMBI. The loins; the inferior part of the back; whence _Lumbar_,
  the designation of nerves, arteries, veins, &c., belonging to
  the region of the loins.

  LUNGS. The organs of respiration.

  LUXATION (L. _luxo_, to put out of joint). Dislocation; or the
  removal of the articular surface of bones out of their proper
  situation.

  LYMPH (L. _lympha_, water). A colorless liquid which circulates in
  the lymphatics.

  LYMPHATICS (L. _lympha_, water). Minute tubes which pervade
  every part of the body, which they _absorb_, or take up, in the
  form of _lymph_.


  M

  MAGNESIUM. A metal having the color and lustre of silver.

  MASSETER (Gr. to chew). A muscle which assists in chewing.

  MASTOID (Gr. a breast). Shaped like the breast or nipple; as
  applied to a _process_, and a _foramen_ of the temporal bone.

  MEATUS (L. _meo_, to pass, to flow). Literally, a passage.

  MEDULLA. Marrow; a kind of fixed oil, occupying the cavities
  of bones.

  MEDULLA OBLONGATA. The upper enlarged portion of the spinal
  cord.

  MEDULLA SPINALIS. The spinal marrow or cord.

  MEDULLARY. The designation of the _white_ substance of the
  brain.

  MESENTERY (Gr. between the bowels). The membrane which
  connects the small intestines and the posterior wall of the
  abdomen.

  META-CARPUS (Gr. after, the wrist). That part of the hand which
  is situated between the carpus and the fingers.

  META-TARSUS. That part of the foot which is situated between
  the tarsus and the toes.

  MIDRIFF. _Diaphragm._ The muscle which divides the body into
  the thorax and the abdomen.

  MITRAL VALVES (L. _mitra_, a mitre). The name of two valves
  which guard the left ventricle of the heart.

  MOLAR (L. _mola_, a mill-stone). The double or grinding teeth.
  Those with two fangs are called bicuspid, or false molars.

  MOTOR (L. _moveo_, to move). A mover; a part whose function is
  _motion_.

  MUCUS. The liquid secreted by the mucous surfaces, as of the
  nostrils, intended as a protection to the parts exposed to external
  influences.


  N

  NARCOTICS (Gr. stupor). Medicines which induce sleep or stupor,
  as opiates.

  NASUS. The nose, or organ of smell; whence _nasal_, belonging
  to the nose.

  NERVES (L. _nervus_, a string). White cords arising from the brain
  or the spinal marrow, and distributed to every part of the
  system.

  NEURON (Gr.) A nerve; a cord arising from the brain or spinal
  marrow. Whence _Neurilemma_, the sheath of a nerve; and
  _Neurology_, the doctrine of the nerves.

  NITROGEN. _Azote._ An elementary principle, constituting four-fifths
  of the volume of atmospheric air.

  NUTRITION (L. _nutrio_, to nourish). The process of nourishing
  the frame.


  O

  OBTURATOR (L. _obturo_, to stop up). The name of two muscles of
  the thigh, and of a nerve.

  OCCIPUT (L. _ob caput_). The back part of the head; the part
        _opposite_
  to the front or _sinciput_.

  ŒSOPHAGUS (Gr. to carry, to eat). A canal leading from the
  mouth to the stomach.

  OLEAGINOUS (L. _oleum_, oil). That which contains or resembles oil.

  OLFACTORY (L. _olfacio_, to smell). Belonging to the smell; the
  name of the first pair of cerebral nerves, &c.

  OMENTUM. The caul; a fold or reflexion of the peritoneum.

  OMO (Gr. the shoulder). Words compounded with this term belong
  to muscles attached to the scapula.

  OPTIC. Belonging to the sight.

  ORBIT (L. _orbita_, an orbit, a track). The cavity under the forehead,
  in which the eye is fixed.

  ORGAN. A part which has a determinate office in the animal
  economy.

  ORGANIZATION. A term applied to a system, composed of several
  individual parts, each of which has its proper function, but all
  conduce to the existence of the entire system.

  ORIGIN (L. _origo_). The commencement of a muscle from any
  part. Its attachment to the part it moves is called its _insertion_.

  OS, OSSIS. A bone; a portion of the skeleton, constituting a
  _passive_ organ of locomotion, as distinguished from a muscle or
  _active_ organ of this faculty.

  OSSIFICATION. The formation of bone; the deposition of calcareous
  phosphate, or carbonate, on the soft solids of animal
  bodies.

  OXIDES. Substances combined with oxygen, without being in the
  state of an acid.

  OXYGEN. A gas which forms about one-fifth of atmospheric air,
  is capable of supporting flame, and is essential to the respiration
  of animals.


  P

  PANCREAS. A gland, situated transversely across the posterior
  wall of the abdomen. In cattle it is called the _sweet-bread_.

  PANCREATIC JUICE. The peculiar fluid secreted by the pancreas.

  PAPILLA. The term _papillæ_ denotes the small eminences which
  constitute the roughness of the upper surface of the tongue.

  PARALYSIS. Palsy; the total loss, or diminution, of sensation or
  of motion, or of both.

  PAROTID. The name of the large, salivary gland situated near
  the ear.

  PARIES, PARIETIS. The wall of a house or any other building;
  whence _Parietal_, belonging to the walls of an organ.

  PATELLA (L. dim. of _patina_, a pan). Literally, a small pan. The
  knee-pan.

  PECTORAL (L. _pectus_, the breast). Pertaining to the breast.

  PECTORALIS. The name of two muscles of the trunk.

  PEDAL (L. _pedules_). Pertaining to a foot.

  PELVIS (Gr. _a basin_). The basin or large bony cavity which
        terminates
  the trunk inferiorly.

  PERICARDIUM (Gr. _around the heart_). A fibro-serous membrane
  which surrounds the heart.

  PERICRANIUM. The periosteum or membrane which covers the
  bones of the cranium.

  PERIOSTEUM. The membrane which surrounds the bones.

  PERISTALTIC. A term applied to the vermicular contractions of
  the intestines upon themselves.

  PERITONÆUM. The serous membrane which lines the interior of
  the abdomen, and invests all the viscera contained therein.

  PERMEABILITY (L. _per_, through, _meo_, to pass). That property of
  certain bodies by which they admit the passage of other bodies
  through their substance.

  PERSPIRATION (L. _perspiro_, to breathe through). The watery
  vapor which is constantly passing off through the skin.

  PHARYNX (Gr. _the throat_). A musculo-membranous bag, situated
  at the back part of the mouth, leading to the stomach.

  PHRENES (Gr. _the mind_). The diaphragm; so called because the
  ancients supposed it to be the seat of the mind. Hence the
  term _Phrenic_, a designation of the internal respiratory nerve,
  which goes to the diaphragm.

  PHRENOLOGY (Gr. _an account_). A description of the mind; a
  science, introduced by Gall and Spurzheim, by which particular
  characters and propensities are indicated by the conformation
  and protuberances of the skull.

  PHYSIOLOGY (Gr. _phusis_, nature, _logos_, an account). The science
  which treats of the properties of organic bodies, animal and
  vegetable, of the phenomena which they present, and of the
  laws which govern their actions.

  PIA MATER. A vascular membrane, investing the whole surface
  of the brain.

  PITUITARY MEMBRANE. A designation of the Schneiderian membrane,
  which lines the cavities of the nose.

  PLEXUS (L. _plecto_, to weave). A kind of net-work of blood-vessels
  or nerves.

  PNEUMO-GASTRIC NERVES (Gr. _pneumon_, the lung, _gastér_, the
  stomach). The par vagnum, nervi vagi, or eighth pair of nerves,
  distributed to the stomach.

  PORTAL CIRCULATION. A subordinate part of the venous circulation,
  in which the blood makes an additional circuit before it
  joins the rest of the venous blood.

  PORTAL VEIN (L. _vena portæ_). A vein originating from the
  organs within the abdomen.

  POTASSIUM. The metallic base of the well known alkaline substance,
  potassa.

  PROCESS. _Apophysis._ A process or eminence of a bone. Also, a
  lobe or portion of the brain.

  PRONATION (L. _pronus_, bending downward). The act of turning
  the palm of the hand downwards, by rotating the radius upon
  the ulna by means of the pronator muscles.

  PRONATOR (L. _pronus_, bending downward). The name of two
  muscles which turn the radius and the hand inwards and downwards.

  PROXIMATE PRINCIPLE. A term applied, in analyzing any body,
  to the principle which is _nearest_ to the natural constitution of
  the body, and more immediately the object of sense, as distinguished
  from intermediate or ultimate principles. _Ultimate
  principles_ are the elements of which proximate principles are
  composed.

  PULMONARY, _pulmonic_ (L. _pulmo_, the lungs). Relating or belonging
  to the lungs.

  PULSE (L. _pulsus_, a stroke). A beating or striking; and hence,
  the stroke or beat of an artery.

  PUNCTA LACHRYMALIA. The external commencements of the
  lacrymal ducts.

  PUPILA (L. dim. of _pupa_, a puppet). The pupil, or the round
  aperture in the center of the iris of the eye.

  PYLORUS (Gr. _púle_, a gate, _ora_, care). Literally a _gate-keeper_.
  The lower and contracted orifice of the stomach, guarding the
  entrance into the bowels.


  Q

  QUARTZ. A species of silicious minerals.


  R

  RAMIFICATION (L. _ramus_, a branch, _fio_, to become). The issuing
  of a small branch from a large one, as of the minute branches
  from the larger arteries.

  RAMUS. A branch of a tree; the designation of portions of several
  bones.

  RECTUM (L. _rectus_, straight). The last portion of the intestines.

  REFRACTION (L. _refractus_, broken back). The property of light,
  by which a ray becomes bent, or _refracted_, when passing from a
  rarer into a denser medium, and _vice versá_.

  RESPIRATION. The function of breathing.

  RETINA (L. _rete_, a net). The _net_ like expansion of the optic nerve
  on the inner surface of the eye.


  S

  SAC (L. _saccus_, a bag). A term applied to a small cavity, as the
  lacrymal sac.

  SACRUM (L. _sacred_). The bone which forms the basis of the
  vertebral column; so called from its having been offered in sacrifice,
  and hence considered _sacred_.

  SACRO. A term applied to parts connected with the sacrum.
  Hence we have _sacro_-iliac symphysis, _sacro_-spinal ligament,
  _sacro_-vertebral angle, &c.

  SALIVA. The insipid, transparent, viscous liquid secreted by the
  salivary glands, principally the parotid.

  SANGUIS. Blood; the fluid which circulates in the heart, arteries
  and veins.

  SARTORIUS (L. _sartor_, a tailor). The muscle by means of which
  the tailor crosses his legs.

  SCAPULA. The shoulder-blade.

  SCHNEIDERIAN MEMBRANE. The _pituitary membrane_, which secretes
  the mucous of the nose; so named from Schneider, who
  first described it.

  SCLEROTICA (Gr. _sklēròs_, hard). The dense fibrous membrane
  which, with the _cornea_, forms the external tunic of the eye ball.

  SEBACEOUS (L. _sebum_, suet). Suety; a term applied to _follicles_,
  which secrete a peculiar oily matter, and are abundant in some
  parts of the skin, as in the nose, &c.

  SECRETION (L. _secerno_, to separate). A substance _secreted_ or
        separated
  from the blood by the action of a secreting organ.

  SERUM. The thin yellowish fluid constituent of the blood.

  SINCIPUT. The fore part of the head. The back part is called
  _occiput_.

  SINEW. The ligament which joins two bones.

  SINUS. A gulf. Hence it denotes a cavity or cell within the substance
  of a bone, as of the forehead; also a large venous canal,
  as those of the dura mater.

  SKELETON (Gr. _skéllo_, to dry up). The dry, bony frame work of
  an animal, which sustains the other organs.

  SPINAL CORD. _Medulla spinalis._ The medullary matter contained
  within the _spine_, or vertebral column.

  SPLEEN. A spongy organ situated at the left and behind the
  stomach.

  SPLINT-BONE. The fibula or small bone of the leg; so named
  from its resembling a surgical splint.

  STERNUM. The breast bone.

  SUB. A Latin preposition, denoting a position _beneath_ any body.

  SUB-CLAVIAN. Situated under the clavicle.

  SUB-CLAVIUS. A muscle arising from the cartilage of the first rib,
  and inserted into the lower surface of the clavicle.

  SUB-CUTANEOUS. Beneath the skin.

  SUB-LINGUAL. Beneath the tongue.

  SUB-MAXILLARY. Beneath the jaw.

  SUDOR (L. _sudo_, to sweat). Sweat; the vapor which passes
  through the skin and condenses on the surface of the body.

  SUDORIFEROUS CANALS. Minute spiral follicles, distributed over
  the whole surface of the skin, for the secretion of the sweat.

  SUTURE (L. _suo_, to sew). A seam; the junction of the bones of
  the cranium by a serrated line, resembling the stitches of a
  seam.

  SYMPATHETIC NERVE. A nerve consisting of a chain of ganglia,
  extending along the side of the vertebral column from the
  head to the coccyx, communicating with all the other nerves
  of the body, and supposed to produce a _sympathy_ between
  the affections of different parts.


  T

  TARSUS. The instep; the space between the bones of the leg
  and metatarsus.

  TEARS. A peculiar fluid which lubricates the eye.

  TEMPORA (L. pl. of _tempus_, time). The temples, or that part of
  the head on which the hair generally begins to turn gray, thus
  indicating _the age_; whence _temporal_, pertaining to the temples,
  as temporal bones.

  TENACITY (L. _teneo_, to hold). The degree of force with which
  the particles of bodies cohere or are held together.

  TENDON (L. _téino_, to stretch). A fibrous cord at the extremity of
  a muscle, by which the muscle is attached to a bone.

  TENSOR (L. _tendo_, to stretch). A muscle which _stretches_ any part.

  TENTACULA. A filliform process or organ on the bodies of various
  animals.

  THORAX (Gr. _thórax_). The chest; or that cavity of the body
  which contains the heart and lungs.

  THORACIC DUCT. The great trunk formed by the junction of the
  absorbent vessels.

  THYROID (Gr. _thureòs_, a shield). The name given to a shield-shaped
  cartilage of the larynx, and of a gland situated on the
  trachea.

  TIBIA. Literally, a flute or pipe. The shin-bone, or the great
  bone of the leg.

  TIBIAL. _Tibialis._ Pertaining to the tibia.

  TISSUE. A web, or web-like structure, constituting the elementary
  structures of animals and plants.

  TONSILS (L. _tondeo_, to clip or shear). The round gland situated
  in the throat between the pillars of the velum palati.

  TRACHEA (Gr. _trachus_, rough). The windpipe. The term is
  derived from the inequality of its cartilages.

  TRICEPS. Having three heads. Applied to several muscles.

  TRICUSPID. Having three points. A term applied to three triangular
  fords or _valves_ situated between the right auricle and the
  right ventricle of the heart.

  TRIFACIAL. Triple-facial. A term applied to the fifth pair of
  nerves, the grand sensitive nerve of the head and face.

  TROCHANTER (Gr. _trocháo_, to run or roll). The name of two processes
  of the thigh-bone—the _major_ and the _minor_.

  TUNIC. The upper garment of the Romans. Hence it is applied
  to several membranes of the body.

  TYMPANUM (Gr. _túmpanon_, a drum). The drum of the ear.


  U

  ULNA (Gr. _olénē_, the cubit). The large bone of the fore-arm; so
  named from its being often used as a measure, under the
  term _ell_.

  UVEA (L. _uva_, grape). The posterior surface of the iris; so
  called from its resemblance in color to a ripe grape.


  V

  VACUUM (L. _vaccus_, empty). Literally, an empty place. This
  term generally denotes the interior of a close vessel, from which
  the atmospheric air and every other gas have been extracted.

  VALVE (L. _valvæ_, folding-doors). A close lid affixed to a tube or
  opening in some vessel, by means of a hinge or other movable
  joint, and which can be opened only in one direction. Hence
  it signifies a little membrane which prevents the return of fluid
  in the blood-vessels and absorbents.

  VALVULA (L. dim. of _valve_). A little valve.

  VAS, VASIS. Plural, _Vasa_. A vessel, or any utensil to hold liquor.

  VASCULAR SYSTEM. That part of the animal economy which
  relates to the vessels.

  VENOUS. Belonging to a vein.

  VENTRICULUS (L. dim. of _venter_, the belly). The term _ventricle_ is
  also applied to two cavities of the heart, and to several cavities
  in other parts of the body.

  VERTEBRA (L. _verto_, to turn). A bone of the spine; so named
  from its _turning_ upon the adjoining one.

  VERTEBRAL. Connected with the vertebra.

  VESSICLE (L. dim. of _vesica_, a bladder). A little bladder.

  VILLUS. Literally, the shaggy hair of beasts. Some of the membranes
  of the body, as the mucous membrane of the intestinal
  canal, present a surface of minute papillæ, termed _villi_,
        villosities,
  resembling a downy tissue, continually covered with fluid.

  VITREOUS BODY (L. _vitrum_, glass). _Vitreous humour._ A transparent
  mass, resembling melted glass, occupying the globe of
  the eye, and inclosed in the hyaloïd membrane.


  W


  WARM-BLOODED. A term applied to the mammalia and birds
  which have a two-fold circulation.


  X


  XYPHOID (Gr. _xíphos_, a sword, _eìdos_, likeness). Sword-like; a
  term applied to the cartilage of the sternum.


THE END.




  Transcriber’s Notes

  pg 67 Changed: Alcohol and common salt both act in the preservavation
             to: Alcohol and common salt both act in the preservation

  pg 76 Changed: that a man entirely unaquainted
             to: that a man entirely unacquainted

  pg 80 Changed: upwards into the the fascia
             to: upwards into the fascia

  pg 102 Changed: as to the quantitive composition
              to: as to the quantitative composition

  pg 126 Changed: the lids must be sown together
              to: the lids must be sewn together

  pg 126 Changed: in its quantitive composition
              to: in its quantitative composition

  pg 137 Changed: unbiased by a viscious appetite
              to: unbiased by a vicious appetite

  pg 192 Changed: being generated insdie of a cylinder
              to: being generated inside of a cylinder