The Project Gutenberg eBook of The mothercraft manual
    
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: The mothercraft manual

Author: Mary L. Read

Release date: May 31, 2023 [eBook #70887]

Language: English

Original publication: United States: Little, Brown, and Company, 1916

Credits: Bob Taylor, ellinora and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MOTHERCRAFT MANUAL ***





  Transcriber’s Note
  Italic text displayed as: _italic_
  Bold text displayed as: =bold=




THE MOTHERCRAFT MANUAL

[Illustration: Training in Mothercraft, at the School of Mothercraft,
New York City. FRONTISPIECE.]




  THE
  MOTHERCRAFT
  MANUAL

  BY

  MARY L. READ, B.S.

  _ILLUSTRATED_

  [Illustration: Decoration]

  BOSTON
  LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY
  1921


_Copyright, 1916,_

BY LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY.

_All rights reserved_




INSCRIBED TO

MY MOTHER AND FATHER




INTRODUCTION


“Seventy-five per cent. of the women of America are married, and most
of these have children.” It is not conceivable that women entering
into any other vocation of life would think of undertaking it without
deliberate preparation. Motherhood is so precious and wonderful that
we fear to think of it in terms of definite preparedness. We like to
think that it comes natural to be good mothers and that to study in
preparation for it or to analyze it might produce more harm than good.

Let me use my own case as an illustration of how ill-prepared even
earnest women are for motherhood. I was married twenty-nine years
ago. I wanted children with all my heart. My first baby came sixteen
months after I was married. I bought all the literature I could find
on my new occupation, kindergarten books beginning with Froebel and
ending with Susan Blow and her contemporaries; I studied Spencer’s
Education, William James’ chapters on habit and attention, and read
biographies of great people. My first ambition was to be a good
mother, and I was eager to learn all I could about it. My college
studies for five years were Greek, Latin, and higher mathematics,
with an occasional semester of botany, evidences of Christianity,
physics, etc. I do not remember hearing a reference to motherhood
during my college experience.

I have had six children, four of whom are living. Had I had the
knowledge I now have, or know how to get, it seems that the little
seven-months-old boy could have been saved. I was called a scientific
mother, my babies were fed regularly, put to bed regularly, and were
dressed as sensibly as babies are now, but at that time we did not
have the knowledge about the physical care of babies which we now
have. What I object to is the amount of time I had to give when my
children were little to learn things which I ought to have known
before motherhood came to me, so that I could have been free to give
myself to them. I knew “education through play” only as a figure of
speech. Last summer I took a year-old baby to camp. I had the care
of her three consecutive months, and was responsible for her six
months. I yielded to the impulse to play with her, and in gratifying
this instinct I used all the store of knowledge which experience had
brought to me. It was evident that she was learning things every
day, and that progress was astonishingly rapid. Most of the things
I taught her were taught by the use of signs and objects. I asked
her if she wanted to come to me by holding out my hands to her. She
understood, and soon asked me to take her by holding out her hands
to me. I asked her where her eyes were, her mouth, nose, ears, by
touching each in turn. She understood and touched each in turn. It
was interesting to note when it was no longer necessary to use the
sign, when she understood spoken language without the aid of gesture.

The phrase that “education begins at the cradle” took on a new
significance. I felt that I was a teacher as well as a mother and
the importance of my part in the education of this baby opened up
amazingly. It was play, but it was also education. Those minutes with
her when no one was near, when we were all in all to each other,
were precious beyond words. Through this love-relation there was
intense joy in both learning and teaching. The reason the mother’s
part in education is incomparable to any other is because of this
love-relation.

We are told that during the first five years of life more is learned
than during all the rest of life. The teachers during these years
are primarily the mothers. The mother-teacher relation goes on after
school days begin, but gradually is regarded less important, and the
teacher’s part grows. Mother is forgotten as a teacher. She loses
confidence in herself and forgets that no one can take her place.

It does not seem to me that any woman could have more earnestly
desired and striven to be a good mother. I studied and worked as hard
as I could, but it was not possible for me to secure the training
that girls can get to-day. It now seems to me that it is about as
rational for a woman to learn by experience with her own children to
be a good mother, as it would be for a doctor to get his education
merely by practising on his patients. Motherhood offers no less
opportunities for success than do the professions of law or medicine.
The preparation for it is just as definite and is more important. It
has remained for Mary L. Read, with splendid devotion and university
training, to put these matters together and to organize and conduct a
“School for Mothercraft.”

The time is coming when women will no more go into physical and
spiritual motherhood unprepared, trusting to “mother instinct”, than
they will go into law or medicine, trusting to their sense of right
and of sympathy with the sick to guide them.

  CHARLOTTE V. GULICK.




PREFACE


Certain definite ideals have been constantly in mind in the
preparation of the present volume, among these the following:

To write a handbook that is so definite, concrete, and clear that
the least experienced person of average intelligence will find it
practical.

To bring directly to those who have opportunity to use it,—the
home-makers, present and prospective,—some of the wealth of present
knowledge in biology, dietetics, hygiene, domestic efficiency, child
psychology, education, that is stored in the laboratories, research
reports, medical records, technical journals, and educational
classics, translating these from the obscure tongue of technical
language into the clearer speech of daily life.

To furnish a guide to more technical or detailed consideration of
each subject.

To present fundamental principles and facts rather than mere rule of
thumb procedure, so that the reader may act intelligently and make
intelligent variations.

Not to compromise on half-way procedure that merely prevents
disaster, but to make clear the means to greatest personal efficiency
and social power.

To keep a progressive yet reserved attitude between conservative and
radical theories.

To bring the spirit of sympathy and humanness, of love and
child-nature and poetry into the teaching of home-making.

To lighten the burden and enlighten the minds and hearts of earnest
young people so that with joy and satisfaction they may essay and
find the home and family life that their hearts desire.

Froebel outlined, nearly a century ago, a thorough, practical
training course for young women, preparatory to home-making
or to vocational work as teachers or mothers’ assistants. At
Pestalozzi-Froebel House in Berlin, half a century ago, under the
administration of Frau Shrader and Miss Annette Schepel, such a
course was organized. Echoes of it to-day are found in the German
secondary schools and special schools for girls. The same idea spread
to England a quarter of a century ago, and there to-day a score
of special schools, and some girls’ high schools, provide such a
training.

In America, the School of Mothercraft was opened in New York City
in December, 1911, to work out experimentally a training course for
educated young women.[1] Here has been developed a comprehensive,
human, practical course including domestic science and art, and the
care and training of babies and little children. The students work
in a home atmosphere, under home conditions, using the household for
their practice work, caring for the resident babies and children,
educating and training them in the course of the day’s régime, and
receiving their own training in personality and technique as well as
in theory. Extension classes have been maintained for young mothers,
brides, and engaged young women.

It is work with young women and the children in the School of
Mothercraft that has made possible the preparation of the present
volume.

No book can take the place of the living teacher. No amount of
discussion of theory can be a substitute for experience. Yet
experience, without sound principles, is also of minor value. Any
book presupposes a modicum of common sense and rational judgment in
its readers.

In a volume of such limited compass only a few significant principles
can be presented, and some of the important elementary facts and
technique that more technical books may overlook. The present volume
aims only to be an introduction to the many phases of home-making,
child care, and child training, to furnish something of vision for
these responsibilities, and a guide for further study.

No book can be a substitute for the personal advice of the physician,
the hygienist, the psychologist, and the teacher. The reader of any
book on applied science may easily make the mistake of interpreting
statements out of proportion to their significance, or of
misunderstanding directions so that they even become misleading. Only
discussion with the living teacher will discover and correct such
errors.

The reader must be open-minded to new discoveries, new theories, new
methods. At the present time, as never before, extensive researches
are being made in biology, hygiene, dietetics, child psychology, and
pedagogy. Important discoveries as revolutionary as the discovery of
the circulation of the blood, radio-activity, the cellular basis of
life, may be made at any future time.

In the present volume no attempt has been made to present
controversial points of view, but a consistently constructive régime
and programme has been given. The novice in any art must first learn
to work constructively and rather dogmatically, until he has learned
to apply one set of principles efficiently. Then he may begin to
modify details according to some rational principle, instead of by
mere whim, and to compare his method with other possibilities. The
basis and the special authorities for the régime here presented will
be found in the final chapter on bibliography.

  JULY, 1916.            MARY L. READ.


FOOTNOTES:

[1] The word “mothercraft” was coined by the author to express the
comprehensive scope of the training. The word has since come into
use in England in a narrower sense, including merely infant care. It
is hoped that in America the use of the word may be retained in its
larger significance.




ACKNOWLEDGMENT


The author begs to acknowledge indebtedness and gratitude to many who
have participated in the making of the book.

To the Messrs. Macmillan Co., Ginn Company, F. A. Stokes Co., and D.
Appleton & Co., for permission to quote from their publications; to
the American Medical Association Press and Dr. Roland G. Freeman for
use of the graphs on growth; to Mr. William S. Bailey and The Nurse
Studio for many of the photographs taken specially for this work.

Especially the author begs to tender sincere thanks for many
criticisms, suggestions, and reviewing of manuscript to Dr. David
Starr Jordan, Dr. William F. Snow, Professors Rudolph M. Binder,
Willystine Goodsell, Robert M. Yerkes, and Mr. Paul Popenoe, on the
sections dealing with the home and the family; to Dr. Josephine H.
Kenyon for sections on maternity and infancy, Drs. Henry I. Bowditch,
William Shannon, and William H. Burnham, for sections on hygiene
and growth; to physicians and nurses at Battle Creek Sanitarium for
assistance in the sections on nursing and nutrition; to Dr. William
H. Park for revising data on communicable diseases, and to Professors
Henry C. Sherman and Mary S. Rose for suggestions and for unpublished
data on nutrition. Mrs. Anna Martin Crocker and Miss Sunnyve Carlsen
have kindly given literary assistance. Helpful suggestions on the
reading list have been furnished by science teachers of Horace Mann,
Ethical Culture, Francis Parker, and the University of Chicago
Elementary Schools. Miss Helen O. Rider and Miss Mary Scott Allen
have rendered invaluable aid in criticism and clerical details. To
the many others who have furnished technical data or read portions
of the manuscript, the author here expresses thanks. Finally, the
author would gratefully acknowledge the unfailing patience and kindly
encouragement of the publishers. For such errors as may be found the
author alone is responsible. Criticisms or suggestions from readers,
which may improve the helpfulness or accuracy of the Manual, will be
gratefully received.

  MARY L. READ.

  JULY, 1916.




CONTENTS


                                                                  PAGE
  INTRODUCTION                                                     vii

  PREFACE                                                           xi

  CHAPTER

  I MOTHERCRAFT: ITS MEANING, SCOPE, AND SPIRIT                      1

  II ESTABLISHING THE HOME                                          10

  III FINDING THE MEANS FOR MOTHERCRAFT                             20

  IV FOUNDING A FAMILY                                              29

  V GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT                                          41

  VI PREPARING FOR THE BABY                                         62

  VII CARE OF THE BABY                                              85

  VIII THE PHYSICAL CARE OF YOUNG CHILDREN                         119

  IX THE FEEDING OF CHILDREN                                       155

  X THE EDUCATION OF THE LITTLE CHILD                              196

  XI STUDYING THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD                                 223

  XII A CURRICULUM FOR BABYHOOD AND EARLY CHILDHOOD                246

  XIII PLAY                                                        264

  XIV GAMES                                                        275

  XV THE TOY AGE                                                   285

  XVI STORY-TELLING                                                299

  XVII SCIENCE AND HISTORY                                         309

  XVIII HANDWORK                                                   317

  XIX MUSIC AND ART                                                329

  XX HOME NURSING AND FIRST AID IN THE NURSERY                     337

  APPENDIX                                                         365

  BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                     381

  INDEX                                                            425




LIST OF PLATES


  Training in Mothercraft, at the School of Mothercraft,
  New York City                                         _Frontispiece_

                                                           FACING PAGE

  Approved Baby Clothing and Bassinet                               62

  Approved Crib, Scales, Nursery Table. Holding the Baby,
  Supporting Head and Back                                          74

  Approved Baby Carriage and Shoes                                  76

  Drugs and Unsanitary Appliances. Unhygienic Equipment
  and Unsatisfactory Scales                                         80

  For the Layette                                                   82

  Exercises for the Baby                                           114

  Good and Bad Postures                                            142

  Exercises for Trunk, Chest and Back                              144

  Some Especially Dangerous Foods for Children under Six.
  Poisons for Little Children                                      164

  Wholesome Sweets at Suitable Ages. Laxative Foods                174

  Day’s Menu for Child Two to Four Years. Day’s Menu for
  Child Four to Six Years                                          182

  Learning Self-reliance and Regularity. At the School of
  Mothercraft Summer Camp                                          212

  Unhygienic, Inartistic, Anti-social Toys. Hygienic, Durable,
  Constructive, Social Toys                                        290

  Handwork that Utilizes Fundamental Muscles. In the
  School of Mothercraft Child Garden                               320

  Height and Weight Charts                                         370




THE MOTHERCRAFT MANUAL




CHAPTER I

MOTHERCRAFT: ITS MEANING, SCOPE, AND SPIRIT

“To know a child is to love it, and the more we know it, the better
we love it.

“To know, love, and serve childhood is the most satisfying,
soul-filling of all human activities.

“It rests on the oldest and strongest and sanest of all instincts.

“It gives to our lives a rounded-out completeness as does no other
service.

“No other object is so worthy of service and sacrifice; and the
fullness of the measure in which this is rendered is the very best
test of a nation and race and a civilization.”

  —G. STANLEY HALL.


Mothercraft is the skilful, practical doing of all that is involved
in the nourishing and training of children, in a sympathetic, happy,
religious spirit. It is not merely the care of the little baby;
that is a very small, though significant, part. Its practice is not
dependent upon physical parenthood, but is part of the responsibility
of every woman who has to do with children as teacher, nurse, friend,
or household associate. It is no more an instinct than is gardening
or building. It is not merely being with children. Its requisite is
vital working knowledge of the fundamental principles of biology,
hygiene, economics, psychology, education, arts. It is mothering—that
oldest, steadiest, most satisfactory vocation to women always and
everywhere—made intelligent and efficient and joyous.

Mothercraft cannot be learned simply from books any more than can
music, agriculture, carpentry, dentistry. The most important factor
in the learning of mothercraft is the daily intelligent association
with the children in their natural environment of home. A hospital
with sick children is a place to learn its pathological phases.

No one of intelligence will dispute the _theory_ that the most
important period in the child’s life is the first seven years.
It is in these years that the foundation of his physical life is
settled (or unsettled); that the lifelong habits are formed; that
the prejudices and the bases of his spiritual and social life are
laid. The “gates of gifts”—his potentialities—are closed at birth,
possibly when his parents are chosen. Whether one is an advocate of
heredity or of environment as the most influential factor in the life
of the individual, none will now gainsay that both the heredity and
the environment of every individual can be controlled, and that each
of these factors may be made vastly more efficient through the high
ideals, the intelligence, and the foresight of parents present and
potential.

In these days of radical change in the activities and education of
women, mothercraft has not kept pace with the other vocations open
to women. In a society where marriage is no longer an economic,
domestic, or conventional necessity, there has developed a tacit
assumption that youth would not marry, and therefore special
preparation for home-making (and especially for child care) would
be presumptuous and a waste of time. The school has left this
part of a girl’s training for the home to give, and in a large
proportion of homes there has not been the time or the intelligence
or the foresight to give it. Girls have gone from elementary
school directly into industry, or to high school and college, or to
finishing school and society. Educators and vocational guides have
frequently overlooked it in educational and vocational conferences,
exhibits, and guidebooks.

And yet to-day in America, the care and training of young children
is chiefly in the hands of women. Seventy-five per cent. of women
in America are married, and presumably most of them have the
responsibility of children in their own homes.

There are _ten million_ children under six years of age whose care
and training is naturally in the entire control of their homes. There
are _fourteen million_ children between five and fifteen years of age
who, on the average, spend thirty hours a week, for forty weeks a
year, in school, while all the rest of their life—about seventy per
cent. of their waking hours, as well as all their sleeping hours—is
in the control of their mothers and fathers.

Nursing, within fifty years, has become a profession, and to-day
it is almost impossible for a woman to find employment as a nurse
unless she has had a special training for three years. Yet nursing
has only to do with sick folk, usually in a hospital, which is still
a far cry from the daily care, hygiene, and training of the normal
child in a home. For an equal period, teachers of young children
have been expected to take a special normal course of two to four
years. Yet this training has had little to do, until recently in some
quarters, with hygiene, biology, or the psychology of the child, but
has concerned itself chiefly with subjects in the curriculum and with
masses of children in an artificial grouping and environment, foreign
to their native interests and inimical to their physical needs.

Only within the last twenty-five years has medicine developed
pediatrics—the special study of children’s treatment. Child-hygiene
is still later as an exact science. Child-study, as an exact science,
dates back to Froebel and the early nineteenth century, and is still
a new field.

The mother in her home, herself with slight special preparation, busy
with her children, could scarcely have been expected to keep pace
with these developments and to teach them to her daughters, even had
she the foresight. The higher institutions of learning, naturally
among the most conservative forces of society, have not yet begun to
perceive the significance of such a subject as mothercraft in the
curriculum, although the beginnings of some phases are being made.
The secondary and elementary schools, bound by the fetish of college
requirements, are only beginning to show here and there indications
of efforts to prepare for living instead of simply for college.

And the young woman—still immature, inexperienced, and therefore not
appreciative of life’s values and impending responsibilities—has
had neither the guidance of school and home, nor the educational
opportunity, nor the personal foresight to prepare adequately for
this vocation.

What is the consequence? A generation of women, the majority of whom
are notoriously (and sometimes shamelessly) ignorant and unskilled in
the most vital and significant human responsibilities. In millions
of homes women are wasting their time and energy, losing the joy
of their motherhood (and too often their little ones), perplexed,
harassed, over-burdened, because they are bungling, stumbling
blindly, groping at their vocation. And those they love most dearly
are paying the penalty, in less happy homes, less efficient lives.
Hundreds of thousands of self-supporting young women every year are
going into industrial or commercial work or school teaching, not
because they prefer it, but because opportunities for acquiring
the requisite skill are at hand, and conditions of work have been
standardized. Hundreds of thousands of mothers with young children
are seeking in vain for assistants of desirable personality and
efficient training. For such workers there has been no adequate
opportunity for training and no standardizing of working conditions.
In all this, America is far behind both Germany and England.

What does mothercraft require in its practitioners? First,
_personality_: love of children and sympathy with child-nature,
responsibility, patience, thoroughness in the minute details day in
and day out, self-control, good judgment, adaptability, the play
spirit. Fundamental also are open-mindedness, spiritual vision, and
the poise that results from a well-regulated physical régime and a
firm apprehension of eternal verities.

Then _knowledge_: a sound foundation in the fundamental principles
and vital facts of applied biology, psychology, sociology, ethics,
economics, natural sciences, play, arts, as they relate to the home,
the family, and childhood. Equally important is the scientific mind
that knows how to approach new problems and receive new principles.

Then _technique_: the actual doing and practice of mothercraft.
Knowledge is of no value until it is translated into efficient
action. There must be little children to care for, tend, play with,
educate.

What of fathercraft? Every child has two parents, equal in
responsibility for his heredity and likewise for his rearing. Fathers
could hardly be expected ordinarily to be versed in the intricacies
of clothing, feeding, and bathing the baby. But why should not every
man understand the principles of hygiene and foods as a matter of his
general knowledge quite as much as for coöperation with the mother
in the children’s régime? Why should he not with equal zest make a
study of growth and development during childhood? Even more, why
should he not be intimately acquainted with child psychology and the
fundamental principles of child training and education, that he may
understand his own children and coöperate sympathetically in their
upbringing? Is there any valid reason why he should not be equally
acquainted with the sociology of the home, the meaning and principles
of eugenics, the psychology of harmony in home life?

There is no profession open to either men or women that offers such
opportunities for personal culture, individual expression, technical
skill, scientific research, social contribution and welfare, as
mothercraft. Perhaps the very comprehensiveness of it and its
humanness have presented a problem so complex that it has baffled the
educators and delayed its admission to academic dignity.

Through the channels of child welfare, eugenics, and pediatrics, a
keener sense of responsibility toward the child unborn is developing.
Through the increasing knowledge of heredity, child psychology, and
education, a clearer vision is appearing to young men and young
women of what they themselves might have been, and of what they may
yet create and develop by combining wisdom with their great love.
Philanthropists are realizing the futility of simply relieving
immediate suffering, crime, inefficiency, for generation after
generation. They are looking to the elimination of the causes:
ignorance of the rudiments of living, poor heredity, neglect in
childhood, unsanitary, ugly, unspiritual living conditions. “There
is no wealth but life,” we are realizing with Ruskin. Statesmen
and legislators are beginning to see that the stability of society
and the State demand that the organizing of homes, the founding of
families, the spending of family incomes, shall not be intrusted to
novices and unskilled workers. As indications of this, we have the
recently established Children’s Bureau, and the Smith-Lever Bill
with its appropriation for education that includes home-making.

In America, clubs, reading courses, and special correspondence for
parents have been developed in the last quarter century by the
International Congress of Mothers, Parent-Teachers’ Association, Home
and School League, American Institute of Child Life. This is good
and is helping many parents in meeting their perplexities, but as a
national means of vocational training, its psychology and pedagogy is
shortsighted and inefficient.

What banker would trust his ledgers to a youth just out of school,
whose only special preparation for bookkeeping was a current reading
course in business methods? What woman would permit a man to
experiment on her garden if he was just beginning a correspondence
course in agriculture? What business man wants to intrust his
correspondence to a stenographer just out of a business course, even
after months of such vocational training? All this is recognized as
inefficient, wasteful, expensive in business; how much more so is it
in the home, where precious human lives are the factors to be dealt
with.

Slowly, but certainly, there is coming a new ideal in education.
Children and young people are to be prepared for living. They are
to know how to develop physical vitality and mental ability and
spiritual power. They are to be prepared in spirit and intelligence,
in skill and in science, in personality and technique for the
responsibilities that most of them will assume, for the greatest
responsibility any of them can assume—home-making and family rearing.

Both the school and the home are responsible for the preparation of
these future parents. They must apply to this vocational problem
all their knowledge of psychology and pedagogy. Right habits of
regularity, responsibility, self-control, must be carefully trained
in those babyhood and early childhood stages; the manual phases
of household work are to be taught in the manual stage before the
teens; boys and girls are to be imbued with a wholesome, responsible
spirit toward motherhood and fatherhood and the home which they are
taught to look forward to as the goal for themselves; girls in their
teens are to have companionship and experience with little children,
learning the essential details and the significant guiding principles
of their high calling in a practical, human, motherly way, under
wise and sympathetic teachers. Girls, and boys likewise, will be
encouraged to foresee the significance and values and responsibility
of home and family, and to conduct themselves worthily of such a
mission.

Secondary and elementary schools are beginning to give school credit
for assistance at home. Domestic science and art are now taught in
hundreds of schools. Their field as yet is narrowly restricted to the
mechanics of the household, usually taught in an academic way. This,
however, is an entering wedge for more practical, comprehensive, and
human phases of home-making education whenever school administrators,
teachers, and parents shall see that vision. The day seems not
distant when colleges generally will give credit for all home-making
branches, as a few do now for some phases. We may even yet see
universities granting M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in mothercraft and
fathercraft, as well as in philology, astronomy, history, or other
more consequential branches of learning. College alumnæ themselves
are making earnest appeals to their Alma Maters to prepare their
students for home-making responsibilities. It is not unthinkable
that the colleges, before many decades, might even include the
preparatory work in these subjects among their entrance requirements,
as they now do algebra and Latin. In that day “applied science”
will be esteemed more worthy than “pure science”, and ability
to utilize more honorable than ability to memorize. By the next
century, a mothercraft course may become as conventional a part of
the curriculum of a finishing school as French or vocal training or
æsthetic dancing; and its rudiments as requisite as a certificate of
age for working papers; and preparedness in fathercraft as stringent
a requirement for a marriage license as a medical certificate. Why
not?




CHAPTER II

ESTABLISHING THE HOME


=The Purpose of the Home.= The cause, historically, and the reason,
socially, for the home is the child and the family. Home is the great
training school of life for parents as well as for children. It is
not merely a place to eat and sleep; any boarding-house can provide
that. The ideal home is a community of congenial spirits, a place of
inspiration, comfort, rest of spirit as well as of body. Here dwell
together two who have chosen each other as comrades in the complex
problem of living, to share their fare, their mirth, their troubles,
to give cheer in distress, encouragement in struggle, ambition for
achievement, sympathy in trial and happiness, friendly criticism to
refine; and to coöperate in their mutual desire, responsibility,
joys, and trials of rearing a family.

As young men and women face squarely the possibilities in a home,
as they perceive the causes of discord in family life, and study
the basis of family stability and happiness, as they take the time
before marriage to compare sincerely their ideals, tastes, standards,
expectations, they will minimize the possibilities of later
discord—even tragedy. If they cannot agree sincerely and heartily on
economic, social, physiological, and psychological adjustments before
the wedding ceremony, when each has the altruism of romance and the
spur of the game, how can they expect to adjust themselves amicably
afterwards, in the severe test of everyday needs and situations?

Marriage is the concern of the individual, because his happiness
and his activity are involved. It is also the concern of the State,
because property rights, social harmony, and future citizenship are
involved. A brief study of the historical and social development
of the home and family relations will give a surer basis for the
rational discussion of this problem than would a theoretical
discussion based merely on prejudices of individualism or altruism.

=Evolution of Marriage.= In the human species, infancy is prolonged
over several years. From this mutual care by the mother and the
father in primitive society, there evolved the mutual love for the
little child and later for each other; and with this the permanent
relationship which alone could produce the organization of the
family. The beginnings of morality likewise developed from this sense
of a community interest which called for a subordination of selfish
desires.

For ages mankind has experimented with different forms of family
relation and home organization, trying to discover which serve
best to foster the child, conserve the State, and satisfy the men
and women who form the family. Under different social and economic
conditions, polygamy and polyandry (more than one wife or husband),
promiscuity (several temporal husbands or wives) and monogamy (one
husband or wife) have been tried.

Polygamy, in primitive society, developed where women were in excess,
or their labor increased family income, or where a man’s fortune
enabled him to support more than one wife and her children. The
polygamous nature of man was accepted by Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and
Mohammedan religions, and its practice permitted by their statutes.
The Jewish nation early evolved from polygamy to monogamy, and
incorporated the latter into its religion and customs. Anglo-Saxon
ideals were of monogamy. The teachings of Christ emphasized
monogamy. The early Christian teachers even carried this, as other
ideals, to its farthest extreme, and preached the ideal of celibacy.
It remained for Mormonism to sanctify polygamy and make it a duty.
But polygamy, which was flatly opposed by the general sentiment of
the United States, was short-lived in the territory of the Mormon
Church. The local feeling on this issue at present may be summarized
in the following sentiment, expressed by a distinguished citizen of
Utah:

“Our citizenship must be world citizenship. It is a matter of
common knowledge and comment that that citizen is most valuable to
his town who can see the town’s needs in relation to those of his
county; that he is of most value to his county who sees that county
as a constituent part of the state and consents to nothing for his
county that would hurt the state; that a state’s most valuable and
serviceable citizen is the man who has the power in his thinking,
reasoning, and acting to rise above sectionalism and act as a citizen
of the nation. This is the test to which our citizenship must
submit—the standard up to which it must measure.”

In primitive, as well as in civilized societies, the beginning
of a new home is customarily celebrated with civil and religious
ceremonies; customs and laws provide for the relative rights of the
husband and wife to their persons, their children, their property,
and the returns from their labor. Infidelity (particularly of the
wife), common-law marriages (living as husband and wife without
legal marriage), promiscuous relations, divorce, have generally been
branded as anti-social and reprehensible, expressions of lack of
self-control, altruism, and foresight.

Mankind is finding through the experience of the ages that monogamy
best conserves child life, the home, the State, and individual
happiness. It has found that irresponsible parenthood, shallowness
of marital or parental affection, promiscuous relations, all endanger
the life and welfare of the child. It has learned that marriage
customs and laws requiring considerable formality and therefore
deliberation of the contracting parties, reduced the proportion of
hasty, unsatisfactory, and temporary unions with their uncertain
responsibility for the children, and their quarrels over property.
Many factors have contributed to the establishment of the really
monogamous family and home as the social ideal and the increasing
social practice. The lengthening period of infancy, with the
consequent longer period of mutual coöperation of parents in nurture
and training; realization of the Christ spirit of love for others,
of respect for the value and individuality of every human life; the
consequent refinement of the emotional life and social feeling, and
the sublimating of sex instincts to the development of a richer
personality, to mental creative work and to social service; the
democratization of education and social status; freedom in choice of
a marriage partner—all have contributed a part.

Freedom of choice has been far less prevalent than capture, purchase,
or family contract, in marriages of the past. It is wearisome to even
try to imagine the procession of brides, since those early days of
the cavemen, who had no choice in the matter of their husbands. For
what countless millions of brides was the marriage arranged by barter
between their fathers and their future household lords, sometimes
the father requiring a purchase price, sometimes the bridegroom
demanding a dowry. What millions of girls have been selected while
mere children as the future wives and slaves of their husbands and
the family drudges of the household. How many millions of brides and
bridegrooms have never been consulted as to their personal feelings
or desires, but have been married because the elders of their
families decreed it. Under all such conditions, if husband and wife
developed affection for each other, that was so much of advantage to
them from the combination; otherwise they must adapt themselves as
best they could to the daily round of life in their common dwelling
and throughout their family responsibilities.

Trial marriages have been an experiment in many societies. They are
based upon suspicion and expectation of termination, instead of upon
that whole-hearted confidence and expectation of endurance which
is the basis of a permanent relation. Psychologically, therefore,
their basis is false and weak. They presented a crude method of
testing mutual adaptation and affection, which to-day may be gained
by visiting a few weeks in each other’s families, by thorough
preliminary discussion of problems of adjustment, and by consultation
with a competent physician, biologist, and sociologist or a mature
and thoughtful counsellor.

Thus has marriage evolved by stages from biological matings, based
on physical attraction; to the business contract, based on economic
relations; to the social contract, based on social advantage to the
family, clan, or State; and finally to a spiritual relationship,
based on mutual social and intellectual interests and ties. Romantic
love as a general experience in marriage has developed only during
the past few hundred years. No one of these phases—the biological,
economic, social, or spiritual—can be ignored in marriage to-day
without disaster, as divorce records and daily observation show so
clearly. To ignore the higher relationships and base marriage simply
on the biological or material is to revert back to a lower stage in
human development. A marriage based simply on physical attraction
soon loses its glamour, and is as a house built upon the sands.
The enduring ties are those of spiritual comradeship. It is this
spiritual-biological love, evolving with the personality and soul
of man, that has inspired the great wealth of spiritual creations in
poetry, music, drama, and painting.

The American young woman of to-day, especially of the middle classes,
is economically, socially, and religiously free to choose from among
her suitors the one she finds most congenial and whom she really
loves. Legislators are providing in many States for the woman’s equal
rights in marriage to her person, property, and children. Churches,
associations, and parents are awakening to their responsibility in
providing natural and wholesome social opportunities for young men
and women to become acquainted. If a woman does not find her ideal
in the community where she lives, she is socially free to migrate to
any part of the country, enter any one of a thousand occupations,
and seek until she finds a suitable helpmeet. In this country, in
contrast to Europe, there is an excess of some two million men in
the population. She will find a large proportion of young men of her
social class and education, whose standards and habits of life are
as fine as Sir Galahad’s, who have the economic ability to make a
comfortable living, and who are ready to coöperate intelligently and
whole-heartedly in home-making. The young man of to-day will find
an increasing proportion of young women who combine physical charm,
social gifts, intellectual comradeship, home-making instincts, and
preparation.

=Why Homes Are Broken.= In a country where divorce is easily obtained
by either husband or wife, for serious cause, the proportion of
divorces is an index (1) to the percentage of dissatisfied couples
(which will always be considerably higher than the percentage of
divorces); and (2) to the intelligence and forethought with which
young people enter marriage. The census of 1910 estimated one
marriage in twelve ending in divorce, and counted as direct parties
about one half of one per cent. of the population, something over
three hundred thousand men and women, with children involved in about
sixty per cent. of these families. The causes stated in the court
records would, of course, be only those allowed in the laws as the
legal grounds for granting a divorce. These, in the order of their
frequency, were (1) desertion by the husband, (2) cruelty of the
husband, (3) desertion by the wife, (4) non-support by the husband,
(5) cruelty of the wife, (6) adultery. The most frequent real causes,
as found by social investigation, are lack of self-control, lack of
mutual ideals in regard to sex relations, ignorance of sex hygiene,
use of alcohol, irresponsibility, economic extravagance, disagreement
regarding the family income, hasty marriage after brief acquaintance.
Among the other causes productive of discord are selfishness,
insincerity, false pride, nagging, poor housekeeping, the husband’s
lack of economic ability; marked differences in age, education,
social status, religion; abnormal craving for social excitement;
unnatural, crowded, unattractive homes.

=How Homes Are Made Steadfast and a Benediction.= The fundamental
requisite of family happiness is love; not merely sex attraction,
which may be wholly selfish, but love that is service, happier
to give than to receive, willing to share. In some respects
similarity between husband and wife is important in their social and
intellectual tastes, moral standards, religious faith, refinement,
love of children, rate of ability to progress, degree of seriousness
or frivolousness, ardor and expression of affection. These make for
congenial daily living. In some respects complementary qualities are
desired. If one is impatient, the other may well possess a degree
of patience and sense of humor to meet this; if one is extravagant,
the other should be thrifty; if one is radical, the other may well
be conservative, although marked extremes would always clash. The
degree of positiveness in the one should approximate that in the
other; if equal, neither is willing to yield; if very unequal, one
domineers the other. These complementary traits make for balance of
family life. The qualities that each should possess would include
responsibility, self-control, sincerity, kindliness; freedom from
drugs, conscientious abstinence from alcohol and from vicious habits;
a degree of maturity and experience equal to the responsibilities of
home-making (usually not under twenty years for women and twenty-one
for men), love of home life and of children; good health, freedom
from any serious germ disease, a family history free from criminal
tendencies, alcoholism, mental defects, tuberculosis. A gambler,
spendthrift, flirt, vacillating or superficial man or woman, or one
who is “sowing wild oats” has not the qualifications for establishing
a home. The man should be able to earn a comfortable living, and the
woman to administer the household efficiently and smoothly. Every
woman should have some means of making her livelihood at the time she
marries; it will greatly increase her husband’s respect for her and
be a source of confidence to herself. She usually cannot do better,
from the economic aspect, than to become thoroughly skilled in phases
of home-making.

How the family income should be divided, what share the wife shall
have for household use and for her personal use, is so diplomatic and
acute a problem that it should be as sincerely and frankly discussed
as all these other phases.

Whether the wife should undertake work besides managing the
home-making is a moot question. Certainly her first responsibility
is to make a home not only comfortable but inspiring. She needs to
have such opportunity for relaxation, meditation, reading, personal
development, that however weary and tense her husband may return
in the evening, she can give rest, good cheer, and refreshment of
spirit, because of her reserve of vitality, and can send him each
morning to his work with the courage and good spirits stimulated by
her blitheness. She needs, also, to be storing reserve strength for
her children.

The location of the house greatly affects the family life. Ideally,
it should be a separate dwelling, with a porch for outdoor social
life, a garden where all members of the family have room to work and
play, with rooms enough for individual privacy; and it should be
owned, not rented.

The minimum income on which two people may advisably marry will
depend largely upon their degree of adaptability, patience, and
sense of humor. Acquaintance before marriage may safely be not less
than a year and preferably two, not only for thorough and sincere
acquaintance, but for the possibility of the reaction and even
repulsion that is so likely to follow a violent case of love on short
acquaintance. If love is too ardent, it needs this discipline of
patience and restraint. If it is deep enough to last through the rest
of time, it will stand the test of waiting.

Having established their home, husband and wife may well cultivate
their love wisely, seeing that it does not starve from lack of
service in little thoughtfulnesses; that it is not surfeited by too
much of sweetness or selfish expression; that it is protected by
residence separate from relatives, friends, strangers; that both
have individual social life and friends and pursuits so that they
do not become wearisome to each other; that they busy themselves
in some mutual objective interest—social welfare, club, lodge work
or a reading course. The few minutes spent together each day in
gaining inspiration, either in religious worship, or reading from
some great book, or singing noble songs, will do much to keep the
family life harmonious and to reduce the petty frictions. It is well
to agree on the first day—and carry through the agreement—that if
misunderstanding or the least suspicion arises, it shall be frankly
and thoroughly faced, discussed, and eliminated, remembering that it
is “the little rift within the lute” that silences the music. Then,
as the poet sings:

    “Through the long years liker must they grow,
     The man be more of woman, she of man;
     He gain in sweetness and in moral height,
     Nor lose the wrestling thews that throw the world,
     She, mental breadth, nor fail in childward care,
     Nor lose the childlike in the larger mind;
     Until at last she set herself to man
     Like perfect music unto noble words.”




CHAPTER III


FINDING THE MEANS FOR MOTHERCRAFT


“Efficient housekeeping is the beginning of good citizenship.”

  —PROFESSOR MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER.


=The Budget.= Many young people hesitate to marry on a modest
income, either through confessed inability to manage a small budget,
or an unwillingness to begin humbly and live simply. Many mothers
are sorely perplexed over the problem of finding time and energy
from their household work for the education of and play with their
children. Parents are perplexed over how to provide for and educate
more than one or two children in what they consider a fitting manner.

=Efficiency Methods.= The whole complexity may be reduced to
definite problems of philosophy, scientific efficiency, physics,
and mathematics. The first step is to appreciate the relative value
of life and of things, of genuine simplicity and vulgar show; of
educating the children to share, to carry responsibility, to be
self-reliant, or to be selfish, dependent, luxury-loving.

Second, all the labor-saving machinery in the world will but slightly
reduce the output of time and energy in the household work unless the
worker will apply her mind to the problem, adapt herself to new ways
of performing a piece of work, and be willing to think.

Third, the individual problem must be studied. Have a regular
monthly session to analyze seriously, with pencil and paper, the
household situation, and to question every process of work and
every expenditure. Can the household régime be made simpler yet
socially efficient? Where is there waste of energy, time, materials,
income? How can the accumulation of dirt and dust be reduced? How
can dishwashing and laundry work be reduced? How can time spent in
cooking be decreased? How could any work be done in a less tiring
position? Where could there be a reduction in the number of steps,
trips, arm movements, duplications of work, arranging which requires
later disarrangement? Where could pipes, drains, hose lines, faucets,
pulleys, speaking tubes, signals, or other simple mechanical devices
reduce time and labor? What work could be done by a part-time helper
at an hourly or daily rate? What is the difference in cost between
food cooked at home or purchased already cooked? What has been the
loss from food wasted, spoiled, thrown away, improperly cooked? Could
any foods be purchased directly from the producer, with a saving of
cost? Are the dealers sending honest measures and correct bills? How
could a reduction be made in the cost of fuel or of lighting?

Domestic engineers, housekeeping experiment stations, household
efficiency laboratories already exist, but they are so new that the
terms are not yet quite familiar. It may prove a great saving of
time and energy to consult one of the new domestic engineers, whose
business it is to analyze a kitchen or a house or a family budget,
plan its rearrangement for economy of time, energy, and money,
recommend labor-saving machinery, or organize a system of routine.

Fourth, begin at once to put efficiency principles into practice
in the household work. Do not dawdle or potter over work. Analyze
the work of the household into units, for example, preparation of
breakfast, laying and clearing the dining table, care of a bedroom,
washing the dishes. Specify the maximum amount of time each unit
_is worth_, then see how this can be reduced, using the fewest arm
motions and least walking.

=Saving Time and Energy.= Learn to plan and organize work. Have
a monthly, weekly, and daily schedule of work. It will often be
necessary to vary this, but a well-planned schedule will nevertheless
reduce the time otherwise wasted in unnecessary duplication and
without definite purpose. “A stitch in time saves nine.” This applies
to sanitation, plumbing, cleaning, gardening, colds, and sore
throats, as well as to socks and frocks.

Study how to eliminate useless motions. Make exact studies, using a
watch and a record pad. Observe how many trips were made in laying
the table, and the length of time required. Discover ways of reducing
this by half, through use of a tray, more convenient arrangement of
supplies, fewer dishes, simpler service. Make similar studies with
other processes, such as cleaning a room, or preparing a meal.

In an ordinary household, preparation of breakfast for a family of
five persons should not require more than half an hour; lunch from
twenty minutes to an hour; dinner from half an hour to two hours. The
daily care of a bedroom should be completed in ten to twenty minutes.
Washing of dishes, clearing of dining room and kitchen, should be
finished in from twenty to sixty minutes after a meal. The weekly
washing for such a family should be completed in four to six hours,
and likewise the ironing. Five hours a week is enough to spend in
baking, and only two should be necessary if bread is not made.

Make out the menus for a whole week, revising daily as necessary.
This will assure better-balanced menus, more variety, economy of time
and money in marketing, and will prevent the worry of unpreparedness.
In marketing, purchase a two or four months’ supply of such staples
as can be bought and stored advantageously. Have a regular day
weekly to inspect supplies and order staples. Have two or three
regular days a week for purchasing fresh vegetables, fruits, meats.

The general architectural plan of a house, finish of walls and
floors, construction of windows, doors, wainscoting, corners,
mopboards, can make hours of difference in the week’s labor. Even
when the general architecture cannot be altered, the floors may be
improved. Carpeted or waxed floors are the most difficult to care
for, while those painted or oiled are easiest. Useless bric-a-brac,
carved and ornate furniture, all are dust and germ holders, and
consume an extravagant amount of time for their care. For every
unnecessary and useless piece of furniture, drapery, or utensil, the
housekeeper must pay a tax of time and strength in handling. The
Japanese have learned the beauty of simplicity in house furnishing.

Rearrange the plan of the kitchen until supplies, utensils, stove,
water, sink are so placed that there are fewest steps and motions,
and it is as convenient as an apartment house kitchenette. Tables,
sinks, and ironing boards adjusted to the height of the worker will
economize energy. A low stool to stand upon will reduce the height of
work tables; a detached wooden frame or block on top of a low kitchen
table or sink will often give the desired height without stooping. A
cushioned stool or chair to sit upon while doing stationary work, or
a soft rug under feet while standing, all add to comfort.

Electricity is the housekeeper’s man-of-all-work. It can heat, light,
cook, supply the energy for the vacuum cleaner, washing machine,
wringer, dishwasher. In some communities it is now furnished at a
sufficiently low rate for such general use, and other communities can
have the same low rates whenever the housekeepers organize and demand
it.

Simple cooking is more digestible, nourishing, economical of labor,
and, to a natural appetite, more appetizing. The most valuable
part of potatoes and apples is next the skin, the removal of which
before cooking is wasteful of time and materials. A coal stove is an
enormous consumer of time and energy. An alcohol stove furnishes the
cleanest method of cooking, quite practicable, with a fireless cooker
and steam cooker, for a small family. Next in convenience, and more
economical, are the gas or oil vapor stoves. A good fireless cooker
vastly reduces the time required in the kitchen, and cuts the fuel
bill in half.

In serving meals, labor is saved by using a tray, or better still a
wheeled tray with several shelves, which may be drawn up to the table
to hold the additional courses and the soiled dishes as removed. A
special tray that will fit the cupboard shelf, to hold the constant
accessories, will save handling.

Dishwashing is an ever-recurring, three-times-a-day problem. There
are several fairly good dishwashing machines now on the market,
both electric and hand-power. If dishes must be washed in the
old-fashioned way, engineering efficiency can be put into it. After
washing, scald the china in a wire basket such as business offices
use for holding letters, and leave to dry without wiping, then place
directly on trays to take to the table instead of placing on shelves
only to take down again. In times of stress or of picnic spirit,
papier-mâché or wooden dishes will save time.

For cleaning have a vacuum cleaner, carpet sweeper, hair floor brush,
dustless mop, dustless dusters or cheesecloth dampened with kerosene,
wax oil or furniture polish. It takes an hour or two after sweeping
for dust to settle; this interval should be allowed before dusting
furniture.

If good laundries, guiltless of injurious chemicals and extravagant
rates, are not available in the locality, a coöperative laundry
providing these features may be organized and conducted by the women
of the community, as in many places in Wisconsin. If laundry work
must be done at home, an equipment of a good washing machine or even
a hand vacuum washer, a wringer, stationary tubs, hose lines, running
hot and cold water, with sewer connection for waste, greatly reduce
the time and energy cost. A cold mangle or one heated by gas or
charcoal costs but a few dollars and reduces by about seventy-five
per cent. the labor of ironing flat work. Gas or electric irons
are inexpensive and energy saving. Necessary laundry work may be
greatly minimized by providing silk or cotton crepon for underwear
and dresses, seersucker for children’s rompers, dresses, and aprons,
with doilies or paper napkins in place of tablecloth, at least for
breakfast and lunch, and paper towels for kitchen and bathroom.

The physical and mental condition of the worker is a very
considerable factor in time and energy cost. Work attempted when one
is fatigued, nervous, or tense consumes vastly more energy and time.
Learn to relax at intervals; especially lie down for a few minutes
about midday. “Never stand when you can sit; never sit when you
can lie down.” If becoming nervous or tense, relax completely, and
take long, slow, deep breaths of fresh air. Stand with the weight
on the balls of the feet, head erect and chest expanded. Keep the
house air in winter at efficiency point: between 65° F. and 68° F.
in temperature, and sufficiently humid by well-filled water pans in
furnace pipe or by large open dishes of water in room, and with a
constant intake of fresh outside air.

=Making the Most of the Family Income.= Analyze the family income and
spend it on paper many times before spending it over the counter.
Train the family to spend less than is planned, rather than more
Ordinarily, for incomes up to three thousand dollars, the following
is considered by economists a wise distribution, in a family with
three children:

  =================================================================
  Rent                                                          20%
  Food                                                          25%
  Operating expenses (heat, light, repairs, labor, supplies)    15%
  Clothing                                                      20%
  Education, recreation, health, saving                      15-20%
  ==================================================================

Personal ordering and selection of supplies, paying cash and keeping
accounts, will furnish the greatest values for expenditures. Accurate
scales and measures in the kitchen, with occasional tests of
supplies sent, will check errors or dishonesty of marketmen. Cost of
supplies may be reduced by keeping posted on market prices; buying
in wholesale quantities where possible, in coöperation with other
housekeepers; buying directly from the producer wherever possible;
knowing the reliable grades and brands of package goods. A knowledge
of the values of common foods and their comparative cost for
equivalent food value is indispensable for efficiency. A reasonable
allowance is two dollars to two dollars and a half a week for food
supplies for each person. An ample quantity (eighteen hundred to two
thousand calories a day) of nourishing food of limited variety can
be purchased for one dollar a week. Luxuries should be had on a four
dollar weekly allowance per person

The following table can be expanded by any housekeeper. For other
food stuffs: Note calories per pound. (Given in Government Bulletin
Number 28 or Rose’s Laboratory Manual in Dietetics) To find the
number of calories for one cent, divide calories per pound by cost
per pound. Fruits and green vegetables, although furnishing few
calories for one cent, are needed each day, for their vitamines,
acids, and minerals.


Comparative Caloric Food Values and Cost

  =========================+==========+==========+==========
                           | CALORIES |          | CALORIES
      FOOD                 |   PER    | COST PER |   FOR
                           |  POUND   |  POUND   | ONE CENT
  —————————————————————————+——————————+——————————+——————————
  Oatmeal                  |   1803   |  4 cents |   451
  Corn meal                |   1613   |  4   ”   |   400
  Dried peas               |   1612   |  8   ”   |   201
  White bread              |   1174   |  6   ”   |   196
  Potatoes                 |    378   |  2   ”   |   189
  Milk, per qt             |    675   |  9   ”   |    75
  Rice                     |    660   | 10   ”   |    66
  Flank steak              |   1084   | 18   ”   |    60
  Shredded wheat           |   1600   | 33   ”   |    48
  Salmon                   |    922   | 20   ”   |    46
  Sirloin                  |    957   | 28   ”   |    34
  Eggs (28 cents a doz )   |    672   | 21   ”   |    32
  Flounder                 |    128   |  7   ”   |    20
  Chicken                  |    289   | 25   ”   |    12
  =========================+==========+==========+==========

=Locating the Home.= Life in the open country, town, or suburb
reduces the cost of living, as compared with the city, (a) by
reducing the stimulation and excitement of daily life, and their
energy cost; (b) reducing the temptations to extravagant and
frivolous expenditure of money; (c) furnishing better air and
more outdoor living, thus increasing the quality of life besides
decreasing expenditures for illness; (d) providing a porch and
yard where children may play in sight of mother at work, and where
the family may find social life; (e) providing space for garden
and poultry, whose care is healthful exercise, and whose products
may reduce the expenditure for food. By purchasing staples at
wholesale and organizing a coöperative marketing group for fruits and
vegetables, as wide a variety and as low a cost of food is possible
as under most favorable city conditions. The provision of rural
traveling libraries, art exhibits, educational picture films, the use
of the schoolhouse as a social center, the improvement of education
in the rural and suburban school with its ideal natural environment,
all are part of that larger home-making for which every mother and
father should feel a responsibility.

=The Value of Life and of Things.= “The things that are seen are
temporal; the things that are not seen are eternal.” Do not mistake
the means for the end in housekeeping. Orderliness, immaculate linen,
garnished rooms are means. Good cheer, patience, kindliness, reserve
force, poise are of vastly greater value. Often it is necessary to
choose between the two. Cherish simplicity, beauty, courtesy, rather
than conventionality, aping of passing modes, vulgar show, and
ostentation in the house, equipment, household service, the clothing
of the family. Train every member of the family to be responsible for
the care of his own belongings and to wait upon himself as his share
in social coöperation.

Let the children from toddling time help in the household duties and
chores. It will be for their guardians a good training in patience,
adaptability, and sympathy. What if their work is crude, with many
mistakes and mishaps? They are learning motor coördinations, manual
dexterity, a knowledge of homely routine, the meaning of labor and
service, the joy of workmanship and creation, the satisfaction of
self-reliance, the happiness of intimate comradeship with mother
and father. Their character development is the great consideration,
not the materials they are handling or the petty work they are
accomplishing.




CHAPTER IV

FOUNDING A FAMILY

“The business of life is the transmission of the sacred torch of
heredity undimmed to future generations. This is the most precious of
all worths and values in the world.”

  —G. STANLEY HALL.

“The young people of the next and all succeeding generations must be
taught the supreme sanctity of parenthood—that the highest profession
and privilege they can aspire to is responsible fatherhood and
motherhood.”

  —C. W. SALEEBY.


=Solicitude for the Child as a Factor in Social Progress.= The
eugenic education of children is the real beginning. Parents can
give to the little children in the home true ideals of parenthood,
wholesome respect for maternity and paternity, training in the
control of desires and appetites, a controlling sense of their
personal and social responsibility, and true instruction regarding
the origin and creation of life.

So to live that their children shall be strong and happy is a motive
that a child can appreciate, and it can become the most powerful
incentive for hygienic living, for industry, education, for social
purity that is positive—noble in thought as well as restrictive
in action. Trained thus through childhood, boys and girls will be
prepared to meet with high-mindedness and moral stamina the storm and
stress of adolescence; their ideals of sweetheart and lover will have
a wholesome eugenic prejudice, and they will be prepared to discuss
with dignity, scientific spirit, and reverence this significant phase
of their future home life.

There is no essential contradiction between romantic love and
eugenics. Indeed, sincere, deep and enduring love of parents for each
other and for their children is an essential in a eugenic ideal. A
young woman knows a hundred young men, but is in love with only one
(or possibly none) because the others do not embody the ideal that
she has fashioned. Every young man and woman has such an ideal,
perhaps only vaguely defined but certainly felt, with which they are
in love, for which they search, and with which they sometimes invest
an acquaintance only to discover later their illusion. This ideal is
composed of the most alluring qualities and personalities they have
known.

What young man would be likely to fall in love with a girl,
however pretty, even charming, whom he knew could be the mother
only of sickly, peevish, stupid children to inherit his name and
perpetuate his family, or who would refuse to assume the burden
of motherhood? What normal young woman would be attracted by any
“fairy prince”, however romantic, wealthy, handsome, if she were
aware that his children, should he have any, would be doomed to
early death, weakness, or imbecility, and that she herself would
be made a sufferer for life? The widespread tendency of young
men and women of to-day to include beauty, vitality, and ability
in their romantic ideal is itself sufficient evidence. Young men
and women are generally too well balanced to marry simply from
eugenic consideration without romantic love, although this is
less reprehensible than marriage simply for title or livelihood,
for social distinction, or personal creature comfort without
consideration for either eugenics or romantic love. The prayer of
Hector, as he lifted his little child in his arms in the tower of
Troy, while the battle raged without the walls, is the prayer of the
parent heart everywhere, that the child shall be nobler and greater
than the father.

The normal biological life for every man and woman is parenthood.
The normal social relation between parents is mutual, abiding love.
Only through the development of such a love has humanity evolved from
the materialistic, individualistic stage of the animal to even the
present stage of spiritual life and social relationships.

It is mutual solicitude for the child that places the biological
relations of men and women on a wholesome, ethical, and spiritual
plane. Historically, marriage and monogamy are the result of
children. The social stigma upon illegitimacy is not artificial or
unreasonable. It is the deep appreciation by the social experience
of humanity that parental responsibility and solicitude is at the
very foundation of society; that the selfish, reckless use of this
creative power, or a cuckoo-like disregard for the child’s life,
is undermining to society as well as to the character of the man,
the woman, and their child. The far-sighted perceive, too, that
the undermining influence of physical relations without spiritual
purpose, of individualism that ignores social responsibilities, of
blind, unreasoning following of any impulse, in this, as in any phase
of life, is quite as destructive to the man, the woman, and society,
even without the penalty of the unwelcome child; that usually the man
is more blameworthy than the woman; that both are often the victims
of ignorance, lack of ideals, and of early training in responsibility
and self-control; and that similar selfish lack of solicitude for
their child is equally reprehensible within and without marriage.

The child is the equal creation, responsibility, and satisfaction
of both father and mother. The parent who willingly shirks the
responsibility for the care of his or her own child is a coward, if
not a knave or a defective. The father who would voluntarily forego
his share in the care and companionship of his child, or the mother
who would demand this, are equally lacking in parental instinct.

Celibacy, marriage without love, parenthood without marriage, are
equally undesirable. But if circumstances require a choice, celibacy
is less miserable for the individual and less detrimental to society.
It is part of the great social responsibility of parents and social
administrators to remove the causes of celibacy by:

1. Providing academic, social, and moral education that prepares
young men and women for congenial companionship and for home-making;

2. Making provision for wholesome recreational opportunities and
acquaintance, for young men and women of similar intellectual and
social interests;

3. Affording the economic opportunity for a family income for young
men by their early twenties, through vocational training, regulation
of the cost of commodities, direction of labor conditions;

4. Abolishing war, that fiendish Minotaur that not only interferes
with Nature’s provision of an equal number of men and women in any
generation, but that, more serious still, devours the ablest and
strongest of the young men, depriving millions of women of their
husbands and their children.

=The Meaning and Significance of Eugenics.= Eugenics, as defined by
Sir Francis Galton, is “the science which deals with all influences
that improve the inborn qualities of a race and that develop these
to their utmost advantage.” Wise men in former ages have perceived
something of its possibilities.

Positive eugenics is concerned with whatever will enhance the inborn
qualities of a new generation, therefore with social conditions
that promote the mating of the physically, mentally, and morally
able; with conditions that improve the quality of the germ cells
in the individual; with ideals that develop self-control and the
spiritualizing of the instinct of race preservation.

Negative eugenics is concerned with the elimination of hereditary
diseases and defects; with the prevention or correction of diseases,
defects, poisons, and practices in the parent that have a harmful
effect upon the germ cells and the unborn child; with the elimination
of social and moral conditions that endanger the life or handicap the
progress of unborn generations.

Genetics, the study of the laws of heredity, is the biological
foundation of the science of eugenics; ethics and religion are the
basis of practical eugenics.

In the past century great impetus was given to eugenic research and
ideals by Sir Francis Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin. Galton,
indeed, coined the word “eugenics” from two Greek words meaning
“well-born.” To quote from Galton’s own writings:

“Man is gifted with pity and other kindly feelings; he has also the
power of preventing many kinds of suffering. I can conceive it to be
within his power to replace Natural Selection by other processes that
are more merciful and not less effective. This is precisely the aim
of eugenics. Its first object is to check the birthrate of the unfit,
instead of allowing them to come into being, though doomed in large
numbers to perish prematurely. The second object is the improvement
of the race by furthering the productivity of the most fit by early
marriages and healthful rearing of their children. Natural Selection
rests upon excessive production and wholesale destruction; eugenics
on bringing into the world no more individuals than can be properly
cared for and those only the best stock.”

Galton devoted his time and his fortune to the investigation of these
principles and the propaganda of eugenic ideals. He made extensive
studies of family histories, especially to ascertain what evidence
they gave of the inheritance of physical, mental, and moral traits.
He organized the Eugenics Education Society, whose leaders include
eminent scientists, sociologists, physicians, educators, and under
whose auspices the First International Eugenics Congress was held in
London in 1912.

=Present Knowledge of Heredity.= More has been learned about heredity
in the past quarter century than in all previous history. Through the
inspiration of Galton, extensive studies have been made of family
histories in many countries, and not only has the certainty of
inheritance been established, but some of the laws of heredity have
been formulated. Through the laboratory studies made possible by the
improvements in the compound microscope, important discoveries have
been made of the physiological processes and the mechanism by which
characteristics are inherited. This is the summary of our present
knowledge:

Physical and mental characteristics are inherited.

Inheritance is of definite traits, such as eye color, height, musical
genius, high or low resistance to a germ disease, for example,
tuberculosis. Research work in genetics is at the present time
especially concerned with discovering what are the unit characters
and how each is transmitted.

Special cells, called germ cells, are the carriers of heredity;
these contain the determining factors for physical and mental
characteristics. These, like all the other cells of the body, are
microscopic in size. The body of the individual is the temple in
which the sacred cells of the race are protected.

Inheritance is not directly from the parent but from the germ cells,
which may carry characteristics not found in the parent but in
some of the other ancestors. An individual does not inherit what
his parents _are_ but what is in the two germ cells, one from the
mother, one from the father, that unite to form that individual.

With the union of the two germ cells the inborn characteristics
of the individual are determined, “the gate of gifts is closed.”
Environment and training may increase the strength, or minimize the
force of inborn characteristics, or even suppress some of them, but
it cannot add to them, or increase their force beyond their inherent
limitations.

Some few characteristics are inherited only through the mother, or
only through the father, or are transmitted only to the sons or only
to the daughters; most characteristics are not thus limited, but may
be transmitted by either parent to either son or daughter.

Acquired characteristics are not inherited. If a man loses his hand
in an accident, his descendants cannot inherit one-handedness; if
he masters a foreign tongue, his descendants cannot inherit his
knowledge of that language.

No disease germ is inherited, in the genetic sense of being conveyed
in the special germ cells. A child may be infected with a disease
before its birth; this is not, strictly speaking, heredity but
congenital (or prenatal) infection. Tuberculosis is sometimes thus
conveyed from the mother, and syphilis very frequently when either
the mother or the father has this disease even in latent form.
What may be inherited is a tendency toward a disease, a weakness
of specific organs or tissues, a lack of resistance to a specific
disease.

Variations sometimes appear apparently spontaneously, as the result
of some accident to the germ plasm, or an unusual combination in the
two germ cells; such variations may be inherited.

Some characteristics are apparently persistent, and in the process
of inheritance tend to predominate over their complementary
characteristics. The former are called dominant, the latter recessive
characteristics. The law by which dominant and recessive traits are
inherited was first formulated by Mendel, an Austrian monk, less than
half a century ago. Biological research is being devoted at present
to discovering what traits of human significance are subject to this
Mendelian law, as it is called.

A characteristic found in both parents, or in both families, has a
double possibility of appearing in their descendants, and some mental
defects and abilities tend to appear with greater force and at an
earlier age, in the descendants.

Every individual is born with all the germ cells he will ever possess.

These germ cells are highly susceptible to poisons in the
circulation, especially to:

(1) alcohol, even in dilute quantities,

(2) fatigue poisons,

(3) opium, morphine, and similar drugs,

(4) lead and other poisonous metals,

(5) lack of nutrition due to anemic condition of the body.

If a germ cell is thus affected by poison at the time of the uniting
of two cells, or during the subsequent development, the child is
especially liable to:

(a) serious injury resulting in death before birth;

(b) low vitality resulting in death within a year after birth;

(c) defective development resulting in physical deformity or in
mental defect, such as feeble-mindedness or idiocy.

If either parent is infected with syphilis, the germs most frequently
attack the developing child and cause death before birth or during
the first year; or the germs may attack any tissues, crippling,
producing deformities, deafness, blindness, idiocy, manifest either
at birth or later in life. If either parent is infected with
gonorrhea, the eyes of the child will probably be infected at birth,
and blindness prevented only by immediate use of silver nitrate
solution; or the mother may be made incapable of having a child.

=Fitness for Parenthood.= Even the minimum qualifications for
parenthood are various. For the fullest welfare of the child the
following qualifications are essential:

Spiritual: a sense of the responsibility of parenthood, love of
children; love of harmony and mutual agreement between parents;
self-control, unselfishness, patience.

Social: legal marriage, good moral character.

Economic: marketable skill, energy, adaptability; ability of father
to earn a comfortable living, potential ability of mother to earn a
living, ability to use income economically.

Mental: Maturity, experience, judgment to conduct one’s share of
the family and household responsibility, ability to learn; for the
mother, knowledge of at least the elements of hygiene, child-care and
training, some experience in caring for little children.

Physical: physical and mental soundness; sound heredity, especially
freedom from neuropathic taint, alcoholism, tuberculosis, venereal
disease (syphilis or gonorrhea); freedom from poisons of alcohol,
fatigue, worry, overwork; mother not less than twenty or more than
forty-five; father not less than twenty, preferably past twenty-four;
maximum vitality and physical energy.

Blood tests recently discovered make possible the diagnosis of
tuberculosis and venereal disease in the system, even when no
symptoms are obvious. It is estimated that about twenty to thirty per
cent. of cases of venereal disease are innocently acquired, through
public drinking cups, towels, lavatories, toilets, or by infection
of the husband or wife after marriage. Infection is usually acquired
through sex immorality. The certainty of a cure can never be made
absolute; the probability requires years of persistent treatment by
a responsible physician, not a quack. The man who has “sown his wild
oats” has verily sold his birthright for a mess of pottage, and is
most liable to have acquired one of these loathsome diseases, habits
of drinking, and of self-indulgence. It is dangerous to his wife and
children for him to become a father until all of these have been
overcome. A woman who contemplates marrying such a man to reform him
is inviting disease and destruction upon herself and her children.

Some individuals should never become parents because they carry
so serious an hereditary taint which some of their children would
probably inherit and carry on. This includes individuals afflicted
with the following:

  Neuropathic taint: feeble-mindedness, idiocy, insanity, mania,
  epilepsy, hysteria, chorea, sex perversion, alcoholism

  Syphilis

  Tuberculosis

  Deaf-mutism

  Otosclerosis (hardness of hearing due to rigid eardrum)

  Catarrhal deafness

  Retinitis (progressive degeneration of retina and atrophy of optic
  nerve, producing blindness)

  Albinism (absence of coloring in hair and eyes)

  Inherent lack of physical energy; pauperism

If an individual with a family history that includes one of these
taints in hereditary form should marry an individual having a family
history with the same taint, some of their children would probably
be afflicted with the taint, and others of them would carry it on.
Marriage of blood relations, such as cousins, is subject to this
law; it is eugenically permissible, provided the same hereditary
defect does not appear in both family histories.

The most advantageous years for parenthood, for the welfare of the
children, are between twenty or twenty-five and forty years of age
for the mother and past twenty-five years for the father. An interval
of two or three years should elapse between the children, to give
ample opportunity for the mother to gain reserve vitality and to care
adequately for each child.

On the average, four children to a family are required merely to
maintain a constant population; families in which the average is less
than this are in danger of extinction.

As soon as its far-reaching significance to themselves and to their
children is generally perceived by parents and young people, men
and women who genuinely love each other will voluntarily give and
absolutely require a medical certificate before marriage. Before
undertaking the responsibility of parenthood, both mother and father
should put themselves into the best possible physical and spiritual
condition, and if necessary, go through as thorough a course of
training as that of any aspirant for an athletic prize or of any
priest for a great spiritual work. The Vedas, the sacred books of the
Hindoos, contained special prayers for those about to assume this
creative work.

Nature has provided one effective, safe, and ethical method of
limiting the birth rate in the family, a method that is entirely in
the control of parents. This method is abstinence, except for the end
to which nature implanted this instinct,—the creation of a new life.
It is conducive to the welfare of the children. This is in no wise
harmful to the physical, mental, social, or spiritual well-being of
men and women, if both are temperamentally adapted to each other,
mutually agreed, and thoroughly honest with each other; if they have
learned to transmute this instinct and energy to other activities;
and if their recreations, personal hygiene, and adjustment of daily
living are normal and wholesome, not artificially stimulating.

In conclusion, to quote from two English writers:

  “By no other means than the realization of the ideal that every new
  baby shall be loved and desired in anticipation—an ideal that is
  perfectly practicable—can the black stain of child murder and child
  torture and neglect be removed from our civilization.”

  —Saleeby.

  “Hitherto the development of our race has been unconscious, and we
  have been allowed no responsibility for its right course. Now in
  the fullness of time we are treated as children no more, and the
  conscious fashioning of the human race is given into our hands. Let
  us put away childish things, stand up with open eyes, and face our
  responsibilities.”

  —Whetham.




CHAPTER V

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

  “The child should know no other endeavor but to be at every stage
  of development wholly what this stage calls for. Then will each
  successive stage spring like a new shoot from a healthy bud; and
  at each successive stage he will with the same endeavor again
  accomplish the requirements of this stage; for only the adequate
  development of man at each preceding stage can effect and bring
  about adequate development at each succeeding later stage.”

  —F. FROEBEL.


Children do not grow and develop by any haphazard process. Too often
parents have had so little, either of first-hand acquaintance with
other children, recollection of their own childhood, or knowledge of
the literature of child-study, that they have fumbled in the dark,
misunderstanding and experimenting on their own children, without
either standards for comparison or principles for guidance.

There is a wealth of material, both technical and popular, available
in this “century of the child.” The impetus given to the study of the
child by Pestalozzi and Froebel a century ago has gained increasing
momentum in Europe and America. Some investigators have made
laborious studies of large numbers of children to ascertain average
rates and factors of growth or development of some part of the body
or some phase of spirit. Others have made painstaking, intensive
studies of individual children and have reported the characteristics
observed at different ages.

The outlines, main features, and basal principles are already
defined. A knowledge of these is as essential to the intelligent
worker with children as a knowledge of the processes of plant growth
and development to the intelligent agriculturist. Many blanks and
gaps in our knowledge of child development are yet to be filled. The
father, mother, teacher who is sympathetic with child nature, who has
the scientific mind for accuracy, definiteness and persistence of
observation, has an opportunity to contribute to the common fund of
knowledge of child life by making original observations of the child
in the home. Hitherto most of the published studies, both of groups
and of individuals, have been made by men. Doctor G. Stanley Hall
has been the pioneer leader and chief inspirer of the child-study
movement in America. Doctor John Dewey’s contributions and
inspirations have been both profound and extensive. Madame Montessori
is the one woman who has made large contributions.

It should be noted that a science of child-study and development
was not possible until the idea of evolution became known and
appreciated. Froebel sensed this evolution, as will be noted in
reading his “Education of Man”, which was published a quarter of a
century before Darwin’s “Origin of Species.”

This phase of psychology—tracing the stages of mental development
as an organic process from its simple beginnings in the individual
or the race to its maturity in adulthood of the individual or
civilization of the race—is the field of genetic psychology.

The intelligent worker with children in the home must be acquainted
with what is normal and usual at any stage, in child anatomy,
physiology, and psychology. Only with such knowledge is it possible
to make intelligent observations of the development of the individual
child, and to supply a normal environment and guidance suited to his
stage of development. Such knowledge and preparation can be acquired
only through study of the literature of child psychology, and through
intensive, first-hand acquaintance with children.

It requires about twenty-five years for nature to bring a human
individual from birth to physiological maturity. In the nine months
before birth the growth and development is very rapid. All the organs
are formed, but their development at birth is immature, especially
the development of the nervous system. What is accomplished in these
years?


From Birth to Maturity

  Total weight   increases from 16 to 22 fold.
  Length of body     ”           3 fold
  Size of muscles    ”          37  ”
  Size of lungs      ”          18  ”
  Size of heart      ”          13  ”
  Size of brain      ”           3  ”
  Weight of arm      ”           4  ”
  Weight of leg      ”           5  ”

Note the great differences in increase of different parts of the body.

  =At Birth=                         =At Maturity (25 years)=

  Stomach undeveloped                 Complete digestive development
  Few digestive juices                All
  No provision for digesting          Digestion of all food elements,
    starch until 8 or 9 months;         including solids
    fats (except cream); protein
    (except curds of milk); solid
    food
  No teeth cut                        Two sets of teeth cut
  Sense organs: incomplete            Senses fully developed
    development, especially           Fine sense discrimination
    sight and hearing
  Reproductive system rudimentary     Reproductive system mature
  Nerve cells undeveloped             Nervous system complex and
  Few association fibers formed         developed
  Medullary sheath not formed
  Motor ability limited to crying,    Motor coördination of all muscles,
    grasping, reflex movements          including accessory eye
    of arms and legs                    and finger muscles
  Mental ability limited to few       Concentration, imagination,
    vague, unlocated sensations,        judgment, speech, all well
    slight motor memory                 developed
  Language only a cry or instinctive  Fluent use of language
    movements of head, arms, legs
  Emotions limited to slight          Wide range of emotions, potentially
    pleasure-pain; no control           controlled and expressed
  Volition rudimentary                Will power to achieve any purpose
  Social, moral, religious instincts  Sense of law and property rights
    undeveloped                       Social coöperation
                                      Moral standards, judgments,
                                        and habits
                                      Religious feeling and action

After twenty-five years there is sometimes a slight increase in
height and weight; plasticity is slight; new habits are not readily
formed; new ideas not readily accepted. The nervous system is capable
of continued development.

There are a few foundation facts and principles that should be
summarized before taking up in detail the stages of growth and
development.

The child is not a small edition of an adult. His anatomical
proportions, his physiological processes, his ways of thought and
of thinking, his motives, interests, likes, emotions, methods of
expression, are all different from the adult’s; and they are all
different at different stages in his development.

The child lives through (recapitulates) in a general way the main
stages and order of physical and psychological development that
organic life and the race have passed through in the countless ages
since life began. Starting as a one-celled creature, he recapitulates
in the nine months of embryonic life the processes of evolution that
required millions of years, from the amœba to the higher vertebrates,
in the evolution of the species.

At birth the baby is less developed and more plastic than the young
of any other creature at its birth. This helplessness and plasticity
are due to the incompleteness in development of the nervous system.
It is because of this incompleteness that the physical, mental, and
spiritual life can be shaped in great measure by environment. It
is this incompleteness that provides both the opportunity and the
responsibility of parents and guardians.

For normal development there must be both the growth principle and
power within the individual, and the growth stimulus and materials
supplied by the environment.

The rate and nature of growth and development are influenced by two
factors: (1) heredity (race, family); (2) environment (climate,
social status, economic resources, city or country, materialistic or
idealistic atmosphere, commonplace or cultured, ugly or beautiful,
expressive or repressive, guiding or neglectful).

Growth and development are two different processes. Growth is
increase in size; development is increase in power of function. This
principle holds true for every muscle, every nerve, every special
organ, every brain center.

Growth is a vegetative process, dependent upon intake of nutrition
and elimination of waste. Development is dependent upon use, which
involves the exercise of the organ or system and of the related brain
center, and this leads to both (a) the initial use of mind and (b)
mental development.

Each organ, each physiological system or process, each mental
process, is controlled by its own definite nerve cells in the spinal
cord and brain. By exercise of the specific organ or system, the
corresponding nerve center is developed; and the development of the
nerve center makes possible a more adequate and perfect use of the
specific organ or system.

During the growth stage of any part, exercise of the part is not
normal but injurious. When sufficient growth has been attained for
development to begin, there is an instinctive desire or hunger for
exercise of the part. This desire is manifested by the natural,
spontaneous activity or interest of the child. For example, during
some ten or twelve months the muscles of the legs and back, and
corresponding nerve centers in the spinal cord and the brain, are
growing. When their growth is attained, these muscles and nerve
centers begin to function in the process of standing and walking,
and the child makes every effort to walk. To put him on his feet
and attempt to teach him before this stage, is to strain unprepared
organs, bones, muscles, and nerves. To keep him lying in a vehicle
so he cannot exercise when he spontaneously attempts to walk, is to
retard or prevent this natural development.

The process of growth and development is not uniform during
childhood; neither do all the parts grow and develop at the same
time. Growth is periodic and by parts; it is variable for each part
or system. There are periods of slow or rapid growth and development
at different ages.

Development begins first for the oldest (racially) muscles and parts,
and for those that are being used reflexly, that is, arms, legs,
trunk, hands, which are known as the fundamental muscles. The finer,
accessory muscles and their brain centers do not develop completely
until several years after birth.

There are no average children. Every child is somewhat different.
In rate of growth, children may normally vary one to two years from
the average. In individual children, some factors at any stage will
normally be more marked than others. Distinction must therefore
be made between (1) chronological age, (2) physiological age, and
(3) psychological age. The standards for (2) and (3) are at present
the subject of special researches. Physiological age refers to such
factors as dentition, development of bones, height, weight, sex
maturity. Psychological age refers to mental ability and maturity.

In some children the hereditary force of a specific characteristic
is stronger than in other children. Or the environment of one child
gives greater stimulus to an instinct at its nascent (beginning)
period, and greater opportunity for its use.

The individual who lives most completely in each stage the life
normal to that stage, is best prepared for the succeeding stages of
life.

To attempt to hurry a child through this process or to permit an
arrest of development in any stage or at any point, is to seriously
handicap the child’s normal and complete development. Infant
prodigies and infantile youths are both abnormal.

In each stage there are some instincts to be especially fostered,
some that need encouragement or stimulation, some that require
careful direction into useful channels, some to be ignored as only
transitory, and a few that may need inhibiting.

The following group of stages has been prepared as possibly most
helpful for guidance of parents and teachers in the home. The
transition from one stage to another is gradual.

In so brief a summary as the following, only a few of the most
significant items can be presented, and these typical of the average.
This is not a form into which every child must be expected to fit.
Rather it is a suggestion of the usual, which the individual normal
child will approximate in general. It presents a method for recording
the development of the individual child.


Infancy

Birth to 2-3 Years

Marked Characteristics:

  Rapid growth, especially of brain
  First dentition
  Nervous system rapidly developing
  Association fibers developing between spinal centers and brain centers
  Bones, nervous system plastic
  Rapid heat radiation
  Rapid pulse, respiration
  Tissues flabby
  Low vitality
  Motor and sensory development rapid
  Motor coördinations developing rapidly
  Speech develops

  Interest in pure motor activity, and sensory experiences
  Thinking exceeds power of expression
  All mental processes developing
  Curiosity about everything seen, handled, heard
  Perceptions crude, few
  Unconsciously imitative
  Activity an end in itself
  Imagination crude, vague
  Reasons by association of circumstances

  Emotions crude, uncontrolled
  Fear of noises and strange objects
  Humor in surprise

  Social dependence
  Little self-control
  Obedience
  Trust


Early Childhood

2-3 to 6-7 Years

Marked Characteristics:

  Rapid growth
  Nervous system rapidly developing
  Rapid growth of brain until 7 yrs.
  Fundamental muscles utilized
  Accessory muscles immature

  Activity its own end
  Experiments in motor control

  Greatest sensory development and efficiency
  Curiosity, analysis, investigation, experimentation strong
  Interest in simple construction
  Constructs for use

  Thought concrete
  Suggestibility
  Continued plasticity
  Attention flitting
  Asks “What?” “Why?”
  Memory for words
  Æsthetic tastes crude
  Frankness
  Crude experience and association of ideas

  Vivid, concrete imagination; images distorted
  Imitation at its strongest
  Imitative dramatic play
  Humor in incongruity
  Curiosity regarding sex biology
  Sex feeling undeveloped
  Emotions strong, slight control
  Imaginary fears
  Self-control weak
  Selfish, thoughtless
  Respect for parents
  Wonder at universe
  Obedience
  Personification of nature
  Conscience begins


Infancy and Early Childhood

Birth to 6 Years

Foster:

  Sensory and motor activity
  Trustfulness
  Curiosity
  Investigation
  Acquaintance with world of realities
  Initiative
  Wide range of interests
  Fanciful imagination
  Formation of permanent habits
  Sense of wonder

Cultivate:

  Regularity
  Respect for authority
  Concentration
  Thoughtfulness for others
  Courtesy
  Emotional control
  Permanent moral prejudices
  Thrift

Inhibit, or Overcome:

  Social dependence
  Fear
  Selfishness

Reckon with:

  Slow mental adjustment

  Motor awkwardness

  Misunderstanding of instructions

  Mischief, which is the result of an abundance of vitality,
  initiative, sense of humor, investigating spirit; it is not
  something to condemn, but for which to provide natural environment.

  Rudeness, which is due to childish frankness, democracy,
  thoughtlessness, examples of discourtesy.

  Curiosity regarding biology of sex, to be answered honestly but
  poetically under three years and biologically after three.

  Telling of falsehoods, from 3 to 7 years of age, frequently due to
  the vivid, imaginative life that the child is living, his relative
  inexperience with the world of realities, and the difficulty,
  therefore, of keeping the distinction clear between the two.


Later Childhood

6-7 to 9-10 Years

Marked Characteristics:

  Growth progressing
  Differences in growth rate of boys and girls
  Second dentition
  Sensory and motor activities prominent
  Heart and lungs relatively small
  Brain growing slowly, attains adult size
  Eye development still incomplete: near sight

  Finger movements stronger, more precise
  Rapid increase in motor control
  Forearm and finger control develops
  Manual skill easily acquired

  Interest in workmanship
  Ideals exceed ability
  Plasticity to habit
  Receptivity
  Routine easy
  Experimentation, exploration strong
  Interest in variety
  Actions not well coördinated
  Lack of perseverance
  Easily discouraged
  Adjustment to realities
  Images truer to reality
  Memory strong for concrete
  Period of imaginative activity
  Less direct imitation
  Imitative and imaginative dramatic play
  Emotions becoming controlled
  Fears strong
  Self-control vacillating
  Humor in puns, riddles

  Appreciation of rules in game
  Beginning of social sense in group play
  Slight sense of property rights
  Slight conscience
  Interest in religious forms (imitative)

Foster:

  Exploration
  Experimentation
  Moral habits
  Imaginative play
  Variety of interests
  Doll interest
  Motor coördinations—skating, dancing, swimming

Cultivate:

  Power of voluntary attention
  Self-control
  Initiative
  Modesty
  Conventional courtesies
  Respect for property rights

Inhibit:

  Cruelty
  Fears

Reckon with:

  Fatigue, due to bodily conditions
  Discouragement, from greater increase in ideals than in
  technical ability

Youth

Girls, 9 to 12-14 Years

Boys, 9 to 14-16 Years

Marked Characteristics:

  Slower growth
  Period of transition
  Practical adjustment
  Reproductive organs maturing
  Period of low morbidity
  Heart and lungs relatively small

  Great motor activity
  Reactions vigorous
  Resistance to fatigue
  Immunity to exposure, danger,
  temptation
  Senses acute
  New adjustments and coördinations readily made
  Routine and rote enjoyed
  Motor skill easily acquired
  Keen interest in workmanship and motor skill
  Constructs for concrete purposes or use

  Mental action better controlled, more connected, orderly
  Memory quick, sure, lasting
  More critical
  Sex consciousness develops

  Emotions weaker
  Fear increases
  Teasing other children

  Less submissive to elders
  Competitive sense increases
  Conscience weak
  Reverence weaker
  Religious indifference

Foster:

  Muscular activity
  Motor and manual skill
  Drill, memorizing
  Routine, discipline
  Three R’s.
  Responsibility

Cultivate:

  Fine handwork
  Thoroughness
  Reserve (in girls)
  Chivalry (in boys)
  Confidence in parents

Inhibit:

  Athletic competition (too great strain on heart)
  Fear

Reckon with:

  Less confidence in adults
  Group interest
  Secretiveness

Adolescence

Girls, 12 to 18 Years

Boys, 13 to 21 Years

Marked Characteristics:

  Rapid growth and development
  Proportions changing
  Lungs, heart increase in size and function
  Blood pressure increases
  Muscular strength increases
  Voice changes
  Awkwardness
  Senses keen

  Craving for larger experience
  Routine irksome
  Power of concentration
  Abstract thought
  Independent thought
  Mental speculation
  Larger mental perspective
  Memory strong, includes abstract
  Abstract reasoning
  Debating
  Imagination strong, comprehensive
  Original thought and action
  Organized dramatics
  Individuality increases
  Works for remote ends

  Restive of restraint
  Sex feelings increase
  Romantic interest strong
  Social sympathy increases
  Social coöperation
  Subject to moods
  Shyness and bashfulness

  Conscience keener or very callous
  Sense of duty develops
  Spirit of social service or rowdyism
  Religious feeling
  Conversion period
  Criminal period
  Idealism
  Hero-worship

Foster:

Idealism

  Hero-worship
  Altruism
  Religious feeling
  Group interest; team work
  Leadership, individuality
  Reasoning, debating
  Constructive imagination
  Athletics; physical activity

Cultivate:

  Sense of reality
  Emotional poise
  Responsibility
  Strength of will
  Mutual sympathy (parent and youth)
  Variety of interests
  Vocational choice
  Outdoor life

Inhibit:

  Depression and pessimism
  Finicalness
  Recklessness

Reckon with:

  Emotional upheaval
  Philosophical speculation
  Sex interest
  Awkwardness, bashfulness
  Self-consciousness
  Reserve with family


Development of Language

Children vary naturally, and according to their environment, in the
rate of development in use of language. Any effort to hasten the
process of talking or vocabulary during the first four or five years
is an artificial forcing that is more likely to retard development.
The following represents all that should be expected of a normal
child.

  First six months: crying, gesture language

  Second six months: babbling, imitation of sounds, gesture language

  One year: three to ten words

  One to two years: vocabulary of 100 to 500 words; two-word sentences

  Two to three years: 500 to 1500 new words; begins use of pronouns

  Three to four years: 500 new words; complete sentences

  Four to five years: articulation nearly perfect; interest in rhyming

  Five to six years: articulation perfect; inflection of nouns and
  verbs nearly perfect; interest in nonsense words; use of drawing

  Six to nine years: grammar usually correct; interest in puns and in
  secret language; use of drawing as language expression; imitative
  interest in symbols of language (alphabet, reading, writing)

  Nine to twelve years: genuine interest in language symbols; easily
  learns reading and writing; with limited vocabulary, slang develops


PHYSICAL AND MENTAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

  ==================+=================+==================+=============
    PHYSICAL        |  BIRTH          |    FIRST         |     SECOND
  CHARACTERISTICS   |                 | SIX MONTHS       |   SIX MONTHS
  ——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+—————————————
  Organs rapidly    |                 | Muscles, bones,  | As first 6
    growing         |                 | brain, viscera   | months, and
                    |                 |                  | teeth
  Organs            | Head, surface,  | Head, intestines,|     ”
    proportionately | intestines,     | liver, surface   |
    large           | liver           |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Organs            | Stomach,        | Stomach, lungs,  |     ”
    proportionately | lung capacity,  | heart, legs      |
    small           | legs            |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Organs            |                 | Anti-bodies,     |     ”
    proportionately |                 | kidneys          |
    strong in       |                 |                  |
    function        |                 |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Organs            | Digestive and   | Digestive,       |     ”
    proportionately | respiratory     | respiratory,     |
    weak in         | systems;        | nervous systems; |
    function        | tissues flabby  | leucocytes,      |
                    |                 | hemoglobin       |
                    |                 |                  |
  Dentition         | No teeth        | 2 teeth          | 6-8 teeth
                    | (rudiments of   |                  |
                    | both sets in    |                  |
                    | jaw)            |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Nerves            | Total number of | Easily exhausted;| As first six
                    | cells but       | peripheral       | months;
                    | development     | nerves sensitive;| spinal and
                    | incomplete      | sensory and      | brain
                    |                 | motor centers    | associations
                    |                 | developing       | connecting
                    |                 |                  |
  Sense development | No hearing;     | Hearing begins;  | Color sense,
                    | sight only for  | eyes begin to    | sound,
                    | light and       | converge and     | rhythm
                    | darkness; touch | work together    | developing
                    | vague;          |                  |
                    | sensitiveness   |                  |
                    | to temperature  |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Special organs    | Lungs           | Muscles of arms, | As first
    or systems at   |                 | legs, trunk,     | 6 months;
    developmental   |                 | hand; lungs      | muscles of
    stage, needing  |                 |                  | creeping,
    much immediate  |                 |                  | hand,
    exercise        |                 |                  | speech organs
                    |                 |                  |
  Defects easily    | Eyestrain;      | Bones misshaped; | As first
    acquired        | blindness       | eyestrain;       | six months
                    |                 | nerves;          |
                    |                 | disposition      |
                    |                 |                  |
  Defects easily    | Phimosis        | Bones;           |      ”
    overcome        |                 | temperament;     |
                    |                 | phimosis;        |
                    |                 | tongue-tie,      |
                    |                 | harelip          |
                    |                 |                  |
  Illness most      | Cold, pneumonia,| Digestive,       |      ”
    susceptible     | jaundice,       | pulmonary;       |
                    | inflammation    | rickets;         |
                    | of navel        | nervous          |
                    |                 | disorders,       |
                    |                 | erysipelas       |
                    |                 |                  |
  Most common       | Congenital      | Congenital       |      ”
    immediate       | debility;       | debility,        |
    causes          | syphilis;       | digestive        |
    of death[2]     | prematurity,    | disturbances,    |
                    | accidents       | pneumonia,       |
                    |                 | whooping cough,  |
                    |                 | bronchitis,      |
                    |                 | convulsions,     |
                    |                 | measles,         |
                    |                 | meningitis       |
                    |                 |                  |
  Nature and rate   | Vague,          | Slow, vague,     | More
    of mentality    | indefinite,     | diffused         | definite,
                    | slow, groping   |                  | alert,
                    |                 |                  | quickened
                    |                 |                  |
  Motor activities  | Chiefly reflex  | Grasping,        | Sitting,
                    |                 | waving arms,     | creeping
                    |                 | hands; kicking;  | standing,
                    |                 | few vocal sounds | prattle
                    |                 |                  |
  Sense activity    | Slight, vague   | Touch, sight,    | Sight, touch,
                    |                 | hearing becoming | hearing,
                    |                 | active           | active
                    |                 |                  |
  Attention         | None            | Begins in        | Listening,
                    |                 | staring,         | examining
                    |                 | handling         |
                    |                 |                  |
  Perception        |  ”              | Dimly begins     | Vague
                    |                 |                  |
  Curiosity         |  ”              | Begins, vague    | Objects in
                    |                 |                  | reach,
                    |                 |                  | opening doors,
                    |                 |                  | pulling;
                    |                 |                  | exploring
                    |                 |                  | cupboards
                    |                 |                  |
  Imitation         |  ”              | Of moods and     | Mechanical, of
                    |                 | vocal sounds of  | vocal sounds,
                    |                 | adults           | moods, facial
                    |                 |                  | expression
                    |                 |                  |
  Memory            | Slight          | Faint, vague;    | For familiar
                    |                 | motor            | acts and faces,
                    |                 |                  | responses
                    |                 |                  | to his crying
                    |                 |                  |
  Imagination       | None            | Glimmerings      | Glimmerings
                    |                 |                  |
  Reasoning         |   ”             | Dawning, by      | By
                    |                 | association      | association,
                    |                 |                  | increasing
                    |                 |                  |
  Social instincts  |   ”             | Egoistic, strong;| Trust, desire
                    |                 | trustful,        | for
                    |                 | responsive to    | companionship
                    |                 | care             | of adults
                    |                 |                  |
  Sense of law      |   ”             | Vaguely sensed,  | Developed
                    |                 | as association   | through regular
                    |                 | of cause and     | regimen and
                    |                 | effect; and in   | beginnings of
                    |                 | rhythm of        | obedience,
                    |                 | regular regimen  | especially to
                    |                 |                  | direct commands
                    |                 |                  |
  Emotions          | Slight, vague   | Fear, sympathy,  | Control weak
                    |                 | confidence,      | but susceptible
                    |                 | satisfaction,    | to training
                    |                 | anger            |
                    |                 |                  |
  Sense of humor    | None            | None; smiling    | Shown in
                    |                 | begins           | surprise,
                    |                 |                  | plays, laughing
                    |                 |                  |
  Will              |   ”             | Temperamental    | Persistent;
                    |                 | expression       | shown in temper
                    |                 |                  |
  Religion          |   ”             | Begins in trust, | Human sympathy,
                    |                 | dependence       | confidence,
                    |                 |                  | obedience

  ——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+—————————————
      PHYSICAL      |   SECOND YEAR   |    THIRD YEAR    |  FOURTH YEAR
   CHARACTERISTICS  |                 |                  |
  ——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+—————————————
  Organs rapidly    | Brain, teeth,   | Trunk, brain,    | Upper arm,
    growing         | muscles, bones, | teeth            | thigh; brain
                    | viscera         |                  | still
                    |                 |                  | increasing;
                    |                 |                  | bones
                    |                 |                  |
  Organs            | Intestines,     | As second year   | As second year
    proportionately | liver, kidneys, |                  |
    large           | arteries, head, |                  |
                    | surface         |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Organs            | Legs, lungs,    |      ”           | Lungs, legs,
    proportionately | heart           |                  | heart
    small           |                 |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Organs            |                 | Heart,           | As third year
    proportionately |                 | fundamental      |
    strong in       |                 | muscles          |
    function        |                 |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Organs            | As first year   | Eyes, hands,     | As third year
    proportionately |                 | fingers, legs,   |
    weak in         |                 | nerves,          |
    function        |                 | digestive,       |
                    |                 | respiratory      |
                    |                 |                  |
  Dentition         | 6 teeth cut     | Completion of    |
                    |                 | first set        |
                    |                 |                  |
  Nerves            | Motor           | Sensory-motor    | Sensory keen,
                    | coördinations   | coördinations    | motor
                    | developing,     | forming          | coördinations
                    | association     |                  | rapidly
                    | centers         |                  | developing
                    | developing      |                  | (fundamental)
                    |                 |                  |
  Sense development | Hearing         | Touch, muscular, | Increasing
                    | discriminate;   | sight, sound;    | keenness,
                    | touch becoming  | increasing       | discrimination
                    | keen, sight     | discrimination   |
                    | definite,       |                  |
                    | focused         |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Special organs    | Muscles of      | Trunk, back,     | Arms, legs,
    or systems at   | walking,        | arms, legs,      | trunk;
    developmental   | forearm,        | hands, speech,   | sensory-motor
    stage, needing  | hand; speech,   | senses, teeth,   | coördinations;
    much immediate  | sight, touch,   | respiratory      | sensory
    exercise        | hearing; teeth  |                  | nerves;
                    |                 |                  | teeth; lungs
                    |                 |                  |
  Defects easily    | Bones; teeth,   | Bones, teeth,    | Eyes, bones,
    acquired        | speech, nerves, | speech, nerves   | speech,
                    | disposition     |                  | nerves, teeth
                    |                 |                  |
  Defects easily    | Bones;          | Bones, teeth,    | Eyes, bones,
    overcome        | cleft palate,   | speech, eyes     | speech, teeth
                    | temperament     |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Illness most      | Digestive,      | Digestive,       | Digestive,
    susceptible to  | respiratory;    | respiratory;     | respiratory;
                    | ears, throat,   | ears, throat,    | measles,
                    | nerves; scurvy, | infectious       | scarlet fever,
                    | rickets         | fevers           | whooping
                    |                 |                  | cough, colds
                    |                 |                  |
  Most common       | Digestive       | Period of        | Low death rate
    immediate       | disturbances,   | low death rate;  | Pneumonia,
    causes of death | croup,          | pneumonia,       | diptheria,
                    | pneumonia,      | tuberculosis,    | croup,
                    | diptheria,      | croup,           | tuberculosis,
                    | bronchitis,     | diptheria,       | meningitis
                    | tuberculosis,   | meningitis,      |
                    | measles,        | scarlet fever    |
                    | meningitis      |                  |

  Nature and rate   | Gaining in      | Impulsive,       | Active, slow
    of mentality    | definiteness,   | flitting, slow   |
                    | slow            |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Motor activities  | Alertness, but  | Increasing       | Quiet games
                    | inefficient     | coördination of  | preferred to
                    | Runs, throws    | legs, arms, eye, | active;
                    |                 | and hand         | dawdling;
                    |                 |                  | spontaneous
                    |                 |                  |
  Sense activity    | Keen,           | Handling,        | At best, most
                    | especially      | listening; sight,| active
                    | touch           | touch, sound     |
                    | Acquiring       | discrimination   |
                    | discrimination  |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Attention         | Increasing      | Flitting,        | Voluntary—weak
                    |                 | concentration    | Involuntary—
                    |                 | increased in     |  strong
                    |                 | doing            |
                    |                 |                  |
  Perception        | Gaining         | Still vague, but | Still vague,
                    | clearness,      | becoming         | improving
                    | definiteness    | definite         |
                    |                 |                  |
  Curiosity         | Insatiable;     | Varied; names;   | Insatiable
                    | objects in      | animals;         |
                    | environment     | mechanical       |
                    |                 | processes        |
                    |                 |                  |
  Imitation         | Constant, of    | Adult actions,   | Chiefly adult
                    | adult actions,  | speech, moods    | occupations,
                    | voice           |                  | less
                    |                 |                  | impulsive;
                    |                 |                  | literal
                    |                 |                  |
  Memory            | For names of    | Verbal and motor | Verbal, motor
                    | things;         | good; emotions   | and emotional
                    | emotions,       |                  | strong
                    | simple movements|                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Imagination       | Slightly        | Concrete, vivid  | Auditory and
                    | increasing      |                  | motor images
                    |                 |                  | more distinct
                    |                 |                  | than visual;
                    |                 |                  | concrete
                    |                 |                  |
  Construction      | Building        | Persistent, for  | For activity,
                    |                 | motor activity   | immediate use
                    |                 |                  |
  Reasoning         | By association  | By association   | By association;
                    | of experiences  | of experiences   | ludicrous
                    |                 |                  | inferences;
                    |                 |                  | guessing period
                    |                 |                  |
  Social instincts  | Increasing sense| Social dependence| Self-assertive;
                    | of ownership    | on an adult;     | selfish;
                    |                 | slight play with | quarrels
                    |                 | other children   | over property
                    |                 |                  |
  Sense of law      | Discerned in    | Dim: susceptible | Disorderliness;
                    | regularity of   | to training;     | imaginative
                    | régime: in      | sense of         | tales taken for
                    | commands,       | ownership        | lying
                    | rewards,        | developing       |
                    | punishments     |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Emotions          | Trust, fear,    | Love, fear,      | Easily aroused,
                    | anger           | anger easily     | keen; pity
                    |                 | stirred;         | begins;
                    |                 | little control   | imaginary fears
                    |                 |                  |
  Sense of humor    | In surprises,   | In grotesque     | Persistent;
                    | in tumbles      | situations, being| crude; in
                    |                 | caught, hiding   | grotesque
                    |                 |                  |
  Will              | Vacillating,    | Little control   | Unreasonable;
                    | temperamental   |                  | persistent
                    |                 |                  |
  Religion          | Respect for     | Obedience, trust,| Animistic;
                    | parents, trust  | respect for      | invests
                    | Obedience to    | authority        | inanimate
                    | parents         |                  | things with
                    |                 |                  | life

  ——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+—————————————
      PHYSICAL      |    FIFTH YEAR   |    SIXTH YEAR    |LATER CHILDHOOD
   CHARACTERISTICS  |                 |                  |   6-9 years
  ——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+—————————————
  Organs rapidly    | See 4th year    | Legs, arms,      | Motor cells in
    growing         |                 | chest girth      | brain
                    |                 |                  | Period of
                    |                 |                  | slower physical
                    |                 |                  | growth;
                    |                 |                  | cessation
                    |                 |                  | of rapid
                    |                 |                  | brain growth
                    |                 |                  |
  Organs            | Surface,        | As 5th year      | Digestive
    proportionately | intestines,     |                  | system,
    large           | kidneys,        |                  | liver, kidneys,
                    | arteries        |                  | surface, legs
                    |                 |                  |
  Organs            | As 4th year     | As 4th year      | Trunk, heart,
    proportionally  |                 |                  | lungs
    small           |                 |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Organs            | Digestive and   | Digestive and    | Leg muscles
    proportionately | respiratory     | respiratory      |
    strong in       | ability         | ability          |
    function        | increasing      | increasing       |
                    |                 |                  |
  Organs            | Accessory       | As 5th year      | Heart; low
    proportionally  | muscles and     |                  | blood pressure;
    weak in         | nerves; eyes,   |                  | teeth
    function        | fingers, throat |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Dentition         |                 | Sheds some first | 2nd dentition
                    |                 | teeth            |
                    |                 |                  |
  Nerves            | Association     | As 5th year      | Rapid growth
                    | fibres rapidly  |                  | of association
                    | developing;     |                  | fibres
                    | see 4th year    |                  | in brain;
                    |                 |                  | easily fatigued
                    |                 |                  | in 8th year
                    |                 |                  |
  Sense Development | Keen            | Senses           | Eyes developed
                    | development     | correlated;      | for finer work
                    |                 | finer            |
                    |                 | discrimination   |
                    |                 |                  |
  Special organs or | As 4th year     | As 4th year      | Muscles of
    systems at      |                 |                  | arms,
    developmental   |                 |                  | legs, trunk
    stage, needing  |                 |                  | Muscles of
    much immediate  |                 |                  | forearm,
    exercise        |                 |                  | 8 years
                    |                 |                  | Muscles of
                    |                 |                  | fingers,
                    |                 |                  | 9-10 years
                    |                 |                  |
  Defects easily    |   ”             |   ”              | Spinal
    acquired        |                 |                  | curvature,
                    |                 |                  | defective teeth
                    |                 |                  | speech
                    |                 |                  | disorders,
                    |                 |                  | eyestrain
                    |                 |                  |
  Defects easily    |   ”             |   ”              | Speech
    overcome        |                 |                  | disorders
                    |                 |                  |
  Illness most      | Digestive,      | As fifth year    | Infectious
    susceptible     | respiratory,    |                  | diseases,
                    | ears,           |                  | rheumatism,
                    | diphtheria,     |                  | nervousness,
                    | rheumatism,     |                  | anemia,
                    | measles,        |                  | digestive
                    | scarlet fever   |                  | disturbances;
                    |                 |                  | illness
                    |                 |                  | increases
                    |                 |                  | 8th year
                    |                 |                  |
  Most common       | Period of low   | Period of low    | Low mortality;
    immediate       | death rate      | death rate       | pneumonia,
    causes of death | As 4th year     | As 4th year      | tuberculosis,
                    |                 |                  | diphtheria,
                    |                 |                  | croup,
                    |                 |                  | measles, kidney
                    |                 |                  | and heart
                    |                 |                  | disease
                    |                 |                  |
  Nature and rate   | Steadier,       | More definite,   | Hesitating,
    of mentality    | quicker, more   | alert, quicker   | impulsive,
                    | alert           |                  | restless
                    |                 |                  |
  Motor activities  | Increasing      | Increasing       | Finger
                    | coördinations,  | correlation      | movements
                    | rhythmic        | Steadier action, | stronger, more
                    | movements,      | marching,        | precise;
                    | skipping        | dancing          | actions
                    |                 |                  | not well
                    |                 |                  | coördinated
                    |                 |                  |
  Sense activity    | Finer           | Improvising on   | Senses become
                    | discriminations;| piano; eagerness | practically
                    | notices         | to color;        | perfected;
                    | sound, color    | tasting          | sensory
                    |                 |                  | interest
                    |                 |                  | weaker
                    |                 |                  |
  Attention         | Voluntary—weak; | Purposive        | Flitting; lack
                    | involuntary-    | inattention;     | of endurance,
                    | strong          | keener           | application
                    |                 | concentration in |
                    |                 | play             |
                    |                 |                  |
  Perception        | Clearer, many   | Clearer          | Truer to
                    | groups          |                  | realities,
                    |                 |                  | more distinct;
                    |                 |                  | differentiates
                    |                 |                  | between real
                    |                 |                  | and imagined
                    |                 |                  |
  Curiosity         | Intense         | Physical         | Asks “What is
                    | (see 4th year)  | properties;      | it for?” Wider
                    |                 | processes;       | range of
                    |                 | causes; birth    | interests
                    |                 |                  |
  Imitation         | Dramatic, of    | Dramatic;        | Decreasing,
                    | adult           | adults’          | imitates idea
                    | activities,     | activities,      | rather than
                    | animals;        | animals;         | action
                    | literal         | less literal     |
                    |                 |                  |
  Memory            | Verbal, strong; | Verbal, strong;  | Literal,
                    | learns nonsense,| poetry, stories; | increasing
                    | poetry          | motor, emotional,| in ability
                    |                 | strong           |
                    |                 |                  |
  Imagination       | Strong visual,  | As 5th year;     | Less fanciful;
                    | lives in        | fanciful tales   | related more
                    | imagination;    | of personal      | to facts and
                    | invents stories | experience       | needs of life
                    |                 |                  |
  Construction      | Follows idea;   | Things for use;  | Begins to be
                    | for activity,   | æsthetic         | creative;
                    | use, æsthetic   | interest         | interest
                    | interest        |                  | begins in
                    |                 |                  | finish,
                    |                 |                  | workmanship
                    |                 |                  |
  Reasoning         | See 4th year,   | As 5th year      | Little use for
                    | reasons by      |                  | explanations
                    | analogy;        |                  | or logic
                    | attempts        |                  |
                    | arguing         |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Social instincts  | Prefers child to| Self-sufficiency;| Group play,
                    | adult; love of  | homesickness;    | circle
                    | emulation;      | begins group     | games; slight
                    | selfish;        | play             | respect for
                    | ownership       |                  | property rights
                    |                 |                  |
  Sense of law      | No sense of     | As 5th year      | Expects to be
                    | property rights;| Increasing;      | held to law and
                    | disobedience    | rigid, literal   | consequences;
                    | increases       |                  | respects power
                    |                 |                  | that requires
                    |                 |                  | obedience
                    |                 |                  |
  Emotions          | See 4th year;   | Degree of        | Increasing
                    | jealousy; fears | control          | control,
                    | animals;        |                  | reserve
                    | imaginary fears |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Sense of humor    | See 4th year    | As 5th year      | Incongruities
                    | Drawings,       | Silliness        | of action; play
                    | practical jokes |                  | on words;
                    |                 |                  | disasters
                    |                 |                  |
  Will              | Increasing      | As 5th year      | Vacillating
                    | force           |                  |
                    |                 |                  |
  Religion          | Wonder in       | As 5th year;     | Period of
                    | nature;         | imitative        | ceremony,
                    | reverence;      | interest in      | forms, rites
                    | prayer;         | formal worship   | Animistic
                    | obedience       |                  | tendency
                    |                 |                  | weakening
  ——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+—————————————

  ———————————————————————+———————————————————————+———————————————————————
         PHYSICAL        |         YOUTH         |   EARLY ADOLESCENCE
      CHARACTERISTICS    |   Girls, 9-12 years   |   Girls 12-16 years
                         |   Boys, 9-13 years    |   Boys 13-18 years
  ———————————————————————+———————————————————————+———————————————————————
  Height                 | Slow growth; girls    | Rapid increase (Girls,
                         | more rapid than boys  | 11-14) (Boys, 13-17)
                         |                       |
  Weight                 | Slow growth           | Rapid increase  ”   ”
                         |                       |
  Organs rapidly growing | Legs, arms            | Trunk, legs, arms,
                         |                       | lungs,
                         |                       | reproductive organs,
                         |                       | heart, liver, kidneys;
                         |                       | proportions changing
                         |                       |
  Organs proportionately | Arteries              | Hands, feet, arms,
    large                |                       | legs
                         |                       |
  Organs proportionately | Heart, trunk          | Trunk, internal organs,
    small                |                       | arteries
                         |                       |
  Organs proportionately | Muscles, legs, eyes   | Heart, lungs; blood
    strong in function   |                       | pressure high; muscles,
                         |                       | fundamental and
                         |                       | accessory
                         |                       |
  Organs proportionately | Heart, lungs; blood   | Nerves; internal
     weak in function    | pressure; elimination | organs, elimination;
                         |                       | motor coördinations
                         |                       | because of change in
                         |                       | bodily proportions
                         |                       |
  Dentition              | Complete (except      |
                         | wisdom teeth)         |
                         |                       |
  Nerves                 | Reactions vigorous    | Under strain; easily
                         |                       | unbalanced
                         |                       |
  Sense development      | Complete, including   | Senses keen
                         | eyes                  |
                         |                       |
  Special organs or      | Muscles of trunk,     | Muscles of trunk, arms,
    systems at           | forearm, fingers;     | legs, fingers; lungs
    developmental stage, | motor adjustments;    |
    needing much         | lungs                 |
    immediate exercise   |                       |
                         |                       |
  Defects easily         | Spinal curvature,     | Of reproductive system;
    acquired             | eyestrain; precocious | shallow breathing
                         | sex development       |
                         |                       |
  Defects easily         | Bones, teeth          | Bones, lung capacity
    overcome             |                       |
                         |                       |
  Illness most           | Anemia, rheumatism,   | Anemia, nervousness,
    susceptible          | heart weakness,       | malnutrition;
                         | nervousness; period   | tuberculosis (girls);
                         | of low morbidity      | increased morbidity
                         |                       |
  Most common immediate  | Period of low         | Pneumonia,
    causes of death      | mortality             | tuberculosis,
                         | Pneumonia,            | kidney and heart
                         | tuberculosis,         | disease, accidental
                         | diphtheria and croup, | drownings
                         | heart and kidney      |
                         | diseases, accidental  |
                         | drownings             |
                         |                       |
  Nature and rate of     | Direct, alert; more   | Well coördinated,
    mentality            | orderly, controlled   | more abstract,
                         |                       | logical, comprehensive;
                         |                       | routine irksome
                         |                       |
  Motor activities       | Well coördinated;     | Muscular awkwardness
                         | need much exercise;   | during growth
                         | new adjustments       |
                         | readily made          |
                         |                       |
  Sense activity         | Sure, acute,          | Acute; all senses
                         | subordinate to        |
                         | thought               |
                         |                       |
  Attention              | Voluntary increasing  | Potential voluntary
                         |                       | attention strong
                         |                       |
  Perception             | Clearer               | Clear
                         |                       |
  Curiosity              | Less keen             | Wide range; persistent;
                         |                       | craving for larger
                         |                       | experience
                         |                       |
  Imitation              | Less marked; of idea  | Of ideals, strong;
                         | rather than action    | originality marked;
                         |                       | individuality
                         |                       |
  Memory                 | Quick, sure, lasting; | At best; logical
                         | period of rote        |
                         | learning              |
                         |                       |
  Imagination            | Clear, creative       | Vivid, comprehensive,
                         |                       | creative; works for
                         |                       | remote ends
                         |                       |
  Construction           | Constructs for        | Interest in technique,
                         | purpose; interest in  | use, æsthetic qualities
                         | workmanship, skill    |
                         |                       |
  Reasoning              | Immature; by analogy  | Logical, abstract;
                         | or suggestion; logic  | mental speculation
                         | premature             |
                         |                       |
  Social instincts       | Less sympathy with    | Strong sympathies;
                         | adults, more with     | group loyalty;
                         | companions;           | altruism; sex
                         | competition increases | instincts developing
                         |                       |
  Sense of law           | Increasing through    | Conscience keen;
                         | games; contempt for   | marked lawlessness
                         | artificial laws,      | or law abiding;
                         | customs; less         | restive of restraint
                         | submissive to         |
                         | authority             |
                         |                       |
  Emotions               | Weaker; fears         | Keen, subjective,
                         | increase; sex         | whimsical; shyness
                         | consciousness         | and bashfulness;
                         | developing            | romantic love develops
                         |                       |
  Sense of humor         | Keen, expressed in    | Strong; riddles, puns
                         | teasing, practical    |
                         | jokes, puns           |
                         |                       |
  Will                   | Self-will increasing; | Self-will strong;
                         | tendency to           | potential will power
                         | vacillation, inertia  |
                         |                       |
  Religion               | Conscience weak;      | Deep religious
                         | reverence weak;       | feeling or irreverence
                         | religious             | Idealism; mysticism;
                         | indifference; formal  | altruism
                         | interest in religious | Conversion period
                         | ceremonies, forms     |
                         |                       |
  =======================+=======================+========================

  The tables of physical characteristics are based upon the work of
  Vierordt, Uffelmann, Schmid-Monnard, Pfaundler and Schlossmann.
  Holt, Kerley; the tables of mental characteristics upon the
  studies of G. Stanley Hall, John Dewey, Earl Barnes, and their
  disciples, and the summaries of Kirkpatrick, Tanner, Taylor,
  Tracy. The author’s personal experience with children, as a
  medium for developing these data into a composite grouping, has
  been supplemented by the criticisms and suggestions of individual
  physicians, biologists, and psychologists. The subject deserves
  much additional research in the comparative study of children.


FOOTNOTES:

[2] Based on U. S. Census Report for 1913; causes arranged in
decreasing rank.




CHAPTER VI

PREPARING FOR THE BABY

  “If I were asked what I considered the chief requisite for the
  successful practice of pediatrics I would answer: The education
  of the mother. It is impossible to do even fairly good work in
  diseases of children without proper home coöperation. A direction
  is never followed out so well as when it is understood.”

  —DOCTOR CHARLES G. KERLEY.

  “Is it not monstrous that the fate of a new generation should be
  left to the chances of unreasoning custom, impulse, fancy—joined
  with the suggestions of ignorant nurses and the prejudiced counsel
  of grandmothers?

  “To tens of thousands that are killed, add hundreds of thousands
  that survive with feeble constitutions, and millions that grow up
  with constitutions not so strong as they should be; and you will
  have some idea of the curse inflicted on their offspring by parents
  ignorant of the laws of life.”

  —HERBERT SPENCER.

  “Even the ordinary workman needs an acquaintance with the nature of
  his work before an employer will put a task into his hands. But for
  the right care of children no training in the mothers, nurses, or
  teachers has been considered essential. Consequently the standard
  exacted among such persons, instead of being very high, is very
  low.”

  —DOCTOR NATHAN OPPENHEIM.


=Prenatal Hygiene.= If any baby could supervise the preparation for
his own coming, he would not wait until the last few months before
his advent, that is, any baby who had even moderate ambition for his
comfort, his happiness, and his efficiency.

[Illustration: Approved Baby Clothing and Bassinet.

Diaper fastening at sides. Bassinet allowing ventilation, with green
detachable hood to protect eyes from strong light, and with rod to
grasp.]

He would begin by selecting his grandparents, who would be
high-minded, religious, abstainers, moderate in all their habits,
industrious, neither wealthy nor poverty-stricken, and who would
bring up his father and his mother as members of a family of children
in the same spirit and with foresight for his welfare. He would
direct, during their childhood and adolescence, the physical régime
of his father and mother, which would be simple, natural, regular,
chiefly in the open air, with habitual deep breathing and, especially
for his mother, exercises and clothing that would develop the most
efficient digestion, breathing capacity, back and trunk muscles,
steady nerves, reserve vitality. He would guide their education,
which would include a minimum of traditional junk, parrotlike
mimicry and discipline, and a maximum of real experience, valuable
information, and æsthetic appreciation acquired through personal
exploring, experimenting, judging, creating, with a discipline that
developed self-direction, self-control, and self-reliance.

He would anticipate that his mother and father, with such a heredity
and education, would be high-minded above dissipation and triflings,
sensible beyond unhygienic habits in food and in dress, well-poised
and superior to pettiness and discords, with a radiant love that
maintained an atmosphere of joyousness, graciousness, courage. Having
chosen each other because they loved each other, his father and
mother would live and work and plan because they loved him. Before
they invited him to come, they would have a comfortable home settled,
so his mother could give her chief attention to him and be free to
live much out-of-doors; they would consult their physician and bring
themselves to their best vitality, so he might have the best physical
constitution; and they would make any necessary sacrifice of their
own desires that he might be undisturbed and thus grow steadily and
sturdily until his birthday.

Physical motherhood is a natural, normal biological process. Under
a natural, rational régime it should be a happy experience with a
minimum of discomfort. The essentials, in brief, of such a régime are:

1. Thorough elimination of the increased amount of waste products,
through the skin, lungs, kidneys, and intestines.

2. Strong, flexible trunk muscles.

3. Avoidance of fatigue, undue excitement, unhappiness, muscular
strain; continence.

4. Simple, nourishing diet, carefully balanced, anti-toxic, rich in
minerals, moderate in quantity, with a moderate amount of liquid.

The mother should of course be under the physician’s direction and
observation during the entire period.

=Clothing.= The essentials are freedom and warmth. Maternity clothing
need not be slovenly nor too obviously negligée. Elaborateness may
better be expressed in the maternity clothes than upon the baby
clothes. For dresses and coats a design with fullness at the sides,
in the waist and skirt, with revers, and a high waist line, is
especially good. The materials should be plain, or with a small,
unobtrusive design. Clothing should be ample enough to encourage
rather than prevent a slight perspiration, thus facilitating the
elimination of waste.

The weight of the clothing should come from the shoulders. This is
important in order to prevent any downward pressure upon the internal
organs, as well as to allow for much deep breathing. It is possible
by having a one-piece union suit, a brassiere for attachment of hose
supporters, a combination corset cover and petticoat, and a one-piece
dress.

All the clothing should be comfortably loose, especially any
neckbands, sleeves, gloves, which may well be a size larger, as there
is a slight swelling during this time. No round garters should be
worn, as these impede the circulation in the legs and increase the
possibility of varicose veins. The ankles should be well protected,
because the blood vessels here are very near the surface and easily
chilled, and as the blood returns from the legs to the trunk and
internal organs, internal congestion might result from chilling of
the lower extremities. Shoes should have _low heels_ to prevent
falling and rubber heels to minimize jars.

The corset is a moot question. The woman who has not been accustomed
to wearing one is most fortunate now, for she has been developing
and training the muscles of the back and trunk, which should be
strong and flexible, equal to the special demands made upon them
during the last four months and at the birth. If corsets have been
the custom, it would be most advisable to discard them three or six
months before motherhood is begun, and to give a systematic course
of training to these muscles. Some physicians require their patients
to discard corsets during this time. Their only possible value is
to support the back and the bust, not as support for the abdomen.
They may be harmful by crowding the internal organs, pressing any
organs out of place, interfering with the fullest deep breathing and
internal circulation, keeping the trunk muscles flabby and weak,
compressing the breasts; and thereby causing more discomfort to the
mother, depriving the baby of sufficient oxygen, making the birth
longer and more difficult, and hindering nursing ability. A brassiere
or comfortably fitted muslin waist is an adequate bust supporter;
or a knitted breast binder is procurable which should be applied
loosely enough to cause no compression, which hinders the development
of the nursing glands. After the fourth month, the baby rises from
the pelvis to the abdomen and the waist increases in size. Ordinary
corsets then become especially dangerous. If for any reason a corset
is then worn, it should be a special maternity style, such as the
Ferris maternity waist. During the last month or two, it is advisable
to discard even this corset, and if any support is necessary, to wear
an abdominal supporting band, a knitted, shaped band being especially
comfortable.

=Food.= The careful regulation of the diet and food-taking has vastly
much to do with the comfort of the mother and the sturdiness of the
baby. All the nourishment that the baby receives is derived from
the substances that the mother takes in food and drink, which are
digested in her system and conveyed from her circulation to his. It
is a mistaken idea that the mother is “eating for two” and needs to
increase the quantity. No increase in her normal requirement for
protein or fat is considered either needed or desirable during the
entire nine months, or any increase in carbohydrates until the last
three months. The system cannot use the excess, which thereby only
makes a greater tax upon the organs of elimination or clogs the
system with poisons and overcrowds the abdominal organs. Abundance of
mineral, especially lime, phosphorus, iron, and soda is essential.
During the last three months there is an increase of about one fifth
in the energy requirements, which is best met by an increase in the
carbohydrates not to exceed this proportion. The following table
gives the average dietetic needs of women:

  Sleeping                0.4 Calories per hour per pound body weight
  Sitting quietly (at
    meals, reading,
    etc.)                 0.6    ”      ”   ”    ”    ”     ”    ”
  At light muscular
    exercise (dressing,
    standing,
    walking)              0.8    ”      ”   ”    ”    ”     ”    ”
  At active muscular
    exercise              1.4    ”      ”   ”    ”    ”     ”    ”

For example, for a woman weighing 125 pounds:

                                         CALORIES
  10 hours resting          0.4 × 125 × 10     500
   5   ”   sitting          0.6 × 125 × 5      375
   5   ”   light exercise   0.8 × 125 × 5      500
   4   ”   active exercise  1.4 × 125 × 4      700
                                              ————
           Total for day                      2075

     Protein      10%-15% 207-311
     Fats         25%-35% 519-539
     Carbohydrate 50%-60% 1037-1245

There is only a fraction of an ounce daily increase in the weight of
the baby. A baby weighing 6½ to 7½ pounds at birth is more natural
and easier for the mother than a heavy, fat baby, which is produced
by overeating, overdrinking, and insufficient exercise.

The toxin-free diet, the quantity at one meal, and the time of
meals are matters for careful consideration. During this period
there is an increased production of waste, poisonous substances,
and gases; at the same time there is often an increased tendency
toward constipation. Auto-intoxication consequently results, causing
much discomfort from nausea, headaches, dizziness, melancholia,
nervousness, irritability. Special care should therefore be taken to
select a diet (1)chiefly free from purins, (2)and from stimulants,
(3)higher in base-forming than acid-forming elements, (4)with high
mineral content, especially lime, and (5)laxative. This is done
by omitting, or using very sparingly, meats, coffee, tea, pastry,
fried foods, irritating condiments, vinegar; and by including milk,
buttermilk made with the Bulgarian tablets, cheese, eggs, nuts,
whole-wheat bread, bran bread, green vegetables, salads, fresh and
dried fruits, fruit juices, butter, olive oil. Any food that is
difficult of digestion, or that produces fermentation or gas, should
be omitted.[3]

Enough water should be taken to carry off waste products but not
to unduly increase the body fluids or cause flabbiness of tissues.
With the diet recommended, less water drinking will be necessary than
otherwise, six glasses a day probably being quite ample. This should
be taken at intervals, not more than a small glass at one time, and
not less than half an hour from meal times; fruit juices or milk may
be taken instead of plain water.

Alcohol, even in dilute quantities, is highly injurious to the
delicate nerve cells of the body, and should be avoided, particularly
during this and the nursing period. Patent medicines usually contain
alcohol.

With a well regulated diet, there is less probability of cravings
for unusual or abnormal foods; such cravings may be pampered if for
wholesome foods; if absurd or abnormal, they should be ignored.

During the last four months, and especially the last two, it is
better to take the food in five meals than in three meals. There is
less room in the trunk for the stomach to expand in the movements of
digestion, and it may easily crowd uncomfortably upon the heart. The
heaviest meal should be taken in the middle of the day, and a light
supper two or three hours before bedtime, for adequate digestion and
comfortable sleep. During the last month, the daily diet may well
include one or two pints of milk in some form, because of its ease in
digestion.

=Bathing.= A daily bath is especially important during this period,
because there is so much waste and poison to be eliminated. If the
pores of the skin are not kept clean and open, the kidneys (the work
of which is now much increased) will be overtaxed, or some of the
poison will remain in the system, causing headaches, nausea, and
other discomforts. Very cold or very hot baths are equally to be
avoided. The latter may cause a miscarriage, especially during the
first three months. A woman who is accustomed to a daily cold bath
may continue this as long as there is a good reaction. Surf bathing
is inadvisable because of the low temperature and the muscular
strain; bathing in quiet waters is quite safe. The daily bath should
be warm enough for cleansing (90°-98° F.), followed by a cool sponge
or spray for tonic. A salt bath (one quart of sea or coarse salt
dissolved in a tub of water) is a good tonic. Two baths daily are
permissible, not remaining in the water more than ten minutes. A
vigorous rub with bath mitts, a Turkish towel, or coarse damp salt,
is a further aid to skin elimination. Vaginal douches should never
be used except on the advice of the physician. For sleeplessness,
nervousness, congestion of blood in the head, the neutral (96° F.)
sitz bath combined with a hot foot bath will promote the necessary
equalizing of the circulation.

=Exercise.= Exercise now has two important purposes: the elimination
of waste, and the strengthening of back and abdominal muscles. The
precautions are avoidance of fatigue and of sudden or severe strain
upon the abdominal muscles that might produce a miscarriage. During
the first three months, the placental attachment is relatively
insecure and therefore more easily detached. The certainty of
motherhood cannot be established until the third or fourth month,
although some presumptive symptoms are manifested earlier. The woman
who has left motherhood to chance, and who therefore is not preparing
for necessary care during these earlier months, is the more liable to
a miscarriage through disregard of due precautions.

The ideal for this period would be complete outdoor living, with two
miles of walking each day and plenty of light exercise that could be
dropped at the approach of fatigue. Such a gypsy-like experience is
often removed from usual living conditions. With a little planning,
it could often be approached, however. The investment in such
a vacation would yield =far richer= returns to the baby than an
expensive layette, to say nothing of the increased comfort, ease, and
happiness of the mother. The extreme antithesis of this ideal would
be continuous indoor life with no work to occupy muscles and mind.

The individual mother must plan her environment and her work as
nearly as possible to the ideal. Living in the country with good
roads has the advantage of outdoors. An outdoor sleeping porch is
much to be desired. For indoor sleeping or working, the room should
be thoroughly ventilated with a constant current of fresh outdoor
air, with the temperature not above 68° F. for working, and from 32°
to 60° F. for sleeping. Extra clothing may be worn rather than to
keep the windows closed.

A habit of deep breathing of outdoor air for about ten minutes on
rising, at bedtime, and at several stated times during the day, will
be wonderfully beneficial. The mother is now breathing for two, and
the baby needs much oxygen.

Light household work is beneficial. Long standing, lifting, or
pulling heavy weights, scrubbing on hands and knees, running up and
downstairs, much stooping, working long over a hot stove, the use
of a sewing-machine treadle or a washboard, are harmful. If the
responsibility of the household work rests upon the mother, she
must use her ingenuity to reduce it to its lowest terms of muscular
energy.[4]

Walking is the best athletic exercise, two miles a day being
desirable. It should be taken in easy stages, stopping to rest when
tired, or a part of this distance taken at different times during the
day. Golf, tennis, basketball, skating, horseback riding, bicycle
riding, swimming, rowing, dancing, surf bathing, long rides over
rough roads, involve the risk of overstrain, and should be omitted.

_Special Exercises._ Clothing should always be very loose, especially
around the waist, and the room should be well ventilated, for these
exercises.

_Breathing Exercises._ These should be taken out of doors if
possible; otherwise, at an open window. Breathing should be from the
diaphragm. Repeat each exercise three to six times, or until fatigue
begins.

1. Standing, hands on lowest margin of ribs, thumbs toward back,
fingers few inches apart. Blow the breath out slowly, bending body
forward at hips and pressing in gently with the hands to force out
the air. Return slowly to upright position, breathing in through the
nose gently to utmost capacity. Hold breath ten seconds and repeat
exercise.

2. Stand erect. Take a deep breath, rising on balls of feet,
extending arms out at side, shoulders high, hands clenched and
describing small circles, as though boring. Hold ten seconds, then
gently drop arms, blowing out the breath as long as possible.

3. Lying on the back, hold one nostril closed and breathe in slowly
and deeply through the other. Hold the breath five or ten seconds,
close the second nostril, and breathe out through the first. Repeat,
breathing in through the first and holding the second closed; hold
the breath, close the first, and breathe out through the second. This
is a soothing exercise.

_Trunk Exercises._ Any one not accustomed to these exercises should
consult the physician before beginning them during this period. All
exercises should be done slowly, with no jerking movements.

For overcoming constipation, improving the tone, elasticity, and
strength of the abdominal muscles.

1. Lie flat on the back, arms at the sides. Raise the right arm
slowly, keeping it parallel with the body, describing a half circle
until it rests on the bed or floor, above the head. Repeat with the
left arm. Bring each arm slowly back to position. (Figure 2.)

2. Same position. Raise the right foot, keeping the toes pointed
forward, bending the knee until it touches the abdomen. Repeat with
the left foot. May be repeated ten times or until fatigued. (Figure
1.)

3. Same position. Bend knees; draw the abdominal wall in and out
slowly by muscular effort, without the assistance of deep breathing.

4. Same position. Lift the trunk from the floor, resting the weight
on shoulders and hips.

5. Sit or stand, hands on hips. Twist the body slowly to the right
and slowly return to position. Repeat, twisting to the left.

6. Walk up and down stairs moderately with a springing step, holding
the body erect, shoulders straight, chest expanded, mouth closed,
weight on balls of feet.

These simplest and easiest exercises may be continued throughout this
period or may be commenced at any time.

The following exercises are more strenuous and should be used
cautiously during the first three and last two months by those not
accustomed to exercise. The physician should be consulted before
using them during this time. They are profitably begun six months
beforehand and are valuable for ordinary conditions of life.

7. Lie on the back, arms at sides. Raise both arms together, as in
Exercise 1. Bring arms back slowly to sides.

8. Same position. Raise the right foot, toes pointed forward, knee
straight till leg is at right angles with trunk; hold position ten
seconds and lower foot slowly. Repeat with left foot. Raise both feet
together. (Figure 2.)

9. Lying flat on back, hands on chest or clasped behind head, feet
held down under a chiffonier or by an attendant, come to sitting
position without assistance of hands or elbows. (Figure 4.)

10. Lie on the back, grasp the rounds of the headboard and gently
pull the body toward the head of the bed. Push with the feet against
the footboard, or other non-resisting surface.

The knee-chest position is a most valuable exercise. It relieves the
abdominal pressure, and therefore any swelling in the legs from such
pressure, or any prolapsis of internal organs, bearing-down feelings,
backache, disturbed pelvic circulation. It may be taken a few minutes
at a time, several times a day. Sleeplessness will often be relieved
by taking this position for a few minutes and then lying down. Kneel
on the floor or other unyielding surface. Lay the side of the face
down on this surface, with the shoulder of that side as near the
knees as possible, keeping the upper leg from knee to hip at right
angles with the floor. Weight may be supported on forearms placed at
right angles to the body.

A good posture should always be maintained when sitting or standing;
especially avoid letting the chest sink in. Whenever possible in
sitting, especially after meals, elevate the feet, thus preventing
varicose veins and swelling in the legs.

=Sleep.= Much sleep is needed. From eight to ten hours’ sleep at
night is essential, and a nap or rest in the afternoon, about an hour
after the midday meal. By following the régime previously given,
undisturbed sleep is likely to be the rule. The mother should sleep
alone, and preferably in a room by herself. A little pillow under
the small of the back is very comfortable, and during the last four
months, an additional pillow under the shoulders.

=Teeth, Hair, Eyes.= The teeth should have been examined and put
in good condition before the beginning of this period. During the
entire time they should be brushed carefully after every meal, and
the mouth rinsed with an alkaline wash, such as milk of magnesia or
soda bicarbonate. The scalp should be massaged every day during the
last two months and the two succeeding months, to prevent the hair
falling out. The eyes should be examined three months after the birth.

=Prenatal Influences.= Life begins when the germ cells unite, and
from that time the mother is the guardian of a living, though
immature child. By the end of the third month the form and features
are complete, though in miniature, the weight is about four ounces
and the length about three inches. The study of development before
birth is called embryology. So far as scientific research has been
able to discover, there are no nerve cells connecting the nervous
system of the mother with that of the child. Notwithstanding
superstitions and folklore to the contrary, it is scientifically
known that she cannot give her child a Greek nose by looking at
classic pictures, an ape face through seeing some disagreeable
sight, or musical genius by attending concerts. Anatomical form and
mental traits are matters of heredity, as previously stated, and
these factors are settled forever when the germ cells unite. The
sex is also determined at that time, apparently depending upon the
sex-determining factors in the germ cells. Hundreds of theories (such
as the diet or the condition of the parents) have been suggested for
influencing the sex of the child, but none of these is as yet proven
true, and certainly no such influence can have any effect after the
germ cells have united. “Birthmarks,” such as red or blue spots,
are probably due to some interference with the blood supply during
development.

[Illustration: Approved Crib, Scales, Nursery Table. Holding the
Baby, Supporting Head and Back.]

The mother is influencing the child during the entire nine months,
through the blood supply. If she indulges in fear, anger, melancholy
(dark emotions that develop poison in the blood), if she
over-eats, or takes alcohol, if she neglects deep breathing, daily
bathing, elimination, exercise, she is impoverishing and poisoning
the blood supply, and the quality of her child’s bodily and mental
characteristics will suffer. If she lives a wholesome life, following
a régime that continuously eliminates poisons and gives abundant
nourishment and oxygen, with the cultivation of peace, cheer,
courage, joy (emotions that promote good circulation and a wholesome
blood stream), she is providing good nourishment and enhancing the
quality of her child’s life.

It is for the comfort of the mother and for the welfare and beauty of
the child that the mother should be sacredly reserved for her work
during this and the nursing period.

A normal woman whose physical life through her childhood and
adolescence has been well regulated should have an easy experience. A
certain amount of discomfort and mental depression is to be accepted
as a matter of course, but the greater care now given to physical
hygiene would naturally increase health and vitality. Concerts,
plays, lectures, and social gatherings (except where these would
involve crowds and ill-ventilated, overheated rooms), reading,
music, play, should all be part of her life during this time. The
joy of anticipation gives the singing heart and makes this a time of
beatitude, of weaving of dreams such as no other experience in life
can give.

The preparation of the nursery and the baby clothes is part of the
joyous experience. This may well begin early, that it may proceed
leisurely, without sense of haste, and with its full measure of
satisfaction. Simplicity, cleanliness, economy in care, daintiness,
are the keynotes.

=The Nursery.= Room. It is desirable that the baby should have a room
alone. If this is not possible, his room should be equipped for the
nursery, and only the mother or nurse should sleep in the same room.
Sunny exposure is essential. Second floor is preferable, for dryness,
and freedom from cats and dogs. A covered, sunny veranda for outdoor
sleeping is most desirable. The room should be ventilated from two
sides, and preferably with open fireplace.

Floor. Washable, either painted, oiled or waxed, _never carpeted_.
Small size washable rugs.

Walls. Washable, either painted or covered with Sanitas, at least to
wainscot four feet high. Soft, plain, neutral tone; buff, warm gray
or medium green.

Curtains. Both light and dark shades; sheer, washable curtains, plain
or figured scrim; no heavy window draperies or portières.

Heating. Preferably hot-water heater, with open fireplace for
occasions. Steam and hot-air systems lack a sufficient amount of
moisture, and are subject to sudden changes in temperature. Gas or
kerosene stoves consume the oxygen and should not be used in the
nursery. Coal stoves should be carefully watched to avoid poisonous
gases from imperfect combustion, or sudden changes in temperature.
Large open basins of fresh water should be kept in the room in
winter, to supply humidity.

Lighting. A dim, shaded light for night use, lit only when needed.
Nursery should be dark at night; daylight soft but not darkened,
during first two weeks; ordinary lighting thereafter during waking
hours, softened but not dark during daytime sleep.


Nursery Equipment

Chiffonier for clothes and toilet equipment

Low chair or rocker without arms

[Illustration: Approved Shoes and Baby Carriage.]

Basket or bassinet for first four or six months, with stand; high
bassinet stands are now procurable

Iron or brass crib, high sides, plain round tubing without
ornamentation, _narrow_ spaces between bars, one side to be lowered

High folding screen with detachable, washable covering for wings; a
firm-standing clotheshorse four feet high answers also for a clothes
rack; covering of muslin, cheesecloth, or china silk, attached with
tapes when needed

Nursery table for dressing, with plain, round legs and a six-inch
ledge securely screwed on; edges and corners of ledge preferably
rounded. An ordinary kitchen table with drawer answers very well. A
carpenter can make and attach the ledge.

One or two small low tables, with rounded legs, for bathtub and bath
accessories

Folding tables economize space. Firm, round tables can be used later
for the child’s dining and play.

  _For bassinet_: Four-fold cotton blanket or table felting as
  mattress; or 6-inch pad filled with clean silk floss, hair, straw,
  or chaff

  3 absorbent pads, quilted or of table felting

  4 to 6 sheets, cotton for summer, soft outing flannel (all cotton)
  for winter

  1 or 2 knitted afghans, or blankets of eiderdown or three-quarter
  wool

  _For crib_: Hair or silk floss mattress; for economy, clean straw
  may be used.

  2 absorbent pads

  4 to 6 sheets, cotton or outing flannel

  1 or 2 knitted spreads, or eiderdown quilts or three-quarter wool
  blankets

  1 or 2 piqué or dimity counterpanes

  Papricloth nursery blankets, or light-weight rubber sheeting, to
  protect mattresses

  2 pads of hair or straw ½ inch thick, 9 × 12 inches

  3 to 6 cotton slips for pads

  6 to 12 square or triangular pads, 12-inch size, quilted,
  stockinet, or table felting

  1 rubber lap protector, detachable piqué or flannel slips

  1 yard dark green sateen for bassinet canopy

  2-3 yards cheesecloth, dimity, or china silk for one end and side
  of crib

  50 yards cheesecloth, six to ten cents a yard, for diapers, face
  cloths

  3 sizes of safety pins with safety fasteners

  Nursery scales, common beam type, not spring type commonly sold for
  nursery, which are difficult to read and unreliable

  Bathtub, enamel or tin most practicable. Rubber is soft and
  adaptable, but soon outgrown, and baby cannot kick or splash so
  well. After five or six months, the baby may be bathed in the large
  bathtub.

  Room thermometer, Fahrenheit

  Bath thermometer, Fahrenheit; red or blue indicator easier to read
  than mercury

  1 or 2 small white enamel hand basins, one of these kept
  exclusively for diapering

  1 largest size white enamel or agate bucket with cover, for diapers

  1 2-quart pitcher

  1 4-quart pitcher

  1 3-ounce package lysol

  1 pound boracic acid (powder)

  1 pound powdered borax

  Small hand scrub brush

  Small hot-water bottle or thermophore

  Smallest size china or enamel cuspidor

  Nurse’s apron with bib

  Bath apron of knitted goods, stockinet, or heavy Turkish toweling

  Light-weight detachable rubber sheeting apron to wear under bath
  and nursery aprons

  6 wash cloths, 8-inch square, of soft old table linen, stockinet,
  knitted, or four-fold cheesecloth

  2 largest size soft Turkish bath towels

  2 medium, soft linen towels

  2 soft face towels, of old table linen or toweling

  Package tissue paper napkins

  Wooden box with hinged cover, or enamel tray, for bath accessories,
  as follows:

  a. Baby’s soft hairbrush b. Celluloid or ivory soap box with cover
  c. Small semi-blunt scissors d. 2 6-ounce glass jars with screw
  tops, to hold sterilized gauze and cotton e. Cake pure Castile or
  Palmolive soap f. 2-ounce bottle liquid albolene or sterilized
  olive oil g. 2-ounce bottle liquid vaseline h. 2-ounce bottle grain
  alcohol i. 2-ounce bottle saturated solution of boracic acid (made
  from powder) j. 2-ounce bottle 2% boracic acid k. Small box zinc
  ointment l. Small tube cold cream m. Shaker-top powder-box, with
  powder made of 1 ounce oxide of zinc, 1 ounce cornstarch or rice
  powder, 1 ounce boracic acid n. Small package absorbent cotton
  (kept in covered jar) o. Sterilized cheesecloth cut in 3-inch
  squares (kept in covered jar)[5]

Baby Carriage. High; not less than 14 inches wide, and 28 inches
long, inside measurements; wood body preferable to reed or rattan
(latter should be kept free from dust by frequent cleaning);
detachable, washable covering to upholstery; good springs, brake,
rubber tires; porous hood with lining dark green, brown, or gray to
protect eyes (never white), ventilated by holes near top or by side
curtains; ample drop for feet when baby is sitting up; reversible
body or handles desirable.

Baby Pen. The nursery table or crib will answer until the sitting
stage, at five or six months, and the crib until the creeping or
climbing stage, at seven or nine months. A pen four to six feet
square gives room for tumbling and creeping. It should have a wood
bottom, preferably of slats loosely joined (for flexibility). Raised
six inches above the floor, to escape drafts; sides made of slats or
plain round rods 4 inches apart, 2½ feet high; edges rounded; clean
detached quilt or table felting over floor. Sides may be hinged
to fold away. A large packing box, sides padded, raised on 6-inch
blocks, may be used for economy. The light-weight pens, resting on
the floor, usually found in the shops, are drafty and inadvisable.


=Harmful Equipment.= The following have no place in a baby welfare
nursery:

  All unsanitary germ holders, such as sponge, powder puff, basket
  trimmings, open or porous toilet basket, pacifier, veil.

  Rubber or other waterproof diapers, because they are unavoidably
  heating and irritating; feathers, because too heating; linen
  sheets, which are cold and chilling.

  Pinning bands or swaddling clothes, which prevent the activity so
  essential for growth.

  Cradles or rocking bassinets, which are injurious to the nerves.

  Baby-walkers, because they keep the baby too long on his feet
  and legs when he needs the intermittent rest of lying down while
  learning to walk; they retard his confidence in walking alone, and
  are a cause of dangerous falls.

  Low go-carts and sulkies, which keep the baby in the low strata
  of dust and germ-laden air, and which are frequently badly
  proportioned for good posture.

  Soothing syrups, patent medicines, paregoric, whiskey, brandy; they
  are all poisonous.

  Patent artificial foods; they are expensive and an inefficient
  makeshift.

[Illustration: Drugs and Unsanitary Appliances.]

[Illustration: Unhygienic Equipment and Unsatisfactory Scales.]


Clothing List for First Six Months.

  MINIMUM  MODERATE
     2        3    knitted binders with tapes to tie
     2        4    knitted shirts. double-breasted,
                     size 2
     2        4    flannel Gertrude petticoats
     1        2    nainsook Gertrude petticoats
     2        4    dozen cheesecloth diapers, 1 yard
                     square, sterilized
     2        2    dozen stockinet or cotton bird’s-eye
                     diapers, 22-inch, sterilized
     3        4    nightgowns: soft crepon, long
                     cloth, nainsook, or Viyella
                     flannel
     3        6    plain slips: soft crêpe, crepon,
                     long cloth, or nainsook
     1        2    fine slips: nainsook, dimity, soft
                     lawn, batiste, or linen
     1        3    wrappers: cashmere, challie,
                     flannel, or albatross
     1        2    sacks: knitted, flannel, challie, or
                     cashmere
     1        1    kimono-sleeve wrap: cashmere,
                     flannel, eiderdown, or broadcloth.
                     Separate padded lining
                     (cheesecloth or china silk) for
                     cold weather
     1        2    bonnets: nainsook, lawn, china
                     silk, or silk knitted (open mesh)
                     for summer. Flannel, broadcloth,
                     cashmere, or loosely
                     knitted for cool weather.
                     Quilted detachable lining of
                     cheesecloth or china silk for
                     cold weather
              1    hood shawl: flannel, or cashmere
     1        2    shawls: flannel or knitted
     1        4    pair long hose: cotton for summer
                     Merino for cool weather
     1        2    pair bootees: porous, not heavy

Knitted binders are more elastic than flannel.

Cotton bird’s-eye, or cheap outing flannel diapering is warmer and
more absorbent than linen or canton flannel; stockinet is best.

Cotton material for slips, and lace or embroidery for trimmings,
should be _very soft_.

Viyella flannel, which is half wool and non-shrinking, is most
satisfactory; loosely woven flannel, half wool, with silk or cotton,
is soft, shrinks little, and is warmer than heavy, close weaves.

Outing or Shaker flannel is all cotton; the soft nap is highly
inflammable.

Crêpe, crepon, and woolens, should be shrunk before making.

Knitted shawls, jackets, and quilts are warmer and lighter than woven
fabrics; avoid colors unless guaranteed non-fading.

For the knitted (ready-made) shirts, some authorities prefer all
cotton, others part wool. All wool is never advisable, as the
baby’s skin is very sensitive, and furthermore, all wool shrinks
badly. For most babies, under average conditions, one-quarter wool,
three-quarters cotton or silk is advised. In very warm weather, all
cotton is better. In very cold climates, half or three-quarters
wool may be advisable. Silk has no special advantage over cotton.
Babies with very delicate skin, eczema, or any rash should never have
wool next the skin. Some manufacturers now make part wool knitted
underwear, having only the cotton thread next the skin, wool outside.

The binder is worn only two or three weeks, as a protector to the
navel until it is healed. It should be fastened comfortably, _not
tight_. With delicate babies or those out of doors in cold weather,
a band with shoulder straps may be worn as a substitute during the
first year, although this is unnecessary with a double-breasted
shirt. The Vanta binders and shirts (double-breasted), fastening
with twistless tape instead of buttons, are especially satisfactory.

[Illustration: Kimono Coat, Raglan Sleeve Slip, Kimono Slip.]

[Illustration: Knitted Shirt and Band. Shaped Diapers. Diaper
Fastening with Tapes.]

[Illustration: Gertrude Petticoat. Kimono Nightgown Fastening with
Snaps.

FOR THE LAYETTE.]

_Making._ Preparation of the baby clothes should be a joy and not a
worry or burden. Let them be simple, moderate in quantity.

The kimono or raglan sleeve gowns, wrappers, and coats are much
easier to put on and off than the set-in sleeve. By liberal measure
under the shoulders, the sleeve will not pull out; a gathering string
at the cuff for little babies will keep the hand from slipping out.

All seams should be flat.

Seams on woolen garments should be felled or edges featherstitched
flat. Armhole and neck of flannel garments should be covered with
soft seam-binding or turned back ¼ inch and raw edge stitched down
or featherstitched; never turn under, as this makes a ridge. At hem
of flannel petticoat, raw edge need not be turned in but may be
featherstitched flat.

Sleeves may be turned back in a 2-inch hem for first months.

Edge of dress sleeves and neck may be finished with a ⅛-inch hem with
featherstitching, or a narrow Armenian or val lace, or soft batiste
embroidery, whipped on; or twistless tape or wash ribbon ¼ to ½ inch
wide, may be run through facing or beading at neck and one or two
inches from edge of sleeve.

Fine gathers or tucks may be made in the front and back of slips to
form a yoke; these may be taken out later as the baby grows.

Beading, or buttonholed eyelets two inches apart, for wash ribbon
sash, may be made in dresses, thus forming a yoke; leave garment
loose two inches each side of under-arm seam.

Maximum length allowable for dresses and petticoats, 27 inches;
minimum, 22 inches; hems, 1 to 3 inches.

Neckbands, 9½ inches at birth to 10 inches at 6 months.

Sleeve bands should be 8 to 12 inches long.

Average length of infant, neck to soles, at birth, is 16 inches; at 6
months, 24 inches.

Set-in sleeves, small cuffs, small neckband, tiny buttons, make
dressing difficult. Gathering string of twistless tape or ribbon,
with beading, at sleeves and neck, are recommended, or ample
neckbands.

Kohinoor snappers are preferable to buttons, using care in laundering
to prevent bending. If sewed on to linen tape, which can be used as a
facing for material, there is less strain on goods.

=Short Clothes.= Clothes are usually shortened at four months in
summer or six months in winter, keeping about the same models.

Rompers are convenient after creeping begins. The English use diaper
drawers knitted of soft wool.

Leather moccasins, made after the Indian model, with _seams outside_,
are the best footgear until the walking stage, at twelve to fifteen
months.


FOOTNOTES:

[3] See Chapter IX.

[4] See Chapter III.

[5] See page 363.




CHAPTER VII

CARE OF THE BABY[6]

  “Everything in after life depends upon uninterrupted healthy growth
  during infancy.”

  —DOCTOR F. TRUBY KING.

  “There is no young creature in the world so ignorantly and cruelly
  nurtured as the average infant.”

  —_Ibid._

  “Since what is needed most is intelligent care, all proper means
  should be employed to educate mothers and those caring for infants,
  in proper methods of doing this.”

  —DOCTOR L. EMMETT HOLT.


The baby is a unity of body, mind, and soul, and these cannot be
separated in his actual life. During every minute of his care, in
every detail, his whole nature is being influenced and his character
shaped. It is only for convenience of discussion that the physical
régime is separated from the rest of his care.

The régime here outlined is for normal, well babies, for their first
year or two. Delicate, feeble, or sickly infants must receive special
care, under the physician’s directions, in their feeding, bathing,
clothing, and outdoor living.

There are only a few fundamental principles, but these are to be
practiced with conscientious thoroughness by every one who has
anything to do with the child. It is the little details in the
routine of his daily life that produce vigor or weakness. Errors in
his care now easily cost his life; or apparently they may not harm
him now but will be paid for in suffering, deformities, or weakness
in childhood or adulthood. The woman who has this responsibility
needs special preparation in self-sacrifice, self-control,
gentleness, regularity, thoroughness, and accuracy in little details.
She should be in good health, free from any contagious disease.


Fundamental Principles.

  1. Regularity, particularly in feeding, sleep, stools

  2. Cleanliness of baby, food, clothing, utensils, toys, nursery

  3. Fresh air and sunshine, Nature’s great disinfectants and
  vitalizers

  4. Gradual, moderate changes in temperatures, clothing, food, régime

  5. Quiet, because the brain and nervous system are yet incomplete
  in their development, and are very sensitive; the maximum of sleep,
  with little stimulation while awake. The brain grows as much during
  the first year as during all the rest of life.

  6. Gentleness in handling, to prevent any curvature or misshaping
  of the soft bones, or shocks to the nerves

  7. Moderate warmth, which avoids either chilling or coddling

  8. Freedom of movement, for only thus can body and mind normally
  develop

  9. Training in self-control, which can begin the first day and
  needs daily attention

  10. Mothering, cuddling, fondling, regularly every day, _before_
  feeding, at bath or dressing times, an hour previous to bedtime

  11. Holding and Lifting. The whole length of the spine and the
  weight of the head must be well supported until the baby is strong
  enough, at six or seven months of age, to support these himself. In
  lifting a young baby, the left hand and arm are slipped under the
  head, neck, and upper back, the right hand under the lower back. He
  may be carried in one arm by supporting the head in the crook of
  the elbow and supporting the entire length of the back with the
  forearm, wrist, and hand. If held in an upright position at this
  early age, the wobbly head should always be supported. _Never_ lift
  a baby or little child by his arms.


=Daily Régime.= The following schedule is in general typical for
the first year. It will vary somewhat with the age of the baby, the
climate and season. In varying from this schedule, note that the
following factors are important and to be observed strictly:

  1. Regularity in feeding

  2. Interval of one hour after a feeding before bath

  3. Interval of one hour between feeding and fruit juice

  4. Interval of twenty to thirty minutes between feeding or water
  and urinating; this interval should be observed for the individual
  child, that the habit of control (and the saving of wet diapers)
  may be established as early as possible

  5. Regular time for stools; by beginning the week after birth this
  can be early established, and much unnecessary work saved

  6. Regular time for the bath, scheduled for mid-morning or for
  evening, according to which time is found to agree best with the
  baby

  7. Regular times for play, kicking, cuddling

  8. Regular time for weighing, that conditions may be the same

  9. Note that in cool weather the baby should not be put outdoors
  until one hour after the bath; and that an oil rub may be given
  instead of the cool sponge at night

A daily schedule card is of assistance in maintaining regularity,
noting new developments or unusual conditions. It is advisable to
record it at least once a week, on the day for the weekly weighing.


Typical Schedule

CONDITIONS. SEASON: _June_ AGE OF BABY: _Four Months_

  A.M.

   5:30 Wakened; changed. (Some babies will sleep until
         6:00, others will waken early, and should be changed
         but not fed; may be given water if they cry, and left
         to play in bed.)
   6:00-6:15 Feeding
   6:30 Urinated (cuspidor)
   6:45-8:00 Slept
   8:00 2 teaspoons water; stool (cuspidor) normal
   8:00-8:30 Kicking in bassinet (or on nursery table); crying
         10 minutes
   8:30 Weighing, exercise, rub
   8:40 Urinated (cuspidor)
   8:40 Bath (temperature 98° F.); cool sponge (84° F.);
         dressed; crying 10 minutes
   9:00-9:15 Feeding
   9:30 Put outdoors; asleep
  11:55 Wakened; changed
  12:00-12:15 Feeding

  P.M.
  12:40 Urinated (cuspidor)
  12:45 Put outdoors
   1:00-2:00 Slept
   2:00 Changed; 2 tablespoons prune juice
   2:00-3:00 Kicking on nursery table (or in pen) in open air
   3:00-3:15 Feeding
   3:30 Urinated (cuspidor)
   3:30-4:30 Put outdoors; slept; crying 10 minutes
   4:30-5:30 Cuddled
   5:00 2 teaspoons water
   5:30 Urinated; stool (cuspidor) normal
   5:45 Rub; sponge bath (90° F.); dressed for night
   6:00-6:15 Feeding
   6:30 In bassinet, asleep (Change if wet)
  10:00 Changed
  10:00 Feeding
     Totals. Sleep: 17 hrs. Water: 3 T. Stools: 2. Crying: 30
     minutes.


=Clothing.= The designs previously suggested for the baby clothes
(page 83) are adapted to ease in dressing, laundering, making, and
to freedom of movement. With these, the baby need be turned only
once in dressing, or not at all, if the dress is fastened in front.
Use only flat, protected safety pins, no common, straight, or ridged
pins. With tapes and snappers, pins may be eliminated.

It is much easier and more comfortable to dress and change a baby on
the nursery table than on a low bed or the lap.

The clothes should be put on and off over the feet, not over the head.

The clothing should be changed completely at the morning bath and at
night. The day outfit is the same as the night during the first three
months. Later the day slip is worn, as the baby is awake longer.
The nightgown may be of Viyella flannel, the petticoat then being
unnecessary, except with the temperature below 40°-50° F.

Overdressing, like overfeeding, is a common and serious mistake. If
the baby’s skin is moist to the touch, he is overwarmly dressed and
thereby made highly susceptible to “colds” and pneumonia. If his
feet are cold, skin “goose-fleshed”, and lips blue, he needs more
clothing. With a room temperature of 68°-70° F., duly humidified,
a baby four months or over usually needs only a diaper, cotton or
quarter-wool double-breasted shirt, flannel petticoat and cotton
slip. The binder is needed only until the navel heals,—about three
weeks. It should be loosely applied, fastened by tapes rather than
by pins or sewing. If applied tightly or worn longer it hinders
the development of the trunk muscles, interferes with digestion
and breathing, and, contrary to superstition, will not prevent but
may cause rupture. For babies under four months or with a room
temperature below 68° F. a wrapper, sweater, or sack should be added.
The cotton petticoat is only for ornamental purposes with fine slips.

On warm summer days (over 72° F.) he may dispense with the petticoat.
In very hot weather, also, substitute a cotton, half-sleeve vest
for the long-sleeved shirt, or after three months dispense with all
but the diaper while awake, adding a cotton slip during naps, and a
cotton shirt at night.

For outdoors, he should not be bundled until the minute before he
departs. A thin cap of cotton, linen, or silk may be worn in warm
weather (or none at all after three months) and a double one for
winter, not thick enough to cause perspiration. For the first twelve
months a kimono-sleeved coat, with drawstrings at shoulder and wrist,
will provide protection, with the blankets, for cold weather. The
nightgown pattern may be used to make a sleeping bag of eiderdown,
broadcloth, or flannel. This allows much more freedom than the usual
type of sleeping bag, and is better ventilated. The hood should be
of lighter fabric, knitted or of flannel, broadcloth, cashmere;
eiderdown or angora is overheating.

Stockings and booties ordinarily are not needed during the first
year except when the baby is kicking and creeping about with a
temperature below 68° F., or for appearance when he is taken out in
arms. See that the feet are warm, but not hot or moist. Stockings
are always coming off or getting wet from the diaper; they keep the
feet perspiring, making them tender and increasing the possibility
of colds. When worn, they should be of cotton, or in very cold
weather, one quarter or one half wool; all wool are overheating and
shrink badly. When the baby begins standing or creeping, the leather
Indian moccasins may be used. Other baby shoes on the market have
many faults,—tightness across toes and instep, seams turned inside,
non-porous patent leather; slippery, stiff, or rough soles; they
produce only discomfort at the time and are productive of callouses,
corns, bunions, and misshaped feet. At twelve or fifteen months a
heavier-soled Indian moccasin may be worn or sandals with flexible,
corrugated soles, roomy at the toes, shaped like the foot, right and
left, soft, porous (not patent) leather, perfectly smooth inside,
using gaiters or leggings with these for out-of-doors in damp or cold
weather.

=Diapering.= Reduce the number of wet and soiled diapers by training.

Begin training at one week of age.

Hold a small (warmed) cuspidor firmly in the lap.

Hold the baby above this, the legs extended in the hands, back
resting against the mother’s chest.

Do this at regular time for stool, early morning or late afternoon.

The use of a suppository for a few days will assist; use a little
roll of soft, clean paper dipped in liquid vaseline.

Note on daily record the interval between feeding or drinking, and
urinating (20 to 30 minutes).

Hold the baby for urinating at these regular times when awake and
before beginning the bath.

In a few months he will learn to control the bladder as well as the
bowels for these times, when awake.

At eight or ten months the baby may be supported on the toilet
seat, by using the baby’s detachable toilet chair now manufactured.
A nursery chair for this purpose is not advised. They are usually
wrongly proportioned and constructed; and the child is usually
left alone to sit for half an hour or more, thereby inducing local
irritation, deferred action, prolapsis of the rectum through
straining, or bad habits. The mother or nurse should always stay with
the child, and the least possible time should be permitted.

Change the diaper as soon as the baby wakes or immediately, if it
becomes wet while he is awake. (The urine is salty, sometimes acid,
and always irritating.)

Before removing diaper, have at hand everything needed, viz.:

  Clean, dry, warm, folded diaper

  Diaper preferably folded oblong and fastened at the sides

  Diaper handbasin with warm water

  Special wash cloth and towel kept only for diapering

  Powder, zinc ointment

  Diaper bucket

Lay the baby on the nursery table, on a Turkish towel.

If pins are used, put into blanket at right hand, removed from baby’s
reach.

Remove the diaper and drop it into bucket.

Wash baby clean and pat dry, especially in creases.

Use powder very sparingly or not at all.

Use albolene or zinc ointment for chafed places.

Put on dry diaper.

Leave baby in safe position while putting away utensils.

Never use a diaper a second time without washing; the acid and salty
urine deposit will cause chafing.

Avoid pulling tight about the waist; the pelvic bones are now
only cartilage, easily misshaped; if pelvis is narrowed in girls,
childbirth will be made more difficult for them.

Avoid tightness in front, especially for boys, as this will produce
irritation.

Avoid much thickness between the legs; it will cause bow legs.

Never use rubber or other waterproof diapers; they are overheating
and may cause bad habits.

A small pad of cotton batting folded into sterilized cheesecloth, or
a double fold of Turkish toweling or stockinet placed in the diaper
will absorb moisture and avoid the extra thickness of a heavy diaper;
this pad may be burned if soiled.

A quilted or stockinet pad placed between the diaper and petticoat
will prevent drenching of clothes while asleep.

If diaper is fastened to shirt, make sure of ample length; avoid any
pull on shirt or diaper.

Throw water from basin into toilet or slop bucket, not into lavatory.

Wash out cloth, disposing of water in same way; or put cloth into
diaper bucket.

If diaper is soiled, flush off in toilet before putting to soak.

_Wash hands_ thoroughly in the special basin, with soap and water,
after changing diaper.

If marked congestion of genitals, or a discharge appears, take
special care to disinfect hands and burn cloths and diapers. Report
the condition at once to the physician; these symptoms may indicate a
serious disease.

Never let a child use a public toilet without placing paper or cloth
over the seat; children’s detachable seats may be purchased that can
be carried in traveling.

=Laundering.= Baby clothes should be washed with a mild white soap,
such as Ivory, and thoroughly rinsed. Diapers require special care.
They should be thoroughly boiled and rinsed. Laundry soap, soda, or
bluing should not be used, but Ivory soap, with borax or ammonia if
necessary. Dry in sun if possible. Ironing is not necessary.

Boiling, outdoor sunshine, and pressing with a hot iron, are all
sterilizing processes.

Starch is never to be used in baby clothes, which should always be
soft and non-irritating.

For woolens, use warm water; add soap in solution, not rubbing on
clothes; add one teaspoonful of borax or ammonia per gallon of water,
if very soiled. Squeeze, or wash with vacuum washer; do not rub,
but use hand brush on very soiled places. Squeeze or press without
twisting. Rinse through two waters, same temperature as the first.
A teaspoonful of glycerine per gallon of water, added to the last
rinsing water, preserves softness.

Dry at once by moderate heat; avoid freezing or extreme heat. Stretch
into shape, and lay on frames or towels to dry, turning once or
twice. If pressing is desired, use a moderately hot iron. Cheesecloth
between iron and fabric preserves softness.


Bathing.

  One bath every day

  Sponge bath until cord heals; later, tub bath

  Not within an hour after feeding

  Not when greatly fatigued

  Tub bath preferably in morning, before second feeding; otherwise,
  before third or evening feeding

In warm weather an additional sponge bath at night (same as lower
temperature of morning) is advisable.

In hot weather give two or three sponge baths 70° to 90° F.,
according to age, in addition.

In cold weather, an oil rub at night may be given instead of
sponge[7] bath.

_Temperature for bath_ is always to be regulated by bath thermometer.
Changes to be gradual, by 1° F., from day to day.

Until sixth or eighth month, tub bath 98° to 100° F., followed by
cool. Then reduce 1° a fortnight, to 90° F.

After second week, a dash of cool water (90° F.) applied by hand to
back (begin at lower end), chest and buttocks. At two months lower by
2° F. and apply with wash cloth; lower 2° F. each month to 80° F.,
so long as baby reacts well—skin rosy and warm, not blue lips, goose
flesh, cold feet.

Cool water may be added slowly while baby is in tub, but not hot
water.

_Giving the Bath._ Before beginning to undress the baby, have
everything ready, and just before undressing the baby, wash the hands
thoroughly.

Costume: wash dress, sleeves to elbow, bib apron, bath apron.

Room: no drafts; temperature about 70° F. (65°-72°).

Equipment: Clean tub or basin filled with bath water; enamel, tin,
or rubber tub may be used; after six months, large tub may be used.
Heavy bath towel may be placed in bottom of tub.

Prepare tray with toilet articles and rolled gauze.[8]

Bath thermometer; supply of hot and cold water.

Fresh wash cloths for face and body, kept only for baby.

Soft face towel; two large bath towels spread on nursery table.

Laid out in order for dressing; dry, warm clothes, petticoat placed
inside of dress; wrapper or shawl.

Allow fifteen to twenty minutes for undressing, exercises, bathing,
dressing.

Allow five to ten minutes for rubbing and exercise.

Allow two to ten minutes for clearing away after bath.

Undress the baby on the nursery table; have a large, warm, Turkish
towel under him; leave the diaper on, unpinned, until put into tub.

_Rubbing._ ½ minute to 2 minutes. Use only the hand until 9-12 months.

Hands warmed; anoint with cold cream or cocoa butter, if rough.

Give 2 to 6 long strokes, each arm and leg, beginning at extremity
and rubbing towards heart;

4 to 6 long stokes down back;

4 to 6 long stokes across chest;

4 to 6 long strokes on abdomen, gently, beginning at lower right, and
ending at lower left;

2 to 4 strokes on ribs, from back to front.

_Exercises._ 3 to 10 minutes. (Begin at one month, see page 112.)
Fill tub to depth covering abdomen of baby; note temperature with
thermometer.

Wrap the towel around the baby and put on cuspidor to urinate. Keep
towel around the baby until ready for the tub. Ears, eyes, and head
are washed before going in the tub; also the buttocks, if soiled,
using the diaper basin and cloth, not the bath water.

_Ears._ Use sterilized cheesecloth or old soft muslin squares, little
or no soap.

Use warm water from tub.

Wash carefully in all creases and behind the ears; let no dirt remain.

Apply albolene or liquid vaseline for scurf.

Never use a pointed instrument; “never put anything smaller than your
elbow in the ear.”

Put soiled gauze in tissue paper receptacle.

_Nose._ Clean each nostril with a fresh cheesecloth square rolled to
a point.

Dip the gauze in the liquid vaseline or albolene, and then push gauze
gently into the nostril and twist around, until nostril is clean.

Never dip the gauze a second time into the oil; put used gauze into
tissue paper receptacle.

If the nose accumulates dirt or mucus during the day, repeat.

_Eyes._ Use a fresh square of sterilized cheesecloth for each eye.

Wet the gauze in the weak boric solution (2 per cent.), and squeeze a
drop into the corner of the eye.

Wash eyelids gently, toward outer corner, and carefully remove dirt
or secretion.

Never put gauze in solution a second time; put gauze into tissue
paper receptacle.

If eyelids are sticky or with slight secretion, anoint with vaseline,
avoiding eyes.

Repeat boric wash at night, or at hourly intervals, if eyelids are
inflamed.

Report severe redness or discharge to physician immediately.

_Head._ Use face cloth, soap, water from tub.

Soap wet cloth and rub over head, avoiding pressure over fontanel or
getting soapy water in eyes.

If head has scurf, anoint at night with vaseline, olive oil, or fresh
lard, and put on a thin muslin cap.

Never use a comb or harsh rubbing.

_Body Bath._ Note temperature of water and modify with supply at
hand to exact degree. Place the baby in the tub, supporting the head
and upper back with left hand. Baby may be lowered in the towel, if
afraid.

If giving only sponge bath, hold head face upward over basin to
rinse, and wash and dry each part of body separately.

Rinse the head several times very thoroughly with cloth.

Wash the body gently; use a little soap two or three times a week.

Wash under arms, in creases of neck, thighs, fingers, and toes; turn
baby over and wash the back.

After six months, baby may splash or attempt swimming for one to four
minutes.

Lift baby on to bath apron and give cool sponge very quickly.

Lay baby on table and wrap in dry Turkish towel.

Wipe face and ears with soft face towel; pat body dry with towel. Dry
the head thoroughly.

Do not rub with towel before ten months.

Dry carefully under arms, in creases of neck, thighs, knees, fingers,
and toes.

Remove wet towel.

In warm weather, after two months, allow an air bath one to three
minutes, patting or gently rubbing skin with the hand.

Avoid the use of powder, except in hot weather, in creases, for fat
babies; powder clogs the pores.

Put zinc ointment or albolene on chafed places.

If there is any bulging of the umbilicus, put two strips of surgeon’s
plaster across, to hold in place and prevent rupture.

During first four to six weeks, gently draw back foreskin in boys and
cleanse with boric acid; wash genitals of girls with boric solution;
apply vaseline. Later, general bathing is usually sufficient, and
special attention is not desirable.

Dress with dry, warm clothes; brush hair; put on wrapper or shawl.

_Cleaning Room._ Empty tub, scrub, dry thoroughly, put away.

Put toilet articles carefully away from dust.

Remove soiled clothes.

Wrap soiled gauze in paper receiver and burn.

Leave room in order; lower temperature to 68°-70° F.

_Avoid._ Washing the mouth; the saliva keeps it naturally clean; the
delicate membrane is easily injured.

Getting soapy water in eyes.

Removing wax from ears with instruments; soft wax is needed; hard wax
may be softened with a few drops of olive oil or liquid vaseline.

Special washing of genitals after six weeks unless hard secretion
develops, which should be softened and removed with olive oil or
liquid vaseline. The usual daily bath and washing when diapering will
cleanse sufficiently; further attention may lead to irritation or
to bad habits. Unusual redness or secretion or adhesions should be
immediately reported to the physician. Circumcision may be needed.
Never let the child touch these parts.

Opening of doors, or other sources of draft, during bath.

Bathroom too warm—above 72° F.

Sudden change to cool temperature after bath; or taking outdoors in
less than an hour after bath, in cold weather.

Public bathtub, as in hotel; infection is possible.

At any time putting the fingers into the baby’s mouth unless
necessary, and then only after thorough washing.

=Care of Nursery.= Watch the temperature, humidity, and ventilation;
keep the room well sunned.

Air the room and bedding thoroughly with a strong air current from
ten to thirty minutes twice a day, while baby is out of the room.

Keep clothing, towels, bedding, and furniture orderly and clean.

Drying of clothing and bedding, or cooking, should not be done here.

When baby is creeping or walking, take special care that pins,
needles, scissors, matches, and other small objects are not on floor
or in reach.

Clean daily while baby is out of room; dust is the baby’s worst enemy.

Dust-raisers, such as corn or whisk brooms, feather or dry cloth
dusters, are not to be used.

Carved woodwork or furniture, bric-a-brac or other dust catchers are
out of place in the nursery.

Use a vacuum cleaner, dustless mop, oiled or damp dusting cloths; for
toys, use a clean damp cloth.

Wipe floor, window-sills, furniture and toys, and vacuum-clean rugs.

=Weekly Cleaning.= Vacuum-clean rugs, floor, moldings, ledges, and
walls.

Hang rugs out of doors from one to three hours.

Wash or wax floor; wash window-sills, doors, picture frames.

Hang fresh window curtains, screen curtains, crib draperies.

Wash bassinet canopy; brush bassinet thoroughly outdoors.

Clean carriage frame with vacuum, brush, and damp cloth.

=Feeding.= The kinds of food, quantity, intervals, and times of
feeding are important.

The only natural and adequate food is mother’s milk. No thoroughly
satisfying substitute has ever been found, or is likely to be.
Mother’s milk has the following advantages:

1. It is germicidal—it contains no harmful bacteria, and it has
elements which destroy disease germs in the baby. The babies that are
nursed have a special protection against such diseases as influenza,
whooping-cough, measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria.

2. It is always clean, and therefore greatly reduces the possibility
of diarrhea. Only one breast-fed baby dies to ten bottle-fed babies.

3. It does not sour.

4. It requires no time for preparation or care of bottles.

5. It is always ready.

6. It is balanced in proteins, fats, carbohydrates, for the baby’s
needs, and the proportion of these elements changes with his
development.

7. It is in fine, soft curds, adapted to the baby’s stomach and
digestion.

8. It contains vitamines, the living, organic principles essential to
growth, and found only in fresh or slightly cooked foods.

9. It has growth-producing properties found in no substitute. In a
study made not long since of 100,000 French soldiers, it was found
that the group of those who in their infancy had been nursed for
six months averaged heavier and taller than those nursed only three
months; the group nursed nine months likewise exceeded in height and
stature those nursed only six months. Similar phenomena have been
noted by many observers.

10. It produces better teeth, less subject to decay, both first and
second set.

11. Nursing her baby promotes the return of pelvic organs to their
normal condition, and thus promotes the mother’s comfort, shapeliness
and health.

12. It fosters her love for her baby, and the baby’s love for her.

Patent baby foods are usually either some form of dried or condensed
milk, or a dextrinized cereal. The constituents having been subjected
to a high temperature, the vitamines have been destroyed; there are
frequent cases of scurvy among babies so fed. These preparations
usually contain a high percentage of starch or sugar, with an
insufficiency of proteins, fats, and minerals; this produces plump
babies that look flourishing in pictures, but that are lacking in
solid muscles, bone and nerve tissue, and are subject to rickets,
With little resistance for pneumonia or other germ diseases. Patent
baby foods, condensed or powdered milk, are the last makeshift.

If artificial feeding becomes necessary, clean cow’s milk is the
best substitute. Cow’s milk is made for the calf, whose stomach and
digestion are much coarser, and development much more rapid, than the
baby’s. As produced, it contains too high a percentage of protein
and lime, too low a percentage of sugar and phosphorus, and the curd
is too large and coarse for the baby’s digestion. It is difficult to
produce perfectly clean, and to keep perfectly sweet until feeding.
It must be modified carefully, according to the age and condition of
the baby.

The formula is a technical matter for the medical or dietetic
specialist to work out and prescribe in each individual case, and
to change as the individual baby requires; it is no more a subject
for experiment by a novice than is a case of fever. The formula
prescribed must be prepared with scrupulous cleanliness and exactness.

As about ninety mothers in every hundred are fitted and able, with
wise prenatal and postnatal hygiene, to nurse their babies, the
subject of artificial feeding merits relatively less attention.

Ability to nurse is affected by conditions long before motherhood
begins. An active, out-of-door life, with freedom from nervous strain
or worry, and with clothing that does not compress or overheat the
breasts, is important from childhood. Alcoholism in the mother’s
father, or Cæsarean birth of the child, usually inhibit nursing.

The ability is increased by a moderate, nutritious diet,[9] including
cereals, milk, water (not exceeding an additional quart of liquid
daily beyond the mother’s normal need); by quiet mind, outdoor
living, moderate exercise; by regularity in nursing, and the complete
emptying of a breast at a nursing. It is decreased by a contrary
régime, by fatigue, nervousness, or by interrupting or discontinuing
the effort to nurse.

Fats are increased by more nutritious diet; proteins, by diet and
decreasing the intervals between nursings. Fat in the diet does not
affect the proportion in the milk. Indoor life, with overfeeding
and insufficient exercise, will unduly increase the proportion of
protein and cause colic. A too hearty diet, especially if high in
sugars and starches, will unduly increase the fat. Irregular nursing,
nervousness, not completely emptying the breast, decreasing the
liquids in the diet, will decrease the supply.

Every drop of the mother’s milk is of great value to the baby. If
the quantity or quality is not sufficient, nursings should not be
stopped, but one or more supplemented with modified milk, prescribed
by the physician or dietitian, to furnish the balance. Contagious
disease, except tuberculosis, is not necessarily a contraindication
to nursing. Unless the milk disagrees with the baby, nursing need
not be suspended during menstruation; otherwise, modified milk may
be used temporarily, and the milk regularly withdrawn. Weaning
should be done slowly, substituting one feeding for a nursing, and
discontinuing other nursings at intervals of two or three days. In
this way the baby is gradually accustomed to other food, and the
mother’s milk gradually disappears. Reducing the diet and omitting
liquids for a few days will stop the flow of milk.

While the mother is in bed no more food is needed than under ordinary
circumstances, as the food requirement is low during rest and the
quantity needed by the baby is very small (page 118). An excess of
food is likely to produce indigestion and constipation, and actually
interfere with nursing. Foods easily digested, laxative, rich in
minerals (especially lime and iron) should be selected through the
nursing period. The diet list as for children six to eight years
of age is a desirable one to follow.[10] No patent nostrums should
ever be experimented with; they are worthless when not harmful.
Beer and all forms of alcohol are particularly to be avoided;
they do not increase the amount of fluid more than would an equal
quantity of water or milk; any increase they produce is of fluid,
not of nutriment; the alcohol enters the baby’s system unchanged,
and may injure his sensitive nerve cells. Doctor D. D. Bezzola, of
Switzerland, who has made extensive studies of the effects of alcohol
upon infancy, concludes: “The time may come when we shall see that
every drop of alcohol taken by the parent means a drop of stupidity
for the child.”[11] Malt liquors are apt to disturb the mother’s
digestion and cause her to put on superfluous fat.

Constipation in the mother will produce constipation in the baby,
and laxatives or drugs taken by the mother are likely to affect the
baby. Anger, worry, excitement produce poisons that render the milk
indigestible, even poisonous; if these are indulged in, the baby
should be given only plain or barley water, and the milk withdrawn
and thrown away for one or two nursings.

Before a nursing the mother should wash her hands thoroughly with
soap and hot water, and then wash the nipples with a saturated boric
solution. The feeding should be done in a quiet room where there is
no noise or conversation to disturb the baby, and the mother should
be composed and relaxed. After the feeding, give the baby a swallow
of water to rinse out the mouth. Wash the nipple again with the
boric solution and dry thoroughly with a clean towel. A triple fold
of clean, sterilized gauze, or surgeon’s lint, should be pinned to
the undervest, covering each nipple, thus protecting both the nipple
and the clothing; this should be changed every day. Cleanliness will
prevent thrush in the baby’s mouth, and local soreness and discomfort
for the mother.

The quantity normal at a feeding will depend upon the baby’s age, and
consequently the size of his stomach and the amount needed for his
growth and maintenance. (See page 118.) The quantity taken at one
feeding may be ascertained by weighing the baby just before and just
after a feeding.

Until recently, two-hour intervals for feeding were prescribed for
babies at one or two months, with two night feedings. Extensive
studies in France and Germany (where the raising of babies for
replenishing the army has made infant hygiene a subject of State
investigation) have proven that babies usually thrive better on
longer intervals, allowing time for the stomach to rest. Some
continental specialists advise four-hour intervals from the
beginning, and with some babies this is quite satisfactory. The Table
on page 118 presents the more usual schedule now recommended. It
provides for a three-hour schedule at the start, changing to four
hours at five months, with no feeding after 10 P.M. The 10 P.M.
feeding can usually be dropped with advantage at about nine months.
To drop a feeding, substitute water for a few nights if the baby
wakes or cries.

Regularity is of the greatest importance in the feeding. Clock
schedule should be observed from the first day and maintained
thereafter. The digestive system is much like a machine, pouring out
its digestive fluids at regular habitual intervals, and doing good
work so long as this regularity is respected and observed in the
feeding. Feeding the baby whenever he cries produces indigestion,
colic, irritability, self-indulgence.

Ten to fifteen minutes is the usual duration of a feeding. The first
milk is thinner, the latter part of the nursing richer. Generally
one breast is taken at a feeding, the other breast at the succeeding
feeding; if the quantity in one is insufficient, both may be used
at one feeding. Neither the mother nor the baby should go to sleep
during the nursing. If the baby dawdles, the food may be taken away
until the next time. He should stop a minute at the end of each five
minutes, to rest and breathe. If he regurgitates or vomits up after
nursing, he is being fed too much, or the intervals are too short.

When the baby has finished, he should be handled very gently for
the succeeding hour. His condition is not unlike that of an uncorked
bottle. He should lie or sit quietly without jolting or rocking, much
less tumbling or other vigorous manipulations. Lay, him on his right
side if he is inclined to eructation; on the left side in diarrhea or
intestinal trouble, to open the rectal valves and allow gas to escape.

Between feedings, the baby should be given pure water, 65° to 70° F.,
at regular intervals, several times a day; or during the night if he
cries. It can be given the first month from a sterilized medicine
dropper, then from a spoon; the use of a cup may begin at five or six
months.

If the water is not perfectly pure, it should be boiled twenty
minutes; to remove sediment, strain through several thicknesses of
sterilized cheesecloth.

Strained orange juice or prune juice, without sugar, at first diluted
one half with water, may be given daily at six months, or earlier if
the baby is constipated. Begin with one teaspoonful and gradually
increase to four tablespoonfuls at six months. It should be given an
hour before feeding time.

At six months a scraped, clean chicken or chop bone (after being
cooked) may be given once or twice a day, a quarter hour before
feeding, to exercise the jaws (being very careful that it is not
dropped on the floor). At ten months this may be replaced once a day
by a hard crust to be sucked after feeding, watching that the baby
does not break off any pieces, or removing these from his mouth.

No other food should ordinarily be given until nine months, when
weaning may usually begin by substituting for one nursing a feeding
of milk and strained cereal, given with a spoon or from a cup. The
formula should be prescribed by the physician or dietitian. Whether
a baby should be completely weaned at nine months or at twelve will
depend upon the condition of the baby, quality of the mother’s milk,
and the season. The baby and the milk should be examined, and the
physician’s or dietitian’s advice followed. Starch is not normally
digested under nine months; solid food or lumps may cause convulsions.

=Stools.= There should be at least one normal movement every day;
some babies have two or three.

Begin the second week to establish regularity.

A movement is most likely to follow a feeding in early morning and
the afternoon.

Normal stools are yellow, soft, and smooth.

If gray or brown, with mucus, blood, or undigested food, report to
the physician.

If green or with foul odor, report immediately and substitute barley
water for feedings. Spinach will cause green stools, or they may turn
green an hour after removal; this is normal.

Keep the bowels in good condition by giving plenty of water, fruit
juice, and abdominal exercises; avoid enemas, suppositories, and
laxative drugs, all of which are detrimental.

=Sleep.= During his first year this should be the baby’s chief
occupation. Any period of rapid growth involves much work on the
part of all internal organs, and a low power of resistance. In this
twelve months, the weight trebles, and the length increases about one
half; the brain increases its weight nearly three times, and has by
far more work in learning new adjustments than in any similar period
later in life.

The amount of sleep required at different stages is shown in the
table on page 118.

The baby should always have his own bed, and if possible, his own
room. He should preferably sleep outdoors except (1) in rain or
falling snow, (2) damp, fogging weather, (3) with snow melting, (4)
dusty, windy weather, (5) temperature below 40° F. or above 90°.
The night air is as healthful as that of the day with these same
provisions. A sleeping porch is an investment that will pay high
dividends all through his life.

In dry, still weather, 68° to 95° F., the baby may be taken outdoors
two or three days after his arrival; otherwise he must gradually be
accustomed to the cooler outer air by being taken into a room with
windows open on one side (wrapping him up judiciously), reducing the
temperature every few days, until at one month he is breathing a
temperature of 65° F., at two months of 55° F., and at three months,
he can breathe it nearly at freezing (32° F.). Abrupt changes should
be carefully avoided. Pure cold air is invigorating; stale air is
poisonous; air too dry injures the mucous membrane of the nose and
throat; air too moist is oppressive; all of these develop colds and
pneumonia.

When the baby is indoors, there should be a constant, quiet current
of fresh air, except during dressing and bathing. The air should be
regulated, not by guess, but by a reliable thermometer (tested at the
baby’s head), and the equally important hygrometer for humidity, when
there is not a constant intake of fresh, outside air.

The room temperature should not exceed 70° F. the first three months,
and 68° F. later, when the baby is dressed. It may advantageously
thereafter be 65°-68° ordinarily. When the baby is sleeping, or
playing with wraps on, it is of vital value to have it lower,
graduating it from 40° to 60° according to circumstances. Cold air
is vitalizing; warm air is devitalizing. An open fireplace, with one
window lowered from the top, or a six-inch window board for very cold
or windy weather, will provide reasonable ventilation.

A baby has more room and sleeps more comfortably in his basket or
crib than in a carriage. When awake, he needs more space to roll,
kick, creep, walk. In the open country, he is much better off on
the veranda or in the nursery with windows open, lying in his basket
or pen, than rolled up in a carriage. Babies unfortunately housed
in city apartments or crowded tenements must sometimes be confined
in a carriage for the sake of getting to the open air. In a sunny,
open-aired room or by an open window is better for a baby than down
in a dusty street. The air at higher levels has less dust and fewer
germs. The roof of an apartment house, if there is protection from
chimney gas, hot sun, and high winds, is preferable to the street.
He should never be put on the ground without the protection of a
waterproof and blanket or rug to prevent chilling.

=Making and Care of Bed.= Lay in the mattress—preferably a washable
folded quilt, laid smooth, or a floss, hair, or straw-filled mattress.

Cover mattress with papricloth nursery blanket or light-weight rubber
sheeting, laid smooth.

Over this, lay the large quilted pad or felting.

Lay on the lower sheet, tucking it under the mattress.

Lay a small quilted pad under the baby’s hips, or use a large size
pad for older, tossing babies.

Lay a flat quilted or hair pad (which may be covered with a cotton or
linen slip) or a folded diaper or soft folded towel for the head and
face; a pillow is inadvisable.

Put on the top sheet and the coverlet, folding the sheet back six
inches over the top of the coverlet for protection, and tucking in at
sides (not tight) and at foot.

For cold weather, especially outdoors, put in first a woolen blanket.
Lay several newspapers between this and the mattress, and when the
baby is in, fasten this over the coverlet like a sleeping bag; for
cold weather a knit or woolen sleeping bag is desirable.

When the baby is out of his bed, it should be taken apart, both
morning and afternoon, shaken, thoroughly aired, and sunned.

In cold weather, the bed should be warmed before putting the baby in,
and flannelette may well be used instead of muslin sheets.

Change sheets and pads whenever they are wet.

The crib bed is cared for in the same way. Padded side protectors
should not be used, as they prevent good ventilation. The
light-weight, washable side curtains may be used, but these on only
one side and end; they should be removed and washed every week. The
screen will furnish ample protection from drafts.

The bed should always be placed where it has a quiet current of fresh
air but not a draft, strong wind, or hot sun. The basket should rest
firmly on its stand, or a large table, or dry surface, never on the
floor. Protection should be provided against flies, mosquitoes, cats,
dogs, falling objects; and after eight months, against the baby’s
climbing and falling out.

“Putting the baby to sleep” should consist in laying the baby in his
stationary bed,—warm, dry, comfortable, protected,—to go to sleep
by himself. Rocking disturbs the circulation in the brain, produces
only light sleep, and is bad for the nervous system. Babies often
cry at first, when laid in bed, merely to be taken up, rocked, or
played with. To humor them in this way is to cultivate in them
self-indulgence, irritable temper, and tyranny. If let alone they may
cry themselves to sleep for a few nights, but this will do them no
physical harm; they will have learned their lesson, and the family
will be spared further trouble.

The baby should not always be laid on his back, but may be laid on
one side, or on his stomach, turning his head to one side and putting
a flat pad under his chest. The latter position is not only a restful
change, but also promotes digestion and encourages development of
the muscles at the base of the head and in the upper back.

Disturbed sleep may be caused by bad air, overclothing, rough
clothing, cold feet, indigestion, thirst, need of circumcision, a
habit of rocking. It is not necessary to keep the house in silence
while the baby is sleeping. Sudden and boisterous noise should be
avoided, but the baby outdoors or in his own room learns to sleep
undisturbed by ordinary conversation, music, household activities.

The baby should be gently wakened, if asleep at feeding or bath
time. After a few weeks, his system will be so trained that he will
naturally waken at these times.

The regular waking of the baby should be anticipated, and the mother
or nurse should be there at the time to take him up, change the
diaper, and make him comfortable before he begins to cry. Waking time
should be a smiling time.

=Play and Exercise.= The first play is simple, muscular play of limbs.

After the first month, arrange clothing and covers so there is great
freedom for kicking, twisting, rolling, stretching, pulling.

After two months, baby will not sleep so much and will be more active
with hands, arms, legs.

He should have a pen or yard, raised six inches above the floor;
or a board may be made to fit over mattress of crib. Pen or board
should have woolen blanket and quilted pad over it; let baby kick and
roll freely. The floor is bad because of drafts and dust. A large
dry-goods box, raised, is better than the floor.

Do not prop a baby up in a sitting position until he is strong enough
to hold himself up five minutes without support; then allow sitting
position for only ten minutes at a time, not on the table or bed with
the feet extended in front, but in a carriage or chair, legs bent at
knee.

After two months place objects for him to grasp toward, upward, and
forward.

As soon as the baby learns to smile, this becomes a little game.
At six or eight months, he begins to play with vocal sounds, at
peek-a-boo and pat-a-cake. Boisterous play, tossing, tumbling,
tickling, are too severe for the delicate nerves; his laughing at
this is a symptom rather of nervousness than of joy. The baby is not
a plaything for his elders. The hour before bedtime is a good time
for quiet mothering.

Motor development during the first year normally approximates the
following plan.

Eyes begin to focus at about six weeks; coördination not well
developed until three months or later; real tears, from the lachrymal
glands, begin at about three months; knows mother or nurse by sight
at about three months. Voluntary smiling begins at about five weeks,
laughing at five or six months. Ability to sit alone develops at from
six to eight months, to stand alone at twelve to fourteen, and to
walk alone at fourteen to eighteen months.

=Exercises.= Special exercise may begin at three or four weeks
of age. Begin with one exercise, and three-minute periods. Each
fortnight time may be increased two minutes up to twenty-minute
limit. Add new exercises gradually, at two-week intervals.

All exercises should be given slowly, rhythmically, two hours after a
feeding, when baby is in happy mood; before bathing in mid-morning,
or in mid-afternoon, is a good time. Do not permit fatigue or test
endurance.

Always do the exercises in the same order, thus cultivating motor
memory.

Lay the child on the padded nursery table; have clothing loose,
or preferably without clothing; diaper unfastened; no drafts;
temperature at 70° to 72° F.

_Arm movements._ For development of chest, upper back, upper arms.

1. Take hold of each hand; extend arms straight on table, at right
angles to body, saying “down”, 4 times; bring hands together in front
of body as in clapping, saying “up”, 4 times. (Figures 1, 2.)

2. At “down”, bring arms down to sides, parallel with body; at “up”
stretch arms upward to table above the head (if baby objects, each
arm may be done separately) 4 times. Keep his elbows straight in both
exercises. (Figure 4.)

_Leg movements._ For trunk and leg muscles; overcoming constipation.

1. Grasp foot, bend knee to body; do alternately with right and left,
each 4 times; then both together 4 times. (Figure 3.)

2. Grasp leg, keep knee straight, bring leg to right angles with
body; take each leg alternately, 4 times; then together, 4 times.
Avoid sidewise movement. (Figures 5, 6.)

When the child is able to lift his head, he may be allowed to pull
himself up as far as he can, holding the nurse’s hands. Grasp his
hands firmly so he will not suddenly lose his hold and fall back;
do not pull him, but let him develop strength to pull himself to a
sitting position. (Figures 7, 8.)

At first let him immediately lower himself to lying position,
gradually sitting up one minute, and slowly increasing by one minute.

Many babies at about eleven months go on all fours, bear-fashion. At
this stage the wheelbarrow exercise can begin, grasping the baby’s
feet and lifting them up while he supports himself on his hands and
arms. This is strengthening for arms, chest, back, and trunk. At this
age the substituting of rompers for dresses permits more freedom of
action and minimizes accidents from tumbling.

=Crying.= Every baby does some crying, and every cry has some
meaning. The wise mother will find the cause and will, if necessary,
remove it. She will never use pacifiers, sugar, soothing syrups, loud
noise, trotting, bouncing, tossing, irregular feeding, all of which
are injurious to the baby’s sensitive nerves.

  =Causes of Crying=                   =Nature of Cry; Treatment=

  Painless, spontaneous exercise           Vigorous, red-faced. Usually
                                             at feeding, bathing,
                                             dressing; 3-20 minutes.
                                             Necessary

  Physical discomfort.                     Fretful or sharp; continued
    Clothing wet; pins in clothes          Remove cause
    Clothing wrinkled, tight, oppressive   Practice better hygiene
    Clothing rough, hot                    Rub the back, with downward
    Bed rough, covers tight                  strokes
    Tired of one position
    Air oppressive, stale, too
      warm, dry
    Cold feet, thirst, overfeeding
    Sleepiness, overtired, hunger
    Teething, constipation
    Colic, gas, indigestion                Sharp, intermittent;
                                             feet drawn up

  Illness                                  Moan, wail, feeble,
                                             intermittent

  Psychological:                           Lusty, continued
    Desire for attention, especially       Stops when desire is granted
      at night                             Will soon stop if ignored
    Desire for things forbidden

A pernicious habit of self-indulgence and tyranny is cultivated if
the baby learns that he can get his desires by crying. If indulged,
even at a few weeks of age, he develops temper, self-indulgence, and
disrespect for authority. If no attention is paid to such crying,
or desires cried for are denied, he soon learns self-control,
self-reliance, respect for law and authority.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 1      Fig. 2
  Fig. 3      Fig. 4
  Fig. 5      Fig. 6
  Fig. 7      Fig. 8

Exercises for the Baby.]

=Infant Mortality.=[12] Chief causes presented in the order of their
frequency.

  =Immediate Causes as Given in=        =Underlying Causes=
      =Mortality Statistics=

                                    Ignorance; poor hygiene
                                    Low Vitality
                                    Bottle feeding
  1. Diarrhea and indigestion       Unclean milk and preparation
                                    Solid food too early
                                    Irregular feeding

                                    Ignorance; poor hygiene
                                    Congenital debility
                                    Indoor living
                                    Overheated, overdry rooms
                                    Tobacco smoke in rooms
  2. Pneumonia, croup, colds        Overclothing; overfeeding
                                    Playing on floor
                                    Sitting on unprotected ground
                                    Adenoids, enlarged tonsils

                                    Ignorance; inadequate prenatal
                                      hygiene
                                    Weak heredity
                                    Poor health of parents
                                    Use of alcohol by parents
  3. Congenital debility            Syphilis
         (weakness at birth)        Self-indulgence of parents
                                    Lack of continence during pregnancy
                                    Poor nutrition of mother
                                    Overwork of mother
                                    Too short interval between
                                      births (less than two years)

                                    Ignorance; poor hygiene
                                    Lack of resistance
  4. Contagious diseases:           Indoor living
        whooping cough,             Infections in crowds, streetcars,
        diphtheria, measles           stores, dusty streets
                                    Infection of colds from family or
                                      visitors; kissing
                                    Adenoids, enlarged tonsils

  =Defects Easily Acquired=           =Causes=
        =in Infancy=[13]

  Spinal curvature                  Careless lifting, holding, or
                                      laying down
                                    Sitting up too early or too long

  Bow legs                          Diapers too thick
                                    Standing too early
                                    Inadequate feeding

  Narrow pelvis                     Diapers too tight
                                    Binders too tight

  Misshapen ribs and chest          Clothes too tight
                                    Rickets

  Rupture                           Binder too tight
                                    Binder worn too long
                                    Rough handling

  Internal displacements            Careless lifting or holding
                                    Jogging, tossing
                                    Too long sitting

  Enlargement of stomach            Overfeeding

  Tender or deformed feet           Feet kept too warm, perspiring
                                    Shoes tight, rough, non-porous
                                    Shoes worn too early
                                    Use of “baby walker”
                                    Walking too early

  Nervousness                       Irregularity
                                    Indoor living
                                    Wrong feeding
                                    Lack of training in self-control
                                    Nervousness of attendant
                                    Disturbance of sleep
                                    Need of circumcision
                                    Excitement; tickling, tossing,
                                      rocking


Frequent among preventable illnesses of infancy are colds,
constipation, colic, rickets, scurvy, marasmus.

  =Bad Habits to be Guarded=           =Remedies=
            =Against=

  Putting fingers in mouth          Give suitable toys

  Thumb sucking (produces ugly      Put aloes or golden seal on fingers
    mouth, self-indulgence; may     Put on sleeveless sack dress
    cause infections, adenoids)     Put on aluminum mitts

  Screaming, tantrums               Leave alone
                                    Deny object desired

  Masturbation                      Medical examination
                                    Circumcision
                                    Local cleanliness
                                    Toys; occupation

To state the underlying causes of infant mortality and defects is
at the same time to emphasize their preventability and to indicate
the method of prevention. The pathos is less in the high rate of
death and illness than in their needlessness,—if only young women
and young men were provided with even a meager preparation for this
responsibility! The following are representative judgments expressed
repeatedly by physicians everywhere.

“The problem of infant mortality is not one of sanitation alone or
housing or indeed of poverty as such, but is mainly a question of
motherhood.”

  —Doctor G. Newman (English).

“The parents in their homes are largely responsible for the high
infant mortality.”

  —Doctor Ira S. Wile (American).

It is advisable to have the baby examined by the physician once
a week during the first three months and at least once a month
thereafter during the first year. If the daily régime is followed
carefully, with judgment, the baby will probably gain normally in
weight, be rosy and happy, free from any illness. The first year is
the critical year, the time for every precaution both to prevent
defects and promote vigor.


TABLE OF FEEDING, SLEEP, AND WEIGHT[14]

  ————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
  ———————+————————————————+—————+——————+——————+——————+—————————————+——————
  AVERAGE|                | NO. |OUNCES|TOTAL |INTER-|             |
  WEIGHT |  AGE OF BABY   | OF  | AT   |Ounces|VALS  | HOURS       | SLEEP
  OF BABY|                |FEED-|EACH  |IN 24 |IN    |             |
    IN   |                |INGS |FEED- |HOURS |HOURS |             |
   POUNDS|                |     |ING   |      |      |             |
  ———————+————————————————+—————+——————+——————+——————+—————————————+——————
    7½   |Birth and 2d day|  4  |  1   |  4   |  6   |             |22
    7    |  3d day        |  6  |  1   |  6   |  3   |6, 9, A.M.,  | hours
         |  4th ”         |  6  |  1½  |  9   |  3   |12 noon; 3,  |    ”
         |  5th ”         |  6  |  2   | 12   |  3   |6, 10 P.M.   |    ”
    7¼   |  7th ”         |  6  |  2½  | 15   |  3   |     ”       |    ”
    7½   | 10th ”         |  6  |  3   | 18   |  3   |     ”       |    ”
         |Begin 3d  week  |  6  |  3½  | 21   |  3   |     ”       |    ”
         |  ”   4th  ”    |  6  |  4   | 24   |  3   |     ”       |21  ”
    8¾   |  ”   2d  month |  6  |  4¼  | 25½  |  3   |     ”       |20  ”
   10½   |  ”   3d    ”   |  6  |  4½  | 27   |  3   |     ”       |19  ”
   14¼   |  ”   4th   ”   |  6  |  5   | 30   |  3   |     ”       |18  ”
   13¾   |  ”   5th   ”   |  5  |  6½  | 32½  |  4   |6, 10, A.M.; |16  ”
   15    |  ”   6th   ”   |  5  |  7   | 35   |  4   |2, 6, 10 P.M.|    ”
   16    |  ”   7th   ”   |  5  |  7½  | 37½  |  4   |     ”       |    ”
   16¾   |  ”   8th   ”   |  5  |  8   | 40   |  4   |     ”       |15  ”
   17½   |  ”   9th   ”   |  5  |  8¼  | 41¼  |  4   |     ”       |    ”
   18    |End   9th   ”   |  5  |  8½  | 42½  |  4   |     ”       |    ”
   21    | ”   12th   ”   |  5  |      |      |  4   |     ”       |    ”
  ———————+————————————————+—————+——————+——————+——————+—————————————+——————
  ————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————



FOOTNOTES:

[6] See Preface, page xiii.

[7] A “sponge bath” is given with a wash cloth; _sponges_ are _never_
to be used, because unsanitary.

[8] See page 79.

[9] See Chapter IX.

[10] See pages 164, 5.

[11] “The Body in Health” (O’Shea and Kellogg).

[12] For statistics, see Appendix.

[13] For statistics on infant mortality, see Appendix.

[14] From “Feeding and Care of Baby.”—F. TRUBY KING, M. B.




CHAPTER VIII

THE PHYSICAL CARE OF YOUNG CHILDREN[15]

  “The care and improvement of the child’s health is of paramount
  importance. A sound and efficient body is his initial stock in
  trade for winning the rewards of life.”

  —LIFE EXTENSION INSTITUTE.

  “Instruction can wait, but the demands of health are imperative.”

  —WILLIAM H. BURNHAM.

  “If only the intentions of nature were respected during the period
  of growth and development, the problem (of ill health) would by no
  means be so serious.”

  —LEWIS M. TERMAN.

  “The sound body and vigorous health are the foundation without
  which the higher qualities of mind and heart develop precariously
  or feebly, or fail to realize their possibilities. The basis of
  education is and must be physical.”

  —J. M. TYLER.


=The Foundations of Efficiency.= It is the business of the home to
develop in children such vitality that they will enjoy exuberant
health in childhood, acquire habits of good hygiene, lay the
foundation for endurance, beauty, and longevity in manhood and
womanhood, and bequeath vigor of constitution to their children. The
slogan is “Prevention—Vitality—Efficiency.”

For efficiency the organs must be approximately perfect, and their
functioning sure and strong.

The ultimate physical sources of power are:

  1. Good nutrition and sound digestion
  2. Sound, active lungs
  3. Vigorous kidneys
  4. Strong heart
  5. Steady nervous system

That is, there must be ample intake of food and oxygen, thorough
removal of waste, quick distribution of fuel, oxygen, and waste,
economical working of the organism. The whole body must be
organically sound, and all its functions must go on efficiently and
vigorously.

=Developing Vitality to Resist Disease.= Disease may be due to:

  a. Some defect of structure in an organ as the heart, spinal
  column, eye, tooth

  b. Ineffective functioning of an organ or system, as in
  constipation, slow circulation, shallow breathing

  c. Low resistance to disease germs or poisons, as in the
  contracting of influenza, diarrhea, pneumonia, whooping cough


The Means for Developing Vitality.

1. Good nutrition. This involves sound digestion and assimilation. It
can be assured only through:

  a. Wholesome foods, adapted to the age in quantity and preparation
  b. Sound teeth
  c. Regularity in feeding
  d. Right conditions in feeding
     Eating slowly
     Chewing well
     Avoiding severe exercise within an hour after feeding
     Eating not less than 1 to 3 hours before bedtime
     Eating in a cheerful frame of mind
     Food at approximately body temperature

2. Thorough elimination of waste.

  a. Through the lungs by oxidization. Deep and adequate breathing
  accomplishes the two ends of eliminating some of the poisonous
  waste (as carbon dioxide from the lungs) and bringing quantities
  of oxygen to the internal cells for burning up of waste. Active
  physical exercise and the habit of deep breathing are both
  necessary.

  b. Through kidneys and intestines. These are Nature’s plumbing
  system for removing poisonous waste. Regularity in these functions
  should become a habit in early childhood. There should be a bowel
  movement once or twice a day. Abundance of laxative foods in the
  diet, water between meals, outdoor life and activity, are natural
  means of regulating these functions.

3. Regulation of bodily heat. Colds and chills pave the way for
vital disorders. They are not always symptoms of an infection. They
are often due to poor training of the nerves in the skin to respond
quickly to changes of temperature. The training of these nerves can
come only as that of any other nerves—through their exercise. Indoor
and sedentary life does not supply sufficient exercise for them; for
this exercise there is required:

  a. A low slightly variable temperature, 65°-68° F. indoor

  b. Perceptible air current

  c. Air baths, sun baths, and cold-water baths administered with
  judgment

4. Good circulation of blood. The blood is the only avenue by which
nourishment can be brought to the cells or their poisonous waste
removed. So far as it can be directly controlled, circulation may
be quickened by abundance of exercise, cool temperature, wise
distribution of porous clothing. The child should be taught how to
quickly warm hands or feet by special exercise, rolling or shaking
of hands, stretching the arms and forcefully opening and shutting the
hands, slowly rising and sinking on the feet, running, alternately
stretching the toes and heels, rubbing the feet.

5. Protection of nose, throat, and chest. Nature has provided the
nose with a delicate mucous lining that constantly secretes a fluid
which has the power to destroy germs that may enter with the air. If
this moist mucous lining becomes dry, it cannot function. It will
not become dry unless the indoor air is too dry, as is the case in
artificially heated rooms unless additional moisture is supplied by
open dishes of water and by constant intake of outer air. The throat
likewise suffers in a dry atmosphere.

Bundling the throat and chest keeps the skin moist and makes it
more susceptible to congestion; they should be made resistant to
congestion by deep breathing and daily cold sponging. Adenoids and
enlarged tonsils are abnormal growths of lymphatic tissue in the
nose and throat that make breathing difficult and inefficient, and
that become breeding places for germs. The infection that they
harbor leads frequently to colds, earache, deafness, tonsillitis,
diphtheria, measles, scarlet fever. They obstruct the breathing and
reduce the supply of oxygen, spoil the shape of the face, reduce
the ability to think, and by their discomfort produce irritability
and nervousness. They greatly interfere with the vitality. Adenoids
should therefore be removed, and tonsils treated, their removal being
a last resort when they are diseased.

6. Maintaining high count and efficiency of red blood corpuscles
and of leucocytes in the blood. The red blood corpuscles carry
oxygen. Evident symptoms of their inefficiency are paleness, low
vitality, inertia. The leucocytes are the special blood cells that
attack disease germs which have made their way past the sentinels in
the nose, throat, and stomach. The number and efficiency of these
bodyguards is increased by outdoor exercise, cold-water baths, air
baths, sun baths, by adding more mineral food to the diet.

Additional means of preventing development of germ diseases are: (a)
protection from contagion; (b) injecting of antitoxins. The greatest
preventive, however, is internal resistance, since disease germs
are usually in the atmosphere and are entering the system every day
through the nose and mouth.

7. Storing of nervous energy. This is possible only through abundant
sleep, regularity of regimen, temperance, moderation, self-control,
avoidance of stimulants, narcotics, or dissipation. Nature has
intended that childhood shall be a period of accumulating and
conserving nervous reserve.

The effect of any regimen or any exception to a principle of good
hygiene must be measured not simply by its immediate results but even
more by its remote consequences. Nature is patient, long suffering,
and will endure much abuse without great protest, but Nature is also
an accurate bookkeeper and remorseless creditor; every debt must
at some time be paid on demand,—it may be five, ten, forty years
later, or in the lives of the succeeding generation. Nature makes no
allowance for ignorance of her laws. Parental love cannot atone for
lack of knowledge or experience. The death-rate from tuberculosis
rises considerably among girls in their twenties. To what extent is
this due to general poor hygiene, indoor life, lack of exercise, in
childhood? During the last quarter century there has been a marked
increase in the death-rate during middle age from kidney disorders,
cancer, heart disease, insanity. It may well be asked to what extent
these are due to habits of irregularity, overfeeding, wrong feeding,
self-indulgence, nervousness, acquired in childhood.


Children’s Typical Physical Regimen

     1 TO 2 YEARS        |          2 TO 9 YEARS           | AFTER 9 YEARS
         6: A.M.         |           6:30-7 A.M.           |
                         |                                 |
    Toilet               | Wakens                          | (Same as 2-9
    Milk                 | Stretching for circulation and  |   years.)
  Some children at       |   gradual increase of heart     |
    this age will remain |   action                        |
    quietly in           | Put on bathrobe and slippers,   |
    bed for an           |   if cool                       |
    hour after taking    | Open bed to air                 |
    milk, when           | Taken to toilet                 |
    the schedule         | Teeth brushed; mouth rinsed     |
    for children 2-9     | Drink of water                  |
    for rising and       | Vigorous exercise or play 2-5   |
    bathing may          |   minutes                       |
    be followed.         | Fruit juice                     |
    Others are           | Face and hands washed, cool     |
    ready to be up,      |   water                         |
    and these may        | Rubbing of entire body, 2-4     |
    have a cool          |   minutes                       |
    sponge to chest      |   (Rub from extremities toward  |
    and back, with       |     heart)                      |
    bath at midday       | Bath as prescribed, 2-4 minutes |
    or evening.          | Dressing: 5-15 minutes          |
                         |   (After three years, child     |
                         |     should dress himself)       |
                         | Bed, room, night clothes opened |
                         |   to air                        |
                         | Children who have not slept     |
                         |   outdoors should get out for   |
                         |   5-20 minutes vigorous play    |
                         |   before breakfast              |
                         |            7:30-8:00            |
  Fruit juice; toilet    | Breakfast                       | (Same as 2-9
  Outdoors or play       | Toilet (time for regular bowel  |   years.)
    in open-air room     |   movement)                     |
                         | Hands washed                    |
                         | Teeth brushed                   |
                         | Bed made, bedroom put in order  |
                         | Outdoors by 9 A.M. (earlier in  | Outdoors
                         |   summer)                       |   ½-1 hour
                         | If inclement weather put on     |   before
                         |   outdoor wraps; open windows   |   school
                         |   in room for open-air play     | Open-air
                         |                                 |   school
                         |                                 |
                         |            10:00 A.M.           |
  Toilet                 | Glass of water                  | Water
  Mid-morning            |                                 |
    meal                 |                                 |
                         |              10:30              |
  Teeth brushed          | Fruit                           |
  Toilet                 | Toilet                          |
  Outdoors               |                                 |
                         |              11:30              |
  Undressed; drink       | Hands washed, finger nails      |
                         |   cleaned; preparation for      |
                         |   dinner                        |
                         |              12:00              |
  Bath; toilet; nap      | Dinner                          | Dinner
                         |           12:40 P.M.            |
                         | Toilet                          | Outdoors
                         | Hands washed                    |   ½-1 hour
                         | Undressed for bed; remove shoes,|
                         |   stockings, dress, waist,      |
                         |   trousers                      |
                         |               1:30              | In open-air
  Toilet; dressed        |                                 |   school 1-3
                         |                                 |   hours
                         |               2:00              |
  Dinner                 | Toilet; dressed; bed made       |
                         |               2:30              |
  Toilet                 | Glass of water                  |
  Outdoors               | Outdoors, or open-air play      | Outdoors 2-4
                         |   indoors                       |   hours
                         |                                 |
                         |               4:30              |
  Drink water            | Indoors; toilet, glass of water |
                         | Hands washed, finger nails      |
                         |   cleaned                       |
                         | (Warm bath 2 or 3 times week;   |
                         |   cool sponge in summer)        |
                         |               5:00              |
  Indoors; toilet        | Supper                          |
                         |               5:30              |
  Supper                 | Undressed; teeth brushed        |
                         | Face, neck, ears, feet washed   |
                         |               6:00              |
  Undressed; teeth;      | In bed (6 to 9 years at 7:00)   | Supper
    toilet; in bed       |                                 |
                         |              10:00              |
  Toilet                 | Toilet (until 6 years)          |

=Sleep.= _Quantity._ All the sleep a child can get is so much of
fortification against the inevitable stress of later years, as well
as conducive to his immediate vitality, comfort, and good nature.
Children vary individually; often, however, the nervous child who
needs most sleep is least willing to take it. Children should sleep
as much as they want to and should approximate the following amounts
as a minimum.


Approximate Average Requirements[16]

  —————————————————————————————————————————————————
  ————————————+————————————+———————————————————————
      AGE     |  HOURS OF  |         TIME IN BED
              |   SLEEP    |
  ————————————+————————————+———————————————————————
   12 months  |    15      | 6.00 P.M.-6.00 A.M.
              |            |   midday nap 2-3 hours
    1-4 years |    14      | 6.00 P.M.-6.00 A.M.
              |            |   midday nap 1-2 hours
    4-6  ”    |    13      | 6.00 P.M.-6.00 A.M.
              |            |   1 hour midday rest
    6-8  ”    |    12      | 7.00 P.M.-7.00 A.M.
              |            |   1 hour midday rest
    8-10 ”    |    11½     | 7.30 P.M.-7.00 A.M.
   10-12 ”    |    11      | 8.00 P.M.-7.00 A.M.
   12-14 ”    |    10½     | 8.30 P.M.-7.00 A.M.
   14-16 ”    |    10      | 9.00 P.M.-7.00 A.M.
   16-18 ”    |     9½     | 9.30 P.M.-7.00 A.M.
  ————————————+————————————+———————————————————————
  —————————————————————————————————————————————————


_Conditions._ 1. Bed alone. No one can sleep as comfortably or
restfully with another person as alone. With little children, moral
as well as physiological possibilities are to be considered.

2. Room alone, if possible, especially for children under six, that
they may not be disturbed.

3. Outdoors if possible, on a sleeping porch, with bedding protected
from dampness, and provision made for first warming the bed at night
in cold weather.

4. Room cool and with current of outside air, if sleeping indoors.
Temperature not above 60° F. and may be as low as 50° F. to advantage
for normal children over six months, or 32° F. without harm, with
ample bedding and warm night clothes. Warm wrapper or shawl should be
provided to wrap around the child when taken out of bed.

5. Children beyond infancy (1½ years) should have their supper an
hour before bedtime until eight or nine years of age, and thereafter
two hours before bedtime. Children should be taken up for the toilet
at a regular hour, either nine or ten o’clock, until six or eight
years of age, to prevent bed-wetting or disturbed sleep.

6. Every condition should be provided for complete relaxation and
sound sleep, not light semi-sleep. Among these conditions, besides
the foregoing, are:

Lights extinguished in sleeping room;

Stationary bed that does not rock;

Story-telling before child is undressed, not after he is in bed, that
the mind may not be filled with vivid images, or brain congested,
when trying to sleep.

Evening stories should be quiet, restful, happy, without gruesome,
melodramatic, exciting, or sad atmosphere.

Chanting, humming, rhythmic singing, is relaxing, and five or ten
minutes of this after child is in bed may be advantageous, especially
with nervous or unruly children.

Massaging down the back, in long slow strokes, Will relieve the
congestion of the brain.

Give the child one toy to occupy his hands; prohibit more than one,
to prevent mental activity.

Bedtime should not be a time of punishment, recalling of misdeeds,
scolding; leave that until the child is most vital, in mid-morning
or afternoon. Bedtime should be a quiet, happy time.

A thought impressed upon the child as he is falling to sleep, or
directly after, especially if it is repeated for some days or weeks,
is absorbed by the subconscious mind and has profound influence
upon motives and action. The suggestion may be given aloud to the
conscious mind while the child is still awake, or repeated softly or
thought intensively, after the conscious mind is dulled by sleepiness.

The child should learn, from early babyhood, to go to sleep by
himself, without a light, with the door closed. This is a most
important training in self-reliance.

If these conditions are observed, sleep should be restful and
undisturbed. Possible disturbing conditions may include constipation,
indigestion, intestinal worms, nervousness. The matter should be
reported to the physician. Bed-wetting may be overcome by taking the
child up during the night, by giving no liquid after four o’clock, by
promise of rewards, by mental suggestion. Circumcision may be needed.
Punishment is worse than useless.

_The Afternoon Nap._ The same general conditions should be provided.
The room or sleeping porch should be darkened, and ample ventilation
and light covering provided. The outer clothing, shoes, stockings
should be removed, and nightgown put on over the underwear; or
the child may be completely undressed as at night. If the child
is disinclined to sleep at nap time, use the spinal sponging with
warm water, the spinal massage, and undress completely as at night.
Even if the child does not sleep, he will receive the much-needed
relaxation, and the resting of spine and heart, the work of which is
greatly reduced while lying down.

_Waking._ The waking time should always be anticipated, and some one
should be at hand to take the child at once to the toilet, to speak
to him and reassure him. This is important both for physical and
moral reasons. Waking should be a happy time.

=Clothing.= Clothing should be comfortable to body and mind; it
should provide freedom of action and thought, cultivate modesty,
simplicity, democracy, daintiness, avoiding self-consciousness or
vanity.

Too much clothing keeps the skin moist, and is a cause of colds.

Distribute clothing judiciously; avoid overclothing trunk and chest,
underclothing legs.

_Underclothing._ Use light-weight underwear and give additional
warmth by extra wraps as needed. Adapt clothing to the actual weather
conditions, not to traditions of seasons. Avoid sudden changes, as
from heavy play suit to thin suit.

Underclothing may be all cotton or part wool.

Porous clothing is warm, holding a protecting layer of air; thick
woven clothing is cold, preventing the evaporation of moisture from
the skin. For hot weather use sleeveless or half-sleeve gauze vests.

Use side elastics to support the stockings, never the round garters.
Select carefully the waist for attaching supporters; the “Ideal”
waist is excellent.

Protect the ankles and legs with stockings or leggings in cold or
changeable weather.

Keep the throat open, except in very cold weather, and then protect
lightly.

Shoes and stockings should keep the feet warm and comfortable, not
perspiring, cold, restricted.

_Night clothes._ A complete change should be made at night. After
three years a shirt is not needed at night, except in very cold
weather. When diapers are no longer needed, the nightdrawers may be
worn, using those with feet for cold weather. For outdoor sleeping in
cool weather a sleeping-bag of eiderdown is desirable, and a light
hood. A flannel or eiderdown bathrobe and slippers should be provided
for emergency and morning use.

_Care._ Begin to teach the child at one year to put his shoes neatly
together; by two years to lay his clothes neatly when taken off, and
to hang up wraps; by three years to fold; by four years to take care
of all clothing as removed and keep his chiffonier in order. Provide
low hooks and small, low, easy-working bureau drawers within reach of
the child.

Keep soiled clothing in a ventilated receptacle, out of the sleeping
room or kitchen.

Keep hats and wraps well brushed; shoes brushed and cleaned; after
five years, children should care for shoes.

Readymade clothing should be washed before wearing. Much readymade
clothing, whether cheap or expensive, is made in sweatshops and
crowded tenements.

Children’s play clothes should be of such durable material and simple
design that play may not be hampered through fear of soiling or
injuring garments.

Avoid:

  Underwear:  Thick woven
              Heavy cotton fleece-lined
              All or three-quarters wool (unless open weave
                and soft)
              Rough seams
              Corsets
  Stockings:  Thick, heavy
              All wool
              Seams; much darned
              Round garters
              Tight hose supporters
  Shoes:      Patent leather or other non-porous material
              Rough inside seams and soles
              Tight across toes, instep, or ankle
              Stiff, inflexible soles
              Rubber soles unless with leather insoles
              Too large or too small
              High heels
  Non-washable dresses or wraps for children under three years
  Elaborate, showy clothes
  Unbecoming clothes
  Wraps:      Fur or other heavy neck pieces
              Mufflers, except in very cold weather, and
                for children under five
              Gloves in winter. (Mittens give better circulation)
              Rubbers or overshoes, except in rain or slippery
                weather
              Ear muffs
              Veils
              Unventilated hats
  Tight Clothing: Gloves, neckbands, waists, underwear, stockings,
  shoes

Ample size is especially important with growing children, and easily
overlooked or neglected as they outgrow their clothes. Rubber in legs
of readymade rompers is always too tight, and is better removed.

=Bathing.= Each child should have his own wash cloths and towels.
Have a separate wash cloth and towel for the face, another cloth and
Turkish towel for the body. Dry and sun wash cloths every day; boil
them weekly.

Temperature of bathroom about 70° F. (65-70), with no drafts. Before
the child is undressed, have everything ready, including the clothing
to be put on.

Water and soap are irritating to eczema; use oil or, occasionally,
water bath with bran.

_The Cold Bath._ The daily cold bath is of vital importance in
training the skin to react quickly to temperatures, increasing the
circulation, increasing the white blood corpuscles, and maintaining
a high degree of vitality and resistance to illness, especially to
colds, croup, coughs, pneumonia, and tuberculosis.

By careful attention to details, the cold bath can be given with
a minimum of shock, and children enjoy it. It should be made as
enjoyable as possible, and persisted in, even under protest. It
should not be given, however, in a cold room. If the child has a
cold, or the skin is cold and clammy, it should be given only to the
throat, chest, and back. If the child is in a low vital condition, or
does not react well otherwise, it may be preceded by a quick hot bath
(98°-100°F.) to furnish body heat. The mildest form is to give it
while the child lies in bed, quickly bathing and drying one part at
a time. Ordinarily it can be given as follows, the whole procedure,
including rubbing, not taking more than five minutes.

Let the child jump, run, or exercise vigorously for a few minutes
before beginning the bath. Remove clothing and give a vigorous
allover rub with hands or Turkish towels, rubbing from extremities
toward the heart; let the child help in this and do it himself after
four years. The child may stand with his feet in lukewarm water, or
on a bath mat, not on a cold surface.

Temperature of the water should be at least down to 70° F. and as
much lower as the child can take and react well. Salt (1 tablespoon
to quart of water) gives a better reaction and lower range. Tepid
water gives no tonic and may leave a chilly reaction. Have the wash
cloth wet but not dripping. Wash quickly in the following order: (1)
hand, arms; (2) neck, chest; (3) back, beginning at lower end; (4)
legs, beginning with soles of feet; (5) abdomen. In this way the
reflexes are bathed first, and the feeling of shock reduced, but
the same valuable tonic results obtained. Dry quickly, rubbing with
Turkish towels and hands. In cold weather, or if the skin is very
dry, rub in quickly a little cocoa butter, olive oil, or cold cream.
A spray with weak force, or pouring from a cup may begin in the
second year; a strong spray or shower not until the fifth year.

_The Warm Bath._ For cleansing, the warm bath is needed two or
three times a week in winter, and every day in hot weather. The
body surface is relatively greater in children than in adults, and
because of their greater activity and more rapid circulation, a
relatively greater quantity of perspiration and waste material is
constantly being poured out upon the skin. If this is not removed, it
clogs the pores and thus keeps poisons within the body and prevents
the normal absorption of oxygen through the skin.

The warm bath is best given at night, as a tub bath, before the
supper, or an hour afterwards. When the bath is not given, the neck,
ears, armpits, hands, and feet should be well washed. The water
temperature should be 96°-98° F. A mild oil soap should be used
moderately, such as Castile or Palmolive. The bath should be given
in three minutes. Let the children splash in the tub for another
three minutes, trying to swim. Always follow with the cold water to
close the pores and prevent colds. This may be poured into the tub,
to reduce the temperature to about 70°, or poured from a pitcher, or
given with a spray, at 70°-80°, or given as a quick sponge at that
temperature. Dry quickly and thoroughly, putting on a wrap to avoid
chilling. If the child sleeps outdoors, the bath should be given an
hour before bedtime in cool weather, or the oil rub may be given
instead of water bath.

In hot weather children may have three or four sponge baths at
70°-80° during the day, or five-minute splashes in the tub at due
intervals after meals.

The daily air bath is as much needed as the water, and should be
given, with exercise and rubbing, if the water bath cannot be taken
at the regular time. It is a tonic for the skin and gives the
exercise to the nerves that cultivates resistance against colds.

_Sun Baths._ Sun baths, judiciously given, are also of great
vitalizing value. In warm weather (70°-90° F.) children should be
allowed to play outdoors with minimum of clothing, as sandals, white
rompers or bathing trunks, and a light sun hat, for several hours
a day, avoiding exposure of too hot sun (over 80°). Children not
accustomed to this must begin gradually and may have a preliminary
oil rub, to prevent either chill or sunburn. In cool weather, this
may be given in the house, although the benefits are not so great, as
the most effective (the violet) rays do not penetrate through glass.
White or light colored clothing permits the penetration of light rays
to the skin, and dark clothing prevents this; the former, therefore,
is of greater vitalizing value. The sun and light baths are of great
therapeutic value with nervous or anemic children. The tanning of the
skin gives remarkable resistance.

The development of resistance through judicious use of baths and
light, combined with deep breathing, would greatly reduce the
mortality from colds, pneumonia, tuberculosis, which are the chief
causes of death after infancy.

=The Hands.= Cleanliness of the hands is highly important both for
sanitary and moral reasons. Therefore teach the child from babyhood,
by example and precept, to always wash the hands:

  1. Before touching food, either for eating, serving, or
  preparation, as a safeguard against infection

  2. After eating, to prevent soiling of clothes, furniture, toys

  3. After going to the toilet

  4. Before going to bed

  5. Before touching the eyes

The finger nails should be cleaned with an orange stick once a day,
and before meals whenever dirty. To prevent hangnails, press the
cuticle back around the nail every day. Trim finger nails round. A
soft hand brush and Hand Sapolio, almond meal, or corn meal may be
necessary for very dirty hands. Always dry thoroughly to prevent
chapping, and in cold weather apply a lotion.

=The Feet.= Wash the feet every night when a bath is not given. Dry
thoroughly between the toes. Perspiration is acid and soon causes
soreness if it remains. Once a week trim the nails, cutting straight.
If the feet are cold, put in cold (75°-80°F.) or hot (96°) water for
three minutes, apply a 25 per cent. solution of alcohol, rubbing dry.
If cold from exposure, always use the cold water. Chronically cold
feet indicate wrong shoes, poor general circulation, or need of more
exercise for feet. Corns, callouses, bunions, or misshapen toes can
be prevented by using shoes that are comfortable and adapted to the
shape of the foot.

The strength of the arch should be increased by foot exercises:
(1) Rising slowly on the toes and slowly descending, keeping the
weight of the body on the soles; (2) Alternately stretching the toes
and the heel; (3) Massaging the ankles. Braces in the shoe prevent
development of ankle muscles. Braces and arch supporters should be
worn only on the advice and prescription of a physician, if possible,
an orthopedic specialist. Much harm may be done by their wrong use.

=Care of the Hair.= During the second year the head should be washed
two or three times a week, or oftener if scurf appears. Use Castile
or Palmolive soap and rinse thoroughly to remove all soap and prevent
formation of scurf. If a crust appears, gently rub in fresh lard,
olive oil, or liquid vaseline at night, and wash off in morning;
never use a comb or harsh rubbing to remove. During the third and
fourth year shampoo weekly, and thereafter every two or three weeks.

The shampoo should be given in the daytime, when there is ample time
and means for drying quickly and thoroughly, preferably in the sun.
The scalp should be massaged five or ten minutes every day, through
childhood, to promote good circulation in the scalp and keep it loose
and clean, and the hair brushed thoroughly to remove dust. This
is Nature’s own tonic, and more effective than any bought at the
drugstore. If the hair is thin, olive or cocoanut oil or vaseline
rubbed into the scalp will stimulate new growth. Going without a hat
(except, of course, in cold weather or hot sun) is beneficial for
the hair. The hairbrush should be soft, and brush and comb should be
cleaned every week. Tangles should be patiently and gently brushed
out; braiding will prevent them.

Curly or straight hair is hereditary, and curls can be only
temporarily produced in naturally straight hair. Heated irons,
metal curlers, tightly rolled curlers, dampening the hair, are all
injurious. For curling, only soft rags, or kid, on which the hair is
loosely rolled, should be used, and these not applied at night around
the head, to interfere with comfort in sleep.

When hair is trimmed, it should not be shaved off close at the base
of the head, as is sometimes the fashion, leaving this most sensitive
part of the head and neck suddenly and unduly exposed.

If the eyelashes or eyebrows are short, stubby, rough, light, they
may be improved and darkened by daily application of vaseline, and
brushing with a soft, narrow toothbrush. Such attention adds greatly
to the beauty and expressiveness of the face, and will be a cause of
much gratitude in later years.

=Nose.= The nose should be kept clean. For children under four, it
should be cleaned every morning with the liquid vaseline or warm
water, using a sterile piece of twisted gauze which is immediately
wrapped in paper and disposed of. Repeat at night and during the day,
if the nose is not clean. At three years, children should be able to
blow the nose, and this should be a regular part of toilet-making
both morning and evening.

In blowing the nose, one side should be held closed, while the other
side is blown. To blow both sides at once produces pressure in the
ears that may cause injury. Nasal douches are to be avoided except
in illness and by the physician’s orders.

Avoid (1) dusty air, as in the city streets, or in a room that is
being cleaned; (2) overdry air, as in artificially heated rooms.
Both of these are thought to promote adenoids. The former contains
many disease germs. The latter drys the mucous membrane, preventing,
therefore, its work of germ destruction, and producing uncomfortable,
cracked membrane.

=Throat.= The throat is strengthened by the daily cold bathing of
neck and chest. A child can learn to gargle at three or four years,
and is then able to do it easily if soreness develops.

=Ears.= Wash the ears every day with warm water, making sure that
no dirt remains in creases or behind the lobes. If wax accumulates,
remove it with the twisted end of the wash cloth or gauze. Never put
sharp instruments of any kind in the ear.

The lining of the inner ear is a continuation of the lining of the
nose and throat. If the latter becomes infected, as with a cold,
directly or from enlarged tonsils or adenoids, the infection is
likely to continue into the ears, causing running ears, which may
result in deafness.

The ears should not be made sensitive by cotton stuffing or ear
muffs. In very cold weather, little children should wear a hood, and
older children may do so with temperature below 40° F.

Never pull the ear lobe nor strike a child on the head; it may cause
deafness. Teach children that blowing or shouting into the ear may
produce deafness.

=Teeth.= After the first six teeth are cut, during the first year,
it is advisable to have a small, soft brush to use with water, plain
or with boric acid or bicarbonate of soda, after each feeding. This
never should be neglected after eighteen months. Doctor Truby King
advises giving the child a raw apple, a third of which has been
peeled, and which is partially bruised until softened, following
the midday feeding, after one year of age; munching this for ten
minutes is a natural and effective method of cleaning the teeth.
By four years of age, the child should be able to brush his teeth
himself. Salt, bicarbonate of soda, or milk of magnesia are effective
dentrifices. Patent pastes, powders, and liquids are expensive and
of no more efficacy than the foregoing, their chief value probably
consisting in the incentive they give to the use of the brush.

In brushing, the motion should be up and down, and rotary, as well as
across the teeth; the inner and upper as well as the outer surfaces
and the gums should be brushed. To safeguard against infection, teeth
should not be cleaned over the hand basin, but into a receptacle for
waste water.

Clean teeth will not decay. If the first teeth are allowed to decay,
the second will not be sound. The rudiments of both sets of teeth
are formed in the jaw before birth. The first teeth (20) are cut by
thirty months; the first permanent teeth are the six-year molars; the
second set are cut from six to twelve years of age. The enamel of
the teeth is formed once for all during childhood. The substance of
the teeth is mineral, chiefly lime. It will therefore be appreciated
that the child needs abundance of mineral in order that he may have
sound tooth material. This he can get only from mineral in his food
(see page 169), or, before his birth, from his mother’s diet. Good
circulation in the jaws is also essential for normal development both
for teeth and jaws, therefore the importance of some hard food every
day after ten months.

The toothbrush should be selected with care. A good toothbrush is
made with separate tufts, and with holes along the back, that it
may more easily be kept clean. For children under three years it
should be soft, for older children medium. The care of the brush
is as important as its use. An unclean toothbrush may be a source
of infection. It may be kept antiseptic by being very thoroughly
rinsed, preferably under running water, then in borax water, or grain
alcohol, and placed across hooks or a glass, bristle face down, to
dry, after each using. Once or twice a week it should be thoroughly
disinfected by drying in the sun, boiling in borax solution, or
soaking in alcohol. It should receive thorough disinfection after
each using, in case of influenza, tuberculosis, diphtheria, or other
infectious disease.

_Dental Examination._ After one year of age the child should have a
dental examination and tartar removed every six months. Any cavities
should be filled, and irregular teeth straightened. A decaying tooth
is a breeding place of germs which are carried, with the poisons
they produce, to the stomach and thence through the system. Its
sensitiveness compels the child to do his chewing entirely on the
other side, spoiling the symmetry of the jaws, or to omit proper
chewing. It causes pain that lowers the tone of the whole nervous
system, produces irritable temper, and interferes with mental work.

At the slightest complaint of discomfort or the merest suspicion of
decay, the child should go to the dentist for attention. Prevention
saves both pain and expense. The dentist’s office should be a place
of comfort, not of torture by reason of neglect and decay.

=The Eyes.= The eyes of mankind were called upon chiefly for
long-distance seeing, observation of operations with coarse
materials, and slow adjustment, until the past few hundred years of
civilization with its printing, sewing, and other fine close work.
The anatomy of the eye has not yet become adapted to these new
demands.

The child’s eye is not fully developed. The shape of the eyeball is
undergoing change during the first twenty years. Farsightedness is
normal until from nine to twelve years of age.

Eyestrain will result, therefore, if the eyes are called upon
for fine, close work during the first ten years. There is also a
hereditary form of nearsight that can be detected as early as six
years by the oculist, and that demands special care. Astigmatism (a
structural defect causing blurred vision) is a prevalent cause of
eyestrain. Squint and cross-eye, which are due to structural defect,
require treatment in early childhood or babyhood to prevent the
necessity of an operation, or possible blindness.

Even normal eyes will suffer if their use is abused. The following
precautions should be observed with little children and taught to
school children, as practices to be avoided for the sake of strong
eyes:

  Rubbing the eyes

  Staring at a strong light

  Watching a flickering light (as in moving pictures)

  Sudden flash of strong light

  Looking at pictures, reading, writing, drawing, or doing handwork,
  in poor light

  Use of artificial light, for children under seven or eight years of
  age, for drawing, painting, reading, looking at pictures, or other
  fine work

  Long application to close work at any age

  Use of eyes for reading, pictures, or other fine work before
  breakfast

The child can be taught from babyhood to sit so that the light falls
from the left upon his pictures or drawing, and not to sit either
directly facing the window or with his back squarely against it.

Reading for five minutes requires more than a thousand separate
movements of the eye,—as much work as is required of it in an hour
of ordinary use; and the ciliary muscle, which controls the eye
accommodation, probably is required in that five minutes to do as
much work as in a day of ordinary seeing.

This has an important bearing upon the question of how early a child
should begin reading, writing, sewing, or fine handwork; certainly,
from the standpoint of hygiene, such work should be deferred until at
least seven or eight years, and then begun only with the assurance of
the oculist that the eyes can stand the strain.

School children should be taught to read with the best conditions,
viz.:

  Light from the left

  Strong steady light

  Light placed so it does not shine directly into the eyes and face

  Not using the eyes before breakfast, as adjustment is slower and
  more difficult on first rising

  Not reading on trains or other vehicles

  Resting the eyes every fifteen or twenty minutes by looking up from
  the book at some distant object

Lamplight is easiest. Lights should always have a plain shade.
Indirect lighting is best. Gaslight should have a Welsbach to give
steady rays. White light is hard on the eyes; amber light, produced
by amber shades, is easiest.

In selecting books for children, look for the following requirements:

  Paper white or cream, without gloss

  Lines short, preferably three inches

  Margins wide

  Print large

  Wide spacing between lines

Certain contagious diseases of the eyes temporarily or permanently
impair vision. At any sudden redness or white discharge, the child
should be immediately taken to the physician, as blindness may
follow in a few hours after infection, although it is preventable
by a simple immediate treatment. Children should be warned never to
use public towels or wash basins, or to touch the eyes with soiled
handkerchief or dirty hands.

The eyes should be washed daily with the boric acid solution until
three or four years of age, and after that with the plain or slightly
salt water, using the boric acid whenever irritation or redness
appears.

=Motor Training and Poise.= Provide some play apparatus that requires
motor coördination.

12 months to 3 years. A stile, of one or two low steps, adjusted to
the baby’s size, with handrail each side, on which he can climb up
and down. Tenpins, large size ringtoss.

Use a small enamel cup for drinking, and let the child, when feeding,
use his spoon and cup himself as early as he shows an inclination,
which should be not later than a year and a half. Do not scold when
he spills things while learning. By three years he should have
control, and be held to strict carefulness and neatness in eating.

3 to 6 years. Jumping place, with elevation 1 to 2 feet from which to
jump toward a marked space. Teach the child how to jump correctly,
landing on the soles of the feet and bending the knees as he lands.

Car rail or substitute to walk along, preferably raised 1 to 6 inches
from the ground. A single painted board 4 inches wide, or a painted
mark 2 inches wide will answer.

  Ringtoss more difficult

  Throwing at a mark on the ground, floor, or wall

  The fence for walking sidewise or for swinging from, as used by
  Montessori

  Swinging rings and a horizontal bar

  Marching, skipping, folk-dancing

[Illustration:

  Bad Posture.  Good Posture.  Bad Posture.

      Bad Posture.    Good Posture.

American Posture League Chair and Bookrest.

  Courtesy of American Posture League.
]

From three years, let him carry his tray at meal time, with dishes
and food.

Teach the child how to gain poise when he begins to feel worried,
cross, nervous, excited:

  a. Relaxing completely, sitting down if necessary

  b. Taking long, slow, deep breaths

  c. Sitting quietly for a few minutes to think,—with eyes shut, if
  thinking is thereby easier

  d. Thinking of something funny

  e. Getting away by himself, in a room, or out with nature

=Posture.= Find out what is good posture in sitting, standing, and
walking, and see that the child maintains these. During childhood and
youth the bones are still soft and yielding, readily altered in shape.

Stretching, throwing, swinging from rings or horizontal bars,
climbing, rowing, swimming, are excellent preventive exercises, and
useful for correction of curvatures or round shoulders. For the
child’s use select chairs that are properly constructed (as most
chairs are not) and a table at which he can work without stooping,
changing such furniture to meet his needs as he grows.

Spinal curvature and round shoulders may be caused by rickets,
eyestrain, partial deafness, improperly constructed chairs and
tables, long sitting, insufficient outdoor life and physical
activity, unequal strength of complementary muscles of back and
chest, or of right and left sides, and by carrying always on one side.

Spinal curvature crowds the internal organs, interfering with the
normal functioning of lungs, heart, blood supply, stomach, and
intestines; it causes pressure upon the spinal nerves, and consequent
disorders in remote parts of the body controlled by the affected
nerves.

If curvature has developed, special gymnastics and training should be
faithfully practiced in addition to removing the cause. Braces are
inadvisable, preventing needed exercise. The correction of even the
slightest curvature is important while the bones are still plastic.
The special exercises should be prescribed by a physical director or
physician.

=Physical Exercises.= A child who has ample outdoor play space, and
clothes adapted to outdoor play is not likely to need any special
exercises. For correcting abnormal or weak conditions, the following
are effective:

1. Hanging from bar or swinging rings. (Figure 3.)

To overcome tendency toward spinal curvature, and to strengthen back
and trunk muscles.

2. Lying on table, hard bed, or floor (covered by clean sheet or
blanket); lift knees to chest, alternate legs four counts, then
together four counts. (Figure 1.)

3. Same exercise in standing position.

4. Lying on hard, clean surface, lifting feet at right angles to
trunk; alternate legs four counts; together four counts. (Figure 2.)

Exercises 2, 3, and 4 are valuable in overcoming constipation,
promoting digestion, strengthening trunk muscles, increasing
circulation to trunk and pelvis.

5. Lying on hard surface, arms folded, feet held down, rise to
sitting position. Four counts. (Figure 4.)

6. Same position, but hands clasped back of head. Four counts.

7. Same position, but arms extended above head. Four counts. (Figure
5.)

Exercises 5, 6, and 7 strengthen trunk, chest, and back muscles and
have also the values of 2, 3, and 4.

All exercise should begin slowly and be done steadily. Especially
with trunk exercises there should be no sudden, jerking movements.
One who is unaccustomed to these exercises should begin with the
easiest, (2) and (5), and gradually begin the more severe ones.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 1      Fig. 4

        Fig. 3

  Fig. 2      Fig. 5

Exercises for Trunk, Chest, and Back.]

These exercises are especially important for girls, who are likely to
miss the climbing and tumbling exercises that their brothers enjoy.
Girls especially need the straight spine, the strong trunk muscles,
and the thorough pelvic circulation.

8. Lying on a hard surface, knees bent, forcibly contract and expand
the abdominal wall. By placing the hand on the abdomen, the sinking
and rising of the abdominal wall is easily marked.

This is a very mild exercise for increasing circulation in the trunk
and pelvis, thereby promoting digestion, overcoming constipation, and
strengthening the pelvic organs.

=Preventing or Overcoming Nervousness.= Nervousness may express
itself as:

  Irritability, peevishness

  Temper, tantrums, lack of emotional control

  Poor coördinations, dropping things, shuffling in walking, waddling
  gait, inability to hit a mark or walk on a straight line.

  Lack of motor control; involuntary jerkings of muscles, twitchings
  (chorea or St. Vitus’ dance)

  Restless sleep, disturbed sleep, nightmares, sleeplessness

  Masturbation

  Bed-wetting, weakness of kidneys

  Nail-biting

  Fears

  Silliness, simpering

  Inability to learn

  Inability to carry out a plan; much dreaming that never attains to
  expression in action

Marked nervous defects, such as imbecility, idiocy, epilepsy, manias,
cannot be more than mentioned here. They may be present from birth,
or may develop later. Their treatment belongs entirely to the field
of the physician, neurologist, and psychopathologist. Treatment of
mental defects should begin at the earliest possible age; some forms
are curable if treated early.

Nervousness may be due to physical or psychological conditions. It
may appear at any age. Its causes may be immediate or may lie farther
back in childhood, infancy, or heredity. As the nervous system was
the latest to evolve, it is therefore the least stable, and the most
likely to suffer under stress of conditions. If there is a heredity
in either branch of the family, either of marked nervous defect,
alcoholism, or neurasthenia, special precautions should from the
first be taken to overcome this predisposition in the child.

Other causes of nervousness in children include:

  Irregularity of régime

  Poor nutrition

  Constipation

  Insufficient sleep, fatigue

  Indoor life

  Decaying teeth

  Adenoids or enlarged tonsils

  Eyestrain

  Fine handwork, or reading; or other abuse of eyes

  Pressure of school work

  Undue excitement such as crowds, parties, theaters

  Tickling, teasing, nagging, tossing

  Masturbation

  Suppression of curiosity regarding sex phenomena

  Suppressing expression of interests, curiosity, or emotion

  Worry or unhappiness

  Threats of fearsome punishment

  Cultivating of fear by “scaring”, telling of grewsome or unhappy
  stories, seeing exciting picture plays

  Lack of training in self-control

Preventing nervousness is a matter of preventing these causes;
overcoming is a matter of removing the cause and conducting a
constructive program of physical régime and psychological treatment.
The physical régime will include regularity, free outdoor life and
play, open-air sleeping, frequent rest periods, nutritious diet, with
special attention to sufficiency of mineral and laxative foods, and
use of relaxing or energizing exercises.

Rhythm through instrumental music that is listened to, or in dancing,
marching, gymnastic exercises, and singing, is of great value in
overcoming nervousness. Cheerful, happy, comfortable stories and
pictures will supply mental images to replace the disturbing ones,
especially before bedtime.

Relief from intestinal worms and local irritation, or circumcision,
may remove the cause of masturbation. The child’s questions regarding
sex phenomena should always be answered wholesomely, reverently,
sufficiently to give him a true perspective and to satisfy his
natural curiosity.

The substitution of large muscle work, as with large blocks, balls,
carpenter tools, will provide activity without taxing nerve ends
of fingers. Examination by the oculist (not optician) will locate
eyestrain. Opportunity for expression of wholesome emotions and
interests will remove tension and sense of suppression.

Interests or emotions that appear unwholesome or abnormal should
be patiently and thoroughly analyzed to discover the germ of
good that is in them, and to utilize this; consultation with a
physician, teacher, minister, social worker, or psychologist, may
be enlightening. Wholesome emotions and interests should have
encouragement for full expression, limited by the strength of the
child and courtesy due to others.

Detect fatigue symptoms: (a) the tenseness shown by flushed face,
rapid, labored breathing, excitement, erratic movements; or (b)
relaxation shown by listlessness, indifference, irritability,
forgetfulness. Fatigue not only overstrains the nerves; it develops
poisons in the blood that affect the whole system.

Fears are a difficult problem. Make a list of the things it is
observed the child fears, such as the dark, cats, dogs, flies, etc.
Gradually, slowly, patiently lead him to acquaintance with these, and
therefore to his own destruction of the fear. Teach him to memorize
quotations that ring with confidence, faith, courage.

Cultivate self-control through regularity of regimen, the example of
poise, the denying of any object that is screamed for, or cried for,
the inculcating of an ideal of self-control through story-telling.

=Sex Hygiene.= This is both a physiological and a psychological
problem. Both phases must always be recognized.

_Physiological Hygiene._ In infancy, keep the special organs clean
as directed in Chapter VI. Consult a physician regarding the
advisability of circumcision; this is needed in about twenty per
cent. of boys, and is often advisable in others; it is sometimes
required in girls.

Take special care that clothing is not rough, tight, or irritating
about the genitals; therefore avoid (a) underdrawers with more than
one-quarter wool; some children with sensitive skin should have
even these lined with thin cotton gauze; (b) drawers cut too short
or shallow in the seat (a defect in some ready-made styles); (c)
trousers too short or tight or with rough seams; (d) suspenders too
short, that pull the trousers too tight; trousers during first six
years should not have opening in front.

With young children, watch for any local irritation or discharge.
For the former, use local applications of boric solution as a wash,
followed by a starch powder or zinc ointment. Discover the cause;
it may be rough or damp clothing, intestinal worms, acid urine due
to excess of sugar or meat in the diet, or to insufficient drinking
water. Alkaline diet, or a pinch of soda in the drinking water
for a few days, will help to counteract the acidity. As the child
grows older, beyond six years, encourage him to report to you any
irritation, and teach him how he should relieve it.

If a discharge appears, of mucous, whitish, or greenish matter,
report the matter immediately to the physician, and take every
precaution against infection; use a local wash of boric acid, double
strength, cleanse the hands with antiseptic solution, sterilize the
child’s wash cloths, towels, underdrawers, and bedding, and let him
have his separate wash basin, chamber, and bath until the physician
gives assurance of no contagious disease.

Teach the child to always wash the hands after going to the toilet.
See that the hands are outside the bed covers at night; they may be
folded under the cheek, or the child may have a doll or toy animal
to hold. Be watchful, but do not let the child ever surmise that you
mistrust, suspect, or even watch him in these matters.

Avoid soft beds and especially feather beds, which are enervating and
are overheating to the spinal nerves.

Teach children never to use a public drinking cup or towel; and never
to sit on a public toilet, even in public school, without first
laying a paper over it so they do not come directly in contact with
the seat.

Avoid stimulating foods, such as condiments, or an excess of
meat—more than 2 or 3 ounces a day.

Avoid excitement by late hours, especially late dancing parties,
during adolescence. Set a standard of ten o’clock closing for school
or home dances for these young people. Teach them to find recreation
not dissipation.

_Psychological._ Cultivate respect for the body and reverence for its
creative work and organs, for motherhood, fatherhood, and birth of
any creature.

Cultivate a sense of modesty in both girls and boys from babyhood.

Inculcate in boys a spirit of chivalry toward all girls and
women; in girls, a sense of reserve, and an appreciation of their
responsibility for the social and moral standards of boys.

Instill a personal ideal of worthy fatherhood and motherhood; this
may begin incidentally at two or three years of age.

Give instruction in the biology of reproduction in plants,
emphasizing the protection, care, and forethought for the young. The
child naturally sees all the phenomena of life in an impersonal and
wholesome, that is, a scientific way. Cultivate this attitude in him
and in yourself.

Before children begin going to school, see that they are informed
sufficiently about the origin and birth of human life so that they
will no longer be curious or interested if unwholesome talk is
presented. Ill-trained children or unscrupulous adults usually sense
a well-informed and wholesome-minded child and are less likely to
present any vulgar conversation in his presence.

The boy will early meet with superstitions and perverted ideals among
his companions, particularly after twelve years, when the influence
of parents and teachers is waning before that of his companions.
Therefore teach him before this age that he has a great trust,—to
protect these organs sacredly for his children until he is grown and
is wise enough to be a father; that these organs are not like muscles
which must be used to develop and preserve their function, but that
they are glands, secreting fluids as other internal organs do, like
the spleen or the thyroid gland, and that these fluids are needed
for the well-being of the whole body; that the boys who ignorantly
think otherwise or act otherwise are greatly injuring and weakening
themselves.

Prepare both boy and girl, by instruction at about eleven years of
age, for the physical changes that are before them, so they will not
be surprised or frightened when these changes come. Thus prepared,
they will not ignorantly resort to measures that may produce lifelong
illness, or fall into the net of quacks, evil-minded men or women, or
ignorant companions.

Avoid taking the children to the theater before twelve or fourteen
years of age, and make it an event worth while. Be sure beforehand
that the play is clean and wholesome and not overstimulating.
Never allow children to go to theaters or picture plays without a
responsible older person. Be your children’s companion in drama and
in fiction as long as possible,—as long as you can see with their
eyes and their interests.

Keep children occupied with handwork, physical activity, and outdoor
life. It is the child with nothing to do, living an overfed,
indoor, uncontrolled life, who has every condition for falling into
temptation.

Cultivate an appreciation and taste for good literature, poetry,
sculpture, painting, music. Provide abundance of good and wholesome
books.

Teach children from babyhood that to follow merely the instincts and
the line of least resistance, to act merely from impulse and emotion,
is unworthy of a human being.

Foster idealism and religion, which have always been the great
bulwarks of the soul and the refiners of instincts.

=City or Country Life.= That the country provides more natural
physical conditions and health opportunities is self-evident. The
open air, the larger space and facilities for muscular exercise, the
freedom from artificial excitement, are all essential to vitality.
The marked differences between city and country children in height,
weight, chest girth, strength of grip, vitality, endurance, are
attested by the statistics of special investigators as well as by
general observation. The chest girth of country girls more nearly
approaches the average for boys of the same age than does that of
city girls. It is true that in sanitation the rural districts and
small towns have not kept pace with the large cities. Ventilation,
drainage, water supply, disposal of sewage, clean milk, the reporting
and control of infectious diseases, are too often neglected in rural
districts. The improvement of these sanitary conditions is part of
the responsibility of the home-maker.

=The School and Physical Health.= The weight of medical, biological,
and psychological authority of such experts as G. Stanley Hall, John
Dewey, Arthur Holmes, Lightner Witmer, Thomas D. Wood, J. M. Tyler,
is decidedly against prevailing unhygienic practices of the schools,
such as home study for children under high school age; nerve-racking
academic examinations; fine work in reading and writing for children
under nine years of age; indoor school life for young children;
artificial, sedentary life instead of physical activity during school
age; the over emphasis of the mental and the neglect of the motor
activities.

In a recent volume, “The Health of the Child,” Lewis M. Terman writes:

  “The close correlation of morbidity with years of school attendance
  and with the progress of the school term; the deterioration of
  attention toward the end of the school year; the damaging effects
  of strenuous school activities upon appetite, digestion, metabolism
  and the constitution of the blood; the ill-effects from deprivation
  of fresh air and healthful exercise; the impairment of nervous
  coördinations and the profound disturbances reflexly produced by
  worry—these and other injurious effects have been sufficiently
  attested to justify the most vigorous prosecution of reform in
  matters of educational hygiene.

  “We have taken the child out of its natural habitat of open air,
  freedom, and sunshine, and for nearly half his waking hours we are
  subjecting him to an unnatural régime, one which disturbs all the
  vital functions of secretion, excretion, circulation, respiration,
  and nutrition.”


Defects Prevalent Among American School Children

Total School Population, 20,000,000

          DEFECT               PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOL
                                 CHILDREN AFFECTED
  Teeth                              50%-90%
  Eyes                               15%-30%
  Spinal curvature                   20%-30%
  Round shoulders                     5%-10%
  Tuberculosis (predisposition)      15%-20%
  Ears                               10%-20%
  Enlarged or diseased tonsils       10%-15%
  Adenoids                            8%-10%
  Malnutrition                        6%-30%
  Nervousness                         5%

These defects are often acquired before school age, or as a result
of home conditions during school age. Note that they are chiefly
preventable by good hygiene in the home, practiced by intelligent
mothers and fathers.

Forms of rheumatism, heart disease, infectious diseases (such
as whooping cough, measles, mumps, scarlet fever), respiratory
diseases (as pneumonia, croup, tuberculosis), all are prevalent
and preventable diseases of childhood, reaping every year a great
harvest, and leaving a trail of permanent defects.

Two means of prevention are necessary and at hand:

(1) Wholesome daily hygiene (the elements of such hygiene have been
suggested in the foregoing pages). (2) Early detection of defects or
weakness, and their remedy in the incipient stage. This is possible
by an examination every six months during childhood and youth, by
(a) a competent physician, trained for preventive examinations, (b)
osteopath, (c) dentist, (d) oculist. With these two precautions on
the part of the home, the present enormous deathroll of one hundred
and fifty thousand little children each year from _preventable_
causes, and the preventable defective conditions of fourteen
million of the twenty million school children, could be practically
eliminated, and as reckoned by Professor Irving Fisher, the span of
life for each child could be increased fifteen years.


FOOTNOTES:

[15] See Preface, page xiii.

[16] Adapted and amplified from the Ninth Year Book of the National
Society for the Study of Education, by permission of the author,
Doctor Thomas D. Wood.




CHAPTER IX

THE FEEDING OF CHILDREN[17]


  “We are what we eat.”

  “We should eat to live and not live to eat.”

    “Heavenly Father, for this food,
     We, Thy children, thank Thee.
     Sun and showers and earth have wrought it,
     Labors of our neighbors brought it.
     May it give us strength to love
     And serve Thee and our neighbor.”


One of the most important factors in the well-being of any individual
is right feeding in childhood, especially in early childhood. One of
the chief causes of sickness and death among young children is their
wrong feeding. A conservative estimate would be two thousand ill
on any one day from this cause. Further, wrong feeding weakens the
system so the child is much more susceptible to infectious diseases.

Not only the general health of the individual but also the quality
of the teeth, the efficiency of the digestive system, the desire
for stimulants, the stability of the nervous system, the quality of
mental activity, power of will, strength of character, the happiness
or misery of everyday living, are profoundly affected by the foods
and régime of feeding during childhood.

The intelligence of the mother or the nurse, the grandmother, the
father, and the friend has far more to do with the right feeding of
children than does the amount of the family income. The child in
the wealthy home is quite as liable to be wrongly fed as the child
in the poor home. It is possible to buy enough of the right kinds of
nourishing foods for a very small sum.

To feed a child so as to produce one hundred per cent. efficiency
in his health to-day and fifty years from to-day should be the
ambition of every one who has the care of that child,—not merely to
keep him from death or present illness. This is not an easy matter,
nor to be learned in a day or a month. It requires careful and
earnest study of food composition, food values, the physiology of
digestion, dietetics, cooking; and then patience, thoroughness, and
practicability to put this knowledge into use three to five times a
day, seven days in the week, every week in the year.


The Fundamental Principles of Feeding

=Cleanliness and Purity.= The following standards are necessary to
meet these requirements.

1. Unadulterated foods. Foods unwholesome because of adulteration
include:

  a. Canned goods preserved with benzoate of soda or other artificial
  preservative

  b. Candies, jams, pickles, containing coal-tar dyes and other
  adulterants

  c. Sulphur-bleached dried fruits and molasses

  d. Bakery goods made with preserved eggs, milk, and other
  adulterants

2. Protection from dust, dirt, and insects. Dry foods, such as bread,
crackers, dates, figs should be kept wrapped in moisture-proof
paper. Butter, bakery goods, and dried fruits not so wrapped should
be kept under glass. Fruits and vegetables should be kept within
doors, protected from dogs and cats. Milk, which is most easily
contaminated, should be produced in a clean dairy, by clean workers,
kept covered constantly, protected from animals, in a cool place.

3. Preparation under sanitary conditions. Bakeries and other food
factories and kitchens should be scrupulously clean, with abundance
of fresh air and sunlight. All persons handling food should be free
from any contagious disease, with clean hands and garments. This
factor is even more important than freedom from adulteration.

It is easily possible to-day to ascertain what products meet the
pure food requirements. By careful purchasing, and the preparation
and serving of food at home by healthy individuals, with intelligent
attention to sanitation, these essential requirements of hygiene can
be most completely assured.

=Regularity.= Meals should be served promptly at _regular_ hours,
and _no food taken between meals_. If food is taken irregularly,
rhythm is disturbed, the digestive fluids are not ready and cannot
act efficiently. If food is taken while undigested food remains in
the stomach, the work of digestion must begin over again, as the
fluids secreted in the early stage of digestion are different from
those in the last stages. Thus the food previously taken is kept in
the stomach too long; it ferments, too much acid is produced, sour
stomach results, the stomach is irritated, the glands are overworked
and become exhausted, and the consequence is poor digestion. To do
its best work, the stomach requires rest between feedings.

During sleep, the activity of the digestive tract is very slow.
Solid food taken less than an hour or two before bedtime is not
well digested and is likely to remain in the stomach and ferment;
the pressure produces disturbed sleep and “bad dreams”; the stomach
is not ready for digesting breakfast; the individual wakens tired,
without appetite, and possibly with headache or nausea. Babies,
having only milk, can be fed at bedtime. With children two to six
years, an hour should intervene between the light supper and sleep;
with older children, from two to four hours.

If a child is regularly hungry between meals, the cause may be (a)
insufficient quantity at meals; (b) diet not well balanced—frequently
insufficient mineral foods; (c) eating too rapidly so that food is
not well chewed and therefore not assimilated; (d) too long intervals
between meals. If occasionally hungry between meals, light food
requiring little digestion should be given, such as fruit juice, ripe
fruit, dates, figs, or a glass of milk. Cake, cookies, candies, or
other hearty foods upset digestion.

=Simplicity.= This applies both to the variety served at one meal, to
the method of preparation, and to the serving. A maximum of five or
six food items at one meal is sufficient, and is more easily digested
than a greater number. Foods simply cooked require less work of the
digestive organs than do more complex mixtures; at the same time they
cultivate simple tastes, with their contentment.

=Cheerfulness.= Good cheer is the best of appetizers. Professor
Pawlow has discovered that the amount and the efficiency of the
gastric juice are affected by the anticipation and enjoyment of food,
and that the gastric juice thus poured out at the beginning of a
meal, which he has called the “appetite juice”, is the most powerful
and active. Happiness and laughter (but not silliness or horseplay)
should therefore be encouraged at meals.

A child should not be fed when excited, angry, cross, crying,
unhappy, or overtired. Under emotional stress no gastric or
intestinal juices are formed, and food cannot be digested. When a
child is very tired, the system is too exhausted to do the work of
digestion, and nitrogenous foods (such as meat or eggs) taken then
are positively harmful, as they only decay. If at mealtime a child is
cross simply because he is hungry, feeding will help put him in a
happy mood, conducive to digestion. Otherwise, it is better to give
only a small quantity of easily digested food, such as fruit juice,
thin gruel, vegetable broth, toast, milk.

=Sufficiency.= This applies to the total quantity of energy and fuel
foods, or what is technically called caloric sufficiency; and to the
quantity and proportions of each of the food elements, technically
called a balanced ration. Careful studies of dietetic needs have
been made within the last ten years, and the approximate needs and
conditions for different ages are now so well defined that adequate
feeding need no longer be mere guess-work.

=Caloric Sufficiency.= A calorie is the measure of a unit of heat
as an inch is a measure of a unit of space. One calorie[18] of
heat is the amount that will raise the temperature of a pint of
water 4° Fahrenheit. The amount of a given food, as of bread, that
would furnish this much of heat when digested in the body is a
one-calorie portion of bread,—1/10 ounce, or a half-inch cube. The
total caloric requirement depends upon the amount of bodily heat
and muscular energy needed by an individual. This will depend upon
the individual’s (1) weight, (2) age, (3) occupation, (4) health,
(5) climate. The amount of outdoor life, clothing, the temperament,
height, and personal idiosyncrasies will require individual
variations from the average.


Daily Energy Requirements During Growth.

Part of this energy is needed to carry on the vital processes, such
as circulation, secretion, digestion; during the waking hours, energy
is needed for every muscular action, such as walking, dressing,
talking, exercising.

  ==================+=======================+==================
                    | CALORIES PER POUND OF |
     AGE IN YEARS   |  NORMAL BODY WEIGHT   | CALORIES PER DAY
  ——————————————————+———————————————————————+——————————————————
  Under 1 year      |         50-45         |    280-900
      1-2           |         45-40         |    900-1200
      2-5 inclusive |         40-35         |   1200-1500
      6-9     ”     |         35-30         |   1400-2000
     10-13    ”     |         30-25         |   1800-2200
     14-17    ”     |         25-20         |   2300-3000
     18-25    ”     |         16-18         |   2000-3400
  ==================+=======================+==================

=Proportions of Food Elements.= To furnish what is termed a “balanced
ration”, the protein, carbohydrate, and fat should each constitute,
in the total calories for the day, approximately the following
proportions: protein 10 to 15 per cent., carbohydrate 50 to 60 per
cent., fat 25 to 35 per cent. To some extent the fat and carbohydrate
are interchangeable, but a great excess of fat or carbohydrate
produces indigestion, and great insufficiency of fat starves the
nerves. Each gram (about 1/28 ounce) of protein or carbohydrate
furnishes four calories of heat; each gram of fat furnishes nine
calories. Without sufficient protein, the child will not increase in
growth. An excess of protein is no less injurious, as it cannot be
stored in the body, but must be eliminated. Especially injurious is
an excess of proteins containing purin-bodies, which produce urea
and uric acid, thereby causing forms of kidney disease, gout, and
rheumatisms. Excess of food, combined with sluggish elimination,
produces putrefaction and fermentation in the intestine, resulting
in auto-intoxication from the poisonous gases and chemicals, thereby
inducing irritability, nervousness, languor, low resistance to germ
diseases, colds.

In childhood and maternity a purin-free diet and one least likely to
produce auto-intoxication is especially important.

A sufficient proportion of minerals is no less essential to life and
health, although these are needed in minute quantities. Research
in physiological chemistry has only recently discovered the vital
significance of minerals. The quantities needed in childhood are not
yet exactly known. Not only the bones and teeth but each cell and
fluid requires mineral matter. The digestion and assimilation of
food, the absorption of oxygen and the elimination of carbonic acid
gas by the blood, the normal action of the heart, the generation
of energy, the sensitiveness and reaction of the nerves, are all
dependent upon the mineral supply in the system. There are no less
than twelve, the principal ones being calcium, phosphorus, iron,
soda, potash, sulphur. Calcium (lime) is especially needed for bones
and teeth, phosphorus for growth and for nerve cells, iron for red
blood corpuscles, soda for elimination of carbonic acid gas. The
daily requirements for a man are:

  Lime .7 gram; Phosphorus 2.75 grams; Iron .015 gram.

The allowance for a child should probably approximate this, and
growing children probably need more of lime and phosphorus.

Minerals supplied to the body in vegetable and animal tissues or
fluids have in some way been vitalized and made organic, so they
are readily assimilated by the system. Mineral matter as dug from
the earth and purchased at the drugstore is inorganic and is not
assimilated either so thoroughly or readily.

Vitamines are equally essential in the food. These are subtle organic
substances, as yet little understood, but necessary for perfect
assimilation. Cooking, especially at a high temperature or for a
long period, usually diminishes the vitamines in foods. This is one
special objection to boiled, condensed, and powdered milk, patent
baby foods, canned vegetables, canned, dried and salted meats.
Children kept exclusively on such foods and boiled water do not
thrive. Such a diet produces scurvy. Some fresh, uncooked food, such
as raw milk, uncooked fruit or fruit juices, uncooked vegetables, is
needed every day.

Laxative elements are also essential. These are (a) cellulose, found
in the husk of whole wheat, and the fibers of vegetables and fruits;
(b) water, found in milk, vegetables, and fresh or stewed fruits; (c)
oil, found in cream, olive oil, and fatty nuts; (d) sugars, found in
honey, molasses, dried fruits; (e) vegetable acids, found in fruits.

Hard foods, requiring work of the jaws, are needed every day,
especially from nine months to seven years of age, while the first
and second teeth are coming. Hard foods exercise and develop the jaws
and teeth, and promote a good circulation through the jaws, mouth,
and nose. They may be supplied by a chicken or chop bone wiped free
of the cooked meat, or after nine months by hard crust, hard toast,
zwieback, or educator crackers, given at one or two meals every day.
Soft, mushy foods as a steady diet are injurious, not only because
they fail to supply the needed exercise and circulation, but also
because they cling to the teeth, and by fermenting produce their
early decay.

Foods containing growth-producing principles are needed daily. Little
is yet known of this factor. Some foods that, according to their
chemical composition, would be considered valuable for growth, have
been found on experimentation to be lacking in growth-producing
properties; among these are corn, bacon, gelatine. Other foods have
marked growth-producing results, and among these are milk, butter,
eggs, whole wheat.

=Foods Permissible for Children at Different Ages.= Add each new
food gradually, beginning with a mere taste and observing whether
it agrees. Eggs, especially white, should be added cautiously, and
discontinued if they cause swelling, indigestion, or diarrhea.
Raw fruits must be selected with great care, neither overripe nor
underripe, nor swallowed in lumps; they are prohibited in diarrhea.

  10 months:

  Milk
  Oatmeal or whole wheat jelly
  Rice or barley jelly
  Zwieback, hard toast
  Strained spinach
  Prune juice, prune pulp
  Orange juice, strained, diluted
  Gelatine

  12 to 15 months, add:

  Baked potato
  Junket
  Egg yolk hard-boiled, grated
  Coddled egg (½)
  ½ egg (raw) beaten in milk
  Vegetable broth with purée of potato, carrot, or spinach
  Stale whole wheat bread
  Wheatsworth crackers
  Olive oil
  Cottonseed oil
  White grape juice
  Chicken bone or chop bone, cooked, meat scraped and wiped off

  15 to 18 months, add:

  Rice boiled or steamed (cooked 3 to 6 hours)
  Oatmeal gruel (cooked 6 to 12 hours)
  Butter
  Baked apple (pulp)
  Date pulp
  Custards

  18 to 24 months, add:

  Purée (strained) of fresh peas, dried peas, celery, onions, corn
  Hominy (ground) cooked 12 hours
  Tapioca thoroughly cooked
  Scraped raw apple
  Ripe raw peach
  Strained honey
  Stewed dried peaches, mashed

  2 to 3 years, add:

  Young tender peas or lima beans, mashed
  Asparagus tips, stringless beans, chopped fine
  Tender carrots, beets, celery, minced fine
  Mashed potatoes
  Whole wheat breakfast cereal, corn meal, corn bread, bran muffins,
    macaroni
  Poached egg
  Stewed pear, mashed
  Stewed chopped figs
  Apple sauce
  Oatmeal crackers
  Purple grape juice

  3 to 4 years, add:

  Vegetables, diced
  Sweet potatoes, mashed
  Raw, grated carrots
  Cornflakes
  Shredded wheat
  Seedless grape pulp
  Grape fruit
  Ground almonds, pecans, filberts

  4 to 6 years, add:

  Purée of dried beans, lentils
  Heart of tender celery (raw or stewed)
  Minced, tender lettuce
  Stewed tomatoes
  Stewed apricots, strawberries
  Whole cooked prunes
  Whole dates, figs (sterilized)
  Ripe banana, scraped and mashed, or cooked
  (occasionally)
  Peppermints
  Ice cream
  Gingerbread
  Sponge cake, molasses or sugar cookie

  6 to 8 years, add:

  Eggs scrambled or omelet
  American cheese (cooked)
  Cottage cheese
  Oysters (cooked)
  Lentils, dried Lima beans
  Raw tomatoes, cress
  Peanut butter
  Seedless raisins, chopped
  Simple preserves, marmalade, jam
  Raw pears, strawberries, raspberries
  Cantaloupe, watermelon
  Simple layer or loaf cake

=Foods Injurious to Children.= Never to be given under twelve years
of age; not advised for any age.

  Stimulants: Coffee, tea, beer, wine. These furnish no food value
  but stimulate the heart and leave serious poisons that injure
  kidneys, liver, stomach, and nerves.

  Condiments: Pepper, mustard, catsup, vinegar, pickles, horseradish.
  These are irritating to the delicate lining of the stomach; they
  overstimulate the appetite; they have no food value. Excess of
  acids extracts needed mineral from the body.

  Meats: Pork roast or chops, ham, sausages, canned or dried meats
  and fish, corned beef, sweetbreads, kidneys, game. All are
  difficult of digestion.

[Illustration: Some Foods Especially Dangerous for Children Under Six.

Peanuts, ice-cream cones, soda water, baked beans, raw cucumbers,
popcorn.]

[Illustration: Poisons for Little Children.

Not for vitality, beauty, clear thinking at any age.]


  Pastry: Pie, tarts, dumplings, cream puffs. The combination of fat
  and starch makes these difficult of digestion.

  Rich Foods: Rich cake, puddings, sauces, preserves, and conserves.
  Excess of sugar or fat overtaxes the digestion and also spoils the
  appetite for simple, wholesome foods.

  Fried Foods: Fried meat, potatoes, eggs; fritters, doughnuts,
  waffles, pancakes, French toast. Fat so combined with starch or
  protein delays, even prevents, digestion. Starch requires longer
  cooking than is possible in frying.

  Fresh Baked (less than twenty-four hours old): Bread, rolls,
  muffins, cake. Rolls or muffins may be served warm by re-heating in
  oven. Fresh bread or cake forms a sticky mass, very difficult for
  the digestive juices to dissolve or penetrate.

  Not permissible for children under six years:

  All difficult of digestion.

  Popcorn
  Soda water
  Ice cream cones
  Peanuts
  Baked beans
  Rusks
  Grocery cookies
  Cucumbers
  Cabbage
  Whole nuts
  Cherries
  Berries

  (Some physicians also exclude all cake, candy, ice cream, jam.)

=Illnesses Produced by Wrong Feeding.= Illness may be due to one of
several causes. Wrong feeding is one fundamental cause of ill health
and a direct cause of many forms of illness. An excess or deficiency
of any one of the food elements, wrong combinations of foods, wrong
habits of feeding, lack of cleanliness or purity, improper cooking,
may all produce illness.

The general ill health and low vitality from wrong feeding may be due
to:

  (a) Auto-intoxication, from putrefaction of food in the intestine
  because of constipation, or from excess of purins;

  (b) Excess of acid in the blood, due to excess of acid-forming
  foods or deficiency of alkali-forming foods;

  (c) Malnutrition or anemia, due to insufficient food, or to lack of
  some food element; frequently due to lack of fats or minerals.

While the exact relation between wrong feeding and some of the
specific forms of illness is still a moot question, some of the
probabilities now tentatively held by many physicians may be
indicated in a general way, as in the following table:

  “Colds”:
    Overfeeding, especially of protein or sugar
  Colic:
    Irregular feeding
    Overfeeding
    Food taken too rapidly
  Constipation:
    Lack of fruits and green vegetables
    Lack of cellulose
    Lack of water
    Irregular feeding
  Convulsions:
    Solid food at too early age
    Food difficult to digest
    Constipation
  Gastric indigestion (nausea):
    Indigestible combinations, _e.g._ fried foods, milk with acids
    Excess of sugar or starch
    Excess of fat
    Irregular feeding
  Headaches:
    Constipation
    Indigestible combinations
    Excess of sugar or purins
  Intestinal Indigestion:
    Excess of protein
    Excess of cellulose
    Excess of carbohydrates
  Kidney Disorders:
    Excess of purins
    Excess of acid-forming foods
    Excess of salt
    Excess of sugar
  Nervousness:
    Irregular feeding
    Auto-intoxication
    Constipation
    Excess of acid-forming foods
    Excess of sugar or meat
    Insufficient fats
    Insufficient minerals
  Rheumatism:
    Excess of purins
    Deficiency of minerals
  Rickets:
    Lack of vitamines
    Lack of minerals
    Lack of fats
  Scurvy:
    Lack of vitamines
    Lack of minerals
  Summer Diarrhea:
    Unclean food, especially milk
    Underripe or overripe fruit

=Digestion.= In the process of digestion, foods are not broken down
into simple chemical elements, as nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, but
into simpler yet still very complex compounds, as organic minerals
(lime, phosphorus, soda), simpler sugars, fatty acids, emulsions,
soaps; and the proteins into their many forms of amino-acids and (if
these are inherent) purins and uric acid. Soluble minerals, simple
sugars, and many drugs are quickly absorbed from the stomach directly
into the circulation. Water passes into the small intestine in five
to twenty minutes. The solid portions of mother’s milk complete their
stomach digestion in about two hours, cow’s milk and other easily
digested foods in two and a half to three hours, under favorable
conditions. Digestion is continued in the small intestine, where
about four hours are required for further digestion; the soluble
portion is absorbed into the circulation, and the indigestible
remainder, with waste cell material and bile, passes into the large
intestine. There the journey is very irregular and slow, requiring
from ten to twenty hours. The longer the delay, the greater the
fermentation and putrefaction, and the accumulation of putrefactive
bacteria and poisonous gases; the poisons, which are constantly being
absorbed into the system, produce auto-intoxication. About half the
solid waste is bacteria and waste cell tissue.

=Food Composition.= Every one who is responsible for the feeding
of children should be thoroughly acquainted with the different
food substances and the composition and value of common foods. For
practical purposes of dietetics, foods are analyzed into their
content of protein, carbohydrate, fat, mineral, cellulose, water.
Some foods contain only one or two of these elements; other foods
contain them all.

1. Protein foods are those that contain nitrogen; their special use
is to build new body cells (for growth) and to replace waste of
tissue; they also furnish energy. Proteins differ in value according
to the number and the kinds of amino-acids in their composition.

Foods containing high percentage of protein:

  Eggs
  Milk
  Cheese
  Cereals
  Almonds
  Peanuts
  Peas
  Beans
  Lentils
  Fish
  Lean meat

2. Carbohydrates (sugars and starches) furnish bodily heat and
muscular energy.

Foods containing high percentage of starch:

  Potatoes
  Rice
  Cereals
  Tapioca
  Macaroni
  Farina

Foods containing high percentage of sugar:

  Sweet fruits
  Dried fruits
  Beets
  Carrots
  Honey
  Maple Syrup
  Molasses
  Barley sugar
  Cane sugar

Starch digestion begins in the mouth by the action of the saliva
and is completed in the intestines. Starches are changed to a form
of sugar. Excess of carbohydrates is stored in the liver or as fat
through the body.

3. Fats furnish energy and heat.

Foods containing high percentage of fat:

  Cream
  Butter
  Egg yolk
  Olive oil
  Cottonseed oil
  Nuts (except chestnuts)
  Meat fats

4. Minerals are found in grains, in fruit, green vegetables, milk,
eggs, meat.

Calcium and phosphorus are furnished in high percentage by:

  Grape juice
  Orange juice
  Rhubarb
  Maple sap
  Milk

Calcium, phosphorus, and iron are all supplied in high percentage in:

  Spinach
  Celery
  Peas
  Lima beans
  String beans
  Apples
  Prunes
  Peaches
  Pears
  Dates, raisins
  Whole wheat
  Whole cereals
  Egg yolk
  Lean meat (except calcium)

While milk contains only a low percentage of iron, it furnishes a
high proportion of the day’s supply in children’s diet, because of
the total quantity used.

Valuable mineral material in many fruits and vegetables is just
beneath the skin. It is dissolved into the water if these foods are
boiled. The mineral matter is conserved by baking, or stewing, or
steaming, by cooking without paring, or by using the water in which
they are boiled.

The mineral matter is in the germ and the husks of grains. Refined
foods, such as white flour and sugar, polished or puffed rice,
processed barley and corn meal, cream of wheat, cornstarch, sago,
from which the husk has been removed, have been robbed of their
mineral matter. The whole ground grains and brown sugar retain the
minerals.

5. Water, a necessary part of all tissues, constitutes about sixty
per cent. of the body weight. It promotes circulation of the blood
and other internal fluids, dissolves poisons, aids elimination of
waste through urine, feces, and perspiration. Water is best taken
half an hour before meals, and at the close. If taken with the meal,
it should be only after food in the mouth has been swallowed, that it
may not interfere with the action of the saliva upon the food. Ice in
water makes it too cold for the stomach, and unless artificial, is
apt to contain dangerous impurities. Water should be sipped, warmed
in the mouth before being swallowed, and not more than one glass
taken at a time. Water is supplied in:

  Milk
  Cocoa
  Broths
  Fruit juices
  Fruits
  Green vegetables

Water constitutes about 65 per cent. of meats, 80 per cent. of fish,
90 per cent. of fresh fruits and vegetables.

6. Cellulose. The indigestible cellulose and fibers in food furnish
a bulk of waste which stimulates the intestines to muscular action.
Supplied in:

  Whole wheat
  Whole cereals
  Prunes, dates
  Figs, raisins
  Fibrous vegetables as celery, spinach, onions, carrots, beets,
    peas, beans
  Skins of apples, pears

Cellulose is lacking in concentrated foods, as cheese, nuts, sugar,
butter; refined foods, as white flour, cream of wheat, cornstarch; in
liquid foods.

Laxative Foods:

  Figs
  Dates
  Prunes
  Orange
  Apple
  Raisins
  Peach
  Plum
  Rhubarb
  Grapes
  Whole wheat cereals
  Whole wheat bread
  Whole wheat crackers
  Corn meal
  Bran muffins
  Peanut butter
  Pecan nuts
  Gingerbread
  Molasses
  Honey
  Onions
  Spinach
  Olive oil
  Cottonseed oil

=Purin Bodies in Common Foods.= Purin bodies are found in some
protein foods. Purins are uric-acid

  ==========================+========+=====================+=============
     FOODS CONTAINING HIGH  | GRAINS |  FOODS CONTAINING   | PURIN-FREE
      PER CENT. PURINS[19]  |  PER   | 2 GRAINS OR LESS[19]|  FOODS[19]
                            | POUND  |                     |
  ——————————————————————————+————————+—————————————————————+—————————————
  Sweetbreads               | 70     |     Peas            | Milk
  Liver                     | 19     |     Potatoes        | Cheese
  Kidney                    |        |     Onions          | Butter
  Beef                      | 14-7   |     Carrots         | Flour
  Pork                      |  8     |     Turnips         | Rice
  Chicken                   |  9     |     Parsnips        | Macaroni
  Veal                      |  8     |     Asparagus       | Tapioca
  Salmon                    |  8     |     Rhubarb         | Sugar
  Halibut                   |  7     |     Spinach         | Cauliflower
  Mutton                    |  7     |     Dates           | Cabbage
                            |        |     Figs            | Lettuce
                            |        |     Codfish (4)     | Strawberries
                            |        |     Flounder        |
  ==========================+========+=====================+=============


forming. The poisons of purins are believed to be productive of
gout, rheumatism, migraine and periodic headaches, bilious attacks,
catarrhs, neurasthenia, and general ill-health of an indefinite
nature.

=Acid-forming and Alkali-forming Foods.= The blood contains some
acids and some alkalies. For physical efficiency, the balance should
be slightly alkaline. In the process of digestion minerals are
oxidized into their chemical constituents of acids or alkalies. An
excess of acid interferes with the normal alkalinity of the blood and
secretions, prevents the normal absorption of oxygen and elimination
of carbonic acid gas by the blood, hinders the work of the white
blood corpuscles, irritates the nerves, lowering, therefore, the
resistance and vitality, and irritates the kidneys. In the dietary,
care should be taken to include alkali as Well as acid-forming foods.

  Acid-forming:[20]         Alkali-forming:[20]

  Meat                   Milk
  Eggs                   Fruits
  Grains                 Vegetables, especially:
  Rice                     Spinach         Lettuce
  Tapioca                  Celery          Cress
  Sugar                    Potatoes        Radishes

=The Question of Meat.= Some authorities on dietetics now advise
against giving meat in early childhood. Wiley and Mendel advise
waiting until about four years, Sherman and Lorand until about eight.

The following objections are made to meat in children’s diet:

(1) It has a high percentage of purin bodies, which the child’s
organism is less fitted to dispose of.

(2) It is acid-forming to a high degree.

(3) “Meat proteins are much more susceptible to putrefaction in the
intestine, giving rise to absorption of putrefactive products which
are more or less injurious (producing ‘auto-intoxication’) than are
the proteins of most other foods.”[21]

(4) It is stimulating to the flow of gastric juice, especially the
extractives, which are found particularly in meat juices, meat
broths, beef tea. As an acid-forming food it is stimulating, and
easily irritating, to the nerves, and therefore is disadvantageous
with nervous children, or when the nervous system is yet highly
sensitive, as it is in early childhood.

(5) Carnivorous animals, such as the cat and the dog, do not permit
their young to have meat until the teeth are developed. Meat given
experimentally to young kittens produced convulsions.

(6) It is an expensive form of protein. Beef juice contains chiefly
the stimulating extractives, and a slight quantity of iron.

(7) Protein in milk, selected vegetables, and (usually) eggs, is more
easily digested; and iron can be supplied by selected vegetables and
fruits.

The following table gives approximately the comparative value of a
100-calorie portion of beef juice (requiring 3½ pounds of lean beef)
and an equal bulk of milk.

  [A] QUANTITY
  [B] CALORIES
  [C] PROTEIN[22]
  [D] FAT[22]
  [E] CARBOHYDRATES[22]
  [F] LIME[22]
  [G] PHOSPHORUS[22]
  [H] IRON[22]

  ===========+==========+=====+======+======+====+======+======+======
             |   [A]    | [B] | [C]  | [D]  |[E] | [F]  | [G]  | [H]
  ———————————+——————————+—————+——————+——————+————+——————+——————+——————
  Beef juice | 14.1 oz. | 100 | 19.6 |  2.4 |    | .015 | .46  | .003
  Milk       | 14.1 oz. | 276 | 13.1 | 15.9 | 20 | .649 | .832 | .0009
  ===========+==========+=====+======+======+====+======+======+======

The meat at twenty-two cents a pound costs seventy-seven cents; the
milk at ten cents a quart costs five cents. One pound of meat will
give little more than one fourth of this food value; one ordinary
serving (2 ounces) only 3 per cent. of the above values.

Physicians, on the other hand, more often advise meat, especially for
the iron and the stimulation to digestion.

=The Question of Sugar.= Sugar is a concentrated form of fuel food.
Children need much of fuel foods, but this can be given in the
form of fats and starches as well as sugar. Sweet easily spoils
the appetite for plain, more wholesome foods, and gives a sense
of sufficiency before the needs of the body have been satisfied.
Children whose taste has been spoiled by sweetened food are more
likely to show a distaste for wholesome vegetables. Sugar taken
between meals or in excess at meals is irritating to the sensitive
lining of the stomach. Sugar excess causes fermentation in the
stomach and intestines, overtaxes the liver, reduces the normal
alkalinity of the blood, produces nausea, headache, biliousness,
irritability, nervousness. It injures the teeth by causing mouth
acidity, which produces tooth decay, and by causing distaste for
simple lime-containing foods. The peevishness and irritability
of children after an overdose of candy is very likely due to the
indigestion and the hyperacidity of the blood, which irritates the
nerves.

Cane sugar and candy lack the mineral matter found with sugar in the
natural syrups, fruits, and vegetables. The necessary amount (and it
is small) of sugar should therefore be given to young children in the
form of fruits, at the close of the midday meal. It is advantageous
to the child’s efficiency and contentment not to have candy or ice
cream under four years of age, and he will thrive without them until
ten years. When allowed, they should be given only in slight amount
as a dessert at the close of dinner, and not between meals.

[Illustration: Wholesome Sweets at Suitable Ages.

Homemade peppermints, sweet chocolate, barley sugar, sponge cookies,
molasses cake, honey, maple syrup, prunes, figs, dates, plums,
apples, peaches.]

[Illustration: Laxative Foods.

To be selected, appropriate to age.]


Wholesome Sweets[23]

  Honey
  Maple syrup
  Sweet fruits:
    Oranges, Apples
    Peaches, Plums
    Seedless grapes
    Dates, Figs
    Seedless raisins
    Prunes
  Simple, pure candy
  Molasses candy
  Peppermint wafers
  Milk chocolate
  Barley sugar
  Simple homemade cake
  Sponge cake
  Gingerbread
  Molasses or sugar cookies

=Rational Dietary.= A rational dietary for children should meet the
following requirements:

  1. Total calories per day, computed for the age, weight (normal);
  modified by the activity, season, health, of the individual child

  2. Balance of protein, fat, carbohydrate: Protein 10-15 per cent;
  fat 25-35 per cent; carbohydrate 50-60 per cent.

  3. Purin-free or low in purins

  4. Minerals supplied, especially lime, phosphorus, iron, soda,
  potash

  5. Vitamines supplied by some uncooked or fresh, slightly cooked
  foods

  6. Laxatives furnished by cellulose, water, oils, sugars, vegetable
  acids

  7. Hard foods, requiring gnawing and chewing

  8. No irritants or artificial stimulants, _e.g._ pepper, mustard,
  vinegar, condiments, alcohol, beer, tea, coffee

  9. Combination of food carefully arranged:

    a. Some alkali-forming

    b. Milk not served with acids, as tomatoes, oranges, apples,
    apricots, peaches, lemon juice

    c. Agreeable proportion of liquids and solids

    d. Flavors combined that taste well together

    e. Variety slight at one meal (3 to 6 items); wider range from
    day to day

  10. Cooking:

    a. Albumen (milk, white of egg) slightly coagulated

    b. Cereals and starches thoroughly cooked

    c. Fats not overheated (below smoking or scorching point)

    d. Fats not mixed while hot with starches or sugars (gravies,
    sauces, fried foods, pastry), or with protein (fried eggs)

    e. Vegetable cellulose removed, or divided, according to the
    development of the digestive system of the child


Table for Hours of Feeding

  ==========+========+============+====================+==============
     AGE    |   NO   | INTERVALS  |       HOURS        |   ADDENDA
            |FEEDINGS|            |                    |
  ——————————+————————+————————————+————————————————————+——————————————
  12 to 24  |        |            |                    |
    months  |   4-5  | 4 hours    | 6, 10 A.M., 2 P.M. | Fruit juice
            |        |            |                    |   8 A.M.
            |        |            |                    | Dinner 2 P.M.
  2 to 3 or |        |            |                    |
    4 years |    4   | 4 hours    | 6:30, 10 A.M.,     |      Do.
            |        |            |   2, 5 P.M.        |
  3 or 4 to |        |            |                    |
   9 years  |    3   | 4½-        | 7:30 A.M.,         | Fruit juice
            |        |   5 hours  |    12, 5 P.M.      |   6:30 A.M.
            |        |            |                    | Dinner 12 M.
            |        |            |                    | Milk or fruit
            |        |            |                    |   3:30 P.M.
  After 9   |        |            |                    |
    years   |    3   | 4½-        | 7:30 A.M.,         |      Do.
            |        |   5½ hours |   12, 6 P.M.       |
  ==========+========+============+====================+==============

Differences of social, economic, and climatic conditions will
naturally lead to differences of usual rising hour and general
day’s régime. The above schedule is consistent with the environment
represented in the daily schedule on pages 124, 125.

A special schedule should be made out for the individual child,
according to his environment and special needs. Certain fundamental
principles must be followed, in varying this schedule. (1) Regular
times for meals; (2) intervals between meals; (3) heaviest meal at
midday; (4) interval before bedtime; (5) interval before bath.

To make out a dietary for a given individual.

1. To compute the total calories required for one day, (a) take
the normal weight for the age, sex, height (see appendix), and (b)
multiply this by the calories required per pound of body weight.
(Table, page 160.)

Use the minimum calories for youngest, maximum for oldest in each age
group. A child of active temperament requires more calories than a
phlegmatic child of same age and weight. Factors indicating a liberal
allowance of calories are outdoor life, cold weather, vigorous
exercise, or a child under normal weight. A smaller allowance is
indicated by indoor life, little activity, hot weather, or a child
over normal weight.

2. Compute the number of these total calories for protein (15 per
cent. of total calories), fat (25-35 per cent.), carbohydrates (50-60
per cent.).

3. Make out a tentative day’s dietary, in 100-calorie portions,
and add or deduct portions until the total of computed calories is
approximated; a difference not to exceed 10 per cent. is allowable.
(Table, page 160.)

4. Analyze these portions (see appendix), and compare with computed
amounts (2 above) for balance of protein, fat, carbohydrate.
Differences not to exceed ten per cent. are allowable. For compound
foods, as custard, purée, analyze each of the ingredients.

5. Analyze for lime, phosphorus, iron.

6. Check for alkali-forming foods, vitamines, laxatives, hard foods.

7. Divide into meals. The heaviest meal should come in the middle of
the day.

8. Note the method of preparation suited to the development and
condition of the individual.

The making of a well-balanced and organized dietary for a day
requires several hours of careful calculating. It is therefore the
part of wisdom, as well as economy of energy, to carefully make out
a dietary for six or seven days, that there may be balance in each
day’s ration, and a wide range of variety from day to day; and to
preserve these for reference. By measuring out 100-calorie portions
of common foods for a few days, the student comes to recognize these
quickly, and the assembling of a meal comes to have all the zest of a
game.


Illustration of Method in Making out a Dietary.

  Age: 4 years
  Sex: Boy
  Health: Robust
  Height: 39 inches
  Activity: Out-of-doors
  Season: Winter
  Temperament: Active

  1. Normal weight: 35 pounds; Calories per pound: 38; Total
  Calories: 1330

  2. Estimated Calories: Protein, 200; Fat, 465; Carbohydrates, 665

  3.-5.                    =Analysis of Day’s Food=
  ==============+==========+========+=====+=====+=====+======+======+=====
                | QUANTITY |        |     |     |     |      |      |
       FOOD     |(Uncooked)|CALORIES|PROT.| FAT |CBHY.| LIME |PHOS. |IRON
  ——————————————+——————————+————————+—————+—————+—————+——————+——————+—————
                |          |        | Cal.| Cal.| Cal.|Grams |Grams |Grams
  Grape juice   | 5 T      |   75   |     |     |  75 | .016 | .03  |
  Milk          | 1½ pt.   |  500   |  95 | 260 | 145 |1.195 |1.515 |.0017
  Oatmeal       | 1 T      |   25   |   4 |   2 |  19 | .007 | .054 |.0002
  Bread         |          |        |     |     |     |      |      |
   (whole wheat)| 2 slice  |  200   |  30 |  10 | 160 | .032 | .32  |.0012
  Butter        | 1½ cube  |  150   |   1 | 149 |     | .004 | .006 |
  Crackers      |          |        |     |     |     |      |      |
   (Wheatsworth)| 1        |   25   |   4 |   5 |  16 | .004 | .061 |.0003
  Rice          | 1 T      |   50   |   5 |     |  45 | .004 | .085 |.0004
  Potato        | ½ med.   |   50   |   6 |     |  44 | .009 | .083 |.0007
  Peas (fresh)  | 2 T      |   50   |  14 |   2 |  34 | .016 | .12  |.0008
  Egg           | 1        |   74   |  24 |  50 |   0 | .044 | .175 |.0014
  Apple sauce   | 1 apple  |  100   |   3 |   7 |  90 | .022 | .05  |.0005
  Dates         | 3        |   50   |   1 |   4 |  45 | .01  | .01  |.0005
  ——————————————+——————————+————————+—————+—————+—————+——————+——————+—————
                |          | 1349   | 187 | 489 | 673 |1.363 |2.509 |.0079
  ==============+==========+========+=====+=====+=====+======+======+=====

  6.-7. Feedings, 4. Hours, 7:30, 10:00 A.M., 12:00; 5:00 P.M.

  Day’s menu: (See menu for child 2 to 4 years, page 181).

  8. Method of preparation: For first teeth; vegetables diced; whole
  dates, prunes.


Typical Menus For Different Ages[24]


I. Twelve to Fifteen Months

Calculated for 21 pounds at 45 calories = 945 calories

  ===============================+==========+=======+=======+======+=====
                                 | CALORIES | VITA. | ALKA. | LAX. | HARD
  ———————————————————————————————+——————————+———————+———————+——————+—————
  A.M.                           |          |       |       |      |
   6:00 1½ glass warm milk       |   150    |   s   |   s   |      |
   8:00 orange juice             |    75    |   s   |   s   |  s   |
  10:00 oatmeal jelly            |    25    |       |       |      |
        1½ glass milk            |   150    |   s   |   s   |      |
        ½ t top milk             |     5    |   s   |   s   |      |
  P.M.                           |          |       |       |      |
   2:00 ½ potato, baked          |    25    |       |   s   |      |
        1 t top milk             |    15    |   s   |   s   |      |
        ½ slice bread, toasted   |    50    |       |       |  s   |   s
        prune pulp               |   100    |   s   |  (?)  |  s   |
        1½ glass milk            |   150    |   s   |   s   |      |
   5:30 oatmeal jelly            |    25    |       |       |      |
        1½ glass milk            |   155    |   s   |   s   |      |
        small slice zwieback     |    25    |       |       |      |   s
  ———————————————————————————————+——————————+———————+———————+——————+—————
          Totals as analyzed     |   950    |       |       |      |
  ===============================+==========+=======+=======+======+=====

                       CALORIES                GRAMS
                  PROT.  FAT  CBHY.    LIME    PHOS.    IRON
  Calculated:      142   331   473
  Analyzed:        145   333   472    1.622    2.293   .0043

Vitamines may exist in some degree in slightly cooked foods.


II. Fifteen to Twenty-Four Months

Calculated for 26 pounds at 42 calories = 1092 calories

  ===================================+========+=====+=====+====+====
                                     |CALORIES|VITA.|ALKA.|LAX.|HARD
  ———————————————————————————————————+————————+—————+—————+————+————
  A.M.                               |        |     |     |    |
   6:00 2 glasses warm milk          |    200 | s   | s   |    |
        1 Wheatsworth cracker        |     25 |     |     | s  |
   8:00 orange juice                 |     75 | s   | s   | s  |
  10:00 oatmeal gruel                |     50 |     |     |    |
        2 glasses milk               |    200 | s   | s   |    |
        1-2 slice toast, whole wheat |     50 |     |     | s  |  s
  P.M.                               |        |     |     |    |
   2:00 ½ coddled egg                |     37 | s   |     |    |
        ¼ baked potato               |     25 |     | s   |    |
        1 T spinach                  |     10 | s   | s   | s  |
        ¼ slice bread, whole wheat   |     25 |     |     | s  |
        ¼ T butter                   |     25 | s   | s   |    |
   5:30 oatmeal gruel                |     50 |     |     |    |
        ½ slice toast, whole wheat   |     50 |     |     | s  |  s
        1 Wheatsworth cracker        |     25 |     |     | s  |
        2 glasses milk               |    200 | s   | s   |    |
  ———————————————————————————————————+————————+—————+—————+————+————
          Totals as analyzed         |   1047 |     |     |    |
  ===================================+========+=====+=====+====+====

                       CALORIES                GRAMS
                  PROT.  FAT  CBHY.    LIME    PHOS.   IRON
  Calculated:      164   382   546
  Analyzed:        177   386   484     1.647   2.592   .0068


III. Two to Four Years

Calculated for 35 pounds at 38 calories = 1330 calories

  ===================================+========+=====+=====+====+====
                                     |CALORIES|VITA.|ALKA.|LAX.|HARD
  ———————————————————————————————————+————————+—————+—————+————+————
  A.M.                               |        |     |     |    |
   6:30 grape juice                  |     75 | s   | s   | s  |
   7:30 ¼ serving oatmeal            |     25 |     |     |    |
        2 glasses milk               |    200 | s   | s   |    |
        ½ slice toast, whole wheat   |     50 |     |     | s  |  s
        ½ T butter                   |     50 | s   | s   |    |
  10:00 1 glass milk                 |    100 | s   | s   |    |
        1 Wheatsworth cracker        |     25 |     |     | s  |
  12:00 ½ potato baked               |     50 |     | s   |    |
        1 T peas                     |     50 |     | s   |    |
        1 egg coddled                |     74 | s   |     |    |
        1 T butter                   |    100 | s   | s   |    |
        apple sauce                  |    100 |     |     | s  |  s
        ½ slice bread, whole wheat   |     50 |     |     | s  |
  P.M.                               |        |     |     |    |
   5:00 rice (unpolished)            |     50 |     |     |    |
        date pulp                    |     50 | s   | s   | s  |
        2 glasses milk               |    200 | s   | s   |    |
        1 slice zwieback             |    100 |     |     | s  |  s
  ———————————————————————————————————+————————+—————+—————+————+————
          Totals as analyzed         |   1349 |     |     |    |
  ===================================+========+=====+=====+====+====

                       CALORIES                  GRAMS
                 PROT.   FAT   CBHY.    LIME     PHOS.    IRON
  Calculated:     200    465    665
  Analyzed:       187    489    673     1.363    2.509    .0079


IV. Four to Six Years

Calculated for 40 pounds at 37 calories = 1480 calories

  ===================================+========+=====+=====+====+====
                                     |CALORIES|VITA.|ALKA.|LAX.|HARD
  ———————————————————————————————————+————————+—————+—————+————+————
  A.M.                               |        |     |     |    |
   6:30 orange juice                 |    100 | s   | s   | s  |
   7:30 rice                         |     50 |     |     |    |
        chopped figs                 |     50 | s   | s   | s  |
        2½ glasses milk              |    250 | s   | s   |    |
        1 slice toast, whole wheat   |    100 |     |     | s  |  s
        butter                       |     75 | s   | s   |    |
  12:00 lima beans, fresh            |     50 |     | s   |    |
        2 T spinach                  |     25 | s   | s   | s  |
        potato, boiled in skin       |     50 |     | s   |    |
        chicken                      |     25 |     |     |    |
        1 slice bread, whole wheat   |    100 |     |     | s  |
        butter                       |    100 | s   | s   |    |
        2 plums                      |     50 | s   |(?)  | s  |
  P.M.                               |        |     |     |    |
   5:00 ½ shredded wheat             |     50 |     |     | s  |
        2½ glasses milk              |    250 | s   | s   |    |
        molasses cookie, hard        |    100 |     |     | s  |  s
  ———————————————————————————————————+————————+—————+—————+————+————
          Totals as analyzed         |   1475 |     |     |    |
  ===================================+========+=====+=====+====+====

                        CALORIES                  GRAMS
                  PROT.   FAT   CBHY.    LIME     PHOS.     IRON
  Calculated:      222    518    740
  Analyzed:        203    481    791     1.557    2.760    .0109

[Illustration: Day’s Menu for Child Two to Four Years.]

[Illustration: Day’s Menu for Child Four to Six Years.]


V. Six to Eight Years

Calculated for 47 pounds at 33 calories = 1551 calories

  ===================================+========+=====+=====+====+====
                                     |CALORIES|VITA.|ALKA.|LAX.|HARD
  ———————————————————————————————————+————————+—————+—————+————+————
  A.M.                               |        |     |     |    |
   6:30 orange juice                 |    100 | s   | s   | s  |
   7:30 whole wheat cereal           |    100 |     |     | s  |
        1½ glass milk                |    150 | s   | s   |    |
        1 slice toast, whole wheat   |    100 |     |     | s  |  s
        ½ T butter                   |     50 | s   | s   |    |
        soft boiled egg              |     74 | s   |     |    |
        ½ fig                        |     50 | s   | s   | s  |
  12:00 ½ portion macaroni           |     50 |     |     |    |
        1 T cheese, cooked           |    100 |     |     |    |
        4 T string beans             |     25 |     | s   |    |
        lettuce, oil, lemon juice    |     55 | s   | s   | s  |
        1 slice bread                |    100 |     |     | s  |
        ½ T butter                   |     50 | s   | s   |    |
        raw apple                    |    100 | s   | s   | s  |
  P.M.                               |        |     |     |    |
   5:00 1 shredded wheat             |    100 |     |     | s  |
        1 cup milk                   |    100 | s   | s   |    |
        1 cup custard                |    150 |     |     |    |
        1 slice toast, whole wheat   |    100 |     |     | s  |  s
        ½ T butter                   |     50 | s   | s   |    |
  ———————————————————————————————————+————————+—————+—————+————+————
          Totals as analyzed         |   1604 |     |     |    |
  ===================================+========+=====+=====+====+====

                       CALORIES                   GRAMS
                  PROT.  FAT   CBHY.     LIME     PHOS.     IRON
  Calculated:     233    543    775
  Analyzed:       214    517    873      1.475    1.865    .0099

=Care of Food.= All food should be kept covered, protected from
dust, bacteria, insects, odors, poisonous gases (from bad drainage
in refrigerator or kitchen). Butter should be kept in oiled paper or
covered by a salted muslin cloth.

Cooked foods should be quickly and thoroughly cooled, and then
covered and kept in a cool place.

Milk requires the most painstaking care, as bacteria multiply in it
very rapidly unless it is kept cool and clean. It should be kept in
a seamless, non-rusting receptacle, covered from dust and insects
(preferably with a clean, double muslin cloth that will admit air but
keep out dust); and placed in a clean, odorless, ventilated place.
If a refrigerator or clean, cool cellar, springhouse, or well is not
available, a homemade refrigerator may be constructed, similar to
the fireless cooker, that will require little ice. Or the bottle may
be placed in a basin of cool running water and covered with a clean
muslin cloth the edges of which absorb the water; if thus placed in
a draft, the evaporation will keep the milk cool. In hot weather it
should be pasteurized for children under six years, and at other
seasons for children under four, unless certified.

Milk should preferably be bottled at the dairy for delivery. If
delivered from cans it should be exposed as little as possible to
the air and dust, the measures should be scrupulously clean, and
it should be poured at once into bottles or jars that have been
sterilized by boiling and that are covered from dust until filled. It
should be immediately covered.

If milk is delivered in bottles, provision should be made for
protecting these from dust, sun, and animals until they are brought
into the kitchen. The bottles should be well washed in cool water,
especially around the top and cover, before opening. The rim of the
bottle should be wiped with a clean cloth and the cover replaced
immediately after pouring.

Milk which has been warmed or which has stood uncovered outside the
bottle should not be poured back or used again for the children to
drink, as bacteria have multiplied in it very rapidly. It may be used
for cooking.

=Milk.= The production of milk requires the greatest cleanliness. If
a cow is kept, the dairy, utensils, methods of milking and caring for
the new milk should conform to the standards set forth in the Federal
and State Health Bulletins. If milk is purchased, inspection should,
if possible, be made of the dairy and the methods of cooling and
transportation. In the large cities, milk is now graded according to
the degree of care and the cleanliness as indicated by the bacteria
count. Certified or Grade “A” should be used for children under three
years of age. Grade “A” is preferable, but Grade “B” can be used for
children over two years. Grade “C” and loose milk are fit only for
cooking.

The milk from a herd is more uniform from day to day than from a
single cow. Holstein or Guernsey milk is preferable for children,
especially for infants, as the lower fat content and softer curds
make it more easily digested than Jersey milk.

Sterilized or condensed milk is less easily digested and less
nutritious than raw milk, and is conducive to constipation. The high
degree of heat to which they have been subjected has reduced the
vitamines and affected the protein.

Milk may spoil even before it has soured. Pasteurizing delays souring
but not spoiling. Unscrupulous dealers sometimes add preservatives
to prevent souring. Such milk is dangerous. Clean, freshly soured
milk is harmless, but should not be given to children under three
except as buttermilk. With young children and babies, buttermilk can
sometimes be retained and digested when sweet milk cannot be taken.
The special tablets containing the Bulgarian bacillus should be
used, and usually, with the whole milk, in making buttermilk for
young children. These tablets may be obtained from the druggist.

Skimmed milk has all the value of whole milk except the cream. Whey
contains the minerals, sugar and fats. Bottled commercial cream has
a very high bacteria count and should never be used for children.
Ice cream should be freshly made of fresh, pasteurized milk, with
scrupulous cleanliness.

=Principles of Cooking.= Before food can be utilized by the body, it
must be made soluble—changed into substances that are dissolved so
they can pass readily through the walls of the food tube into the
blood. In the digestive tract fats, carbohydrates, and protein must
first be separated, as different digestive fluids are provided to act
upon each of these. Cooking for children should (1) make foods easily
soluble; (2) produce little mixture of protein, carbohydrates and
fats; (3) improve the flavor, and (4) raise the temperature to about
blood heat (98° F.), when served.

The degree of development of the digestive fluids, the stomach, and
the teeth must be considered in preparing food for an individual
child. In infancy the digestive system is undeveloped, lacking in
digestive fluids, stomach small, and there is no provision for
chewing.

Until nine months of age babies do not have digestive fluids for
starch, or for protein except the curds of milk; their teeth are
not yet serviceable for chewing, and solid food of any kind is so
indigestible that it often causes convulsions, if given.

After nine months, starches thoroughly cooked and without cellulose
may be given cautiously.

All food must be easily soluble until two years of age, that is,
until enough of the first teeth have developed for adequate chewing
of soft cellulose.

For children under 18 months, cellulose and fibers strained out of
vegetables.

For children 18 months to 3 years (before first teeth are all cut)
vegetables mashed or chopped fine; coarse cellulose removed.

At three years, all the first teeth (20) should be cut, and the child
can chew the cellulose of vegetables and fruits.

For children three years (first teeth all cut) to 8 years (second
teeth partially cut) vegetables diced, whole cooked fruits.

During the first two years of second dentition (from 6 to 8 years)
the missing teeth make chewing less adequate, and care is needed
to provide easily divided food. After eight years enough of the
permanent teeth have been cut to permit fibers of meat in the diet.

=Cooking for Children.= Before beginning the preparation of food,
wash the hands thoroughly and clean the finger nails. See that all
utensils are scrupulously clean, as well as dish towels with which
they are wiped. Use agate or enamelware for all acid fruits and
vegetables, and a double boiler for milk. Do not use aluminum ware
for acids or eggs, or tin for acids, as poisonous compounds would be
formed. Taste food before serving, using a clean spoon which is not
replaced in the food but immediately washed. Keep food uncovered as
little as possible.

_Milk._ In heating milk always use a double boiler and do not let the
milk reach the boiling point. Boiling hardens the protein and makes
it difficult of digestion.

To pasteurize milk: put in sterilized bottles, stoppered with
non-absorbent cotton. Place bottles in kettle with cold water coming
to height of milk in bottles. Put cloth or paper in bottom of
kettle and between bottles, to prevent breaking. Milk is advisably
pasteurized by bringing water to 145° F. and maintaining at exactly
this temperature for thirty minutes, either turning fire low or
removing kettle from fire, leaving bottles in water for half an hour,
or placing the kettle in a fireless cooker, or covering tightly
with newspapers. Cool bottles quickly by placing in lukewarm water,
then in cold water, then on ice, or where temperature of 45° can be
maintained.

_Toast._ Use stale bread. Make in the oven, drying hard throughout,
the outside then lightly browned in gas oven or over coals or an
electric toaster.

_Dried fruits._ Sort carefully, remove blemishes, wash thoroughly
in colander. Soak overnight in water to cover; bring to boil, and
let _simmer_ with low fire or in fireless cooker until soft. Add
no sugar to prunes, dates, figs, seedless raisins, and little to
peaches, apples, apricots. California prunes should be used, as they
are sweeter and less acid. Honey may be used, instead of sugar, for
sweetening other fruits. Soda should be added to tart fruits, as
apricots. For children one to three years, make pulp by removing pits
and mashing through fine colander (not tin). For children over three,
dates and figs may be served uncooked, after thorough washing, or
sterilizing for ten minutes in a colander over steam and then drying.

_Cereals._ Cereals require a high degree of heat for the first five
or ten minutes, to burst the covering of the tiny starch cells, then
long cooking at a moderate temperature. This applies to oatmeal,
barley, wheat cereals, corn meal, samp, rice, tapioca, sago. A double
boiler should be used and, unless a coal fire is available for a long
period, a fireless cooker. The latter can be made in a few hours at a
cost of less than half a dollar, by using a wooden box with a hinged
cover, sawdust for packing, and asbestos paper for lining.

In cooking any cereal, have the water boiling in both the upper and
lower parts of the double boiler. Put the upper part directly over
the heat and let the water boil violently for a minute. Add salt in
the proportion of 1 tablespoon to one quart of water. Pour in the
cereal _very slowly_, so the boiling does not stop. Let this boil
five minutes, shaking gently, then place in boiler and put into
fireless cooker, or over low fire.

Gruel or porridge:

  1 part rolled or flaked oatmeal or wheat to 2 parts water

  1 part corn meal or rice to 3 parts water

  1 part fine wheat or hominy, coarse oatmeal, tapioca or barley to 4
  parts water

Cereal jelly is made by straining the gruel through cheesecloth or
finest wire strainer.

Cereal water is made by using a smaller proportion of cereal—from
1 to 2 tablespoons to 1 pint of water,—and straining. It may be
made from the prepared barley, wheat, oat, or rice flour, using 1
tablespoon of the flour, blended with 2 tablespoons cold water, and
proceeding then as with the whole cereal, stirring occasionally, and
cooking from thirty to sixty minutes.

Note that cereal water contains little nourishment and, unless made
from the whole grains, little mineral.

The ready-cooked oatmeals and wheat cereals should be cooked not less
than one hour for children.

The dry, ready-to-serve cereals are thoroughly dextrinized and easily
digested if well chewed, and therefore as advantageous for children
over two or three.

_Eggs._ Eggs are quite easily digested raw, strained through a fine
sieve. Raw egg is usually laxative. They should be cooked merely
until the whites begin to set and are like soft jelly. Or the grated
yolk, after boiling twenty minutes, may be used.

To soft boil. Place in boiling water which is immediately removed
from the fire; let stand eight to ten minutes. Or put into cold water
in covered saucepan; bring to boiling point and remove saucepan from
fire.

To poach. Grease the bottom of a small skillet with some fat. Put in
boiling water with 1 teaspoon salt. Drop in egg from saucer, and turn
fire low, or remove skillet. Let stand 2 to 5 minutes, until white is
set. Remove with perforated spoon or ladle. Serve on toast which has
been dipped in boiling salted water and slightly buttered.

_Cocoa._ For children four to eight years old, make cocoa weak,
using only ¼ teaspoon cocoa to a cup of milk. Blend the cocoa with ¼
teaspoon sugar and 1 tablespoon boiling water. Add ½ cup of boiling
water and boil for five minutes. A larger portion may be made at one
time, and kept on ice. Heat the milk in a double boiler and add the
hot cocoa to this. Do not let the milk boil.

_Soups and Purées._ For thin soups, take equal parts of milk and
the vegetable water from cooking potatoes, rice, spinach, carrots,
celery, corn, lima or string beans, peas. Heat in double boiler.

Purées are made by mashing and straining any of these vegetables, and
adding milk.

The most nutritious thickening is given by adding cereal gruel, or
raw egg beaten in just before serving, after removing from the stove.
Thickening of flour or cornstarch requires cooking for half an hour.
Flour in melted fat is indigestible.

_Vegetables._ Use fresh, tender vegetables. Sort carefully, removing
bruised and blemished places. Wash or scrub thoroughly through two
or three waters, using a colander. If canned, remove all immediately
from container. For children under two years, potatoes should be
baked, and other vegetables cooked thoroughly and put through a fine
sieve, removing all cellulose. For children of two and three years,
vegetables should be minced; for those four to eight years, merely
diced.

Baked potato. Remove skin from two ends to permit escape of steam
in cooking. Bake in hot oven until mealy—about forty-five minutes.
Pierce with hot fork or break open slightly to permit escape of
steam.

Boiled potatoes. Boil in skins to prevent loss of mineral nutrients.
Put into boiling water; add 1 teaspoon of salt to each pint of
water, and boil gently for half an hour. Test with a fork, and when
mellow, drain off the water, remove the cover, and let the moisture
evaporate. If very large potatoes are used, add a cup of cold water
when the outside is cooked; this prevents overcooking of outside
portion.

Other vegetables may be baked, steamed (cooked in a steamer), or
stewed. The ordinary method of cooking vegetables by boiling in a
large quantity of water removes the essential minerals and watersoaks
the vegetables.

Dried peas, beans, lentils, should be soaked overnight, salted and
boiled for fifteen minutes, then put into the casserole or fireless
cooker and cooked from six to ten hours.

Young beets, string beans, lima beans, carrots, spinach, peas,
asparagus, summer squash are best steamed until tender (from thirty
to sixty minutes). They may be stewed by putting in a covered
saucepan with just enough salted water to prevent burning, and with
the water just boiling.

Onions should be put into boiling water with 1 teaspoon salt, ¼
teaspoon soda, and a piece of charcoal to 1 quart of water. After
cooking five minutes, pour off the water and add freshly boiling,
salted water; after ten minutes drain again and put into salted
boiling

  T = Tablespoon    t = teaspoon    c = cup

            3 t = 1 T
           16 T = 1 c
            2 c = 1 pt.
            1 t = ½ oz.
            1 T = 1½ oz.
            1 c = 8 oz.
   16 fluid oz. = 1 pt.
  16 oz. by wt. = 1 lb.
          1 oz. = 28 grams (metric)
         2½ lb. = 1 Kilogram (metric)

  Spoonful or cupful means level. Teaspoons vary in size.

water. Boil until tender—forty-five to sixty minutes. Leave the cover
off to avoid odors. Spanish or Bermuda onions are mildest in flavor.

In serving vegetables, add a little cream for young children; omit
sauces.

=Serving.= Let the child eat outdoors whenever possible. If indoors,
have the room well ventilated and not above 68° F.

Until six years of age the child preferably should have his meals,
at least dinner and supper, at separate hours from the adults. He
will give better attention to his food, will not be tempted by adult
food, and not subjected to the table conversation which is too often
directed at him or not of interest.

A low chair and table is much to be preferred to a high chair, until
six years; then a higher chair, comfortable for the dining table,
with a foot rest, should be provided, to be cut down as the child
grows.

Serve milk at blood heat (98° F.) to children under two years of age,
and in cold weather for children to six years. Serve warm milk for
cooked cereal.

The serving plate for children under three should be kept warm during
the mealtime. Special children’s plates are now procurable that have
thermos qualities or that are kept warm by hot water.

Avoid any possibility of infection. For example: Do not return spoon
or fork to child’s food, or give to child, after you have used it
yourself, or another child has used it. Do not blow into child’s
food; use some other means of cooling.

Cereals should be fresh cooked within twelve hours for children under
two, and within twenty-four hours for older children. Baked potatoes
and eggs should be fresh cooked for each meal. Vegetables, soups, and
purées should be cooked within twenty-four hours.

Toast should be buttered when cold. If buttered hot, the fat
surrounds the starch grains and makes their digestion difficult or
impossible.

Cereal should be served without sugar or butter, which make digestion
difficult and form a rich combination that spoils the appetite for
simple, wholesome foods. Top milk may be added, and for children two
years, chopped stewed fruit.

The digestive juices in the mouth have an important part in the
digestion of starches, therefore every means should be used for the
insalivation of starchy foods. Dry buttered toast or whole wheat
cracker, for instance, eaten with cereal, necessitates longer chewing
of the cereal. The saliva is alkaline, and its action upon starches
is hindered by the presence of an acid; therefore acid fruits, such
as apple sauce, should not be taken into the mouth at the same time
as starchy foods, such as bread, crackers, or cookies. Bread and milk
are more digestible when taken together, as the milk is thus divided
into smaller curds. Milk from a glass should be slowly sipped, in
small swallows; this is a very important habit to cultivate in small
children.

The diet should be carefully selected and analyzed, carefully
prepared and daintily served with the minimum portions to meet the
child’s needs. _With these conditions_ a child should be trained to
eat what is set before him, without argument, having a second helping
of the simple foods to the limit of his caloric needs. Do not permit
a child to be finicky about his food. The tastes and food habits are
formed in early childhood.

Cultivate a taste for vegetables by giving first in vegetable broths,
and then gradually give a teaspoonful of the mashed vegetable.

If a wholesome food is refused on first offering at one meal, give
that first at a subsequent meal and withhold more desired foods until
this is taken. Keep dessert out of sight until other food is eaten.
An occasional child is not able to digest some special food, as
milk, eggs, strawberries, fish. Some children cannot digest plain
milk but can take it in foods, as in broth, junket, custard, pudding.

Common faults and tendencies in the child to be guarded against are:

  Insufficient chewing
  Eating too rapidly
  Drinking milk rapidly instead of sipping
  Dawdling over meals
  Eating with fingers
  Carelessness about the dropping of food on table and floor
  Unwillingness to try new foods
  Unwillingness to eat vegetables
  Preference for sweets and starches
  Overeating of bread

Common faults of adults, in the feeding of children:

  Overfeeding
  Irregular feeding
  Allowing child to choose or refuse food and become finicky
  Giving too large a portion of bread and cereal
  Too much mushy food
  More than one quart of milk a day
  Insufficient hard foods
  Coaxing child to eat when not hungry or when tired or ill

School children should always have an adequate warm breakfast, with
plenty of time to eat without hurrying, and a warm midday meal. If
the school is too far away for them to return home, some provision
should be made with the teacher, school principal, or near-by home,
for one or two warm dishes.

Children under six years should always have the mother or other
intelligent attendant with them during meals to train in careful
chewing and drinking, neatness, courtesy, conversation. With children
under four years a spirit of play may be brought into the feeding,
especially with the less desired foods; this should gradually be
dropped during the fifth year.

Utilize the opportunity for training in motor coördination and
self-reliance. Babies can be given water from a spoon at one month,
and can begin drinking from a cup at six months; thus trained, they
will never acquire the bottle habit, and they can learn to feed
themselves during the second or third year. The motor control and
self-reliance thus gained are far more important than the messing of
food during a few months. Let the children help clear their table (18
months); brush up any crumbs (2 years); bring in their own dishes
and food (3 years); wash dishes (3 years); help with the cooking (4
years).

Use enamel cups, sauce dishes, and plates until at about three years
the child can confidently handle dishes without breaking them.

The serving of food has the value of a religious ceremony and a
social banquet, as well as the satisfying of physical needs. With
intelligence and forethought it can be made of such significance, and
a means of teaching reverence, courtesy, self-control of physical
appetites, pleasant conversation.


FOOTNOTES:

[17] See Preface, page xiii.

[18] The large calorie is herein always meant.

[19] S. I. Hall: “Purin Bodies.”

[20] H. C. Sherman: “Food Products.”

[21] H. C. Sherman: “Food Products.”

[22] Grams.

[23] Adapted to age. See pages 163-5.

[24]

  t = teaspoonful
  T = tablespoonful
  s = supplied




CHAPTER X

THE EDUCATION OF THE LITTLE CHILD[25]

  “Education should lead and guide man to clearness concerning
  himself and in himself, to peace with nature, and to unity with
  God; hence, it should lift him to a knowledge of himself and of
  mankind, to a knowledge of God and of nature, and to the pure and
  holy life to which this knowledge leads.”

  —F. FROEBEL.

  “Between educator and pupil, between request and obedience, there
  should invisibly rule a third something to which educator and pupil
  are equally subject. This third something is the right, the best,
  necessarily conditioned and expressed without arbitrariness in the
  circumstances.”

  —F. FROEBEL.

  “The mother, with her monotonous daily round of cares and tasks,
  wishes that she could give more time to instructing her children.
  She forgets that her industry, fidelity, cheerfulness, hope,
  courage, faith, reverence, calmness, kindliness, and courtesy, are
  all reproducing themselves in the minds of her children. This is
  education for health, vigor, power, and efficiency, not merely for
  learning. It builds up instead of puffing up.”

  —J. M. TYLER.


=The Purposes of Education.= Education is as comprehensive as life
itself. The education of the child begins as soon as he is born.
Every moment thereafter is bringing influences that are shaping his
character and his mental life. The educator is the person who acts
as a mediator between life and the child, selecting the environment
and influences that will give the largest values, helping him
utilize, discriminate, and interpret his own forces and those of
the universe. The work of the educator is analogous to that of the
physician or hygienist, who cannot give or increase life, but can
help the individual find the conditions that will increase his own
organic efficiency. Education by trial and error, which is the method
by which the race has had to learn, is a slow, painful process. The
purpose of education is to reduce the wastage of life through errors
and to give all-around efficiency, valuable habits, vision (ideals,
ambitions, perspective), and command of methods for continued
learning. It should be a preparation for larger living, not merely
for intellectual examinations or artificial tests.

=Froebel, Hall, Dewey, Montessori.= The following foundation
principles are emphasized by these educational leaders:

  1. The function of education, serving to meet vital problems and to
  increase both efficiency and richness of life

  2. The comprehensiveness of education, dealing with the whole life
  of the child—his thinking, feeling, doing—during every moment of
  his life

  3. The moral purpose of life and therefore of education

  4. The self-activity of the child as the method of education

  5. The daily life of the child in the home and family and with
  nature as the natural environment for his education

  6. The interest of the child as the basis of the curriculum

  7. The study of the child as furnishing the key to his interests,
  his development, his ways of thinking, feeling, doing; and
  therefore the key to the methods of education

  8. The development of the child as an evolution, progressing
  through a series of ascending stages which, in the main, follow the
  same general order in all individuals

  9. Adaptation of education for the individual child, according to
  his nature and needs

The stages of development, the study of the individual child, the
outlines of the curriculum, and special methods in selected phases of
education, are discussed in other chapters. The present discussion
therefore is devoted to the principles of educational psychology and
of pedagogy,—how to conduct the process of education.

=Education, Instruction, and Training.= Education, in the large
sense in which the term is here used, includes three pedagogical
processes: (1) instruction;[26] (2) training; and (3) education[27]
in its narrower meaning,—the developing of the child’s innate
powers. Instruction is the easiest, but the most superficial and
least valuable; development is the most vital and most difficult.
Instruction is static; education is dynamic. Training is the method
for habit-formation (which is a most essential phase of education
through infancy and childhood), the method for drill and technical
skill. The teacher must be able to discern when each of these phases
should be utilized. In general, training should begin at birth, and
habit-formation should be continued unremittingly until about the
teens, although habits are fairly well fixed by seven years. During
youth and adolescence, training is needed for acquiring of finer
muscular and motor skill. Instruction, directly, is easily overdone,
and the best general principle is not to give information that the
child could obtain directly for himself by a reasonable amount of
searching, use of his own observation, experimentation, or reasoning;
and not to overload the child with a superfluity of unrelated
information. Certainly he should not be crammed with a mass of facts
in which he has no interest, much less those for which he has actual
distaste. There is danger that the book will come between the child
and the realities of life. Such instruction as is given should be in
response to a real hunger or interest. Education, the developing of
the self-activity of the child, should begin in the first few days of
life, and should be naturally fostered through the careful selection
of every factor in his environment as well as through consistent
cultivation adapted to his stage of development.

=The Biological Basis of Education.= Education is possible only
because the baby is born so helpless and plastic, with many
instincts, with the nervous system great in its possibilities but
incomplete in its development, and with few habits formed.

Every stimulus that comes to the child is carried by an incoming
(sensory or afferent) nerve to the brain, either directly or by
way of the spinal cord. The stimulus may come from an object, from
an organic sensation within the body, or from a thought. That
sensation or nerve impulse is carried to a nerve center in the
brain or the spinal cord, and there is transferred to some one of
the many outgoing (motor or efferent) nerves, which conveys the
impulse to some muscle, producing a muscular action. For example:
the rays of light from a shining, moving object are the stimulus
to the child’s eye, and the optic nerve carries this stimulus to
a center in the brain. The little baby must receive this stimulus
many times before he begins to interpret it. At a few weeks of
age he will simply stare, attempting to coördinate both eyes, or
later, to follow it with the movement of his eyes; later still, to
grasp for it with his hand. The optic nerve is here the sensory or
afferent nerve, bearing the sensation; the nerve to the eye muscle
or the hand is the efferent or motor nerve. This circuit is what is
meant by a sensory-motor coördination, also called by some authors
a neuro-muscular coördination, or the reflex arc. Many hundreds of
these coördinations are to be made in the course of each day.

The first time a specific sensation is conveyed to a center, it is
problematic which efferent or motor nerve will carry the outgoing
impulse, but the choice is of great significance, for a habit is
thereby begun. The second time the same sensation is conveyed, it
will be easier for the same outgoing path to be followed. Thus habits
are formed. Each repetition fixes it more firmly and makes more
difficult the forming of a new manner of reaction to that stimulus.

Every sensation and thought tends thus to express itself in action.
The little child is therefore especially susceptible to suggestion.
Inhibition is the intervention of a second thought or stimulus which
sends a counter impulse that prevents the action. If the expression
of the action is continually prevented, or if through weakness of
will or low vitality the expression is deferred, or not made, the
power to express may become weak, and the individual thus degenerate
into a mere dreamer. In extreme cases this becomes a condition known
as dementia praecox.

Nerves completely developed (and therefore efficient for functioning)
are covered by a sheath of tissue which may be compared to the
insulation cover of an electric wire. At birth, few, if any nerves
involved in voluntary action or thought are completely sheathed.
This process requires many years, some nerves becoming sheathed
earlier, others later. A regular evolutionary order is apparently
followed, those nerves that control the racially older sensations
or movements becoming sheathed and mature before the racially
younger. This is the biological basis of the stages of development,
and of the manifestations of different interests. It is useless,
often injurious, to attempt to train a muscle or an interest before
the nerves are ready. When they are ready, ample exercise must be
permitted; this is the nascent stage of that interest. If exercise is
now neglected, the golden opportunity for its education is passed.
For instance, there is a stage, from about ten months to six years,
when the special senses, as hearing, touch, sight are ripening. This
is the time for training in sense accuracy and discrimination. The
child’s spontaneous interests and activities furnish the best clue we
now have to this development of nascent interests and the time for
their exercise.

In the brain there are apparently special centers which receive the
sensations from any one part of the body and which send back to that
part the motor impulse. Thus there is a center for the arm, the hand,
the fingers, another for the ear, another for the eye. Language has
its special centers. This is the localization of functions in the
brain. At birth these centers are undeveloped. In a right-handed
child the language centers develop in the left hemisphere, and in
the left-handed child in the right hemisphere. Ambidexterity is
frequently found with stuttering and with low-grade mentality, and is
not considered advantageous to foster.

At birth, also, there is little or no development of association
fibers between the centers in the brain, or between related
centers in the brain and in the spinal cord. These centers and
the association fibers develop through attempted use, as the baby
receives stimuli from without and attempts to respond. As a matter of
experience, the child learns to associate the several qualities that
are found together in one object, as the taste, odor, color, “feel”,
shape, of a piece of bread. He also associates with an object his
emotional states at the time, as bread with the comfort of feeding, a
hot iron with the smart of pain, a ball with playful moods, a church
with awe or reverence, a thunderstorm with fear or confidence. These
early associations become ingrained and remain with him throughout
life or with great difficulty are supplanted; they form his
prejudices, his basis of morals and religion, his subconscious self.

The reference of a stimulus from a spinal nerve center to a brain
center, and its transference in the brain to a motor nerve, requires
thought. Thought is necessary for mental development, but it would
be very exhausting if every sensation had thus to be consciously
responded to. Nature is always working out short cuts. When a
response is uniformly through one motor nerve, and a sensation is
therefore uniformly followed by the same action, the stimulus,
instead of journeying to the brain, transfers to the efferent nerve
directly from the center in the spinal cord,—that is, the action
becomes automatic. Not only thought but time and nervous energy are
thereby economized.

The time required between stimulus and response is the reaction time.
In an individual of phlegmatic temperament the reaction time is
slow; in the active temperament it is quick, often impulsive. By a
tonic régime (involving cold baths, laxative diet, vigorous physical
exercise) the too phlegmatic may be developed into more alert
responsiveness. By a quieting, sedative physical régime (increased
sleep, rhythmic exercises, freedom from stress) the too active
temperament may be toned down. Other temperamental changes may be
developed, especially during infancy and early childhood, while the
nervous system is still plastic.

The nervous system needs the stimulus of environment for its
development. If the eyes of a normal baby were bandaged and his ears
stuffed with cotton, so he could receive neither sight nor sound
stimuli, and his arms and legs were kept bound tight so he could
not move, his mental development would be hindered. If too many or
too severe stimuli are presented, the nervous system is irritated,
confused, overworked, and development is retarded. The child himself
will select from a normal environment the stimuli that he needs.
Others should not be forced upon him.

Whatever stimulus is exerting the strongest impression will hold the
child’s attention and direct his emotions and action. If a child is
himself absorbed with some normal object or interest, it is tactless
to attempt to divert this to some imposed academic interest. If
he is in physical discomfort, it is a waste of time to attempt to
give him instruction until the discomfort is removed. On the other
hand, if a discomfort cannot be removed, or if the object of his
attention is morbid or unworthy, the supplying of a more attractive
counter-stimulus (as the telling of an absorbing story or the
observation of activities out of the window, or doing some other work
with his hands) is the natural and constructive method.

=The Psychological Basis of Education.= Self-activity is the natural
method of education. This is Froebel’s term. Rousseau called it
learning to do by doing; Dewey calls it education by development;
Montessori’s term is auto-education. Free play is the child’s
self-activity, when he chooses what he shall play, how, and with what
implements. Montessori calls this work, when it is doing something
useful or intellectually educative.

The chief guide in the child’s self-activity is his interest. In this
connection interest signifies not a passing whim or fancy but the
child’s needs, the inner urgings of his instincts, his nerves, and
muscles. Probably no one can know so well as the individual child
exactly what his needs and interests are at any given time. The best
the teacher can do is to know the typical interests of children at
the same stage of development, and then to supply an environment
that will provide stimulus and the most valuable means for exercise.
For instance, at the noise-loving stage, providing a great range of
instruments, suited to his muscular development, that will give
good qualities and range of sound, and accustom his ear to melodious
sounds.

Liberty, as Montessori means it, is freedom for self-activity. Her
meaning is often misinterpreted and distorted, as will be noted
from the following statement, quoted directly from her “Method”:
“The liberty of the child should have as its limit the collective
interest; as its form, what we universally consider good breeding.
We must, therefore, check in the child whatever offends or annoys
others, or whatever tends toward rough or ill-bred acts. But all the
rest,—every manifestation having a useful scope,—whatever it may
be, and under whatever form it expresses itself, must not only be
permitted, but must be observed by the teacher.... If any educational
act is to be efficacious, it will be only that which tends to help
toward the complete unfolding of this life. To be thus helpful it is
necessary rigorously to avoid the arrest of spontaneous movements and
the imposition of arbitrary tasks. It is, of course, understood that
here we do not speak of useless or dangerous acts, for these must be
suppressed, destroyed.”

The child’s life is a constant unity of physical-mental-spiritual,
of thinking-feeling-willing-living-doing. Only for purposes of
discussion should we attempt to separate these. In education there
is danger of overemphasizing some one, especially the thinking, of
neglecting the spiritual, the feeling and willing, and of ignoring
the doing, the motor expression of the thought.

In teaching anything new, build on what the child already knows or
is interested in or can do. Begin with simple processes and proceed
by gradual steps to the more complex and difficult. The child thinks
in concrete terms, therefore let his instruction and education be
chiefly in concrete terms, at least up to nine years. Let his
learning come through living experience, at first hand, so far as
possible. Especially avoid mere forms of words, without meaning and
appreciation. Cultivate initiative by following the child’s problems,
rather than by substituting your problems for his and thus leading
him to depend upon others for such initiative.

It is a great responsibility of early education to cultivate and
plant many centers of normal interest, both of thought and feelings.
The wider the range of the child’s normal interests and feelings, the
greater the scope of richness in his life. Intensive development of
interests has its period in youth and in later adolescence.

Any effort to force an interest is likely to result in a reaction
against the subject; an effort to force any motor activity, as
speech, walking, dancing, is likely to result in strain of muscles
and nerves, and ultimate retardation. Too early an intellectual
interest, of a bookish sort, needs careful watching, to see that it
does not result in overstrain and later mediocrity. Such a child,
especially of the nervous, slender type, may need to be diverted to
wholly motor and outdoor interests, for the sake of his future good.
Genius develops early, especially artistic genius, and needs much
physical life to maintain a balance. Mental precocity often is not
genius but a morbid development. Infant prodigies are not the ideal,
and it is a false ambition to attempt to produce one. The mental
powers should not atrophy, but they should be exercised in personal
exploration, experimentation, construction, getting acquainted with
the natural world, learning how to do motor work, and thinking
leisurely on the countless problems that present themselves to the
child’s own mind.

=Sensory and Motor Training.= These begin almost at birth and should
proceed much together. The sense of touch should be cultivated
by having a variety of shapes and sizes to handle from infancy;
sound by a variety of musical toys and agreeable noise-producing
implements; color and form by varieties of color in toys and fabrics.
Sense discrimination begins consciously in the second and third
year, and the child should then have graded series of sizes, shapes,
colors, and sounds, to compare, match, discriminate between, and
arrange in order. The child should learn to discriminate direction
of sound, to judge of distances and relative weights. Every possible
advantage should be taken of material about the house and in
everyday life; many simple games should be invented for testing
of sense discrimination and accuracy. Taste and smell deserve but
little attention. With a very sensitive child a limited amount of
sense-discrimination work should be done; with a phlegmatic child
much of such training may increase his sensitiveness. Sensation
should never be stimulated as an end in itself but as a means to
perception and action.

Opportunity for exercise, and the simple exercises given elsewhere,
are all the child needs for motor training during the first year.
During the second year he should be taught how to go up and down
stairs, to feed himself; and in the next year to dress himself, the
fastenings of clothing being in front or on the shoulder, and the
apparatus adapted to his fingers, using snappers or buttons that he
can manage. By teaching rhythm, as elsewhere directed, marching and
skipping can be done as soon as the necessary muscles and nerves are
sufficiently developed. Swimming can be learned at about four years.
Muscles of trunk, limbs, and hands (the fundamental muscles) should
be trained early; the accessory muscles—fingers, eyes—are not ready
for fine adjustments and training until about seven years. Space and
apparatus are the chief needs in motor education, with occasional
help in technique.

=Language.= After the babblings of the first year, with their
natural voice gymnastics, language becomes a matter of observation
and imitation. Provide all through childhood accurate examples of
articulation, grammar, and accent. The first impressions and speech
habits are relatively fixed. “Baby talk” to the child, as incorrect
articulation and pronunciation, may retard normal speech a year or
more, and give incorrect words that will be a cause of embarrassment
and cost great effort to eradicate later. At one year the vocabulary
will include about four words. The child who hears a wide range of
vocabulary and who has his share of stories, will naturally acquire
a vocabulary of several hundred words in the second year and about
a thousand in each succeeding year. Sentence formation begins in
the second year and should be cultivated in the third. Sounds
incorrectly given by four years should receive special attention
through brief imitation games, or have the attention of a specialist.
The simplest rudiments of grammar may be given in youth, but correct
grammatical speech is chiefly a matter of good examples in childhood.
A large store of good adjectives and exclamations will be the
surest preventive of slang. It is considered wiser to wait until
about five years, when the child has mastered the accent, practical
grammar, idioms and feeling for his native tongue, before cultivating
intensive acquaintance with a foreign language. Such additional
language teaching should, of course, be by conversation, songs,
stories, games, following as closely as possible the natural method
of learning the mother tongue. A few conversational phrases from
a number of different languages will broaden the child’s horizon.
They should be given by some one who speaks the language with native
accent.

Reading and writing are further use of language through symbols. They
are slower forms of expression than speech, and their acquisition at
too early an age impedes the freedom of thought and may retard the
natural growth of thought and language powers. The eyes and fingers
are not ready for fine work until about eight years of age. The child
needs the outdoor life and first-hand experiences. As a matter of
general observation, normal children with a natural environment,
who do not enter the traditional school until about nine years, are
able to proceed with children of their own age who have spent three
years in school. The former children pick up reading at home, and
have acquired the physical development, power of initiative, and
expression, which enable them to cope fully as well as, if not better
than the earlier entering children, with the problems of the school
curriculum and of life.

=Attention.= This is chiefly voluntary during the first six years.
The child is capable of intense and long voluntary concentration.
Avoid, so far as practicable, interrupting the baby’s staring or
the child’s absorption in his play. The power of concentration thus
developed will remain to be utilized with any interest. For necessary
situations later, instead of attempting to force involuntary
attention in an uninteresting problem, the more pedagogical way is
to find the phase of interest in the problem; then concentration
will follow automatically. To divert attention, provide some more
absorbing interest. The child whose attention is absorbed should
be spoken to only when his attention is required. From babyhood he
should be trained to look directly at the person who is speaking to
him, to obey the first time spoken to, and to follow a direction or
command promptly without its repetition.

=Observation.= Children naturally observe action and striking or
unusual characteristics. The range of objects and qualities they
observe may be greatly increased by suggestion and by increasing
their range of interests. Definiteness and accuracy of observation
are increased by drawing, painting, modeling, and by any creative
work, whether making a wagon or telling a story, particularly after
six years of age. Alertness of observation is increased by games
requiring quick action for defense, protection, or to win a point,
as in “Drop the Handkerchief.” Observation of a larger number of
details, as well as quickness and accuracy, are increased by asking
for a description of persons or objects, of articles in a store
window or on a table, or the imitation of a complex movement or
series of movements seen only once.

=Memory.= Vividness of impression, variety of associations, and
repetition are the factors in memorizing. The object or incident
therefore must be clearly defined and must have the child’s full
attention. Fewer repetitions will then be required. Obviously
the child’s interest is a chief factor in attention. Energy is
therefore economized by presenting data for memorizing when the
child is interested and consequently ready for it. This applies very
practically to formulæ, such as the alphabet, new words, mathematical
tables. Rhythm and rhyme are easily memorized in childhood, and
valuable facts put in this form will be retained longer. Such verbal
memory is especially strong from two to seven years. This period
should be utilized for teaching great thoughts, in poems and songs,
especially those with emotional value, great songs and stories,
chiefly in terms the child understands. The facts will be forgotten,
but the emotions and ideals will remain with him through life. The
period from nine to twelve is the time for much rote learning.

The greater the number of senses on which an impression is made, the
greater will be the number of associations, and the more tenacious
the memory of an object or incident. Different senses vary in the
degree of retentiveness. Things heard about are forgotten soonest;
things seen are remembered longer; things repeated or actions done
remain longest in memory. A few repetitions on successive days are
more effective than many repetitions on one day. Repeat as wholes, in
units of stanzas or paragraphs, instead of lines or phrases.

=Imagination.= Develop vividness and wide range through exercise.
In stories, put in colors and sounds. Ask questions about a story,
to bring clear pictures of details. Encourage drawing, painting,
and modeling of illustrations, and the dramatizing of stories. This
is better training of imagination than to have stories already
illustrated. Fanciful imagination is poetic, and some types of
children are lacking in this. The child should be trained not only
in visual, but also in auditory and motor imagery. Creation, whether
of a story, song, building, picture, or game, requires and therefore
trains imagination. Emotional imagination can be trained in part
through dramatic play, in part through story-telling with this
purpose. To be able to put one’s self in another’s place is a basis
for sympathy, justice, and altruism. Between three and six years,
when imagery is vivid and exact knowledge of the world is limited,
many marvelous tales are told, with no intention of deception. This
is normal and to be treated as fiction, in dealing with the child.
Care should be taken that it does not develop into intentional
deception for self-protection or vanity.

=Reasoning.= A regular and consistent régime is an early training in
reasoning by association. Irregular or inconsistent régime brings
confusion of thought. At five or six years of age, reason can be
exercised by the allowing of choice, in situations where the child
has some basis for passing judgment. Catering to the child’s choice
in food or clothing, on the other hand, tends to develop whimsicality
and dissatisfaction; asking him what he would like, or if he wouldn’t
like, in any phase of his régime or play, has the same unfortunate
result. If his choice is to be served, ask him directly to choose,
and thereby let him use his own initiative in thought. Experimenting,
taking things apart, are natural exercises in analysis, and therefore
to be given widest possible opportunity. Building and constructing
require synthetic reasoning, and finding the reasons for failures.
Classifying of collections is an exercise in reasoning. The brain
centers of abstract thought and reasoning are not developed until the
adolescent period. Frequent exercises in judging what would be the
best thing to do, or the best way to do, should be made a training in
practical judgment in later childhood and youth.

=Moral.= Precepts and laws can be taught through stories, proverbs,
and authoritative quotations. The child needs some of these, as
a part of worldly wisdom. Much of this should be given during
childhood. Every story and situation should be analyzed to see what
will be its effect on the moral standards of the child. Moral action,
however, further requires the training of the emotions, which are
the springs of action, and the will, which holds emotions within the
dictates of reason. The child’s moral ideals will be gathered more
from the character he sees about him, and the stories told him, than
from precepts. Good examples and daily practice are the chief methods
of teaching morals and developing strong character. Respect for
property and law can be taught by providing the child with property
of his own, and regulating his life by an orderly régime. The care of
his own property and responsibility for its orderliness will augment
this.

Social virtues should be inculcated from infancy. The baby’s cry for
attention is a deep-seated individualism. If encouraged, it makes
later altruism more difficult. Self-reliance and self-dependence,
for physical care and for amusement, should be systematically
developed, instead of constant care, waiting upon, and amusement
from others. Thoughtfulness for others can begin when the baby
bites and slaps, though in play, by showing him how it feels; in the
little child, by encouraging him to make little gifts or surprises
as daily events. Courtesy, kindly criticism, loyalty to friends,
freedom from gossip, he will learn by imitation of those about him.
For training in generosity, he needs two or three other children
about his own age, from the time he is three years old. Quarreling,
which is an effort toward social adjustment, is to be expected
throughout childhood, and many quarrels should be ignored, left to
the children’s sense of fairness and generosity to adjust. Tattling,
bullying, and resentful criticism should be shown in their own ugly
light and thus discouraged. Group games, which the children naturally
begin to play at six years, are a good schooling in the practice
of justice, fairness, and social coöperation. Civic responsibility
should be cultivated from early childhood by the practice of things
that the children can do, such as keeping the sidewalks clear of
litter instead of scattering that about. Patriotism should be taught
chiefly as a responsibility, rather than a form of excitement or
vanity. International sympathy can be cultivated through sympathetic
acquaintance with children of other countries, through pictures and
stories, dramatizing of their ways, through personal acquaintance,
either directly or by correspondence. The roots of international
peace, or of strife and militarism, are planted in the nursery.

[Illustration: Learning Self-Reliance and Regularity.

At the School of Mothercraft Summer Camp.]

Emotions need training in expression, control, depth, and
genuineness. Submission and easy contentment are not a virtue in
childhood but a weakness. In a strong character, emotions are strong,
and their expression strong, but needing guidance and poise. Any
emotion,—for instance, love of country, of friends or parents,—should
not be permitted to stop merely with the pleasurable sensation of
excitement and emotional glow, but the child’s attention should
be called directly and also by stories to the necessity for putting
a generous emotion into active expression, by doing some helpful
deed, or by carrying responsibility. This is the completion of the
reflex arc. Tantrums and temper should be prevented whenever possible
by forewarning the child, for instance, that play must end when the
next block house has been finished. The new adjustment of emotions
and expectations is slower in the child than in the adult, and
needs forewarning. Some children develop an unpleasant forwardness
or gushing, the former an overdeveloped individualism, the latter
a childish sensualism, both superficial. Meeting these with
indifference and inattention will usually reduce them automatically.
The child of very intense or poorly controlled emotions needs
careful attention in a regular, outdoor physical régime, the daily
nap, rhythmic exercises and games which train in relaxation, and
constant examples of even-tempered, well-poised character. The fear
that commonly develops in the third or fourth year may be somewhat
forestalled by teaching confidence through walking in the dark,
acquaintance with living creatures, trust in a kindly Providence.
Many stories of bravery should be told in the fearsome period, and
poetry or verses taught that inspire courage and confidence. Fearsome
stories are a crime against childhood, although later childhood and
youth may thrive upon them. Control of emotions is gained in part
through determination of will, in part through change of attention;
the latter is the more natural and pedagogical method. Sense of humor
should be cultivated for its moral value in relieving tension and
carrying the individual through emotional stress, as well as for
giving a clearer view of comparative values.

Will-training includes exercise of free choice in matters not of mere
taste or whim but of reasoning and moral choice; and of continued
effort against the call of inclination. Stubbornness is a refusal
to yield, notwithstanding the evident reasonableness or the greater
moral value, and is evidence of a weak will. It is now recognized
as immoral to attempt to “break a child’s will”, compelling him
to yield without attempting to show him the reasonableness. The
burden of reasoning and moral choices in daily life should be placed
upon the child as rapidly as he is able to exercise this wisely
and with firmness, and he should be praised for his good will and
shown the weakness of failure. Confidence expressed in his good
will, especially when he is on his own honor, will strengthen this
ability. Training in control of appetite for food, by regularity of
meals, no eating between meals (especially of sweetmeats when on
pleasure trips), the waiting at meals for the saying of grace and the
serving of others, all strengthen the will for greater demands upon
it in later years. Development of concentration in play and games
is a training of will-power. Special exercises in motor balance and
equilibrium, in endurance, in self-denial, can be devised as further
will-training.

=Eugenics and Sex Education.= This is an education in social ideals
and relations. Consideration for the child’s own future children
is an instinctive ideal that can be naturally fostered in early
childhood, and thereafter accepted as matter of course. Modesty,
self-respect, respect for his or her own person, needs to be
cultivated from infancy, in all the details of physical care and
régime. As childhood develops into youth, the expression of affection
needs to be increasingly circuited into thoughtful deeds of service,
and away from mere direct sense pleasure and expression. Social
relations between boys and girls at all ages should be treated
sensibly, without silliness, emphasis of class distinctions, or
morbidness. In both boys and girls should be cultivated a spirit of
reserve, of chivalry and helpfulness. With youth, this may naturally
be based on the ideal (which needs the merest suggestion) of worthy
preparation for the future home, and the treating of other boys and
girls as the child would have his or her future mate meantime treated
by others. The significance of real monogamic marriage should be made
clear, in its greater confidence and happiness between parents, and
especially in the better care and training of the children. The child
needs to be provided with inhibiting and controlling ideals before
the stress of adolescence.

The child’s natural biological questions, which begin about
three years, should be answered naturally, both poetically and
scientifically. Through the study of plants, gardening, the care of
birds and pets, enough of the principles of heredity, anatomy, and
physiology should be given the child before seven years to satisfy
his curiosity, to give him a scientific attitude toward reproduction
before the development of sex-consciousness, and to enable him to
classify the development of a new generation among the natural
processes of nature, instead of overemphasizing and distorting its
perspective. Emphasis should be placed upon the care of the young
and forethought for their protection, rather than upon organs and
processes. Scientific knowledge of biology gives necessary clearness
of thought, but only training of emotions and will are effective for
assuring conduct.

=Economics.= Thrift is taught by the toy bank, by the orderly care
and repair of toys and clothing, the orderly saving of possibly
useful odds and ends; in early childhood by a weekly allowance,
even of a few pennies, with freedom in use, and with occasional
discussions of what might be obtained with a stated sum. Promptness,
accuracy, and thoroughness in obeying or in performing the tasks
assigned in childhood, are preparation for industrial efficiency. In
early childhood action is necessarily slower and movement awkward
because of incomplete motor development. In later childhood a vision
of engineering efficiency, a habit of working for reduction of time
and energy cost, can be developed through competitions, direct
reduction games or problems, discussions of the value of time and
energy and of simple, fundamental ways for economizing. Through
tracing the source of his own food and clothing, as well as through
his own manual efforts, can be fostered respect for all labor and the
ambition to work efficiently. Respect and appreciation for workers,
especially those who serve his needs in the household, are developed
chiefly through example of his elders.

=Obedience.= Commands and prohibitions should be the fewest
necessary and chosen carefully. Given as a request or suggestion
rather than a direct command, the form carries a sense of courtesy
that develops sympathy, self-respect and more ready, whole-hearted
compliance. Commands, when necessity requires, then have greater
force. Any request or command should be given distinctly, definitely,
kindly, firmly, with the requirement of the full attention of the
child and complete, prompt obedience. Repetition of a command
fosters inattention and disrespect for authority. Indifference to
disobedience, yielding to teasing, permitting petty arguing, all
foster evasion, falsehood, carelessness, disrespect for authority.
Unnecessary, unreasonable, or inconsiderate commands develop
contrariness, stubbornness, contempt, and weaken the child’s
sympathy and comradeship. Inconsistency in commands, discipline,
or punishment, or dogmatic stubbornness that will not consider the
possibility of a change in the command or allow any discussion,
brings contempt. Use positive, affirmative suggestions, telling the
child what to do. Studiously avoid negative discipline, prohibitions,
don’ts.

=Discipline.= The purpose of discipline should not be revenge or a
cultivation of humiliation, or breaking the will of the child. It
should be devised to lead the child to prefer the right; to think
before he acts instead of acting merely upon impulse; to exercise his
will-power and courage in obeying his conscience instead of following
the line of least resistance by yielding to his whim, his appetites,
or even to his instincts out of due season. Therefore a rational,
consistent discipline must be well thought out for different
typical situations before these arise, that it may be administered
wisely, not impetuously or in anger. It must be just, firm, kindly,
foresighted. As nearly as circumstances will permit, the child
should learn through his personal experience and observation
the consequences of action; and punishment should be, as far as
practicable, a natural consequence of the act. Artificial rewards,
especially in the form of material things as money, toys, candy, are
demoralizing, developing a spirit of graft and discontent, dulling
the moral and spiritual sense, and having the effects common to any
artificial stimulants. Nagging, scolding, threats of punishment
without its execution, cultivate a disrespect for all law and
authority, as well as for the person thus weakly failing to exercise
poise and authority. There is also a type of sentiment that easily
becomes sentimentality, which is no less repugnant to the child.
Cultivate the child’s self-respect, self-confidence and ambition.
Avoid calling him bad or naughty.

Discipline should be adapted to the child’s temperament, to his
stage of development, and to the particular offense. A sensitive,
high-strung, imaginative child must be dealt with gently though
firmly, with special care that his self-respect, his confiding, his
expressiveness are not weakened. A sturdy, matter-of-fact, phlegmatic
realist usually needs more concrete, vigorous, physical form of
punishment to make him perceive the significance of events. The
stubborn child may be benefited most by being given opportunity to
prescribe his own punishment.

=Some Natural Consequences as Punishments.= Quarreling,
disagreeableness, selfishness: being removed from play with other
children. Temper: put quietly to bed, or left alone, or placed in
bed with a cold cloth on the head; with some children, spanking,
calmly administered. Biting, slapping or other personal injury: doing
same to the offender, to demonstrate how it hurts. Impudence, vulgar
words: mouth washed with soap and clean cloth. Lack of promptness:
loss of consequent pleasure. Neglect in care of toys: temporary
deprivation of toys. Careless work: repetition until satisfactory.
Wanton injury of property: work, or giving of some valued personal
property to pay for loss. Disobedience: putting to bed; deprivation
of consequent pleasure.

Reprehensible and unnatural forms of punishment include putting child
into dark closet; striking on head or hands; punishing in presence
of others; social humiliation or other needless mental suffering;
depriving of a meal (although bread and water may be substituted).
Punishing without definite cause, or if the justice is not clear to
the child, is immoral. Punishment should never be administered in
anger but calmly, firmly, with a spirit of regret but inevitableness.

To be effective, punishment should follow promptly on the misdeed.
Bedtime should not be a time for scolding or discussion of faults
but of happiness and inculcating of ideals. To maintain due respect
and sympathy for father, as well as for the mother’s own self and
authority, there should be no threats of telling father of misdeeds,
or leaving punishment for him to administer.

The problem of discipline is reduced to a minimum when children
have a regular, healthful physical régime and diet, freedom
from unnatural excitement, abundant play space and material,
consistent moral training from infancy. Many little pranks and minor
misdemeanors should be overlooked. When, however, the child has
committed a serious wrong, or when one form of misdemeanor (as lack
of promptness) is becoming frequent, or when the child has evidently
done something which he knows to be wrong, discipline should be
prompt and definite.

=Habits.= Habits are formed by repetition of the same action, in
the same way. The first time the response is made it makes a deep
impression on the nervous system, and change from the first doing
is most difficult. Every exception allowed or permitted causes a
hesitation or doubt that delays complete formation of the habit.
To prevent the formation of a habit, prevent the first doing. The
first time not only establishes a path in the nervous system; it
establishes a mental attitude of familiarity and ease with the
action and its environment. To break a habit, break it off abruptly
and completely. Every time the action is done, it is harder not to
repeat it; if it is a moral problem the moral fiber is weakened by
each yielding against conscience. A complete change of environment,
calling for a new adjustment of action, is the greatest help in
breaking an old habit. Some constructive outlet for the energy should
be provided. The child’s sense of humor or disgust are moral avenues
of appeal in the formation of habits.

Habits of mental activity, of method of work, of attitude toward life
and people, of moral action, as well as of motor action, are being
formed from birth. Life is conserved by training in good habits from
the start.

=Religious.= No phase of education is more important. Religion
is a matter primarily of emotions and conduct, rather than of
philosophical thought. Little children are religious, but their
religion is naturally very different from that of the adult; they
have much religious feeling and thought, but little respect for
ecclesiasticism, creeds, rites, which mean nothing to them. The
child’s ideas of God are concrete, personal, related to himself, as
is all his thinking. He naturally thinks of every object as being
like himself, having power to think, feel, and do; therefore he is
easily a nature-worshipper. Training of the religious feelings can
begin in infancy, in the development of sympathy between parents
and child, in confidence and trust in his parents (who represent
Providence to him), in gratitude for their care, in obedience and
respect for their authority, and in wonder and awe for natural
phenomena. The child from four to nine years of age responds readily
to examples and suggestion of reverence.

Training in the performance of religious rites, such as the saying
of grace before meals, prayers, attendance at religious services,
participating in religious worship, are motor habits readily acquired
at about the same age, which then remain as lifelong tendencies.
If neglected in this period, they are less likely to be formed
later. Even the motor attitudes of worship bring some feeling of
reverence and worship. Religious worship, however, is not to be
forced. To compel a child to say a prayer or participate in any form
of religious worship against his inclination will foster a revolt
against all religion. When religious worship is a natural and sincere
part of the family life, the child will naturally ask for a prayer to
say, or for the privilege of attending a service, when this interest
is ready for exercise. To allow a child to rattle off a prayer, or
say it inattentively, flippantly, or to show off, or to permit him to
treat any sacred place, objects, or rites flippantly, is to foster
irreverence and weaken the religious sense. Service to God, to an
ideal, to people, as an integral part of religion, is an association
that is not instinctive, but one that the child needs to be taught
by example, precept, and training.

The child’s natural questions about the cause of natural phenomena,
the purposes and meaning of life, the possibility and nature of death
and immortality, the nature of God, provide opportunity in due season
for the parent to answer these according to his own conscience. The
child demands definite, positive answers, and has absolute confidence
in the omniscience of the person who answers his questions. How to
answer these so as to give the child a constructive basis for thought
and action, and yet not to be so dogmatic that he will revolt when
the questioning years of adolescence arrive, is a problem requiring
tact and careful preparation.

Stories from Bible history, acquaintance with the geography, customs,
individuals of the Bible, are of religious value because they develop
centers of interest and a personal acquaintance with the Bible, the
textbook of western religion, thus making it a living book which he
will naturally read for its moral and religious content. Many Bible
verses and hymns should be taught during childhood and youth. These
should be very carefully selected to have some interest and content
of meaning for the child at his given stage of development, although
the depths of their meaning he can only appreciate after more life
experience. There may be real danger of giving too early such
significant quotations as The Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments,
the Beatitudes, so that the words are memorized but the child never
receives the impress of their full significance. Somewhere between
six and twelve years they are probably most appreciated. Doctor
Hall considers that to teach the child that there is a power which
makes for righteousness at the helm of the universe, and that
therefore right and wrong eventually have their own deserts, is
one of the most valuable factors in moral training. Certainly the
stimulus of religious inspiration, the inhibiting power of religious
commandments, motives, and ideals, the fortifying of will-power by
religious discipline and sources of strength, are foundations for
strong, efficient, well-poised living.

Education, like Christianity, is a spiritual process with physical
forms of expression. Just as church rites, ceremonies, and equipment
are meaningless and wooden without the inner life, so are educational
“systems”, rules, and apparatus, without the spiritual vision and
understanding of education. There is no virtue, for instance, in
Froebel’s gifts or Montessori’s didactic material, or any other
mechanical devices, merely as apparatus. The mechanical bringing
together of the child and the apparatus, without skill or knowledge
in their interpretation, is not educational; and such irrational
though well-intentioned effort is unfair both to the child and to the
inventor. No less unfair and superficial is the seizing upon some one
principle and emphasizing it out of proportion to other principles;
or misinterpreting, through lack of careful study, the significance
of some principle, or the author’s intent, as is so often done, for
example, with Froebel’s statement of play, Dewey’s statement of
interest, or Montessori’s statement of liberty.

The preparation of the child’s educators must begin many years before
his birth, that they may be ready to meet this responsibility as soon
as it comes. An adequate preparation should include: (1) careful
study of the principles and purposes of education, that these may be
discerned clearly and applied with consistency and discretion; (2)
long schooling in habits which will fit them to be worthy examples
in character, in social and mental traits, in tastes and languages;
(3) some experience with little children in daily life, in order to
learn to interpret and sympathize with child nature, to acquire some
facility in their education and discipline, and to collect some fund
of nursery lore.


FOOTNOTES:

[25] See Preface, page xiii.

[26] Literally “to put into” from the Latin _in_ and _struo_.

[27] Literally “to lead out of” from the Latin _e_ and _duco_.




CHAPTER XI

STUDYING THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD

  “Would you know how to lead the child? See and observe the child;
  he will teach you what to do.”

  —F. FROEBEL.

  “The ideal which has animated all my own feeble educational
  endeavor, and without which I should be without hope in the world
  of pedagogy, is the reconstruction of education based not so much
  on existing conditions in society as on child-nature. It is one
  thing to fit the child for a preëxisting social condition, and
  a very different thing to develop all his own latent powers to
  their uttermost and trust to their development for all future
  reforms. Holding, then, as I do, that childhood has in it
  indefinite possibilities that are some realized, some repressed
  or crippled, nipped in the bud in a way for which home, school,
  and church must share responsibility, and that if every spring of
  possible knowledge and power were touched, even by the lightest
  suggestion at its nascent psychological hour, we should in a few
  generations develop a superior race of men, we have in this faith
  in the possibilities of childhood and youth the most central and
  impregnable of all the fortresses of optimism.”

  —G. STANLEY HALL.


=How to Study a Child.= A complete study of the child includes his
physical and psychological characteristics, personality, gifts,
deficiencies, his heredity, environment, training. In studying a
child it is of first importance to avoid carefully any stirring
of his self-consciousness, which might lead to either morbidness,
introspection, priggishness, or vanity. The necessary physical
measurements should be made as naturally and impersonally as
possible, without discussion. The physical inspections should
be made incidentally, during the processes of the daily life,
without comment. Recording, except of measurements, should be
done without attracting the attention of the child,—preferably
not in his presence, and filed without his knowledge. The child’s
traits or characteristics should not be discussed in his presence.
Psychological characteristics can best be studied under natural,
usual conditions:

  (1) in the child’s play: what he plays; how he plays
  (2) his stories: what he prefers or tells
  (3) his handiwork, especially his drawing
  (4) what he observes
  (5) his questions

=A Score Card for Home Use.= The following score card has been
especially prepared to meet the practical needs of the untrained
layman and amateur in the intelligent observation and better
understanding of normal young children. It does not attempt to
include marked abnormalities. It is merely preliminary to a more
detailed and scientific analysis by the specialist. Such a general
score card is necessarily applicable only for certain ages. The
following outline does not attempt to cover special development
beyond ten years of age.

=Physical Measurements and Inspection.= During the first year the
weight should be taken weekly, at the same hour, in order to bear
the same relation to feeding, bath, elimination; other physical
measurements and inspections should be recorded at least quarterly.
In the succeeding years records should be made at least semi-annually
and preferably quarterly. The person in charge of young children
should observe daily the physical conditions, and be able to detect
at once the special danger signals, or deviations from the normal.

Any person careful in details and accuracy can make these
measurements and inspections, at least as preliminary to the
specialist. Detailed directions are given in Pamphlet V, American
Medical Association Press, and in “The Health Index of Children”
(Hoag). For ordinary household use, the apparatus required includes
a new, firm tape measure, yardstick, accurate beam scales, and cards
for testing vision. For school or institutional work it is desirable
to have also calipers, laboratory apparatus for taking heights,
instruments for taking blood pressure, and a dynamometer for testing
strength of muscles. Economic and social conditions, differences of
race and heredity, will cause considerable variation among children
of the same age.

=Psychological Analysis.= No generally accepted standards or tests
have yet been devised for measuring psychological development. The
standards developed by Binet and Simon for mental ability as one
phase of psychological age, have been widely tested in this country
but have not proven wholly satisfactory. American revisions are now
being worked out. The outline here given does not provide standards
for measurement, but depends entirely upon the judgment of the
person making the analysis. During the first year a chronological
record can profitably be kept of the psychological development,
noting particularly each gain in motor control, every indication
of increasing recognition of sense impressions, the development of
speech.

Standards of normal and average conditions and development can be
learned by:

(1) observations of numbers of children of the same age.

(2) the study of published tables of measurements.

(3) published records, studies, and stories of children.

The Tables of Indications and Summaries have been added to assist
in gaining a clear picture of the child’s condition and the factors
calling for special constructive measures, elimination, treatment,
improvement, or development.


Physical Measurements[28]

  Name ———————— Age: Years —— Months —— Weeks ——
  Height standing[29]—— In. ——— Under Average ——— Over
  Height sitting ———— In. ——— Under Average ——— Over
  Weight ————— Lb. ——— Oz. ——— Under Average ——— Over
  Circumferences: Head —— Chest ——— Abdomen ———
  Diameter of Chest: Anterior-posterior ——— Lateral ———
  Chest Expansion—————— Lengths: Arm ——— Leg ———


Physical Inspections

  General Appearance:       Robust                   Anemic
                            Vigorous                 Languid
  Posture, standing: (2)    Erect                    Stooping
                                                     Chest sunken
                                                     Head forward
                                                     Abdomen forward
  Posture, sitting: (1)     Erect                    Chest sunken
                                                     Back curved
                            On hips                  On curve of spine
  Gait: (4)                 Normal                   Waddling
                            Elastic                  Heavy
                            Toe forward              Toe in
                            Toe slightly outward     Toe outward
  Head:                     Shape normal             Box shaped
                                                     Not symmetrical
                            Fontanel closed          Fontanel not closed
                                                       (after 18 months)
  Hair:                     Color                    Scant
                            Abundant                 Rough
                            Even                     Brittle
                            Fine
                            Coarse
  Scalp:                    Clear                    Scurf
                            Pink                     Dandruff
                                                     Eruptions
                                                     Vermin

Figures at right in parentheses indicate age at which observation may
normally or profitably begin, if not applicable during first year.

  Features:        Regular                    Unsymmetrical
  Eyes:[30]        Color
                   Clear                      Muddy
                   Sparkling                  Dull
                   Intelligent                Staring
                   Normal                     Crossed
                                              Protruding
                                              Squint
                   Good condition             Inflamed
                                              Watery
                                              Discharge
                                              Frown
                                              Work held near
                                              Farsighted
                                              Nearsighted
                                              Headaches
  Eyelids:         Normal                     Swollen
                                              Inflamed
                                              Sore
                                              Discharge
                                              Styes
                                              Granulated
                                              Drooping
  Nose:            Large                      Small
                                              Pinched
                   Bridge normal              Bridge sunken (normal
                                                during first year)
                                              Discharge
                                              Obstructions, _e.g._
                                                adenoids
                                              Snuffles
  Mouth:           Well-shaped                Ugly shape
                   Large                      Held open
                   Small                      Deformed by pacifiers
                                                or thumb sucking
                                              Breathes through mouth
                                              Canker sores
                   Breath sweet               Offensive
  Tongue:          Clear                      Coated
                   Normal                     Protruding
                                              Swollen
                                              Tied
  Teeth:           Number                     Delayed first teeth
                                              Delayed second teeth
                                              Prolonged retention
                                                first teeth
                                              Extra teeth
                   Regular                    Irregular
                                              Projecting
                   Good condition             Discolored
                                              Tartar deposits
                                              Decayed
  Gums:            Healthy                    Pale
                                              Bleeding
                                              Spongy
                                              Swollen
                                              Receding
  Throat:          Clear                      Swollen
                                              Enlarged tonsils
                   Strong                     Subject to sore throat
                                              Coughs
  Lips:            Full                       Thin
                                              Swollen
                   Ruddy                      Pale
                   Good condition             Sore
                                              Chapped
                                              Fissured
  Chin: (2)        Normal                     Receding
                                              Projecting
                   Firm                       Weak
  Jaw: (2)         Firm                       Weak
                                              Strong
  Ears:            Large                      Small
                                              Projecting
                   Normal                     Misshaped
                   Good condition             Sore behind ears
                                              Discharge
                                              Earache
                   Hearing normal             Defective
  Neck:            Normal size                Small
                                              Swollen glands
                                              Scars
  Skin:            Free from blemishes        Rough
                                              Scaly
                                              Pimples
                                              Eczema (where located)
                                              Ringworm
                   Clear                      Muddy
                   Ruddy                      Pale
                                              Tanned
                                              Freckled
                   Firm                       Soft
                                              Puffiness under eyes
  Muscles:         Firm (½)                   Flabby
                   Well developed (1)         Weak
                   Especially
                     Back
                     Trunk
                     Grip
                     Leg
                   Complementary pairs        Unequal in balance
                     balanced (1)
                     Back and chest
                     Right and left of trunk
                     Right and left of neck
                     Right and left of back
  Back:            Straight                   Curvature; anterior-
                                                posterior
                                              Curvature; lateral, to right
                                              Curvature; lateral, to left
  Shoulders:        Erect                     Stooped
                    Square                    Sloping
                    Equal                     Unequal (which lower)
                    Blades flat               Projecting
  Chest:            Expanded                  Sunken
                    Deep                      Flat
                                              Shallow
                                              Barrel-shaped (after 1
                                                year)
                                              Funnel-shape (breast
                                                bone sunken)
                                              Pigeon-breast (breast
                                                bone prominent)
                   Symmetrical                Unsymmetrical
                                              Beaded ribs
                   Good expansion (3)         Poor expansion
  Abdomen:         Firm                       Flabby
                                              Hard
                   Normal                     Distention
                                              Rupture at navel
                                              Inflammation at navel
                                              Rupture at groin
  Arms and Hands:  Equal length               Unsymmetrical
                   Normal                     Enlarged Joints
                                              Clubbed fingers
                                              Ambidextrous
                   Right-handed (1)           Nails discolored
                   Left-handed                Nail defects
  Legs:            Equal length               Unequal
                   Straight                   Bowed
                                              Knock-knee
                                              Enlarged joints
                   Ankles strong              Weak
  Feet:            Arch normal                Flat foot (1½)
                   Stands squarely (2)        Shoes run over:
                                                outer edge
                                                inner edge
                                                heels
                   Well shaped                Toes pinched
                                              Swollen
                   Unblemished                Callouses
                                              Corns
                                              Bunions
                                              Defective nails
                                              Excessive perspiration
                                              Chafed toes
  Genitalia:       Normal                     Inflamed
                                              Discharge
                                              Protruding of rectum
                                              Itching
                                              Buttocks chafed
  Nerves:          Steady                     Explosive
                                              Dull
                                              Fears: (specify objects)
                                              Irritable
                                              Restless
                   Endurance                  Easily fatigued
                   Normal                     General misbehavior
                                              Tantrums, hysteria
                                              Malicious destruction
                                              Bed-wetting
                                              Nail-biting
                                              Masturbation
                                              Headaches
                                              Convulsions
  Motor
  Coördinations:   Steady (for age)           Retarded
                   Sits alone (½)             Stumbling (3)
                   Creeps (9 mo.)             Dropping things (3)
                   Stands (1 year)            Speech defects (3)
                   Walks alone (1½)           Spasmodic movements
                   Controls eliminations      Twitching of eyes,
                     Urine (1)                face, muscles
                     Feces (2)                Chorea (St. Vitus’
                   Holds own cup (1)            Dance)
                   Holds own spoon (1)          Paralysis
                   Runs (2)                     (what muscles)
                   Marches (3)
                   Claps to rhythm (3)
                   Feeds self neatly (3)
                   Dresses self (3)
                   Skips (4)
                   Uses scissors (5)
                   Normal                     Other abnormalities
  Nutrition:       Appetite good              Poor
                                              Hungry between meals
                                              Gluttonous
                   Simple food relished       Overfastidious
                                              Abnormal appetites,
                                                _e.g._, dirt, chalk
                   Good digestion             Colic
                                              Regurgitation,
                                                eructations
                                              Gas in stomach
                                              Intestinal gas
                                              Nausea
  Elimination:     Urine: Clear               Cloudy
                     Straw color              Dark
                                              Bloody
                     Odor slight              Strong
                     Painless                 Painful
                                              Irritating
                     Normal quantity          Scant
                                              Excessive
                                              Retained
                   Stools: Smooth (infancy)
                     Well-formed              Watery
                     Mustard color (infancy)  Green
                                              Black
                                              Bloody
                                              Undigested curds
                     Slight mucus             Much mucus
                     Odor slight              Strong, offensive
                     1 to 3 passages daily    Constipation
                                                (less than 1)
                                              Diarrhea
                   Perspiration:
                     Slight                   Excessive: head, under
                                                 arms, cold sweats
                     Odor slight              Sour
  Sleep:           Quiet                      Restless
                   Sound                      Wakes easily
                                              Dreams
                   No. hours                  Nightmares
                   Nap                        No nap
                   Sufficient for age         Insufficient
  Respiration:     Deep                       Shallow
                   Diaphragmatic              Chest
                                              Mouth breather
                   Regular                    Irregular
                   Normal count               Rapid
                                              Slow
  Pulse:           Regular                    Irregular
                   Firm                       Weak
                   Normal count               Rapid
                                              Slow
  Circulation:     Efficient                  Sluggish
                                              Cold hands
                                              Cold feet
  Temperature:     Normal                     Irregular
                                              High

The following examinations can be made only by specialists. Physician
or physical education director:

  Heart, lungs, genitalia; liver, spleen; hernia; sinuses, ductless
  glands

  Enlarged tonsils, adenoids; defects of palate; blood pressure;
  arteries

  Spinal curvature or faulty posture (except marked); asymmetry of
  arms, legs, chest; flat foot

  Osteopath, or physician or physical director with osteopathic
  training: displaced vertebræ; spinal irritation

  Oculist (not Optician): Defects of eyes (except marked)

  Specialist: Defects of ears (except marked)

  Dentist: Defects of teeth and gums (except marked)

  Special chemist:

    Urine, for acidity, albumen, sugar, casts

    Feces, for worms, putrefactive bacteria

    Blood, for hæmoglobin, leucocytes, acidity, germs of venereal
    disease, tuberculosis.


Physical Habits

  =Sleep:=           Bed alone                 With another
                     Outdoors                  Indoors, scant
                     Indoors, windows open       ventilation
                     Regular bedtime hour      Irregular
                     Quiet before bedtime      Excitement before bedtime
                     Early                     Late hour
                                               Given soothing syrups
  =Bathing=:         Daily water baths         Less than one daily
                       Number                  Too frequent
                       Kind                    Too warm
                       Temperatures            Not followed by cool
                       Cool sponge
                     Air baths                 Not given
                     Sun baths                 Not given
  =Feeding=:         Regular hour              Irregular
                     Prescribed intervals      Intervals too short
                                                   ”      ”  long
                                               Eating between meals
                     Simple diet               Injurious foods
                     Balanced, rational diet   Dietary not analyzed
                                                  ”    poorly balanced
                     Chews well (2)
                     Eats slowly               Rapidly
  =Motor Activity=:  Encouraged                Restricted by clothing
                                                   ”      by carriage
                     Outdoors or open-air      Indoors; poor
                       room                      ventilation
                     In raised, sanitary pen   On floor

                     Toys sanitary             Unsanitary; allowed
                      ”   harmless             pacifier
                                               Dangerous
                                               Surfeit
                     Kept from crowds          Taken to stores (4)
                                                 ”    ” theater (10)
                                                 ”    ” movies (8)
  Handling:          Moderate                  Excessive
                     Rational                  Lifted by arms
                                               Tossed
                                               Rocked
                                               Jolted


History

  Feeding:           Maternal nursing 9 to     Less
                       12 months               More
                     Cow’s milk                Bottle: how long
                                               Patent foods (specify)
  Illnesses: (state  Bronchitis                Subject to colds
    age, duration,   Convulsions                 coughs, constipation,
    permanent        Diphtheria                  indigestion,
    effects)         Earache                     nervousness, other
                     Eczema                      illness
                     Epilepsy                  Operations (age) for
                     Measles                     adenoids, tonsils,
                     Meningitis                  vaccination, others
                     Mumps
                     Rheumatism
                     Rickets
                     Scarlet Fever
                     Scurvy
                     Summer Complaint
                     Tuberculosis
                     Whooping cough
                     Others


Heredity

                     MOTHER        FATHER
  Nationality
  Race
  Height
  Weight
  Occupation
  Education


Predispositions

                          MOTHER’S[31]           FATHER’S[31]    BROTHERS
                   MOTHER   FAMILY        FATHER  FAMILY      OR SISTERS
                          (how many)            (how many)    (how many)

  Marked mental gifts
  Nervous disorders
    (form)
  Alcoholism
  Tuberculosis
  Kidney disorders
  Cancer
  Pulmonary weakness
  Digestive disorders
  Blindness (form)
  Deafness (form)
  Living
  Dead
  Ages at death
  Causes of deaths


Congenital Factors

  Rank in birth (1st, 2d, etc.)
  Age of brothers and sisters  Living:  At death:  If had lived:
    (in years and months):

                     MOTHER            FATHER

  Age at birth
  Vigorous[32]
  Fair health[32]
  Sickly[32]
  Nervous[32]
  Use alcohol[32]
    Excess
    Moderate
  Use tobacco[32]
    Excess
    Moderate
  Use drugs[32]
    Excess
    Moderate


Indications


Vitality and Endurance

  Sound digestion
  Normal eliminations
  Normal temperature, pulse, respiration
  Normal posture
  Normal increase in height and weight
  Nerves steady
  Sleep quiet, sound, undisturbed
  Diaphragmatic breathing
  Good chest expansion
  Large nose, unobstructed
  Large neck
  Eyes clear, sparkling
  Lips ruddy
  Teeth sound, normal number
  Muscles firm
  Skin clear, ruddy, elastic
  Active, vigorous play
  Good-humored, optimistic


Low Vitality

  Susceptibility to colds, coughs
  Susceptibility to contagious diseases
  Sensitiveness to cold
  Poor nutrition
  Peevishness, irritability
  Easily fatigued
  Poor chest development
  Shallow breathing
  Pallor
  Small neck, nose
  Adenoids


Poor Nutrition

  Underweight
  Overweight
  Indigestion
  No appetite
  Capricious appetite
  Rickets
  Languor
  Peevishness
  Delayed dentition
  Ridges and notches on teeth


Auto-intoxication

  Low vitality
  Constipation
  Eruptions on skin
  Coated tongue
  Offensive breath
  Rheumatism


Rickets

  Pallor, anemia
  Retarded growth in height and weight
  Enlarged joints at wrists and ankles
  Muscles flabby; sometimes fat
  Enlarged abdomen
  Breastbone sunken or protruding
  Round shoulders, bent back
  Delayed dentition and walking
  Large square head


Scurvy

  Loss of appetite; pallor
  Loss in weight
  Swelling of ankles and knees
  Swollen gums
  Black and blue spots on legs
  Cry of pain when handled
  Pain when legs are moved


Nervousness

  Restlessness, fidgeting
  Disturbed sleep
  Irritability, peevishness
  Tempers, hysteria, tantrums
  Spasmodic movements
  Stumbling, dropping things
  Falling easily (after 2 years)
  Nail-biting
  Bed-wetting
  Masturbation


Defective Vision

  Squinting
  Frowning
  Book or work held near face
  Headaches
  Nervousness
  Irritability
  Indigestion


Deafness

  Persistent inattention
  Directions persistently slighted
  Disinterest in music
  Incorrect articulation (after five years)
  Dull, stupid expression
  Head persistently held at one side
  Complains of roaring in ears


Adenoids (or other nasal obstruction)

  Small nose
  Sunken bridge (after 1 year)
  High arched palate
  Mouth breathing
  Chronic cold
  Nasal voice
  Stupid expression
  Nervousness
  Irritability
  Imperfect articulation


Temperament

   I. Active: quick, vivacious
      Phlegmatic: slow, inert
      Balanced
  II. Positive: decisive, firm, determined, not easily influenced
      Negative: vacillating, easily influenced, weak impression
      Balanced
   III. Intellectual: theoretical; tendency to think about things
          rather than to act
        Emotional: acts upon impulse rather than thought; expends
          energy in emotion rather than action or thought.
        Motor: eager to do, execute
        (Note which tendency is strongest, which weakest)
    IV. Optimistic: irrepressibly good-natured, cheerful, blithe
        Pessimistic: easily gloomy, discouraged, unhappy, fearful,
          morose
        Intermediate
     V. Leader: initiative, positive, executive; inspires confidence,
          loyalty, and coöperation of colleagues
        Follower: compliant, easily led, lacks initiative
        Intermediate
    VI. Original: creative
        Copyist: reproduces others’ ideas, principles
        Intermediate
   VII. Democratic: cordial, warm-hearted, hospitable, friendly,
          responsive
        Autocratic: snobbish, inhospitable, reserved, exclusive
        Intermediate
  VIII. Progressive: open-minded, temperamentally a radical, reformer
        Conservative: conventional, biased by public opinion,
          customs; suspicious of the new
        Intermediate
    IX. Mystic: sees spiritual phases of a situation
        Realist: lacks imagination; has Yankee “common sense”,
          practical
        Balanced
     X. Idealist: interested primarily in spiritual aspects and values
        Materialist: interested only in material values, advantages,
          or disadvantages
        Balanced
    XI. Responsible: thoughtful, conscientious, good judgment
        Irresponsible: absent-minded, heedless, foolish, unreliable
        Intermediate
   XII. Sees large aspects of problem or work
        Concerned with details
        Balanced
  XIII. Self-reliant: ready to care for self; furnishes own initiative
          and encouragement
        Dependent: relies on others for initiative, action, service,
          encouragement
        Intermediate
   XIV. Reaction Time:
        Deliberate
        Impulsive
        Rapid
        Slow
        Moderate


Psychological and Social Analysis

  Mental
  Activity:       Alert                   Slow
                  Responsive              Dull
                  Curiosity               Disinterested
                  Experimenting           Inert
                  Exploring               Listless
                  Persistent will         Vacillating
                  Interest in variety
                  Involuntary
                   concentration          Flitting
                  Feeling strong          Slight
                  Imaginative (1)         Unimaginative
                  Self-reliant (1)        Dependent
                  Initiative              Inactive
                  Profits by experience   Repeats same errors
                  Normal intelligence     Backward
                                          Precocious
  Thought:        Definite (2)            Vague
                  Clear (2)               Confused
                  Able to follow
                    directions (1)        Unable
                  Open-minded (4)         Self-satisfied
  Attention:      Well focused            Superficial
                                          Flitting
                                          Dreaming
  Concentration:  Involuntary, marked     Slight
                  Voluntary, marked (4)   Slight
  Senses:         Keen: Discrimination    Undeveloped
    Sound                of differences
    Rhythm
    Musical sound
    Color
    Beauty (pictures, sculpture, Nature)
    Rhyme
    Time: Day and night
      Yesterday
      To-morrow
      Season
      Year
      Historic time
  Imitation:      Marked                  Slight
                  Mechanical              Slavish
                  Creative (3)
  Memory:         Retentive               Poor. Due to:
                  Motor                     Inattention
                  Emotional                 Lack of clearness
                  Auditory                  Lack of repetition
                  Visual
                  Verbal
                  Logical
  Association     Marked                  Slight
    of Ideas:     Poetic (2)              Prosaic
                  Logical (2)             Superficial
  Imagination:    Vivid (1)               Lacking
                                          Overwrought
                  Clear                   Hazy
                  Constructive (3)        Reproductive
                  Resourceful (3)         Unresourceful
                  Visual
                  Auditory
  Reasoning:      By association          Easily satisfied
                  Logical (2)             Undeveloped
                  Sensible (5)            Foolish
  Judgment:       Sensible (6)            Foolish
                                          Erratic
                  Requires Proof (4)      Credulous
  Tastes and      What kind of Stories
  Interests: (2)               Songs
                               Games
                               Handwork
                               Humor
                  How spends free time
                  Æsthetic: Marked        Slight
                    Rhythm
                    Music
                    Color
                    Pictures
                    Nature
                    Poetry
                  Mechanics: Marked       Slight
                    Watching
                    Examining
                    Contriving (1)
                  Philosophical: (3)
                      Marked              Slight
                    (Seeks reasons for life,
                      God, death, immortality)
                  Questions: Numerous     Few
                    “What?”
                    “Where?”
                    “Why?”
                    “How?”
                  Waits for answer        Disinterest in answer
                  Asks for information    For sake of talking
                  Seeks further
                   information            Easily satisfied
  Self-
  expression:     Free                    Reserved
                  Natural                 Self-conscious
                                          Affected
                  Quiet                   Ostentatious
                  Artistic                Awkward
                  Impressive              Weak, hesitating
                  Charm                   Unattractive
  Speech:         Articulation
                   perfect (4)            Imperfect
                                          (Note which sounds)
                                          Stammers
                                          Stutters
                                          Lisps
                  Clear (1)               Indistinct
                                          Slovenly
                                          Forcible  Weak
                  Fluent (4)              Reticent
                                          Halting
                  Sentences complete (3)  Incomplete
                  Grammar correct (5)     Incorrect (Note errors)
                  Good vocabulary (5)     Limited vocabulary
                                          Slang
                                          Vulgarity
  Voice: (1)      Soft                    Loud
                  Musical                 Harsh
                                          Nasal
                                          Shrill
                  Clear                   Husky
                  Vital                   Drawl
                  Range (Test with        Monotone
                   musical instrument)

  Emotions:       Strong                  Dull
                                          Supersensitive
                  Wholesome               Morbid
                                          Silly
                  Deep                    Superficial
                  Poised                  Explosive
                                          Moody
                  Good control            Poor control
                                          Capricious
                                          Hysterical
                                          Eccentric
                  Self-respect            Undue humility
                                          Pride
                  Sense of humor          Prosaic
                  Trustful                Suspicious
                                          Jealous
                  Buoyant                 Easily discouraged
                  Courageous              Fearful
                  Daring                  Timid
                  Cheerful                Melancholy, petulant
                  Patient                 Impatient
                                          Tantrums
                                          Easily imposed upon
                  Contented               Dissatisfied
                  Sensible                Vain
                                          Conceited
                                          Overaffectionate
                  Enthusiastic            Apathetic
                  Easily guided           Contrary
                                          Obstinate
                                          Rebellious
                                          Overdocile
                  Deliberative            Impulsive
  Social:         Loyal                   Changeable
                                          Jealous
                                          Tattling
                                          Treacherous

                  Generous                Selfish
                  Sympathetic             Hard-hearted
                                          Silly
                  Considerate of others   Thoughtless
                                          Criticizing
                  Courteous               Rude
                                          Bullying
                  Winsome, manly          Indifferent
                  Gracious                Priggish
                  Conciliatory            Ill-mannered
                  Peacemaking             Quarrelsome

  Manners: (2-3)  Charm                   Indifference
                                          Repulsion
                  Self-possessed          Self-conscious
                                          Bashful
                                          Taciturn
                                          Seeking attention
                                          Simpering
                  Gentle                  Aggressive
                                          Boisterous
                  Respectful              Impudent
                                          Interrupting
                                          Contradicting
                  Trained in conventions  Untrained, awkward
  Industry: (4)   Industrious             Lazy, shirking
                  Prompt                  Dilatory
                                          Dawdling
                                          Procrastinating
                  Thorough                Careless
                  Painstaking             Indifferent
                  Orderly                 Disorderly
                  Systematic              Erratic
                  Thrifty                 Spendthrift
                  Economical              Extravagant
                                          Miserly
                  Foresighted             Short-sighted
                                          Shrewd
                                          Easily imposed upon
  Moral: (3)      Conscientious           Supersensitive
                                          Indifferent
                                          Callous
                  Generous                Selfish
                                          Self-seeking
                  Honest                  Prevaricating
                                          Thieving
                  Frank                   Hypocritical
                                          Affected
                                          Sly
                                          Underhanded
                                          Tricky
                                          Brusque
                  Mischievous             Destructive
                  Teasing                 Malicious
                  Modest                  Immodest
                  Pure-minded             Uncouth
                                          Bold
                                          Brazen
                                          Unchaste
                  Desires and appetites   Uncontrolled desires
                   controlled              and appetites
  Will:           Firm                    Weak
                  Persistent              Vacillating
                  Subject to reason       Stubborn
  Motives that    Ambition                Fear of punishment
   influence: (1) Pain to others          Vanity
                  Pleasure to others      Rivalry
                  Ideal good (the right)  Selfishness
                  Joy in right doing      Mercenariness
                  Love (of others,        Material reward
                   cause, God)
  Response to     Friendly                Sullen
    reproof: (1)  Rebounds                Sulks
                  Acknowledges justice    Resentful
                                          Revengeful
  Religion: (2)   Wonder                  Apathy
                  Awe
                  Reverence               Irreverence
                  Sense of gratitude      Thoughtless
                  Interest in theological Disinterest
                   questions
                  Interest in religious   Disinterest
                   ceremonies

  Natural Gifts and Talents (5). Expressiveness in any of following:
    Music: vocal, instrumental; rhythm, dancing, dramatics;
      drawing, painting, modeling, sculpture; literature, handcrafts,
      mechanics; nurturing, organizing, leadership

  Ideals, Ambition, Expectations (8). Extent and nature of following:
    Vocational: (Will change with periods of development, environment)
    Professional: technical, artistic, industrial, manual
    Educational: economic, social, family

  Training:      Sturdy                   Coddling
                 Simple                   Pampered
                 Consistent               Inconsistent
                 Sympathetic              Unsympathetic
                 Just                     Unjust
                 Persistent               Intermittent
                 Scope for self-activity  Repressed
                 Intelligent              Irrational
                                          Emotional
                 Sincere                  Superficial


Summary


Marked Traits, Physical and Psychological

  Making for Efficiency:              Inefficiency:
                        Need uprooting:  Correction:   Developing:
  Making for social attractiveness:       Unattractiveness:


Fundamental traits to be especially cultivated:

  Energy
  Expressiveness
  Self-reliance
  Persistence
  Concentration
  Imagination
  Curiosity
  Initiative
  Orderliness
  Responsibility
  Self-control
  Will
  Altruism
  Courtesy
  Cheerfulness
  Honesty


FOOTNOTES:

[28] Lefthand column includes normal and desirable characteristics;
righthand column includes abnormal or undesirable.

[29] Measured as length, child lying down, during first year.

[30] Snellen cards may be used for testing vision.

[31] Parents, brothers, sisters.

[32] During year before child’s birth.




CHAPTER XII

A CURRICULUM FOR BABYHOOD AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

  “Knowledge has little or no intrinsic value in and of itself. Like
  light, knowledge is good not to see but to see by.... Ignorance is
  doubtless better than knowledge that does not make us better.”

  —G. STANLEY HALL.

  “Where children are fed only on book knowledge, one fact is as good
  as any other.”

  —JOHN DEWEY.

  “If we seek the kingdom of heaven, educationally, all other things
  shall be added unto us—which, being interpreted, is that if we
  identify ourselves with the real instincts and needs of childhood,
  and ask only after its fullest assertion and growth, the discipline
  and information and culture of adult life shall all come in their
  due season.”

  —_Ibid._


The curriculum is to center, not about “subjects” in which the adult
is interested but in

1. The child: (a) The phases of his life; (b) his age and stage of
development; (c) therefore the vital interests characteristic of that
stage; (d) his individual interests.

It will be modified in some degree by

2. The environment and what it provides of opportunity for physical
activity, exploration, social relations, and for direction of
interest.

The apotheosis of unnatural environment for the child is an expensive
“high class” city apartment, no other children, one or more domestic
servants, absentee parents who are interested and intelligent in
everything but child care and training.

For the child under six years, and possibly under ten, the most
educative environment, in every sense, is in the country with hills,
valleys, woods, water, plants and trees, wild and domestic animals,
other young children, the freedom of the kitchen, the necessity
for personal physical care, and elders who enter sympathetically
into his life, not obtrusively but intelligently, ready to give
assistance when it is needed. With good library facilities, wholesome
neighborhood recreations, and occasional trips to a city for its
opportunities of art galleries, great music, wholesome plays,
industrial activities, the simple home life and rural surroundings,
even with mediocre teaching in a rural school, provide through early
adolescence the environment most favorable for developing richness of
life, greatness of personality, social efficiency.

As part of the environment which his guardians select are (a) his
clothes, which have an influence both upon bodily health and on
personality; (b) his furniture, which should be adapted to his size;
(c) his toys and playthings, which are both a stimulus and a means
for expression of his interest; (d) his pictures, books, and music,
which are influencing his æsthetic taste, his emotions and his moral
life; (e) his associates, both children and adults, who furnish the
examples that he imitates constantly in speech, manners, actions,
and whose personality subtly—and often unconsciously is molding his
personality.

The scope of education is as comprehensive as life itself. The
following aspects must therefore be developed in the complete
education of the child:

  1. Disciplinary: developing in the child his power to use
  efficiently his mental possibilities,—concentration, observation,
  memory, imagination, invention, judgment, his motor powers, his
  emotions, his will

  2. Physical: training in habits and ideals of health, in skill and
  grace of motor coördinations

  3. Cultural: bringing the child to a living interest in great
  literature, art, biography, history, and an appreciation and
  enjoyment of their values

  4. Scientific: leading him to a knowledge and appreciation of the
  principles that control the world of nature and of mind

  5. Social: training him to live harmoniously and serviceably with
  his fellows

  6. Economic: fitting him to make his living by service rendered, of
  marketable value

  7. Moral and religious: developing character,—the ideals and the
  realization of noble living,—which has its roots deep in the
  feelings and the soul, and depends upon these far more than upon
  mere thought, knowledge, and reasoning.


Intellectual and Play Interests


Birth to Six Months

  Grasping
  Mouthing
  Staring
  Watching bright objects, moving objects
  Listening to sounds
  Crumpling paper
  Kicking
  Rhythm
  Crowing


Six Months to One Year

  Handling
  Mouthing
  Looking at
  Pulling
  Shaking
  Pounding
  Producing noise
  Creeping
  Exploring environment
  Hearing sounds, music, singing
  Babbling
  Imitating vocal sounds: vowels, consonants, singing
  Animals, flowers, vivid colors
  Ball, mirror
  Rhythm


One to Two Years

  Sensory experiences, motor coördination
  Speech
  Handling
  Experimenting with touch
  Tracing with finger
  Walking
  Exploring environment
  Pouring
  Filling and emptying
  Building and knocking down
  Hammering
  Pounding, thumping
  Throwing
  Digging
  Producing noise
  Rhythm
  Animals, flowers, chickens, bird in cage
  Putting in and taking out


Curriculum

Sensory experience: Provide variety of shapes and sizes for handling;
primary colors in objects both different and same shape; sounds, and
objects for making sounds.

Singing of little tunes, chanting of music or poetry, by attendant
while she works about near by, and while dressing, bathing, but not
while feeding.

       *       *       *       *       *

Motor experience: Freedom to move,—kick, roll, creep, climb, during
waking hours; not tied in chair or carriage while awake, except for
quarter-hour periods

Objects for grasping, pulling, pushing, during first year

Permit to assist in use of cup and spoon after nine months.

Provide door, drawer, lock and large key, wooden mallet, volley ball,
for hand and arm exercise.

Provide low, short stair, ladder, swing, swinging rope, for second
year.

       *       *       *       *       *

Concentration: Do not interrupt staring, examination of objects,
intensive activity.

Encourage continued looking, handling, listening, experimenting.

       *       *       *       *       *

Memory training: Strict regularity of routine in feeding, giving of
water, dressing, sleep

Motor, by gymnastic exercises performed each time in same order

Few pictures, songs, finger plays, given repeated short attention

       *       *       *       *       *

Imitation: Pat-a-cake, waving good-by, other simple arm or hand
movements

Consonant and vowel sounds

Cheerful, well-poised disposition

       *       *       *       *       *

Reasoning: Reasons by association of circumstances, sequence of
circumstances

Provide uniformity and consistency of sequences in handling and in
daily care.

       *       *       *       *       *

Language: Provide much spoken language, chanting and singing, after
six months; repetition of sounds for baby’s direct imitation.
Cultivate clear, distinct, correct enunciation.

After twelve months, teach gradually names of most common objects,
members of family, most common verbs, adjectives. (A diary record
of sounds, words, phrases, and sentences is both interesting and of
assistance in teaching and noting progress during first four years.)

       *       *       *       *       *

Æsthetic sense: Quiet colors, simple furniture and decorations in
nursery

Variety of forms and toys, harmonious gay colors, attractive forms,
features

Vivid standard spectrum colors in toys, pictures

Some large colored pictures in nursery; artistic; distinct; babies,
cats, dogs; primitive Indian drawings

Exclusion of ugly, vulgar, rude pictures, cartoons, toys, and music

Well-modulated voices in attendants

Rhythmic quiet singing or chanting, and rhythmic gymnastic exercises
daily

Soft, simple rhythmic instrumental music once a day when possible

Wide range of noise-producing toys, not harsh or rasping. Some toys
producing mellow, musical sounds

       *       *       *       *       *

Emotions: Reduce fretting or crying from discomfort by keeping
comfortable, with strict regularity, and attention to hygiene.
Anticipate waking and have attendant at hand to reassure as well as
to make comfortable. Attendants should be well poised, cheerful,
patient, sympathetic.

Prevent fear by avoiding sudden noises, clapping, shouting, excited
action, loud talking in nursery, or any attempts to frighten.

Overcome anger and teasing by refusing to grant objects cried or
teased for; avoid teasing the child, or other artificial situations
that produce anger.

       *       *       *       *       *

Moral training: Good humor. Remove defects, _e.g._, adenoids,
phimosis, which produce local irritation, nervousness,
irritable temper, fretfulness, and bad habits; prevent fatigue,
overstimulation, overexcitement. Keep busy by ample simple
play material, environment for exploration. Avoid unnecessary
prohibitions, or unnatural conditions necessitating prohibitions.

       *       *       *       *       *

Sense of law: Develop through strict regularity of daily regimen in
feeding, eliminations, sleep; consistency in care and discipline.

       *       *       *       *       *

Cleanliness: Cultivate sense of cleanliness by daily baths; beginning
in second year, by always washing hands before and after meals and
after toilet.

Obedience


Intellectual and Play Interests. 2 to 6 years.

Sensory and motor stage: Range of active sensory
experiences,—tasting, touching, hearing, seeing

Interest in color, sound, tasting, strongest at 4 to 6 years

Constant sensory experimentation and exploration

Experimental science; taking apart; finding source of motion or noise

Nature interest; animals, birds, insects, flowers; watching actions,
noting striking characteristics of appearance

Interest in experimenting with material (2 to 4 years); in making for
use (4 to 6 years)

All work crude; materials large, coarse, utilizing fundamental
muscles; periods short, to avoid strain of eyes or nerves

       *       *       *       *       *

Handcrafts:

  (a) Building, digging, sand play (from one year)

  (b) Carpentry, drawing, painting, modeling (from two years)

  (c) Cutting, pasting, heavy paper construction (from 4 years)

  (d) Coarse weaving, cardboard construction (from 5 years)

       *       *       *       *       *

Language: Articulation; increasing vocabulary; sentence construction

Comparison of words (sounds and meanings)

Beginnings of simple original story-telling

Fairy tales, myths, fables, animal stories, anecdotes of children;
Mother Goose, selected poetry

Measuring, counting (after 4 years, if interested)

       *       *       *       *       *

Rhythm: Marching, skipping, simple folk dancing, clapping

Music: Hearing and improvising instrumental and songs; much
spontaneous singing

       *       *       *       *       *

Motor coördinations: Walking on straight line; balancing, throwing,
catching, consistency

Forming of clearer perceptions of objects, social actions, moral
distinctions


Curriculum

For Religious, Moral, Emotional and Æsthetic Values

Sensory training: Variety of objects, varied sizes, shapes, texture,
hardness

Prismatic colors in graded shades, in fabrics, paper, toys

Variety of musical instruments or musical sounds; piano, violin,
cello, guitar, organ, fife, flute, horn, willow flute, drums,
tubephone, cymbals, tambourine, Japanese gong, musical bells, musical
glasses

Toy stringed instruments, drum, made by child

Attention called to sounds of nature: Wind, rain, splash and
trickling of water, calls of animals, birds, insects

Taste, smell, temperature and weight senses of minor importance, to
receive slight attention

Discrimination of finer differences in shades of color, loud and soft
sounds, high or low tone, slow or quick rhythm, rough or smooth
surface, soft or hard texture, weight, temperature

Memory of sensation, and ability to match it; applied to colors,
shapes, textures, sounds

       *       *       *       *       *

Motor Training: Coördination of eye and hand by aiming at a mark,
catching ball, ring, dangling rope; pouring liquids, measuring liquid
and dry measure, linear measure

Coördination of eyes and legs by jumping over or at a mark

Coördination of legs in marching, skipping, walking up and down a
short stairway or stile

Acquiring balance by walking on a line, rail, plank; climbing low
ladder, low trees, broad planks, low elevation

Coördination of arms and hands by carrying own cup and spoon at
meals, eating without bib (after three years); neatness in table
manners; assisting in serving and clearing away meals; dusting,
sweeping

Climbing low ladder, bars, trees; swimming (4 years). Free, impromptu
interpretation of instrumental rhythms of distinctive character, by
dancing and pantomime

Habits of neatness and orderliness are taught by care of own clothing
as removed, and putting away of toys. Social conventions taught
through good examples and through dramatic play; promptness by
immediate response when called; hygiene and cleanliness by brushing
of own teeth, washing of face and hands, cleaning of finger nails,
brushing of shoes (needing, of course, some supplementary treatment),
putting own clothes off and on (after 3 years), fastening and
unfastening own shoes and clothes. (Note that clothing should fasten
in front or on shoulders, shoes preferably laced.)

       *       *       *       *       *

Language: Distinct articulation and enunciation are taught through
good examples, by training in special sounds that are omitted or
incorrectly pronounced after four years of age, by training in
modulation and control of pitch of voice. Vocabulary is increased
through stories and daily conversation.

Store of classic nursery rhymes, poetry, folk-tales, fables, animal
stories, fairy tales

Colloquial expressions, names of objects, songs, in foreign language,
with pure native accent, after three or four years

Learning own name, address, father’s name.

Reading and writing are a hindrance to freedom of thought and a
strain upon eyes, fingers, and nerves.

       *       *       *       *       *

Construction: Building with large plain blocks (2-inches and larger)
of wood, cement, stone; variety of geometric forms; new forms added
singly and gradually.

Building with peg-lock blocks, meccano, and other interlocking and
knockdown apparatus

Hammering, sawing, planing, boring

Making of simple whitewood furniture and toys

Cutting out toy birds, animals, toys, from soft wood, with coping saw

Making birdhouses and drinking fountains of wood, clay, cement

Making designs with large wooden beads (1-inch size), sticks (not
less than ¼ inch diameter, 4 inches long), colored mosaics of stones
(not less than 1-inch side), pegboards (pegs not less than ¼ inch
diameter)

Stringing large wooden beads; buttons (after 3 years)

Filling in simple designs having distinct, heavy outlines, using
water color or crayola; suggestions regarding technique given only as
requested.

Painting walls, boxes, or other large surfaces with 2-inch brush, or
pretending painting, using water

Modeling and building in sand; shaping land and water forms, building
farms and villages

Imaginative work, not copying directly from objects, in modeling or
drawing.

Free-hand paper cutting or tearing of circles, squares, utensils,
furniture, fruits, animals, dolls

Cutting out pictures having simple, heavy outline

Making toys and furniture with spools, boxes

Simple paper folding (occasionally)

Coarse weaving with lamp wicking or cloth strips

       *       *       *       *       *

Nature: Assistance in care of pets, garden, house plants

Exploration of meadows, garden, woods

Observation of many domestic and wild animals, chickens, birds,
insects, and their ways, nests, food, enemies, protection

Observation in native habitat where possible, or in zoölogical
gardens, home or public aquaria

Collections of stones, shells, flowers (not pressed); leaves (pressed
and mounted), grasses, seeds, insects for vivarium

Observation of clouds, direction of wind; frost pictures, snow
crystals; rising and setting of sun; length of shadows; evening star,
milky way, phases of moon; chief land and water forms—mountains,
hills, valleys, islands, rivers, lakes, waterfalls; changing seasons,
their characteristics, special gifts; preparation of man, animals,
plants for winter

Call attention to life processes in plants, including growth,
blossoming, fertilization, protection of flowers and seeds,
distribution of seeds; also care of animals for their young,
preparation of nest or shelter.

Identification and naming of a few most common animals, flowers,
insects, birds, trees

Attention called to types, as trees, trunks, branches, bark, leaves;
plants, leaves, flowers, fruits

       *       *       *       *       *

Geography and History: Methods of travel; industries, especially
simple or primitive forms of providing shelter, food, clothing;
children of any lands or times; their ways of living compared
with his. After three years, tell stories of American history,
constructive, not military

       *       *       *       *       *

Hygiene: Care of teeth, eyes, ears; correct posture in sitting and
standing; protection from germs by cleanliness, care in coughing and
sneezing, disuse of public towels or drinking cups; first aid in
bruises, cuts, burns, fire (clothing or dwelling)

       *       *       *       *       *

Experimentation: Simple experiments in mechanics, electricity,
chemistry, cooking

       *       *       *       *       *

Concentration: cultivate through

  (a) providing environment and material that foster exercise of
  spontaneous interests in handling, examining, experimenting,
  constructing;

  (b) avoiding interruption when child is attentive to an action,
  unless for important reason such as physical regimen, danger of
  fatigue or satiety;

  (c) Correlating interests into an organized play, _e.g._, building
  of a doll’s house; playing store; telling or dramatizing of a
  continued story, lasting for days or weeks (after two years);

  (d) Giving a direction, request or command only once, and requiring
  attention and prompt response.

       *       *       *       *       *

Æsthetic Appreciation: Rhythm acquired through hearing of rhythmic
songs, music, chanting of nonsense or poetry; and through rhythmic
plays, marching, dancing

Taste for good songs, music, pictures, color combinations,
simplicity, orderliness, harmony, cultivated by good examples in
housekeeping, furnishings, decorations, clothing, books, toys, music
in home

Experimentation with color, modeling material, rhythm, musical sounds

Play with toy musical notation

       *       *       *       *       *

Emotions: Train in control of temper, disappointment, in genuine but
not gushing expression of affection and joy.

Discourage showing off, attempts to attract attention to self, or
other forms of conceit, vanity or self-consciousness; direct this
energy into thoughtfulness for others.

Treat bad temper, sulkiness, fretting, as symptoms of ill-health, and
let the child sit down or lie down until relaxed and good-humored,
diverting attention meanwhile to other subjects. In extreme
cases, put gently to bed, possibly giving also a warm bath. Do
not ridicule any expression of emotion or do anything to foster
self-consciousness.

Set an example of wholesome emotional expression.

Avoid any conditions that might foster fear, such as fright, grewsome
stories, nervousness, indigestion, excitement before bedtime.

Counteract instinctive and imaginary fears through example of poise,
ideals of bravery, confidence in Providence and nature, closer
acquaintance with special objects feared, as animals, darkness,
closets.

       *       *       *       *       *

Moral: (See Birth to 2 years) Add at this stage:

Strict obedience

Teasing, pouting, sulking and tantrums eliminated by denying objects
thus sought

Generosity, sharing with others, giving gifts

Thoughtfulness for comfort and happiness of family and playmates

Learning to play with others peacefully; solitary play as natural
consequence of quarrelling

Patience in accomplishing a desired end

Honesty. Differentiate between (_a_) imaginary tales and (_b_)
attempts to deceive, usually for the sake of escaping punishment or
gaining some desired object. Example of honesty in keeping promises
to child, telling truth to others

Confidence in self, in universe (God and nature)

Show narrowness of tattling, snobbishness, unkind criticism

Respect for body; modesty; by example and in physical care

Large vocabulary of adjectives and exclamations as preventive of
slang and vulgarity; examples of good speech; prompt eradication
of slang or vulgarity, by natural consequences, such as washing of
mouth, play alone

Answer child’s questions regarding origin of life reverently,
seriously, honestly, with emphasis upon nurturing and on social
coöperation of mother and father; give a bias toward the social and
spiritual relations of family life, and a suggestion of the future
parental responsibilities of the child.

Memorizing of mottoes, wise sayings, proverbs

       *       *       *       *       *

Religious:

Respect for authority, by example, and by requirement of obedience

Foster sense of mystery and wonder through life and nature

Example of worship at home

Teaching of simple childish prayers, if child asks for this

Answering child’s theological questions reverently and seriously, as
he asks them

Telling selected Bible stories

Occasionally taking to opening service at church

Singing of hymns informally at home

Teaching child hymns and carefully selected Bible verses


Intellectual and Play Interests. 6 to 9 Years

Extensiveness: Gathering experiences. Little attempt at organizing,
systematizing, memorizing, or formal education. Less fragmentary than
in previous stage

Great variety of interests; seeking knowledge of natural world

Experimental science—physics, chemistry, mechanics

Analysis of objects to find construction, source of motion, sound

       *       *       *       *       *

Handcrafts: Carpentry, weaving, building, drawing, painting, modeling

Making for use; less interest in mere activity; interest in
workmanship developing

       *       *       *       *       *

Gardening: Care of pets; observing animals, insects

Collecting stones, leaves, seeds, curios, historical souvenirs

Rhyming; increasing vocabulary; conversation and original
story-telling; foreign language (colloquial)

Primitive people and ways of living

Sources of supply of food, clothing, shelter


Curriculum

Sensory training: Sorting and examining fabrics, colors used in
construction

Experimenting with sounds and improvising of melodies and rhythms
continued

Permit attempts to pick out tunes on musical instrument

Frequent attentive hearing of good instrumental music, short duration

Occasional visit to art museum or store, without comments, giving
information on request

       *       *       *       *       *

Motor training: More difficult and complex coördination of muscles
mentioned in previous period

Greater accuracy, skill, assurance, freedom

More use of forearm

Use of fingers in handcrafts

More complex and complicated movements in marching and dancing

Alertness in changing from one rhythm to another

Free impromptu pantomime, interpreting instrumental rhythms

Pantomime of stories

Posing, original ideas or copying famous pictures or statues

Tableaux; charades

Forms of housework: sweeping, dusting, scrubbing, washing, ironing,
dishwashing, table-laying, making beds; for accuracy, neatness,
dispatch, concentration, application, responsibility, as well as
motor training

Skating, swimming

Use of swinging rings, parallel bars, rope ladder; climbing trees

Avoid activities that strain heart or produce great fatigue.

       *       *       *       *       *

Language: Encourage conversation, discussion of topics of interest
and value, story-telling. With models of correct grammar and
idiomatic English in earlier childhood, there will be little
incorrect language to correct.

Increase vocabulary especially by descriptive words in story-telling.

Continue models of distinct enunciation, well-modulated voice.

Encourage rhyming; do not ridicule or make light of rhymes.

Spontaneous dramatizing of stories; permit freedom, and absence of
self-consciousness in expression; avoid criticism of technique or
form of expression.

Teach colloquial expressions, poems, songs, from foreign language,
with pure accent.

Avoid forcing of interest in reading, writing, or number; prohibit
for nervous child; discourage for bookish child, and supply more real
interests. For normal, active children, assist spontaneous interest,
in short periods, with careful regard for hygiene of eyes.

       *       *       *       *       *

Nature: Providing food and drink for wild birds, animals, insects not
pests

Care of pets, gardening, with responsibility for daily care

Encourage collections as in previous period, adding insects and small
live animals kept in vivarium, birds’ nests, pictures of birds.

Keep calendar of birds, flowers, weather conditions.

Observe effects of frost, wind, rain, streams, waves, upon soil and
rocks.

Observe unfolding of leaves and blossoms, and formation of seeds from
flowers; methods of protecting and distributing seeds.

Plant large seeds where process of germination can be observed.

Identification of trees, birds, flowers, insects

Gathering of nuts; drying of fruits and vegetables for winter

Observation of some inherited characteristics in flowers and animals

Raising of pigeons or chickens or a litter of kittens, rabbits, or
guinea-pigs

Noting coöperation of father in care of birds

Study of primitive life, types of dwellings, providing of food and
clothing, making of weapons

Learning days of week, months of year; telling time of day by clock
and sun dial

       *       *       *       *       *

Sciences: Simple experiments in physics and chemistry continued, in
response to child’s questions regarding composition of substances,
principles of mechanics and electricity, etc. For example:
differences noted between solids, liquids and gases; acids and
alkalies; adhesion, cohesion; composition of water

Cooking

Construction of batteries, and making of toy telephone

Application of water power to toy machines; wind power to sailboats,
toy wind mills

Making toy steam engine and harnessing to toy machinery

Comparing specific gravity of different substances

Observation of stars in early evening

Identification of dipper, north star, evening stars, and a few
constellations visible before child’s bedtime

       *       *       *       *       *

Anatomy and physiology: Main facts and processes; principles of
hygiene; first aid in drowning

       *       *       *       *       *

Mathematics: Counting small quantities

Measuring as in previous period; use of pints, quarts, ounces,
pounds, peck, bushel; playing store with real measures and wares;
making change with toy money; metric measures

Use of common fractions in construction and store play

Buying at store and making change

Use of small weekly allowance

Measuring inches, feet, yards, rods, in construction and store play

Reading thermometer

       *       *       *       *       *

Construction: Making of more difficult things

More attention to workmanship—accuracy and finish of product, skill
in handling tools

Use of smaller and finer materials

Carpentry; wood carving; making of cement blocks; modeling with clay,
having good pieces fired; use of potter’s wheel

Weaving with raffia, carpet woof, yarn, quarter-inch strips of cloth
or silk

Stringing small wooden beads, glass beads, papers and straws,
berries, seeds

Paper cutting, freehand, and following a line

Coarse sewing for dolls, simple personal mending, making of gifts
(periods not longer than half hour)

Basket-making with raffia and other flexible material

Experiments in carding of wool, spinning of yarn and thread

Making miniature types of dwellings of primitive peoples, as Indians,
Laplanders, Filipinos

Making toy theaters and puppets

Making scrapbooks classified for different subjects of interest

Drawing still from imagination, not directly from object, viz., an
avenue of creative imagination, not of accurate observation nor
logical analysis of line or form. Water color and crayola used in the
same way; copying of objects or pictures permitted if spontaneous;
coloring pictures

Little criticism of technique, avoiding any suggestions that might
repress freedom of expression, individuality, or confidence

Suggestions for improvement in technique as requested

Improvising of melodies and little songs

       *       *       *       *       *

Æsthetic Appreciation: As in previous period

Making collections of pictures from magazines, reproductions of
paintings and sculpture, allowing free individual choice; abundance
of good examples provided

       *       *       *       *       *

Moral: As in previous periods

Little appeal to conscience, motives, ambitions

Training in good habits as part of regular routine

Stories of fidelity, loyalty, generosity, helpfulness, patience

       *       *       *       *       *

Religious: As in previous period

Avoid forcing of religious interest or observance of forms

Select Sunday school with care. May be preferable to take child to
opening portion of church service, and to full service on festival
days

Bible stories especially of Old Testament history; boyhood of Christ

Stories from lives of religious leaders

Portions of religious allegories, as “Pilgrim’s Progress”

Cultivate tolerance for other sects.


Intellectual Interests. 8 or 9 to 12 Years

Tools of knowledge—reading, writing, spelling, numbers

Repetition and drill; learning by rote

Tests of observation, attention, mental alertness, power of inhibition

Little use for explanations or power of abstract reasoning

       *       *       *       *       *

Language: Play upon words; secret language, foreign language

       *       *       *       *       *

Collections: Collecting interest at greatest height; nature chief
collecting interest; imitative in collecting interests

       *       *       *       *       *

Mathematics: Simple arithmetical processes

Narrative history; action, adventure, biography

Physical geography: Social geography—customs, habits, living
conditions of people in other countries

       *       *       *       *       *

Nature: Care of pets, play with animals, gardening, collecting

       *       *       *       *       *

Handcrafts: Great range; development of skill and workmanship

Coördination of muscular action with sense judgments

Mechanics, electricity, chemistry; mechanical puzzles (interest
culminates at 11 years)

Toy interest decreasing toward end of period

Doll interest with girls reaches climax at 11 years; ceases with boys
at 8 years.

Beginning interest in making livelihood.




CHAPTER XIII

PLAY

  “Play is the highest phase of child-development—of human
  development at this period (childhood); for it is self-active
  representation of the inner, from inner necessity and impulse.”

  “The plays of childhood are the germinal leaves of all later life;
  for the whole man is developed and shown in these.”

  “Come, let us live with our children.”

  —F. FROEBEL.


Play is spontaneous self-activity. It is not found among lower forms
of animal life. The length of the play period with any species is
directly related to the degree of intelligence of which it is capable.

Young children instinctively play activities which become work
when they are mature, and which their ancestors have practiced
as work. Among animals, play is Nature’s method of training for
responsibilities of maturity in food-getting and protection from
enemies.

Among the great educators of earlier days who have recognized
the value of play as a means of education of children are Plato,
Comenius, Rousseau, Locke, Rabelais. Pestalozzi and Froebel were the
first modern educators to practically utilize play in the education
of little children, and the widespread interest in play to-day is
traceable to their efforts and influence.

=Play and Work.= In play the individual expresses his own desire,
unhampered by artificial restriction or repressions, limited only
by his own strength, his imagination, and the facilities of the
environment. Play is not necessarily easy, in the sense of making
small demands upon physical strength or mental energy. Any one who
watches children at their play knows that the intensity of their
interest and desire leads them into work requiring the utmost of
their physical strength, endurance, and skill, and the greatest
exercise of imagination, initiative, judgment, patience in the
solving of problems; drudgery is performed with relative ease,
because it is appreciated as a necessary means to a greatly desired
end. There is no value in drudgery as such. It is a part of the great
art of life to select motives and activities that are an expression
of self-activity, and to perform the drudgery in the same spirit
expressed by children in their play. Drudgery becomes irritating when
it is not appreciated in its relation to an interest, as when it is a
task set by some one else, with no relation to the life of the doer;
or is the performance of labor for others merely for pay, without any
personal interest in the work or its results.

The child must learn to perform many duties in his own personal care,
in the life of the household, the family, and the community. It is of
greater value to put imagination and the play spirit into these, to
learn to make games of them, than it is to make dull, unimaginative
drudgery of them. During his fourth or fifth year the child can begin
to comprehend the values of these tasks, in self-dependence, service
to others, coöperation in the advancement of human life, and that he
has the part of a worker to play in the great game of life.

Learning, intellectual study, art, should by all means be forms of
self-expression, a development of personality, a source of happiness
in their acquirement,—play in a large sense. If the pupil is unhappy,
disinterested, inattentive, the teacher or the educational system is
at fault in not having discovered the vital, instinctive interests
of the child and his natural, spontaneous way of learning. Better
turn such a child out for free play and first learn from him what are
his vital interests, and then utilize these, in this play spirit, to
bring to him content and discipline of educational—that is, permanent
and highest—value.

This ideal is practically possible by studying the child’s
instinctive activities and interests at any given stage, and
supplying (a) conditions in the environment which permit his full and
rich expression of these interests; (b) content or goals that have
permanent life value; (c) increasingly difficult and more complex
conditions and problems, so that the child is advancing in skill and
ability.

For example: The baby likes to handle objects. Cultivate this play
interest educationally by giving him objects illustrating a great
number of shapes and sizes. Utilize his love of sound by letting him
hear, every day if possible, some good music. The three-year-old
child loves to dramatize. Teach him good manners and courtesies in
playing “tea-party” and “visiting”; instruct him in simple first aid
and hygiene through playing “doctor.” Later, tell him great stories
from the myths, from history, from classic literature, that he can
“play out.”

At about five years of age children instinctively pour and measure.
Instead of leaving this to chance play, it is possible to make it
of permanent (educational) value by providing (a) a play space for
various kinds of measuring; (b) a variety of substances to measure,
as sand, sawdust, pebbles, water, colored water, long strips of
paper, cheap tape or cloth, clothespins, even “real” fruits and
vegetables; (c) standard measures,—pint, quart, gallon, dry quart,
peck, bushel; later, gill and ounce, and the pound and ounce weights;
(d) bottles with wide mouths, and other receptacles for pouring
into, that will cultivate steadiness and carefulness. Begin with
two or three measures, teaching their relation, as pint and quart,
gradually adding more as these become known. Give at first measures
and bottles easy to pour into, later those more difficult, requiring
better coördination. Set a standard of neatness and accuracy. Watch
for indications of fatigue and let the play stop before there is any
strain.

Normal children in a normal environment do not wish to be amused,
but they are full of ideas of their own that they wish to express.
The adult very often desires to amuse children,—not primarily for
their benefit but for his personal pleasure in watching them and
participating with them; he (or she) needs a training in self-control
and a deeper understanding of child nature, that he may come to find
as keen satisfaction in standing aside and watching the child’s
self-development, bringing forward his own personality only where it
will be of educational or social value.

=Children’s Parties.= Children’s parties may be a means of social,
physical, and spiritual grace, or they may be made a cause of
nervousness, dissipation, corruptive ideals. As a means of grace,
they should (a) be held in the daytime and last about two hours for
children under six, three hours for the older group; (b) preferably
outdoors; (c) include a small group of guests—only four or five
for children three to five years, ten or twelve for children five
to seven, and about twenty as a maximum for children seven to ten;
(d) require simple dressing; (e) little preliminary excitement of
preparation; (f) games carefully conducted, and alternated with
stories to prevent fatigue or too much excitement; (g) a small amount
of very simple refreshments, as fruit juice and lady fingers, or milk
and animal crackers for children under five; or a small portion of
pure ice cream and sponge cake for children five to seven; or a small
amount of simple candy, nuts, popcorn for children over seven.

=Play Room and Ground.= The best playground is the home yard, where
mother can keep an oversight; where other children can come so she
knows the playmates, and where the child is kept in sympathy with
home influences. For indoor play, there should be a room kept sacred
to the uses of childhood. In this way both adults and children
have more freedom, with less conflict of comfort and convenience.
For children under three or four years this room will naturally be
the nursery; for older children it should include facilities of a
workshop.

The playroom should be well lighted and ventilated, with floors bare
except rugs for small children to sit upon. The walls, curtains, and
rugs should be washable. The color scheme should be cheerful and
attractive to childhood. Yellow, warm gray, or green are especially
good; red is too stimulating; violet is oppressive. Touches of rose
or light blue might be added. The wall covering should preferably
be a hard paint or Sanitas, at least to a four-foot wainscoting.
Pictures should be easily removed, frequently changed, arranged with
some regard to unity and symmetry. Pictures for little children
should be hung low enough to be easily seen.

The furnishings should include tables adapted to the child’s height,
chairs of hygienic design, cupboards and window seats for toys,
apparatus, tools, books, where they will be kept out of the dust
and in a reasonable order. The children should be responsible for
the orderliness of rooms and cupboards, good condition of walls and
furniture, and ordinary care of playground and playroom. Children
over seven may well be responsible for sweeping, dusting, wiping of
floors and woodwork.

=Playground Apparatus.= Sand pile, in framework or box, with cover
for protection from stray animals and weather. White sea sand is
cleanest.

Swings adapted to size and development of children

Playhouse

Place for pets and garden

Other apparatus, adapted to children at different stages, is listed
under each period, in this and two subsequent chapters.

For the playroom, supply an aquarium and vivarium, tools, workbench,
materials for handwork.


Play Interests and Activities. Infancy to Four Years

  Sensory and motor activities
  Individual play
  Toys
  Imitation; simple, imaginative, dramatic play
  Quiet games preferred to active


One to Eight Months

  Simple sense plays: Seeing, hearing, touching

  Play with limbs: Arms, hands, legs, toes; grasping, sucking,
  reaching for objects, holding, pulling, shaking, kicking

  Pleasure in passive rhythmic movement of limbs, given by attendant

  Play with simple toys

  Apparatus: Baby pen, toys


Eight to Twelve Months

  Experiments with sounds: Crumpling paper, pounding, pulling bells

  Surprise and recognition: Peek-a-boo

  Play with limbs: Pat-a-cake, touching features

  Handling objects, turning key, opening and closing doors

  Imitation: Smiles, vocal sounds, manual work

  Rolling ball: Receiving ball when rolled

  Apparatus:

  Chair swing, with support for feet
  Chairs to climb up by and push

  Low railing for support in standing and walking

  Two or three low, broad stairs (about 6 inches high, 12 inches
  deep) to crawl up and down


One to Two Years

  Sensory and motor experiments more extensive

  Exploring, handling

  Opening and shutting; taking out and putting in; turning key

  Digging; pouring

  Pounding for noise, tearing paper

  Hiding self

  Simple finger plays, _e.g._, “This Little Pig”, “Creep Mouse”,
  “Knock at Door”, Froebel’s “Play with Limbs”

  Rolling and tossing ball in free play

  Brief games, rolling and throwing ball, with adult

  Play with toys, as doll, cart, train, animals

  Apparatus:

    Swinging chair, with board or wall to strike feet in swinging

    Low stile or stairs, with side rail or bannister

    Small, low ladder

    12-inch plank, 6-10 feet long, laid on ground, or securely
    elevated 4 inches, making low bridge

    Kitchen, cupboards, drawers, playroom, for exploration


Two to Four Years

  Exploring wider range; watching activities, people, animals,
  machinery

  Examining objects, taking apart and putting together

  Digging, pouring; playing with sand, mud, water

  Hammering, pounding; experimenting with sound

  Building with blocks; piling up and tearing down

  Simple ball play, chasing, rolling, trying to catch

  Finger plays; only simple ones yet possible, “Thumbkin says, ‘I’ll
  Dance’”, “The Merry Little Men”,

  “The Garden”, “Here’s a Ball for Baby”, (Poulsson)

  Jumping and sliding begin; short running, being caught

  Walking sidewise along fence, swinging on rope; climbing

  Imitation of adult activities begins; household work, common
  industries

  Hiding self, but without sufficient control to remain until found

  Pounding and rolling modeling clay; pretend painting, drawing,
  sewing

  Gathering stones, sticks, bright-colored objects

  Experimenting with liquid color

  Looking at pictures, especially of children, animals

  Feeding pets, planting seeds

  Play with dolls, toy animals, active toys

  Apparatus as for previous age, and add:

    Slide, purchased ready-made; or homemade one of 12-inch plank,
    smooth, waxed, firmly secured, raised at one end 2 feet,
    protected at sides by 3-inch strips, free from slivers

    Board swing, with back, opposite board or wall to strike feet
    against

    Heavy rope, knotted at end, suspended from tree or ceiling, to
    catch hold of and swing upon

    Pit of straw, hay, sawdust, or sand to jump into

    Playhouse with small doors and windows to crawl through; may be
    made of large packing boxes

    Swinging bar, to hang from by hands, toes on ground. Should be
    raised just enough for difficult reach; may be homemade of broom
    handle, capped at ends with leather or cloth, suspended by ropes
    from tree or ceiling.

    Shallow brook, watering trough, tub, or basin, for water play

For outdoor play, clothe the child in white or light seersucker
rompers, with sandals, in summer, and knitted sweater and leggings in
winter, for both boys and girls.

Teach children how to jump correctly, landing on soles of feet,
bending the knees.

Children at this age are most likely to be at a loss what to do
next. With ample opportunity and space for exploration, objects
for examination, and suitable apparatus for instinctive physical
activities, they will find this need met and will not need to be
“amused.”


Four to Six Years

  Sensory and motor activities

  Dramatic imitation, industries, animals

  Imaginative dramatic play; dressing up

  Beginnings of group play, unorganized

  Beginning interest in circle games, singing games, traditional games

  Finger plays

  Climbing, jumping, rolling, sliding, swinging; balancing, walking
  on straight line

  Beginnings of marching, skipping, dancing, swimming, skating

  Handcrafts: Carpentry, painting, drawing, modeling, pasting,
  building with blocks, mechanical construction

  Pouring, filling, weighing, measuring

  Play with water, sand

  Planting, caring for garden; caring for pets

  Collecting less crude; stones, sticks, leaves, insects, pictures,
  flags, buttons, bright colored paper, cloth

  Doll play (boys and girls)

  Hiding, hunting for persons and objects; with growing control

  Simple tag games, short running, simple rules

  Simple guessing, observation, surprise games; playing tricks

  Play with words, as nonsense syllables, long words, rhyming

  Experimenting with sound; improvising songs, melodies, on
  instruments

  Experimenting with colors and shapes; sorting, matching, grading;
  coloring pictures

  Looking at pictures with story value, historic value

  Experimenting with problems in physics, chemistry

  Exploring a wider environment

  Apparatus and equipment:

    Farmyard, garden, orchard, meadows, woods, beach

    Sand pile; sand box for house

    Swings, slide, jumping pit, playhouse, adapted to size

    Swinging rings; made of rope secured with heavy surgeon’s
    plaster, and covered with cloth, suspended from tree or ceiling

    Rope ladder, 6 feet high, with mattress, straw, or hay bed beneath

    Fence for sidewise walking

    Joist or rail, 2 inches wide, single or parallel, for
    straight-line walking

    Aquarium, vivarium; boxes for collections

During this period there is need of much companionship with a few
other children of from three to seven years. This will give training
in generosity, social feeling, kindness, patience, self-control. It
will provide larger opportunities for dramatic play, and thus for
range of imagination.


Six to Ten Years

  Sensory interests less marked

  Ability to keep to rules of game

  Group play, especially traditional, circle, singing games, group
  competitions, ball games

  Running: Running games, catching, as in forms of tag

  Doll play; usually confined to girls; in latter part of period,
  paper dolls, stunt dolls

  Ball play and games, especially among boys

  Dancing, balancing, swimming, skating, climbing, swinging, sliding,
  tumbling

  Manual dexterity in catching, throwing, balancing, hitting at a
  mark, hitting at a ball

  Dramatic play organized into serial play extending over days and
  weeks, especially industrial activities, as playing house, store,
  school, primitive life; playing at camping, hunting, imitating
  social life of adults as found in environment

  Handcrafts: Carpentry, painting, drawing, modeling, weaving,
  sewing, knitting; pasting, papercutting; mechanical construction

  Decorating, decorative designs, personal decoration

  Weighing, measuring, counting

  Housework, cooking

  Rummaging, hoarding

  Hiding and finding games more complex and difficult

  Collecting interest strong; wide range, little classification;
  includes pictures, flags, stamps, shells, souvenirs, leaves, birds’
  eggs, minerals, insects

  Gardening; care of pets

  Games of mental alertness, observation, shrewder guessing, physical
  alertness, accuracy, motor control

  Play with words; rhyming, puns, riddles, counting out

  Measuring strength of wit, patience, personality, will, with
  others, especially adults

  Observing industries, visiting natural history museums, watching
  machinery in action

  Exploring meadows, fields, woods, caves

  Expression of natural ability in special phases of art

  Apparatus and equipment:

    As in previous period, except fence and rail

    Ample space for running, climbing, group games

    Companionship of comrades, boys and girls, for cultivation of
    social adjustment, fairness, generosity, competition.




CHAPTER XIV

GAMES

  “The difference between a genius and a pedant consists exactly in
  this, that the genius performs his work playfully, while the pedant
  groans under the drudgery of his task.”

  —PAUL CARUS.

  “The real fall of man is to do things without zest.”

  —G. STANLEY HALL.


=The Value of Games.= All games are play, but not all plays are
games. In a game some rule is involved, some goal or object is to be
attained. Usually, though not always, in a game, two or more play
together.

Most children under three years of age, and many under four, have not
developed sufficient self-control, imagination, memory, and judgment
to play a game. If “Hide-and-Seek” is attempted, they will run out of
the hiding place before they are discovered. In “Hunt the Thimble”,
they will point out where the object is hid. They are with difficulty
held to the sequence of circle games, except of the simplest sort.

At about four years, however, most children have the mental and
social development to find interest in circle games, traditional
games, and some competitive games.

Supplementing the educational values of play in general, different
games have some of these additional educational values:

  Training in social relationships, in group action, coöperation,
  competition

  Cultivating a sense of social interdependence Sharing experiences
  with mates

  Subordination to the rights, desires, and leadership of others

  Loyalty to a leader or a group

  Incentive to improvement of skill in order to compete with others

  Acceptance of the consequences of failure or inefficiency

  Opportunity for leadership to him who is able

  Realization of law, through rules of game

  Measuring of personal ability and personality with that of mates


=Kinds of Games.= Games may be classified according to

  (1) the degree of physical activity involved;

  (2) the degree and kind of mental activity required;

  (3) the moral and social traits cultivated.

Each of these groups would be subdivided according to age, although
some games seem of interest at any age.

With little children in the home it is convenient to have at hand a
classified list. This list should begin with the standard games, and
be lengthened as new ones are found or, better still, are devised by
the children.

Any game tried should be interesting, “fun”, that is,

  (a) suited to the physical powers and mental development of the
  child;

  (b) expressive of his spontaneous interests.[33]

Certain activities have play interest at every stage but could be
played only in a very simple, brief game under four years, and for
a longer time and more complexly after that age. These most common
activities, or motifs, include surprise, imitation, observation,
guessing, hiding, seeking, catching, chasing, running, ball play. The
worker with young children should be able to invent many little games
based on these motifs. Simple little songs, invented, spontaneously
improvised, or gathered from kindergarten songbooks, add joyousness
to the game, cultivate a love and expression of music, and teach the
utilizing of art in everyday life.

Games may be analyzed by the following scheme, to discover their
values.

  Active:                         Quiet:
    Outdoor                         Outdoor
    Indoor                          Indoor

  Sensory Training:               Motor Training:
    Sight, hearing, touch           Bodily control
    Taste, smell, weight            Neatness
    Form, color                     Alertness of response
    Alertness                       Accuracy of movement
    Accuracy                        Coördination of different muscles
    Discrimination                  Skill
                                    Grace

  Mental Training:
    Observation                   Moral Training:
    Concentration                   Perseverance
    Alertness                       Courtesy
    Imitation                       Gentleness
    Perception                      Generosity
    Imagination                     Courage
    Judgment                        Patience
    Accuracy                        Independence
    Initiative                      Justice
    Invention                       Sense of law
    Leadership                      Coöperation
    Individuality
    Inhibition
    Relaxation
    Humor

Every game involves some attention and conformity to rules. “Follow
the Leader” involves activity, careful observation of the leader’s
movements, imitation, alertness, motor control, and reasoning in
guessing; if trade is represented, the leader must exercise ingenuity
and initiative in thinking of a new movement. “Spin the Platter” and
“Drop the Handkerchief” require mental alertness intermittent with
attention. “Cat and Mouse” and “Hawk and Chickens” require physical
alertness, dexterity, and quick judgment. “Ring-around-a-Rosie”
involves rhythm, chanting, and a bit of the ludicrous. “Charlie
Over the Water” is a step further, involving mental and physical
alertness. “Little Sallie Waters” and “Farmer in the Dell” involve
love of rhythm and music, dramatizing, and the choice of a partner.


Games for the Littlest


=Eight to Eighteen Months.= Motor control, finger plays, surprise

  Finger Plays:                             Falling, Falling (Mother Play)
    Peek-a-boo                              Rolling and receiving the ball
    Pat-a-Cake                              Hiding self
    Open the Door                           Hiding things
    This Little Pig                         Catching


=One to Three Years.= Motor control, finger plays, hiding;
observation, surprise, guessing, imitation

  Hide and Seek (very simple)               Finger Plays:
  Hunt the Thimble (use ball or doll)         Here’s a Ball for Baby
  Chasing and catching                        The Merry Little Men
  Rolling, tossing, and catching ball         Finger Piano
                                              Shut them, Open
                                              Thumbkin says, “I’ll dance”


Nursery Finger Plays

1. This Little Pig Went to Market

  2. Knock at the door (tap the forehead)
     Peep in (lift the eyelid)
     Lift up the latch (touch tip of nose)
     Walk in (touch lips)
     Take a little chair
     Right down under there (chucking under the chin).

  3. Here’s my father’s knives and forks (hands back to
      back, fingers standing up like rake)
     Here’s my mother’s table (hands turned over, the
      interlaced fingers flat like a table)
     Here’s my sister’s looking-glass (forefingers raised,
      forming a triangle)
     And here’s the baby’s cradle (little fingers also
      raised, forming a triangle for front piece of cradle).

  4. Here’s the church (position as in line 2 of preceding)
     And here’s the steeple   ”  ”  ”    ”  3 ”      ”
     Open the door         ”     ”  ”    ”  1 ”      ”
     And see all the people.

  5. “Shut them, open; shut them, open;
     Give a little clap;
     Open, shut them; open, shut them;
     Fold them in your lap;
     Creep them, creep them, creep them, creep them.
     To the little chin;
     Open wide the little mouth,
     And pop a finger in.

     “Shut them, open; shut them, open,
     To the shoulders fly;
     Open, shut them; open, shut them,
     Up into the sky;
     Falling, falling, falling, falling,
     Almost to the ground;
     Hold them up in front of you
     And twirl them round and round.”

  6. Thumbkin says, “I’ll dance,”
     Thumbkin says, “I’ll sing,”
  Dance and sing, ye merry little men,
  Thumbkin says, “I’ll dance and sing.”

     (Tapping with thumb, other fingers closed)

     Pointer says, etc. Refrain
     Tall man says, etc.   ”
     Ring man says, etc.   ”
     Little man says, etc. ”

     (On refrain, all fingers tapping)

     All men say they’ll rest
     All men say they’ll sleep.
  Rest and sleep, ye merry little men;
  All men say they’ll rest and sleep.

(Last stanza, hands closed, thumb inside; sing softly)

  7. Now see we here.
     These friends so dear,
     As they together meet.
     With bows polite
     And faces bright
     Each other they will greet.
     Oh, “How do you do,” and
     “How do you do,” and
     “How do you do,” again
     And “How do you do,”
     And “How do you do,”
     Say all these little men.

(Hands held up with fingers erect, palms opposite. At line 7, thumbs
bent toward each other, and following fingers on each succeeding
greeting; all together on line 11.)


=Three to Four Years.= Children are usually not yet interested in
group games; some children not until five or six years. At this age
children can play together with their toys but cannot manage a
game among themselves. They are able to play simple games with an
adult. The parent or teacher can make simple games out of the daily
activities.

Slightly more difficult finger plays and forms of games than those
listed in previous age period can be used, and simple forms of those
games listed in succeeding period.

  Motor Accuracy:
    Tenpins

  Circle and Active Games:
    Ring-around-a-Rosie
    Cat and Mouse

Sense Games. These involve the “guessing” interest but require
thought.

Sight and Observation. Tell what object, color, form is taken
away from a group, or added. Match a color or form of flower or
other object, first with object in hand, later from memory. “I
saw”—relating what was seen on a walk, in a room, or when passing a
store.

Touch. Tell the name of an object or form by handling it while
blindfold.

Hearing. Tell the direction of a sound, instrument sounded, person
speaking, while blindfolded.

Language Games. Many can be invented similar to the following, in
which increase in speaking vocabulary is gained. Nouns: I went to
the Zoo (store, boat, etc.) and there I saw—(name objects). Verbs: A
train (bird, dog, wind, etc.) can—(name activities). Adjectives: I
like squirrels (flowers, dolls, apples, etc.) because they are—(name
adjectives).

Alertness. Children at this age, and until six, are often dawdling,
dreamy. Games can be invented to cultivate dispatch and alertness,
as “running a race” with a person or the clock, in dressing and
undressing.

Poise, Relaxation, Concentration. What Montessori calls the “Game
of Silence” cultivates these qualities. As played in the Montessori
schools, the children sit quietly, relaxed, in a room slightly
darkened, while all sounds are hushed, and all listen. After two or
three minutes some one in an adjoining room whispers or calls faintly
the name of a child, and the child goes as softly as possible,
returning as softly. Ten or fifteen minutes is the limit of the
children’s ability to play the game. Forms of it may be played when
going through the house, or whenever quiet is especially desired; or
when the children are becoming irritable or too nervous.

       *       *       *       *       *

The imitative, imaginative, and dramatic play instincts of the years
from three to six offer opportunity for a wide range of invention of
games. These should not be formal but by their very nature must give
freedom of initiative, imagination, and self-expression. They may
be utilized, for instance, in social training, as in playing that
the child is a prince or princess at a banquet, or is a parent to
the doll who sits near by to be taught, making a game of neat table
manners or careful chewing. They may be utilized for moral training,
as in playing that the child is the fairy godmother who could bring
sunshine wherever she went; or Siegfried, who could kill all the
dragons of ugly temper or words.


=Four to Six Years.= Simple circle games, singing games, dramatic
imitation, catching, finding. Utilize the sense games, alertness,
language, imaginative and dramatic games described in previous
period, using more complex and difficult situations.

  Tag Games:
    Drop the Handkerchief
    Cat and Mouse
    Pussy wants a Corner

  Dramatic Kindergarten Games with Music:
    The Pigeon House
    The Chickadees
    The Snail

  Hiding Games:
    I Spy
    Hide the Thimble (using larger object)

  Circle and Singing Games:
    Ring-around-a-Rosie
    Charlie over the Water
    Little Sallie Waters
    Button, Button
    Magical Music
    Here we go round the Mulberry Bush
    Did you ever see a Lassie

  Ball Games:
    Variations in catching and throwing

  Motor Ability:
    Hitting at a mark
    Tenpins
    Ringtoss

  Alertness:
    Bird, Beast or Fish
    (Many other simple games based on this idea of
     classification can be invented, such as the following)
    Hard or Soft
    Tree, Vine or Plant
    Vegetable or Mineral
    Found or Made

  Attention and Invention:
    Stagecoach
    (Similar games invented, such as Boat, Flower, Wardrobe, Mythology)


=Six to Nine Years.= Period of special interest in traditional
circle games, running and catching, imitative action, observation
and alertness, dramatic action. More complex games are invented,
utilizing classification, invention.

  Circle-singing:
    London Bridge
    Round and Round the Village
    Farmer in the Dell

  Counting-out Games:

  Tag variations:
    Wood Tag, Stone Tag, etc.

  Catching Games:
    Pom, Pom, Pull Away
    Hawk and Chickens
    Blind Man’s Buff
    Dodging and dare games

  Motor Control:
    Hopscotch
    Cat’s Cradle
    Marbles, Jackstones
    Honey Pots
    Handicap races, as potato race

  Alertness:
    Going to Jerusalem
    Spin the Platter
    Bird, Beast, or Fish
    Magical Music
    Crambo
    Riddles

  Sense Games:
    Taste
    Smell
    Touch

  Table Games:
    Checkers
    Dominoes

  Imitation or Invention:
    Follow the Leader
    Solomon says “Thumbs up”
    Hold Fast and Let Go
    Trades
    Charades

  Hitting at Mark:
    Tenpins
    Ringtoss
    Archery
    Volley ball
    Faba Gaba
    Croquet
    Tennis


FOOTNOTES:

[33] These spontaneous interests and the developments of physical and
mental abilities are briefly analyzed in Chapters V, XII, XIII.




CHAPTER XV

THE TOY AGE

  “Choose his toys wisely and then leave him alone with them. Leave
  him to the throng of emotional impressions they will call into
  being. Remember that they speak to his feelings when his mind is
  not yet open to reason. The toy at this period is surrounded with
  a halo of poetry and mystery, and lays hold of the imagination and
  the heart.

  “When we have restored playthings to their place in education—a
  place which assigns them the principal part in the development
  of human sympathies—we can later put into the hands of children
  objects whose impressions will reach their minds more particularly.”

  —KATE DOUGLAS WIGGIN.


=The Toy Age.= When the baby first begins to grasp objects and
stare at them, the toy age begins, that is, at about four weeks. It
increases rapidly in force during the first year, and from two to
about ten years is in its height. It declines with the approach of
adolescence and by twelve is devoted chiefly to apparatus for games.
It wanes With the decline of imaginative play and gives way to the
interest in reading and industries.

=Education through Toys.= Toys, as the child’s constant, most
intimate companions and most used implements during these
impressionable years, inevitably have a marked influence upon his
character and development. Froebel was the first great modern
educator to appreciate the significance of a child’s toys, and to
apply himself to the task of selecting and inventing those that
would best develop his creative self-activity, his personality and
happiness. The blocks or “gifts” that he devised are valuable for
their simplicity, their variety of form, and their purpose of
giving to the child an increasing number of forms as he grows in
imaginative and constructive ability. Froebel did not appreciate, as
modern biology has taught us, that the little child is in the stage
of fundamental muscle activity, and that the accessory muscles (finer
muscles, of fingers and eyes) do not develop completely for steady
use until after six or seven years. Froebel, therefore, used the
1-inch cubes, which hygienists to-day discard for the larger size,—at
least 2-inch for table use and paving-block size for floor use.

How far are children’s expressions of desire for toys, as they
visit a toy shop, an index to the value of these toys, or their
permanent interest in them at home? Relatively slight. Here again
it is necessary to distinguish between the child’s passing whim
and his vital interest. Children are momentarily attracted by the
gorgeous, the vivid-colored, by noise, rhythm, motion, the imitation
of adult activities. This explains their superficial interest, while
in a toy shop, in the realistic French doll with wonderful clothes
and a speaking voice, in the mechanical toys, the flimsy little
nonentities. At home, in the playroom, the flimsy nonentities are
soon broken and cast away without more than a ripple of emotion,
and the realistic French doll languishes alone in her glory, while
plain Mary Jane receives the daily ministrations of affection and
comradeship.

It is these factors of glitter, noise, rhythm, imitation, physical
activity, combined with the possibilities of movement and
counter-movement, augmented by the attitude and remarks of their
elders, who, assuming the reasonableness of war, praise military
activities, that explain the child’s interest in military toys. Any
other toys that have these same qualities will hold the child’s
enthusiasm as well. Engines, trains and their crews, fire engines
and firemen, steamboats and sailors, life-savers, fishermen,
policemen, mines and miners, steeplejacks, divers, carpenters,
painters, farmers,—there is a great range of possibilities. It is
true many of these are not yet to be had in the toyshops, but they
will be found there as soon as the demand is sufficient. It should
be noted, in passing, that the military toys have been imported
from foreign countries, where war has been considered the climax of
virtue, and where little children, especially in the royal families,
were systematically imbued with a spirit of military prowess. The
consequences are written so large that “the wayfaring man though
a fool cannot err thereby.” International peace will begin in the
nursery, in the training in ideals of activity and heroism that are
constructive and helpful, not destructive.

In “A Story of a Sand Pile”, Doctor G. Stanley Hall comments: “It is
a striking feature, to which I have observed no exception, that the
more finished and like reality the objects became, the less interest
the boys had in them. As the tools, houses, etc., acquired feature
after feature of verisimilitude, the sphere of the imagination was
restricted, as it is with too finished toys, and thus one of the
chief charms of play was lost.”

=Dolls.= In a questionnaire-study made by Clark University of
children’s interest in dolls, eliciting returns from nearly a
thousand children, the following interests were noted.

  (a) The favorite dolls were simple, even rude, with few
  accessories, curly hair, four to twelve inches in size, could be
  washed and handled in every way, taken everywhere.

  (b) Dolls representing children or adults were preferred to baby
  dolls.

  (c) Interest in very small or very large dolls, and paper dolls,
  developed after eight or nine years.

  (d) Boys preferred dolls representing monkeys, animals, heroes,
  dragons, etc.

Quoting from Doctor Hall’s comments on this study:

  The educational value of dolls is enormous. It educates the
  heart and will even more than the intellect, and to learn how to
  control and apply doll-play will be to discover a new instrument
  in education of the very highest potency. Every parent and every
  teacher who can deal with individuals at all should study the
  doll habits of each child, now discouraging and repressing, now
  stimulating by hint or suggestion.

  Too many accessories lessen the educational value of this play
  in teaching children to put themselves in the parents’ place,
  in deepening love of children, and of motherhood. Children with
  French dolls incline to practice their little French upon them; can
  this tendency be utilized in teaching a foreign language to young
  children?...

  The rudest doll has the great advantage of stimulating the
  imagination by giving it more to do than does the elaborately
  finished doll. It can also enter more fully into the child’s
  life, because it can be played with more freely without danger of
  being soiled or injured. With rude dolls, too, the danger both of
  hypertrophy and of too great prolongation of the doll instinct
  is diminished. The child’s interest is opposed to large, elegant
  French dolls which teach love of dress and suggest luxury, and
  dolls with too many mechanical devices, as for winking, walking,
  speaking, and singing, against which the Russian Toy Congress
  has so strongly protested. Rather small and durable dolls, soft
  enough not to hurt, flexible, with two or three colors and not more
  than two or three garments, along with plenty of hints regarding
  clothespins, flowers, and other varied material,—something like
  this seems to be the suggestion for a first doll, with increasing
  variation in size, material, elaborateness, and number till the
  doll passion vanishes in two dimensions, with innumerable paper
  dolls, towards adolescence.

  That boys are naturally fond of and should play with dolls as
  well as girls, there is abundant indication. One boy in a family
  of girls, or boys who are only children, often play with dolls
  up to seven or eight years of age. It is unfortunate that this is
  considered so predominantly a girl’s play. Most boys abandon it
  early or never play, partly because it is thought girlish by adults
  as well as by children. Of course, boy life is naturally rougher
  and demands a wider range of activities. The danger, too, of making
  boy milliners is of course obvious, but we are convinced that, on
  the whole, more play with girl dolls by boys would tend to make
  them more sympathetic with girls as children, if not more tender
  with their wives and with women later. Again, boys as well as girls
  might be encouraged to play with boy dolls more than at present,
  with great advantage to both. Boys, too, seem to prefer exceptional
  dolls, clowns, brownies, colored, Eskimo, Japanese, etc. Boys, too,
  seem fonder than girls of monkey and animal dolls, and are often
  very tender of these, when they maltreat dolls in human shape.
  Again, dolls representing heroes of every kind and non-existent
  beings, dragons, and hobgoblins find their chief admirers among
  boys.

  It seems to be about the age of six, three years before the
  culmination of the doll passion, that the conflict between fancy
  and reality becomes clearly manifest. Abandonment to the doll
  illusion and the length of the doll period decreases as dolls
  and their accessories become elaborate. With every increase of
  knowledge of anatomy or of the difference between living tissue and
  dead matter, between life and mechanism, this element of doll play
  must wane.


  Tests of Good Toys

  Lovable

  Durable in composition and workmanship

  Stimulating to imagination, analysis, invention, initiative,
  activity, workmanship

  Adapted to experimentation, investigation or constructive purposes

  Adapted to the child’s stage of development, viz., his motor
  ability, his interests, his mental development

  Sanitary, washable; without inaccessible corners to harbor dirt and
  germs

  Artistic in form, color, expression; that is, simple in design,
  harmonious in color, genuine, without either sentimentality or
  thorough realism

       *       *       *       *       *

  The purpose of toys is not merely to amuse the child but to call
  forth fuller expression of his self-activity.


  Harmful Toys


  Unpardonable Defects

  Physical:

    Dangerous: having sharp edges, corners or points; pins or tacks,
    small bells, buttons, ornaments, that may be pulled off and
    swallowed

    Unhygienic: not washable; paint or dye that runs; made in
    unsanitary factory; too small for child’s stage of development

    Inartistic: jangling, harsh, metallic, discordant sounds;
    unsymmetrical, poorly proportioned, ugly shapes; unharmonious
    or harsh colors; simpering, ugly, or unwholesome expressions on
    dolls or animals.

    Flimsy in material or workmanship

  Psychological:

    Mechanical, merely amusing the child, making him only a spectator
    instead of providing a means for his own creative activity

    Military, demoralizing for the following reasons:

    (_a_) they cultivate the spirit of destructiveness rather than
    constructiveness;

    (_b_) they foster callousness toward the value of human life;

    (_c_) they give a wholly wrong impression of the meaning of war,
    omitting its destructive social and industrial effects, and
    overemphasizing the joy of its enthusiasm and rhythm.

    Over-realistic, super-refined,—especially dolls


[Illustration: Unhygienic, Inartistic, Anti-social Toys.]

[Illustration: Hygienic, Durable, Constructive, Social Toys.]


  Especially to be avoided under six years are toys having:

    sharp points, corners, edges;

    small bells or detachable ornaments;

    paint which easily comes off;

    flimsy toys easily broken;

    woolly animals (unless washable and washed);

    popguns;

    fine material, sometimes sold as “Kindergarten material”, _e.g._,
    sewing cards, paper mats, straws, small beads, sticks, peg
    boards, crayons, blocks.


  =Mechanical Toys.= Doctor Hall comments on this:

  Mechanical toys, more than any others, seem to have the shortest
  existence in the hands of bright, active children, a fact which
  suggests that toys so constructed as to show principles of
  motion and elementary physical laws, without involving their
  own destruction, are an educational need yet to be supplied.
  This destructive form of curiosity, due to normal development of
  mentally active children, needing guidance, and to be furnished
  with a proper outlet, but not repressed, is not to be confused with
  the careless destruction of toys, due to lack of interest, which
  is unfortunately common in children whose interests and powers of
  appreciation have been weakened and dissipated by overloading them
  with toys and diversions until it has bred in them an ennui which
  has sapped their power of attention and left them incapable of
  self-entertainment. Healthy children, if allowed to develop under
  normal conditions, find interests and amusements for themselves,
  and the child who has been so reared that he wants to be constantly
  amused, and has no keen desires because they have been too
  frequently anticipated, has been deprived of one of the rights of
  childhood.

  A baby’s early motor interests are in the things which he himself
  can do, and disappointed friends and relatives have often found
  their gifts of mechanical toys a failure, simply because they
  have too far anticipated the natural development, and the toy
  has proved either a source of fear or failed to excite special
  interest. In fact, even at a later period, mechanical toys
  which are too complicated in construction or too delicate to
  bear investigation, which are apt to be clumsy, soon lose their
  attractiveness, while something that can be taken to pieces and put
  together by unskilled fingers, so that it will “go again” may prove
  of continued interest.

And Kate Douglas Wiggin writes: “Every thoughtful person knows that
the simple, natural playthings of the old-fashioned child, which are
nothing more than pegs on which he hangs his glowing fancies, are
healthier than our complicated modern mechanisms, in which the child
has only to press the button and the toy does the rest.”

=The Treatment of Toys.= The right treatment of toys has far-reaching
educational values in orderliness, thrift, prudence, depth of
emotion, generosity, genuineness. The child who has a small number
of durable toys that will stand the strain of usage and therefore
accumulate years of associations and emotions, is having an education
in genuineness and emotional strength, while the child who has
a great number of flimsy toys that rapidly disappear is being
trained in superficiality and shallowness. The child whose toys
are promptly repaired when broken is being trained in prudence and
orderliness, and still more so when, even during his second year,
he is responsible for keeping them orderly and neat. The child who
is surfeited with gifts, or who is allowed to spend his pennies
prodigally for cheap jimcracks, is being trained in extravagance,
shortsightedness, and discontent; while the one who is given a
reasonable number of gifts and is taught to save his pennies and
think carefully of worth-while toys to buy, is being trained in
thriftiness, foresight, and satisfaction.


A Guide to Toys for Children


=First Year.= Utilizing hand, forearm, upper arm.


Sensory and Motor Experience

  1 to 4 months:
    Rod to grasp
    Rubber or celluloid ball or doll
    Semi-sphere of rubber or wood

  4 months:
    Celluloid dumb-bell

  5 months:
    Montessori sand boxes
    Paper to crumple
    Small enamel or tin cup

  6 months:
    Wooden ball
    Mirror, pocket size, in frame
    Spoon
    Leather reins to pull upon, with musical bells
    Rubber balls, each covered with one of primary colors
     (crocheted of cotton or silk)

  8 months:
    Picture book, linen, large, colored pictures
    Small hand bell
    Water toys—fish, swans

  9 months:
    Kitchen utensils in variety of shapes, sizes
      (no sharp edges or points, non-breakable)
    Rolling pin, pie tins, Clothespins
    Football

  10 months:
    Hard vegetables and fruits; potato, apple, squash, cucumber,
    carrots, eggplant (shapes, sizes, colors)

  12 months:
    Japanese gong
    Tube
    Rubber, wooden, or celluloid toys, _e.g._, doll, dog, cat


=One to Two Years.= Large size implements for forearm, whole arm,
trunk; sensory and motor experience; color, sound, experimentation.

  Wooden mallet, large nails, and bar of soap

  Sand box and stones

  Bucket and spoons, dipper

  Variety of balls

  Football

  Wooden blocks 2 × 4 inches

  Nests of balls, dolls

  Spools

  Kitchen utensils

  Hard fruits and vegetables

  2 or 3 dolls; 2 or 3 toy animals (rubber, celluloid, or wood)

  Chair swing

  Stationary ladder, 4 to 6 rungs

  Rope to pull up weight

  Montessori wooden cylinders


=Two to Four Years.= Utilizing fundamental muscles, sensory and motor
activities, imagination, construction.


Imaginative Play

  Dolls: Unbreakable, washable, 4 to 12 inches long
    baby and adult dolls; girl and boy dolls


  Doll accessories: Pewter or enamel dishes, cooking
  utensils, stove

  Laundry equipment, especially tub and flatiron;
  broom

  Doll cradle

  Doll’s house

  Noah’s Ark: Dogs, horses, cats, bears, in rubber,
  celluloid, wood

  Jack-in-box

  Nested balls, dolls


  Outdoor, Active

    Wheelbarrow, wagon

    Train of cars, boat

    Velocipede

    Fire engine

    Horse reins

    Garden tools; pail and shovel Balls: Football, large rubber with
    pictures; wooden; small rubber with spectrum colors

    Tenpins

    Rubber balloons


  Constructive

    Blocks; large size, as paving blocks, in hard wood, utilizing
    trunk and arms, for floor use; 2-inch cubes and half-cubes for
    table use; cut exactly to inch measures, if possible; range of
    sizes for towers; interlocking blocks

    Montessori tower and stair

    Carpentry tools; real tools in child’s size

    Sand, modeling clay, paints, large size crayola; blackboard or
    large sheets Manila paper (2 × 3 feet)

    Large wooden beads, pegboard

    Sliced animals, birds

    Soap bubble apparatus

    Sticks in ¼ and ½ inch diameters, assorted lengths, 4 to 36 inch;
    plain, or dyed in primary colors

    Color bobbins, spools, blocks

    Quart and pint measures

    Sand forms

    Clothespins, boxes, spools

    Stones, leaves, twigs, acorn cups

    Zinc sand box; can be purchased; or a box may be made, having
    boards free from splinters, or planed smooth, lined with zinc
    (leaving no rough edges or corners), or made waterproof with
    several coats of cheap varnish.

    Toy bank

    Musical toys:

      Triangle, tubephone, musical bells, drum, trumpet, horn (with
      care for mouth hygiene); toy musical notes and bars for later
      months


  =Four to Six Years.= Fundamental muscles. Imagination,
  construction, measuring; experimenting with mechanical principles,
  simple chemistry, electricity; making toys.


  Imaginative Play

  Dolls (for both girls and boys)
    Unbreakable, washable
    Representing children of different races, countries
  Doll accessories:
    Carriage, trunk
  Doll houses more complete
  Stove and cooking utensils more ample
  Laundry equipment that can be used
  Indian suits (fireproof)
  Punch and Judy
  Toy theater
  Kaleidoscope; magnets


  Musical

    Continue those of previous period

    Wind harp, bugle or flute, tambourine, musical bells and glasses,
    toy piano


  Outdoor, Active

  Continue those of previous period
  Garden tools, usable
  Watering can, trowel
  Tenpins, top, hoop, ringtoss
  Balls (add bouncing ball, volley ball)


  Constructive

    Continue those of previous period

    Blocks as previous period; add round, triangular, cylindrical;
    variety of geometric shapes

    Stone mosaics (1 to 2-inch size) for parquetry

    Picture puzzles

    Paint book, drawing paper

    Blunt scissors

    Paste

    Foot rule, yardstick

    Gill, gallon, peck, bushel measures

    Counter or small spring scales, weighing accurately

    Thermometer

    Meccano, interlocking blocks

    Apparatus for constructing toy telephones, signals, motor toys


  =Six to Nine Years.= Accessory muscles utilized. Imagination,
  imitation, construction, measuring, industrial play, making many
  toys.


  Imaginative Play

    Dolls (add china, bisque, paper)

    Dolls representing other nationalities, historic or literary
    characters; stunt dolls

    Doll accessories, both smaller and larger sizes; china dishes

    Dominoes, checkers

    Toy store

    Toy theater

    Toy money, stamps


  Musical

    Whistles, bugle, flute, mouth harp (care for mouth hygiene)

    Autoharp or zither, toy piano (musical quality); violin or cello

    Toy notes and bars; music note blocks


  Outdoor, Active

    Balls (add volley, hand, medicine, football, rubber bouncing)

    Baseball and bat

    Marbles, jackstones, tops

    Kites, bow and arrows, battledore, grace hoops, jumping rope

    Skates (both feet), stilts

    Croquet, tennis racket, punching bag

    Substantial wagon, trains, garden tools


  Constructive

  Blocks: Anchor, 1-inch sizes; dominoes, checkers
  Knife, modeling clay, sand, paints, paint book, small crayola
  Weaving frame; small beads, raffia, reed
  Scrap pictures; straws, pasteboard parquetry
  Stencil blocks
  Apparatus for making toys, as in previous period
  Camera
  Radiopticon
  Stereoscope
  Clock that can be taken apart




  CHAPTER XVI

  STORY-TELLING


  =Value of the Story.= Story-telling is the true pedagogical
  method of instruction, and to some extent of education, in early
  childhood. The story has many values, spiritual and intellectual.
  The wise teacher will use it to (1) entertain, (2) enlarge the
  experience by giving pictures of other children, homes, lands,
  social and geographic situations which no one child could
  experience, (3) acquaint the child with world characters and
  literature, (4) increase the vocabulary and the use of language,
  (5) cultivate imagination and concentration, (6) portray the
  effects of wisdom or foolishness, (7) present ideals of life, (8)
  give inspiration, courage, faith, sympathy.

  =What to Choose.= Stories should be selected that will give the
  greatest number of these values, and that are suited to the stage
  of development of the children to whom they are told. In this age
  of cheap printing and authorship, the mediocre is always at hand,
  and the most valuable must be searched for as precious jewels. Life
  is so brief that there is not time even for all of the best.

  The best story must first be true, not necessarily in a realistic
  sense of having actually happened to a certain individual in a
  historical time and geographical location, but it must be true
  in expressing the eternal verities, the principles that govern
  the universe. This rules out the tale in which error or vice
  succeed, or in which brute strength conquers spiritual strength.
  In the “true” myth, fairy tale, or allegory, Right eventually
  triumphs as it actually does in the universe, although possibly
  long delayed; wrong is punished; error and ignorance bring their
  unhappy consequences; wisdom and skill conquer circumstances; and
  the forces of the universe (whether presented as natural forces
  or as gods, fairies, or Providence) assist those who strive for
  righteousness and to assist their fellows.

  It must next be vital. No less vicious and undermining than
  the untrue story is the weak, sentimental, mawkish, dull, or
  mediocre tale. In the reaction against such, and for want of a
  guide, children of reading age resort to sensational, flamboyant,
  lurid tales found on any cheap stationer’s counters and even in
  respectable editions in these days. Other children unfortunately
  take to such pabulum temperamentally.

  It must also be positive, not negative. Moreover, the grewsome,
  harrowing story, the hypocritical, the morbid, are equally a crime
  against childhood.

  The story must be of interest to the children. It must, therefore,
  have action, dramatic quality, and for children under six,
  repetition, humor of situation, fun, brevity, rhythm.

  =How to Tell Stories.= For the person who “cannot tell a story” as
  for the person who “cannot swim”, there is one essential: forget
  _yourself_ and plunge in, and practice until you have gained
  confidence.

    1. Tell something in which you and the children are interested,
    and keep at it repeatedly until you feel at ease.

    2. Recall stories that interested you at that age.

    3. Tell stories the children themselves ask for, refreshing
    your memory by reading up a standard version, or by asking the
    children to tell it to you.

    4. Study Mother Goose, Æsop, and Bible stories as models of the
    best story-telling. 5. Live the story as you tell it—see it as
    pictures in your own mind. Tell it so vividly that the children
    can play it out afterwards.

    6. Use direct speech in telling conversation.

    7. Make your pictures vivid by a few descriptive words,
    especially of colors and sounds; increase your vocabulary of
    adjectives.

    8. Beware of making it too long, especially for very little
    people.

    9. Use perhaps a very few natural gestures, but do not try to act
    it out. Children have not the mental ability to hear narrative
    and see action at the same time.

    10. Children love the same story repeated, and they want it told
    _the same way_, in order to see the same pictures; therefore have
    your story clear in your mind the first time you tell it.

    11. If you are telling a classic or standard story, respect it as
    it is, just as honestly as you would an historic or scientific
    fact. If you do not wish to tell it that way, don’t tell it at
    all, but don’t tinker it.

    12. Do not try to memorize a story, except possibly the
    conversations.

    13. If a story is clearly told, the child will usually absorb and
    discern the ethical principle involved, without any necessity on
    your part to obtrusively “point the moral.” Sometimes a child
    will draw an erroneous or unexpected inference because his
    judgment is yet immature or his ethical experience is elementary
    or perverted. Under such a condition, try to tell another story
    that will concretely clear his thought.

  When you are able to tell a story spontaneously, joyfully,
  forgetting yourself, losing yourself in the story and in the
  children’s interest, you will be ready to study story-telling as a
  science and an art, and you will have learned by your experience
  some of the fundamental principles of the art.

  The first requisite, however, is spontaneity, naturalness,
  self-confidence. To attempt to study method before attaining
  this quality is to incur the danger of substituting “finish” for
  vitality.

  =Times and Occasions.= For effective story-telling choose the time
  when the child can give attention, and when the environment is
  without disturbing influences of noise, sights, other interests,
  interruptions. There are occasions, however, when the child is
  restless, tired, irritable, when a story that has much of rhythm
  and repetition will soothe him.

  It is certainly unwise to try to secure his concentration when he
  is hungry, or eager for active exercise. Bedtime stories usually
  should be told before the child is undressed, and should be of a
  quiet, sedative kind, that the child may not be kept awake either
  through excitement, or thinking on vivid pictures.

  Let the child have opportunity to absorb it into his soul.
  Therefore wait for the child, in his own time, to give it back,
  either by telling it, dramatizing, painting, drawing, cutting,
  modeling. This will foster the child’s initiative. When the child
  himself asks “What shall I do” is time enough to suggest directly
  such reproduction. Meantime, as a means of suggestion, it is
  valuable thus to illustrate a story yourself some time after it
  is told—immediately or some hours or days later. When the child
  is ready, he will imitate and ask to do it also, but his response
  should be spontaneous on his part, and of his own initiative.

  =Selection of Stories.= Story-telling naturally begins in the
  latter part of the first year, with simple finger plays, and the
  cadence of Mother Goose. Here belong “This Little Pig”, “Open the
  Door”, “Ride a Cock Horse”, and other simple rhythmic nursery
  rhymes.

  In the second and third year, more of the simple finger plays, such
  as “Here’s a Ball for Baby”, and the Mother Goose rhymes that have
  much repetition, can be used. During this stage the child loves
  little anecdotes about babies, dogs, cats, mother, father. In the
  “tell it again” stage from two to six the child enjoys following a
  sequence of incidents and seeing the pictures.

  It is in the fourth or fifth year that his imagination and store of
  mental pictures is sufficiently developed so that he can make up
  stories of his own, and now his imagination is not yet limited by
  an appreciation of realities. This is the stage when fairy tales
  and myths begin. Interest in nonsense syllables, long words, rhyme,
  absurdity of statement, humorous situations, is now ripening.

  In the fifth and sixth year he is ready for fables, and other
  animal tales such as those of the Jungle Books, for stories of
  primitive life, for Hiawatha told in Longfellow’s original version.

  In the sixth and seventh year his horizon is widening beyond his
  own immediate home and times. He is ready for little stories about
  children or grown-ups of other countries and times, for historical
  incidents, great adventures. Children can now begin to follow the
  continued story, and this is excellent training in concentration;
  or they can be told the beginnings of a story, and the situation
  left as a problem for their own imagination to work upon.

  The stories that the child himself tells are always a clue both
  to his interest and his mental development. The story he can tell
  will represent a simpler stage in development than the story he can
  appreciate and absorb.

  =Where to Find Stories.= Mother Goose is the true classic of the
  nursery. It must be wisely selected, however, for children. There
  is much that is crude, and rude, as in all folk tales, and this
  should be culled out.

  Fairy tales and fables also need to be carefully selected.
  Andersen’s are ideal, allegorical, true. Grimm’s and Abbott’s
  are collections of German and English folklore. They, too, need
  careful selection. Many of them reflect the undemocratic conditions
  of an older form of government—the cruelty of the autocrat, the
  superficial superiority of wealth and station, the resentment of
  the oppressed. Felix Adler points out that Æsop’s Fables reflect
  this resentment of the oppressed against the oppressor, and the
  trickery of the former to match the power of the latter.

  The great world myths, both of the Greeks and the Anglo-Saxons,
  should become the early heritage of every child. Simple incidents
  from the Iliad and Odyssey, from Greek and Norse mythology, from
  the Siegfried stories, Beowulf, the legends of King Arthur, can be
  told during the fifth and sixth year, thus giving a first speaking
  acquaintance with these epics.

  The following list is suggestive of types adapted to each age; it
  does not attempt to be exhaustive. There is so much of the classic
  and permanently good, far more than any one child could possibly
  absorb, that it is a double loss to the child if he is given the
  trashy and mediocre. The ambitious parent needs to take care that
  the child has time to think over, feel vividly, see clearly, the
  tales he is told, and that too much is not given in one year.


  A Guide to Stories and Poetry

    =Six Months to Two Years.= Rhythm, repetition, simple
    word-pictures of familiar objects or experiences; nonsense
    syllables.

    =Six Months to One Year.= Chanting or singing nursery rhymes.
    Reading of great rhythmic poetry for sake of rhythm and feeling.


  One to Two Years

  Mother Goose:
    Ride a Cock Horse
    Jack and Jill
    Humpty Dumpty
    Hey Diddle Diddle
    Baby Bunting
    Rock-a-bye, Baby

  Poems and Songs:
    Sleep, Baby, Sleep
    What does Little Birdie Say
    Wee Willie Winkie (Brewer)
    Hush, my Dear (Watts)

  Stories:
    Simple incidents of children, animals, birds

  Folk Tales:
    Three Bears
    Old Woman and Her Pig


  Two to Three Years

  Mother Goose:
    Little Boy Blue
    Little Bo-peep
    Little Tom Tucker
    Little Miss Muffet
    Pease Porridge Hot
    Hickory, Dickory, Dock
    Old Mother Hubbard
    Cock Robin

  Poetry:
    Little Drops of Water
    I Love Little Pussy
    I Saw a Ship A-Sailing
    Lady Moon (Houghton)
    Friendly Cow (Stevenson)
    Little Lamb, Who Made Thee (Blake)

  Folk and Fairy Tales:
    Three Little Pigs
    Henny Penny
    Goody Two Shoes
    Slovenly Peter
    Elves and Shoemaker
    Babes in the Woods

  Greek Myths:
    Apollo and his Sheep
    Mercury

  Norse Myths:
    Thor and his Chariot
    Frey and her Weaving

  Bible Stories:
    Moses in Bulrushes
    Christ Child in Manger


  Three to Four Years

  Mother Goose:
    Song of Sixpence
    Lucy Locket
    Old King Cole
    Simple Simon
    There Was a Crooked Man
    If All the World Were Paper
    The Man in the Moon
    Three Little Kittens

  Poetry:
    Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star
    My Shadow (Stevenson)
    The Baby (MacDonald)
    Spring (Nash)
    Owl and Pussy Cat (Lear)
    The Jabberwocky (Dodgson)
    Pied Piper (Browning)
    How the Waters Come Down at Lodore (Southey)

  Folk and Fairy Tales:
    Tom Thumb
    Sleeping Beauty
    Jack and Beanstalk
    Diamonds and Toads
    Rose Red and Snow White
    Jungle Books

  Greek Myths:
    Arachne
    Latona and Frogs
    King Midas
    Narcissus
    Phaëton

  Norse Myths:
    Thor and his Glove
    Thor and his Hammer
    Thor at Jotenheim

  Bible Stories:
    Jesus blessing little children
    Jesus healing Jairus’ daughter
    Garden of Eden
    The Flood and the Ark
    David and his Harp
    Daniel
    Elijah and Ravens


  Four to Six Years

  Mother Goose:
    One, Two, Buckle My Shoe
    As I Was Going to St. Ives
    When Good King Arthur Ruled this Land
    Where Are You Going, My Pretty Maid

  Poetry:
    Which Way Does the Wind Blow?
    Robin Redbreast (Allingham)
    The Fairies (Allingham)
    Laughing Song (Blake)
    The Year’s at the Spring (Browning)
    Ariel’s Song (Shakespeare)
    Come, Follow, Follow (Shakespeare)
    Lullaby for Titania (Shakespeare)
    Answer to Child’s Question (Coleridge)
    Nonsense Songs (Lear)
    Love Songs of Childhood (Field)
    Book of Joyous Children (Riley)
    Child’s Garden of Verses (Stevenson)
    Hiawatha (Longfellow)
    America

  Biography, History and Travel:
    Robinson Crusoe
    Columbus’ Voyages
    Mayflower and Pilgrims
    Paul Revere
    John Smith and Pocahontas
    Betsy Ross and the flag
    Stories from childhood of Benjamin Franklin
      Abraham Lincoln
      Edison
      Mozart

  Norse Myths:
    Journey of Thor
    Finding of the Hammer
    Loki’s Tricks
    Youth of Siegfried

  Folk and Fairy Tales:
    Dick Whittington
    Ugly Duckling
    Discontented Fir Tree
    Epaminondas
    Thumbelina
    Beauty and Beast
    Gulliver’s Travels
    Just So Stories
    Uncle Remus
    King of Golden River

  Fables:
    Dog in Manger
    Lion and Mouse
    Hare and Tortoise
    Bundle of Sticks
    Ant and Grasshopper
    Sun and Wind
    Boy who cried “Wolf”

  Greek Myths:
    Ceres and Persephone
    Philemon and Baucis
    Orpheus and Eurydice
    Io and the Gadfly
    Pygmalion and Galatea
    Ulysses
    Callisto and Arcas
    The Wooden Horse
    Jason and the Golden Fleece
    Vulcan

  Bible Stories:
    Creation Story
    Child Samuel
    Joseph and his Brethren
    Children of Israel in Egypt
    The Passover
    Journey to the Promised Land
    David and Goliath
    Samson
    Ruth
    The Boy Jesus
    Jesus feeding the Multitude
    The Resurrection

  Juveniles:
    The Goops
    Alice in Wonderland
    Through a Looking Glass
    Rip Van Winkle


  Six to Nine Years

  Poetry:
    Piccola (Thaxter)
    The Sandpiper (Thaxter)
    Song of Spring (Hemans)
    Pilgrim Fathers  ”
    Bugle Song (Tennyson)
    Sweet and Low   ”
    The Brook       ”
    We are Seven (Wordsworth)
    The Daffodils     ”
    My Heart Leaps Up (Wordsworth)
    The Cloud (Shelley)
    Ode to Skylark ”
    The Children’s Hour (Longfellow)
    Village Blacksmith (Longfellow)
    Psalm of Life (Longfellow)
    Building of Ship   ”
    Evangeline         ”
    Tales of Wayside Inn (Longfellow)
    A Morning Song (Heywood)
    Hark! Hark! the Lark (Shakespeare)
    Indian Summer (Whittier)
    Barefoot Boy      ”
    For a’ That (Burns)
    Highland Mary (Burns)
    Annie Laurie
    Wind and Moon (Macdonald)
    Old Oaken Bucket (Woodworth)
    Robert of Lincoln (Bryant)
    Vision of Sir Launfal (Lowell)
    Lochinvar (Scott)
    Midsummer Night’s Dream (Shakespeare)

  Folk and Fairy Tales:
    Andersen’s Fairy Tales
    Jataka Tales
    At Back of North Wind (Macdonald)
    Arabian Nights

  Greek Myths:
    Labors of Hercules
    Laocoön
    The Odyssey
    Tales from Ovid

  Norse Myths:
    Sigurd the Volsung (Morris)

  Classic Tales: (selections)
    Canterbury Tales
    Fairie Queene
    Tales from Shakespeare
    Pilgrim’s Progress

  Legends:
    Beowulf
    King Arthur
    Robin Hood
    American Indian Legends

  Bible Stories:
    Life of Jesus, including Crucifixion
    Abraham
    Jacob
    Joseph
    Moses
    Joshua
    David
    Solomon
    Daniel
    Esther
    Elijah
    Paul

  Biography, History, Travel, Science:
    Local pioneer history
    Pilgrim Fathers
    William Penn
    Washington
    Lincoln
    Significant historic tales from
      England
      Vikings
      Pharaohs
      Greek
      Roman
    Incidents from life of
      Homer
      Copernicus
      Galileo
      Caxton
      Eli Whitney
      Longfellow
      Whittier
      Harriet Beecher Stowe
    Swiss Family Robinson
    Darwin’s Voyage of Beagle
    The Snow Baby (Peary)

  Juveniles:
    Pinocchio (Collodi)
    Hans Brinker (Dodge)
    Birds’ Christmas Carol (Wiggin)
    Mrs. Wiggs (Rice)
    Five Little Peppers (Sidney)




  CHAPTER XVII

  SCIENCE AND HISTORY

    “True human wisdom has for its bedrock an intimate knowledge
    of the immediate environment and trained capacity for dealing
    with it. The quality of mind thus engendered is simple and
    clear-sighted, formed by having to do with uncompromising
    realities and hence adapted to future situations. It is firm,
    sensitive and sure of itself.”

  —JOHN DEWEY.

    “No book or map is a substitute for personal experience; they
    cannot take the place of the actual journey.”

  —_Ibid._

    “The destiny of nations lies far more in the hands of women—the
    mothers—than in the hands of rulers.”

  —F. FROEBEL.


  =Cultivating a Scientific Mind.= Science is concerned with
  causes and effects, laws and principles of action, systematic
  classification of facts, exact knowledge of facts. A scientific
  habit of mind is developed in the little child by encouraging
  curiosity, exploration, experimenting, collecting, questioning; by
  consistent parental action and discipline, honesty and sincerity
  in statements, the answering of questions so as to provoke further
  thought.

  Usually a child needs little stimulus to interest in natural
  science. Everything in the world is new to him. The baby is
  interested in every object he can touch, in shining or moving
  objects. The toddler is interested in moving things, especially
  animals, trains, clocks; in sticks, stones, and leaves because he
  can use them. The little child from three to six is interested
  in sun, moon, and stars, in day and darkness, in rain, snow,
  wind, in flowers and trees, as well as in animals and birds.
  Natural, spontaneous questions regarding the biological origin and
  development of life are asked between three and eight, and this is
  the period especially recommended for teaching the child of the
  mother’s part in his prenatal care, and the value of the father’s
  share, and thereby fostering his wholesome attitude of gratitude,
  and his respect for all motherhood and fatherhood. At four or
  five, rivers, lakes, hills, valleys, the time of day, attract his
  attention. Processes of mechanics, filling and emptying, pouring,
  pulleys, wheels, are matters of keen interest from early in his
  second year.

  There is an early stage when he asks “What?” meaning what is its
  name. Later comes the “Why?” which is a search for physical causes
  and reasons, and also for philosophical reasons.

  =Learning the Fundamental Facts.= The teacher of the very little
  child must first know what are the fundamental facts in science.
  Too often the traditional school training has given an intensive
  acquaintance with one or two sciences, so detailed that the
  fundamental foundations are obscured. The teacher of the very
  little child needs, instead, a comprehensive knowledge of many
  sciences, in their broad basic outlines,—especially physics,
  chemistry, nature-study, biology, physical geography, geology,
  astronomy, industrial geography and industrial processes, the story
  of primitive life and industries.

  =Nature Study That is Worth While.= Moreover, her knowledge should
  not be purely impersonal; it must be human, poetic, related to
  industry and religion. The sense of wonder and of nurture is strong
  in the little child. He is more interested in feeding and caring
  for his rabbits or goldfish or flowers than in analyzing them, or
  describing their form or color; the latter are merely incidental
  in his interest, and they should be in his teaching. On the other
  hand, his knowledge of form, color, and such abstract qualities may
  well come quite naturally and incidentally through nature-study and
  handwork rather than through special apparatus, separated from real
  objects and life.

  =Geography.= This comes naturally through his personal experiences.
  Maps, diagrams, globes, are complex and abstract and symbolic;
  they belong somewhere after six years, with most children not
  before nine years. The child must have arrived at the stage when
  he can think in terms of symbols, before he can really interpret
  them. It will do no harm to have a globe where he may see it, but
  it would be a fallacy to consider that he can really interpret
  it, and a mistake to attempt using it until he has grasped the
  idea of the bigness of the earth on which he lives. Maps will not
  be interpretable until later. He may point to places on the map,
  but without appreciation of their meaning. Somewhere between six
  and ten years of age he may begin making a “map” of the imaginary
  country he has built in the sand box, with rivers, lakes, cities;
  or of the room, locating the articles of furniture; or of the
  street, locating the houses, sidewalks, telegraph poles, first
  drawing freehand, and when more advanced, drawing to scale. At
  three or four years, with his sand pile, he can reproduce forms he
  has seen—hills, valleys, rivers, lakes. He will want to use real
  water for rivers. It is well to let him experiment with this until
  he is dissatisfied because of its disappearance, and then look for
  play substitutes,—gray, blue, or green yarn, paper or cloth, mica.
  It is more important that it should be representative to _him_ than
  to his elders.

  Real geography comes through seeing places and people. The little
  child under five or six belongs naturally in the country, where
  he has the opportunity for acquaintance with physical geography
  in many forms. Great variety of natural objects and experiences
  should be provided. On the other hand, intensive acquaintance with
  only a few people or nationalities is better. After four or five
  years of age, he is able to stand the excitement of traveling, and
  the risk of dust and crowds, and he is ready to profit by seeing
  other people, cities, customs, ways of traveling, industries. The
  least journey to a new environment is valuable, to enlarge his
  perspective and his sympathies. Even at three or four he likes to
  see pictures of other children in other countries, and how they
  live,—their houses, clothes, food, toys, pets. Especially is he
  attracted by stories of primitive, outdoor life. The story of
  Hiawatha, in Longfellow’s original, is well adapted to the sixth
  year, and some children love it and enjoy it earlier.

  Dolls may be dressed to represent children of different lands. The
  sand box may be used to represent tropical, arctic, mountainous,
  agricultural, fishing, mining countries and scenes. Scrapbooks can
  be made for each country, with pictures from magazines, railroad or
  steamship folders, post cards. Foreign magazines may be obtained,
  in the east, through Brentano’s (New York). Correspondence could
  easily be arranged with a child in some foreign country if not
  through personal acquaintances, at least through some foreign
  school, mission, society, or consul. Early acquaintance with the
  children of other countries cultivates a feeling of sympathy that
  is the foundation of world fellowship and international peace.
  If there is opportunity to learn a few colloquial sentences in
  some of these languages, this will still further deepen the
  child’s sympathy. After six years, when his interest in collecting
  is strong, foreign stamps, flags, emblems, flowers, pictures,
  will be as keenly interesting to him as cigar labels or other
  inconsequential but glittering objects.

  =Industries.= Let him see as many as possible of the forms of
  industry, especially the primitive simple forms, such as gardening,
  farming, care of animals, horse-shoeing, baking, sewing. He should
  go often to the grocery store (not during the busy hours) to see
  the different kinds of foods. Better yet, he should see some of
  these vegetables and fruits growing, the wheat and corn standing
  in the fields. He should see the ploughing, planting, weeding,
  harvesting; the feeding and the milking of the cow; the hauling and
  preparation of fuels. Little comment is necessary beyond remarking
  how everything that we eat or wear has come to us because other
  people have worked hard to make it grow, or to bring it or prepare
  it for us, and therefore we owe our thanks to all who have worked
  for our comfort. Thus from his own experience he may know and
  appreciate the postman who brings the letters, the fireman who
  hurries to put out the fire, the policeman who helps us across the
  crowded street and watches night and day to keep us protected from
  harm and danger, the street-sweeper and sprinkler who keep the
  streets clean, the man who brings the coal or wood or groceries,
  the street-car conductor and motorman, the engineer and fireman on
  the train that takes us about the country or brings the freight.

  Through gratitude for the hard work that others do for him he will
  also learn to respect all labor, even though it does cause dirty
  hands and faces and clothes, and he will naturally infer that it is
  his duty to do his share and to work also for others.

  =History.= Children, like savages, are historically nearsighted;
  they have not yet the experience to appreciate historic time; every
  event is located near the present, and their interest in history
  is more or less fictitious and artificial. This is the period for
  the great myths, for imagination now exceeds experience, and any
  adventure is credible.

  There comes a time, about six years of age, when children begin to
  ask for a “true” story, meaning a realistic story, historically
  true. Then is the opportunity to recount the experiences of mothers
  and children, as well as of brothers and fathers, in other times.
  Nor need these be limited to his own country or modern times.
  “Once upon a time” or “A long, long time ago” is somewhere back
  in a vague sometime; yesterday or a million years ago are not yet
  spaced in his mind. This sense of time-duration may be developed by
  calling attention to it in his experience, for the two-year-old,
  day and night; in the fourth year, morning and afternoon,
  yesterday, to-day and to-morrow, seasons; in the fifth year, the
  days of the week and the months of the year will begin to have
  significance and sequence; in the sixth year, “last Christmas”,
  “next Fourth of July”, the date of this year, and the marking of
  duration, under various circumstances, of a minute, an hour, a day.

  Of course, the little child will not be able to distinguish between
  different nations or races of the past; it is all one to him. This
  fact is easily overlooked by the eager teacher, who has so long
  since classified historic data in her own mind. This historical
  appreciation does not develop until the early teens.

  For these reasons, it is good pedagogy to let the first historical
  stories be of the country in which the child lives. Historic
  sequence in the telling of these anecdotes is of slight importance.

  Since so much of written history has hitherto been military and
  political, it is easy to fall into the error of telling stories
  of military experiences, especially wars and battles. In the
  light of modern developments, the superficialness and, for the
  child, the misleading effect of the usual military story should be
  clearly evident. It should not be made the ideal, nor a substitute
  for the adventure, courage, heroism, which the child craves and
  admires. The teacher’s responsibility is to find historic tales
  of those who served their fellowmen by constructive bravery and
  venture,—life-saving, exploring, inventing. Even a simple, homely
  incident in the life of a noteworthy historical character will be
  an introduction to deeper acquaintance later. In American history,
  Columbus, the Pilgrims, William Penn, Benjamin Franklin, Betsy
  Ross, Eli Whitney, Edison, are a few examples. Stories from English
  history easily relate themselves to the little child’s vision. The
  childhood of noteworthy men and women furnishes many stories for
  this age period.

  The teacher needs to beware of the fallacy of reading to children
  or telling to them things which they can learn through their own
  experience, experimenting, or observation. Many informational
  books of this kind are at hand, both in science and history. The
  temptation often is strong, especially for the teacher who is
  eager that the child shall learn much, and who has not clearly
  distinguished between mere erudition, encyclopedic accumulation
  of facts and, on the other hand, the vital, living experiences of
  life, with the growing power to observe, interpret, and enjoy for
  one’s self. The latter is dynamic, the way of wisdom.

  Where museums or historical collections are available, there is a
  great educational opportunity, although much of the material is
  dead and unrelated to its natural situation.

  =Mathematics.= The elements of arithmetic and geometry have but a
  slight place in the life or interest of the little child. At five
  or six he may begin to count objects, but his capacity is limited.
  The mere memorizing of numbers, as a series of words, is of no more
  mathematical significance than a nonsense jingle, and is not to be
  encouraged until, through his interest in counting, the child has
  an appreciation of the concrete meaning of numbers, at least to
  the range of ten or twelve. Measuring, using the actual standard
  measures of foot, yard, pound, pint, quart, gallon, dozen, is
  usually of interest at six or seven years. Interest in geometric
  forms is naturally slight, and even this is doubtless an æsthetic,
  not a mathematical, interest. Teaching of geometric form is easily
  overdone.

  =Reading and Writing.= These have no place, biologically, before
  six years, and some psychologists say they belong psychologically
  after eight years, in the period of interest in symbols,
  abstractions, and rote learning. It is known that normal children
  who enter school at nine years usually finish the grades with those
  of their own age who started three years earlier. It is evident
  that with a natural outdoor environment, the child will acquire a
  better physique, a larger acquaintance with realities, and a richer
  development of invention, initiative, self-expression, than he does
  in the schoolroom. The ancient Greeks taught only games, dancing,
  and music to children under nine. Doctor G. Stanley Hall, Professor
  Lightner Witmer, Professor Arthur Holmes, Professor Clifton E.
  Hodge are among the authorities advising such late introduction
  to the use of abstract symbols. What can be done educationally in
  that period from six to nine years, without teaching the three R’s,
  has been amply demonstrated by Mrs. Marietta Johnson in her school
  at Fairhope, Alabama, and at The Little School in the Woods at
  Greenwich, Connecticut.




  CHAPTER XVIII

  HANDWORK

    “No line of culture is complete until it issues in motor habits
    and makes a well-knit soul texture that admits concentration
    series in many directions and that can bring all its resources to
    bear on any point.

    “Fully assimilated knowledge that becomes a part of life is
    strength—but that which is undigested and not transformed into
    carrying power, but is a burden to be carried in memory, is an
    added cause of tension and fatigue.”

  —G. STANLEY HALL.


  Three fundamental principles are to be noted:

  1. All is grist that comes to the mill of the handworker.

  2. The one element that will transform any object or combination of
  objects into a created product is imagination.

  3. The purpose in the children’s handwork is not the production
  of finished products, but creative self-activity, invention,
  self-reliance, the making of things to use, the utilizing of
  materials found in the environment, the putting of ideas into
  concrete form, the acquisition of dexterity with the hands, the
  development of brain centers through use of the hands.

  The nursery, playroom or yard should have a corner for tools
  and materials adapted to the muscles of small hands and arms. A
  workbench of a height adapted to the child at each stage of his
  development, can be purchased at the large hardware stores, or can
  be made from a heavy packing box. Tools should be kept in good
  condition, and materials neatly shelved. The child at two years
  can begin to keep his workshop in good order.

  =Forms of handwork.= The suggested list begins with the simpler
  forms and continues to the more difficult, in each group.

    Painting: using a house-painter’s brush for real or imaginary
    (with water) painting; freehand painting of pictures; painting in
    of large, simple drawings, made with heavy line

    Drawing: freehand drawing of known or imagined objects;
    illustrating stories; copying simple borders or geometric
    designs; creating borders, patterns for wall paper, or other
    decoration

    Paper tearing: simple circles, household utensils, tools,
    animals, trees, dolls

    Paper cutting: as in paper tearing, when child can easily handle
    blunt-pointed scissors (about five years); cutting out pictures
    with heavy outline (not under five years)

    Modeling: moldings and forms, learning to manipulate soft
    material; making beads, nests, dishes, furniture, dolls, animals

    Carpentry: hammering, sawing, planing; making simple dolls’
    tables, chairs, furniture; making dolls’ houses, children’s
    furniture, wagons, toys

  =Tools.=

  Hammer, light weight
  Wooden mallet
  Small size, sharp saw
  Coping saw
  Small size, sharp plane
  House-painter’s brush
  Vise
  Gimlet
  Screwdriver
  File
  Small, blunt scissors
  Weaving frame

  =Materials.= Whatever the habitat and environment provides.

  The country child is the more blessed of the gods, for he has
  Twigs, branches
  Corncobs, silk
  Acorn cups
  Straw, hay
  Milkweed pods

  The city child can more readily find

  Spools
  Pasteboard boxes
  Wooden boxes
  Wooden buttons

  Every child has at hand

  Clothespins
  Wrapping paper
  Corrugated pasteboard
  Match boxes
  String, rope
  Leaves
  Vegetables
  Scraps of cloth and leather

  Purchasable material which may be useful, to be bought as needed,
  will include:

    Whitewood, ¼ inch, in assorted widths and lengths

    Whitewood, cut in circles, assorted sizes

    Water colors, dyes, dry colors and shellac, large crayola

    Glue, paste

    Modeling clay, plasticine, plaster of Paris, Portland cement

    Paper: bogus, cartridge, book-cover, Manila, builders’, water
    color, drawing, colored, gold, silver, crêpe, tissue

    Nails, tacks, and screws in assorted sizes

    Cloth, yarn, leather, raffia

    Board: bristol board, cardboard, binder board

    Hinges, locks, staples

    Brass paper fasteners

    Paint boxes should contain only the three primary colors (red,
    yellow, blue) and black, so the child can learn to mix his own
    colors.

    Labeled boxes for materials should be kept on the play shelves,
    and scraps of everything usable from the household kept in these.

    Dry clay powder is the cheapest form of modeling material;
    composition clay or plasticine are cleaner.

    Plaster of Paris and Portland cement are easy material for
    children to work with. They should be mixed with lukewarm water
    until the consistency of thick cream.

    Dry colors purchased at the paint shop may be mixed with the dry
    clay powder, plaster of Paris, or cement, for color effects.

    Children who live in the vicinity of a pottery can have their
    clay pieces fired. Enamel paint or water glass will waterproof
    clay. Decorations may be made with water colors or shellac
    varnish mixed with dry colors.

  =Handwork that is Injurious.= The fine muscles of the fingers and
  eyes are undeveloped in the child under six years, and the nervous
  system is easily fatigued or overstrained. Handwork that involves
  use of small objects, as toothpicks, straws, lentils, peas, tiny
  beads, cambric needles, thread, 1-inch blocks, small papers, is
  a nervous strain upon the child. Fine lines, dots, holes, the
  following of a fine line in cutting or coloring, are also injurious
  to the eyes. Such fine material and work is no longer used in
  kindergartens that have respect for child hygiene.

  Too long seated application to work at a table is also injurious.
  Half an hour is long enough for any child under nine years to sit
  still at work. If he is voluntarily absorbed longer, some active
  diversion should be arranged for a quarter hour, at least.

  Work suggested that is too difficult for the child to do alone
  either discourages him by its impossibility, or develops dependence
  upon others.

  =Educational Values.= The handwork is, educationally, a means of
  giving concrete expression to imaginative ideas, and of making the
  experience of the child more vivid. Stories, scenes from history,
  records of the child’s own experience, can be portrayed. The child
  does not naturally copy literally from objects.

  [Illustration: Handwork that Utilizes Fundamental Muscles.

  In the School of Mothercraft Child Garden.]

  No effort should be made, before six years, to produce finished
  products. Technique or skill in production do not belong to this
  period. Vividness, self-expression, development of motor control
  of arms and hands, coördination of eye and hand, the joy of
  workmanship, the confidence in creating,—these are the purposes of
  handwork in early childhood.

  The genetic method in handwork is to start with your idea of what
  you want to make, and then make it of such material as you can
  find. This is Nature’s process, the child’s process, of creating.

  The list of ideas to be realized will fall into a few groups:

  Dolls in great variety
  Animals
  Trains
  Wagons and other vehicles
  Boats
  Houses, animal cages, churches, barns, stores
  Doll clothes
  Furniture
  Dishes
  Toys for store-keeping—all lines of merchandise
  Toys for playing at occupation—all lines of industry
  Games

  If any genius is involved in handwork, it is in adapting any kind
  of material to the realization of any one of these ideas.


  =Dolls.= Clothespins with cloth or paper tied on are about the
  simplest.

  Corncobs, with “real” silk hair, clothes of corn husks or cloth
  make popular dolls. Arms may be made of cloth bags stuffed with
  paper, cotton, cloth, and sewed into the shoulder seam of the dress.

  Rag dolls stuffed with cloth, the features and fingers marked in
  with ink or water color. Any one can cut a rag doll pattern from
  muslin. (For sanitary reasons, rag dolls are not so popular as they
  used to be.)

  Nut dolls. Peanut dolls are made by using double nuts, sewed
  together to make the head, arms, legs and body; the features and
  hair marked with ink. Almond, hickory, hazel and walnut heads are
  used, attached to sticks or rag bodies. Corks, clay pipes, bone
  buttons, raffia, yarn, may be used for doll heads with these bodies.

  Vegetable dolls. Carrots, potatoes, cucumbers, squashes may be
  used, and the features marked with ink or knife.

  The temporary possibility of vegetable, nut, and other “stunt”
  dolls does not add to their popularity. They are of interest
  chiefly after nine years, when the doll interest is waning.

  Paper dolls. Bodies made of stiff paper or pasteboard, with clothes
  that can be taken off and put on. Faces can be drawn with ink or
  water colors, or heads from pictures may be pasted on.

  Such paper dolls must be of a size to handle with ease.

  Paper dolls cut singly or in chains, by folding paper and cutting,
  are a source of amusement to children about five, and of creative
  enjoyment about eight, when there is the motor ability and
  imagination to create them in great variety.

  =Animals and Birds.= Vegetable. Use large vegetables for body;
  twigs or toothpicks for legs; straw, string, yarn, for tails; pins,
  beads, buttons, cloves, currants, raisins, for eyes; leaves, paper,
  cloth, for nose and ears; gashes for mouth.

  Paper. Cut out freehand, or from heavy outline, in newspaper,
  drawing paper, wrapping paper.

  Pasteboard. Cut with strong scissors or with coping saw. These
  may have legs, heads, and tails made separately and attached with
  thread, string, or fine wire so they will move.

  Wooden. Draw from paper designs, cut from whitewood or other soft
  wood, with coping saw. These, too, may have movable limbs.

       *       *       *       *       *

  Kindergarten supply houses publish a set of paper patterns for
  animals and one for birds.

  Animals and birds may be colored with water colors. Or wooden ones
  may be painted “true to life”, using the shellac and colors; about
  three coats are required. They are then waterproof, and the colors
  will not run. A paper or pasteboard support can be fastened to the
  back side of animals so they will stand up. Birds may be hung by a
  thread from the ceiling or window frame.

  Boys who can whittle can carve out animals, thus providing some
  with three dimensions.

  =Houses.= Houses are easily made from boxes by cutting out or
  drawing on doors and windows, with slanting or flat roofs of
  pasteboard or corrugated board. Porches, lean-tos, extensions,
  chimneys, steeples, gables, can be added by gluing or sewing on
  additional pasteboard. Castles, forts, silos, water towers are made
  from round boxes. Houses may be decorated with water colors.

  Animal and menagerie cages are made by cutting out strips from one
  side of a box. Staircases are made of folded paper or bristol board.

  Paper houses can be made from stiff paper, with doors and windows
  drawn or cut out. These are easily made, and a source of amusement
  for a rainy day, but not highly valued because not enduring.

  Wooden houses are the joy of childhood. A house small enough to be
  convenient indoors, or large enough to play in outdoors, is one
  of the chief rights of childhood. For children under six or seven
  years, a packing box can be used. Two boxes of the same size make
  a two-story house. The children can scrub, sandpaper, paint, the
  outside and floors, design or saw out windows, put in partitions to
  divide into separate rooms, add a slanting roof and chimney. Doors
  may be added with hinges. Bricks may be made of clay and fastened
  together with cement or glue for a tiny brick house. Staircases are
  made of strips or blocks of the wood.

  Children over seven can build a real wooden house with a little
  suggestion. They are also able to make small cement blocks for a
  block house. Boys of ten or twelve can make a log hut.

  =Trains, Wagons, Boats, Vehicles.= Pasteboard vehicles can be made
  from spool boxes, candy boxes, match boxes. For wheels use spools,
  round wooden buttons, round box covers, milk bottle covers, circles
  cut from pasteboard. For axles use skewers, toothpicks, nails.
  Axles and wheels may be tacked, sewed, or pasted to the wagon.
  Axles may be dispensed with, and the wheels pasted directly to the
  wagon box. Dashboards, seats, canopies, foot rests, smokestacks,
  cowcatchers of paper or pasteboard can be pasted on, or attached
  with brass paper fasteners.

  Paper wagons and cars can be made from a paper square folded into
  sixteen small squares, the sides and ends turned up and pasted, and
  paper circles pasted on for wheels. Paper seats and canopies can be
  added. The proportions can be changed by cutting out some of the
  squares.

  Wooden vehicles are most satisfactory, because they can be made to
  really go, and boats can be sailed,—which is a boat’s very reason
  for existing.

  For wagons or cars, a soap box or starch box is very satisfactory.
  The axles should be securely nailed on, absolutely straight.
  Material for axles and wheels will depend upon the size of the
  wagon and degree of efficiency desired. For small, crude vehicles,
  large wooden button molds, wooden spools (possibly sawed in half)
  may be utilized for wheels, and toothpicks, kindergarten sticks, or
  twigs for axles. A small nail or small circle of pasteboard, wax,
  or plasticine slipped on to the axle, each side of the wheel, will
  keep the latter in place. For more efficient and finished work,
  wooden disks of a suitable size and with the hole bored through,
  and the round sticks of a size to fit them, may be purchased from
  the carpenter shop or planing mill. Or the holes may be bored with
  the gimlet and filed out to size. The axles are glued into the
  disks, then glued, nailed, or screwed to the wagon or car body,
  and the edges filed or sandpapered so the wheels will turn. Or the
  disks may be nailed at the end of the axle, using a heavy nail
  with large head. For nicer work, regular wheels and axles may be
  purchased at the hardware store.

  The engine smokestack is made from an empty spool or round box
  glued on. The cars are coupled together with string, wire, rope, or
  tiny chains purchased at the hardware store.

  The simplest boat is merely a raft with a string tacked on, a spool
  smokestack, or a sail of paper on a wooden toothpick or skewer,
  tacked on one end or put into a nail hole. Beyond this is the two
  or three-decked boat made by fastening small wooden fig boxes or
  cigar boxes to the four pillars made from slats of a fruit crate,
  the first deck tacked to a thick block of wood for a keel. This
  boat will carry real cargoes.

  A raft, either doll size or real size, of half-inch board nailed
  to two parallel joists, can be made by the six-year-old. With the
  coping saw, a sailboat deck with pointed ends can be made from the
  whitewood, a block nailed beneath for keel, a sailcloth of muslin
  hemmed and fastened with cord or small rope to a mast that fits
  into the hole bored by the gimlet.

  Any number of tiny boats may be made of corks, nutshells,
  eggshells, with sails of paper and cloth, masts and oars of
  toothpicks, skewers or twigs, seats of paper or pasteboard.

  Rafts may be made of sticks, corncobs, or strips of bark bound
  together with raffia, grasses, or cord. A canoe may be made of
  birch bark or leather sewed together at the ends, and lined with
  oiled paper, rubber cloth or oilcloth to make it water-tight. This
  will carry dolls and cargo.

  =Furniture.= This can be made by the wholesale.

  Paper. The easiest way is to use the paper square, folded into
  sixteen squares, folding and cutting away to get the desired
  proportions. Paper circles are used for wheels, rockers, mirrors,
  stove lids; silver paper for mirrors; gilt paper for brass
  ornaments. Water color gives realistic touches.

  Pasteboard. Sheet bristol board may be used, first drawing the
  design carefully, providing for lapping, folding along the marked
  lines, and pasting the laps. In this way any desired size can be
  had. The designs can first be made in paper.

  Pasteboard boxes require less work. Spools may be glued to a box
  cover as legs for a table or chair. Small spools for legs, or
  pasteboard semicircles fastened on for rockers, transform a box
  into a cradle. Safety match boxes glued on top of each other,
  with a paper fastener or button attached as a knob to the sliding
  sections, make a tiny chiffonier; a pasteboard frame attached to
  the back has a silver paper mirror or even one of the tiny real
  glass pocket mirrors. Beds may be made by fastening a pasteboard
  strip for head and foot board to the ends of a shallow oblong box.
  A poster bed is made from an oblong box and cover, sticking four
  skewers at the corners for legs and posts.

  Crude wooden furniture can be made from soft blocks of wood
  fastened together with small wire nails. Chairs are made by nailing
  a back strip to a block seat; tables by nailing a square or round
  top to a center block or to blocks at each corner for legs.

  Grocery boxes, shoe boxes, cigar boxes, fruit crates, will furnish
  cheap material of pine wood. This, however, splits easily, has
  knotholes and splinters, and is a last resort. An assortment of
  whitewood, one-half inch thick, in one, two, three and four-inch
  width strips, will be much more satisfactory. Patterns and
  dimensions should first be made.

  =Dishes.= Nutshells, sea shells, acorn cups, leaves, gourds, chips,
  corn husks, pea pods, milkweed pods, eggshells, hollowed out
  apples, potatoes, squashes are the merest suggestion of the natural
  dishes suitable to a primitive and child life society.

  Modeling clay or plasticine are the most satisfactory materials for
  dishes. Many dishes and utensils can be cut freehand in outline
  from Manila or silver paper, tin foil, bristol board. Children at
  nine or ten can work in hammered brass and bent iron.

  =Games.= Ringtoss. Glue a small, straight stick, as a piece of
  a broom handle, upright to a flat board or disk. Make rings of
  several sizes from willow or other flexible branches, tied with
  raffia or cord; or use embroidery hoops, or rims from cheese boxes,
  hat boxes, small kegs. Any of these may be wound with raffia,
  strips of colored cloth, or ribbon.

  Faba Gaba. Make bean bags of different sizes. Make a frame by
  nailing four strips together and nailing two strips across this
  square to divide it into four holes. This may be varied by (a)
  making the holes of uneven dimensions; (b) making a larger frame
  and dividing into six or nine even or uneven dimensions; (c) making
  three or four concentric or contiguous circles.

  Grace Hoops. Make hoops as for ringtoss, about twelve inches in
  diameter. Make sticks about two feet long, half-inch diameter, of
  straight young branches, old toy brooms, old curtain rods; or buy
  them at the carpenter shop. Rings and sticks may be wound as in
  ringtoss.

  Colored balls. Crochet covers of colored string or embroidery silk
  for rubber balls, or sew segments of colored linen or silk together
  for cover. Select carefully a series of true prismatic colors,—red,
  orange, yellow, green, blue, violet. Attach a string of the braided
  cord, silk or fabric. These are washable and more sanitary than the
  worsted balls.

  =Toys.= Mechanical toys _that children make themselves_ are of
  educational value, as well as interest. In making their own
  mechanical toys the children learn the significance of many
  principles in physics, and are able to apply these in a variety of
  ways. Some children will thus discover principles for themselves.

       *       *       *       *       *

  Toy theaters, with shifting scenery and curtains that can be pulled
  back or rolled up and down

  Toy elevators that will work up and down to carry passengers

  Toy pendulum clocks that will tick

  Toy derricks that will haul up a load of sand, coal, or bricks, and
  empty these

  Woodchoppers, scissor-grinder men, acrobats, blacksmiths at their
  anvils, bell ringers, carpenters, laundresses, cooks, housekeepers,
  all made to work by the manipulation of strings, springs, or
  cleverly balanced and counterbalanced weights, shot or marble

  Toy telephones, electric bells, wireless telegraph systems

  Automobiles and engines that will go, the motor power furnished by
  a spring, windlass, or tiny, homemade electric battery.




  CHAPTER XIX

  MUSIC AND ART


  =Rhythm and Musical Sound.= Even the tiny baby responds to rhythm
  and to melody. Rhythm brings “a cadence to the soul”, to use
  G. Stanley Hall’s phrase; it relaxes and soothes both mind and
  body; it has far-reaching significance as a spiritual and moral
  force. Chanting any rhythmic poem or jingles, singing, rhythmic
  performing of physical exercises, are the beginnings of music as
  a rhythmic art. When the noise-enjoying age arrives, at about six
  months, a string of soft-toned, musical sleigh bells, or later in
  the first year, at the pounding stage, a tubephone, will give as
  much enjoyment as harsh noises; and at the same time these are
  cultivating a rudimentary musical sense. With the development of
  the phonograph, good music can be had even in households where no
  one plays a musical instrument. A baby of six months will notice
  the music, and most children from a year old will show enjoyment in
  hearing it. It is less important to acquaint little children with
  well-known classics—which are easily thus worn stale—than it is
  to provide good types of melody, harmony, and rhythm,—music that
  is sincere, enduring, normal. If children hear much of such music
  from the great masters and their disciples, before the age of ten,
  their tastes may be permanently influenced, and cheap, flashy,
  sensational music will fail to attract them.

  As rapidly as a child develops motor ability to use them, musical
  instruments of good tone, adapted to his size, will provide him
  with enjoyable toys that at the same time cultivate sense of
  good musical sound and opportunity for musical experimenting and
  self-expression. A stout drum, cymbals, triangle, a tambourine,
  flute (being careful of its use by only one individual, and that
  it is wiped before using) are inexpensive. Montessori uses musical
  glasses and a series of bells tuned to scale and sounded by
  striking them. Kindergartners make wind harps by stringing mandolin
  or other cheap strings and wires on a wooden frame made in the
  workshop. This may be tuned for chords and hung where the wind will
  play fairy music upon it.

  Every little child loves to play upon the piano. The ordinary toy
  piano is a jangle of noises that can only pervert the child’s sense
  of musical sound. Good toy pianos, with about two scales, small
  enough for the three-year-old size, can be purchased for a moderate
  price from some large musical stores. If circumstances will at all
  permit a child to play at his own sweet will and in his own way
  upon a real piano, the act will not only yield him indescribable
  bliss, but will foster immeasurably his love of music, and provide
  a means of musical self-expression. Few people expect to become
  great artists on any instrument. Technique, therefore, is of minor
  importance. The love of music, the desire to find expression
  through music, is the important feature to cultivate, leaving
  technique to a later age, nearer the teens.

  The hearing of singing as a daily experience of early childhood,
  is potent for imitation and for good humor. A baby who hears much
  singing or humming will, even in his first year, attempt to hum,
  and in his second year, make up little snatches of song. This is
  music as it should be, developing out of the daily experience of
  life, illuminating that experience. Froebel urged his teachers
  to encourage this spontaneous, natural singing, and to set the
  example by their own spontaneous singing when with the children. In
  progressive schools of to-day, children of all ages are encouraged
  to compose melodies for nursery rhymes or little poems that they
  know, and later to develop harmonies. Thus through creation the
  child develops a richer self-expression, and if he is interested
  to become more proficient, he furnishes his own incentive for the
  drudgery of acquiring technique. What more pathetic situation than
  that of a child compelled to “practice”, whose soul is in revolt,
  and who every moment is acquiring a deeper loathing for music?

  For teaching musical notation, there is a pasteboard keyboard, a
  set of pasteboard notes of different time-length and a special
  blackboard with the musical lines on which the notes can be hung.
  With these many games can be played, even at five or six years of
  age with some children, although others will not be ready until
  seven or eight.

  =The Crude Tastes of Childhood.= Little children, like savages,
  have not developed fine discriminations in color. This is largely
  a matter of education. The little child shows a preference for
  vivid color, and no sense of harmony in color. His color sense
  is as undeveloped as his spoken language, and needs training,
  especially through good examples, for its refinement. A glass
  prism hung in the sunlight will give him pure spectrum hues while
  delighting even his baby days. It is not yet known with certainty
  at what age children’s eyes are sufficiently developed to really
  perceive color, although they are evidently able to distinguish
  degrees of brightness before a year of age, and show a preference
  for red or yellow objects rather than gray. They prefer colored
  pictures to black and white. Kindergarten supply houses now furnish
  large colored wooden beads, to be strung on shoe laces, and
  colored papers in graduated series of hues, and large colored wax
  crayons the size of a marking pencil. The Montessori apparatus now
  includes a set of flat wooden bobbins, about two by three inches
  square, painted in graduated shades of the spectrum colors, which
  the children at four and five years love to match or arrange by
  graduations of shade. A box of water colors (primary colors only)
  is indispensable to childhood.

  =Art Education.= Good pictures, well colored, with sufficient
  vividness to interest the child, abound in the magazines and the
  shops. The classic nursery rhymes and tales have been illustrated
  in color by several eminent artists, and copies may be secured
  through any kindergarten supply house. The little child prefers
  pictures of animals, children, and mothers with children, realistic
  or homelike. He is rarely interested in still life, the classic, or
  the symbolic.

  The ambitious teacher can easily overdo the matter of taking
  children to an art museum. An occasional trip, between five and
  nine years of age, will do no harm, if they are permitted to wander
  at their will. It starts the habit of going to a museum. Of greater
  potency for æsthetic training is the beauty and harmony of the
  child’s own home, and especially of his own room. Here inexpensive
  but beautiful colored pictures hung low enough for him to see them
  easily, and charming little plaster casts, will feed his mind and
  his soul, as does the daily singing. He is learning that art is for
  the daily life, not merely for unusual places and occasions as in
  the museum.

  At five or six years of age children may begin to make scrapbooks
  of beautiful and charming pictures that they find in magazines, or
  that are purchased through the kindergarten or art stores. Postcard
  reproductions in color are obtainable of many famous pictures, both
  classic and nursery subjects.

  In art, as in morals, the constructively good will naturally crowd
  out the crude, the vicious, and the mediocre.

  =Children’s Drawings and Painting.= To quote from Doctor G. Stanley
  Hall:

    Children often like to look at and more or less understand
    pictures early in the second year. They care most for those that
    have a story connected with them, and want their pictures read.
    Children like to draw illustrations of stories and concrete
    things, which must not be taken away from them in order that
    they may be precociously taught to see lines only. Instead,
    therefore, of current methods, the thing for kindergarten and
    lower grades to draw is the human figure, and vastly more freedom
    and individuality are needed. Geometrical lines are ghostly
    and wooden. Things in motion are more interesting, and perhaps
    Ruskin is right in saying that the child should be limited to the
    voluntary practice of art. The prevailing methods that begin with
    mathematical forms, cube, cylinder, etc., are stultifying and
    not only destroy the natural zest and ability to draw, but take
    away the power to enjoy art and to understand nature, geography,
    history, literature, which it is one object of art to inculcate.

    The child desires to draw human beings, generally in action.
    Drawing teachers usually demand complete visual control, but the
    children draw lines symbolizing the direction birds fly, draw
    the wind, draw a zigzag line representing the dance a person is
    engaged in, and even gross errors are repeated after correction
    and explanation, showing how dominant muscle habits are. Young
    children draw anything with abandon and pleasure. They do not
    use their eyes much, no matter how difficult the theme, but draw
    their own image of it with about as good success as if there
    were no model. Children care nothing for accuracy here, which
    is the ideal of the methodists. Their order below ten years
    of age is the human figure, then animals, plants, or houses,
    then mechanical inventions, geometrical designs and ornaments.
    Children’s work is essentially pictorial and not decorative. Thus
    Ricci declares that art as such to children is unknown. Froebel
    is wrong, therefore, and the child enters the educational field
    by the door of literature rather than by that of mathematics.

    Always some one or, at most, a few details are focused upon
    and magnified, betraying just what and how far the child has
    observed up to date. If we only had a complete collection of all
    the drawings of a single child with proclivities for art but who
    had been unrepressed by criticism or derision, we should find
    its very soul in each developmental stage represented. Too early
    insistence upon technique crushes. Teachers have so long put form
    above content that they little suspect the innate power and love
    of children for this kind of work. Above all, teaching should be
    to encourage and not to repress the tendency to exaggerate each
    new trait, and should have regard not to the finished product and
    should pay little attention to symmetry or to an artistic whole.
    Uniformity, too, should be cast to the winds and the teacher
    should encourage the deep instinctive tendency of pupils to
    perfect each item as it looms into the center of interest.

    From several hundred drawings, with the name given them by the
    child written by the teacher, the chief difference inferred is
    in concentration. Some make faint, hasty lines, representing all
    the furniture of a room, or sky and stars, or all the objects
    they can think of, while others concentrate upon a single object.
    It is a girl with buttons, a house with a keyhole or steps, a
    man with a pipe or heels or ring made grotesquely prominent. The
    development of observation and sense of form is best seen in the
    pictures of men. The earliest and simplest representation is a
    round head, two eyes, and legs. Later comes mouth, then nose,
    then hair, then ears. Arms, like legs, at first, grow directly
    from the head, rarely from the legs, and are seldom fingerless,
    though sometimes it is doubtful whether several arms, or fingers,
    from head and legs without arms, are meant. Of 44 human heads
    only 9 are in profile. This is one of the many analogies with the
    rock and cave drawings of primitive man.

  =The Sunday Supplement.= Fortunate the child who is protected
  from the encroachment of these execrations. They are like the
  cheap colored candy in the penny shops,—made to sell to those of
  undeveloped sensibilities, and further dulling those sensibilities
  to better life. The ordinary Sunday Supplement page for children is
  a clever combination of all the crudities that children enjoy—vivid
  color, crude drawing, bad manners, defiance of authority, clownish
  humor. Of course children cry for it, as they do for drugs that
  have dulled their nerves and set up perverted tastes. If it is kept
  from the child until his teens, and meanwhile his taste is being
  trained by natural, daily means, the probabilities are that he will
  then find it offensive; at least he will have passed the age when
  it can pervert his taste and ideals.

  The clownish humor, the crude drawing, the humor of the unusual
  position and unexpected dilemma, without the bad manners and other
  unethical conditions, are furnished in abundance in the drawings
  of Leslie Brooke, Gelett Burgess, Peter Newell, in Tenniel’s
  illustrations of Alice’s Adventures, in Edward Lear’s Nonsense
  Books, to mention only a few. Delicately colored pictures, which
  adults find exquisite, do not attract the child, but in this day
  there are abundant treasures of pictures and picture books with
  colors strong, yet not blatant. In this respect the English and
  American work is in the main preferable to French, German, Russian.

  Many books of songs for little children are published that are
  merely mediocre, or ill-adapted to children because not based on a
  knowledge of child psychology and the range of the child’s voice.
  Some children can carry a tune at three years, others not until
  six or seven years. The natural range of the child’s voice can be
  easily tested by trying it out with the piano; it will usually
  range from E to A at three years and from middle B to upper D at
  six years. These physiological limitations indicate that songs for
  children to sing should have a simple melody, within this range,
  and should be short. Children like simple hymns, lullabies, songs
  about animals, nature, play, dolls, and action songs.

  If a child is thought to have vocal talent, the voice should be
  especially protected from strain and misuse, and intensive training
  postponed until late in the teens when the voice has become placed.
  A teacher of ability should be engaged for the first training.

  All children should be trained to use the voice intelligently,
  which is hygienically. They should be taught to sing softly and
  naturally, and never allowed to sing harshly, boisterously, or
  falsetto. Screaming and shouting injure the voice, especially
  in childhood, while the vocal cords are developing. By a little
  careful hygiene, the example of musical, well-modulated voices
  in their elders, and the selection of songs within their range,
  American children might develop as pleasant voices as are found in
  some of the countries across the sea.


  (music note) = boys (backwards music note) = girls

  [Illustration:

  AGE 0  1-2 3-5 6-7  8  9  10  11  12

  From Gutzmann and Paulsen.]




  CHAPTER XX

  HOME NURSING AND FIRST AID IN THE NURSERY[34]


  =General Principles.= Careful hygiene will reduce illness to a
  minimum. Study what to do in emergencies and illness before these
  appear, in order to be mentally and technically prepared to act
  promptly, with confidence and poise, when need arises. Teach
  children as early as possible how to spit, gargle, raise phlegm,
  inhale. Habits of obedience, self-control, and regularity will
  assist in recovery. Under any circumstances avoid excitement; keep
  calm and self-possessed. Use firmness, gentleness, patience, good
  cheer, and the spirit of play in care of illness. It is wiser to
  call the doctor at first, when symptoms of illness appear, than
  to incur severe sickness and greater cost by delay. A severely
  sick child needs a trained nurse. Children have less resistance
  than adults, and succumb more easily, therefore they need prompt,
  intelligent treatment.

  Every woman who has the care of a little child should learn the
  following from the physician or nurse: use of clinical thermometer,
  bedpan, giving of enema, massage, dressing and bathing of bed
  patient, bandaging, first aid in serious cuts, fractures, broken
  limbs, drowning. There should always be at least one room in the
  house with washable walls, sunny exposure, and without carpets,
  heavy draperies or upholstered furniture, that can be used for an
  isolation sick room in emergency.

  =Symptoms of Illness and Their Immediate Care.= When several
  symptoms are evident at once, the matter is more urgent. It is
  usually advisable to have the doctor call, rather than to expose
  the sick child to the change of temperature, dust, excitement of
  crowds, or danger of infecting others. In severe injury, secure any
  medical assistance in quickest way.

  Discharge from nose                      C (?)[35] 1
  Discharge from eyes with inflammation        C (?) 1
  Swollen lids, inflamed, yellow discharge     C[36] 3
  Sore throat                                      C 2
  Pain in or behind ears                             1
  Swollen glands in neck                             1
  Persistent cough                             C (?) 1
  Persistent lassitude                         C (?) 1
  Loss of appetite                                   1
  Loss of weight                                     1
  Severe or frequent earache                         2
  Headache with delirium                             3
  Stupor or dullness                                 2
  Chills, with or without fever                C (?) 2
  Fever with languor, loss of appetite         C (?) 2
  Nausea with fever                            C (?) 2
  Convulsions                                        3
  Eruptions                                    C (?) 2
  Cramps and vomiting                          C (?) 3
    may be poisoning
  Persistent pain in feet or legs                    1
  Swelling of feet and legs                          2
  Black, or bloody stools                            2
  Claylike stools                                    1
  Constipation (48 hours, not yielding to home care) 1
  Green stools, diarrhea                             3
  White vaginal discharge                            2
  Bleeding from mouth or rectum                      2
  Frequent bleeding from nose                        1
  Pain at urinating                                  1
  Retention of urine (24 hours)                      1
  Injuries:
    Fall, especially of young child                  3
    Blow on head, severe                             3
    Deep cut, needing stitches                       3
    Deep burn                                        3
    Excessive bleeding                               3
    Wound of rusty instrument                        2
    Bite of animal                                   2


  1. Notify doctor.
  2. Call doctor.
  3. Get doctor immediately; urgent.

  When a child shows even slight symptoms of illness, isolate and
  keep in bed for a day in a well-ventilated room. This avoids
  changes of temperature, requires less work of heart and nerves,
  removes pressure upon spinal nerves, and gives the body better
  opportunity to combat the lowered vital condition.


  Communicable Diseases to which Children are Especially Susceptible

  =============================+=======================================
         DISEASE               |    EARLY SYMPTOMS[37]
                               |
  —————————————————————————————+———————————————————————————————————————
             =Bronchitis=      |(G)[38] Nasal discharge, slight fever,
  Incubation: 2 to 3 days.     |  hard, dry cough, lack of appetite.
  Isolation: Till discharge    |
    ceases.                    |
                               |
              =Influenza=      |(S)[39] Chill, fever. Discharge from
  Incubation: 2 to 3 days.     |  nose, eyes; lassitude, general
  Isolation: Till discharge    |  pains.
    ceases.                    |
                               |
                               |
              =Pneumonia=      |(S) Severe chill, cold and pain in
  Incubation: 5 to 8 days.     |  chest, usually left side; high
  Isolation: Till discharge    |  fever, languor. Respiration quick
    ceases.                    |  and painful. Sometimes short, dry,
                               |  painful cough, vomiting,
                               |  convulsions.
                               |
            =Tuberculosis=     |(G) Anemia, poor appetite, loss of
  Incubation: 1 to 6 months.   |  weight, persistent cough. Sometimes
  Isolation: Not necessary     |  limping.
    if  discharges are         |
    burned, dishes             |
    disinfected.               |
                               |
           =Whooping Cough=    |(G) Running eyes, nose; headache,
  Incubation: 1 to 14 days.    |  weariness; dry cough develops in
  Isolation: 6 weeks. Until    |  about two weeks, sometimes without
    2 weeks after cough has    |  the whoop.
    ceased.                    |
                               |
             =Diphtheria=      |(G) Lassitude, headache; usually
  Incubation: 2 to 10 days.    |  sore throat, yellow or gray-white
  Isolation: 2 weeks. Until    |  patches; sometimes sudden high
    cultureis negative on      |  fever, convulsions, purulent nasal
    two successive days.       |  discharge.
                               |
            =Tonsillitis=      |(S) Swollen inflamed tonsils. Chills,
  Isolation: 1 week.           |  fever, headache, general pains.
                               |
                               |
                               |
            =Chicken pox=      |Eruptions on body. Sometimes fever,
  Incubation: 11 to 21 days.   |  nausea, headache.
  Isolation: Until all scabs   |
    are gone.                  |
                               |
              =Measles=        |(G) Discharge from nose; eyes reddened,
  Incubation: 7 to 18 days.    |  sensitive to light; dry cough.
  Isolation: 2 weeks from      |  Eruptions first inside cheeks; fine
    appearance of rash. Until  |  body rash on fourth day. Sometimes
    discharges disappear.      |  chill, fever, hoarseness, malaise.
                               |
            =Scarlet Fever=    |(S) or (G) Fever, nausea, red throat,
  Incubation: 1 to 8 days.     |  loss of appetite; eruptions on second
  Isolation: 6 weeks. Till all |  day. Sometimes convulsions,
    peeling, sore throat, and  |  diarrhea, white ring around mouth.
    discharges disappear.      |
                               |
        =Infantile Paralysis=  |(G) Stupor, profuse sweating, numbness
             (Polyomyelitis)   |  or paralysis of limbs, difficulty
  Incubation: 2 to 7 days.     |  in swallowing. Sometimes convulsions,
  Isolation: 6 weeks.          |  headache, vomiting.
                               |
            =Meningitis=       |(S) Headache, nausea and vomiting;
  Incubation: 2 to 7 days.     |  fever, prostration, rapid pulse,
  Isolation: 6 weeks.          |  unconsciousness in few hours or days.
                               |  Sometimes convulsions.
                               |
                =Mumps=        |(G) Fever, malaise, dizziness,
  Incubation: 10 to 25 days.   |  drowsiness, vomiting or diarrhea.
  Isolation: 3 weeks. 1 week   |  Glands near ear swell 1 to 8 days
    after swelling subsides.   |  later.
                               |
                               |
             =Syphilis=        |(G) Anemia, malnutrition, chronic
               (Congenital)    |  nasal discharge and snuffles.
                               |
                               |
  —————————————————————————————+———————————————————————————————————————

  =============================+======================+===================
         DISEASE               |   POSSIBLE           |SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS
                               |    COMPLICATIONS     |
  —————————————————————————————+——————————————————————+———————————————————
             =Bronchitis=      |Pneumonia.            |Fresh air, warmth.
  Incubation: 2 to 3 days.     |                      |
  Isolation: Till discharge    |                      |
    ceases.                    |                      |
                               |                      |
              =Influenza=      |Irritated nasal       |Warmth, fresh air.
  Incubation: 2 to 3 days.     |  passages; weakened  |
  Isolation: Till discharge    |  resistance; earache,|
    ceases.                    |  mastoiditis;        |
                               |  bronchitis.         |
                               |                      |
              =Pneumonia=      |Increased             |Windows wide open;
  Incubation: 5 to 8 days.     |  susceptibility      |  open fire; avoid
  Isolation: Till discharge    |  to tuberculosis.    |  weighting chest
    ceases.                    |                      |  with poultices or
                               |                      |  clothing. Avoid
                               |                      |  gas stove.
                               |                      |
            =Tuberculosis=     |Stunted growth;       |
  Incubation: 1 to 6 months.   |  bone defects.       |
  Isolation: Not necessary     |                      |
    if  discharges are         |                      |
    burned, dishes             |                      |
    disinfected.               |                      |
                               |                      |
           =Whooping Cough=    |Broncho-pneumonia,    |Elastic abdominal
  Incubation: 1 to 14 days.    |  hemorrhage,         |  band. Food after
  Isolation: 6 weeks. Until    |  hernia.             |  paroxysm if
    2 weeks after cough has    |                      |  previous feeding
    ceased.                    |                      |  not retained
                               |                      |
             =Diphtheria=      |Heart, kidneys, ears, |Recumbent position
  Incubation: 2 to 10 days.    |  broncho-pneumonia.  |  during fever.
  Isolation: 2 weeks. Until    |                      |  Avoid nasal
    cultureis negative on      |                      |  douches.
    two successive days.       |                      |  Anti-toxin.
                               |                      |
            =Tonsillitis=      |Forms of rheumatism;  |Rest in bed.
  Isolation: 1 week.           |  heart disease,      |
                               |  nephritis, St.      |
                               |  Vitus’ Dance.       |
                               |                      |
            =Chicken pox=      |Kidney disorders;     |Cut finger nails
  Incubation: 11 to 21 days.   |  persistent sores    |  short;
  Isolation: Until all scabs   |  from infecting      |  anoint skin.
    are gone.                  |  skin.               |
                               |                      |
              =Measles=        |Weakened eyes;        | Protect eyes with
  Incubation: 7 to 18 days.    |  pneumonia,          |   amber glasses,
  Isolation: 2 weeks from      |  bronchitis,         |   or darken room.
    appearance of rash. Until  |  tuberculosis.       | Warmth (70°).
    discharges disappear.      |                      |
                               |                      |
            =Scarlet Fever=    |Impairment of hearing,| Prevent infection
  Incubation: 1 to 8 days.     |  sight; kidney       |   of ears. Report
  Isolation: 6 weeks. Till all    or heart weakness.  |   immediately
    peeling, sore throat, and  |                      |   decrease in
    discharges disappear.      |                      |   urine.
                               |                      |
        =Infantile Paralysis=   Paralysis.            |
             (Polyomyelitis)   |                      |
  Incubation: 2 to 7 days.     |                      |
  Isolation: 6 weeks.          |                      |
                               |                      |
            =Meningitis=       |Paralysis, deafness,  |
  Incubation: 2 to 7 days.     |  mental defects,     |
  Isolation: 6 weeks.             pneumonia.          |
                               |                      |
                               |                      |
                =Mumps=        |Infection of ear,     |
  Incubation: 10 to 25 days.   |  deafness. Infection |
  Isolation: 3 weeks. 1 week   |  of reproductive     |
    after swelling subsides.   |  glands, causing     |
                               |  sterility.          |
                               |                      |
             =Syphilis=        |Diseases of bones,    |
               (Congenital)    |  nerves, blood;      |
                               |  destruction of any  |
                               |  organs, paralysis.  |
  —————————————————————————————+——————————————————————+———————————————————


  Communicable diseases may be conveyed by discharges, especially
  from nose and mouth, and in breath; also in vomitus, discharges
  from eyes and ears, feces, urine, and blood. May be contagious
  several days before serious symptoms appear in acute cases; and may
  be carried in throat and mouth many months and conveyed by persons
  showing no symptoms.

  =To Prevent Contagion.= (1) Avoid exposing the child to any one who
  has a contagious disease. (2) Do not take young children (under
  seven, at least) into crowds, busy streets, city dust, or street
  cars. (3) Household employees, especially child’s nurse, cook,
  kitchen employee, or laundress, should be selected with regard
  to their health; a thorough health examination for the child’s
  caretaker, unless personally well known or professionally trained,
  is the only safeguard. (4) No one with a cold, sore throat or other
  symptoms of contagious disease should be with a young child or
  prepare its food. (5) Keep special handkerchiefs for each child and
  never use any one else’s for it. (6) Teach scrupulous individual
  use of cups, spoons, forks, wash cloths, towels, handkerchiefs,
  whistles, and not to use wash basin for brushing teeth. (7) Avoid
  pacifiers; wipe toys daily. (8) Clean the child’s finger nails
  daily, and always wash his hands before eating. (9) Attendant
  should always wash hands before preparing food, giving medicine,
  caring for eyes, nose, mouth, or wounds; and after care of diapers,
  toilet, wounds. (10) Milk and water supply should be carefully
  guarded; unless assured pure, milk must be pasteurized, water
  boiled. (11) Avoid cats or dogs for young children’s pets.

  Disease germs can thrive in the mucus, in some tissues, or in the
  blood. They may enter (1) through the nose, (2) the mouth, (3)
  a break in the skin. The sick person may convey them (1) from
  the mouth, by coughing, by a kiss, or on cups, spoons, forks,
  napkins, towels; (2) in mucus from the nose, in sneezing, or on
  handkerchiefs; in discharges from eyes or ears; (3) in cases of
  intestinal infections, from intestinal discharges; (4) venereal
  disease, from break in skin, from open sore, from suppurating
  infected eyes; (5) from discharge of boils; (6) scales from skin
  probably only in smallpox or chicken-pox; (7) on fingers. (8) Germs
  of contagious diseases are sometimes carried in water, ice, milk,
  or dust. (9) Cats and dogs easily carry disease germs.

  Contagious diseases are always dangerous, causing a large harvest
  of deaths and leaving lifelong defects in many survivors. It is not
  necessary that children should have any of them. Children should
  be carefully protected from exposure to any disease. Good hygiene
  raises vitality and increases the white blood corpuscles, which are
  the special protectors against disease germs.

  If a child has been exposed to dust or crowds, or if contagious
  disease is prevalent, give a nasal douche and gargle with normal
  salt solution, 4% boric solution, or diluted listerine, before
  meals and at night. If exposed to disease, also disinfect face,
  neck, hands, clothes, shampoo the hair with tincture green soap,
  isolate, notify doctor; repeat after quarantine.

  =Care of Illnesses Prevalent in Childhood.= _Anemia._ Pallor,
  languor, loss of weight, poor appetite. Give outdoor life,
  nutritious diet, cold baths, sun baths. Needs medical examination
  for cause.

  _Boils._ Indicate low resistance. Applying hot fomentations wet
  in boric solution may prevent coming to head. If at head, apply
  hot fomentation five minutes; lance with sterilized needle. After
  removing contents, apply listerine, witch hazel or 25% alcohol, on
  sterile gauze; anoint with zinc ointment, and bandage to prevent
  re-infection. Poultices are unsanitary. Pus is infectious; prevent
  its touching skin, burn immediately, and sterilize needle.

  _Chap._ Prevent by drying face and hands thoroughly after washing.
  Apply camphor ice or cold cream before taking outdoors, and at
  bedtime. Use corn meal or oatmeal in place of soap.

  _Cold._ May be either a congestion or an infection. In any case
  isolate and treat first symptoms at once; give persistent care to
  cure quickly. Colds pave the way for more serious infections. Give
  oil laxative for one or two days. Apply few drops of glycerine,
  albolene, or liquid vaseline in nose every two hours and at
  bedtime. Use sterilized medicine dropper; warm oil slightly by
  heating in dropper over boiling water. For children over one year
  use nasal oil spray or nasal douche with physician’s prescription.
  Give hot leg bath or hot tub bath, wrapping well to produce slight
  perspiration; rub with 25% alcohol solution few hours later, or
  before rising, to close pores; keep well covered. Keep in bed while
  fever continues. If in head and eyes, apply cold cloth wet in weak
  boric or salt solution, over eyes and nose, changing every five
  minutes, in half-hour periods. Give all the water patient will
  take, at hourly intervals, or lemonade for children over eighteen
  months. For dry, parched mouth, rinse with weak salt water, give
  weak lemonade, or cracker to chew.

  If accompanied by chills, keep in warm room, (68°) well ventilated.
  If without chills, and when fever has subsided, keep outdoors,
  well protected, but not dressed warm enough to perspire. If in
  chest, apply counter-irritant (adapted to age) to chest and back.
  If not recovered in a day or two, notify physician. For repeated
  colds, discover cause, improve hygiene; increase resistance by cold
  morning bath, at least to chest and back, and give cod-liver oil.

  _Colic._ Give no food during the attack. Give a teaspoon of water
  (96° F.) with weak peppermint or soda mint dissolved in one ounce
  water; repeat every five minutes. Upright position, with patting
  on back, will relieve gas in stomach. For gas in intestine, massage
  gently, beginning at lower left side, and working backward along
  length of colon, always pressing and stroking toward end of colon.
  If constipated, or attack very severe, give warm enema (110° F.)
  with soap or normal salt solution. Apply hot fomentations, or hot
  stupe, made by thoroughly mixing twenty drops of turpentine in
  one pint water, to abdomen; or hot flannels or hot water bag, to
  abdomen, buttocks, and thighs. Keep feet warm. Change fomentation
  or stupe every ten minutes. When relieved, follow with cool hand
  rub (80°). Constipation in nursing mother will cause colic. Baby
  subject to colic should have two or three daily movements. Give
  less at feeding, with longer intervals, slower feeding.

  _Constipation._ Prevent and treat by diet, exercise, and general
  hygiene. If these fail, have medical examination for possible
  anatomical defect or obstruction. For acute attack, give mineral
  oil, increase water, give abdominal exercises at intervals during
  day, gently knead abdomen, working along line of colon from right
  to left. The use of enemas and suppositories relaxes the intestinal
  wall, and induces a chronic condition. Salts, castor oil, cascara,
  and other drugs overstimulate intestinal secretions, irritate
  lining, and require continued, increasing use. Calomel may remain
  in system and cause serious illness; it should never be given to
  children. If necessary to use any special measures, adapt laxative
  from list (page 362). For chronic cases in older children, apply
  cold compress around abdomen at night until condition is improved.

  _Convulsions._ Give leg or tub bath at 98° F. for ten minutes;
  mustard may be added. Be very careful that water is not too hot.
  Child may be put in with clothing on. Put cold cloth around neck
  and on head. Give prompt laxative and an emetic. Keep child in bed
  till recovered from shock.

  _Cramp in Intestines._ Treat as colic.

  _Croup._ Apply hot fomentation to chest for ten minutes, followed
  by cold compress. Give salt water emetic to cause vomiting and
  remove phlegm, if breathing is still difficult. If necessary, in
  severe case, give half teaspoon of syrup of ipecac to produce
  vomiting; apply counter-irritant to chest and back. Keep child
  well wrapped. If severe, prepare kettle of boiling water so child
  can inhale steam. Add two tablespoonfuls of compound tincture of
  benzoin, creosote or oil eucalyptus, or teaspoon of vinegar or
  ammonia. Use light blanket to cover kettle and head of child. See
  that kettle is not near enough to burn face. Be careful that child
  does not choke, and that clothing is not dampened. Wrap a piece
  of rubber sheeting or woolen blanket about shoulders, and remove
  when through steaming. For mild cases, or when child is relieved,
  place saucer with tincture of benzoin near child’s head, where
  fumes will be inhaled. Treat as for cold, on following day, with
  counter-irritants, and use menthol, oil nasal spray, or tincture
  of benzoin for inhaling. For children subject to repeated attacks,
  provide a special croup kettle.

  _Cough._ Ascertain cause from physician and treat by his
  prescription. Avoid cough syrups, which are dangerous for children.
  Plain honey, figs, fig juice, are soothing. Use menthol inhaler.
  Apply salve of menthol and vaseline in nose at night, and a cold
  compress or mild counter-irritant on throat.

  _Diarrhea._ Stop regular food. Give infants barley water, older
  children only special dietary. Give prompt laxative. Keep in bed.
  Call doctor promptly and save stools for his inspection.

  _Earache._ Symptoms in infant include crying, and turning head
  from side to side. Apply counter-irritant behind and below ears.
  Place few drops of lukewarm phenol and olive oil mixture in ear, on
  sterilized cotton. Apply hot flannel, hot-water bag, or other dry
  heat.

  _Eczema._ Apply salve or lotion, according to doctor’s direction.
  Avoid water or vaseline on affected places, as these are
  irritating. Keep clean with olive oil or cold cream. Give dietary
  treatment.

  _Eyes Inflamed._ Bathe hourly with 2% boric solution or weak salt
  water. For cold in eyes, also apply vaseline at night and in
  morning to lids, avoiding eyes.

  _Headache._ Frequently due to constipation, indigestion, eyestrain,
  excitement, fatigue, overheating. Ascertain and treat cause. Apply
  cold cloths, changing every five minutes, or hot cloths, changing
  every ten minutes, or alternate hot and cold, according to wishes
  of patient, to forehead and back of neck. Apply menthol pencil
  to forehead and base of brain. Massage back of neck, with strong
  pressure downward and toward sides. Inhale menthol, mild camphor,
  ammonia, or smelling salts.

  _Hiccough._ Due to indigestion or overeating. Hold breath. Sip
  water slowly while holding breath. Give small lump of sugar. If
  severe and continued, induce sneezing or give emetic to remove
  cause.

  _Nausea._ Give soda mint tablet in glass of hot water. If not
  relieved, give emetic. After vomiting, give glass of hot or cold
  water hourly, mildly salted or with soda mint, for several hours.

  _Poisoning._ Keep poisons out of children’s reach. Nick cork of
  bottles containing poison, and tie red ribbon around neck. Keep
  list of common poisons and antidotes posted on door of medicine
  cabinet for ready reference.

  _Prickly Heat._ Due to overheating from too much clothing or from
  weather. Reduce quantity of clothing. Avoid wool next the skin.
  Bathe several times a day with water 70°-80° F., adding one
  teaspoon baking soda to a quart of water. Powder affected places
  lightly with starch or baby powder (page 47).

  _Rheumatism._ Found in all its forms in childhood. If chronic, may
  permanently injure heart. Give mild laxative. Keep in bed. Apply
  dry heat as directed to affected parts. Rub with alcohol (25%
  solution), witch hazel, or arnica. Improve diet, reducing purins
  and increasing alkali-forming foods. Electric treatments may be
  beneficial.

  _Sunburn._ Prevent by use of canopy, sunshade, or hat, and by
  applying cold cream before taking out in sun or wind. To treat,
  apply cloths wet in sweet cream, cold cream, almond lotion. Avoid
  use of water on affected parts.

  _Fever._ Keep in bed. Fever is not a disease but a symptom of
  poison in system. Reduce temperature gradually. Give cool sponge
  (75°-80° F.) with plain water, weak salt solution, or 25% alcohol
  solution, for ten or fifteen minutes every hour. Keep cool collar
  of wet cloth around neck, or on head, changing every five minutes.
  In severe cases, also keep icebag at head, hot-water bag at feet.
  Give abundance of cold water, cold fruit juice with little or no
  sugar, or small quantity of ice cream. Keep room cool (60°-65° F.).
  There is no danger of patient taking cold while temperature is
  high, but special precautions must be taken, as fever diminishes,
  to prevent chilling.

  _Sore Throat._ Dissolve chlorate of potash tablet in half pint of
  water, and give spoonful every half hour, holding in mouth as long
  as possible. Gargle and rinse mouth with normal salt solution,
  boric acid, or listerine, without swallowing. For mild cases, apply
  cold compress to throat. For severe attack, use counter-irritant.

  _Stomach._ Sour stomach or heartburn. Use soda mint tablet or
  saltspoon of baking soda in glass of hot water. For stomach-ache
  give same treatment, and massage by deep breathing and voluntary
  pulling in and pushing out abdominal wall by muscular effort; use
  mild trunk-bending and twisting exercises. If constipated, give
  prompt laxative.

  _Toothache._ Apply listerine or oil of cloves or wintergreen on
  cotton to the cavity, and dry heat or counter-irritant outside,
  until dentist can be seen.

  _Worms._ Indicated by disturbed sleep, grating teeth in sleep,
  picking at nose, poor or ravenous appetite, irritation at rectum.
  May sometimes be visible as fine white threads in stools. Can be
  accurately diagnosed only by microscopic examination. Avoid giving
  medicine except on doctor’s prescription. Reduce candy and meat in
  diet.

  =Injuries.= Practice first aid until prepared to act promptly in
  any ordinary emergency. Call physician in all but mildest cases, to
  ascertain extent of injury, overcome shock, and prevent poisoning.
  Disinfect hands before treating any wounds.

  _Bruise, Bump, or Sprain._ Apply very cold or very hot water,
  changing at proper intervals. Continue until swelling is reduced.

  _Burns._ Never use flour or cotton on burns. Exclude air and
  prevent infection from dirt or water. Burns are easily infected or
  cause shock. For burns by dry heat, apply vaseline, baking soda,
  carron oil, or olive oil, and wrap in sterilized gauze to exclude
  air. For scalds, apply wet cloths of cool water (sterilized if
  possible), with baking soda or boric acid. Exclude air and be
  careful not to break blister. Treat blisters as burns.

  If clothing is afire, smother by rolling on floor or wrapping in
  heavy coverings. Prevent fumes and smoke from entering lungs. If
  clothing is burned to skin, cut around it and soak off with olive
  oil. For fire in room, close windows and doors, and attempt to
  smother before using water. To go through smoke, put wet cloth over
  mouth and nose.

  _Cuts and Scratches._ Hold under running cool water to thoroughly
  rinse out dirt. Wash with disinfectant. Take special care with
  wounds from rusty instruments. Scratches may then be painted with
  collodion, cuts covered with court plaster (do not moisten in
  mouth) or surgeon’s plaster.

  _Fall or Shock._ Lay flat. Apply cold water to head, hot-water bag
  at heart and to feet. Cover warmly. Rub arms and legs toward heart,
  without uncovering. Apply mild smelling salts, ammonia, or camphor
  at nose. Never give alcohol without doctor’s order. Hot milk, tea,
  or coffee are safe stimulants.

  _Foreign Body in Ear._ Do not attempt to remove by poking. Put in
  few drops of sweet oil, lay head down on that side, till doctor
  comes.

  _Foreign Body in Nose._ Do not attempt to remove by poking. Let
  child blow nose, closing opposite nostril. Call doctor.

  _Foreign Body in Throat._ If not easily removed with finger, hold
  child by ankles, head downward, and slap on back. If swallowed,
  give soft bread at once but do not give laxative. Remove fishbone
  with fingers.

  _Foreign Body in Eye._ Do not rub. Encourage crying. Blow nose. If
  visible, remove with corner of clean handkerchief. If not visible,
  pull upper lid over lower, and move gently. Wash eyes with boric or
  salt solution. For injury, apply cold cloths wet in boric or salt
  solution.

  _Slivers._ Remove with a sterilized needle, wash with antiseptic
  and bandage with zinc ointment or paint with collodion. Never use a
  pin. If very difficult to remove, apply hot fomentations.

  =Use of Water, Heat, and Light.= Heat, cold, water and light
  are effective because of their action upon the distribution of
  circulation, rate of metabolism, the local and reflex nerves,
  the heart action, the chemical condition of the blood. Their
  therapeutic use has only in recent years become a science.
  Extensive study and experience is necessary for their efficient
  application. A few fundamental principles will guide in their
  ordinary use, but only a physician trained in hydrotherapy and
  thermotherapy can give directions meeting every factor in an
  individual case.

  Applications affect not only the local part but also the parts
  with which it is reflexly connected. The volume of blood can be
  withdrawn from any part or to any part. The first effect of hot
  applications is stimulating; continued for more than ten or fifteen
  minutes (after the surface is reddened) is depressing. Cold is
  first depressing; continued slightly is stimulating, and long
  continued becomes depressing. Alternate heat and cold for three to
  ten minutes is the most stimulating.

  Pain, inflammation or increased secretion in any part usually
  indicates local congestion of blood which needs to be withdrawn.
  Congestion in the head, indicated by headache or cold; or in the
  chest, indicated by chest cold; or in the abdomen or pelvic organs,
  can be reduced either by a general distribution of blood to the
  surface or by withdrawing the supply to the legs and feet. A hot
  bath or pack draws the supply to the surface; a hot leg bath or
  pack draws it to these extremities. The cool sponge following the
  hot water keeps the blood in these parts, besides reducing the
  temperature of the superheated surface and toning up the skin. Hot
  fomentations draw the circulation to the surface, away from the
  congested internal parts directly beneath or reflexly connected.
  Thus, heat applied to the forehead and base of brain reduces head
  congestion; or as fever is usually present, cold (50° F.) will have
  the same effect and at the same time reduce the temperature, while
  a hot-water bag at the feet will maintain the temperature if the
  fever is mild or absent. Congestion in the abdomen or pelvic organs
  is relieved by local applications of heat to these parts and to
  their reflex areas—the buttocks, thighs, feet and hands.

  In using heat or cold, the application must be changed whenever its
  temperature approaches that of the body. Local hot applications
  may be continued until the surface is reddened—from five to twenty
  minutes. The surface is then sponged quickly with water, or 25%
  alcohol, at 70°-80° F., to prevent superheating of tissues. Cold
  general sponging in fever may be continued ten or fifteen minutes,
  one part sponged and dried at a time, patient covered with a light
  blanket; and repeated every hour. Local cold, as icebags or cold
  cloths, may be continued half an hour, and repeated at half hourly
  intervals. A cold compress is a mild counter-irritant. Water
  reaches tissues below the surface, and for deep-seated disorders is
  therefore more effective than dry applications, when practicable.
  Care must be taken to protect hair, clothing and bedding from
  dampness, by use of rubber cloth or oiled silk. For young children,
  temperatures must be less severe and changes more gradual than with
  adults. The nurse should test the heat of applications by applying
  to her own face.

  _Hot Tub Bath._ For chills, convulsions, incipient cold, general
  depression without fever. If patient is constipated or had no
  movement in preceding twelve hours, precede by enema, as hot water
  increases absorption from intestinal tract. Give in warm room
  (70° F.), at 100° F., or higher for children over four years.
  One tablespoon mustard (in cheesecloth bag) per gallon of water
  increases effect. Wrap cold cloth around neck, and protect hair.
  Continue five to ten minutes, until skin is red, adding hot water
  carefully to slightly raise temperature. Give quick hand rub with
  water at 80° F. unless sweating is desired. Dry quickly, wrap and
  cover warmly. Giving water to drink will increase perspiration.
  After perspiring, rub with 25% alcohol.

  _Hot Leg Bath._ For intestinal pain, headache, incipient cold, cold
  feet, convulsions. Conditions and temperatures as for tub bath.
  Keep patient well covered. Can be given with patient lying in bed,
  water in bucket on chair at side of bed. Rinse with lukewarm water,
  put on stockings, and keep hot-water bag at feet.

  _Hot Fomentations._ To relieve local pain and congestion. Apply
  one or two thicknesses of flannel to place; lay on this a double
  flannel wrung out of boiling water, and cover with dry flannel
  and waterproof. Be careful that it is not too hot at first. In
  changing, prevent air striking part. Change every three minutes,
  and continue twelve minutes. Sponge quickly with water 70°-80° F.

  _Warm Tub Bath_ (90°-93° F.). For nervousness and irritability. May
  continue, maintaining temperature, for half an hour.

  _Dry Heat._ For chills, neuralgia, rheumatic pain, earache. Use
  thermophore, hot-water bottle, hot flannel, salt, bran, hops,
  soapstone, flatiron wrapped in flannel, or Japanese handstove. In
  using hot-water bag, be careful it is not too hot; wrap in flannel,
  and watch for leakage. Water should be below boiling or rubber will
  be damaged. Press out air before putting in stopper. Remove when
  cool. If electric pad is used, turn off current when hot. Continue
  dry heat for half hour periods; sponge quickly with water 80° F.;
  repeat at half hour intervals if necessary.

  _Light._ Light rays penetrate about two inches below the surface,
  and therefore continue the therapeutic effects of heat to the
  deeper tissues. Systematic sun baths may be given. Carbon electric
  light gives the same effect; it cannot be used to advantage,
  however, with children under four or five years. For pain in
  chest, sore throat, abdominal pain, may be used instead of hot
  water or dry heat. Concentrate the light and protect the skin from
  contact with bulb by a cone made of white paper. For earache, use
  the smallest size bulb. Apply for fifteen or twenty minutes, until
  redness is induced, then give quick cool sponge. May be repeated
  several times during day.

  _Cold Bath, Tub or Sponge._ For fever. Cool as patient can react
  from, beginning at 85° and working lower. Give several times during
  day, continuing ten to fifteen minutes. Add 25% alcohol for severe
  cases.

  _Cold Compress._ Useful as counter-irritant and stimulant in sore
  throat, cough, croup, cold in chest, constipation. Wring cloth out
  of cold water (50°); wrap on part; cover with flannel and with
  oiled silk or rubber sheeting. Leave on overnight. For greater
  effect, may be preceded by hot fomentation. For throat, apply from
  ear to ear, bring up behind ears and hold in place by tapes over
  head.

  _Cold Cloths for Local Congestion in Head or Back._ Apply to
  temples, throat, base of brain, and to spine. Change every ten
  minutes, or sooner if warm. For severe congestion and pain,
  alternate hot and cold cloths, changing as soon as warm.

  =Feeding in Illness.= The food is a great factor in recovery
  from illness, and should be regulated with much care. Do not
  urge eating. Sick animals refrain from eating, or seek grass or
  special herbs. Less food is needed when patient is in bed, except
  in wasting diseases. In any illness give simple, easily digested
  food, requiring minimum of chewing, providing much nourishment
  with minimum of effort for patient. In disease, provide anti-toxic
  diet, highly alkaline, with little or no purins, laxative (except
  in intestinal disorders), dainty, small servings, served hot,
  with variety from day to day. Note all symptoms and fit dietary
  to all conditions present. It is an error to stuff a cold, but
  rather it should be starved. Beef tea and meat broths contain very
  little nourishment, but harmful extractives; their stimulation
  is in part from extractives, in part from the salt and heat. Hot
  milk, toast-water with butter, clear vegetable broths, provide the
  stimulation, with a higher percentage of nourishment and minerals,
  and with none of the disadvantages of meat broths.

  _Colds._ Reduce food almost entirely for one or two days. Follow
  general diet for illness, or as for constipation.

  _Constipation._ (See page 171.) Increase oils, fruits, and fruit
  juice, especially on rising and at bedtime. Oatmeal is laxative to
  some children, constipating to others. Figs, prunes, and seedless
  dates may be cooked together or made into a paste. Pecan nuts,
  ground for children under five, may be used for sandwiches or with
  fig paste. Use olive oil and lemon juice for salad. Serve eggs raw.
  Avoid foods prescribed for diarrhea.

  _Diarrhea._ Flour browned in oven lightly, then made into gruel,
  cooking twenty minutes; season with salt. Milk boiled, bread
  toasted; cornstarch pudding, blackberry juice, gelatine, buttermilk
  made with yogurt tablets; especially avoid purins, cellulose, raw
  milk, raw eggs, as well as laxative foods.

  _Fever._ Moot question whether diet should be limited or increased.
  Reduce proteins, omit purins; provide salads, highly alkaline
  foods, as celery, spinach, baked potato, cantaloupe; allow
  gelatine, fruit juices, strained vegetable purées, pure ice cream,
  sherbets, yogurt buttermilk, whey, toast-water.

  _Sore Throat._ Infection or from operation. Soft, soothing, healing
  food. Gelatine, honey, dipped or milk toast, fig paste, date
  butter, jellies, raw beaten egg, egg and milk, blanc mange, pure
  ice cream. Avoid hard, strongly acid foods, or those requiring any
  chewing.

  _Wasting Diseases._ Increase diet to patient’s capacity, especially
  milk, eggs, spinach, salads, fruits, butter, olive oil.

  =The Sick Room.= Furnishing, care, and cleaning should be as for
  nursery. For a contagious disease, disinfect room before and after
  patient uses. Attendant should wear cotton dress. Street clothes
  should not be allowed in sick room. Discretion should be used
  regarding visitors; no one should enter in case of contagion. Use
  separate bed linen and clothing for night and day. Turn pillows
  frequently and change position of patient. Use ring of cotton cloth
  to lift head and prevent bedsores. Reduce room temperature by
  hanging up wet sheets. Open dishes of chloride of lime will absorb
  dampness. Charcoal, occasionally changed, will absorb odors. Keep
  all medicines, glasses, and food covered, room orderly and well
  ventilated. In contagious diseases, attendant should disinfect
  hands, gargle and rinse mouth with antiseptic before eating; and
  before leaving the room, wash face and hands with weak bichloride
  solution and remove dress, cap, and shoes; a cap should cover the
  hair.

  =Bathing and Dressing.= The sick child should usually have a bath
  twice a day, temperature and method depending upon his condition.
  This removal of waste will add to his comfort and hasten recovery.
  A sponge bath is less fatiguing than the tub. A salt bath (one
  third cup per gallon of water) is a tonic. It should not be used if
  the skin is irritated. Bran, starch, or soda baths relieve chafing,
  inflamed skin, prickly heat, irritation in eruptive diseases. To
  one gallon water use half a cup of clean bran, tied in cheesecloth
  and previously soaked; or a cup of ordinary raw laundry starch,
  or a tablespoon of baking soda. Alcohol bath, using one fourth
  alcohol, is cooling and hardening. Pure alcohol reduces heat too
  rapidly. Oil rub with cocoa butter, or olive oil may be used for
  cleansing in cold weather, for emaciation, or after bath in
  eruptive diseases.

  Rinse mouth and clean teeth after each feeding, using boric
  solution, weak soda water, mild listerine or 1% menthol solution.
  Disinfect brush in 70% alcohol after using. In contagious diseases,
  or great weakness, use a mouth swab, and clean teeth with
  antiseptic gauze on toothpick, instead of with brush.

  =Maternal Nursing and Hygiene.= _Constipation._ Purgatives are
  never to be used, and enemas employed only as a last resort. If
  diet and exercise fail, cascara sagrada or compound licorice powder
  may be used.

  _Heartburn._ (Acidity of the stomach.) Sometimes develops. It may
  be prevented by avoiding nervousness, by taking less fat at meals,
  and drinking a glass of rich milk half an hour before mealtime;
  if it develops after a meal, a soda mint tablet or a quarter of
  a teaspoonful of soda bicarbonate will relieve it. The nausea
  sometimes present in the first four months is probably due to
  auto-intoxication from lack of elimination of toxins. Preventive
  measures include careful attention to diet, daily baths, and
  exercise. If it occurs, a cup of hot water slightly salted, or a
  piece of dry, hard toast taken before rising, will usually overcome
  it. Peppermint, acid from grape fruit, salty food, whole cloves
  held in the mouth, or a cold cloth laid over the abdomen, are
  relief measures. It is rarely present in the last four months.

  _Varicose Veins._ May be prevented by avoiding fatigue, long
  standing, and by lying down several times a day, especially after
  meals, for a quarter hour, with feet elevated higher than hips.
  Tight bandaging or elastic stockings must be used, if veins become
  varicose; in severe cases, rest in bed is necessary.

  _Hemorrhoids._ May be prevented by avoiding constipation, heavy
  exercise, overfatigue, and by lying down a few minutes after a
  movement. May be corrected by local applications, either of cold
  or hot cloths.

  _Pruritus._ Local applications of lukewarm bran water several times
  a day, followed by dusting powder made by combining one teaspoon
  salicylic acid with one cup cornstarch, will relieve itching.

  _Hemorrhage._ Patient should be put to bed, hips and legs elevated,
  with local applications of cold cloths or styptic cotton. Doctor
  should be called immediately.

  _Urine._ Decrease in quantity (less than one quart a day), high
  color, odor, or sediment, should be reported at once to physician.

  _Abdomen._ After fourth month anoint daily with cocoa butter or
  vaseline to give elasticity to skin.

  _Breasts._ During last two months wash morning and evening with
  soap and warm water, drying thoroughly. Anoint at night with cocoa
  butter, gently draw out nipple. In the morning apply 25% alcohol.

  _Teeth._ Rinse mouth after each meal and at bedtime with milk of
  magnesia or weak sodium bicarbonate solution, to neutralize acids.

  _Childbirth._ Primitive women have only slight discomfort, because
  of natural outdoor living and unrestricting clothing. Minimum of
  pain requires well-developed pelvis, normal position of organs,
  strong abdominal muscles, previous good hygiene, moderate-sized
  baby, with normal presentation. Narrow, ill-shaped pelvis may
  be caused by rickets, tight binders or diapers in infancy, or
  to indoor life, long sitting, and tight clothing in girlhood,
  especially from twelve to sixteen years. Abnormal position of
  organs or of infant may be caused by tight clothing, heavy clothing
  supported from the waist, incorrect posture, long hours of standing
  during girlhood or womanhood. Weak abdominal muscles are due to
  corsets and lack of exercise. Hygiene includes regularity and rest
  at periods, freedom from excitation of the pelvic organs during
  pregnancy and lactation, an interval of two or three years between
  births, and a condition of reserve vitality at the beginning of
  maternity. An overweight baby is produced by overfeeding and
  lack of exercise during pregnancy. Abnormal presentation may be
  corrected by skilful medical care during pregnancy. Osteopathic
  treatment during pregnancy, by a skilful practitioner, may improve
  muscle tone.

  The physician should be selected with special care, either a
  specialist or a general practitioner with an extensive successful
  obstetrical practice; and the nurse likewise. The physician
  should be consulted and the urine examined once a month until
  the last two months, then fortnightly. This is necessary to
  prevent toxemias, correct any abnormal position, and prepare for
  any possible complications. Absolute surgical cleanliness by
  physician and attendants is of the greatest importance at birth
  and during confinement. Silver nitrate solution for the baby’s
  eyes should not be neglected. If there are no probabilities of
  complications, if the local physician is competent and can be
  readily reached, and if the home can provide sterile conditions,
  strong artificial light and quiet, the home is preferable for
  confinement; otherwise the hospital is better. Midwives, unless
  from accredited foreign training schools, with local licenses, and
  of scrupulous cleanliness, are a dangerous investment; a competent
  physician is preferable. With prenatal medical care, an experienced
  physician, _and aseptic care_ during confinement, it is a very safe
  experience. Thoroughly satisfactory anesthetics have not yet been
  discovered. With attention to hygiene from infancy, natural means
  will minimize pain.

  Diet should be light during the first few days. Overfeeding may
  cause constipation and poor milk. Rest in bed for two weeks, and
  quiet life, with only light exercise, and chiefly out-of-doors,
  for the succeeding month, is necessary for complete recovery of
  the pelvic organs. A few weeks’ care and quiet at this time, even
  though the mother feels strong, may prevent months or years of
  invalidism. The physician should make examinations of both mother
  and baby four weeks and six weeks after birth.

  _Nursing._ The baby should be put to the breast six to twelve
  hours after birth, when the mother has rested, and every six hours
  for two days; thereafter, according to schedule. This should be
  persisted in for ten days, at least, the milk sometimes not coming
  for a week. This is as important for the recovery of the pelvic
  organs of the mother as for the nourishment of the baby. The baby
  should be given water between the feedings, but no food, unless on
  the doctor’s order.

  If the baby is unable to take the breast, through weakness or
  some malformation of the mouth, the milk should be drawn out with
  disinfected fingers or breast pump into a sterilized glass, and fed
  through a sterilized medicine dropper, or after two months, with a
  spoon.

  If the nipples become sore or cracked, a glass breast shield with
  rubber nipple should be used. This is to be boiled for five minutes
  after using, and kept in saturated boric solution until needed.
  If the breasts are heavy, congested, or tender, a knitted breast
  binder should be worn, the breasts massaged from base toward the
  center for ten minutes between nursings. If they become caked, hot
  fomentations should also be applied for fifteen minutes before
  massaging or nursing.

  =Administering Medicine.= Use as little medicine as possible. When
  prescribed, give exactly according to directions. Wipe mouth of
  bottle and examine label carefully, before and after pouring. Use
  clean spoon and disinfect after using. Remove cork with fingers,
  not with teeth. Avoid getting irritating substances into eyes or
  on tender, broken skin. Make a game of administering medicine and
  keep the child amiable, if possible. When necessary, hold nose, and
  put spoon back on base of tongue, to administer.

  =The Nursery Apothecary Chest.= A few essentials should be kept at
  hand in a cabinet, protected from dust.

  2-ounce bottle each:
    liquid vaseline
    liquid albolene
    glycerine
    carron oil
    turpentine
    camphor
    oil eucalyptus
    oil Wintergreen
    castor oil
    tincture green soap
    carbolic 5%
    listerine

  1-ounce bottle each:
    peppermint
    olive oil with 3% phenol
    syrup ipecac
    soda mint tablets
    chlorate potash tablets
    collodion

  Tube or box:
    zinc ointment
    analgesic balm
    vaseline
    cocoa butter

  ½-pound each:
    mustard
    sodium bicarbonate
    boracic acid

  ½-pint bottle each:
    grain alcohol
    olive oil
    compound tincture benzoin
    witch hazel

    milk of magnesia
    mineral oil

  _Apparatus_:

  medicine dropper, sterilized, kept in sterilized jar
  clinical thermometer
  menthol inhaler
  nasal spray; nasal douche
  thermophore or hot-water bag
  bulb syringe
  court plaster; surgeon’s plaster, small size; antiseptic gauze,
  small size antiseptic cotton; styptic cotton
  sterilized bandages; 18-inch flannel squares; oiled silk, paper napkins
  safety pins, needles, tooth picks, handbrush, scissors

  In case of infectious disease, lysol, creolin, or _fresh_ chloride
  of lime will be needed.

  _Emetics._ _Mild_: lukewarm water with teaspoon salt. _Stronger_:
  tablespoon salt or teaspoon mustard in glass lukewarm water.
  _Severe_: 10 to 20 drops syrup ipecac (fresh).

  _Laxatives._ _Mild_: mineral oil, milk of magnesia, olive oil;
  one teaspoon for babies, tablespoon at six years. For emergency,
  castor oil, preferably in capsule, or between layers of orange or
  grape juice. For immediate action, citrate of magnesia. For older
  children or adults, compound licorice powder may be used. Laxative
  oils should be given between meals; nutritive oils shortly after
  meals.

  _Antiseptics._ These hinder development of germs. For internal
  use and on eyes, normal salt solution (1 teaspoon salt to 1 pint
  water), 2% boric solution (1 teaspoon to quart water), listerine
  50%. For external use, saturated boric solution (1 teaspoon to pint
  water) listerine, 70% alcohol, witch hazel. Peroxide is uncertain.
  Use tincture of green soap in warm water for washing infected
  tissues. Use boiled or distilled water in making solutions. Put in
  sterilized bottles.

  _Disinfecting._ Hands: scrub with hot water and tincture of
  green soap or lysol, clean and trim finger nails; for surgical
  cleanliness, scrub through several waters, soak one minute in
  70% alcohol, and dry on sterilized towel. Linen from infectious
  patient: soak in solution of ½ ounce creolin to two gallons water
  for twelve hours before removing to laundry; boil at once. Dishes
  from infectious patient: burn food; put into covered kettle with
  soap powder; immediately boil twenty minutes; or keep in patient’s
  room; or use papier-maché and burn. Excreta from infectious patient
  (urine, stools, vomitus): put with equal volume of a solution
  made of equal parts saturated solution of chloride of lime and 2%
  solution acetic acid or vinegar; let stand quarter hour before
  disposing. Use tissue napkins, squares of cheesecloth or old linen
  for nose and mouth discharges. Put these and soiled dressings into
  paper bag and burn at once. Room: formaldehyde gas. Hot water and
  soap suds, strong sunlight, and fresh air are disinfectants.

  _Sterilizing._ Needle: dip in 70% alcohol, or hold in match flame
  until red. Water: boil twenty minutes. Dishes: boil twenty minutes;
  keep in water with vessel covered, or in boric solution, until
  needed. Gauze, bandages: boil twenty minutes in saturated boric
  solution or 2% carbolic. Let cool slightly in water, wring out with
  disinfected hands or in sterilized towel. Or suspend in cheesecloth
  hammock tied to handles of wash boiler. Cover tightly and steam,
  with water boiling, thirty minutes. Press in sterile towel with hot
  iron, leave wrapped, and keep in covered receptacle until needed.
  Small squares for nursery use: cut and tack in bundles of five
  before sterilizing, store in a sterile, covered jar, and remove
  only as needed.

  _Counter-irritants._ These draw the circulation to the surface,
  relieving internal congestion; they have not the chemical or
  metabolic effect of water and light. Mild: analgesic balm,
  mentholated vaseline, cold compress. Mustard plaster is more
  severe. Mix one part mustard and two parts flour, then bind
  together with white of egg or _lukewarm_ water. Rub lard or
  vaseline into skin before applying. Leave on five to ten minutes.
  If necessary, repeat in six hours, using four parts flour.
  Kerosene, capsicum vaseline, red pepper, are too severe for
  children. Dry mustard may be rubbed behind ears for earache.
  Blistering has no value.

  Patent medicines are expensive and dangerous. Avoid them,
  especially soothing syrups, cough or worm medicines, cold or
  headache cures, tonics. Many of these contain forms of opium or
  of coal tar products that affect the heart, and high per cent. of
  alcohol, and are positively dangerous. Hygienic measures are safe
  and more certain.

  Choose a physician who favors hygienic treatment, and who knows how
  to use physiological measures—diet, hydrotherapy, massage, open-air
  treatment—with a minimum of drugs.




  APPENDIX


  VALUE OF 100-CALORIE PORTIONS OF COMMON FOODS

  EDIBLE PORTION, UNCOOKED

  (Note: Calo. = Calories; Gr. = Grams)
  ==============+============+===============+=======+=======+=======
  FOOD MATERIAL | WEIGHT[40] |    COMMON     | PROT. |  FAT  | CBHY.
                |            | MEASURES[41]  | [41]  | [41]  | [41]
  ——————————————+——————+—————+———————————————+———————+———————+———————
                |_Oz._ |_Gr._|               |_Calo._|_Calo._|_Calo._
  Almonds       |   .54| 15.5|8-12           |  13   |  77   |  10
  Apples        |  5.61|159. |1 large        |   3   |   7   |  90
  Apricots      |  1.27| 36. |4 large        |   7   |   3   |  90
    (dried)     |      |     |               |       |       |
  Bacon         |   .56| 16. |2 thin slices  |   7   |  93   |   0
  Bananas       |  3.58|101.4|1 large        |   5   |   5   |  90
  Barley flour  |  1.  | 28. |2 T.[44]       |  10   |   3   |  87
  Beans (dried),|  1.01| 28.6|1½ T.          |  21   |   4   |  75
    Lima        |      |     |               |       |       |
  Beans, string |  8.5 |241. |1 qt.          |  15   |  48   |  37
  Beef, round,  |  2.26| 64. |½ × 2 × 2 in.  |  55   |  45   |   0
    lean        |      |     |               |       |       |
  Beets         |  7.66|217.1|2 med.         |   2   |  23   |  75
  Bread, white  |  1.38| 39.0|1 thick slice  |  13   |   6   |  81
  Bread, whole  |  1.44| 40.7|1 thick slice  |  15   |   5   |  80
    wheat       |      |     |               |       |       |
  Butter        |   .46| 13. |1 T. scant     |    .5 |  99.5 |   0
  Chicken       |  3.27| 92.6|½ × 3 × 3 in.  |  90   |  10   |   0
  Carrots       |  7.80|221.2|2 med.         |  10   |   8   |  82
  Celery        | 19.07|540.6|2 heads        |  24   |   5   |  71
  Cheese,       |   .8 | 22.8|1½ cub. in.    |  25   |  73   |   2
    American    |      |     |               |       |       |
  Cheese,       |  3.21| 91.1|3½ T.          |  76   |   8   |  16
    cottage     |      |     |               |       |       |
  Chestnuts     |  1.46| 41.3|9              |  10   |  20   |  70
  Cocoa         |   .71| 20.1|3 T.           |  17   |  52   |  31
  Corn, green   |  3.49| 99. |3 T.           |  13   |  10   |  77
  Crackers,     |   .85| 24.2|2½             |   9   |  20   |  71
    soda        |      |     |               |       |       |
  Crackers,     |   .81| 23. |3              |  15   |  20   |  65
    wheatsworth |      |     |               |       |       |
  Crackers,     |   .81| 23. |2              |  11   |  24   |  65
    oatmeal     |      |     |               |       |       |
  Crackers,     |   .82| 23. |2              |   9   |  20   |  71
    graham      |      |     |               |       |       |
  Corn meal,    |   .99| 28.1|3 T.           |  10   |   5   |  85
    granular    |      |     |               |       |       |
  Corn meal,    |   .92|     |3 T.           |   9   |       |
    unbolted[42]|      |     |               |       |       |
  Cream,        |  1.49| 40. |2 T.           |   5   |  86   |   9
    20 per cent |      |     |               |       |       |
  Dates         |  1.02| 28.8|4-6            |   2   |   7   |  91
  Eggs          |  2.38| 67.5|1¼             |  32   |  68   |   0
  Egg white     |  6.92|196.1|7-8            | 100   |   0   |   0
  Egg yolk      |   .97| 27.6|2              |  17   |  83   |   0
  Figs          |  1.12| 31.6|1 large        |   5   |   0   |  95
  Fish, cod     |  3.1 | 88. |1 c.[45]       |  97   |   3   |   0
    (salt)      |      |     |  not packed   |       |       |
  Fish, haddock |  4.94|139.9|1 slice        |  96   |   4   |   0
    (fresh)     |      |     |  1×2×3 in.    |       |       |
  Fish, halibut |  2.93| 82.5|1 slice        |  61   |  39   |   0
    (fresh)     |      |     |  ½×2×3 in.    |       |       |
  Grape juice   |  3.53|100. |7 T.           |   0   |   0   | 100
  Honey         |  1.03| 30.6|4 t.[46]       |   1   |   0   |  99
  Lady finger   |   .96| 27. |1              |  10   |  12   |  78
  Lentils       |   .01| 28.7|2 T.           |  21   |   7   |  72
  Lettuce       | 18.47|523.6|1 large head   |  25   |  14   |  61
  Macaroni      |   .99| 28. |16 sticks      |  15   |   0   |  85
  Maple syrup   |   1.2| 35. |4 t.           |   0   |   0   | 100
  Milk, whole   |   5.1|144.5|⅔ c.           |  19   |  52   |  29
  Milk, skimmed |  9.61|272.5|1⅓ c.          |  37   |   7   |  56
  Molasses      |  1.23| 34.9|1½ T.          |    .5 |   0   |  95.5
  Molasses      |   .95| 27. |1              |   6   |  23   |  71
    cookie      |      |     |               |       |       |
  Oatmeal       |   .88| 25.1|4 T.           |  18   |   7   |  75
  Olives (ripe) |  1.3 | 38. |7              |   2   |  91   |   7
  Onions        |  7.24|205.4|2½ large       |  13   |   5   |  82
  Orange juice  |  8.17|231.5|1 large        |   0   |   0   | 100
  Peaches       |  8.53|242.1|2 large        |   7   |   2   |  91
    (fresh)     |      |     |               |       |       |
  Peanuts       |   .62| 18. |13 double      |  20   |  63   |  17
  Peanut butter |   .58| 16. |1 T.           |  19   |  64   |  17
  Pears (fresh) |  5.57|158. |1 large        |   4   |   7   |  89
  Peas, dried   |   .99| 28.1|2 T.           |  28   |   2   |  70
  Peas, green   |  3.52| 99.9|4 T.           |  28   |   4   |  68
  Pecans        |   .46| 13. |8              |   6   |  87   |   7
  Pineapple     |  8.18|232. |½ c. scant     |   4   |   6   |  90
    (fresh)     |      |     |               |       |       |
  Plums         |  4.18|118.5|3-4 large      |   4   |   6   |  90
  Potatoes      |  4.23|120. |1 med.         |  11   |   1   |  88
  Potatoes,     |  2.86| 81.2|1 small        |   6   |   5   |  89
    sweet       |      |     |               |       |       |
  Prunes (dried)|  1.17| 33.2|4-6 (30’s-40’s)|   3   |   0   |  97
  Raisins       |  1.02| 29. |20             |   3   |   9   |  88
  Rhubarb       | 15.27|433. |8 stalks       |  10   |  27   |  63
  Rice          |  1.01| 28.5| 2 T.          |   9   |   1   |  90
  (polished)[43]|      |     |               |       |       |
  Rye flour     |  1.01| 28.5|3½ T.          |   8   |   0   |  92
  Spinach       | 14.76|418.4|scant qt.      |  36   |  10   |  54
  Squash        |  7.4 |210. |9 T.           |  12   |  10   |  78
  Sugar         |   .86| 25. |5 t.           |   0   |   0   | 100
  Tomatoes      | 15.47|438.6|2-4 med.       |  15   |  16   |  69
    fresh       |      |     |               |       |       |
  Tapioca       |   .99| 28.2|2 T.           |   0   |   0   | 100
  Walnuts,      |   .48| 14. |6              |  10   |  83   |   7
    Calif.      |      |     |               |       |       |
  Wheat flour   |   .98| 27.8|3½ T.          |  15   |   5   |  80
    entire      |      |     |               |       |       |
  Wheat flour,  |  1.  | 28.3|3½ T.          |  12   |   3   |  85
   wht., process|      |     |               |       |       |
  Wheat,        |   .94| 27. |1              |  13   |   4   |  83
   shredded     |      |     |               |       |       |
  ==============+============+===============+=======+=======+=======

  ==============+======+=====+=====
  FOOD MATERIAL | LIME |PHOS.| IRON
                | [40] |[40] |[40]
  ——————————————+——————+—————+—————
                |_Gr._ |_Gr._|_Gr._
  Almonds       | .046 |.132 |.0003
  Apples        | .022 |.05  |.0005
  Apricots      | .031 |.1   |
    (dried)     |      |     |
  Bacon         | .001 |.04  |.0002
  Bananas       | .01  |.055 |.0006
  Barley flour  |      |.083 |.00028
  Beans (dried),| .028 |.219 |.00195
    Lima        |      |     |
  Beans, string | .177 |.284 |.0038
  Beef, round,  | .01  |.313 |.002
    lean        |      |     |
  Beets         | .06  |.19  |.0013
  Bread, white  | .011 |.075 |.0003
  Bread, whole  | .016 |.16  |.0006
    wheat       |      |     |
  Butter        | .003 |.004 |
  Chicken       | .007 |.25  |
  Carrots       | .168 |.22  |.0016
  Celery        | .54  |.54  |.0027
  Cheese,       | .25  |.329 |
    American    |      |     |
  Cheese,       | .3   |.4   |
    cottage     |      |     |
  Chestnuts     | .017 |.08  |.0004
  Cocoa         | .027 |.22  |.0005
  Corn, green   | .008 |.21  |.00075
  Crackers,     | .006 |.054 |.00035
    soda        |      |     |
  Crackers,     | .016 |.243 |.0014
    wheatsworth |      |     |
  Crackers,     | .03  |.216 |.0009
    oatmeal     |      |     |
  Crackers,     | .016 |.243 |.0014
    graham      |      |     |
  Corn meal,    | .004 |.08  |.0003
    granular    |      |     |
  Corn meal,    |      |     |
    unbolted[42]|      |     |
  Cream,        | .07  | .10 |.0001
    20 per cent |      |     |
  Dates         | .03  | .03 |.001
  Eggs          | .06  | .24 |.0019
  Egg white     | .028 | .05 |.0002
  Egg yolk      | .05  | .27 |.0023
  Figs          | .089 | .099|.001
  Fish, cod     | .036 | .601|.001
    (salt)      |      |     |
  Fish, haddock | .04  | .5  |
    (fresh)     |      |     |
  Fish, halibut | .01  | .3  |.0002
    (fresh)     |      |     |
  Grape juice   | .021 | .04 |
  Honey         | .001 | .01 |.0003
  Lady finger   | .01  | .05 |.0003
  Lentils       | .03  | .18 |.0024
  Lettuce       | .26  | .47 |.005
  Macaroni      |      |     |
  Maple syrup   | .06  | .02 |.0009
  Milk, whole   | .239 | .303|.00034
  Milk, skimmed | .478 | .606|.00068
  Molasses      | .3   |  .1 |
  Molasses      | .01  | .05 |.0003
    cookie      |      |     |
  Oatmeal       | .03  | .216|.0009
  Olives (ripe) | .06  | .01 |.0009
  Onions        | .12  | .24 |.0011
  Orange juice  | .12  | .07 |
  Peaches       | .02  | .113|.0007
    (fresh)     |      |     |
  Peanuts       | .018 | .160|.00035
  Peanut butter | .018 | .160|.00035
  Pears (fresh) | .032 | .09 |.0005
  Peas, dried   | .04  | .25 |.0015
  Peas, green   | .032 | .24 |.0016
  Pecans        | .016 | .104|.00035
  Pineapple     | .04  | .14 |.0011
    (fresh)     |      |     |
  Plums         | .029 | .064|.0006
  Potatoes      | .019 | .166|.0015
  Potatoes,     | .02  | .08 |.0004
    sweet       |      |     |
  Prunes (dried)| .02  | .08 |.0009
  Raisins       | .02  | .08 |.001
  Rhubarb       | .26  | .3  |
  Rice          | .003 | .057|.0003
  (polished)[43]|      |     |
  Rye flour     | .005 | .22 |
  Spinach       | .37  | .54 |.0133
  Squash        | .054 | .17 |.0017
  Sugar         | 0    | 0   |
  Tomatoes      | .087 | .257|.0017
    fresh       |      |     |
  Tapioca       | 0    | 0   |
  Walnuts,      | .01  | .108|.0003
    Calif.      |      |     |
  Wheat flour   | .01  | .12 |.0006
    entire      |      |     |
  Wheat flour,  | .007 | .05 |.0004
   wht., process|      |     |
  Wheat,        | .016 | .243|.0014
   shredded     |      |     |
  ==============+======+=====+=====



  COMPOSITION OF COMMON MEASURE PORTIONS OF FOOD[41]

  EDIBLE PORTION, UNCOOKED

  (Note: Calo. = Calories)
  ===============+=====+=====+=====+=======+=======+=======
                 | OZ. |GRAMS|TOTAL| PROT. | FAT   | CBHY.
                 |     |     |CAL. |       |       |
  ———————————————+—————+—————+—————+———————+———————+———————
                 |     |     |     |_Calo._|_Calo._|_Calo._
  Egg, whole     | 1.8 | 57  | 74  |  24   |  50   |   0
  Egg, white     | 1.2 | 33  | 14  |  14   |   0   |   0
  Egg, yolk      |  .6 | 17  | 60  |  10   |  50   |   0
  Wheat flour,   |  .28|  9.7| 28  |   4   |   1   |  23
    entire, 1 T. |     |     |     |       |       |
  Wheat flour,   | 4.48|155.6|448  |  67   |  12   | 359
    entire, 1 cup|     |     |     |       |       |
  Wheat flour,   |  .3 |  8  | 28  |   3   |   1   |  24
    white, 1 T.  |     |     |     |       |       |
  Wheat flour,   | 5.  |142  |500  |  60   |  15   | 425
    white, 1 cup |     |     |     |       |       |
  Milk, whole,   |  .7 | 20  | 14  |   3   |   7   |   4
    1 T.         |     |     |     |       |       |
  Milk, whole,   |17.2 |487  |337  |  64   | 175   |  98
    1 pt.        |     |     |     |       |       |
  Milk, whole,   |34.4 |975  |675  | 128   | 350   | 196
    1 qt.        |     |     |     |       |       |
  Milk, skimmed, |  .7 | 20  |  7  |   2.5 |    .5 |   4
    1 T.         |     |     |     |       |       |
  Milk, skimmed, |17.2 |487  |179  |  66   |  13   | 100
    1 pt.        |     |     |     |       |       |
  Sugar, gran.,  |  .2 |  5  | 20  |       |       |  20
    1 t.         |     |     |     |       |       |
  Sugar. gran.,  |  .7 | 15  | 60  |       |       |  60
    1 T.         |     |     |     |       |       |
  Sugar, gran.,  | 7.5 |210  |840  |       |       | 840
    1 cup        |     |     |     |       |       |
  ===============+=====+=====+=====+=======+=======+=======

  ===============+=======+=======+=======
                 | LIME  | PHOS. |IRON
                 |       |       |
  ———————————————+———————+———————+———————
                 |_Grams_|_Grams_|_Grams_
  Egg, whole     |  .044 |  .175 |.0014
  Egg, white     |  .004 |  .01  |.00003
  Egg, yolk      |  .03  |  .16  |.0014
  Wheat flour,   |  .017 |  .227 |.0015
    entire, 1 T. |       |       |
  Wheat flour,   |  .268 | 4.076 |.027
    entire, 1 cup|       |       |
  Wheat flour,   |  .002 |  .014 |.0001
    white, 1 T.  |       |       |
  Wheat flour,   |  .035 |  .25  |.002
    white, 1 cup |       |       |
  Milk, whole,   |  .033 |  .042 |.00005
    1 T.         |       |       |
  Milk, whole,   |  .805 | 1.021 |.0011
    1 pt.        |       |       |
  Milk, whole,   | 1.61  | 2.042 |.0023
    1 qt.        |       |       |
  Milk, skimmed, |  .035 |  .044 |.00005
    1 T.         |       |       |
  Milk, skimmed, |  .85  |  .108 |.0012
    1 pt.        |       |       |
  Sugar, gran.,  |       |       |
    1 t.         |       |       |
  Sugar. gran.,  |       |       |
    1 T.         |       |       |
  Sugar, gran.,  |       |       |
    1 cup        |       |       |
  ===============+=======+=======+=======



  FOODS WITH ACID BALANCE[47]

  Figures are per 100-Calorie portion

  ======================================================
  CEREALS AND GRAINS |       MEATS       |     EGGS
  ———————————————————+———————————————————+——————————————
  Lentils        1.7 | Beef     2 to 10  | Yolk      7
  Rice           2.7 | Mutton   3 to 4   | White     9.5
  Corn           1.8 | Veal     4 to 10  | Whole     7.5
  Wheat flour    2.7 | Chicken  4 to 10  |
  Whole Wheat    3.3 | Fish     4 to 12  |
  =======================================================
  Possibly: prunes, plums, cranberries.[48]


  FOODS WITH POTENTIAL ALKALINITY[47]

  Figures are per 100-Calorie portion

  =================================================
        LESS THAN 5     |          5 TO 15
  ——————————————————————+——————————————————————————
  Dates                 | Apples    Peaches
  Grapes                | Apricots  Pineapple
  Milk (2.6)            | Bananas   Potatoes
  Nuts (except peanuts) | Beans     Raisins
  Onions                | Cherries  Radishes
  Pears                 | Lemons    Raspberry juice
  Peas                  | Oranges   Squash
  =================================================

  =================================================
        15 TO 25        |          VERY HIGH
  ——————————————————————+——————————————————————————
  Beets                 | Celery          42.1
  Cabbage               | Chard           41.1
  Carrots               | Figs (dried)    32
  Cauliflower           | Cucumbers       45
  Cantaloupe            | Lettuce         38.6
  Olives                | Rhubarb         37
  Tomatoes              | Spinach        113
  =================================================


  Principles of Growth

  Height and weight are only one index of physical condition. They
  must be interpreted in connection with other factors, as organic
  and muscular conditions, appetite, energy.

  Growth is not constant and regular but by spurts. Increase in
  height and in weight usually do not proceed together but alternate.

  Two types of individuals are distinguished:

    _a._ Rapid growth in height and weight until 9 to 12 years

      Slower growth 12 to 16 years

      Early maturity (12 to 14 years, girls; 13 to 15 years, boys);

    _b._ Slow growth in height and weight until 12 to 12 years

      Rapid growth after acceleration begins

      Late maturity (14 to 16 years, girls; 15 to 18 years, boys).

  Growth is influenced by various factors.

  =I. Heredity.=

  1. Race. Americans average heavier than Europeans, and taller
  than Europeans except Swedish, Danish, and Dutch. Children of
  Irish parentage average taller than children of German parentage.
  Children of American-born parents are in this country taller and
  heavier than children of foreign-born parents.

  2. Family. Children tend to approximate height and build of family;
  good hygiene slightly increases average above immediate ancestors.

  3. Sex. See pages 372-375.

  =II. Environment and Hygiene.=

  1. Hygiene. Good hygiene promotes growth in height and weight.
  Breastfed babies are usually found to increase more rapidly than
  those artificially fed, and this growth impulse continues through
  life. See page 100.

  [Illustration: Height and Weight Charts.

    A. Weight during the first year of 120 well-cared-for children
    (1) ====; compared with the average given by Dr. Holt (2) ....;
    and that of 500 institution children (3) ——.

    B. Height during the first year of 120 well-cared-for children
    (1) ====; compared with the average given by Dr. Holt (2) ....;
    and that of 500 institution children (3) ——.

    C. Weight of 278 well-cared-for children, ====; compared with
    1,000 orphan asylum children, ——; and 69,000 school children,
    .....

    D. Height of 278 well-cared-for children, ====; compared with
    1,000 orphan asylum children, ——; and 98,000 school children,
    .....
  ]

  A comparative study recently made of (_a_) 278 children in
  well-nourished families, (_b_) 1,000 orphan asylum inmates, (_c_)
  69,000 public school children, revealed a difference of six (6)
  inches average height and twenty (20) pounds average weight, at
  twelve years of age, in favor of the first group, living under
  good conditions of nourishment, exercise, and hygiene, above the
  public-school group, the asylum group being intermediate.[49]

  Illness retards growth, especially weight; adenoids retard growth
  in height and weight.

  2. Urban or rural environment. Country children average taller,
  heavier, and greater lung capacity than city children.

  3. Season. In the North Temperate Zone, increase in height is
  greatest from December to July, least from June to January; growth
  in weight is the reverse.

  =Maturity.= Various factors influence the age of physiological
  maturity.

  1. Sex. Girls mature at from 12 to 16 years, two years earlier than
  boys,—from 14 to 18 years. The period of adjustment is longer,
  slower, and with less stress and upheaval with boys than with girls.

  2. Growth. Children above the average in height and weight at 12
  years mature earlier than those at or below average height and
  weight.

  3. Climate. Maturity is earlier in warm climates, and later in cold
  climates.

  4. Urban or rural environment. Maturity is earlier with city
  children, later with country children.

  5. Stimulation. Stimulating physical or psychical influences, as a
  stimulating diet, use of alcohol, early social dissipation, reading
  and plays that stimulate sex interest, tend to cause earlier
  maturity.

  Children mentally defective, retarded, or laggards in school, are
  usually shorter and lighter weight and smaller lung capacity than
  the median for normal children.

  Children above the median in height, weight, and lung capacity (the
  three are usually found together) are usually above the average
  in school grades of other children the same chronological age.
  Such children may be from 1 to 5 years older physiologically and
  mentally than children of the same chronological age who are below
  the median in height and weight.

  =Proportions.=

  During the entire growth period the proportions of different parts
  are constantly changing because of their uneven rate of growth.
  The awkwardness, easy fatigue, and weakness during childhood
  and adolescence are in no small measure due to these changing
  proportions and their inadequacy as compared with their adjustment
  in maturity.

  The following variations from the average are indices of weakness,
  and measures should be taken for bringing them to normal.[50]

  1. Over average weight with under average height.[50]

  2. Under average weight with over average height.[50]

  3. Chest circumference less than head circumference after two
  years, or less by more than one-fourth inch under two years; or
  chest circumference less than the following proportions of the body
  length: first year, 60%; 1 to 6 years, 56%; 6 to 9 years, 52%.[51]

  4. Circumference of abdomen more than chest.

  The Tables for the first five years are a composite of the figures
  by Holt (compiled from several hundred hospital and private
  practice cases in New York City), the American Medical Association
  (compiled from several thousand cases in 23 States), the Life
  Extension Institute, and the Better Babies’ Bureau of the Woman’s
  Home Companion. In the main, the minimum figures are those of Dr.
  Holt, the maximum those of the Woman’s Home Companion. The figures
  of Dr. Freeman from 278 children in private practice (see page of
  Charts) are from 5 to 10 per cent higher than the maximum given in
  the Tables, for height and weight.

  All measurements are without clothing.


  Height—Boys[52]

  ======+===============+=======++======+===========+========
   AGE  |   RANGE       | GAIN  || AGE  |  RANGE    |  GAIN
        |   INCHES      |INCHES ||      |  INCHES   | INCHES
  ——————+———————————————+———————++——————+———————————+————————
  Birth | 19½-20½       |       || 2 yr | 31-33¾    | 3-4
  3 mo  | 21-23½        | 3½    || 3 yr | 34-37     | 3-3½
  6 mo  | 25-26½        | 3¼    || 4 yr | 36-39½    | 1-3
  1 yr  | 29-29½        | 9-10  || 5 yr | 39-42½    | 1-3
  ======+===============+=======++======+===========+========

  Until acceleration period, annual gain       1-2 inches.
  During acceleration, annual gain             2-3 inches.

  Acceleration period: girls, 11 to 14 years; boys, 13 to 15.

  Slight gains after acceleration period.

  After three years, height varies during day, being greatest on
  rising, shortest at night.


  Weight—Boys[53]

  ========+===============+=============+==============================
    AGE   |     RANGE     |    GAIN     |
          |    POUNDS     |   POUNDS    |
  ————————+———————————————+—————————————+——————————————————————————————
  Birth   |  6½-7½        |             | Weight doubled: 5 months
  3 mo    | 12½-          |             | Weight trebled: 1 year
  6 mo    | 16-17½        |             | Weight quadrupled: 2½ years
  9 mo    | 17½-20        |             | Weight fivefold: 4 years
  1 yr    | 20½-22        | 12-15       | Loss of weight first 3 days
  2 yr    | 26½-27½       |  5½-6       | Regained by 7th to 10th day
  3 yr    | 31½-33½       |  4½-6       | Weekly gain:
  4 yr    | 35-38         |  3½-4½      |   1st 5 months, 6 to 8 ounces
  5 yr    | 41-43         |  5-6        |   To 1 year, 4 to 6 ounces
  ========+===============+=============+==============================

  Acceleration period: girls, 11 to 16 years; boys, 13 to 18.

  Weight varies during day, being greatest after supper, lowest
  before breakfast.

  Girls nearly cease growing at about 17 years, boys at about 23
  years.

  Lung capacity is greater in boys than girls, all ages.


  Relative Weight and Height Table—Boys[54]

  The figures represent weight in pounds

  =========+======+======+======+======+======+=======+=======+=======
  HEIGHT IN|5 YRS.|6 YRS.|7 YRS.|8 YRS.|9 YRS.|10 YRS.|11 YRS.|12 YRS.
   INCHES  |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
  =========+======+======+======+======+======+=======+=======+=======
    39     |  35  |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    40     |  38  |  36  |      |      |      |       |       |
    41     |  39  |  39  |      |      |      |       |       |
    42     |  41  |  41  |      |      |      |       |       |
    43     |  42  |  42  |  42  |      |      |       |       |
    44     |  46  |  44  |  43  |      |      |       |       |
    45     |      |  46  |  46  |  45  |      |       |       |
    46     |      |  48  |  48  |  48  |      |       |       |
    47     |      |      |  49  |  50  |  50  |       |       |
    48     |      |      |  54  |  53  |  53  |   53  |       |
    49     |      |      |      |  54  |  55  |   55  |       |
    50     |      |      |      |  57  |  58  |   58  |       |
    51     |      |      |      |  59  |  60  |   60  |   61  |
    52     |      |      |      |      |  62  |   62  |   61  |   63
    53     |      |      |      |      |  62  |   65  |   65  |   67
    54     |      |      |      |      |  65  |   68  |   68  |   70
    55     |      |      |      |      |      |   69  |   71  |   75
    56     |      |      |      |      |      |   71  |   77  |   76
    57     |      |      |      |      |      |       |   77  |   79
    58     |      |      |      |      |      |       |   78  |   84
    59     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |   84
    60     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |   85
    61     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    62     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    63     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    64     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    65     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    66     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    67     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    68     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    69     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    70     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    71     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    72     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    73     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
  =========+======+======+======+======+======+=======+=======+=======

  =========+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=====
  HEIGHT IN|13 YRS.|14 YRS.|15 YRS.|16 YRS.|17 YRS.|18 YRS.|19 YRS.|20
   INCHES  |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |YRS.
  =========+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=====
    39     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    40     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    41     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    42     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    43     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    44     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    45     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    46     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    47     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    48     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    49     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    50     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    51     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    52     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    53     |   67  |   67  |       |       |       |       |       |
    54     |   71  |   71  |       |       |       |       |       |
    55     |   75  |   76  |       |       |       |       |       |
    56     |   78  |   79  |   79  |       |       |       |       |
    57     |   80  |   82  |   82  |       |       |       |       |
    58     |   85  |   86  |   87  |       |       |       |       |
    59     |   86  |   90  |   91  |       |       |       |       |
    60     |   91  |   94  |   95  |   90  |       |       |       |
    61     |   98  |   97  |   99  |   96  |       |       |       |
    62     |   99  |  103  |  106  |  104  |  104  |       |       |
    63     |  100  |  107  |  112  |  112  |  110  |  118  |       |
    64     |       |  114  |  118  |  120  |  117  |  120  |  120  |
    65     |       |  122  |  119  |  122  |  122  |  120  |  126  |  125
    66     |       |       |  121  |  125  |  125  |  126  |  129  |  130
    67     |       |       |  128  |  129  |  128  |  131  |  134  |  132
    68     |       |       |  133  |  133  |  130  |  136  |  136  |  136
    69     |       |       |       |  134  |  136  |  139  |  139  |  139
    70     |       |       |       |  136  |  140  |  143  |  144  |  145
    71     |       |       |       |       |  140  |  146  |  146  |  146
    72     |       |       |       |       |       |       |  149  |  154
    73     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |  165
  =========+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=====



  Relative Weight and Height Table—Girls[54]

  The figures represent weight in pounds

  =========+======+======+======+======+======+=======+=======+=======
  HEIGHT IN|5 YRS.|6 YRS.|7 YRS.|8 YRS.|9 YRS.|10 YRS.|11 YRS.|12 YRS.
   INCHES  |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
  =========+======+======+======+======+======+=======+=======+=======
    39     |  34  |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    40     |  37  |  35  |      |      |      |       |       |
    41     |  38  |  37  |      |      |      |       |       |
    42     |  41  |  39  |  39  |      |      |       |       |
    43     |  41  |  41  |  42  |      |      |       |       |
    44     |  45  |  43  |  44  |  42  |      |       |       |
    45     |      |  45  |  45  |  45  |      |       |       |
    46     |      |  48  |  47  |  47  |      |       |       |
    47     |      |      |  50  |  49  |  49  |       |       |
    48     |      |      |      |  51  |  51  |       |       |
    49     |      |      |      |  53  |  53  |   54  |       |
    50     |      |      |      |  56  |  56  |   57  |       |
    51     |      |      |      |      |  59  |   58  |   60  |
    52     |      |      |      |      |  63  |   62  |   62  |   63
    53     |      |      |      |      |      |   64  |   63  |   66
    54     |      |      |      |      |      |   69  |   68  |   69
    55     |      |      |      |      |      |       |   70  |   71
    56     |      |      |      |      |      |       |   75  |   75
    57     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |   78
    58     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |   83
    59     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |   88
    60     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |   94
    61     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    62     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    63     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    64     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
    65     |      |      |      |      |      |       |       |
  =========+======+======+======+======+======+=======+=======+=======

  =========+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=====
  HEIGHT IN|13 YRS.|14 YRS.|15 YRS.|16 YRS.|17 YRS.|18 YRS.|19 YRS.|20
   INCHES  |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |YRS.
  =========+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=====
    39     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    40     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    41     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    42     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    43     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    44     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    45     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    46     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    47     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    48     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    49     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    50     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    51     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    52     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    53     |   65  |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    54     |   68  |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    55     |   73  |       |       |       |       |       |       |
    56     |   76  |   78  |       |       |       |       |       |
    57     |   80  |   83  |       |       |       |       |       |
    58     |   86  |   88  |   89  |       |       |       |       |
    59     |   89  |   93  |   97  |  100  |       |       |       |
    60     |   94  |   96  |  100  |  104  |  109  |  103  |   99  |   99
    61     |   99  |  100  |  102  |  109  |  109  |  106  |  105  |  111
    62     |  104  |  104  |  106  |  111  |  110  |  107  |  111  |  114
    63     |       |  107  |  109  |  116  |  110  |  112  |  113  |  114
    64     |       |  112  |  118  |  116  |  117  |  114  |  119  |  115
    65     |       |  114  |  118  |  121  |  125  |  120  |  123  |  125
  =========+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=====



  Pulse[55]

  ===========+==============
     AGE     |  PER MINUTE
  ———————————+——————————————
    Birth    |  130
    6-12 mo. |  105-115
    2-6 yr.  |   90-105
    7-10 yr. |   80-90
   11-14 yr. |   75-85
  ===========+==============


  Respiration[56]

  (During sleep)

  ==========+=============
     AGE    |  PER MINUTE
  ——————————+—————————————
    Birth   |   35
    1 yr.   |   27
    2 yr.   |   25
    6 yr.   |   22
   12 yr.   |   20
   Adult    |  16-18
  ==========+=============

  Pulse and respiration in infants may be normally irregular and the
  rate greatly modified by apparently slight causes. In very young
  infants regular rhythmic breathing is seen only in sleep, and
  rhythm is not fully established before two years.

  Temperature in young children is normally 98°-99.5°F., taken by
  rectum; it occasionally rises to 100.5 in apparently perfect
  health. It is normally higher in late afternoon.[57]

  The rate of circulation (time required from leaving the heart till
  return to the heart) is in the newly born 12 seconds, at 3 years 15
  seconds, in the adult 22 seconds.[57]


  Infant Mortality

  The infant mortality rate is the number of deaths of babies which
  occur for every 1,000 live births. Figures in the United States
  are available only for that part of the country known as the
  registration area, where the reporting of births and deaths is
  legally required. It is important that the birth of every child
  should be registered, and that laws requiring registration should
  be enforced in every State.


  Deaths of Infants Under One Year of Age Per 1,000 Live Births in
  Foreign Countries[58]

  ==================+======+======
       COUNTRY      | YEAR | RATE
  ——————————————————+——————+——————
  Russia            | 1909 | 248
  Ceylon            | 1912 | 215
  German Empire     | 1911 | 192
  Austria           | 1912 | 180
  Italy             | 1911 | 153
  Switzerland       | 1911 | 123
  England and Wales | 1912 |  95
  Ireland           | 1912 |  86
  France            | 1912 |  78
  Australia         | 1912 |  72
  Norway            | 1911 |  65
  New Zealand       | 1912 |  51
  ==================+======+======

  The New York Milk Committee states that an infant mortality rate
  above 50 per 1,000 is preventable by sanitation, hygiene, prenatal
  care, and the instruction of mothers; and that a rate beyond this
  is unfair to the babies, and a disgrace to the community for its
  negligence.


  Principal Causes of Death During Growth

  Registration Area, United States, including about 65 per cent. of
  population. For the year 1913.

  ==================+=======+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+======
    CAUSE OF DEATH  | UNDER | 1-2 | 2-3 | 3-4 | 4-5 | 5-9 | 10-20
                    | 1 YR. | YRS.| YRS.| YRS.| YRS.| YRS.|  YRS.
  ——————————————————+———————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+——————
   1. Congenital    |       |     |     |     |     |     |
       debility     | 60,551|     |     |     |     |     |
   2. Premature     |       |     |     |     |     |     |
       birth        | 27,359|     |     |     |     |     |
   3. Injuries at   |       |     |     |     |     |     |
       birth        |  5,131|     |     |     |     |     |
   4. Digestive     | 43,243|9,942|2,653|1,124|  697|1,968|2,939
   5. Respiratory   |       |     |     |     |     |     |
       (except      |       |     |     |     |     |     |
       tuberculosis,|       |     |     |     |     |     |
       chiefly      |       |     |     |     |     |     |
       pneumonia)   | 25,274|9,272|3,567|1,724|1,055|2,296|2,502
     Tuberculosis   |  2,491|1,879|1,053|  693|  507|1,702|8,350
   6. Whooping      |       |     |     |     |     |     |
       cough        |  3,442|1,516|  596|  301|  152|  246|   40
   7. Measles       |  2,011|2,562|1,117 | 584|  302|  660|  346
   8. Diphtheria    |       |     |     |     |     |     |
       and croup    |    913|1,857|1,781|1,498|1,293|3,171|  918
   9. Scarlet fever |    255|  618|  798|  684|  603|1,563|  621
  10. Influenza     |    608|  171|  105|   47|   42|  126|  202
  11. Smallpox[59]  |     27|    4|    4|    3|     |    5|    8
  ==================+=======+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+======

  The death rate is higher during the first five years than at any
  other five-year period; higher during the first year than any other
  year; highest during the first month; and its maximum is during the
  first week of life.

  It is estimated that about fifty per cent. of all children die
  before they are born. Life is conferred at conception, and
  miscarriage is really death before birth. The registration of
  stillbirths, with causes, should be required by law, as it now is
  in some foreign countries.

  Diarrhea and other digestive disorders are prevalent causes in
  summer; pneumonia and colds in winter.

  Of the deaths from summer diarrhea, about 90 per cent. are babies
  artificially fed, compared with 10 per cent. naturally fed.


  Mortality in Pregnancy

  United States Registration Area, 1913

  ==============================================================
  Puerperal septicemia (blood poisoning, due to lack of
        surgical cleanliness in care)                      4,542
  Albuminaria and convulsions (usually preventable by
        regular examination of urine)                      2,397
  Accidents (frequently preventable by prenatal hygiene
        and skilful medical supervision)                   2,703
  Other causes                                               368
                                                          ——————
                                                          10,010
  ==============================================================

  Most of these deaths were due to preventable causes.

  Even with these preventable deaths, the chances of death in
  childbirth were only 1 in about 200 births.

  In every community where instruction has been provided in prenatal
  hygiene and the care of infants, a marked reduction has resulted,
  both in prenatal deaths, in mortality in pregnancy, in infant
  mortality and in the inability of mothers to nurse their babies.


  FOOTNOTES:

  [34] See Preface, page xiii.

  [35] C (?) = Possibly contagious; isolate.

  [36] C = Contagious; child should be isolated.

  [37] Diagnosis of a specific disease in a given case can only
  be made by an experienced physician. The Table is of value
  particularly as indicating the mild symptoms with which these
  begin. Incubation is the period from exposure to first symptoms.
  Isolation dates from first symptoms.

  [38] G. = Onset gradual.

  [39] S. = Onset sudden.

  [40] Quoted from Rose’s “Laboratory Manual in Dietetics”, and
  Sherman’s “Food Products”, by permission.

  [41] In part, quoted from Fisher’s “Graphic Method in Dietetics”,
  by permission; in part, calculated by the author, from data in
  Rose’s “Manual.”

  [42] Exact figures not yet available; mineral about 3 times that in
  bolted.

  [43] Exact figures for unpolished not yet available; mineral about
  3 times that in polished.

  [44] T = tablespoon.

  [45] c = cup.

  [46] t = teaspoon. Level measures.

  [47] From “Food Products”, H. C. Sherman, by permission of the
  publishers (The Macmillan Company). Complete tables there itemized.

  [48] Blatherwick.

  [49] Amer. Jour. Diseases of Children, November, 1914. Doctor
  Roland G. Freeman.

  [50] For normal relativity see tables, pages 374, 375.

  [51] _Daten und Tabellen_, _Vierordt_.

  [52] Girls average ½ inch shorter until 2 to 4 years, then 1 to 2
  inches shorter until 11 to 14 years; ½ to 2 inches taller 11 to 14
  years; then shorter.

  [53] Girls average ½ pound lighter than boys during first year;
  then 1 to 2 pounds lighter until 12 years; 2 to 3 pounds heavier
  until 14 years, then lighter.

  [54] From the Ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study
  of Education, by courtesy of the author, Doctor Thomas D. Wood.
  (Data are based upon examinations, during fourteen years, of pupils
  in Horace Mann School, New York City.)

  [55] Holt.

  [56] _Uffelmann_, quoted by Holt.

  [57] _Vierordt_, quoted by Holt.

  [58] In the United States the rate in the registration area,
  according to the Census of 1910, was 124 per 1,000, a total of
  159,435, from which the Census Bureau estimates the total deaths
  for the entire country as 300,000 under 1 year of age.

  [59] Before vaccine was generally used, was as prevalent as
  tuberculosis.




  BIBLIOGRAPHY


  The following annotated list has been carefully selected, the
  purpose being to include the most valuable and indispensable
  books, those that readers will find positively and constructively
  helpful, and that amplify or illustrate the principles taught in
  this volume. Many helpful books are necessarily omitted for lack of
  space.

  It is usually impossible to say that any one book is the best on
  its subject. One book will be better than another for individual
  readers, according to their individual experience, training,
  environment, and problems. In the main, the publications listed
  are of approximately the same caliber as the present Manual. In
  the list of periodicals, note is made of those that are official
  publications of organizations. By including in the description
  of each book the year of publication, number of pages, price,
  and whether illustrated, the reader has some further clue to
  its character. Books including a bibliography are usually more
  systematic and scientific than those without such a list. The dates
  given are those of latest edition or translations, to 1916. Prices
  quoted are net, and do not include transportation.

      I. Books.
  I. _b._ Pamphlets and Bulletins.
     II. Periodicals.
    III. Organizations and Institutions.
       † Titles especially recommended for libraries, class use, and
           private ownership.
     _a_ Books of a more elementary character.
     _c_ Books of a more technical character.
     ° Also useful for pictures.


  CHAPTER I. MOTHERCRAFT AND HOME-MAKING EDUCATION

    I. Barnes, Earl. Woman in Modern Society. Huebsch. 1912. 258 p.
    $1.25. Social responsibilities of modern women; education for
    home-making.

      Froebel, F. Letters on Kindergarten. Bardeen. 1891. 331 p.
      $1.50. Froebel’s plan for a training school, and description of
      its operation; beginnings of Pestalozzi-Froebel House.

      Nearing, Scott, and Nellie M. S. Woman and Social Progress.
      Macmillan. 1912. 281 p. Bibl. $1.50. The biological, domestic,
      industrial and social phases of woman’s progress; home-making
      education.

      Oppenheim, Nathan. Development of the Child. Macmillan. 1898.
      $1.25. See his Chap. XI, The Profession of Maternity.

      Read, Mary L. Mothercraft Education. (In preparation.)
      Historical review; methods and curriculum.

      †Spencer, Anna G. Woman’s Share in Social Culture. Kennerly.
      1913. 331 p. Bibl. $2.00. Responsibilities and opportunities,
      in home and society.

      Tarbell, Ida M. The Business of Being a Woman. Macmillan. 1912.
      238 p. $1.25. Social, civic and home responsibilities.

      (The three following collections are comprehensive in scope,
      covering the field of child development, care, training and
      social welfare.)

      Guide Book to Childhood. Issued by the American Institute of
      Child Life. Synopses from authorities. Annotated reference
      list. $2.50.

      Library of Home Economics. 1909. 12 vol. Also abridged ed. 2
      vol. Bibl. Prepared by a board of authors, special authorities.
      Includes domestic science as well as child care and training.
      Issued by the American School of Home Economics, Chicago.

      Parents and their Problems. 1915. 8 vol. $15. Nat. Mothers’
      Cong. Quotations from various authorities.

    I._b._ Andrews, Benj. R. Education for the Home. U. S. Bureau
    Education. 1914. 4 pamphlets. 428 p. Illus. Bibl. $.75. Survey of
    present status and methods of home-making education in U. S.

      Bolce, Harold. Training for Motherhood. Gd. Hskp. Mag. Sept.,
      1912. 8 p. Illus. Sesame House for Home Life Training (London),
      and the School of Mothercraft (New York).

      Comstock, Sarah. Mothercraft. Gd. Hskp. Mag. Dec., 1914-June,
      1915. Illus. School of Mothercraft; child care and training.
      Also in bound volume. Hearst. 1915. 214 p. Illus. $1.00.

      Huddleston, Mrs. J. H. Should the College Curriculum be
      Modified? 1909. Report of Committee of Assn. Collegiate Alumnæ,
      regarding home-making courses in college curriculum.

      Read, Mary L. What Every Mother Knows. Outlook, Feb. 3, 1912.
      6 p. Scope and spirit of mothercraft training; outline of
      curriculum.

      Read, Mary L. Mothercraft. Jour. of Heredity, Aug., 1916.
      School of Mothercraft and National Association.

      U.S. Bureau of Education. Reading Courses for Parents. Free.

    II. American Motherhood. Cooperstown, N. Y. $1.50. Popular
    articles on the home, child care and training.

      The Child (London). Stechert. $5.25. Authoritative articles on
      child care, training, social welfare; special education for
      young women in England; book reviews.

      Child Life. Amer. Insti. Child Life. Philadelphia. $1.00.
      Reviews of current literature on child care and training; book
      reviews.

      Child Welfare Magazine. Lippincott. $1.00. (Mo. Cong. and
      Parent-Teachers’ Assn.) Child training; organization reports.

      Home Progress. Houghton. $3.00. Articles on home life and child
      training; book reviews.

      Journal of Home Economics. Baltimore. $2.00. (Amer. H. E.
      Assn.) Popular and technical articles on home economics and
      home-making.

      Mothers’ Magazine. D. C. Cook, Elgin, Ill. $1.50. Popular
      articles on child training and care.

    III. American Home Economics Association. Baltimore, Md.
    Membership organization of home economics teachers, housekeepers
    and others interested in progress of home life. Annual meeting;
    publishes annual proceedings, bulletins, Journal of Home
    Economics.

      American Institute of Child Life. Philadelphia. An educational
      institution which furnishes its members personal service of
      books, correspondence, bulletins, on home-making, children’s
      education, play, vocational guidance. Works through individual
      homes, and clubs of its members. Publishes Child Life.

      International Congress of Mothers, and Parent-Teachers
      Association. Washington, D. C. Mrs. Frederic Schoff, President.
      Organizes clubs and public meetings; furnishes speakers,
      programs, reading lists, literature, personal correspondence.
      Publishes Child Welfare Magazine. Holds annual meeting.

      National Association for Mothercraft Education. New York City.
      Co-operates with organizations, institutions and communities
      in the development of systematic courses of training in
      mothercraft; issues bulletins.


  CHAPTER II. HOME AND MARRIAGE

    I. Cabot, Richard C. What Men Live By. Houghton. 1914. 341 p.
    $1.50. Illuminating chapters on love and marriage.

      Cannon, Frank J., and Knapp, Geo. L. Brigham Young and his
      Mormon Empire. Revell. 1913. 350 p. Illus. $1.00. History and
      present ideals and customs, by a man brought up in Mormonism,
      and author of the play “Polygamy.”

      Crow, Martha Foote. The American Country Girl. Stokes. 1915.
      367 p. Illus. $1.50. Includes chapters on choice in marriage,
      home life.

      Drummond, Henry. The Ascent of Man. Potts. 1898. 346 p. $1.00.
      Chapters on the evolution of a mother and of a father.

      Ellwood, Chas. A. Sociology and Modern Social Problems. A. B.
      Co. 1910. 331 p. Bibl. $1.00. Chapters on the family, values of
      monogamy, causes of family instability.

      Gillette, John M. The Family and Society. McClurg. 1914. 164 p.
      Illus. Bibl. $.75. Brief history, values, tendencies, reforms;
      divorce.

      †Goodsell, Willystine. History of the Family as a Social
      Institution. Macmillan. 1915. 600 p. Bibl. $2.00. History of
      family and marriage from primitive times; values; divorce;
      suggested reforms.

      Hillis, Mrs. Newell Dwight. American Woman and Her Home.
      Revell. 1913. 186 p. $1.00. Practical psychology of harmonious
      family life.

      Ringrose, Hyacinthe. Marriage and Divorce Laws of the World.
      Stechert. 1911. 270 p. $2.50. Includes Europe, Asia and America.

      Wilson, Jennie L. Legal and Political Status of Women in the U.
      S. The author. Cedar Rapids, Ia. 1912. p. 336. $2.00. Statement
      of the common law, and a compendium of the laws of each State
      relating to marriage, property rights, divorce.

    I._b._ A Marriage Contract and Creed. School of Mothercraft.
    1916. $.50. Summarizes the responsibilities and rights of each
    party to the contract; presented as a basis for prenuptial
    discussion and comparison of standards, tastes, and adjustment of
    practical problems.

      (See also Chap. I.) Other standard writers: Lyman Abbott,
      Franklin H. Giddings, E. J. Hardy, George E. Howard, E. A.
      Ross, James H. Tufts, Lester F. Ward.


  CHAPTER III. HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND EFFICIENCY

    I. Frederick, Christine. The New Housekeeping. Doubleday. 1913.
    265 p. Illus. $1.00. Practical demonstration of efficiency
    methods applied to housekeeping.

      Kinne, Helen, and Cooley, Anna M. Foods and Household
      Management. Macmillan. 1913. 401 p. Illus. Bibl. $1.10.
      Dietetics, cooking, marketing, sanitation, household
      management, budget, laundering.

      Kinne, Helen, and Cooley, Anna M. Shelter and Clothing.
      Macmillan. 1915. 377 p. Illus. Bibl. $1.10. Furnishing,
      heating, cleaning, textiles, sewing.

      Nesbitt, Florence. Low Cost Cooking. Amer. School H. E. 1915.
      127 p. Illus. Bibl. $.50. Economy in recipes, menus, buying,
      fuel; homemade fireless.

      Richards, Ellen H. Cost of Living. Wiley. 1915. 154 p. Illus.
      $1.00. How to practically reduce cost by organization and
      sanitation.

      Do. Cost of Food. Wiley. Rev. Ed. 1915. Illus. $1.00.

    I._b._ Andrews, Benj. R. A Survey of your Household Expenses. T.
    C. 1912. 12 p. $.10. Practical methods of apportioning expenses
    and keeping household accounts.

      Furst, Mary L. Household Management. T. C. 1911. 24 p. Bibl.
      $.10. Syllabus giving helpful bird’s eye view of household
      management. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington. Pamphlets
      on equipment, economy.

    II. Housewives’ Magazine. Housewives League, New York City.
    $1.00. Pure foods, improved markets, practical marketing.

      Journal of Home Economics (See Chap. I.)

      See also Good Housekeeping Magazine, Ladies Home Journal,
      Delineator, Forecast.

    III. Good Housekeeping Institute, New York City. Examines
    housekeeping utensils and foods; issues bulletins.

    Housewives League. 25 W. 45th St. New York City. Membership
    organization of housewives for pure food, sanitary markets,
    honest weights, reduction of food cost.

    (See also Chap. IX.)


CHAPTER IV. EUGENICS, BIOLOGY, SEX HYGIENE

  I. Cabot, Richard C, The Christian Approach to Social Morality. Y.
  W. C. A. Press, N. Y. C. 1913. 99 p. $.50. The Consecration of the
  Affections and other essays.

    Cabot, Richard C. What Men Live By. (Chap. II.)

    Davenport, Chas B. Heredity in Relation to Eugenics. Holt. 1911.
    298 p. Illus. Bibl. $2.00. Biological data and family histories
    tracing heredity of unit characters and methods of transmission.

    Davenport, Chas. B. State Laws Limiting Marriage Selection.
    Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. 1913. 66
    p. Ill. Bibl. $.40. Laws for each state; criticism from eugenics
    standpoint.

    Dawson, George E. The Right of the Child to be Well Born.
    (_a_) Funk. 1912. 144 p. Illus. $.75. Principles of eugenics;
    responsibility toward the child.

    Exner, M. J. The Physician’s Answer. Y. M. C. A. Press, N. Y.
    C. 1913. 50 p. $.25. Medical authority contradicting prevailing
    misconceptions regarding sex.

    Foerster, F. W. Marriage and the Sex Problem. Stokes. 1912. 228
    p. $1.35. Biological, medical, psychological and social phases.

    Galton, Francis. Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope and Aims. Amer.
    Jour. of Sociology, July, 1904. Also in his Sociological Papers.

    Geddes, Patrick, and Thomson, J. Arthur. Sex. Holt. 1914. $.50.
    Biological and sociological aspects of sex in human life.

    †Guyer, M. J. Being Well-born. Bobbs-Merrill. 1916. 250 p. Illus.
    Bibl. $1.00. A popular and interesting account of genetics and
    eugenics, thoroughly scientific.

    †Jewett, Frances G. The Next Generation. (_a_) Ginn. 1914. 235
    p. 111. Bibl. $.75. Concrete account of heredity and eugenics,
    especially for young people.

    Jordan, David S. Heredity of Richard Roe. (_a._) Unitarian Press,
    Boston. 1913. 165 p. $1.20. In story form; the principles and
    facts of heredity and eugenics.

    †March, Norah H. Towards Racial Health. Routledge. 1915. Illus.
    Bibl. 326 p. $1.50. A comprehensive book especially for young
    people, includes physical, biological, psychological and social
    phases.

    Pussey, Wm. A. Syphilis as a Modern Problem, American Medical
    Assn. Press, Chicago, 1914. 128 p. $.25. An authoritative
    statement regarding medical and social phases.

    Reed, Chas. A. L. Marriage and Genetics, Galton Press,
    Cincinnati, 1913. 183 p. $1.00. The most definite statement of
    practical application of laws of heredity of unit characters; the
    eugenic medical examination.

    Saleeby, C. W. Parenthood and Race Culture. Moffatt. 1909. 398
    p. $2.50. Principles of eugenics in theory and practice; race
    poisons.

  II. The Eugenics Review. Edited by Eugenics Education Society.
  Huebsch. $5.25. Authoritative articles on heredity and social
  phases of eugenics.

    The Journal of Heredity. Edited by Amer. Genetic Assn.
    Washington, D. C. $2.00. Articles on plant, animal and human
    heredity; eugenics. Book reviews.

    Social Hygiene. Edited by Amer. Social Hygiene Assn., New York
    City. $2.00. Devoted especially to these phases of social reform.

  III. American Genetic Association. Washington, D. C. Devoted
  chiefly to biological research and study.

    American Social Hygiene Association. New York City. Chas. W.
    Eliot, Hon. Pres. Devoted to social surveys, legislation, law
    enforcement, education; lecture bureau, lantern slides, pamphlet
    literature, information bureau.

    Eugenics Education Society. London. Founded by Francis Galton.
    Conducts public lectures for education; issues pamphlets.

    Pamphlets issued by the above organizations, also by Health
    Education League (Boston), and by Association Press.

    Examination of family histories, with advice on hereditary
    probabilities, made by Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring
    Harbor, L. I. No fee.

    Physical examinations (Chap. VIII).

    (See also Chap. X 4C.)


CHAPTER V. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

  I. Baldwin, Burt T. Physical Growth and School Progress. (_c_) U.
  S. Bureau Educ. 1914. 188 p. Charts. Bibl. $.25.

    Baldwin, James M. Story of the Mind. (_a_) Appleton 1898. p. 226
    Illus. $.35. Brief, clear, concrete statement of psychology, with
    applications.

    Barnes, Earl. Studies in Education. The author, Philadelphia,
    Pa. Each vol. $2.00. Two volumes containing twenty illuminating
    studies of children’s social ideas and ideals.

    Bryan, E. B. Nascent Stages in Development and their Pedagogical
    Significance. Ped. Sem. Oct., 1900. 39 p. Bibl. Summary of
    characteristics and interests of childhood, youth, adolescence.

    Chamberlain, A. F. The Child. Scribner. 1900. 495 p. Illus. Bibl.
    $1.50. A compendium of researches to date; growth, physical and
    psychological development, meaning of youth, play; the child and
    the savage.

    Drummond, W. B. The Child: His Nature and Nurture. (_a_) Dutton.
    1910. 146 p. Bibl. $.35.

    Hall, G. Stanley. Aspects of Child Life. Ginn. 1907. 326 p. Bibl.
    $1.50. Reports of special studies on contents of children’s
    minds, collecting, curiosity and interest, ownership, day
    dreaming, dolls.

    Hall, G. S. Adolescence. (_c_) 2 vol. Appleton. 1904. $7.50.
    Detailed study of physical and mental development; pedagogy of
    special subjects.

    Hall, G. S. Youth: Its Education, Regimen and Hygiene. Appleton.
    1911. 379 p. $1.50. Period from twelve to twenty years.
    Abridgement of the author’s books on Adolescence.

    †Kirkpatrick, E. A. The Individual in the Making. Houghton.
    1911. 333 p. Bibl. $1.20. Principles of development; stages of
    development; education adapted to different stages.

    Lamoreaux, Antoinette. The Unfolding Life. (_a_) Revell. 1907.
    188 p. $.75 Psychological and religious development from infancy
    to adolescence, with special reference to religious training.

    Preyer, W. Mental Development of the Child. Appleton. 1909. 176
    p. $1.00. Conclusions from author’s earlier studies; some of the
    more important points on which the development of the child’s
    mind depends.

    †St John, Edward P. Child Nature and Child Nurture. (_a_)
    Pilgrim. 1911. 106 p. Bibl. $.75. A textbook for parents’
    classes. Special references to moral and religious training.

    Sully, James. Children’s Ways. Appleton. 1897. 193 p. $2.00 The
    development of children in their play, fancy, language, drawing,
    fears, moral and social life; scientific and human.

    †Tanner, Amy E. The Child. Rand. 1915. 430 p. Illus. Bibl. $1.25.
    Practical, up-to-date handbook, with very complete bibliographies.

    Tracy, Frederick. Psychology of Childhood. Heath. 1912. 219
    p. $1.25. Development of senses, intellect, feelings, will,
    language, æsthetic, moral and religious ideas; psychopathic
    conditions in childhood.

    †Tyler, John M. Growth and Education. Houghton. 1907. 294 p.
    Bibl. Illus. $1.50. Evolution in child and race; detailed account
    of physical and psychological characteristics in each stage of
    development; educational applications.

  II. Pedagogical Seminary. Clark University, Worcester, Mass. G.
  Stanley Hall, Editor. $5.00. Reports of special studies in genetic
  psychology, growth, development; book reviews, bibliographies.

    (See also Chap. XI.)


CHAPTER VI. PRENATAL HYGIENE; MOTHERHOOD, FATHERHOOD

  I. Abbott, Ernest Hamlin. On the Training of Parents. Houghton.
  1908. 140 p. $1.00. Concrete essays and stories on preparation for
  child training.

    Bishop, Emily M. Daily Ways to Health. (Chap. VIII.)

    Call, Annie P. Power through Repose. Little. 1892. 201 p. $1.00.
    How to relax, overcome nervousness, gain mental poise.

    Galbraith, Anna M. Four Epochs of a Woman’s Life. Saunders. 1913.
    244 p. Illus. $1.50. Special hygiene and physiology of girlhood,
    womanhood, marriage, maternity and middle age.

    Hollander, Bernard. Nervous Disorders of Women. Saunders. 1916.
    207 p. $1.50. Common nervous disorders and their rational
    treatment by hygiene, hygienic measures and mental treatment.

    Latimer, Caroline W. Girl and Woman. Appleton. 1913. 318 p.
    $1.50. Personal hygiene, special physiology and hygiene for young
    women. Written by a physician and biologist.

    Norris, Kathleen. Mother. Doubleday. 1911. 172 p. $1.00. A story
    of the mother’s responsibilities and her opportunities.

    Rice, Susan T. Mothers’ Day. Moffatt. 1915. 363 p. $1.00. Origin,
    history, celebration, significance, as related in prose and
    poetry.

    Rice, Susan T. The Mother in Verse and Prose. Moffatt. 1916. 357
    p. $1.50. Large volume including poems of motherhood, lullabies;
    prose excerpts from writers on the mothers of the famous.

    Richards, Florence H. Hygiene for Girls. Heath. 1913. Illus.
    $.70. Individual and community hygiene, with chapter on special
    hygiene for young women; written by a physician.

    Stuart, Ruth M. Sonny. Century. 1908. 135 p. $1.00. A short story
    of parental aspirations and experiences.

  I._b._ West, Mrs. Max. Prenatal Care. U. S. Children’s Bureau.
  1915. 84 p. Illus. Free. Simple and practical.

    (See also Chaps. IV, VII, VIII, XX.)


CHAPTER VII. INFANT CARE

  I. Fiske, John. The Meaning of Infancy. Houghton. 1909. $.35. The
  value of infancy to the child, the parents, society.

    Forsyth, David. Children in Health and Disease. Blakiston. 1909.
    336 p. Illus. $3.00. Physiology and psychology of infancy;
    hygiene of childhood; diagnosis and care of children’s diseases.

    Griffith, J. P. Crozier. Care of the Baby. Saunders. 1914. 455
    p. Illus. $1.50. Special attention to care of sick infants and
    children.

    King, F. Truby. Feeding and Care of Baby. (_a_) Macmillan, 1913.
    162 p. Illus. $.40. Practical, comprehensive, modern, many
    illustrations. Handbook of the New Zealand Society for Health of
    Women and Children.

    Morse, John L. and Talbot, Fritz B. Diseases of Nutrition
    and Infant Feeding. Macmillan. 1915. 346 p. Illus. $2.50.
    Comprehensive, authoritative and practical discussion of milk,
    maternal nursing and artificial feeding.

    Newman, George. Infant Mortality. Dutton. 1907. 356 p. $2.50.
    Social study of the extent, causes and prevention of infant
    mortality; extensive statistics.

    Pfaundler and Schlossmann. The Diseases of Children. Trans. from
    the German by Shaw and La Fetra. 7 vol. Lippincott. 1908-14.
    Illus. Collection of articles by eminent German authorities on
    development, feeding and therapy, as well as disease.

    Ramsey, Walter R. Hygiene of Infancy. Dutton. 1916. 198 p.
    Illus. $1.00. Infant physiology and growth; daily care; feeding;
    ailments and diseases, and their care. Thoroughly modern, simple,
    practical.

    Standard works, both popular handbooks and technical volumes on
    pediatrics: Cotton, Fischer, Holt, Kerley, Starr. Other standard
    works on pediatrics by Carr, Chapin and Pisek, Koplik.

    U. S. Census Bureau. Vitality Statistics. 1913. Includes tables
    showing infant mortality, by causes and years.

  I._b._ West, Mrs. Max. Infant Care. (_a_) U. S. Children’s Bureau.
  1915. 37 p. Illus. Free. Simple and practical directions for care
  and feeding.

    Pamphlets on infant hygiene and care issued by State and city
    Departments of Health, and by American Medical Association Press.

    Pamphlets on infant mortality, child welfare exhibits and
    campaigns, issued by the U. S. Children’s Bureau.

    Daily Record Sheet. Issued by School of Mothercraft 31 in set. $
    .25. Blank form similar to schedule in text, for daily records.

    Weight Chart. Issued by School of Mothercraft. Uniform with
    Record. $.05.

  II. American Journal of Diseases of Children. A. M. A. Press.
  $3.00. Scientific articles; reviews and reference list of current
  publications and articles in pediatrics, infant care, nutrition.

    Archives of Pediatrics. New York City. $3.00. Scientific and
    popular articles on child hygiene, infant care and welfare.

    Pediatrics. New York City. $2.00. Technical and popular articles
    on infant hygiene and welfare; book reviews.

  III. Association for Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality.
  Baltimore. Membership organization of physicians, social workers,
  teachers. Annual conference. Printed proceedings include valuable
  papers. Arranges exhibit material, issues pamphlets.

    Child Welfare Exhibit Association, New York City. Issues graphic
    exhibits, pamphlets; conducts local surveys and exhibits for
    child welfare, including infant mortality.

    Russell Sage Foundation, Child Hygiene Division. New York City.
    Conducts research; issues pamphlets.

    (See also Chap. XX.)




CHAPTER VIII. CHILD HYGIENE

  I. Bancroft, Jessie H. Posture of School Children. Macmillan.
  1913. 327 p. Illus. Bibl. $1.50. Hygiene of posture; exercises for
  preventing and overcoming defects from wrong posture.

    Bigelow, M. A. and Anna N. Applied Biology (Chap. XVII). Chapters
    on physiology and hygiene.

    Bishop, Emily M. Daily Ways to Health. Huebsch. 1910. 310 p.
    $1.50. Exercises (without apparatus) for vitality, overcoming
    nervousness, constipation, wrong posture; gaining poise.

    Carrington, Thos. S. Fresh Air and How to Use it. Nat. Assn. for
    Study and Prev. of Tuberculosis. 105 E. 22 St., N. Y. C. 1912.
    250 p. Illus. $1.00. Methods of ventilation; window tents, roof
    bungalows, sleeping porches, tent houses, open-air bungalows;
    clothing, bedding, furniture for open-air sleeping.

    Horsley, Victor and Sturge, Mary D. Alcohol and the Human
    Body. Macmillan. 1915. 290 p. Illus. Bibl. $.40. Physiological
    effects of alcohol upon different organs and tissues and upon
    intelligence; effects of alcohol upon children.

    Jewett, Frances G. Gulick Hygiene Series, edited by Luther H.
    Gulick. Ginn. Book I. Health and Safety. 1916. 189 p. Illus.
    Bibl. $.40. Book II. Physiology, Hygiene and Sanitation. 1916.
    359 p. Illus. Bibl. $.65. Written especially to interest children
    in hygiene.

    Müller, J. P. My System for Children. 1912. 117 p. Illus. $1.25.
    Physical exercises for children, from infancy.

    O’Shea, M. V. and Kellogg, J. H. The Body in Health. Macmillan.
    1915. 324 p. Illus. $.65. Written for children, in a way that
    will naturally interest them in the practice of hygiene.

    Sadler, Wm. S. Cause and Cure of Colds. McClurg. 1910. 147 p.
    Illus. $1.00. How colds may be prevented and how treated.

    Short, A. Rendle. The Newer Physiology. Wood. 1915. 266 p.
    Bibl. $1.00. Treats comprehensively of the new developments
    in physiology, including digestion, amino acids, vitamines,
    acidosis; the ductless glands, cerebral localization.

    Terman, Lewis M. The Hygiene of the Child. Houghton. 1914. 417
    p. Illus. Bibl. $1.75. Hygiene during school age; hygiene of
    special organs and senses; hygiene of education; a digest of the
    recently accumulated knowledge of child development and hygiene.

    Walker, Emma E. Beauty through Hygiene. Barnes. 1904. 306 p.
    Illus. $1.00. Hygienic means to physical beauty.

    Wood, Thos. D. Health Essentials for Rural School Children.
    American Medical Assn. Press, Chicago. 1916. 25 p. $.10. Helpful
    pamphlet for parents and teachers.

    Worcester, Elwood and McComb, Samuel. Religion and Health.
    Grosset. 1910. 425 p. $.75. Use of suggestion and auto-suggestion
    in preventing and healing of illness, especially fear and
    nervousness; by the founders of the Emmanuel Movement.

  I._b._ Pamphlets issued by practically all of the organizations and
  institutions listed in III.

    Daily Record Schedule Blank. The School of Mothercraft. Set of
    31. $.25. Similar to schedule in text, with space for recording.

    Weight chart, for birth to 14 years. School of Mothercraft. $.05.
    Uniform size with those for infancy.

  II. American Physical Education Review, Springfield, Mass. $1.50.

    Dietetic and Hygiene Gazette, 87 Nassau St., New York $1.00.

    Good Health Magazine. Battle Creek, Mich. $2.00.

    Journal American Medical Association. Chicago. $5.00. A. M. A.
    Press.

    Outdoor Life. (Anti-tuberculosis.) Outdoor Life Pub. Co. New
    York, $1.00.

  III. American Medical Association. Chicago, Ill. Annual meeting.

    American Physical Education Association. Annual Meeting.
    Springfield, Mass.

    American Posture League. 1 Madison Ave., New York. Examines
    furniture, clothing and apparatus with reference to its effect on
    posture; issues label to approved articles.

    Carnegie Institution, Washington, D. C. Research in hygiene,
    nutrition and medicine. Annual Year Book includes reports of
    studies.

    Home Economics Association. (Chap. III.)

    International Congress of Hygiene and Demography. Annual Report
    includes scientific and popular papers read at annual meeting.

    Joint Committee on Hygiene of Amer. Med. Assn. and Nat. Ed. Assn.

    Life Extension Institute. 25 W. 45 St., New York. Issues
    pamphlets, literature, publishes books and bulletins, conducts
    health examinations.

    National Child Welfare Exhibit Association. (Chap. VII.)

    National Mental Hygiene Association. 105 E. 22 St., New York.
    State branches in some States.

    Rockefeller Institute, New York. Research work in medicine.
    Issues report of discoveries made by staff.

    Russell Sage Foundation. New York. Conducts surveys and social
    studies; issues reports of studies, and popular pamphlets.

    U. S. Children’s Bureau. (Chap. VII.)

    Physical examinations of a very comprehensive and thorough nature
    are conducted by the following:

    Battle Creek Sanitarium, Battle Creek, Mich., and branches in
    other localities.

    Chicago Physiological Institute, Chicago.

    Life Extension Institute, 25 W. 45 St., New York. Has
    representatives in many localities throughout the country.

    (Also Chaps. IV, VI, VII, IX, XX.)


CHAPTER IX. FOOD, NUTRITION, DIETETICS

  I. Allyn, Lewis B. Westfield Pure Food Book. Westfield Brd. of
  Trade, Westfield, Mass. 1915. 68 p. $.25. List of foods that have
  been analyzed in Westfield Laboratory and found to conform to pure
  food requirements.

    Cooper, Lena F. The New Cookery. Good Health Pub. Co. 1916. 412
    p. Illus. $1.50. Methods of cooking most conductive to health, as
    taught at Battle Creek Sanitarium. Caloric value of each recipe.

    Farmer, Fannie M. Boston Cooking School Cook Book. Little. 1915.
    648 p. Illus. $1.80. Standard cook book, revised.

    Fisher, Irving. A Graphic Method in Practical Dietetics. American
    Medical Assn. Press, Chicago. 1907. Illus. $.10. A method for
    computing the caloric value of any quantity or combination of
    foods. Tables of 100-calorie portions, common foods.

    Noorden, Karl H. von. Metabolism and Practical Medicine. (_c_)
    Vol. I. 1907. Source and authority for much of present teaching
    in nutrition. $5.00

    Rose, Mary S. A Laboratory Handbook for Dietetics. (_c_)
    Macmillan. 1912. 127 p. $1.10. Most complete collection of
    tables of food composition; methods of analyzing foods, dietaries.

    Sherman, Henry C. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. (_c_)
    Macmillan. 1911. 355 p. Bibl. $1.50. Thorough discussion of food
    chemistry and principles of nutrition.

    Sherman, Henry C. Food Products. Macmillan. 1914. 594 p.
    Illus. Bibl. $2.25. Discussion of specific food groups and
    foods; composition, source, place in dietary. Tables of food
    composition, including acid or alkali balance.

    Underhill, Frank P. Physiology of the Amino Acids. Yale. 1915.
    Illus. Bibl. 158 p. $1.35. Thorough discussion of the amino acids
    in specific protein foods, and their significance in nutrition,
    so far as yet known.

    Wiley, Harvey W. Not by Bread alone. Hearst. 1915. 354 p. $2.00.
    Principles of nutrition, with special reference to feeding of
    children, and economy in food.

    Mendel, L. B. Childhood and Growth. Stokes. 1905. 53 p. $.60.
    Brief, practical discussion of composition of food in childhood,
    for mothers.

  I._b._ Atwater, W. O. and Bryant, A. P. Composition of American
  Food Materials. U. S. Dept. Agriculture. Revised Bulletin 28. 87 p.
  $.10.

    Blatherwick, N. R. Specific Rôle of Foods in Relation to
    Composition of Urine. (_c_) Reprint. Author, Yale University, New
    Haven, Conn. 1914. Study of acid and base-forming goods. (Prunes,
    plums, cranberries found exception to fruits as base-forming.)

    Hunt, Caroline L. Daily Meals of School Children. (_a_) U. S.
    Dept. Agri. 62 p. Principles of feeding. Recipes for meals and
    lunches.

    Mendel, Lafayette B. Changes in Food Supply and their Relation
    to Nutrition. Yale. 1916. 61 p. Bibl. $.50. Resumé of present
    knowledge of nutrition.

    Mendel, L. B. Newer Points of View Regarding the Part Played
    by Different Food Substances in Nutrition. 15 p. Journal of A.
    M. A., Sept. 5, 1914. Also Reprints. Amer. Med. Assn. Press
    metabolism of proteins; amino acids.

    Mendel, L. B. Nutrition and Growth. Journal of A. M. A., May
    8, 1915. 27 p. Also reprint. Amer. Med. Assn. Press. Reviews
    older and new views of physiology of growth, recent studies of
    different specific foods.

    †Rose, Mary S. Feeding of Young Children. (_a_) Teachers College,
    New York City. 1911. 10 p. $.10. Practical principles; menus;
    analysis of menus.

    Rose, Mary S. Food for School Boys and Girls. (_a_) Teachers
    College. 1914. 15 p. $.10. Practical principles; menus.

    School of Mothercraft. Menu Sheets. 1916. 31 in set. $.25 per
    set. $.50 per 100. Form similar to pp. 180-3, with space for
    recording.

    School of Mothercraft. Diet Analysis Sheets. 1916. 100 in set.
    $.50. Form similar to p. 178. Space for recording.

    U. S. Department of Agriculture pamphlets on food values,
    specific foods, cooking, cover a wide range, and are
    authoritative. Sent free.

  II. Journal of Home Economics. (See Chap. I.)

    Articles on nutrition and dietetics also appear in the pediatric
    journals (Chap. VII) and periodicals devoted to hygiene (Chap.
    VIII).

    Technical articles appear in the American Journal of Physiology
    and the Journal of Biological Chemistry.

    (See also Chap. VIII.)


CHAPTERS X AND XII. EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND CURRICULUM

  For greater convenience to the reader the references in this
  chapter are grouped first by subjects.

  1. General books on principles and methods of education, pedagogy.

  _A._ Systematic and textbooks.

  Dearborn, George V. N. How to Learn Easily. Little. 1916. 125 pp.
  $1.00. From the standpoint of psychology and physiology.

  Dewey, John. Interest and Effort in Education. Houghton. 1913. 101
  p. $.60. The significance of each factor; their practical usage.

  †Dewey, John. The School and Society. U. of C. 1912. 129 p. Illus.
  $1.00. Discussion of principles in elementary education; resumé of
  work in the Experimental School.

  Dewey, John and Ethel. Schools of To-morrow. Dutton. 1915. 316 p.
  Illus. $1.50. Describes and comments upon progressive educational
  work as conducted at the Francis Parker, Gary and other selected
  schools, School of Organic Education, Teachers College kindergarten.

  Graves, Frank P. Great Educators of Three Centuries. Macmillan.
  1912. 289 p. Bibl. $1.10. The life work and influence of Comenius,
  Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel and others to Spencer.

  Henderson, Charles H. Education and the Larger Life. Houghton.
  1902. 386 p. $1.30. Essays on organic education and the social
  purposes of education.

  Henderson, C. H. What Is It to Be Educated? Houghton. 1914. 456 p.
  Bibl. $1.50. Supplementary to the author’s previous volume.

  James, Wm., Talks to Teachers on Psychology and to Students on
  Life’s Ideals. Holt. 1899. 301 p. $1.50. Practical application of
  psychology to teaching and learning.

  Partridge, George E. Genetic Philosophy of Education. Sturgis.
  1912. 401 p. Bibl. $1.00. A clear epitome of the educational
  writings of G. Stanley Hall.

  Thomson, Wm. H. Brain and Personality. Dodd. 1908. 335 p. Illus.
  $1.00. The physical basis of mind, evolution of the nervous
  system, anatomy and physiology of the speech mechanism; practical
  applications of neurology to psychology.

  _B._ Popular.

  Allen, Mary Wood. Making the Best of our Children. McClurg. $1.00
  each.

    Vol. I. Children to nine years.

    Vol. II. Eight to twenty years.

    Practical phases of physical, mental, social and religious
    training.

  Birney, Mrs. Theodore. Childhood. (_a_) Stokes. 1905. 254 p.
  $1.00. Friendly, practical discourses by the founder of the Inter.
  Mothers’ Congress.

  Burbank, Luther. The Training of the Human Plant. Century. 1907.
  100 p. $.60. The needs, rights and potentialities of children;
  application of principles of biology to childhood and education.

  Fisher, Dorothy Canfield. Mothers and Children. Holt. 1914. 285 p.
  $1.00. The child’s point of view; training in obedience.

  †Forbush, Wm. B. The Coming Generation. (_a_) Appleton. 1912. 402
  p. $1.50. Forces working for the betterment of American young
  people; betterment in the home, through birth and better health,
  through education, through religious and social nurture and service.

  Gruenberg, Sidonie M. Your Child To-day and To-morrow. Lippincott.
  1913. 234 p. Illus. $1.25. Discusses problems of punishment,
  children’s lies, training in reasoning, training through play; sex
  education, obedience, will.

  McKeever, Wm. A. Farm Boys and Girls. Macmillan. 1912. 325 p.
  Illus. Bibl. $1.50. Especially for the mother in the rural home;
  home conveniences, children’s literature, rural recreations, and
  other practical problems.

  †McKeever, Wm. A. Training the Boy. Macmillan. 1915. 368 p. Illus.
  Bibl. $1.50. Training from infancy through adolescence to develop
  the many-sided nature of the boy into a well-poised man; includes
  discussion of early childhood training, play, fighting, bad habits,
  vocational training, preparation for home and family life.

  †McKeever, Wm. A. Training the Girl. Macmillan. 1914. 342 p. Illus.
  Bibl. $1.50. A companion volume to the foregoing.


  2. Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel and Montessori.

  Comenius. The School of Infancy. Heath. 99 p. Bibl. $1.00. The
  early educator’s discussions, though antiquated in some details,
  are full of inspiration for the present day. Education during the
  first six years, chiefly through play and habits.

  Pestalozzi. How Gertrude Teaches Her Children. Bardeen. 1894. 256
  p. Bibl. $1.00. A concrete view of Pestalozzi’s principles and
  methods in the education of little children in the home.

  Froebel, Frederick. The Education of Man. (_c_) Appleton. 1905. 340
  p. $1.50. The philosophy and principles of the kindergarten.

  Froebel, Frederick. The Mother Play Book, with Miss Susan E. Blow’s
  commentary. Appleton. 1895. 316 p. $1.50. How the mother can
  educate the child through his daily play and spontaneous interests.

  †Hughes, James L. Froebel’s Educational Laws. Appleton. 1901. 290
  p. $1.50. A concise and clear resumé of Froebel’s principles.

  Blow, Susan E., Harrison, Elizabeth & Hill, Patty S. The
  Kindergarten. Houghton. 1913. 301 p. $1.25. The point of view
  of the conservative and the progressive leaders in American
  kindergarten work; official report of the Committee of Nineteen of
  the International Kindergarten Union.

  †Harrison, Elizabeth. A Study of Child Nature. Chicago Kg. College,
  Chicago. 1895. 207 p. $1.00. The kindergarten idea of development
  of mind, soul and body, with concrete application to child nature.

  †Smith, Nora A. The Homemade Kindergarten. Houghton 1912. 117
  p. $.95. Practical suggestions regarding the use of the home
  environment and the daily home life, according to Froebel’s
  principles.

  Wiggin, Kate D. & Smith, Nora. Children’s Rights. Houghton. 1892.
  235 p. $1.00. The rights of the child; children’s play, stories,
  playthings, reading; governing children.

  Montessori, Maria. The Montessori Method. Stokes. 1912. 377 p. Ill.
  $1.75. Principles and methods elaborated by Mme. Montessori in Rome.

  Hall, G. Stanley. Pedagogy of the Kindergarten. In his Educational
  Problems, Vol. I.

  Dewey, John. Resumé and estimate of the Montessori Method, in his
  Schools of To-morrow.


  3. Special phases of education; pedagogy of special subjects. Burk,
  Frederic. From Fundamental to Accessory in the Development of the
  Nervous System and its Movements. Ped. Sem. 1899. 59 p.

  Hall, G. Stanley. Educational Problems. Appleton. 1911. 2 vol.
  $7.50. Pedagogy of the kindergarten, music, dancing, industrial
  education, moral and religious training, sex education; drawing,
  reading, history; children’s lies.

  Halleck, Reuben P. Education of the Central Nervous System.
  Macmillan. Illus. 258 p. $1.00. Structure of the nervous system;
  training in habits; feelings, will.

  Holmes, Arthur. The Conservation of the Child. Lippincott. 1912.
  345 p. $1.25. Educational methods and special guidance for “the
  child who is different”, especially for backward or subnormal
  children.

  O’Shea, M. V. Dynamic Factors in Education. Macmillan. 1908. 320
  p. Illus. Bibl. $1.25. The motor factor in education; training the
  motor powers, inhibition, will.

  Language.

  O’Shea, M. V. Linguistic Development and Education. Macmillan.
  1907. 327 p. Bibl. $1.25. Development of speech in childhood;
  training in efficiency in oral expression; teaching a foreign
  language; learning to read.

  Scripture, E. W. Stuttering and Lisping. Macmillan. 1912. 247 p.
  Ill. Bibl. $1.00. How to prevent and overcome these defects.

  Wright, S. D. What the Mother of a Deaf Child Should Know. Stokes.
  1914. 125 p. $.75. Early home education and care.

  Special references on precocity.

  Burbank, Luther. Training of the Human Plant. (Chap. X, 1. _B._)

  Terman, Lewis M. Hygiene of the Child. (Chap. VIII.)

  Terman, Lewis M. Precocity and Prematuration. Amer. Jour. of Psy.,
  April, 1905.

  Tyler, J. M. Growth and Education. (Chap. V.)


  4. Religious, moral, social, eugenic education.

  _A._ Religious.

  †Cope, Henry F. Religious Education in the Family. U. of C. 296
  p. Bibl. $1.25. Comprehensive, practical; considers nature and
  interests of the child, the family life, religious teaching in the
  home life under present-day conditions.

  Chamberlain, Georgia. Child Religion in Song and Story. U. of
  C. Illus. Bibl. 2 vol. Each $1.25. Application of kindergarten
  principles to religious education, with special reference to
  elementary classes in Sunday Schools.

  Moulton, Richard G., Ed. Children’s Series of the Modern Reader’s
  Bible. Vol I. Old Testament. Vol II. New Testament. Macmillan,
  1899. $.50 each. Bible stories told in the language of the Bible,
  edited especially for children, printed in small volumes, without
  illustrations. Invaluable for telling the Bible stories.

  Smith, Elva S. and Hazeltine, Alice I. Christmas in Legend and
  Story. Lothrop. 1915. 283 p. $1.50. Excellent collection of stories
  and poems, illustrated from famous paintings.

  _B._ Moral and social.

  Burgess, Gelett. The Goops and How to be Them. Stokes. 190 p.
  Illus. $1.50. Funny rhymes and pictures to teach very little
  children manners and morals.

  †Cabot, Ella L. and others. A Course in Citizenship. Houghton.
  1914. 386 p. Bibl. $1.25. Authorized by Mass. Branch of Amer.
  School Peace League. Training for citizenship in home, playground,
  neighborhood, nation, the world family. Compilation of illustrative
  stories and quotations.

  Cabot, Ella L. Ethics for Children. Houghton. 1910. 254 p. Bibl.
  $1.25. Stories, poems and quotations, classified under specific
  ethical traits, arranged also by school years. Valuable for home
  use, with relatively slight following of yearly classification.

  Dewey, John. Moral Principles in Education. Houghton. 1909. 60 p.
  $.35. Moral principles as a part of the method of education.

  Field, Jessie and Nearing, Scott. Community Civics. Macmillan.
  1915. 270 p. Illus. $.60. Practical ways of teaching civic
  responsibility and action to children; especially prepared for
  rural life.

  Gulliver, Lucile. The Friendship of Nations. Ginn. 1912. 293 p.
  Illus. $.60. Story of the Peace Movement, told in stories, for
  children.

  †James, Wm. Psychology (Briefer Course.) Holt. 1910. 477 p. Illus.
  $1.50. Chapter on Habits and Will; application of psychology to
  their training.

  King, Henry C. Rational Living. Macmillan. 1905. 271 p. $1.25.
  Standards of conduct; working with nature; application of
  psychological principles to moral training.

  Mumford, Edith E. R. The Dawn of Character. (Chap. XI.)

  O’Shea, M. V. Social Development and Education. Macmillan. 1909.
  575 p. Bibl. $2.00. Training in social development from infancy, in
  daily life and by special methods.

  Payot, Jules. The Education of the Will. Funk. 1909. 448 p. $1.50.
  Education in early childhood; training in inhibition, self-control
  of appetites and emotions; will power.

  Sneath, E. Hershey and Hodges, Geo. Moral Training in Home and
  School. Macmillan. 1914. 221 p. $.80.

  Pritchard, Myron T. and Tarkington, Grace. Stories of thrift for
  Young Americans. Scribner. 1915. 221 p. $.60. Story-discussions for
  children on phases of thrift, saving time and resources, spending
  money; ownership.


  _C._ Eugenics and sex education.

  Bigelow, Maurice A. Methods in Sex Education. Macmillan. 1916. 150
  p. $1.00. A thorough review of the history and pedagogy of sex
  education. A most valuable handbook for the educator and parent.
  Annotated bibliography.

  Chapman, Mrs. Rose W. How Shall I Tell my Child? Revell. 1912. 62
  p. $.25. Simple, giving biological facts with beauty and poetry, as
  a little child appreciates them.

  Lyttleton, Rev. E. Training of the Young in Laws of Sex. Longman.
  1912. 117 p. $1.00. Written for parents and teachers. Points out
  methods of instruction and training, and the relating of this
  subject to other phases of life. Does not include biological data.

  Morley, Margaret W. The Spark of Life. Revell. 1913. 62 p. $.25.
  Simple stories of nature, as told to a little child.

  (See also Chap. IV, especially Cabot, Foerster, Jewett, March,
  Smith; and Chap. XVII, Bigelow, Morley.)

II. Kindergarten and First Grade. Bradley. $1.25. Suggestions for
handwork, stories, educational play, for mothers and kindergartners.

  Kindergarten-Primary Magazine. Kindergarten Magazine Co., Manistee,
  Mich. $1.00. Also popular magazine for mothers and kindergartners.

  Religious Education. Rel. Ed. Assn. (See below.) $3.00. Valuable
  articles on religious education in childhood and adolescence, both
  in home, school and church. Non-sectarian.

  Teachers College Record. Teachers College. $1.50. Valuable reports
  and articles on progressive and practical educational work, by
  members of Teachers College faculty.

  Pedagogical Seminary. (See Chap. V.)

  (For popular magazines on child training see list Chap. I.)

III. International Kindergarten Union. Bradley.

  Professional organization of kindergartners. Annual meeting.

  The Montessori Educational Association, Washington, D. C.
  Membership organization.

  Moral Education League. Washington, D. C. Membership organization
  for the promotion of moral education in home and school. Issues
  leaflets and books.

  National Education Association. Professional organization of
  educators in all fields. Annual meeting. Reports of proceedings
  contain many valuable papers on all phases of education.

  National Kindergarten Association. New York City. Encourages
  development of kindergartens in new centers.

  Religious Education Association. 330 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago.
  Membership organization of educators, clergy, parents and laymen of
  all sects, interested in the furtherance of religious education and
  religious pedagogy. Annual meeting. Reports of proceedings contain
  valuable papers.

  U.S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. Dr. Philander P.
  Claxton, Commissioner of Education. Through its various divisions
  gathers data and statistics, makes surveys, disseminates
  information. Issues monthly bibliography and pamphlets, and annual
  report.



CHAPTER XI. STUDY OF INDIVIDUAL CHILDREN

  Davis, Jesse B. Vocational and Moral Guidance. Ginn. 1914. 303 p.
  Bibl. $1.25. Contains suggestions for study of personality and
  abilities.

  Dearborn, George. Motor-Sensory Development. Warwick. 1910. 215 p.
  Illus. $1.50. A psychologist’s observations of his daughter during
  the first three years.

  Grahame, Kenneth. The Golden Age. Lane. 1905. 225 p. $1.00. Stories
  revealing the mind and feelings of four young children who were not
  understood by their elders.

  Hoag, E. B. Health Index of Children. Whitaker & Ray-Wiggin Co. San
  Francisco. 1910. 188 p. $.80. Points for observation in physical
  examination; methods of physical inspection.

  Major, David R. First Steps in Mental Growth. Macmillan. 1906. 355
  p. Illus. $1.25. Observations made by the author during the first
  three years of his son’s development; includes sensory development,
  motor activities, drawing, language, feelings, fears.

  Montessori, Maria. Pedagogical Anthropology. (_c_) Stokes. 1913.
  508 p. Illus. $3.50. Studies in physical growth and condition of
  children, with special reference to education; methods.

  Mumford, Edith E. R. The Dawn of Character. Longman. 1911. 225 p.
  $1.20. A study of child life; includes studies of different types
  of children.

  Parsons, Frank. Choosing a Vocation. Houghton. 1909. 165 p. $1.00.
  Detailed outlines for study of personality, tastes, abilities.

  Partridge, George E. Outlines of Individual Study. Sturgis.
  1910. 240 p. Bibl. $1.25. Popular survey of methods of physical
  inspection, psychological tests, study of personality.

  Perez, Bernard. First Three Years of Childhood. Barnes. 294 p.
  $1.50. Trans. from French. A father’s observations on physical and
  psychological development of his son.

  Shinn, Milicent W. The Biography of a Baby. Houghton. 1900. 247
  p. $1.50. Story of the physical and mental development during the
  first year; the author’s observations of her niece.

  Terman, Lewis M. Measurements of Intelligence. Houghton. 1916.
  Illus. Bibl. 362 p. $1.50. Methods of making mental tests; the
  Stanford University revision of the Binet-Simon tests.

  Whipple, Guy M. Manual of Physical and Mental Tests. (_c_)
  Warwick. 1910. 533 p. Illus. Bibl. $2.50. Anthropometrical tables;
  psychological tests as conducted in the laboratory.

  Read, Mary L. Score Sheets for Study of the Individual Child.
  School of Mothercraft. 1916. Loose-leaf pages, similar to outline
  in Chapter XI of the Mothercraft Manual, but arranged with space
  for records and with items pertinent to each chronological year,
  one set for each year. Per set $.50.

  Yerkes, Robert M. and La Rue, D. W. Materials for a Study of the
  Self. Harvard. 1914. 24 pp. $1.00. Outlines and points for study of
  personality, in loose-leaf form.


CHAPTERS XIII AND XIV. PLAY AND GAMES

  I. †Johnson, George E. Education by Plays and Games. Ginn. 1907.
  234 p. Illus. $.90. Educational values of play; genetic development
  of children, and plays adapted to each stage of development.

    Finlay-Johnson, Harriet. The Dramatic Method of Teaching. Ginn.
    1912. 199p. Illus. $1.00. Use of dramatic play in teaching
    history, geography, literature.

    †Froebel, F. Mother Play, with Music. Appleton. Illus. 300 p.
    $1.50. The classic on education through play, with the youngest
    children.

    Poulsson, Emilie. Finger Plays. Lothrop. 1893. 80 p. Illus.
    $1.25. Songs, music and poems, chiefly about nature, with
    illustrated directions for playing, especially for children under
    six.

    Poulsson, Emilie. Father and Baby Plays. Century. 1907. Illus.
    $1.25. p. 98. Songs and rhymes for the rollicking games father
    likes to play with the toddlers.

    Brown, Florence, W. Old English and American Games. Saul,
    Chicago. 1913. 55 p. Paper, $.75. Authoritative versions of fifty
    of the singing games, with music and directions for playing.

    Hofer, Marie R. Children’s Singing Games. Flanagan. 1901. 42 p.
    Paper, $.50. Music and directions for forty of the traditional
    games; very slight duplication with the Brown collection.

    Newton, Marion B. Graded Games and Rhythmic Exercises. Barnes.
    1908. 110 p. Illus. $1.25. Games of imitation, sense perception,
    and other psychological value; some traditional and singing
    games; for children five to ten.

    Talbot, Mary White. The Book of Games. Scribner. 1913. 191
    p. $1.00. Over a hundred games, many cultivating alertness,
    imagination, invention, initiative.

    Chubb, Percival. Festivals and Plays. Harper. 1912. 403 p.
    Illus. Bibl. $2.00. Directions for pageants and children’s
    plays, including costuming, stage properties; the educational
    possibilities of pageants.

  I_b_. Leaflets issued by the Playground and Recreation Association
  of America.

  II. The Playground. Playground and Recreation Assn. of America.
  New York. Devoted to play interests, especially in playgrounds and
  social centers. $2.00

  III. Playground and Recreation Association of America. 1 Madison
  Ave., N. Y. C. Membership organization, devoted to playground
  extension.


CHAPTER XV. TOYS

  I. Hall, G. Stanley. Aspects of Child Life (Chap. X.) Chapters on
  dolls and collections.

    Starr, Laura B. The Doll Book. 1908. 238 p. Illus. $2.00.
    Descriptions and pictures of dolls from many countries and
    historic times; national customs and curiosities; manufacture;
    homemade.

    Wade, Mary H. Dolls of Many Lands. 1913. 153 p. Illus. $1.00.
    Imaginary stories told by dolls from seven different countries.

    (For making of toys see Chap. XVIII.)


CHAPTER XVI. STORY-TELLING AND STORIES

1. On Story-telling.

  I. Bryant, Sara Cone. How to Tell Stories to Children. Houghton.
  1905. 260 p. Bibl. $1.00. Simple directions for the mother and
  teacher; some stories.

    †St. John, Edw. P. Stories and Story-Telling. Pilgrim. 1910. 99
    p. Bibl. $.60. With special reference to story-telling in moral
    and religious education. How to tell, how to use, where to find
    stories.

    Wyche, Richard T. Some Great Stories and How to Tell Them.
    Newson. 1910. 181 p. Bibl. $1.00. How to tell stories
    effectively; with special reference to the classic Greek and
    Norse myths.

    Excellent books also by Julia D. Cowles, Louise S. Houghton,
    Angela M. Keyes, Edna Lyman, Mrs. E. N. Partridge.


    2. Collections. The following collections are carefully selected
    for the educational values; there is necessarily some duplication
    in the stories in these collections.

    Bailey, Caroline S. and Lewis, Clara M. For the Children’s
    Hour. Bradley. 1906. 333 p. $1.50. More than a hundred fairy
    tales, fables, myths, stories of home life, nature, industries,
    festivals, as told to kindergarten children.

    °Scudder, Horace E. The Children’s Book. Houghton. 1909. 300 p.
    $2.50. A large volume with nearly two hundred fables, fairy tales
    from Abbott, Anderson, Grimm, Perrault; stories from Arabian
    Nights, Munchausen, Lilliput, and from Greek Myths. Illustrations
    from Doré, Cruickshank and others.

    Cabot, Ella L. Ethics for Children. (Chapter X. 4.)

    Wiggin, Kate D. and Smith, Nora A. The Fairy Ring. Doubleday.
    1906. 445 p. Illus. $1.50. An excellent collection from many
    sources, by a kindergartner. Three other volumes in same series.


    3. Myths, Legends, Classic Stories.

    Bulfinch, Thomas. Age of Fable and Chivalry. Various editions.
    Age of Fable includes Greek myths, Odyssey, Iliad, Norse myths;
    Age of Chivalry, stories of Boewulf, Arthur, Roland. Some
    editions bound in one volume. Source book.

    Clarke, Helen A. Child’s Guide to Mythology. Baker. 1908. 399 p.
    Illus. $1.25. An unusual arrangement, grouping together myths
    relating to animals; plants and trees; sun, moon and stars; sky
    and air; mother and child. From Greek, Norse, Indian and Hindu.
    Illustrations from famous art.

    °Holbrook, Florence. Round the Year in Myth and Song. A. B. Co.
    200 p. Illus. $.60. A few myths simply told as to young children,
    apropos to each season.

    Judd, Mary C. Classic Myths. Rand. 1901. 195 p. Illus. Bibl.
    $.35. About forty myths from Greek, Roman, Norse, German,
    Russian, as told to young children.

    Jordan, David Starr. The Book of Knight and Barbara. Appleton.
    1904. Illus. $1.50. Myths and nature stories told to children by
    the great scientist, illustrated by children.

    Marvin, F. S., Mayor, R. J. C., Starwell, F. M. Adventures of
    Odysseus. Dutton. 1900. 227 p. Illus. $1.50. A translation from
    the Greek that preserves remarkably the spirit and atmosphere of
    the original. A source book for stories.

    †Kupfer, Grace H. Stories of Long Ago. Heath. 1909. 177 p. Illus.
    $.75. Thirty Greek myths, as told to little children; with
    nineteen illustrations from famous statuary and paintings.

    Brown, Abbie Farwell. Book of Saints and Friendly Beasts.
    Houghton. 1900. Illus. 225 p. $1.25. About twenty legends of
    mediæval saints and friendly beasts.

    °Clay, Beatrice. Stories of King Arthur and the Round Table.
    Dutton. 1905. 322 p. Illus. $2.50. As told to young children;
    preserves the quaint atmosphere.

    °Kelman, Janet H. Stories from Chaucer. Dutton. 1905. 114 p.
    Illus. $.50. Four tales simply told for young children in a
    little book.

    °Lang, Jean. Stories from Shakespeare. Dutton. 1909. 114 p.
    Illus. $.50. Seven stories briefly told in a little book for
    children.

    °Pilgrim’s Progress. An abridged edition for children, with large
    illustrations in black and white by Rhead. 1898. Century. $1.50.

    °Housman, Laurence, compiler. Stories from Arabian Nights.
    Dutton. 1911. $1.50. Six stories with 25 illustrations in color
    by Edmund Dulac, that express the spirit of wonder and mystery.


    4. Humor.

    °Burgess, G. Goops, and How to be Them. (Chap. X. 4 B.)

    °Lear, Edward. Nonsense Book. Little. 250 p. Illus. $1.60.
    Complete edition of this classic humor in picture and verse.

    Olcott, Frances J. and Pendleton, A. The Jolly Book for Boys
    and Girls. Houghton. 1915. 409 p. Illus. $2.00. Humorous tales
    from folklore, Arabian Nights, Thackeray, Dickens, Shakespeare,
    Aldrich, Lamb and other standard writers.

    Wiggin, Kate D. Tales of Laughter. Doubleday. 1908. $1.50.


    5. Heroic.

    Coe, Fanny E. Heroes of Everyday Life. Ginn. 169 p. Illus. $.40.
    Firemen, engineers, divers, miners, laborers.

    Moffett, Cleveland. Careers of Danger and Daring. Century. 1901.
    419 p. Illus. $1.50. Stories of the pilot, diver, life-saver,
    firemen, engineer, and other modern workers.

    Towle, George M. Heroes and Martyrs of Invention. (Chap. XVII.)

    (See also stories of Odysseus, Thor, Arthur, Beowulf, Siegfried.)

    (For stories of animals and nature, history and travel, see Chap.
    XVII.)


    6. Poetry.

    °Mother Goose. Dodd. 1914. 173 p. Illus. $2.50. Illustrated by
    Jessie Willcox Smith with sixteen full-page colored pictures, and
    many in black and White.

    °Mother Goose. Volland & Co., New York. 1915. 119 p. $2.00. Large
    illustrations, by Frederick Richardson, in colors.

    Shute, Katherine H. The Land of Song. Book I. Silver. 1912. 190
    p. $.36. Contains many of the poems suggested in the Manual, and
    others, for little children. No music.

    °Stevenson, Burton, E. Home Book of Verse for Young Folks. Holt.
    1915. 538 p. $2.00. A very comprehensive collection for children,
    from Mother Goose and many English and American poets. Charming
    decorations by Pogany.

    Wiggin, Kate Douglas and Smith, Nora A. Pinafore Palace.
    Doubleday. 1910. 248 p. $1.50. Mother Goose and other rhymes for
    the nursery, selected by kindergartners.


    7. Reading Lists.

    Jordan, Alice M. 1000 good Books for Children. U. S. Bureau Ed.
    1914. 40 p. $.05. Annotated list, chiefly story books, some
    science and history.

  II. The Story-teller’s Magazine. Newson & Co., New York. $1.00
  Articles on story-telling; stories for children; book reviews.

    John Martin’s Magazine. John Martin’s House. Garden City, Long
    Island, N. Y. $3.00. A quaint and jolly magazine for children 3
    to 12 years.


CHAPTER XVII. SCIENCE AND HISTORY

_A._ Science.

  I. 1. Biology, general.

    †Bigelow, Maurice A. and Anna N. Applied Biology. Macmillan.
    1911. 583 p. Illus. $1.40. A comprehensive and authoritative
    book including general biology, botany, zoölogy, human physiology
    and hygiene, embryology. A source book for facts.

    †Hodge, Clifton F. Nature Study and Life. Ginn. 1902. 514 p.
    Illus. $1.50. Studying nature in the environment, learning how
    to tame birds, care for animals, pets, aquarium and vivarium;
    how to prevent the spread of insect pests. A guide book with the
    children.

    †Morley, Margaret W. A Song of Life. McClurg. 1891. 155 p. Illus.
    $1.25. A book for little children on the elements of development
    of life and a new generation, in plants, fishes, frogs, birds,
    mammals; told in story form.

    †Verrill, Alpheus H. Boy Collector’s Handbook. McBride. 1915. 290
    p. Illus. $1.50. How to collect and preserve minerals, plants,
    fresh water animals, shells, stamps, coins, postcards, relics.
    Use of camera and microscope in collecting.

  II. The Guide to Nature. The Agassiz Assn., Sound Beach, Conn.
  $1.00. Interesting articles for children, on nature.

  III. The Agassiz Association, Sound Beach, Conn. Edward F. Bigelow,
  President. A nature study organization for children.


    2. Animals.

    °Davidson, Gladys. Helpers without Hands. Stokes. 1914. 117 p.
    Illus. $2.25. Animals in all parts of the world, and how they
    help man. Illustrated in color by Ed. Noble.

    °Dugdale, Florence E. Illus. by E. J. Detmold. Book of Baby
    Beasts. Dutton. 1912. 120 p. Illus. $3.00. With 19 large
    illustrations in color.

    °Eddy, Sarah J. Friends and Helpers. Ginn. 1899. 232 p. Illus.
    $.60. Friendly stories and poems about animals and birds.
    Illustrated from photographs and famous paintings.

    Lang, Andrew. The Animal Story Book. Longmans. 1909. 400 p.
    $2.00. Stories of animals from literature and history.

    Pierson, Clara D. Among the Meadow People. Dutton. 193 p. Illus.
    $1.00. Stories for children of common animals and birds that live
    in the meadows.

    Schwartz, Julia A. Wilderness Babies. Little. 1905. 226 p. Illus.
    $1.50. Stories of how many kinds of animals care for their little
    ones.

    Seton, Ernest Thompson. Wild Animals at Home. Doubleday. 1913.
    226 p. Illus. $1.50. The author’s personal adventures in
    studying wild animals in their native habitat. Over 150 sketches
    and photographs by the author.

    °Book of the Zoo. Dutton. Linen, $.75. Large, beautiful picture
    book. (Many others at from $.25 to $2.00.)

    °Animal Book. Gabriel & Sons, New York. 25 p. Linen. $.50.
    Beautiful animal picture books, illustrations painted from life.


    3. Insects, Sea-shore, Birds.

    Comstock, John H. Insect life. 1897. 347 pp. Illus. $1.75.
    Habits, life histories, appearance, identification.

    Kellogg, Vernon. Insect Stories. Holt. 1908. 298 p. Illus.
    $1.50. Stories of how the author and a little girl observed and
    collected insects.

    Mayer, Alfred G. Sea-Shore Life. Barnes. 1906. Illus. Bibl. 181
    p. $1.20. Shells and seawood found along the Atlantic coast
    of America. Illustrations in color. A source book and aid in
    identification.

    °Burroughs, John. Bird Stories from Burroughs. 1911. Houghton.
    171 p. Illus. $.80. Delightful stories by the great naturalist,
    illustrated in color and in black and white by Louis Agassiz
    Fuertes.

    °Dugdale, Florence E. Illus. by Detmold. Book of Baby Birds.
    Dutton. 1911. 120 p. Illus. $3.00. Nineteen large pictures in
    exquisite color.

    °Miller, Olive Thorne. The Children’s Book of Birds. Houghton.
    1915. 212 p. Illus. $2.00. Stories of the common birds,
    identification, attracting. Some illustrations in color.
    Excellent first book.

    Reed, Charles K. Bird Guide. Land birds. $1.00.

    Water birds. $1.00 McClurg. Pocket edition, with illustration in
    color of each species.

  I._b._ °Audubon Bird Charts. Bradley. Large wall charts. Each,
  $.50. About twenty-five common birds shown on each chart, in color.
  Two charts for land birds, one for water birds.

    °Mumford Bird Pictures. A. W. Mumford, Chicago. $1.80 per
    hundred. Loose-leaf pictures, natural color and size.

    °Audubon Bird Pictures. Appleton. $1.80 per hundred. Pictures
    natural size and colorings.

  II. Bird Lore. Publication of the Audubon Society. Appleton. $1.00.
  Stories of birds and bird life.

  III. National Association of Audubon Societies. New York.
  Membership organization, with Junior Department for children
  interested in birds; issues bird pictures and other bird literature.


    4. Flowers, Plants, Gardening.

    Levison, J. J. Studies of Trees. Wiley. 1914. 253 p. Illus.
    $1.60. Identification, structure and care of trees; woods and
    their use.

    Mathews, F. Schuyler. Familiar Features of the Roadside.
    Appleton. Illus. $1.75. A handbook to aid in identifying flowers
    and trees, insects and birds, commonly found.

    Mathews, F. Schuyler. Familiar Flowers of Field and Garden.
    Appleton. 1915. 306 p. Illus. $1.40. Identification, arranged by
    months; illustrated with about 200 drawings.

    Stark, F. W. Wild Flowers Every Child Should Know. Doubleday.
    $.50. The most common of the wild flowers. Some illustrations in
    color.

    Dixon, Royal. The Human Side of Plants. Stokes. 1914. 201 p.
    Illus. $1.50. Interesting things that plants do, such as going to
    sleep, swimming, walking, foretelling the weather; has all the
    human interest of purely fanciful tales about flowers, and is
    scientifically accurate.

    Duncan, Frances. When Mother Lets us Garden. Moffatt. 1910.
    111 p. Illus. $.75. Simple directions for outdoor and indoor
    gardening. Breathes the spirit of the garden; charming pictures
    and quotations.


    5. Physics, Chemistry, Physical Geography, Geology, Astronomy.

    Clark, Bertha M. General Science. A. B. Co. 1912. 363 p. Illus.
    $.80. Physics and chemistry of everyday life. Suggestions for
    observations and experiments. Source book.

    †Holden, E. S. Real Things in Nature. Macmillan. 1910. 443 p.
    Illus. $.65. Comprehensive, including something of each of these
    sciences, and some primitive life history.

    Blackwelder, Eliot, and Barrows, H. H. Elements of Geology. A.
    B. Co. 1911. 475 p. Illus. Bibl. $1.40 Structure of the earth,
    work of atmosphere, streams, glaciers; changes in oceans, lakes,
    rivers; how mountains and plains are formed; the geological ages
    of the past. Source book.

    Houston, Ed. J. Wonderbook of the Atmosphere. Stokes. 1907. 326
    p. Illus. $1.50. Climate, winds, clouds, storms, rain, snow,
    lightning; heat, light and sound waves. Authoritative answering
    for the child’s questions. Source book.

    St. John, T. M. Fun with Magnetism. St. John. New York City.
    Illus. $.35. Book of directions, magnet and apparatus for games.

    St. John, T. M. Fun with Electricity. St. John. Illus. $.65.

    St. John, T. M. Fun with Chemistry. St. John. Illus. $.65.
    Directions for apparatus and games.

    Ball, Sir Robert S. Starland. Ginn. 1907. 402 p. illus. $1.00.
    Authoritative and interesting accounts of the sun, moon, planets,
    comets, constellations.

    †°Porter, Jermain G. The Stars in Song and Legend. Ginn. 1901.
    129 p. Illus. $.60. Myths of the stars; sky maps showing
    constellations. Illustrations by A. Dürer.

    Forman, S. E. Stories of Useful Inventions. Century. 1911. Illus.
    248 p. $1.00. Tracing development from ancient to modern times
    of lighting, heating, vehicles, and modern use of steam and
    electricity.

    Towle, George M. Heroes and Martyrs of Invention. Lothrop. 1890.
    Illus. 202 p. $.75. Inventors in ancient history, Gutenberg,
    Palissy, Watt, Fulton, Howe, and others.

    Wright, Henrietta C. Children’s Stories of Great Scientists.
    Scribner. 1909. 350 p. Illus. $1.25. Interesting stories of
    Galileo, Newton, Franklin, Linnæus, Faraday, Agassiz, Darwin,
    Huxley and others. Source book.


    6. Geography and Travel.

    Andrews, Jane. Seven Little Sisters. Ginn. 127 p. Illus. $.75.
    Stories of children of other countries, as told to children.

    °Barnard, H. Clive. Pictures of Famous Travel. Macmillan. 1914.
    64 p. Illus. $.75. Ships and explorers from historic to modern
    times told chiefly by the 60 pictures, 31 of these in color.

    Carpenter. How the World is Fed. 1907. 340 p.

    Carpenter. How the World is Clothed. 1908. 340 p.

    Carpenter. How the World is Housed. A. B. Co. 1911. 352 p. Illus.

    $.60 each. Geographical readers, showing the raising, procuring,
    manufacture and transportation of the necessities of life, in all
    parts of the world. Source book.

    °Dunham, Edith. Jogging Round the World. Stokes. 1905. 80 p.
    Illus. $1.50. Steeds and vehicles in strange lands and at home,
    with 36 large illustrations from photographs, in color.

    Hall, Katherine S. Children at Play in Many Lands. Revell. 1912.
    92 p. Illus. $.75. Games played by children in many countries,
    with directions.

    Morris, Charles. Home Life in Many Lands. Vol. I. Lippincott.
    1906. 250 p. Illus. $1.00. A geographical reader describing ways
    of living in other countries. A source book.

    °Synge, M. B. A Book of Discovery. Putnam. 1912. 554 p. Illus.
    $2.50. The world’s explorations from the earliest historical
    times to the finding of the South Pole. About 150 illustrations.

    Little People Everywhere Series. Little. 14 vol. Illus. $.50
    each. Stories of child life, play, home life, centering about
    imaginary individual children in some foreign land.

    (See also Laura B. Starr, Mary H. Wade. Chap. XV.)

  II. Everyland. A magazine for children. Stories and pictures of
  children and ways of living in all parts of the world. 156 Fifth
  Ave., New York. $1.00.

    National Geographical Magazine. National Geographical Society.
    Washington, D.C. $2.00. Many interesting articles on countries
    and peoples, illustrated with numerous photographs.

    Home Progress Magazine. (Chapter I.)

    St. Nicholas Magazine. The Century Co. New York. $3.00. Includes
    interesting articles on science for children.

    Stereographs and lantern slides illustrating geography, travel,
    sciences, issued by Underwood & Underwood, New York City, and by
    Keystone View Co., Meadville, Pa.

    Lanterns and balopticons (for throwing any picture on a screen),
    furnished by Bausch & Lomb, New York City.


    _B._ History.

    1. Anthropology, Primitive and Indian Life.

    Clodd, Edw. The Childhood of the World. Macmillan. 1914. 240 p.
    Illus. Bibl. (New ed. Revised and enlarged.) $1.20. Prehistoric
    man, early migrations; beginnings of inventions, language, arts;
    early myths and religion. Source book.

    Hall, H. R. Days Before History. Crowell. 1907. 129 p. Illus.
    $.50. Especially the early Cave people and Lake people; life of
    early Aryans.

    Waterloo, Stanley. Story of Ab. Doubleday. 1897. 351 p. Illus.
    $1.50. Story of a boy in the time of the Cavemen.

    Eastman, Charles A. Indian Scout Tales. Little. 1915. 199 p.
    Illus. $.80. Indian methods of making fires, wigwams, cooking,
    taming animals, Indian signs and language.

    Schultz, J. W. Sinopah, the Indian Boy. Houghton. 1913. 155 p.
    Illus. $1.10. True story of an American Indian boy. Illustrations
    by E. Boyd Smith.

    †Seton, Ernest Thompson. Woodcraft. Doubleday. 1912. 567 p.
    Illus. $1.75. Indian traits and ways; Indian names and their
    meaning; Indian songs, dances, ceremonies; stories of Indian
    characters; scout craft, camping and camp craft. Over 500
    illustrations.


    2. Ancient and Classic History.

    Arnold, Emma J. Stories of Ancient Peoples. A. B. Co. 1901. 232
    p. Illus. $.50. Stories and legends of Egypt, Babylon, Assyria,
    Phœnicia, Palestine, Persia, India, China.

    Gould, F. J. Tales of the Greeks. Harper. 1910. 162 p. Illus.
    $.75. Twenty-two tales from Plutarch’s Lives. Illustrations by
    Walter Crane.

    Gould, F. J. Tales of the Romans. Harper. 1910. 167 p. Illus.
    $.75. Stories from Plutarch’s Lives. Illus. by Walter Crane.

    °Gulick, Charles B. Life of the Ancient Greeks. Appleton. 1907.
    350 p. Illus. Bibl. $1.50. Daily life among the Athenians; their
    houses, clothing, occupations, education, social life, customs,
    child life. Nearly 300 illustrations. Source book.

    †Shaw, Charles D. Stories of the Ancient Greeks. Ginn. 1903. 300
    p. Illus. $.60. Part I contains many of the myths; Part II, Greek
    history in story form. Source book.


    3. Mediæval to Modern.

    Andrews, Jane. Ten Boys on the Road from Long Ago to Now. Ginn.
    243 p. $.50. Stories of the boy life of ten famous men of ancient
    and mediæval times.

    °O’Neill, Elizabeth. A Nursery History of England. Stokes. 1904.
    186 p. Illus. $2.25. Story of England for children; many large
    colored illustrations.

    Steedman, Amy. When They Were Children. Stokes. 1914. 387 p.
    Illus. $1.60. Stories from childhood of forty-five famous men
    and women in mediæval and modern history, including writers,
    scientists, artists, inventors.

    (See also Forman, Towle and Wright, Chapter XVII, A 5.)


    4. American.

    Barber, Lucy L. A Nursery History of the United States. Stokes.
    1916. 180 p. Illus. $2.00. Simple story of great events. Ninety
    illustrations, many of them in color.

    Bass, Florence M. Stories of Pioneer Life. Heath. (_a_) 1900. 136
    p. Illus. $.40. Settling of Middle West; perils of pioneer life;
    stories of Marquette, Boone, Lincoln.

    Brooks, Eldridge S. The Century Book for Young Americans.
    Century. 1896. 250 p. Illus. $1.50. Story of a children’s
    pilgrimage to historic homes and buildings in Boston, Plymouth,
    New York, Washington, the South, the Middle West.

    Earle, Alice Morse. Child Life in Colonial Days. 1909. 418 p.
    Illus. $2.50. Home life, clothing, food, play, discipline. Many
    illustrations.

    †Eggleston, E. Stories of Great Americans for Little Americans.
    A. B. Co. 1895. 159 p. Illus. $.40. Stories of explorers,
    soldiers, statesmen, scientists, inventors, writers, artists.

    Eggleston, E. Stories of American Life and Adventure A. B. Co.
    1895. 214 p. Illus. $.50. Historical stories, home life and
    customs; from all periods and regions.

    Gordy, Wilbur F. Stories of American Explorers. Scribner. 1906.
    206 p. Illus. $.50. Explorers on sea and land, from Columbus to
    La Salle. Source book.

    Stone, Gertrude, and Fickett, M. Grace. Everyday Life in the
    Colonies. Heath. 1905. 109 p. Illus. $.35. Tells graphically of
    homes, apparel, occupations, travel, play.

    Stimpson, Mary S. Child’s Book of American Biography. Little.
    1915. 251 p. Illus. $1.00. Thirty men and women, statesmen,
    writers, inventors, artists, scientists.


    5. Anniversary Days.

    Olcott, Frances J., compiler. Good Stories for Great Holidays.
    Houghton. 1914. 461 p. Bibl. $2.00. Includes all civic and
    religious holidays observed in America. Stories from various
    writers appropriate to each holiday.

    Schauffler, Robert H., editor. Series on Our American Holidays.
    Moffatt. 1908-14. about 300 p. per volume. $1.00 each. One volume
    devoted to each holiday, giving origin, significance, appropriate
    quotations, suggestions for celebration.


    6. Bibliography.

    Cleveland Public Library. Reading Lists for Special Days. H. W.
    Wilson Co. Minneapolis. 1911. 148 p. Paper, $.25. Lists of books
    and magazine articles with references, for understanding and
    celebration of special days.

    Andrews, Chas. M.; Gambrill, J. Montgomery; Tall, Lida Lee.
    Bibliography of History. Longmans. 1911. 224 p. $.60. With
    descriptive and critical annotations on each reference. Includes
    history in all ages and countries, technical and popular,
    historical fiction, children’s stories preparatory to history.

  III. American School Peace League. Boston. Membership organization,
  with Junior Department for children; issues literature.


CHAPTER XVIII. HANDWORK

  I. 1. Teaching.

    Ledyard, Mary F., and Breckenfeld, Bertha H. Primary Manual
    Book. Bradley. 1911. 121 p. Illus. Bibl. $1.20. A large-size
    volume containing suggestions for handwork correlated with art
    education, child’s interest in nature, primitive life, toys;
    directions, quantity of material and equipment needed. Children 5
    to 9 years.

    Snow, Bonnie E. and Froehlich, Hugo B. Industrial Art Text Books.
    Books I and II. Prang. 1915. 72 p. each. $.25 each. Suggestions
    for drawing, cutting, water color, weaving, paper dolls, stick
    printing, toy theatres. 5 to 8 years.

    The Graphic Drawing Books. Prang. 1914. Book I and II. Each,
    $.15. The newest ideas in drawing teaching; each book contains
    true color chart. 5 to 7 years.


    2. Various processes.

    Adams, Morley. Toy Making at Home. Stokes. 1916. Illus. $.50.
    Simple directions for simple toys from home materials. 4 to 7
    years.

    Johnston, Bertha. Home Occupations for Boys and Girls. Jacobs.
    1908. 191 p. Illus. Bibl. $.50. Use of common material for making
    things; collecting; celebration of festivals. 4 to 6 years.

    Rich, G. Ellingwood. When Mother Lets us Make Toys. Moffatt.
    1915. 122 p. Illus. $.75. Simple toys from pasteboard, paper,
    wood and common materials.


    3. Woodwork.

    Johnson, B. W. Coping Saw Work. Bradley. Paper, $.20. Directions
    for simple work. 3 to 8 years.

    Pierce, Frank H. Woodwork for Little Folks. Scribner. 1915.
    Illus. $1.00. Coping saw work. Full directions, with drawings
    actual size, for toys, jointed birds, animals, men; toy
    furniture, wheelbarrows, engine. 4 to 12 years.

    Seldon, F. H. Woodwork for Grades. Orr & Locket, Chicago. 1913.
    111 p. Illus. $1.25. Illustrations of all tools, equipment,
    movements. Simple directions for woodworking. 3 to 12 years.


    4. Drawing and Painting.

    Soper, Mabel B. Principles and Practice of Elementary Drawing.
    Scott. 1915. 147 p. Illus. $1.50. Principles and methods of
    teaching elementary design, drawing, color. Written as a textbook
    for normal school students.

    Drawings to Color. 3 sets, 50 per set. J. Hammett, Boston. $.15
    per set. Simple lines. Birds, fruits, animals, children, flowers.
    3 to 7 years.

    Mother Goose Color Cards. Bradley. 12 in set, $.15 set. To be
    colored. 6 to 9 years.

    Prang Paint Books. Prang. Size 7 × 10. 32 p. each. $.10 each. 1.
    Hiawatha, 2. Robinson Crusoe, 3. Alice in Wonderland, 4. Hansel
    and Gretel. Simply drawn, heavy lines. 3 to 7 years.

    McMahon, Jo. The Jo McMahon Colorbook. Bradley. 1915. $.30.
    Charming pictures, some humorous, each with a brief story and
    suggestions for coloring; loose-leaf form. 3 to 10 years.


    5. Cutting Out.

    Beard, Adelia B. The Beard Animals. Stokes. 1914. 15 p. Illus.
    $.75. A dozen small common animals, as rabbit, squirrel, to be
    cut out; life size. 5 to 9 years.

    Chapman, C. Durand. Self-made Pictures for Children. Stokes.
    1916. Illus. $1.00. Pictures in color, to be cut out, pasted and
    assembled; all relating to historical places and events.

    Paper Cutting Designs. J. Hammett, Boston. 50 in set. $.15 per
    set. Flowers, birds, animals, children. Black on white. 5 to 10
    years.

    Wright, Maud A. Bird Cut-outs. Bradley. 10 in set. $.25 per set.
    1. Spring and Summer Birds, 2. Summer, 3. Winter. Natural size,
    to color, cut out, paste together and suspend with thread.

    Scantlebury, Elizabeth E. Homes of World Babies. Flanagan. 1910.
    60 p. $.50. Silhouettes of children, houses, scenes from home
    life, from eight nationalities. Brief story, using names in
    Andrews’ “Seven Little Sisters.” 5 to 10 years.


    6. Electricity and Physics.

    St. John, Thomas M. The Author, New York City. 1905. 139 p.
    $1.00. Real Electric Toy Making. Simple toys operated by magnets
    and electricity. 3 to 12 years.

  II. Something to Do. Bennett Publishing Co. Boston. $1. A magazine
  for children, with many suggestions for handwork.

    School Arts Magazine. Bennett Publishing Co. Boston. $2. Art
    teachers’ magazine; many suggestions for designs, technique,
    methods. Source book.

    (See also St. Nicholas Magazine, Chapter XV; Kindergarten-First
    Grade and Kindergarten-Primary, Chapter I.)


CHAPTER XIX. MUSIC AND ART


_A._ Music.

  I. 1. Teaching.

    Damrosch, Frank. Some Essentials in the Teaching of Music. 1916.
    101 p. $1.25. Not on specific method, but some essential general
    principles of musical education; what to expect of a music
    teacher.

    †Lavignac, Albert. Musical Education. Appleton. 1902. 447 p.
    $2.00. Translated from the French. Authoritative, comprehensive;
    includes both instrumental and vocal music; general principles of
    musical education; how to select a teacher; when to begin.

    Schauffler, Robert H. The Musical Amateur. Houghton. 1911. 261 p.
    $1.25. Chatty discussion of the evolution of a musical amateur;
    treats of the human rather than the technical side of music
    education; some principles in childhood.


    2. Instrumental Rhythms and Dances.

    †Crawford, Caroline, and Fogg, Eliz. R. Rhythms of Childhood.
    Barnes. 1915. 84 p. $1.50. Rhythms for the little child to
    interpret in his own way, the beginnings of folk dancing;
    valuable for cultivating sense of rhythm.

    Hofer, Mari Ruef. Music for the Child World. Bradley. $1.25.
    Characteristic rhythms, many of them simple classic music,
    accompaniments simplified for the amateur pianist.

    Crampton, C. Ward. Folk Dances. Barnes. 1914. 82 p. $1.50. From
    English, French, Scandinavian, Russian; with directions.


    3. Songs and Voice.

    †Bentley, Alys. The Song Primer. Barnes. 1910. Illustrated.
    $.30. A book of first songs, melody only, in large size notes;
    illustrations in color. Simple melodies and themes.

    Bentley, Alys. Song Sentences. Barnes. 40 cards. $.40. Simple
    themes printed on large cards.

    Bentley, Alys. Tone Plays for Children. Child Life in Song and
    Speech. Barnes. Paper pamphlets. Each $.10. Methods of education
    in tone play and singing, for children four to seven years.

    Bullard, Carrie and Elliott, J. Mother Goose Songs. Hinds &
    Noble, New York. 124 p. Paper, $.50. The Mother Goose songs and
    English Folk songs.

    Walker, Gertrude, and Jenks, Harriet S. Songs and Games for
    Little Ones. Ditson. 1912. 136 p. $2.00. An excellent collection
    of kindergarten songs and games.

    °Chansons de France. Nursery and folk songs and singing games.
    Schirmer. Illus. $3.00. Traditional games, with directions
    for playing. French words only. Illustrated in quaint colored
    pictures by Boutet de Monvel.

    Weld, H. P. Mechanism of the Voice and its Hygiene. Ped. Sem.
    1910. pp. 143-59. Illus. Bibl. A thorough brief treatise, and
    invaluable reference list.

    Quigley, Margery C. and others. Index to Kindergarten Songs.
    Amer. Library Assn., Chicago. 1915. 286 p. $1.50. Indices by
    subject, title, first line, author, composer; lists for special
    occasions. Covers all the sixty standard collections.

    Scobey, Katherine L., and Horne, Olive B. Stories of Great
    Musicians. A. B. Co. 1905. 182 p. Illus. $.40. Incidents in the
    lives of musicians of interest to children.

    Phonograph records for children should be light, happy rhythmic
    music, such as that of Mendelssohn’s Spring Song, the light music
    of Schubert, Haydn, Weber, Gilbert and Sullivan; not heavy,
    tragic, complex music of the masters and moderns or the ordinary
    light opera or ballad.

_B._ Art.


  1. History and Appreciation.

  Hurll, Esther M. How to Show Pictures to Children. Houghton. 1914.
  138 p. Illus. Bibl. $1.50. The kinds of pictures that interest
  children; practical suggestions for education in appreciation;
  classified lists of pictures. Many illustrations of famous pictures.

  Whitcomb, Ida Prentice. Young People’s Story of Art. Dodd. 1906.
  380 p. $2.00. Includes sculpture, architecture and painting;
  Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Mediæval, Modern except American. Many
  illustrations of famous buildings, statues, pictures.

  Barstow, Charles L. Famous Buildings. Century. 1915. 246 p. $.60.
  From Egyptian to modern times. List of representative buildings in
  over twenty American cities.


  2. Picture Books.

  Brook, L. Leslie. Picture books. Nursery tales. Each paper cover,
  $.25. Strong drawing and coloring, abundant humor.

  Caldecott, Randolph. Four volumes, illustrating children’s classics
  in verse and fairy tale. Dutton. Each, $1.25; or in separate parts
  (16), paper cover, each $.25. Rollicking fun, strong color.

  Crane, Walter. Picture books. 24 books. Dutton. Each $.25; also
  in combined volumes. Fairy tales, fables, nursery rhymes. Dainty,
  delicate coloring.

  Greenaway, Kate. Mother Goose. Dutton. $.60. Pied Piper. $1.50.
  Other volumes with original stories. Dainty colorings, quaint
  drawings, touches of humor.

  Nister, Ernst. Picture books. Dutton. Paper covers, $.05 to $.50;
  Linen books, $.50 to $1.00; board covers, $.50 to $2.00. Beautiful
  books in color, of animals, birds, farm life, fairy tales, nursery
  rhymes, Bible stories.

  Gabriel books. Picture books. Paper, $.05 to $.50; linen, $.50 to
  $1.00. Same type and quality as Nister books.

  (See also all books marked ° in previous sections of the
  bibliography.)


  3. Reproductions of famous pictures and statuary.

  Gabriel prints. Series of 12 in package, several sets, 10 × 12.
  $.30 package. Animals, farm life; reprints from Gabriel books;
  beautifully colored from life by expert artists.

  Smith, Jessie Willcox. Mother Goose Pictures, in color; sheets 10 ×
  12. 1916. Bradley. $.25 each.

  Gems in Art, from English galleries. Colored exactly as originals.
  Large size, $.50; small size, sheet 6 × 8, $.15 each, 2 for $.25.

  Madison Prints. Series of reproductions of masterpieces,
  hand-colored, large size, $1.00 each. Each picture bears
  descriptive note.

  Masterpieces in Color. Series of 60 booklets, each with 8
  reproductions, small size, accurately colored, of one artist.
  Stokes. $.75 each. Booklets 6 × 8; descriptive and critical text by
  authorities.

  Copley Prints. Curtis & Cameron, Boston. Reproductions, some in
  color, of modern artists. Prices from $.50 up.

  Cosmos Prints. Cosmos Co., New York. Hundreds of subjects,
  including famous paintings, statuary, architecture, portraits. 10
  for $.25.

  University Prints, Boston, Mass. 25 for $.25.

  Perry Pictures, Malden, Mass. 25 for $.25.

  Each of these series includes hundreds of subjects, in black and
  white, famous reproductions, size about 6 × 9, some subjects in
  larger series at $.05 each.

  Caproni casts. Caproni & Bro. Boston. Plaster casts of famous
  statuary.


CHAPTER XX

  Aikens, Charlotte A. Home Nurse’s Handbook. (_a_) Saunders. 1912.
  276 p. Illus. $1.50. A very practical manual especially for home
  nurses and mothers; includes obstetrical nursing, care of infants,
  emergencies.

  Baruch, S. Principles and Practice of Hydrotherapy. (_c_) Wood.
  1908. Illus. 550 p. $4.00. General principles and use in specific
  conditions.

  Cooke, Joseph B. Nurses’ Handbook of Obstetrics. Lippincott. 1915.
  Illus. 475 p. $2.00. Physiology and nursing through pregnancy and
  childbirth; care of infants.

  Kellogg, John H. Art of Massage. Good Health. 1902. Illus. $2.25.
  Explicit, with illustrations showing different movements.

  Osler, Wm., and McCrae, Thomas. Modern Medicine. Lea & Febriger,
  Philadelphia. 1913. 8 vols. Symptoms, progress and therapy of
  diseases.

  Pattee, Alida F. Diet in Disease. The author, White Plains, N. Y.
  527 p. Illus. $1.50. General principles of feeding in illness;
  special diet for specific disorders; caloric value of each recipe.

  Pope, Amy E. Anatomy and Physiology for Nurses. Putnam. 1915. 596
  p. Illus. $1.75. Especially clear and well illustrated; facts
  selected with special reference to intelligent hygiene and care in
  illness.

  Cohen, Solomon Solis, editor. A System of Physiological
  Therapeutics. Illus. 11 vols. Blakiston. Physiological methods of
  preventing and treating illnesses, by hydrotherapy, phototherapy,
  serum-therapy, massage, diet. Special articles by authorities and
  specialists. 1901-05.


  I._b._ U. S. Dept. of Agri. Pamphlets on Disinfectants and on
  Patent Medicines.

    Adams, Samuel Hopkins. The Great American Fraud. Amer. Med.
    Assn. Press. 1914. $.15. Reprint of Collier’s articles on patent
    medicines.

    Pamphlets issued by American Medical Association Press on patent
    nostrums and medical quackery.

  II. The Nurse. Jamestown, N. Y. $2.00. Practical articles on home
  nursing.


CHAPTER XXI. BIBLIOGRAPHIES

  Books containing references lists relating to the subject they
  treat are so described. Bibliographies pertaining only to the one
  subject of the chapter, are listed in each chapter.

  Index Medicus. Carnegie Institution, Washington, D. C. $6. yearly.
  Hygiene, nutrition, therapeutics. Covers American and foreign books
  and periodicals. Can be consulted in medical, technical and public
  libraries.

  Readers’ Guide to Current Literature. Wilson & Co., White Plains,
  N. Y. $12. per year. Monthly index of articles in the principal
  monthly and weekly publications, classified by subjects, titles,
  authors. Can be found in public libraries.

  Cumulative Index. Wilson & Co. $6.00 per year. Can be found in
  public libraries and at book publishers and book sellers. Quarterly
  announcement of new books, classified by titles and authors.

  Olcott, Frances J. The Children’s Reading. Houghton. 1912. 338 p.
  Discussions of children’s books; lists of stories; annotated list
  of children’s books, and editions of children’s classics, books on
  science, history, travel, art; purchase list.

  Supplementary bibliographies. School of Mothercraft.

  _A._ Family, Home, Marriage, Eugenics. $.25.
  _B._ Parenthood, Maternity, Care of Baby. $.25.
  _C._ Child Hygiene, Feeding, Nutrition, Therapeutics. $.25.
  _D._ Child Study, Education, Play, Stories. $.50.

  These are pamphlets uniform in method of annotation with the
  preceding list, and are brought up to date annually.

  Classics and popular science books in cheap editions:

  World’s Classics. Dutton. Per volume, $.25.
  The People’s Books. Dodge Publishing Co., N. Y. C. $.25.
  Everyman’s Library. Dutton. $.35 and $.70.
  Macmillan Pocket Series. Macmillan. $.25.
  Oxford Series. Oxford University Press, New York City. $.35 and $.60.
  Winston Classics. Winston. $.55.
  Boy Scout Series. Doubleday.
  Riverside Classics. Houghton.
  School editions of classics by Ginn, Heath, American Book Co.




INDEX


  Accuracy, 42, 86, 201, 207-9, 253, 259-62

  Adenoids, 115, 117, 122, 137, 146, 153, 227, 232, 234, 237, 251, 371

  Adolescence, 29, 52, 63, 75, 102, 123, 149, 198, 205, 211

  Æsthetic interest, development, 48, 59, 61, 240, 248, 252, 258, 286,
        329, 336
    training, 151, 195, 247-8, 250, 252, 256, 259, 262, 290, 299, 318,
        328-36

  Affection, expression of, 214, 256

  Age, 47, 159-60, 163-4, 370-5

  Air, cold, 108
    fresh, 70, 86, 107-10, 122, 126-7, 153, 157, 339, 362
    bad, 108, 115, 122, 135, 137
    night, 107-8

  Airing, child, 87, 90, 108-9
    rooms, 99, 108, 124

  Alcohol (drinking) 16, 17, 36-7, 68, 75, 80, 102-3, 123, 146, 164,
        175, 235, 371
    as antiseptic, 139, 343, 357, 362
    for skin, 79, 135, 139, 343-58

  Altruism, 49, 52, 211-14, 242-3, 249, 257, 262

  Anemia, 36, 58, 60, 166, 236-7, 338-41
    treatment, 134, 343

  Anger, child, 114, 117, 158
    mother, 74, 104

  Animals, 251, 255, 303, 309, 332, 336
    toy, 254, 290-5, 318-23

  Antiseptics, 139, 149

  Apartment life, for baby, 109, 246

  Appetite, 157-8, 338-43, 349
    training, 164-5, 174, 193, 214, 217

  Artificial feeding, 100-2, 115, 234, 370, 379

  Attention, development, 55-61, 211, 239
    training, 208-9, 213, 216, 256, 278, 283, 291, 302

  Auto-education, 203

  Auto-intoxication, 168
    causes, 166, 168, 173
    effects, 67, 160, 167, 236


  Baby, care, 76-118
    See BATHING; EDUCATION, BEGINNINGS; FEEDING; INFANCY; MORTALITY

  Balanced ration, defined, 159

  Balancing, 252-3, 272-3

  Barley, 104, 107, 189, 346

  Bathing, 233
    babies, 94-9
    children, 121-5, 131-4, 178
    equipment, 78-9, 87, 95, 131, 342, 352
    in illness, 132, 337, 343-5, 348, 352, 354, 356
    in maternity, 68-9
    temperatures, 68, 94, 97, 132-3
    times, 87, 133, 343

  Baths, air, 98, 121, 123, 133
    bran, 131, 356
    cold, babies, 94, 97
      children, 121, 131-2
      maternity, 68
      effects, 122-3, 131, 202, 344
      in illness, 132, 343, 348, 352, 354
      temperature, 94, 97, 132, 348
      when avoided, 68, 132, 348
    hot, 344-5, 351-3
      in illness, 344-5, 347, 353
    leg, 344-5, 351, 353
    light, 134
    mustard, 345, 352
    neutral, temperature, 69
    salt, 69, 132-3, 356
    shower, 132
    soda, starch, 356
    sun, 121, 123, 133-4, 343, 353
    sponge, babies, 94, 97
      children, 132-3
      in illness, 348, 352, 354
    tub, babies, 94, 97
      children, 133
      in illness, 344-5, 352, 354
    warm, babies, 94-98
      children, 132-3
      temperature, 69, 94, 133, 353

  Bed, baby’s, 77, 80, 107-110
    child’s, 124, 126, 149
    mother’s, 73
    in illness, 338, 344, 346, 348, 359

  Bedtime, baby, 110, 112, 233
    children, 120, 125-8, 133-4, 147, 149, 157, 176, 218, 233, 257, 302

  Bed-wetting, 127, 128, 145,

  Beef juice, food value, 173, 355

  Beer, 103, 164, 175

  Bible, stories, 221, 263, 300-8.
    teaching, 221, 258

  Binders, 65-6, 80-2, 89, 116

  Binet tests, 225

  Biography, 259, 263, 299, 303, 306, 308, 315

  Biology, 1, 5, 34-9, 199
    teaching, 215, 255, 260, 309-11

  Birds, 215, 254-5, 260, 322

  Birth, care at, 358-60, 379
    reducing pain, 64-5, 67, 75, 92, 358-60
    control, 39
    intervals between, 39, 115, 359
    marks, 74;
      rate, 39;
      registration, 377
    child’s questions regarding, 147, 150, 257, 310

  Bladder, learning control, 87, 91, 127, 129

  Blindness, 36, 37, 38, 54, 142
    preventing, 97, 359

  Blood, 121-2, 172-4, 233, 341-2, 344, 351
    maternal, 66, 74
    poisoning, preventing, 349-50
    pressure, 52, 58, 60, 232

  Books, use of, xiii, 247, 309, 315
    for children, 141, 205, 260, 335

  Boric acid, 79, 96-8, 104, 137, 142, 149, 343-4, 348-9
    for eyes, 347, 362
    to make, 362
    saturated solution, 362

  Bowels, regulating, 87, 91, 104, 121

  Braces, 135, 144

  Brain, 48-50, 54, 56, 58, 86, 107, 201, 211

  Breast, care, 65, 102, 104, 358, 360
    feeding, 98-106, 360, 370, 378-9

  Breathing, 60, 70, 120-2, 134, 143, 147
    observation of, 225, 232, 236-7, 339

  Bronchial disease, 54, 56, 58, 60, 108, 234

  Broths, 159, 163, 173, 190, 193, 355

  Building, 211, 249, 254, 258, 270

  Burns, 349, 338

  Buttermilk, 67, 186, 355


  Caloric needs, to compute, 177
    children, 159, 160, 175, 179-183
    women, 66

  Calories, to compute cost of, 26
    definition, 159-60
    100-calorie portions, 173, 177-83, 365-8

  Candy, 156, 164-5, 174, 214, 349

  Carbohydrates, 168, 160-9, 365-8

  Carpentry, 147, 254, 270, 272, 274, 318-23

  Castor oil, 345, 361, 362

  Cats and dogs, dangers, 76, 110, 156, 342-3
    in play, 148, 293-4, 303

  Cellulose, 162, 166, 170-1, 186-7, 355

  Cereals, 102, 169-72, 188-9, 192-4
    for babies, 106, 163

  Chafing, 92, 98, 148, 356

  Chapping, 134, 344

  Character, 28, 212, 248

  Chest, care, 122, 129, 132
    girth, 151-2, 226, 229, 336, 372

  Child, exceptional, 85, 205
    individual, 42, 46, 102, 176-7, 194, 223 ff., 246

  Child’s room, 126, 268, 332

  Child hygiene, 85-95, 119, 249-71, 290-1, 320, 336, 363, 370-1
    knowledge of, 4, 37, 117, 153

  Child study, 4, 41-2, 41-61, 223, 245
    schedules, 226-245
    tables, 48-61

  Child welfare, 6, 11, 12, 13, 16, 18, 29, 31, 39, 40, 63, 215

  Children’s Bureau, 6

  Chills, 121, 134, 338-41, 344, 348, 352

  Choking, 346, 350

  Christ, 11, 12, 263

  Church, 201, 220, 223, 258, 263

  Circulation, 133, 159, 168, 170, 232-3, 376
    increasing, 121, 124, 131-2, 138, 145, 351-3
    poor, 120, 135, 153

  Circumcision, 54, 99, 111, 117, 128, 147-8

  City, 45, 109, 137, 151, 246

  Cleaning, 24
    nursery, 98-9
    toys, 86, 99, 290, 342

  Cleanliness, in baby care, 86, 102, 251
    child care, 131-49, 251
    food, 156-7, 184-5, 187
    illness, 342-3, 356, 359, 379
    teaching, 251, 253

  Climbing, 142-3, 249, 253, 259, 270-3

  Clothing, babies, 81-4, 88-94, 111, 113-4
    children, 113, 129-31, 134, 148, 206, 253
    maternity, 63-6
    and food requirements, 159
    laundering, 93
    play, 130, 133, 267, 271
    readymade, 130
    for sick nursing, 356
    tight, 65, 89, 92, 114, 116, 131, 247
    overclothing, 89, 129, 347

  Coffee, avoidance, children, 164, 175
    maternity, 67
    stimulant in shock, 350

  Cold applications, effects, 351-2

  Cold compress, how to use, 352, 354
    uses, 345-50

  Colds, causes, 89-90, 108, 122, 129, 160, 166, 236, 344
    care, 132, 342, 344
    disease symptom, 338-41
    effects, 121, 137, 144, 378
    prevention, 99, 100, 111, 115, 131-4
    treatment, 344, 354-5

  Colic, causes, 102, 105, 345
    symptoms, 114
    treatment, 116, 344-5

  Collecting, educational, 255, 260
    interests, 255, 258, 262-3, 272, 274, 312

  Collections, classifying, trains
    reasoning, 211

  Color, interest in, 54, 59, 210, 239-40, 248, 251, 272, 286, 335
    education, 206, 249-58, 290, 301, 319, 322, 327, 331, 335

  Comradeship, in marriage, 10-18
    parents and children, 28, 52, 151, 195, 216, 218, 247, 268

  Concentration, 239, 245
    training, 49, 208, 249, 256, 277, 281, 302-3
    See also ATTENTION.

  Confidence, self, 51, 55, 217, 257, 259, 321
    in marriage, 14-19
    between parents and children, 148-9, 213, 218

  Congenital factors, 235
    debility, 54, 115, 378
    infection, 35
    influences, 63-75

  Congestion, treatment, 69, 127, 344, 347, 351, 353-4, 360

  Conscience, development, 50-2, 61, 243
    cultivating, 217, 262

  Consistency, 216-7, 219, 244

  Constipation, 232, 234, 236
    causes, 102-3, 166, 359
    effects, 114, 120, 128, 146, 167-8
    prevention, 67, 121
    treatment, 67, 71, 106-7, 113, 116, 145, 170, 338, 345, 355, 357

  Construction, 251, 254, 258, 259, 261, 263
    See also CARPENTRY; HANDCRAFTS.

  Continence, 39, 63, 64, 75, 115

  Convulsions, causes, 54, 107, 166, 186, 379
    disease symptom, 338-41
    treatment, 345, 353

  Cooking, 176, 186-93, 256, 261

  Co-operation, 25, 27, 212
    development, 48-61, 243
    in marriage, 10-15, 39

  Corsets, 65, 130

  Cough, 131, 228, 234, 338-41
    treatment, 346, 354

  Counter-irritants, 351, 353-4, 363
    uses, 346-9

  Country, 18, 27, 70, 109, 151-2, 247, 371

  Courtesy, 49, 51, 147, 195, 204, 212, 216, 245, 257, 277

  Cramps, 338, 346, 351

  Creative work, values, 208, 210
    in education, 28, 63, 303, 317, 321, 331, 333-4
    See CONSTRUCTION; HANDCRAFTS; IMPROVISING.

  Crossness, causes, 105, 114, 250
    treatment, 110, 143, 145

  Croup, 56, 58, 115, 131, 152, 378
    treatment, 346

  Crying, causes, 114, 346, 350, 251
    development, 53, 112
    feeding when, 158
    treatment, 88, 105-6, 110, 114, 117, 158

  Curiosity, 48-61, 146-7, 150, 239, 245, 258, 291

  Curvature, 54, 56, 58, 60, 143, 153, 229, 233
    treatment, 86, 116, 143

  Cuts, 338, 350


  Dancing, 59, 142, 147, 149, 150, 205, 252-3, 256, 259, 272-3, 316

  Deafness, 36, 38, 143, 235
    causes, 122, 137, 341
    symptoms, 237

  Defects, physical, 17, 54, 56, 58, 60, 120, 153, 235, 241
    causes and prevention, 36, 38, 74, 116-7, 153
    scoring, 226-33
    See MENTAL DEFECTS.

  Development, child, 197-200, 202-3, 225, 246
    general principles, 43-61
    recording, 223-45

  Dewey, John, 42, 152, 197, 203, 246, 309

  Diapers, 80-1, 87, 91-3, 116
    laundering, 93
    diapering, 91-93, 116

  Diarrhea, 232, 234, 338, 378-9
    causes, 115, 120, 167
    treatment, 100, 106, 163, 346, 355

  Diet, according to age, 163-5
    balanced, 160, 175, 60, 100
    laxative, 67, 103, 171
    toxin-free, 64, 354
    wrong, 106, 155-6, 167, 172, 174-6, 194, 371
    See FEEDING; FOODS.

  Dietaries, 177-83

  Digestion, 145, 155, 231, 233, 235
    development, 107, 120, 172, 186-7
    physiology, 157-173, 186-7, 193-4

  Diphtheria, 55, 58, 60, 100, 115, 122, 139, 234, 378
    symptoms, 340

  Discipline, 16, 217, 244
    training in, 51, 87, 114, 147-8, 151, 177, 193, 217, 244, 247

  Disease, causes, 115, 120, 137, 165-7
    in child’s history, 234
    germs. See DISEASES, COMMUNICABLE; INFECTION.

  Diseases, communicable, 115, 234, 339-41
    heredity, 36-38, 234
    mortality, 54, 56, 58, 60, 115
    nursing in, 356
    See INFECTION.

  Dishes, for children’s use, 192, 193
    making toy, 318, 327
    disinfecting, 362

  Dishwashing, 22, 24

  Disinfectants, 361-2

  Disinfecting, 93, 139, 149, 359, 362

  Doctor. See PHYSICIAN.

  Doing, feeling and thinking, 204, 317

  Doll-house, 256, 294, 296, 323-4

  Dolls, at bed time, 149
    cultural values, 282, 288, 312
    interest in, 263, 270-3, 287-9, 293-7, 322, 336
    making, 254, 318, 321-2, 328
    selecting, 287-91, 293-7

  Domestic efficiency, 15-21, 216

  Douching, nasal, 137, 343, 344, 346
    vaginal, 69

  Dramatization, education through, 253, 266, 278, 282, 302
    educational values, 208, 210, 334
    interest in, 49, 50, 58, 240, 272, 302

  Drawing, interest in, 251, 258, 262, 271, 272
    materials for, 262, 319, 332
    teaching, 254, 262, 318, 333-4

  Dreaming, 145, 157, 200

  Dressing self, 124, 206, 231, 253

  Drowning, 60, 337

  Dust, 24, 80, 99, 109, 111, 115, 137, 156, 184, 338, 342-3


  Earache, 122, 137, 234, 338-40
    treatment, 346, 353-4

  Ears, 228, 233
    care, 96, 98, 131, 137
    disorders, 56, 58, 153
    discharges, 343, 362

  Eating, rapidly, 156, 194
    when not, 158-9, 194, 214, 354
    overeating, (mother) 66-7, 75, 102-3, 359

  Economy, 20 ff.
    in education, 197, 200-5, 208-9, 215-6, 219

  Eczema, 82, 131, 228, 234, 347

  Education, defined, 196-7, 222, 246
    function, 197
    purposes, 196-8, 246
    scope, 247-8
    for living, 4, 7, 28, 86-7, 130, 195-222, 247

  Education, by apparatus, 222
    pictures, 212, 322
    plays and games, 197, 203, 206-9, 212-4, 264-84
    stories, 207-13, 221, 299-311, 314-5
    toys, 203, 206, 215, 285-98

  Education, (bases) biology, 45-7, 199-203
    child study, 197, 223, 246

  Education, 45, 86-7, 91, 110, 114, 119, 196-9, 201, 205-8, 211, 214,
        219-20, 248-51, 269-70, 278-80, 293-4, 304-5, 309, 330, 332

  Education, as development, 96-8, 203
    through books, 198, 205, 309
    by trial and error, 197

  Education, through example, 196, 201, 206, 210-1, 214, 220, 249, 253,
        256-8, 330, 332
    through experience, 205, 217, 246-7, 249-63
    through physical regimen, 85-6, 101, 105, 111, 114, 119, 123, 126,
        129, 134, 194-5, 206, 210, 214-5, 249-53

  Education, home environment for.
    See FAMILY; HOME.
    mother’s responsibility in. See MOTHER.
    teacher’s part in, 196, 198, 203-5, 207, 222, 265-6

  Education, methods, 196-222
    natural, 203
    race methods, 197

  Education, physical conditions for, 119, 122, 139, 141, 146-7, 152,
        155, 199, 203, 206
    relations of environment to, 28, 196-7, 199, 202-3, 206-8, 219-20,
        246-7, 330, 332, 335
    See INTERESTS.

  Educators, 152, 196, 222

  Eggs, cooking, 189-90
    in diet, 67, 162-4, 194, 355-6
    values, 27, 162, 168-9, 172, 178, 180

  Electricity, uses, 23, 188, 256, 261, 263

  Elimination, 64, 68, 75, 160-1, 170, 172, 231-2, 344-6, 350-4
    See BREATHING; CONSTIPATION.

  Embryo, development, 43-4, 74

  Embryology defined, 74

  Emergencies, 349-50

  Emetics, 346-7, 361

  Emotions, 242, 244
    development, 43-61, 112, 210
    physical effects, 75, 104, 145, 155, 158, 160, 174
    and religion, 196, 214, 219
    expression, 212-4
    training, 49, 101, 114, 117, 147-8, 151, 196, 203, 209-15, 249,
        256-7, 285-9, 292

  Enema, 107, 337, 345, 352

  Environment, educative, 247
    for meals, 158, 192, 195
    influence of, 35, 45, 47, 53, 137, 151, 196, 202-3, 207, 219, 220,
        247
    natural, 28, 151, 208, 246-7, 312
    selecting and supplying, 42, 199, 206, 219, 246, 247-61, 268-74,
        309, 312, 330, 332, 335, 370-1
    utilizing in education, 197, 247-61, 313-4, 318-9

  Eruptions, 226, 228, 236, 338, 340-1, 356-7

  Eugenics, 32, 29-40, 150-1, 214-5

  Examinations, dental, 139, 154, 233
    eyes, 140-1, 147, 154, 233
    health, 117, 223-235, 342
    school, 152, 197

  Excitement, 64, 86, 112, 116, 147, 149, 158, 251

  Exercise, 63, 123, 144-5, 162
    time for, 46, 120, 143-4, 200

  Exercises, for babies, 96-7
    breathing, 71
    children, 144-5
    circulation, 122, 144, 162
    constipation, 73, 97, 144
    curvature, 144
    feet, 135
    mothers, 69-73
    skin, 133
    trunk, 71

  Experimenting, interest in, 58, 50, 241, 248, 251, 258, 269-72
    utilizing, 63, 198, 211, 249, 256, 259, 261

  Exploring, educational use, 255, 312
    interest in, 248, 251, 270, 272, 274

  Eyes, care, babies, 36-7, 96, 98
    children, 134, 139-142, 250
    in maternity, 74
    complications in disease, 341
    defects, 140, 153, 227, 237
    development, 50, 54, 56, 48, 60, 121, 139-40
    discharges, 97, 338, 343, 362
    examination, 140, 141, 147, 154, 227, 233
    infection, 36, 37, 142, 338
    inflamed, treatment, 338, 344, 347
    symptoms in disease, 338-41
    strain, 54, 56, 58, 104-1, 143, 146


  Facts, learning, 198, 205, 209-10, 246, 315

  Fairhope School, 316

  Falling, 338, 350

  Family, 6, 10-19
    environment for education, 197, 247
    teaching significance of, 215, 257

  Father, 2, 11, 13, 28, 63, 150, 153, 155, 218, 234-5

  Fathercraft, 5-6, 9, 117

  Fatherhood, 7, 29-40, 150
    teaching responsibility for, 150-1, 257, 310

  Fatigue, children, 50-1, 58, 146-8, 158, 230, 251, 259, 372
    mother, 25, 36-7, 64, 69, 71-2, 102

  Fats, 160, 165-9
    cooking, 165, 176, 186, 190, 193, 365-8

  Fear, 48-51, 145-6, 201, 230, 250
    preventing and treatment, 148, 213, 250, 257
    mother’s, 74

  Feeding, and bath, 87, 120
    babies, 86-88, 100-7, 115-6, 118, 370
    children, 120, 124, 155-195, 234, 249
    in maternity, 66-8, 102-4, 359
    in illness, 354-6
    over, 89, 105, 116, 123, 151, 160, 166-7, 194, 347
    regularity, 86-88, 105, 120, 124, 157
    wrong, effects, 105, 115, 155, 165-7

  Feet, 230, 338
    care, 90, 97, 122, 129, 135
    defects, 90, 116, 230
    cold, 89, 122, 135, 353

  Fever, symptom of illness, 338-41
    treatment, 348, 354

  Finger nails, 134, 230, 340, 342

  Finger plays, 268, 278-80

  Fire, what to do, 349-50

  Fireless cooker, 24, 188

  Firmness, 193-4, 214, 216-18, 337

  First Aid, 349-50

  Fomentations, hot, effect, 351
    how to apply, 353
    uses, 343, 345-7, 349-50, 354, 360

  Food composition, 168-173, 365-9
    values, 159-60, 173, 365-9

  Foods, 101, 156, 195
    injurious, 164-5

  Foreign bodies in ear, eye, nose, throat, 350

  Freedom, baby’s, 86, 89, 90, 108, 111, 249
    children, physical, 129, 130, 147, 153, 174, 193, 194, 266
    children, psychological, 204, 206, 210, 213, 215, 220, 262
    See also INTEREST; SELF-ACTIVITY.

  Froebel, xii, 4, 41, 42, 196, 197, 203, 222, 223, 285, 286, 309, 330,
        333

  Fruit juices, 159, 169-70, 348, 355
    for babies, 67-8, 87, 106-7
    children, 124, 158, 162-3

  Furniture, 76-80, 91, 111, 143, 192, 326


  Games, 112, 275, 284
    education through, 206-7, 209, 212-4, 275-84, 316
    educational, 209, 278-84

  Genetics, 33-5

  Genital organs, 230, 232
    care of, 92-3, 98, 148-9

  Geography, 212, 255, 258, 260, 263, 310-13

  Germ cells, 33-39, 44

  Group play, 50, 52, 59, 212, 275-6, 218-4

  Growth, 45, 43-61
    factors influencing, 100, 151, 168, 370-3
    tables, 118, 373-5

  Gruel, 159, 189, 355


  Habit formation, age, 198-200, 207, 219
    method, 219, 253
    breaking, 219

  Habits, 63, 199, 207
    effects, 155, 214
    training, 193-5, 198, 200, 219, 337

  Hair, 73, 135-6, 343

  Hall, G. Stanley, 1, 29, 42, 152, 197, 221, 223, 246, 287, 288, 291,
        316, 317, 333

  Handcrafts, 251-274, 317-328
    hygiene, 140-1, 251, 259, 317, 320
    interests, 251-2, 258, 263, 270, 272, 274
    materials, 254-5, 261-2, 318-20

  Handkerchiefs, 342, 362

  Hands, care, 134
    disinfecting, 93, 149, 343, 349, 356
    method, 362
    washing, 93, 95, 99, 104, 124-5, 134, 149, 157, 187, 342

  Head, 96-7, 226-7

  Headache, 67-8, 157, 166, 172, 237, 338, 340-1, 353

  Health, before intellectual education, 196, 205
    and food, 155, 157-8, 160-2, 165-8, 172-4
    school, 152-3
    scoring, 226-37
    See CHILD HYGIENE.

  Health, good, bases, 120
    and discipline, 219
    for marriage, 17
    for parenthood, 37, 39, 63

  Heart, 58, 60, 120, 128, 161, 232, 338
    in illness, 340, 348

  Heartburn, 348, 357

  Heat, applications, effects, 351-2

  Height, 60, 101, 151, 159, 177, 226, 236, 370-5
    tables, 373-5

  Hemorrhage, in maternity, 357

  Hemorrhoids, 357

  Heredity, 2, 17, 29-47, 34-5, 63, 74, 146, 234-5, 370

  History, child’s, scoring, 234-5

  History, interest in, 240, 258, 263
    teaching, 255, 260, 299, 306, 309, 314-5

  Holt, L. Emmett, 372, 376

  Home, environment for education, 197, 206, 246-7, 268, 332
    location, 18, 27
    responsibility, 2, 3, 7, 119, 152-3, 155, 223
    See HOME-MAKING; PARENTS, RESPONSIBILITY.

  Home-making, 10-32
    training for, 4, 7, 28-9, 62-3, 150, 257

  Hotwater bag, method, 353
    uses, 345, 347-8, 350-3

  Housekeeping, 10 ff., 253, 259

  Housework, 20 ff., 70, 156-7, 184-192

  Humidity, 25, 89, 108, 115, 122, 137

  Humor, development, 55, 57, 59, 61, 240
    training, 16, 18, 143, 158, 213, 335

  Hygiene. See CHILD HYGIENE.


  Ideals, of American men, 15
    child’s, developing, 196
    development, 55-61
    early implanting, 196, 211-2, 214-5, 248
    (false) of education, 205
    of marriage, 11-19, 149-51, 215
    See INSPIRATION; MORAL; RELIGION.

  Illnesses, care in, 337-63
    chief, 54, 56, 58, 60, 115-6
    causes, 120, 155, 166-7, 172
    history, 234-5, 371

  Imagination, development, 55-61, 240, 269, 285, 303, 314
    training, 210, 245, 247, 254, 262, 265, 272, 277, 279, 282, 289,
        294, 296, 299, 303, 320, 322, 333-4

  Imitation, development, 55-61, 240, 271
    learning by, 207, 211, 220, 286, 302
    through games, 277-8, 282-4
    utilizing in education, 249-50, 297

  Impudence, 212, 218

  Impulse, 151, 200, 204, 212-15, 217

  Income, family, 11, 16-20, 32, 37, 156

  Indigestion, causes, 103-5, 115, 158-60, 166-7, 174, 186-7, 190
    effects, 128, 236, 347, 378
    extent, 54, 56, 58, 60

  Individuality, 13, 196, 205, 217
    See CHILD, INDIVIDUAL; TEMPERAMENT.

  Infancy,
    characteristics, 48-9, 54-7
    meaning of, 11-13, 119

  Infant mortality. See MORTALITY.

  Infection, how conveyed, 15, 35, 99, 122, 342-3
    precautions in, 99, 139, 149, 338, 343, 356, 362
    prevention, 100, 122-3, 130, 134, 142, 149, 153, 155, 160, 192,
        342, 349-50, 359

  Information, not education, 196, 198, 208, 246

  Influenza, 120, 139, 339, 378
    See COLDS.

  Inhibitions, 47-52, 200, 203-4, 213, 215

  Initiative, development, 19, 50, 238-9
    cultivating, 204-5, 208, 245, 277-8, 289, 302, 316

  Inspiration, in home, 10, 17, 18
    in childhood, 148, 196, 220-2

  Instruction, 198

  Intensive development, 47, 205

  Interest, abnormal, treatment, 147
    and education, 203; 46, 147, 197-201, 205, 208-9, 246-7, 256, 260,
        265-6, 276, 289, 300, 311, 330-1, 333, 335
    clues to child’s, 200-1, 203-4, 303
    diverting, 147, 203, 205, 208
    early intellectual, 205
    forcing, effect of, 205
    race vs. individual, 11, 29-40, 149-51

  Interests, according to age period, babyhood, 48, 54-7, 248, 269-70,
        278, 285, 291, 293-4, 302, 304-5, 329
    childhood, (2-6 yrs.) 48-9, 56-9, 251, 270-3, 280-3, 294-7, 303,
        305-7
    (6-9 yrs.) 50, 58-9, 258, 273-4, 283-4, 297-8, 307-8
    youth, (9-12 yrs.) 51, 60, 61, 263
    adolescence, (12-18 yrs.) 52, 60, 61

  Invention, 59, 241
    cultivating, 247, 277, 282-4, 289, 316-7

  Investigation, interest in, 48-9, 241, 248, 269-70, 272
    cultivating, 249, 289, 292

  Irregularity, effects, 102, 105, 114-6, 146, 157, 166-7, 210, 219

  Irritability, 67, 105, 110, 139, 145, 147, 202, 230, 237

  Irritation, 92, 98, 122, 147-8, 151, 160, 164, 172-4, 251, 345, 349
    treatment, 353

  Itching, treatment, 340, 358


  Johnson, Mrs. Marietta, 316

  Judgment, 63, 210-1, 240

  Jumping, interest, 253, 270-2


  Kidneys, 120-1, 231, 233, 235

  Kidney disease, causes, 160, 164, 167, 172, 340-1
    extent, 58, 60, 123

  Kiss, conveys disease germs, 342


  Labor saving, 22 ff.

  Language, development, 44-61, 207, 241, 257, 263, 299
    training, 53, 195, 207, 250, 252-4, 257, 259, 260, 288, 299

  Laundering, 25, 93-4, 362

  Law, respect for, 196, 204, 211-12, 216-7, 251
    sense of, 43-61
    cultivating, 211, 276, 309

  Laxative, foods, 162, 171
    diet, 67, 121, 147, 175, 177
    drugs, 362
    when to give, 344-6, 354

  Lefthandedness, 201, 230

  Lies, 49, 210, 240, 243, 257

  Life, beginning of, 74
    increasing length, 119, 123, 154
    quality, 197, 205

  Life Extension Institute, 119, 372

  Light, uses, 134, 348-54

  Lighting, hygiene, 140-1


  Malnutrition, 116, 153, 236-7, 338-9, 340, 341
    treatment, 343, 356

  Manners, 194-5, 243, 247, 253, 266

  Marriage, 2-3, 11-19, 31-38, 215

  Massage, 74, 95, 98, 127, 132, 345, 347, 349, 359, 360

  Masturbation causes, 92, 98, 146-7
    effects, 145
    preventing, 148-150
    treatment, 117, 145

  Maternity, care, 62-84

  Mathematics, teaching, 261, 263, 315-6

  Maturity, 43-4
    of sex, 151, 371

  Meal time,
    children, 124-7, 177-84
    for mothers, 68

  Meals, 157, 192-5, 214, 218, 343

  Measles, 100, 115, 122, 234, 378
    effects, 54, 56, 58, 153, 240

  Measuring, education in, 253, 254, 261, 266-7
    interest in, 252, 272, 274, 316

  Meat, 149, 168-9, 173
    in child’s diet, 149, 161, 164, 172-4
    in illness, 349, 355
    in mother’s diet, 67

  Medicine, 80, 347, 361-3

  Memory, development of, 43-61, 145, 147, 240, 275
    training, 112, 209-10, 249, 253

  Meningitis, 54, 56, 341

  Mental activity, 239
    overemphasis, 152, 246, 248
    rate, 213, 263
    defects, 36, 38, 145-6, 239-44, 371

  Militarism, 32, 212, 255, 286, 314

  Military toys, 286, 290

  Milk, boiled, 187, 355
    bottled, 184
    certified, 184-5
    clean, 152, 157, 185
    condensed, 101, 161, 185
    grades, 185
    loose, 185
    pasteurized, 184-6
    skimmed, 186
    sour, 185
    sterilized, 185
    raw, 355
    whey, 186, 355

  Milk, care, 157, 184-5
    cooking, 185, 187, 190
    pasteurizing, 187
    serving, 166, 175, 192

  Milk, composition and values, 27, 162, 168-73, 178
    factors in, 184

  Milk in diet,
    child’s, 159, 163, 166, 168-73, 185-6
    mother’s, 67-8, 102
    in illness, 355-6
    digestion of, 159, 168, 185

  Milk, mother’s, 101-104, 168

  Minerals (food), 161, 167-170, 172-3, 178-84
    importance, 27, 64-7, 103, 158, 166-7, 355
    daily requirement, 161
    tables, food composition, 365-8

  Miscarriage, causes, 36, 68, 69, 378

  Mischief, 49, 219, 239

  Modeling, educational values, 208, 210
    interest in, 251, 271-2, 274
    materials for, 320
    education, 254, 256, 261, 318

  Modesty, training, 50, 129, 150, 214, 257

  Montessori, apparatus, 142, 222, 330
    auto-education, 203-4
    statement of liberty, 204, 222

  Moral development, 48-61, 202, 242-244, 252
    training and education, 39, 49-52, 202, 211-19, 245, 248, 251-2,
        256-7, 262, 267, 292, 299, 300, 329, 335

  Moral influences, 196, 202, 246-7, 291

  Mortality, children,
    causes, 54, 56, 58, 60, 85, 115, 154, 155, 343, 378
    prevention, 33, 40, 117, 343, 379
    statistics, 377-8
    in maternity, 379

  Mother, heredity from, 234-5
    teaching respect for, 218

  Mothers, consequences of ignorance in, 115, 117, 155

  Mother’s, assistant, 4, 5, 86, 250, 337, 342
    responsibility for children’s education, 4, 194-6, 218, 309

  Mothers’, International Congress, 7

  Mothercraft, defined, xii
    School of, xii

  Motherhood, hygiene, 62-84
    age for, 39
    preparation for, vii, ix, xii, 1-9, 18, 62-3, 215, 257
    teaching respect for, 29, 145, 150, 196, 215, 218
    unwelcome, 39, 40

  Mothering, 63

  Motor development, 43-61, 112, 145, 204, 231, 248-9, 251-2, 258,
        233-4, 269-72, 288, 291, 294, 329
    defects, 145-6, 231
    See MUSCLES, FUNDAMENTAL.

  Motor education and training, 28, 133, 142, 195, 198, 205-6, 249-50,
        252-6, 285-98, 269-74, 277-83, 317, 321

  Mouth hygiene, babies, 98, 99, 104
    child, 124, 137-9, 297, 342-3
    in illness, 356-7
    in maternity, 74, 358

  Moving pictures, 140, 146, 151, 371

  Muscles, 199, 229
    fundamental and accessory,
    development, 46, 56, 58, 60
    in education, 147, 206, 208, 251, 286, 318, 320

  Music, interest in, 239-40, 329-331, 248, 252
    education, 247, 249-50, 252, 256, 259, 266, 316, 329-331, 335-6
    in home, 15, 19, 330
    therapeutic use, 147, 329
    See RHYTHM; SINGING.

  Musical toys, 250, 252, 256, 293-7

  Mustard, bath, 352, 345
    plaster, 363
    for earache, 363
    in diet, 164, 175


  Nail-biting, 145, 231, 233, 237

  Nap, 73, 88, 90, 124, 128, 213, 232

  Nature, environment, 247

  Nature study, 240, 251, 255, 258, 260, 263, 309-10

  Nausea, causes, 157, 338, 340-1
    treatment, 347
    in maternity, 67, 68, 357

  Navel, 54, 82, 89, 94, 230

  Nerves, afferent, 199
    centers, 201-2
    development, 54, 56, 58, 60, 86, 146, 200
    efferent, 199, 200, 202
    food for, 155, 160, 161
    hygiene, 114, 120
    scoring, 230-1
    sensory and motor, 199, 200, 202

  Nervous, child, 126, 134, 173, 205, 213, 260
    energy, storing (mother), 18, 63, 102;
      (child), 123, 155, 161
    system, development, 199-203, 219

  Nervousness, causes, 67, 112, 116, 122, 139, 146, 160, 164, 167, 172,
        173, 174, 341, 320
    development, 54, 56, 60
    effects (mother’s), 102, 104
      (child’s), 123, 128
    extent, 54, 56, 58, 60, 152
    prevention, 25, 86, 145-8
    symptoms, 145, 230-1, 237
    treatment, 25, 69, 70, 127, 143, 147-8, 353

  Night regimen, 89-90, 105, 109, 118, 127, 129

  Nose, 227, 232, 237
    care (baby), 96;
      (child), 122, 136-7
    how to blow, 136
    discharges, 338-42, 362

  Nursery, 76, 98-9, 108
    furnishing, 75-80

  Nursing, home, 337-63
    in maternity, 357-60
    of baby, 100-6, 115, 234, 358-60, 379

  Nutrition, 120, 146, 219, 231, 236-7, 219


  Obedience, development, 48-61
    cultivating, 196, 216-18, 251, 256, 337

  Observation, development, 48-61
    training, 208-9, 255, 262, 277-8, 281, 283
    utilizing, 198, 217, 255, 261

  Oil rub, 87, 94, 131-4, 356, 358

  Orange juice, 106, 163, 169, 171, 175, 179

  Orderliness, 28, 99, 211
    training in, 130, 194, 215, 245, 253
    sense of, development, 48, 61, 243

  Overwork, 70, 115, 206


  Pacifiers, 80, 227, 234, 342

  Painting, intellectual values, 208, 210
    hygiene 254, 318, 320
    interest in, 240, 262, 271, 272, 274, 302
    materials, 254, 319-20
    teaching, 254, 262, 318

  Paralysis, 341

  Paregoric, 80

  Parental love, (not compensate for ignorance), 123

  Parenthood, 29-40
    age for, 37, 39
    See EUGENICS; FATHER; HEREDITY; HOME; MOTHER

  Parents, 29-40, 41
    responsibilities, 16, 29-40, 45, 117, 153, 155, 246

  Parties, 146, 149, 267

  Pasteurizing, 342
    method, 187

  Patent baby foods, 80, 101, 161, 234

  Patent medicines, 68, 80, 103, 346, 363

  Peace, international, 287, 312

  Pedagogy, 198, 208

  Pediatrics, 3, 6, 62

  Personality, 5, 7, 247
    study of, 237-44

  Physical education, 87, 119, 247, 251, 255

  Physical measurements, 151, 118, 226, 373-5

  Physician, 14, 38, 63-5, 71-2, 85, 93, 97-8, 102-3, 106-7, 117, 128,
        135, 142, 144-5, 147-9, 154, 165-6, 174, 232-3, 339, 344, 346,
        350, 359, 363
    when to summon, 337-8, 343, 349

  Physiology, 43-75, 86-116, 120-150, 157-195, 199-203

  Pictures, 210, 247, 249, 256, 268
    children’s interest in, 240, 248, 262, 272
    for children, 250, 262, 332, 335
    making, 254, 304, 333-4

  Play, for baby, 111-2, 248-9
    with baby, 86, 110, 112
    defined, 203, 264-5
    education through, 264-74
    equipment, 130, 133
    interests, 142, 248-9, 251, 258, 268
    See GAMES; TOYS.

  Pneumonia, 339; 89, 101, 108, 115, 120, 131, 134
    extent, 54, 56, 58, 60, 153, 378

  Poisoning, prevention, 347, 379

  Posture, 73, 143, 226, 236
    sitting, 111, 143
    standing, 25, 143-5

  Poultices, 339, 343

  Powder, use of, 92, 98, 138, 358
    formulas, 79, 358

  Prayers,
    child, 214, 220, 258
    parents, 39, 258

  Precocity, 47, 205, 239

  Prenatal, development, 43-4
    hygiene, 62-84, 357-60, 379
    influences, 33-36, 63, 74-5, 138, 235

  Prickly heat, 347-8, 356

  Primitive life, 255, 258, 260, 262, 312

  Prohibitions, 216, 251

  Promptness, 213, 215, 216, 218, 253, 256

  Protein, 168; 160, 166-8, 172-5, 179-84, 365-8

  Prunes, 169, 171, 175, 188, 355
    juice, 88, 106, 163
    pulp, 163, 188

  Psychology, child, 128, 147, 151, 199-222, 251, 258, 263, 264-67,
        275-77
    of development, 43-61, 225, 237-44
    genetic, 42
    of infancy, 85, 101, 105, 110, 112, 114, 117, 248-9

  Pulse, 232, 376

  Punishment, baby, 117, 212
    child, 127-8, 146, 218, 257
    consistency, 216
    natural forms, 216-7

  Purins, 160, 166-7, 172, 175
    free diet, 160, 171, 348, 354-5


  Quarreling, 212, 218, 243, 257

  Questions, child’s, index of interests, 224, 241
    regarding biology of life, 150, 215, 258, 210
    regarding theology, 221, 257


  Reaction time, 202, 213, 216, 239

  Reading, age for, 51, 53, 141, 152, 207, 260, 263, 316
    hygiene in, 140-3, 260
    physical strain, 140, 207, 254

  Reasoning, development, 48-61, 240
    training, 210-11, 214, 250, 309
    utilizing in education, 198, 213

  Recapitulation, 44, 200

  Reflex arc, 199, 213

  Reflexes, 132, 143, 351

  Regularity, babies, 86-8, 102, 105, 249-50
    children, 123-4, 126-7, 147, 157, 176, 211, 214, 233
    training in, 49, 55, 107, 214, 251

  Relaxation, 128, 147
    means to, 127-8, 143, 147, 213, 338

  Religion, development, 49, 52, 59, 61, 220, 244, 258
    education in, 49, 52, 149, 151, 195-6, 202, 214, 219-23, 257, 258,
        262-3

  Repression, 146-7, 152-3, 200, 202, 204

  Resistance, developing, 120 ff., 344
    to disease germs, 123, 131, 134
    low, 160, 172, 343

  Respect, development, 243
    for authority, 49, 114, 211, 216-7, 220, 251, 258, 276
    father, 218, 220
    mother, 218, 220
    parenthood and marriage, 149-50, 215, 310
    property, 211, 218
    workers, 216, 313
    See SELF-RESPECT.

  Respiration, rate, 376
    See BREATHING.

  Responsibility, training in, 28-9, 51-2, 130, 150, 211-2, 214, 218,
        259, 292, 313

  Retardation, 202, 205, 239-44, 271

  Rewards, 217

  Rheumatism, 58, 60, 160, 167, 172, 234, 348

  Rhyme, 209, 239

  Rhythm, sense of development, 59, 239-40, 248, 252, 269, 303, 329
    cultivating, 55, 112, 128, 206, 249-50, 253, 256, 259, 278, 302
    uses, 127, 147, 209, 329

  Rhythmic exercises, 202, 213, 250, 269

  Rickets, 54, 101, 116, 167, 234, 236

  Ridicule, 256, 260

  Rocking, 78, 110, 111, 116, 127

  Rote learning, 51, 209, 261, 263

  Rupture, 89, 98, 116, 232, 230


  Salt, normal solution, 362
    uses, 343-5, 347-8, 362

  Sanitation, 86, 87, 93, 98-100, 108-110, 127, 137, 139, 142, 152,
        156-7, 184-7, 192, 251, 342-3, 362-3

  Scarlet fever, 122, 153, 234, 340
    mortality, 56, 58, 100, 378

  School, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 28, 124, 223
    age for entering, 141, 152, 208
    and health, 146, 152-3, 194
    dances, 149

  Science, teaching, 248, 255-6, 260-1, 309-13

  Scolding, 127, 142, 217

  Scurf on head, 96, 97, 135, 226

  Scurvy, 56, 101, 116, 162, 167, 234, 237

  Self-activity, 199, 203-4, 208, 220, 241, 245, 264-7
    clue to interests, 203-4, 224, 240
    See FREEDOM; INTEREST.

  Self-consciousness, 129, 224, 256, 260

  Self-control, developing sense of, 43-61, 231
    lack of, 12, 16, 145, 146, 151, 195
    need of, 17, 39, 37, 86, 123, 151
    training in, 29, 31, 63, 86, 114, 143, 148, 212, 213, 245, 251, 256

  Self-indulgence, 114-5, 117, 123, 146, 151

  Selfishness, 16, 20, 218, 242, 243

  Self-reliance, development of, 20, 43-61, 231, 239
    training in, 20, 63, 114, 128, 130, 142, 143, 148, 195, 211, 245,
        249, 253, 320

  Sense organs, development, 43-61, 200-1, 227-8, 239-40
    hygiene, 137, 153, 139-42, 146-7

  Sense training, 201, 205-6, 249-51, 252-3, 258-9, 269-70, 272-3, 277,
        281, 284
    See COLOR; RHYTHM.

  Sewing, 83-4, 140-1, 262, 271, 274

  Sex determination, 74

  Sex, development, 43-61, 150-1
    influence on growth, 370-75
    influences on maturity, 371
    education, 29, 149-51, 214-5, 310
    hygiene, 39, 92-4, 148-151
    instinct, sublimation, 13-4, 19, 33, 39, 151
    perversion, 17, 31, 37-8, 150

  Shock, avoiding in cold bath, 131
    treatment, 346, 349, 350

  Shoes, baby, 82, 90, 116
    child, 128-30, 135
    in maternity, 65

  Sight, 54-61, 11, 206

  Simplicity, 21-8
    for children, 129, 131, 158, 165, 174, 244, 256, 267

  Singing, 18, 127, 147
    education in, 249-50, 252, 277, 329-30
    games, 272, 282-3

  Sitting, babies, 55, 111-2, 116, 231
    children, 143, 152, 226, 320

  Skin, 148
    care, babies, 92, 97-8
      children, 129, 131-4
      maternity, 64, 68, 358
    training, 121, 131, 133

  Sleep, 73, 86, 88, 107-11, 123-6, 130, 149, 157, 232, 237
    disturbed, 69, 111, 127-8, 145, 157, 237, 349

  Sleeping out-of-doors, 70, 107, 109-110, 126, 129, 147
    bag, 90, 109, 129
    porch, 70, 126

  Slivers, 351

  Smallpox, 378

  Soap, for babies, 79, 97, 98
    children, 131, 133
    diapers, 93
    disinfection, 343, 362
    woolens, 93

  Social, development, 54-61, 242-3
    training, 195, 212-17, 220, 248, 253, 257, 266, 275-6

  Songs, 207, 240, 249, 256, 272, 335

  Soothing syrups, 80, 114, 363

  Speech, 241
    development, 43-61
    defects, 56, 58, 201, 205, 241
    See LANGUAGE.

  Sponge, 80, 94

  Starch, 166-9, 186, 193

  Statistics, 153-5, 387-9

  Sterilized foods, 101, 161, 185

  Sterilizing, method, 363
    baby clothes, 79, 93
    dried fruits, 192
    milk bottles, 184
    toothbrushes, 139
    wash cloths, 131

  Stimulants, to be avoided, 123, 149, 151, 217, 371
    desire for, 155
    foods, 164, 173-4, 371
    in illness, 350-1, 355

  Stimulation, mental, 45, 47, 86, 110, 205-6
    physical, of heat, 351

  Stomach, ache, 349
    gas, 345
    digestion, 167-8, 174
    scoring, 230-1
    sour, 348, 357

  Stools, abnormal, 107, 232, 338
    regularity, 86-88, 107
    in disease, 342, 362

  Stories and story-telling, 252-308, 314-5, 127, 146-8, 203, 210-11,
        224

  Stubbornness, 214, 216, 217

  Subconscious mind, 128, 202

  Sucking, 117, 227

  Sugar, 101, 114, 149, 188, 165-75, 193

  Suggestion, to the subconscious mind, 128
    use of, 128, 208, 216, 302

  Suggestibility, 48, 128, 200, 247

  Summer, baby’s regimen, 82, 90, 94, 98, 108
    children, 129, 132-3, 177

  Sunburn, 134, 348

  Sunshine, 86, 93, 109-10, 134, 153, 362

  Suppository, 91, 107, 345

  Sympathy, 10, 16, 28, 212, 218, 220, 244, 247, 268
    with child nature, 222

  Syphilis, 35-8, 54, 115, 233, 341


  Tantrums, 117, 145, 147-8, 213, 237

  Taste, 158, 174, 193, 206

  Teasing children, 112, 116, 146, 251
    child’s, 51, 216, 218, 257

  Teeth, 120, 228
    care, 128
    decay, 139, 146, 162, 174
    defects, 54, 56, 58, 60, 139, 153
    development, 54, 56, 58, 60, 138
    examination, 139, 154
    food for sound, 161-2, 174
    in maternity, 73, 358

  Temper, 55, 143, 145, 147, 213, 218, 237, 251

  Temperature, body, normal, 376
    learning to take, 337
    response to changes, 121

  Temperature, food, 192
    water, 106

  Temperature, outdoors, for play, 133-4
    for sleeping, 127
    for taking outdoors, 89, 108

  Temperature, room, 232
    bathroom, 131
    nursery, 98, 108
    room, 25, 70, 89, 121, 127, 137, 192
    sickroom, 338-9, 341
    to reduce, 350

  Theater, 146, 151, 247, 371

  Thinking, feeling and doing, 197, 204, 248

  Thrift, 16, 25, 49, 243
    teaching, 215, 292

  Throat, care, 122, 343, 356
    sore, 122, 137, 348, 354-5

  Thrush, 104

  Tickling, effects, 112, 116, 146

  Time, sense of, 239
    teaching, 260, 314

  Tonsillitis, 122, 137, 146, 153, 340

  Tonsils, 115, 122, 137, 146, 153, 234

  Toothache, 349

  Toothbrush, 138-9, 357
    how to brush, 138, 342

  Tossing babies, effect, 112, 116, 146

  Toys, 285-298, 317-328
    at bedtime, 127
    care of, 86, 218, 234, 253, 342
    education through, 249-50, 252, 256, 261-2, 285-98
    making, 254, 261, 317-28
    See DOLL.

  Tuberculosis, hereditary, bar to marriage, 37-8
    congenital infection, 35, 37, 233
    diet, 356
    extent, 56, 58, 60, 123, 153, 378
    causes, 123
    history, 234, 235
    prevention, 131, 134
    precautions in, 139, 339
    symptoms, 339


  Unity of child’s life, 85, 197, 204

  Uric acid, 167, 171-2

  Urinating, teaching control, 87-8, 91, 127, 231

  Urine, 91-2, 148, 170, 231, 338, 358, 362, 379


  Varicose veins, 65, 73, 357

  Vegetables, 161-2, 168-72
    cooking, 170, 187, 190
    in diet, 162-4, 193, 355

  Venereal diseases, 35-8, 115, 233, 341, 343

  Ventilation, 152, 233
    nursery, 98-9, 108, 123, 127
    room, 25, 70, 122, 192
    sickroom, 339, 344, 348, 356

  Vitality, 63, 151, 226-237
    increasing, 119-154
    low, 153, 165, 172, 236-7

  Vitamines, 27, 100-1, 161, 175, 177, 179, 185

  Voice, 52, 241, 250, 254, 259, 335-6

  Vomiting, 105, 338-42, 362


  Waking, 111, 118, 128, 250

  Walking, 99, 112, 205, 213, 252-3, 270-3
    in maternity, 69-70

  Water, 162, 166, 343-4, 348, 354
    sterilizing, 363

  Water drinking, 68, 88, 104, 121, 124-5, 162, 170, 360

  Weaning, 103, 106, 234

  Weather, adaptation to, 129, 159, 175, 184
    cool, 87, 90, 94, 99, 108, 110, 127, 129, 131-4, 137
    warm, 90, 94, 98, 108, 177

  Weighing, 78, 87-8, 104, 224

  Weight, 44, 60, 104, 151, 159, 177, 226, 236-7, 338-9, 343, 370-375
    taking, 87
    Tables, 118, 373-5

  Whims, 114, 193-4, 203, 213, 217

  Whooping cough, 54, 100, 115, 120, 234, 340, 378

  Will, 55-61, 155, 200, 244
    breaking child’s, 214, 217
    training, 151, 211, 213, 215, 222, 245

  Winter, regimen, baby’s, 82, 94, 108
    children, 122, 127, 129, 131-3, 177

  Wood, Thomas D., 126, 152

  Woolen garments, 82, 90, 93, 129-30, 148, 347

  Workmanship, 251, 254, 259, 261-2, 289, 317, 321, 330, 333-4

  Worms, 147-8, 233, 349, 363

  Wounds, 337-8, 342, 349-50

  Writing, 53
    age for teaching, 141, 207-8, 260, 263
    hygiene, 140, 152, 260


  Youth, stage of development, 51, 60, 61
    education in, 198, 263




  Transcriber’s Notes

  pg 160 Changed: inducing irritability, nervousness, langour
              to: inducing irritability, nervousness, languor

  pg 214 Changed: expressed in his good will, expecially
              to: expressed in his good will, especially

  pg 216 Changed: discipline, prohibitions, dont’s
              to: discipline, prohibitions, don’ts

  pg 218 Changed: discipline is reduced to a minumum
              to: discipline is reduced to a minimum

  pg 357 Changed: and clean teeth with antispetic gauze
              to: and clean teeth with antiseptic gauze

  pg 361 Changed: anagelsic balm
              to: analgesic balm

  pg 363 Changed: anagelsic balm, mentholated vaseline
              to: analgesic balm, mentholated vaseline

  pg 396 Changed: Form similiar to pp. 180-3
              to: Form similar to pp. 180-3

  pg 396 Changed: specfic foods, cooking, cover a wide range
              to: specific foods, cooking, cover a wide range

  pg 396 Changed: and are authoratative.
              to: and are authoritative.

  pg 421 Changed: Nurses’ Handbook of Obstretrics
              to: Nurses’ Handbook of Obstetrics



*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MOTHERCRAFT MANUAL ***


    

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.


START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
    other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
    whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
    of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
    at www.gutenberg.org. If you
    are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
    of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
  
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

    • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
        the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method
        you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
        to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has
        agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
        within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
        legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
        payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
        Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
        Literary Archive Foundation.”
    
    • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
        you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
        does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
        License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
        copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
        all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
        works.
    
    • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
        any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
        electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
        receipt of the work.
    
    • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
        distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
    

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.