Transcriber’s Note: Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.




  _“WORK” HANDBOOKS_

  KNOTTING AND SPLICING
  ROPES AND CORDAGE




  KNOTTING
  AND SPLICING
  ROPES AND CORDAGE

  _WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND DIAGRAMS_

  EDITED BY
  PAUL N. HASLUCK
  EDITOR OF “WORK” AND “BUILDING WORLD”
  AUTHOR OF “HANDBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS,” ETC. ETC.

  _PHILADELPHIA_
  DAVID McKAY, PUBLISHER
  610, _SOUTH WASHINGTON SQUARE_
  1907




PREFACE.


This Handbook contains, in a form convenient for everyday use, a
comprehensive digest of the information on Knotting and Splicing Ropes
and Cordage, scattered over more than twenty thousand columns of the
journals it is my fortune to edit—and supplies concise information on
the details of the subjects on which it treats.

Readers who may desire additional information respecting special
details of the matters dealt with in this Handbook, or instructions on
kindred subjects, should address a question to The Editor of WORK, La
Belle Sauvage, London, E.C., so that it may be answered in the columns
of that journal.

                                                   P. N. HASLUCK.

 _La Belle Sauvage, London._




CONTENTS.


CHAPTER                                               PAGE
    I.—Introduction: Rope Formation                      9

   II.—Simple and Useful Knots                          15

  III.—Eye Knots, Hitches, and Bends                    24

   IV.—Ring Knots and Rope Shortenings                  43

    V.—Ties and Lashings                                59

   VI.—Fancy Knots                                      66

  VII.—Rope Splicing                                    89

 VIII.—Working Cordage                                  96

   IX.—Hammock Making                                  125

    X.—Lashings and Ties for Scaffolding               130

   XI.—Splicing and Socketing Wire Ropes               133

   Index                                               156




  LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.


    FIG.                                                       PAGE
     1.—Overhand Knot                                            15
     2.—Fourfold Overhand Knot, Loose and Taut                   15
     3.—Figure-of-eight Knot                                     16
     4.—Sailor’s Knots or Reef Knots                             16
     5.—Sailor’s Reef Knot, Half-made                            17
     6.—Granny or Lubber’s Knot                                  17
     7.—Granny Knot, Taut                                        18
     8.—Overhand Rosette Knot or Bow                             19
     9.—Weaver’s Knot, Half-made                                 20
    10.—Weaver’s Knot, Closed                                    21
    11.—Overhand Knot Joining Two Ropes                          21
    12.—Flemish Knot Joining Two Ropes                           22
    13.—Fisherman’s Knot                                         22
    14.—Whipcord Knot                                            23
    15.—Running Knot                                             24
    16.—Fisherman’s Eye Knot                                     25
    17.—Openhand Eye Knot                                        25
    18.—Flemish Eye Knot                                         26
    19.—Crabber’s Eye Knot                                       26
    20.—Bowline Knot                                             27
    21.—Running Bowline on Bight                                 28
    22.—Running Knot with Two Ends—Loose                         29
    23.—Running Knot with Two Ends—Fastened                      29
    24.—Two Half Hitches                                         30
    25.—Builder’s Knot                                           31
    26.—Timber Hitch                                             32
    27.—Killick Hitch                                            33
    28.—Magnus Hitch                                             33
    29.—Fisherman’s Bend                                         34
    30.—Rolling Hitch                                            34
    31.—Topsail Halliard Bend                                    35
    32.—Racking Hitch                                            35
    33.—Slippery Hitch                                           36
    34.—Carrick Bend                                             36
    35.—Bending Sheet to Clew of Sail                            37
    36.—More Secure Sheet Bend                                   38
    37.—Bending Rope to Loop                                     38
    38.—Blackwall Hitch                                          39
    39.—Midshipman’s Hitch                                       40
    40.—Marlinespike Hitch                                       40
    41.—Regulating Lashing                                       41
    42.—Stationer’s Knot                                         41
    43.—Slippery Ring Knot                                       43
    44.—Boat Knot                                                44
    45.—Lark Boat Knot                                           44
    46.—Lark’s Head                                              45
    47.—Lark’s Head Stoppered                                    45
    48.—Lark’s Head with Crossed Ends                            46
    49.—Double Lark’s Head                                       46
    50.—Treble Lark’s Head                                       47
    51.—Backhanded Sailor’s Knot                                 47
    52.—Capstan Knot                                             48
    53.—Another Form of Sailor’s Knot                            48
    54.—Gunner’s Knot                                            49
    55.—Beginning of Artillery Knot                              50
    56.—Artillery Knot Finished                                  50
    57.—Bend Shortening                                          51
    58.—Chain Knot                                               51
    59.—Beginning Chain Knot                                     52
    60.—Twist Knot                                               53
    61.—Beginning Twist Knot                                     53
    62.—Sheepshanks                                              54
    63.—Sheepshanks Fastened                                     54
    64.—Sheepshanks Knotted                                      54
    65.—Sheepshanks Knotted                                      55
    66.—Boat Knot Shortening or Sheepshanks Toggled              56
    67.—Knot Shortening                                          56
    68.—Beginning Knot Shortening                                57
    69.—Double Chain Knot                                        57
    70.—Wedding Knot                                             59
    71.—Chain Knot Lashed to Spar                                59
    72.—Improved Chain Knot                                      60
    73.—Cross Lashing                                            60
    74.—Necklace Tie                                             61
    75.—Packing Knot                                             61
    76.—Finishing off Whipping                                   62
    77.—Finishing off Whipping                                   62
    78.—Nippering                                                63
    79.—West Country Whipping                                    63
    80.—Catspaw                                                  64
    81.—Beginning Catspaw                                        64
    82.—Securing Block to Rope                                   65
    83.—Wall Knot                                                66
    84.—Stopper Knot                                             66
    85.—Beginning Crowning                                       67
    86.—Crowning Complete                                        67
    87.—Beginning Manrope Knot                                   68
    88.—Manrope Knot                                             68
    89.—Tack Knot                                                68
    90.—Matthew Walker Knot                                      69
    91.—Matthew Walker Knot                                      70
    92.—Beginning Diamond Knot                                   70
    93.—Diamond Knot before Hauling Taut                         71
    94.—Single Diamond Knot                                      72
    95.—Double Diamond Knot                                      72
    96.—Shroud Knot                                              73
    97.—Beginning Turk’s Head                                    74
    98.—Turk’s Head                                              75
    99.—Single Pitcher Knot                                      77
   100.—Beginning Single Pitcher Knot                            77
   101.—Pitcher with Rope Handle                                 77
   102.—Double Pitcher Knot                                      79
   103.—Beginning Double Pitcher Knot                            79
   104.—Can or Jar in Sling                                      80
   105.—Beginning Can Sling                                      81
   106.—Shamrock Knot                                            82
   107.—Beginning Shamrock Knot                                  82
   108.—Another Way of making Shamrock Knot                      83
   109.—Beginning Dalliance Knot                                 84
   110.—Next Stage in Dalliance Knot                             85
   111.—Davenport Brothers’ Knot                                 86
   112.—Bellringer’s Knot                                        87
   113.—Beginning Short Splice                                   89
   114.—Marlinespike                                             90
   115.—Pricker                                                  90
   116.—Long Rope Splice                                         91
   117.—Cut Splice                                               92
   118.—Beginning Cut Splice                                     93
   119.—Eye Splice                                               93
   120.—Splicing Grommet                                         94
   121.—Finishing off Grommet                                    95
   122.—Flemish Eye                                              96
   123.—Grommet                                                  97
   124.—Selvagee                                                 98
   125.—Selvagee fastening Block to Rope                         99
   126.—Worming, Parcelling, and Marling                        100
   127.—Serving                                                 100
   128.—Belaying                                                101
   129.—Fairleader                                              101
   130.—Belaying Pin                                            102
   131.—Toggle                                                  103
   132.—Another Form of Toggle                                  104
   133.—Fender on Side of Boat                                  104
   134.—Fender with Ropeyarn Heart                              105
   135.—Thimble Side View                                       106
   136.—Thimble Cross Section                                   106
   137.—Mousing a Hook                                          106
   138.—Stropping a Block                                       107
   139.—Pointing a Rope                                         108
   140.—Another Method of Pointing a Rope                       108
   141.—Mainstay                                                109
   142.—Shear-legs                                              110
   143.—Wall Knot                                               111
   144.—Crown                                                   111
   145.—Crown Hauled Taut                                       111
   146.—Manrope Knot                                            112
   147.—Pointing End of Yoke Line                               112
   148.—Fastening off Yoke Line                                 113
   149.—Yoke Line Complete                                      114
   150.—Stern Ladder                                            114
   151.—Round of Stern Ladder                                   114
   152.—Single Rope Ladder with Chocks                          115
   153.—Toe Chock for Rope Ladder                               116
   154.—Rope Ladder with Rungs                                  117
   155.—Wood Rung                                               118
   156.—Pilot Ladder                                            119
   157.—Side Piece of Pilot Ladder                              120
   158.—Beginning Mat                                           121
   159.—Mat Making                                              123
   160.—Netting Needle                                          125
   161.—Netting Needle                                          125
   162.—Mesh Stick                                              125
   163.—Mesh Stick Cross Section                                125
   164.—Loop in Meshing                                         126
   165.—First Stage in Meshing                                  126
   166.—Second Stage in Meshing                                 127
   167.—Third Stage in Meshing                                  127
   168.—Chain of Meshes                                         128
   169.—Beginning of Cross Netting                              129
   170.—Hammock Clew                                            129
   171.—Rope Lashing for Poles and Ledgers                      130
   172.—Chain Lashing for Poles and Ledgers                     130
   173.—Rope Lashing for Putlogs                                130
   174.—Poles Lashed and Wedged, with Footing                   131
   175.—Slinging Plank for Use as Stage                         132
   176.—Boatswain’s Chair                                       132
   177.—Colliery Band Rope Driving System                       134
   178.—“Marrying” a Wire Rope Splice                           135
   179.—Method of Serving Wire Rope                             136
   180.—Partly-finished Splice                                  137
   181.—Wire Rope ready for Splicing                            137
   182.—Right-handed Splice, First Tuck                         138
   183.—Right-handed Splice, all Ends Tucked Once               139
   184.—Left-handed Splice, First Tuck                           140
   185.—Left-handed Splice, all Ends Tucked Once                 141
   186.—Long Splice, all Ends ready for Tucking                  145
   187.—Making Round Joint                                       146
   188.—Half-round Top-Swage                                     147
   189.—Wire Rope Clamp                                          148
   190.—Link Socket                                              148
   191.—Side View of Socket                                      149
   192.—Socket Opened Out                                        149
   193.—Socket in Wire Rope                                      149
   194.—Hooped Winding Rope Socket                               150
   195.—Preparing Bulb on Wire Rope End                          151
   196.—Finished Bulb on Wire Rope End                           151
   197.—Set-hammer for Tightening Hoops                          152
   198.—Solid Socket with Closed Ends                            152
   199.—Solid Socket with Closed Ends                            152
   200.—Plan of Solid Socket with Open End                       153
   201.—Elevation of a Solid Socket with Open End                153
   202.—Another Elevation of a Solid Socket with Open End        153
   203.—Riveted Flat Rope Socket                                 154
   204.—Cramped Flat Rope Socket                                 154
   205.—Socket Cramp                                             155
   206.—Riveting Spikes                                          155
   207.—Riveting Spikes                                          155
   208.—Rivet                                                    155




KNOTTING AND SPLICING ROPES AND CORDAGE.




CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION: ROPE FORMATION.


Knotting is an ancient device with which very early inhabitants of
this earth must have been acquainted. From the beginning, mankind must
always have used some kind of knot to join animal sinews, plant fibres,
or hide strips which, in ancient days, were the prototypes of the
varieties of cordage now employed.

A large number of knots has been invented by the skill of man, and on
their strength and correct tying depend the lives of thousands and
thousands of workmen—seamen, building trade operatives, etc., day by
day. The importance of being able to make the knot best suited for the
occasion both rapidly and correctly may come in a new light to some
when it is pointed out that both lives and property have over and over
again been sacrificed to ill-made knots; and this little volume is put
forward in the belief that few things better repay the workman’s time
and trouble in learning than the manipulation of ropes and cordage.

Cordage is used almost daily by everyone in some form or other, but
comparatively few can handle it methodically. Men break their nails and
teeth gnawing at their own knots endeavouring to untie them, and time
and material are wasted. Time spent in learning a few of the simple
bends and hitches, reliable under strain and easy to unbend when the
strain is released, would never be regretted. It is not necessary for
a landsman to learn all the numerous uses to which rope is put, but a
knowledge of common “bends” is an inestimable convenience, if not a
necessity.

The security of a knot ought not to be, as many seem to think, in the
number of turns or hitches in its composition, but in the efficacy of
the nip. A “bend” or “hitch” must be so formed that the part of rope
under strain nips some portion of the knot, either against itself
or the object to which it is attached; and in learning a bend, or
impressing it upon one’s memory, it will be found most helpful to
notice particularly the nip of each separate one as it is studied.

Rope, though usually of hemp, is made of other materials for certain
purposes. Coir rope (cocoa-nut fibre), being light and buoyant, is
useful for warps, rocket lines, life-buoy lines, and drift-nets.
Manilla grass is adapted for reef points, yachts’ hawsers, and wherever
tar would be injurious. Hide is required for wheel-ropes, or where
great strength with pliability and small circumference is needed.
Cotton is serviceable for fancy work, etc. The “yarns” are formed by
twisting the hemp right-handed; the “strands,” by twisting or laying
up the yarns left-handed; and the rope, by laying up the strands
right-handed.

Three ropes laid up left-handed form what is known as a cable-laid
rope; four-stranded ropes are laid round a heart. Ropes are sometimes
laid left-handed, but if the strands are to be laid left-handed the
yarns are laid right-handed. If the parts of hemp, etc., be twisted
more than is necessary to hold them together, strength is lost. Upon
following the course of a yarn in a rope it will be found that, by this
alternate laying, it runs nearly straight with the direction of the
rope’s length.

A three-stranded rope will bear a greater strain in comparison with
its size than any other of the same material; cable-laid ropes and
four-stranded ropes are, roughly speaking, about one-fifth weaker. Rope
is measured by its circumference, and is laid up in lengths of 113
fathoms, sizes varying up to 28 in.; but it is not usually made up in
coils when the size exceeds 5 in. Very small ropes are distinguished
by their yarns rather than their size; thus sailors speak of nine-,
twelve-, and eighteen-yarn stuff, which is commonly called “seizing
stuff.”

If the fibres of which a rope is composed were laid parallel to one
another and fastened at the two ends, the combined strength of these
fibres would be utilised to the full; in other words, they lose
strength by being twisted or “laid up.” But, on the other hand, the
length of the fibres being at most but a few feet, their usefulness in
this state is very limited, and the inconvenience of using them so is
prohibitive. For this reason the fibres are first twisted into “yarns”;
these, again, are laid up into “strands,” a strand being formed of
several yarns; and, finally, three or more strands are formed into a
rope. As twisting diminishes the strength of a rope, it is important
that the yarns be carefully laid up, so as to bring an even strain on
every part. It should not be laid up too hard—that is, it should only
have sufficient twist in it to prevent the fibres from being drawn out
without breaking.

“Hawser-laid” ropes are made of three strands laid right-handed,
or “with the sun,” as it is termed. “Shroud-laid” are made of four
strands laid right-handed. A “cable-laid” rope is made of three
hawser-laid ropes laid up left-handed, and therefore contains nine
strands. Obviously the size of a rope is regulated by the quantity of
yarns composing the strands, and not by the number of strands that it
contains.

With regard to the weight of ropes, it may be said that ropes of all
kinds are usually measured by their circumference. The weight of clean,
dry, hemp rope in pounds per fathom is one-fourth of the square of the
circumference in inches; for example, a 3-in. hemp rope (about 1 in.
in diameter) weighs ¼ × 32^2 = 2¼ lb. per fathom (6 ft.). A flat hemp
rope, with a width of about four times the thickness, weighs in pounds
per fathom about twice the square of the circumference in inches; for
example, a 3-in. by ¾-in. flat hemp rope will weigh about 2 × 7 = 14
lb. per fathom.

Round wire ropes weigh in pounds per fathom seven-eighths of the square
of the circumference in inches; for example, a 3-in. wire rope weighs
about ⅞ × 3^2 = 7⅞ lb. per fathom. A flat wire rope weighs in pounds
per fathom ten times the sectional area in square inches; for example,
a flat wire rope, 3 in. by ¾ in. = say 2 sq. in. area, will weigh about
10 × 2 = 20 lb. per fathom.

The maximum safe load on a rope depends on many circumstances, such as
quality, age and dryness of rope, nature of load, mode of lifting, etc.
Approximately, the safe load on a new hemp rope in hundredweights with
direct lift is three times the weight in pounds per fathom. On a sound
old rope fall one-half the square of the circumference is sufficient
load. A Bessemer steel wire rope will safely carry in hundredweights
three times the square of its circumference in inches, and a crucible
steel wire rope four times the square of its circumference. For hemp
ropes the minimum diameter of sheave should be circumference of rope +
2, and for wire ropes the diameter of sheave in inches should be equal
to circumference of rope in sixteenths.

The principle of rope making is very readily shown by holding the ends
of a piece of twine or whipcord, about a foot long, in the hands and
twisting it so as to increase the lay. If the twine be now slackened
by bringing the hands nearer to one another, a loop will first form in
the middle of the twine, and it will continue to twist itself up into a
compact cord which will not unlay, as the tension to which the strands
have been subjected causes friction between them, which holds them
together. In other words, the tendency of each part singly to unlay,
acting in opposite directions, is the means of keeping them together
when joined.

Some very interesting experiments were made by Réaumur, the purposes of
which were to ascertain the loss of strength occasioned by laying up
the fibres of various substances, one or two of which are given.

1. A thread, consisting of 832 fibres of silk, each of which carried 1
dram and 18 grains, broke with a weight of 5 lbs., though the sum of
the absolute strength of the fibres is 104 drams, or upwards of 8 lbs.
2 oz.

2. Three threads were twisted together, their mean strength being
nearly 8 lbs. They broke with 17½ lbs., whereas they should have
carried 24 lbs.

These experiments prove that though convenience and portability are
gained by twisting the fibres, there is a great loss in the strength of
the resultant rope.

In speaking of the size of a rope, the circumference and not the
diameter is alluded to. Thus, a three-inch rope would be slightly less
than an inch in diameter.

In practising knotting it is as well to use a tolerably firm material,
such as whipcord, for small common knots, or, still better, line used
for sea fishing. Either can be tied up and undone over and over again
without injuring it, which is not the case with twine; it is also more
easy to see which way the parts of a knot lie in the harder material,
and then to find out whether the turns are properly made or not. For
more complicated knots, particularly those where the strands of the
rope have to be unlaid to form the knot, such as a wall knot (p. 66)
or a Matthew Walker (p. 70), it is advisable to use three strands of
fishing line, each about a foot long. If a “seizing” (a seizing is
shown in Fig. 57, p. 51) be put round them in the centre, so as to hold
them firmly together, a good representation of a rope with the strands
unlaid ready for working is obtained. A knot can be made and unmade as
often as required in this way, without detriment to the strands; but
the strands of a rope, owing to their loose nature, will seldom bear
knotting more than once or twice. If desired, the knots can be made
as above described and kept for future reference. In string also it
is better to use hard laid stuff at first, but when these matters are
thoroughly understood knots can be made on any sort of cordage without
difficulty.




CHAPTER II.

SIMPLE AND USEFUL KNOTS.


[Illustration: Fig. 1.—Overhand Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 2.—Fourfold Overhand Knot, Loose and Taut.]

The simplest knot that is made is the overhand knot (Fig. 1). It is
very useful, and forms a part of many other knots. To make it, the
standing part of the rope—that is, the main part in opposition to
the end—is held in the left hand, and the end of the rope is passed
back over it (whence its name) and put through the loop thus formed.
It is used at the end of a rope to prevent the strands unlaying, and
sometimes in the middle of a rope as a stopper knot. If the end of
the rope is passed through the “bight” or loop two, three, or more
times before hauling it taut, the double, treble, or fourfold knot, A
(Fig. 2), is obtained. This is a larger knot than Fig. 1, and is often
used on the thongs of whips, being then termed a blood knot. B (Fig.
2) shows the knot hauled taut. Fig. 1 also goes by the name of the
Staffordshire knot, as it forms the insignia of the county. A Flemish
or figure-of-eight knot is shown by Fig. 3. To make it, pass the end of
the rope back, over, and round the standing part, and up through the
first bight. The Flemish knot is used for much the same purposes as the
preceding knots, but is rather more ornamental.

[Illustration: Fig. 3.—Figure-of-eight Knot.]

The bight of a rope is the loop formed when a rope is bent back on
itself, in contradistinction to the ends.

[Illustration: Fig. 4.—Sailor’s Knots or Reef Knots.]

The conditions under which the ends of two pieces of cordage have to
be joined together are various, and several methods are brought into
requisition; but it is always of considerable importance that the
most suitable knot be employed in each case. The value of some knots
consists in the rapidity with which they can be made, of others in the
readiness with which they can be undone; but it is an essential that
the knot holds firmly and does not slip when once hauled taut.

[Illustration: Fig. 5.—Reef Knot, Half-made.]

The commonest knot for joining the ends of two ropes, and probably
the knot that is most often made, is the sailor’s, true, or reef knot
(Figs. 4 and 5). When correctly made it is as perfect as a knot can
be. It can be made and undone with equal rapidity, and is very secure
when taut. Its one disadvantage is that it will not answer when made
with ropes of different sizes, as it then slips and comes adrift, but
where the two pieces of cordage are of the same size it is most secure
and reliable, the strain being equally distributed on every part. It
requires a little practice to make it properly. To do this, take an end
in each hand and lay one over the other, the right end being undermost;
bring the left-hand end under the standing part of the right end, as
shown at A (Fig. 5), and over the end at B, round it, and up through
the bight at C. The key to the knot is the putting of the right end
under the left when the two ends are crossed at the beginning of the
knot, as the left-hand end then comes naturally first over and then
round the other rope, and the ends lie parallel with the standing
parts, as at A (Fig. 4).

[Illustration: Fig. 6.—Granny or Lubber’s Knot.]

If the ends are not passed correctly, a granny, lubber’s, or calf knot
results. This is shown in Fig. 6. Though at first sight this seems to
be a good knot, yet it is not so in reality, and when any strain comes
upon it, it slips and becomes useless. Fig. 7 is a granny knot, as it
appears when hauled upon. It is considered a very lubberly thing to
make a granny knot, and readers should practise until they can make a
true knot rapidly and with certainty in any position.

The sailor’s knot is invariably used for reefing sails, the ease with
which it can be undone making it very valuable for this purpose. It is
only necessary to take hold of the two parts on each side just outside
the knot and bring the hands together, and the loops slip over one
another, as in Fig. 4, and the knot can be opened at once.

[Illustration: Fig. 7.—Granny Knot, Taut.]

This knot has a curious peculiarity which is not generally known. If
the end of one of the ropes is taken in one hand and the standing
part of the same rope in the other, and both are hauled until the
rope is straight, the knot becomes dislocated, so to speak, and the
rope not hauled upon forms a hitch, B (Fig. 4), round the other part.
This property was the secret of Hermann’s celebrated trick, “the
knotted handkerchiefs.” After the handkerchiefs, knotted together at
the corners, were returned to him by the audience, under pretence
of tightening the knots still more, he treated each knot as has been
described. The knots seemed firm, but really were loosened so that a
touch with his wand separated them easily.

The common bow or rosette knot is a modification of the sailor’s knot.
The first part of the process of making it is the same, but instead of
passing one end singly over and under the other, as in the sailor’s
knot, both ends are bent back on themselves, and the double parts
worked as before. Care must be taken to pass these doubled ends exactly
as those described in the sailor’s knot, or a granny bow will result.
Some persons’ shoes always come untied, the reason being that they are
tied with granny instead of true bows.

[Illustration: Fig. 8.—Overhand Rosette Knot or Bow.]

Another way of joining the ends of two pieces of cordage is shown in
Fig. 8. This is merely an overhand knot, made with two ropes instead
of one. Sometimes it is called an openhand knot. It can be made very
quickly, and there is no fear of its slipping, but if there is much
strain put upon it the rope is very apt to part at the knot, in
consequence of the short “nip,” or turn, that it makes just as it
enters the knot.

Fig. 9 shows the weaver’s knot partly made, and Fig. 10 the same knot
completed, but not hauled taut. Weavers call this the “thumb knot,”
as it is made over the thumb of the left hand, and is used by them in
joining their “ends” as they break. The rapidity with which they make
the knot, snip off the ends, and set the loom going again is wonderful.
Netters use this knot to join their twine, and it also forms the mesh
of the netting itself, though, of course, it is then made in a very
different way. In making the weaver’s knot, the two ends to be joined
are crossed in the same way as in the sailor’s knot, placing the right
end under, and holding them with the thumb and finger of the left hand
at the place where they cross. The standing part of the right-hand rope
is then brought back over the thumb and between the two ends, as shown
in Fig. 9. The end A is then bent down over it, and held with the left
thumb, while the knot is completed by hauling on B.

[Illustration: Fig. 9.—Weaver’s Knot, Half-made.]

An excellent way of joining two ropes is illustrated by Fig. 11. The
ends are laid alongside one another, overlapping each sufficiently to
give room for the knot to be made. The double parts are then grasped in
each hand and an overhand knot is formed, which is made taut by hauling
on both parts at once, as if the knot were single.

[Illustration: Fig. 10.—Weaver’s Knot, Closed.]

Though the above is the easiest way to make the knot, it is not
available where the ropes are fast. In this case a simple knot is made
on the end of one rope, but not drawn taut. The end of the other rope
is passed through the bight of the first, and a second loop formed with
it alongside the first. The knot is closed by drawing the two ropes as
before. This is in every way an excellent knot, and very secure.

[Illustration: Fig. 11.—Overhand Knot Joining Two Ropes.]

Fig. 12 shows the ends of two ropes joined by means of a Flemish knot.
It does not require much description, and is made after the manner of
the knot last described.

[Illustration: Fig. 12.—Flemish Knot Joining Two Ropes.]

[Illustration: Fig. 13.—Fisherman’s Knot.]

The fisherman’s knot (Fig. 13) derives its name from the fact that it
is always used for joining silkworm gut for fishing purposes. In making
it, the strands are made to overlap one another, and an overhand knot
is made with one end round the other strand. The strands are turned
round, and another overhand knot made with the other end round the
first strand. When the knot is tightened by hauling on the standing
parts, one knot jams against the other and holds securely. The knot is
improved by putting the ends twice through their respective loops, as
at A (Fig. 2, p. 15). The size of the knot is increased by this means,
but it will stand a much heavier strain, so that it is advisable to do
this whenever the size of the knot is not of paramount importance.

The whipcord knot (Fig. 14) is used to fasten the lash to a whip. The
lash B is laid across the ends of the thong A which are turned up over
it. The lash is brought completely round the thong and through the loop
it makes, which secures the ends of the thong firmly. If a silk lash
is used, the short end is cut off, but if whipcord, the two ends are
generally twisted together for a few inches, as at B, and an overhand
knot made with one end round the other, to secure them. The remaining
part is left somewhat longer, and another overhand knot at the end
prevents it from unravelling.

[Illustration: Fig. 14.—Whipcord Knot.]




CHAPTER III.

EYE KNOTS, HITCHES, AND BENDS.


One of the simplest eye knots is shown by Fig. 15, and is known as the
“running” or “slip knot.” A bight is first formed, and an overhand knot
made with the ends round the standing part. The last named may be drawn
through the knot, and the eye made to any size required. There is less
chance of the knot coming undone if an overhand knot is made on the end
A. With this knot a sailor ties his neck-handkerchief.

[Illustration: Fig. 15.—Running Knot.]

Fig. 16 is the “fisherman’s eye knot.” A bight is first made of
sufficient length, and an overhand knot formed with the standing part
round the other strand; the end is now passed round the standing part,
and knotted as before. Thus there is a running knot A, with a check
knot B, which, when hauled upon, jam tight against one another, and
hold securely. This is one of the best knots for making an eye in
fishing, as the strain is divided equally between the two knots.

[Illustration: Fig. 16.—Fisherman’s Eye Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 17.—Openhand Eye Knot.]

A common way of making an eye on the end of a piece of cord is
illustrated by Fig. 17. It is practically the same knot as Fig. 8 (p.
19), except that only one rope is used. The end is brought back along
the rope to form the eye, and an overhand knot made with the two parts.
This knot, from being so easily made, is often used, but it lacks
strength, like the openhand knot (Fig. 8), and should not be used where
it is required to bear much strain. It will have been noticed how very
often openhand knots form the component parts of other knots.

[Illustration: Fig. 18.—Flemish Eye Knot.]

Fig. 18 is an eye made with a “Flemish” knot. It is worked just the
same as a single Flemish knot (Fig. 12, p. 22), the only difference
being that two parts are used instead of one. It is stronger, but
clumsier, than the one just described, and is not much used.

[Illustration: Fig. 19.—Crabber’s Eye Knot.]

The “crabber’s knot” (Fig. 19) is a curious and not very well known
knot, but it is unlikely to part when strained. To make it, bring
the end back to form a loop, taking it first under and then over the
standing part, up through the main loop, over the standing part again,
and up through its own bight. Before the turns are hauled into their
places, the knot will slip on the part A, as in an ordinary slip knot;
but if the part B is hauled upon, the strand A, which passes through
the centre of the knot, rises, and the coil which goes round it jams,
making the knot secure: so that it may be used as a running knot or
otherwise, as desired. This is also called a running knot with crossed
ends.

[Illustration: Fig. 20.—Bowline Knot.]

The “bowline knot” (Fig. 20) cannot slip, and is therefore always used
for slinging a man for the purpose of doing some particular piece of
work; the workman sits in the sling. The end is first laid back over
the standing part, so as to form a loop; the end is then passed up
through the loop, round the back of the standing part, and down through
the loop again. Hauling on the end and the standing part makes the knot
taut.

A modification of this knot, called a “Bowline on a Bight,” is shown by
Fig. 21. The loop is made as in the previous knot, only with the two
parts of a doubled rope; the bight is then passed up through the loop,
opened, and turned backwards over the rest of the knot, when it appears
as illustrated. To untie it, draw the bight of the rope up until it is
slack enough, and bring the whole of the other parts of the knot up
through it, when it will readily come adrift. If the standing parts of
the rope are held fast, it puzzles the uninitiated to undo it.

[Illustration: Fig. 21.—Running Bowline on Bight.]

A “Running Bowline” has the knot made on the end after it has been
passed round the standing part, thus forming a loop through which
the main rope will run. Two ropes may be joined together by making a
bowline in the end of one of them, and putting the end of the other
through the bight, and forming with it another bowline on its own part.
This is often used to join hawsers together.

[Illustration: Figs. 22 and 23.—Running Knot with Two Ends, Loose and
Fastened.]

Fig. 22 shows a method of making a rope fast to a post or pillar. The
rope is doubled and passed round the post, and the ends put through the
loop. For greater security, the ends may be passed round the standing
part and through the bight thus formed, as in Fig. 23; or, instead of
passing the cords through the bight, a loop may be formed by doubling
the ends, and this loop put through the bight, thus forming a slippery
hitch. This knot has the advantage of being more readily undone than
the other one, as it is necessary merely to pull at the ends, and the
rope is released at once. The ends may also be secured by making a
Flemish knot on them, instead of an overhand knot.

[Illustration: Fig. 24.—Two Half Hitches.]

The remainder of this chapter will discuss a different class of
fastenings. It is not easy to state, however, where knots end and bends
and hitches begin; indeed, a tie that, in certain circumstances and
made a particular way, is called a “knot,” differently constructed,
and under other conditions, is called a “bend” or “hitch,” though
the result is the same in both cases. As an illustration, take two
half-hitches (Fig. 24), which, if made in another way round a pole,
are called a “builder’s knot.” If readers will analyse the knots
illustrated throughout this book, they will find several other similar
instances. A (Fig. 24) is a single hitch, being merely a loop formed
in a rope. This is readily done by holding the rope in the left hand,
and giving it a twist with the right; the loop then forms itself, as it
were. When a tightly laid piece of cordage is twisted, these loops are
apt to rise and form “kinks,” which are very objectionable, as the cord
is sure to part at the kink when a strain is put on it. It is still
worse in the case of wire, which breaks readily when kinked. Tight,
hard cordage should always be well stretched before it is used, to
avoid kinking.

Two half-hitches (Fig. 24) are a useful knot for a variety of purposes,
as they are quickly made, and will not slip, no matter what strain is
put upon them—indeed, the more they are hauled upon the faster they
hold. They are the best means of making a rope fast to a hook. First
one hitch is slipped on, and then the other on the top of it, and the
rope is fast in less than two seconds. This knot is used by surgeons in
reducing a dislocation of the thumb joint.

[Illustration: Fig. 25.—Builder’s Knot.]

Fig. 25 is the builder’s knot, merely two half-hitches, but as it is
used in places where the hitches cannot be passed over the ends of the
timber it is made by holding one end in the left hand, passing the rope
round the pole, under the end, round the pole again, above the first
part, and under its own part; from its non-liability to slip laterally
this knot is always used to fasten one pole to another in fitting up
scaffolding, from which circumstance it has acquired its name. If,
instead of beginning the knot as in Fig. 25, the end is passed, after
it has gone round the pole, two or three times round the other part,
as in Fig. 2 (p. 15), the remainder of the knot is rather more easily
made, as it holds itself taut, and will not slip while the end is put
round to complete the fastening.

A “builder’s double knot” is made in the same way, except that the end
goes round again, as before, and underneath its own part, so making it
much stronger. When a builder’s knot is made on a rope for the purpose
of securing a small line to a stout rope, it is called a “clove-hitch.”

The “timber hitch” (Fig. 26) is a rough and ready way of securing a
piece of timber or anything similar; it is made by bringing the end of
a rope round the timber, then round the standing part, and then, taking
two or more turns, round its own part. The pressure of the coils one
over the other holds the timber securely, and the more it is hauled on
the tighter it holds. It can be cast off readily.

[Illustration: Fig. 26.—Timber Hitch.]

Fig. 27 is the “killick hitch,” a modification of the timber hitch,
used for fastening a stone to the end of a rope. After making a timber
hitch and hauling it taut, a single hitch is made, and slipped over
the end of the stone alongside of it. Some of the best fishing grounds
are on rocky coasts where an anchor would not hold; and if it did,
there might be considerable risk of losing it altogether, from its
jamming in the crevices of a rock. In these places a killick, or large
stone, slung as shown in Fig. 27, is used, which holds the boat by its
own weight, without any risk of getting fast to the ground.

[Illustration: Fig. 27.—Killick Hitch.]

[Illustration: Fig. 28.—Magnus Hitch.]

The “magnus hitch” (Fig. 28) is a method of securing a rope to a spar,
as there is but little tendency to slip endways along the spar. In
making it, take the end of the rope twice round the spar, in front of
the standing part, round the spar again, and then through the last
bight.

[Illustration: Fig. 29.—Fisherman’s Bend.]

[Illustration: Fig. 30.—Rolling Hitch.]

The “fisherman’s bend” (Fig. 29) consists of two round turns round a
spar, and a half-hitch round the standing part, and through the turns
on the spar, and another half-hitch above it, round the standing part.
It is used for bending studdingsail halliards to the yard, and, in
yachts, for bending on the gaff topsail halliards.

A “rolling hitch” (Fig. 30) is made by taking three round turns round a
spar, and then making two half-hitches round the standing part of the
rope, and hauling taut.

[Illustration: Fig. 31.—Topsail Halliard Bend.]

[Illustration: Fig. 32.—Racking Hitch.]

The “topsail halliard bend” (Fig. 31) is used chiefly on board yachts,
and is made by bringing the rope twice round the spar, back round the
standing part, under all the turns, over two turns, and under the last.
This hitch is shown open for the sake of clearness, but in practice it
is usual to jam the coils close together, and haul them all taut.

Fig. 32 is a “racking hitch,” for hitching a rope on to the hook of a
block. Two bights are made in a rope, these are turned over from the
operator two or three times, and the two loops are put on to the hook.
This is sometimes called a “cat’s paw.”

[Illustration: Fig. 33.—Slippery Hitch.]

[Illustration: Fig. 34.—Carrick Bend.]

The value of the “slippery hitch” (Fig. 33) consists in the readiness
with which it can be cast off in case of emergency; at the same time,
it holds securely while there is a strain on the rope A. If the
mainsheet of small boats is made fast at all, always a more or less
risky proceeding, a slippery hitch should always be used as a start. A
sharp pull at the end of the rope lets the sheet go at once.

For the “carrick bend” (Fig. 34) lay the end of a rope over the
standing part to form a loop; put the end of another rope under the
bight over the standing part at A, under the end at B, over the rope
again at C, under its own part, and over the rope B, and haul taut. The
parts A and B form the first loop made. This bend generally is used
for binding hawsers together, to increase their length for warping
or towing. It can be undone readily without the aid of a pricker or
marlinespike, which would have to be used for many knots after they had
been in the water. As in the sailor’s knot, it is only necessary to
grasp the ropes just outside the knot, and push the loops inwards, and
the knot comes adrift at once.

[Illustration: Fig. 35.—Bending Sheet to Clew of Sail.]

Fig. 35 shows the clew of a sail, and the method of bending the sheet
on to it. This is termed a “sheet bend.” The sheet is not, as many
suppose, a part of the sail, but is a rope used in setting a sail, to
keep the clew or lower corner of the sail down to its place. In making
a sheet bend, the end is passed up through the clew, round the back of
it, under its own part, and over the clew again. The end is generally
stopped to the standing part with rope-yarn or other small stuff. The
knot thus formed is exactly the same as the weaver’s knot (Fig. 10, p.
21). Fig. 36 shows a method of giving additional security to this knot.
The end is passed twice round the back of the loop before putting it
under its own part. This knot is very much used by fishermen in bending
a line on to a loop of gut.

[Illustration: Fig. 36.—More Secure Sheet Bend.]

[Illustration: Fig. 37.—Bending Rope to Loop.]

Another and somewhat more complicated method of bending a rope on to
a loop is illustrated by Fig. 37. B is the standing part, and A the
end of the rope to be bent on a loop already formed. Pass the end down
through the loop, round over its own part, and through the loop, round
the back of it, and through its own bight. When hauled taut, this
holds more securely than either of the other methods, but, on the other
hand, takes longer to make.

[Illustration: Fig. 38.—Blackwall Hitch.]

The “Blackwall hitch” (Fig. 38) is a ready way of securing a rope
temporarily to a hook. The method of making it is evident from the
illustration. As the standing part when hauled upon jams the end
against the back of the hook, it holds much more firmly than would be
supposed at first sight.

The “midshipman’s hitch” (Fig. 39) is an old-fashioned hitch, used for
attaching a tail-block to a rope. A round turn is first made over the
standing part, and the end is brought up, passed twice round above the
first hitch, and then passed out underneath its own part.

The “marlinespike hitch” (Fig. 40) is used for getting a purchase on
the seizing stuff when serving a rope, so as to leave the turns taut.
Make a bight in the seizing stuff, and bring it back over the standing
part; pass the marlinespike under the standing part, and over the sides
of the bight. This is practically identical with the running knot (Fig.
15, p. 24). Seizing is described on p. 96.

[Illustration: Fig. 39.—Midshipman’s Hitch.]

[Illustration: Fig. 40.—Marlinespike Hitch.]

[Illustration: Fig. 41.—Regulating Lashing.]

[Illustration: Fig. 42.—Stationer’s Knot.]

Fig. 41 is a “regulating lashing,” used when the tension of a rope
requires altering from time to time. Tent ropes are secured this way,
as they require easing in wet weather, and tightening in dry. For
this purpose, the piece of wood A is slipped up or down the cord,
the friction of the cord against the sides of the hole fixing it
sufficiently.

The “stationer’s knot” (Fig. 42) is handy for tying up a parcel, as
it can be made rapidly, and undone with ease. Make a running noose at
the end of a piece of twine, and bring it to the centre of the parcel;
take the twine round the parcel again at right angles, round the noose,
and making a bight slip it under, as illustrated. A pull at the end
releases the knot instantly, as can be proved by experiment.




CHAPTER IV.

RING KNOTS AND ROPE SHORTENINGS.


[Illustration: Fig. 43.—Slippery Ring Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 44.—Boat Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 45.—Lark Boat Knot.]

Often it is necessary to fasten a rope to a ring, and there are a
variety of methods of doing this. Fig. 43, for instance, shows the end
to be passed through the ring, and a bight put under the standing part;
this is a ready way of temporarily fastening the painter of a boat to
the ring of a pier; as in the stationer’s knot (Fig. 42, p. 41), a
sharp pull at the end of the rope frees the painter at once. This is
an excellent fastening for many purposes. The “boat knot” (Fig. 44) is
another means of mooring a small boat. It is made in the same way as a
marlinespike hitch (Fig. 40, p. 40), the only difference being that a
thowl pin or other small piece of wood is put through the centre of the
knot instead of a marlinespike. By withdrawing the pin the knot comes
adrift of its own accord. Fig. 45 is another form of boat knot, called
the “lark boat knot,” or “double boat knot.” This differs from the
last knot, inasmuch as a bight, instead of a single end of rope, is put
through the ring; a piece of wood is used to fasten it, as in the boat
knot. It is rather the better knot of the two.

[Illustration: Fig. 46.—Lark’s Head.]

[Illustration: Fig. 47.—Lark’s Head Stoppered.]

If, instead of the ends being brought down outside the bight after it
has been passed through the ring, they are put through it, a “single
lark’s head” (Fig. 46) is the result, and Fig. 47 shows the same knot
“stoppered.” It may be made by passing a bight through the ring, and
drawing the two parts of the rope through the bight; or where this is
not practicable by reason of one end of the rope being fast, the end
may be passed up through the ring behind the standing part, and down
through the ring and bight again. Sometimes, instead of stoppering this
knot with an overhand knot, as in Fig. 47, the end is seized to the
standing part with twine.

[Illustration: Fig. 48.—Lark’s Head with Crossed Ends.]

[Illustration: Fig. 49.—Double Lark’s Head.]

A “lark knot” with crossed ends (Fig. 48) is made in the manner above
described, except that the end comes over instead of through the bight.
The ends are often stoppered as in the last knot. If the standing part
is taken in one hand and the end in the other, and drawn apart, it is
nothing more than a “clove-hitch” or “builder’s knot” (Fig. 25, p. 31)
under a different name.

[Illustration: Fig. 50.—Treble Lark’s Head.]

[Illustration: Fig. 51.—Backhanded Sailor’s Knot.]

In the “double lark’s head” (Fig. 49) a bight is first made, and the
ends passed through it; the ends are then put through the ring and
through the loop just made and hauled taut. Fig. 50 shows the “treble
lark’s head,” which is not so difficult as it looks. First bring the
bight of a rope up through the ring, take one of the ends, and pass it
through the bight, and up through the ring, and then down through its
own bight; do the same with the other part and the knot is formed.

[Illustration: Fig. 52.—Capstan Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 53.—Another Form of Sailor’s Knot.]

In Fig. 51 is illustrated a “backhanded sailor’s knot,” made by passing
an end through the ring round at the back of the standing part and
through the ring again, and finishing with two half-hitches round the
standing part. It may also be made with the end in the last turn put
under the standing part and under its own part.

Fig. 52 is the “capstan knot.” To make this, cross the end of the rope
after it is through the ring, bring it round the standing part, through
the first bight and through its own bight, thus forming a sort of
figure-of-eight knot.

Another “sailor’s knot,” composed of two half-hitches round the
standing part of the rope, is shown by Fig. 53. This is one of the most
useful and easily-made knots known, and is used as a mooring knot.

[Illustration: Fig. 54.—Gunner’s Knot.]

A “gunner’s knot” (Fig. 54) is simply a “carrick bend” (Fig. 34, p.
36), made with the two ends of a rope after it has been passed through
two rings. Gunners themselves call this a “delay knot.”

[Illustration: Fig. 55.—Beginning Artillery Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 56.—Artillery Knot Finished.]

[Illustration: Fig. 57.—Bend Shortening.]

[Illustration: Fig. 58.—Chain Knot.]

The knot shown in Figs. 55 and 56 is called “manharness,” or the
“artilleryman’s knot,” and is used when hauling guns over a difficult
country, when horses cannot be employed. It is a valuable knot where
heavy weights have to be drawn with ropes, as by its use a man can
exert his strength to much greater advantage than by merely grasping
the rope with his hands. To make it, form a half-hitch, turn it round,
and lay it against the standing part. This is, in fact, a marlinespike
hitch, and is represented in Fig. 40, p. 40. Now pass the right hand
into the bight C, and going under A, as shown in Fig. 55, grasp the
part B, and draw it through C until a loop of sufficient size is
made. When using it, the head and one arm are passed through the loop
illustrated in Fig. 56, which shows the knot finished. A little care
is required in closing the knot, so that the turns may jam properly
one against the other, or the knot will slip. When several men are
employed, a bowline is generally made at the end of the rope, and as
many loops as there are men to haul at equal distances along it.

It frequently happens that a rope is too long for its purpose, and
as it is inadvisable and wasteful to cut it, some method of reducing
its length has to be devised; hence have arisen what are termed
“shortenings.”

The “loop” or “bend” shortening (Fig. 57) is the simplest of these. The
rope is merely bent as much as is required, so as to form two bights,
and the two parts seized together with small stuff. This is a simple
and good method of shortening ropes.

[Illustration: Fig. 59.—Beginning Chain Knot.]

The “chain knot” (Fig. 58) is another method of shortening ropes. In
beginning it, make a running knot (Fig. 59), and draw a portion of
the part A through the loop B; do this with the forefinger and thumb
of the left hand. It will now form another loop, through which a fresh
piece of A is to be passed. This process is to be repeated until all
the slack of the rope is taken up. Finish it off by putting a piece of
stick or a belaying-pin through the last loop, or by drawing the end
itself up through the bight.

[Illustration: Fig. 60.—Twist Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 61.—Beginning Twist Knot.]

The “twist knot” (Fig. 60) is another shortening. Place the cord to be
shortened as in Fig. 61, bring one of the outside parts over the middle
strand, and the outer strand on the opposite side is brought over this,
which is now the middle part. This is continued as long as required,
the outside strand alternately being placed over the centre strand, as
in an ordinary three-plait. Fig. 60 shows the plait completed, and the
manner of finishing off the end. These shortenings are ornamental as
well as useful. They may be used for thickening a piece of small cord,
so as to give more substance where it has to be hauled upon, and thus
prevent the hand being cut with the cord.

[Illustration: Fig. 62.—Sheepshanks.]

[Illustration: Fig. 63.—Sheepshanks Fastened.]

[Illustration: Fig. 64.—Sheepshanks Knotted.]

Fig. 62 is the “sheepshanks” or “dogshanks”—a common and
old-fashioned method of shortening, applicable to any size of cordage.
The twist and chain knots are not suitable for very stout rope. Two
bights are formed in the rope, as in Fig. 61; a half-hitch is then made
at each end, and slipped over the bights. This is made more secure if
a seizing is put round the two parts, A, B (Fig. 62). It can also be
secured when ends of rope are free by passing each end through the
adjoining bight, as shown in Fig. 63.

[Illustration: Fig. 65.—Sheepshanks Knotted.]

Fig. 64 is a “knotted sheepshanks.” It differs from the last in that
the ends are fastened rather differently. The two bights are made as
before, and each end, after passing through the bight nearest to it, is
put through the bight it has just made, thus forming an overhand knot
at each end. In making Fig. 65, the parts of the rope are arranged as
before. A marlinespike hitch (Fig. 40, p. 40) is made at each end and
the bight put through it. The left side of Fig. 65 shows the knot made,
and the bight in the act of being passed through it. It goes over the
outside strand, under the centre one, and over the next. On the right
side of the figure the loop is shown in its place, ready to be hauled
taut.

[Illustration: Fig. 66.—Boat Knot Shortening or Sheepshanks Toggled.]

[Illustration: Fig. 67.—Knot Shortening.]

The “boat-knot” shortening (Fig. 66) is another form of sheepshanks.
The ends are secured by bringing a portion of the loose part of the
rope through the bight at each end, and toggling it with a belaying-pin
or piece of wood, as in the boat knot (Fig. 44, p. 44). It is loosened
readily, and can be made when both ends are fast.

[Illustration: Fig. 68.—Beginning Knot Shortening.]

[Illustration: Fig. 69.—Double Chain Knot.]

The “knot” shortening (Fig. 67) is a ready mode of taking up the slack
of a rope, though it is not suitable for very stout ropes, and can be
made only where one end of the rope is free. The rope is laid as at
Fig. 68. The three parts are grasped with both hands near the bights,
and an overhand knot is formed with the whole of the strands. It forms
a good shortening for moderate-sized cordage, where the strain is not
too heavy.

The “double chain knot” (Fig. 69) is perhaps the most ornamental knot
of this group. A turn is first taken round the standing part, and the
loose end is then passed through the loop thus formed at A. In doing
this another loop B is made, through which the end is brought. The
end is thus continually passed from one side to the other through
the preceding loop until the knot is of the proper length. It may be
finished, if desired, by making an overhand knot with the end over its
own part, or merely passing it through the last loop, and hauling on
it.




CHAPTER V.

TIES AND LASHINGS.


A “wedding knot” or tie, used for fastening together the eyes at the
ends of two ropes, is shown by Fig. 70. It is made by passing rope-yarn
or marline through the eyes backwards and forwards until strong enough,
and then is fastened by taking several turns round the middle and
fastening the ends with a reef knot. This forms a sort of hinge between
the ropes.

[Illustration: Fig. 70.—Wedding Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 71.—Chain Knot Lashed to Spar.]

The “chain knot,” for lashing to a spar is illustrated by Fig. 71; a
clove-hitch is first formed round the spar, and as many single hitches
as required are then made. It may be finished off with any secure
knot. Fig. 72 shows another and better way of making the chain knot.
An overhand knot is formed at each turn, and consequently it is much
more secure than Fig. 71. This is used for bending yachts’ sails to the
gaff. As each turn forms a knot if the cord parts, the remainder holds
firm, and does not necessarily come adrift, as it would be almost sure
to do it if fastened as in Fig. 71.

[Illustration: Fig. 72.—Improved Chain Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 73.—Cross Lashing.]

Fig. 73 is a “cross lashing,” employed when a lever is used to a rope.
After several turns round the rope, the lashing is crossed round the
lever and fastened with a reef knot. All these lashings are used when
several men are required to haul on large ropes at the same time.

For the “necklace tie” (Fig. 74) several turns are taken round the spar
to be joined, then two turns round the lashings, and it is secured with
a reef knot. When this is used as a lashing for shearlegs, the crossing
of the two legs puts a strain on the knot, and effectually secures it.
For this purpose it is called a Portuguese knot.

Fig. 75 shows a “packing knot,” used for securing large pieces of
timber together. It is used near stone quarries for holding the
blocks of stone on to the carriages by which they are moved. Fig. 75
represents a block of granite secured to a trolley with packing knots.
Two or three turns are made somewhat loosely with cordage round the
block and its carriage; a stout piece of wood is then inserted under
the coils, and twisted round until all the slack is taken out and the
cordage is taut. The end of the lever is then secured with twine to
the side of the carriage, as shown in the right side of the figure. The
other lashing is supposed to be all ready for tautening up.

[Illustration: Fig. 74.—Necklace Tie.]

[Illustration: Fig. 75.—Packing Knot.]

It is often necessary to lash two things together without showing
an external knot, which would spoil the smoothness and neatness of
the work—as, for instance, in whipping the two parts of a broken
fishing-rod together. Fig. 76 shows a common method of finishing off
whipping without showing a knot. Lay one end forward, as at A, then
pass the other end round and round a sufficient number of times,
hauling taut each time; three or four loose turns are now made, and
the end passed under them backwards; these are worked down into their
places, and when the ends are hauled taut and cut off the job is
completed. The end _A_ need not come so far as shown in Fig. 76, but
may be hidden under the coils.

[Illustration: Fig. 76.—Finishing off Whipping.]

Fig. 77 is another method of accomplishing the purpose. Instead of a
single end, as in the last case, a bight of the seizing stuff is laid
along the part to be whipped, and the turns passed over it; when these
are completed the end is passed through the bight, as at A. The end
B is now hauled upon to bring the bight and the end of the rope snug
under the coils. There are now two loops interlacing at the centre of
the work, and these cannot come undone. When the ends A and B are cut
off close to the turns, the whole is fair and smooth.

[Illustration: Fig. 77.—Finishing off Whipping.]

“Nippering,” or “packing,” is shown in Fig. 78. This is a method of
securing two ropes together with cross turns; these are hauled taut,
jamming the ropes together, and are further secured by round turns over
all, with a reef knot at the ends.

The “west country whipping” (Fig. 79) is an excellent method, and
deserves to be practised oftener than it is. Bring the middle of the
material used under the part to be whipped, raise the ends and tie an
overhand knot, lower the ends and tie another underneath; continue
tying a single knot above and below alternately, finishing with a
reef knot; or a round turn or two may be taken and the ends may then
be secured; but a reef knot is the most usual way of fastening off
this whipping. This is not quite so neat-looking a method as Figs. 76
and 77, but it is very strong and trustworthy, and is an excellent
way of fastening large hooks, such as those used for cod or conger,
on to a line.

[Illustration: Fig. 78.—Nippering.]

[Illustration: Fig. 79.—West Country Whipping.]

[Illustration: Fig. 80.—Catspaw.]

[Illustration: Fig. 81.—Beginning Catspaw.]

A “catspaw” (Fig. 80) is used for attaching a rope to a tackle hook.
Fig. 81 shows how to begin it. A loop is made, and laid over the
standing part so as to form two bights; these are rolled over two or
three times, and the hook inserted in them. When the standing part is
hauled upon, the hooks take the form shown in Fig. 71 (p. 59), and
will not slip.

[Illustration: Fig. 82.—Securing Block to Rope.]

Fig. 82 shows a way of securing a block to a rope with a selvage strop.
The middle of the selvage is placed against the rope, and cross turns
taken until the bights come together, when the loop of the block is put
through them.




CHAPTER VI.

FANCY KNOTS.


Although these knots are termed fancy knots, they are not necessarily
used for ornamental purposes, but are often of considerable utility;
indeed, they could hardly be done without aboard ship.

[Illustration: Fig. 83.—Wall Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 84.—Stopper Knot.]

One of the commonest knots of this kind is the “wall knot”; Fig. 83
shows this ready for hauling taut. First unlay the strands at the end
of a rope and make a bight with one strand A; hold this to the standing
part with the thumb of the left hand, make a loop with the next strand
B round the end of the first strand, and bring the remaining strand C
round the end of the strand B and through the bight of A.

[Illustration: Fig. 85.—Beginning Crowning.]

[Illustration: Fig. 86.—Crowning Complete.]

If the ends are taken round once more and brought up in the centre
of the knot, it is called a “stopper knot” (see Fig. 84). In this
case the ends are whipped together and cut off level. Fig. 84 is the
stopper knot finished. Fig. 85 shows the crowning begun. Open the
strands of a rope as before, but do not put a seizing round them. Lay
the strand A down over the centre of the rope, and then bring B down
over A and strand C over B and through the bight of A. Fig. 86 shows
how the strands tie when they are nearly taut. The strands in Fig. 85
are hardly in the position which they occupy when the knot is actually
being made, as they are then much snugger.

[Illustration: Fig. 87.—Beginning Manrope Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 88.—Manrope Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 89.—Tack Knot.]

Crowning is used by itself as a method of preventing the strands of
a rope unlaying while in use. In this case, after crowning as above,
pass one end over the next strand in the standing part, and under the
following one. Do the same to each of the other strands in succession.
This may be repeated and the ends cut off. Masons, whose ropes have
to stand a good deal of knocking about, generally use this plan; for
this reason it is called “masons’ whipping.” Though very strong and
standing hard usage well, this is not the neatest way of finishing the
ends of a rope.

[Illustration: Fig. 90.—Beginning Matthew Walker Knot.]

Crowning may also be used in connection with other knots. For instance,
it is possible to crown first and wall afterwards, as shown in Figs.
87 and 88. Fig. 87 shows the crowning in the centre of the knot hauled
taut; this is made on the end of a rope as just described. Now make a
single wall knot under the crowning. When the knot is tightened it will
appear as in Fig. 88, and is called a “manrope knot.” A single “wall
knot” may be crowned after it is made; a single wall and a single crown
are the result. Wall again by passing one end under the part of the
first walling next to it and bring it up through the same bight, and do
the same with the other two strands, and the result is a knot with a
double wall and a single crown. A double-walled double-crowned, called
a “Tack Knot,” is made as the last knot—that is, double-walled and
single-crowned. Now lay the ends by the sides of those in the single
crown, and with the aid of a pricker bring them down through the double
walling and they will be alongside the standing part of the rope. The
knot is shown completed, with the ends cut off, in Fig. 89.

[Illustration: Fig. 91.—Matthew Walker Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 92.—Beginning Diamond Knot.]

In Fig. 90 is shown a Matthew Walker knot open ready for being hauled
taut. After putting a seizing round the rope and unlaying the end as
before, bring one strand A round the rope and put it through its own
bight, the next strand B underneath, through the bight of A and through
its own bight, and the last strand C underneath through both the other
bights, and lastly through its own bight. Fig. 91 shows the knot
completed.

[Illustration: Fig. 93.—Diamond Knot before Hauling Taut.]

The “diamond knot” is an ornamental knot made some distance from the
end of a rope; it is therefore necessary to unlay the rope considerably
more than is required for the preceding knots. To form a diamond, bring
each of the three strands down alongside the standing part of the rope,
thus forming three bights, and hold them thus with the left hand. Take
the first strand A (Fig. 92), and, putting it over the next B, bring
it up through the bight of the third strand C. Take the end of the
second strand over the third and up through the bight of the first.
The last strand is brought over the first and up through the bight of
the second. Haul taut and lay the rope up again. Fig. 92 is the way
the knot is begun, showing the manner of taking the first strand. Fig.
93 shows the loops in their places with the ends through them before
they are hauled taut, and Fig. 94 shows the knot finished. Remember
that, after the bights are formed down the standing part, each end
successively goes over the strand next to it and up through the loop
beyond. This knot is the “single diamond.”

[Illustration: Fig. 94.—Single Diamond Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 95.—Double Diamond Knot.]

For a “double diamond” (Fig. 95) make a single diamond as above,
without laying up the strands; the ends are then made to follow the
lead of the single knot through two single bights, the ends coming
out on the top of the knot. The last strand passes through two double
bights. When the ends are hauled taut they are laid up as before. The
last four knots are used for the ends of lanyards, man and ridge ropes,
yoke lines, etc.

The “shroud knot” (Fig. 96) is of use in joining two ropes together,
particularly for joining a stay or shroud that has been carried away.
The ends of each rope are unlaid, and placed within one another as in
splicing, the parts not unlaid being brought closely together. Make
a wall knot (Fig. 83, p. 66) with the strands of one rope round the
standing part of the other rope; turn the ropes over, and do the same
with the other set of ends, and they will appear as in the figure.
Open the strands, and taper and serve them over if the job is to be
particularly neat. Two ropes of different sizes may be twisted in this
way, and will be quite secure.

[Illustration: Fig. 96.—Shroud Knot.]

In making the “French shroud knot” unlay the ends and place the two
ropes with the strands intermixed as before; bring one set of ends back
on their own rope, and make a single wall knot with the other set of
strands round the bights of the first set and the standing part. They
can then be tapered and served as in an ordinary shroud knot.

For a “spritsail sheet knot,” unlay the two ends of a rope and bring
the two sets of strands together side by side; these have to be walled
together as for a common wall knot. A bight is made with the first
strand, the second is put over the first, the third over the second,
the fourth over the third, the fifth over the fourth, the sixth over
the fifth and through the bight of the first; they are then hauled
taut. Crown it by laying two of the strands along the top of the knot
and passing the other strands alternately over and under these two, and
afterwards hauling them taut. It may be double-walled after crowning
by putting the strands successively under the bights on the left of
them and through the same bights, and the ends will then come up in
the right position to be crowned again. This is done by following the
lead of the first crowning and putting the ends through the walling as
before.

[Illustration: Fig. 97.—Beginning Turk’s Head.]

The “buoy rope knot” can be made on a cable-laid rope only. Unlay the
main strands, and take out one of the smaller strands, of which they
are composed, from each of the large strands, and then lay them up
again. The small strands that have been taken out are now single and
double-walled round the rope, and then laid along the divisions after
the manner of weaving, and their thin ends stopped with spun yarn. A
stop should be put round the rope with the spun yarn where the knot is
to be made before it is begun, and the walling should be right-handed.

[Illustration: Fig. 98.—Turk’s Head.]

The “Turk’s Head” is a highly ornamental knot which, instead of being
made out of the rope itself, is formed on the rope with a piece of
small stuff. A clove-hitch (p. 32) is first made on the rope (Fig. 97);
this must be slack enough to allow of the extra strands which will form
part of it. Put part A over strand B, thus twisting the two strands;
pass the end C under and up through the bight that B now forms, then
twist again by putting B over A and run the end under and up through
the bight of A. Continue twisting the strands by alternately putting
one over the other, and at each twist bring the end under and up
through the bight which is underneath, A at the beginning going over B;
the bight which B makes will be the under one, and therefore the one
through which the end C must be passed. The end C must be much longer
than illustrated as the whole knot is made with this part, and as the
knot when finished contains three groups of three strands each, it is
obvious that the length of cord used must be more than nine times the
circumference of the rope round which the knot is made. Having made
a sufficient number of twists (the exact number depends on the size
of the knot), lay the end C alongside D, where it comes out of the
knot, and continue following its lead through all its turns as it goes
through the knot until the beginning is reached again. There will now
be a Turk’s head of two parts. If the end is again passed through by
the side of the same strand as before, a complete Turk’s head of three
parts will be formed. Care must be taken to keep the working strand
close to and on the same side of the strand that is being followed,
or a perfect knot cannot be formed. The first time round is the most
difficult, the second is easy enough. Of course, the knot may consist
of more parts if required, but three is the usual number. The ends do
not require fastening in any way, as in the last round they finish in
the middle of the knot under the coils, and are quite secure (see Fig.
98).

[Illustration: Fig. 99.—Single Pitcher Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 100.—Beginning Single Pitcher Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 101.—Pitcher with Rope Handle.]

The “single pitcher” knot, known also as “Tom Fool’s” knot, is shown
by Fig. 99. Form two half-hitches, as in Fig. 100, one lying half-way
over the other. With the finger and thumb of the left hand draw the
part A down through the bight, and with the same fingers of the right
hand bring the strand B upwards through the bight, under which it lies.
Pull out the loops thus formed to a sufficient length and knot the ends
together. When used to supply the place of a broken pitcher handle, the
centre knot should be hauled taut, and, the pitcher being placed on it,
the loops are brought up to form handles. To keep them in their places
a lashing is put round the neck of the pitcher, as shown in Fig. 101.
This knot is also very useful in slinging a shot when required as a
weight, or for any other purpose. In this case the centre knot is not
hauled taut but left open, forming a large loop on which the shot lies.
If the ends are spliced instead of knotted a three-loop knot is made.

This knot is used also as a trick or puzzle knot, and from this arose
its name of “Tom Fool’s” knot.

[Illustration: Fig. 102.—Double Pitcher Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 103.—Beginning Double Pitcher Knot.]

Fig. 102 is the “double pitcher” knot, which goes also by the names of
“jury” knot and “true lovers’” knot. It is used as the single pitcher
knot to sling a broken pitcher, but in this case there are four loops
by which to carry it instead of two. In rigging a jury-mast the end of
it is put through the centre of the knot before it is hauled taut; the
stays to support and steady the mast are then made fast to the bights
of the knot. Form two half-hitches in a piece of cord, as in Fig. 103,
then make another hitch, which draw behind the other hitches with the
inner edge overlapping the inner edge of the first hitch, as shown in
Fig. 103. Pass the forefinger and thumb of the left hand over strand
A under B and take hold of C. Put the same fingers of the right hand
under D over E and take hold of F. Take G between the teeth and draw
the three loops out. It is better to make G the length required at
first, as the other loops being immediately connected with the ends
can be more readily adjusted as to size than the upper loop. When the
loops are made the right size the loose ends are spliced together with
a short splice, thus forming the fourth loop.

[Illustration: Fig. 104.—Can or Jar in Sling.]

Fig. 104 shows a ready way of slinging a can to improvise a paint pot,
to dip for water, etc. Pass the end of the cord under the bottom of the
can and bring the two parts over it, and make with them an overhand
knot; open the knot, as shown in Fig. 105, and draw the two parts down
until they come round the upper edge of the can; haul taut, and knot
them together again over the can, as shown in Fig. 104.

[Illustration: Fig. 105.—Beginning Can Sling.]

[Illustration: Fig. 106.—Shamrock Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 107.—Beginning Shamrock Knot.]

If the ends of the shamrock knot (Fig. 106) were spliced, a four-looped
knot would be formed. Though used for the same purposes as the double
pitcher knot, it is not so good as that, being more troublesome to
make and not so strong, in consequence of the short nip of the strands
in the centre of the knot. Fig. 107 shows the way of making it. An
overhand knot is first formed with the ends at A; the end B is then
laid across the upper loop, brought round and under the right loop and
up through the bight C. The strand D, after passing at the back of the
upper loop, is carried over the left loop and down through the bight E.
The loops are now adjusted for size and the knot hauled taut. Fig. 108
gives another way of making this knot. Two overhand knots intersecting
one another are made on the ends, as illustrated; the part A is drawn
up through the bight C, and the part B down through the bight D.
These form the side loops, and the top loop being pulled out the knot
is completed. By an extension of these methods knots may be made with
any number of loops, but the difficulty increases greatly as the loops
increase, so much so, that many loops cannot be made except wire
replaces the cord.

[Illustration: Fig. 108.—Another Way of Making Shamrock Knot.]

The dalliance knot whose beginning is shown by Fig. 109 is a trick knot
difficult to learn when it is merely seen rapidly made. The object
is to make two independent double-knots at once on a double cord.
Double the cord so that the ends lie together; bring the bight over the
standing parts, as shown in Fig. 109, and cross the strand A over the
strand B; they will now appear as in Fig. 110. Press the part C down
between the two strands on which it lies, and bring it up through the
opening D, draw it out, and two overhand knots will be formed on the
double cord. While the part C is being drawn out through D, the whole
of the loop E must be brought up through the bight F; this forms the
upper knot. The lower knot is made by loop F, C forming bight at top of
double cord. The finished knot is practically the same as Fig. 16 (p.
25).

[Illustration: Fig. 109.—Beginning Dalliance Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 110.—Next Stage in Dalliance Knot.]

Some stage performances many years ago consisted of various rope
tricks. In the principal one the performers were shut up in a cabinet,
and when the doors were thrown open they were found seated on two
chairs tightly bound hand and foot. After examining the knots, the
doors were closed and the men rang bells, played on the tambourine, and
threw things out of a small window in the top of the cabinet. On the
doors being opened again directly they were found firmly tied to their
chairs as before. They were able to do this by means of an ingenious
knot, shown in Fig. 111. To perform the trick, two medium ropes each
about 12 ft. long are required. First the openhand knot A (see Fig.
8, p. 19) joining the two ropes is made, the ends being passed twice
through the bight to increase the size of the knot. Two running knots
are made close up to this knot as at B, B. The knotted end of the rope
is laid on the seat of a chair with the ropes passing down the back
of the seat and under the chair. The performer seats himself on the
chair, and, drawing the loose ends of the ropes up in front from under
it, he passes them round and round his legs and the legs of the chair
in a complicated manner. He draws the knotted end from under him, and,
putting his arms over the back of the chair, passes his left hand
down through one loop and his right hand up through the other. He now
turns his right hand down until the palms of both hands are together
and the fingers pointing downwards This produces a twist in the ropes
which takes up the slack and tightens the cord round the wrists. The
large knot being between the hands effectually hides this, and the
wrists merely appear to be as tightly bound together as they can be.
The performer has merely to reverse this last proceeding—that is, to
bring the right hand up again, and so undo the twist—and his hand can
be withdrawn as readily as it was put into the loop. The trick requires
some practice, and the size of the loops must be regulated by the size
of the performer’s wrists. The knots should also be so placed on the
chair at the commencement that the ropes are tight when the hands are
in the loops.

[Illustration: Fig. 111.—Davenport Brothers’ Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 112.—Bellringer’s Knot.]

Fig. 112 is the “bellringer’s knot,” but really it is a hitch and
not a knot. Church bells have a large wheel on the axle on which they
are hung, round which the bell-rope passes; this is done to obtain
sufficient leverage to raise the bell mouth upwards when it is rung.
This requires a long rope, a good portion of which lies on the belfry
floor when the bell is down. When the ringing is over this slack is
hitched up out of the way in the manner shown. The loop A is made near
the end of the rope, laid against the standing part, and a hitch taken
over it at about the height of a man’s head. The hitch should be kept
quite close to the standing part, and it will hold the loop quite
securely; at the same time a slight pull at the end releases the whole
thing at once. The part B where the rope is grasped when the bell is
checked as it comes over is called the sally or tufting. It is made by
opening the strands and inserting short pieces of worsted, which are
afterwards trimmed until they are all of one length.




CHAPTER VII.

ROPE SPLICING.


Splicing is a method of joining ropes by interweaving together their
strands. When ropes are to run through blocks they cannot be joined by
knotting, as the knot would prevent their passing through the block.
In this case they are always united by splicing. In driving ropes also
knots are out of the question.

[Illustration: Fig. 113.—Beginning Short Splice.]

For the short splice, the ends of the two ropes are unlaid for a
sufficient distance, and placed together, as in Fig. 113, the strands
of one rope going alternately between the strands of the other. The
two ropes are then jammed closely together. The end of one rope with
the strands of the other rope is now held firmly in the left hand.
Sometimes a lashing is put round the strands to keep them down to the
rope on which they lie. Pass the middle strand A over the strand of the
other rope B which goes down to the left of it; then bring it under C,
and haul taut. Do the same to each of the other strands in succession,
putting them over the next strand to them and under the next beyond.
Turn the rope round and do the same to the other set of strands; this
may be repeated on both ropes. Care must be taken not to bring two
strands up through one interval in the rope. Each strand should come
up separately between two strands of the rope they are passed into.
If it is desired to taper the splice for the purpose of making it
neater after the ends have been interwoven, divide the yarns of which
the strands are composed, pass one-half as before, and cut off the
other half. To bring the rope to shape again after splicing, roll it
under the foot; if small cord has been used, a piece of flat wood is
substituted for the foot.

[Illustration: Fig. 114.—Marlinespike.]

[Illustration: Fig. 115.—Pricker.]

As the strands of a rope are tightly twisted together it requires some
force to open a passage for the parts of one rope through the other.
For this purpose, in the case of large ropes, is used a marlinespike
(Fig. 114) made of iron, copper, or hard wood. Copper is preferable, as
it does not rust like iron or break like wood. With small stuff a steel
pricker (Fig. 115) is used. A fid is employed for very large ropes,
this being merely a tapered wooden pin generally made of lignum vitæ.

[Illustration: Fig. 116.—Long Rope Splice.]

The long splice illustrated by Fig. 116 has advantages over a short
one. To make it, unlay the ends of two ropes for a much greater
distance than before and put the ends together. Unlay one strand A
for some length, and fill up the space left by its removal with the
opposite strand from the other rope, as B. Do the same with two more
strands C D; C is the one unlaid, and D the one laid up in its place.
Make an overhand knot with the two remaining strands E F, taking care
that the ends follow the lay of the rope and not across them. Divide
both strands into halves and pass one-half over the next strand, and
under the following one; do this two or three times and cut all the
ends off close. Work the remaining two pairs of strands the same way
and the splice is finished. The rope should be well stretched before
the ends of the strands are cut off.

Fig. 117 is a cut splice forming an oblong loop in the middle of a
rope. The end of one rope is spliced into the standing part of another,
as at A, A (Fig. 118), so as to form an eye. The end of the other rope
is then spliced into the standing part of the first rope, and the
spliced parts served over.

[Illustration: Fig. 117.—Cut Splice.]

A neat way of forming an eye at the end of a rope (it is known as the
eye splice, Fig. 119) is by unlaying the strands and placing them on
the standing part so as to form an eye, then put one strand under the
strand next to it, and pass the next over this strand and under the
second; the last strand must go through the third strand on the other
side of the rope. Taper them as before by halving the strands and
sticking them again.

To make a cable splice unlay the ends of the ropes to be joined for
some distance, place them together and make a short splice. Leave a
suitable length, and thence reduce each strand to a long taper by
gradually cutting away as many yarns as necessary; neatly point over
the taper and lay the ends in the intervals of the rope. Put a seizing
at each end of the splice, an end seizing at the beginning of the
pointing and a stop at the end of the tails. This is the best splice
for cables, as it may readily be undone.

Another method of making a cable splice is to splice the ends in twice
each way, then to pick out the strands, worm part of them round the
cable, and taper away the rest, which should be marled close down; then
clap on a throat and two end seizings of ratline.

[Illustration: Fig. 118.—Beginning Cut Splice.]

[Illustration: Fig. 119.—Eye Splice.]

[Illustration: Fig. 120.—Splicing Grommet.]

In splicing cotton ropes on the Lancashire system proceed as
follows:—Short splicing the ends together is the simplest, but would
not answer for running over a small pulley or through the “swallow” of
a block; in this case a long splice would suffice. If a small strop
only is needed, a one-strand grommet is the neatest. A strand from
cotton rope will not keep its lay, or acquired spiral form, and is
therefore a very difficult material to work into a grommet. Practising
first on hemp is advised. From a piece of rope about a foot longer than
the circumference of the intended grommet, unlay a strand with care, to
prevent it losing its lay. Now lay up this strand into itself, as shown
in Fig. 120. The two ends will meet each other in the same crevice.
Halve these ends, and tie an overhand knot, as shown in Fig. 121, which
must not be pulled too tight, or it will buckle-up the grommet (this
will be noticed). When this knot is quite snug down in its place, take
about one-third of the yarns out of the ends with which the knot was
made, and tuck the remaining two-thirds under two strands, missing
one (see Fig. 121, where the arrow D shows how to tuck the end A, and
arrowhead C shows where end B will come out). Now halve these ends,
and, leaving one-half, tuck the other as before; work them in nice and
snug, put the grommet on a good stretch, and trim off the ends. If the
work is well done no joint should be noticeable. Grommets are sometimes
finished off by knotting the whole strands, then halving them, and
tucking like a common splice. This is not quite as neat, but perhaps a
trifle stronger.

[Illustration: Fig. 121.—Finishing off Grommet.]




CHAPTER VIII.

WORKING CORDAGE.


Seizing implies the fastening together of two ropes, or different
parts of the same rope, with several closely placed coils of small
rope, spun yarn, etc. The several kinds of seizings take their names
from the positions they occupy in a ship’s rigging. End seizing is a
round seizing at the end of a rope. Throat seizing is the first seizing
clapped on where ropes cross each other. Middle seizing is between a
throat and end seizing. Eye seizing is a round seizing next to an eye
in the rope.

[Illustration: Fig. 122.—Flemish Eye.]

To make a round seizing, make a small eye in the end of the seizing
stuff, and, after taking a turn round both parts of the rope, reeve the
ends through the eye, take two or three turns, and haul them taut with
a marlinespike hitch (Fig. 40, p. 40); pass eight or ten turns close
together, and heave taut. Bring the end back under these turns and out
between the last two coils, and pass another series of turns on the top
of the others, which are called riders, and are not hove so taut as
the first turns. There is always one less of the riding turns than of
the lower ones. Two cross turns sometimes are taken, passing between
the ropes to be joined and across the whole of the seizing; the end is
brought under the last turn, hove tight, and secured, if large, with a
wall knot, crossed (Fig. 83, p. 66), and, if small, with an overhand
knot, and cut off. Other seizings are done in a similar way.

Sennit is a flat rope, made by plaiting together rope-yarn or spun yarn,
the outside yarns being brought over to the middle from each side
alternately. It always has an odd number of yarns, generally from five
to thirteen. French sennit is braided with an even number of yarns
passed over and under every other time.

[Illustration: Fig. 123.—Grommet.]

Gaskets are made of braided cordage in the same manner as sennit, and
are used for confining the sails when furled to the yards. They are
called arm gaskets when used at the ends of the yards. Bunt gaskets
are used in the middle of the yard to hold the bunt of the sail, and
quarter gaskets between the middle and extremities of the yards.

A Flemish eye (Fig. 122) is a form of eye made without splicing. Unlay
one strand at the end of a rope, and bring the two other strands, just
as they are, against the standing part, so as to form an eye of the
size required. Lay up the unlaid strand in the intervals in the rope
from which it has been taken, but in the reverse way—that is, begin at
the end and keep on laying it round until it comes down the standing
part and lies along with the other strands. The ends are then tapered,
marled down, and served over with small stuff.

An artificial eye is the end of a rope unlaid, and the yarns of which
the strands are composed are separated. The yarns are now hitched round
a piece of wood the size of the proposed eye. They are then marled,
parcelled, and served over.

A grommet (Fig. 123) is a ring of rope made by carefully unlaying one
strand from a rope and cutting it off. All the turns must be left in
it. Form a ring by laying one part over the other, taking care that the
turns coincide with one another. Pass one end round and round, in the
lay, until all the intervals are filled up and the ring is complete.
The two ends are secured as in a long splice, first with an overhand
knot, and then by dividing the strands and passing half of them under
the standing part, and cutting off the remainder. Grommets are used for
stropping blocks, handles for chests, snorters for the heel of sprits,
etc. They are very often parcelled and served to make them look neater.
It is easier to make them if the rope from which the strands are taken
is laid up hard.

[Illustration: Fig. 124.—Selvagee.]

Selvagee (Fig. 124) is a number of rope-yarns fastened together. To make
it, drive two nails into a piece of board at a sufficient distance
from one another to form the size of selvagee required. Wind rope-yarn
round these to form the desired thickness, and marl them down with spun
yarn. They are used to form a neat stropping for blocks, or to go round
a spar to which a hook is to be fixed. Fig. 125 shows how a selvagee is
employed for fastening a block to a rope. The middle of it is placed
against the rope, and the bights passed one over the other until they
come close to the rope, when the hook of the block is inserted.

[Illustration: Fig. 125.—Selvagee fastening Block to Rope.]

Worming is filling the intervals between the strands of a rope by
laying spun yarn or other small stuff into them. This renders the rope
more even and smooth for parcelling and serving. The first end of the
worming is securely stopped and passed along one of the divisions of
the rope. When it has been carried as far as it is required, it is
stopped and laid back down another interval, and then forward along
the remaining one, and stopped at the end. To estimate the quantity of
serving stuff required for a given length of rope, multiply the length
of rope to be served by the number of strands in the rope, and add
one-third of the product. The result is the length of serving necessary
to do the work. Thus, if six fathoms of three-strand rope have to be
served:—(6 × 3 = 18) (18 ÷ 3 = 6) 18 + 6 = 24. Thus 24 fathoms is the
length of serving. Fig. 126 shows at A how worming looks when finished.

[Illustration: Fig. 126.—Worming, Parcelling, and Marling.]

Parcelling, B (Fig. 126), is done by winding strips of old and generally
tarred canvas smoothly round a rope in spiral turns after it has been
wormed and before it is served. To secure the canvas it is marled
down—that is, some marline or other small stuff is wound round it,
which is secured at every turn with a hitch, so that each of the turns
is secure and independent of each other (see B, Fig. 126). The proper
hitch for securing the turns is shown on a larger scale in Fig. 72, p.
60. In marling down, the coils are not laid close to one another as in
serving, but always at some distance apart.

[Illustration: Fig. 127.—Serving.]

Fig. 127 shows the way a rope is served or covered with coils of spun
yarn or other small stuff laid on quite close to one another. The end
of the yarn is first secured by placing it under the first two or three
coils. A serving-mallet (see Fig. 127), after being placed against the
rope, has two or three turns passed round the body of it, and another
turn or two on the handle. This produces sufficient friction to leave
the coils taut as the mallet is worked round the rope by its handle.
Another person is required for passing the ball of serving stuff. The
service must be put on against the lay of the rope. A rope may be
served single-handed by carrying the serving stuff on a large reel,
with a hole in its centre large enough for the rope to run through.
This is kept just ahead of the mallet, and the serving stuff comes off
the reel of its own accord as required. When the mallet is within a few
turns of the end, the turns are taken off it by hand, the end is put
through them, and heaved well taut.

[Illustration: Fig. 128.—Belaying.]

A rope is belayed or made fast by cross turns round a cleat in the
way shown in Fig. 128. The cleat is assumed to be lashed to a stay
or other rope, but it is often made fast to some part of the vessel.
Occasionally a single hitch is put over the upper horn of the cleat to
make the rope still more secure.

[Illustration: Fig. 129.—Fairleader.]

A rope is taken at right angles from one part of a vessel to another by
means of a “fairleader” (Fig. 129). This is a block of wood with a hole
in it big enough to allow the line to run freely through it. The back
of it is grooved to fit the rope it is lashed to. Where more than one
line has to be led, a piece of board or plank with holes through it is
used. A fairleader is not necessarily fastened to a rope, but is fixed
in any suitable position.

[Illustration: Fig. 130.—Belaying Pin.]

A belaying-pin with a rope made fast to it (Fig. 130) is the usual way
of securing running rigging, as it can be made fast and cast off so
rapidly.

[Illustration: Fig. 131.—Toggle.]

[Illustration: Fig. 132.—Another Form of Toggle.]

Fig. 131 shows a method of securing ropes together by means of a
toggle, a piece of wood turned to shape and having a groove in the
centre, round which the end of a rope is spliced. An eye is made in
another rope by any method and the toggle slipped into it. It is undone
by slackening the ropes and putting the toggle through the eye, end
foremost. Fig. 132 is another form of toggle, the round piece of wood
being shaped like a button. It has a hole in the centre, through which
a rope is passed and the end knotted.

[Illustration: Fig. 133.—Fender on Side of Boat.]

A fender (Fig. 133) protects the sides of a boat from being chafed and
the paint or varnish rubbed off. Occasionally a fender is of wood,
which is slung over the boat’s side by a lanyard reeved through a hole
in the end of it, but more often it is of canvas, stuffed with oakum
and painted. Fig. 133 shows an easily made soft fender which does not
need painting. Take a piece of Manilla rope double the length of the
fender; unlay it, open the strands, and comb them down until all the
yarns lie straight; double it and clap an eye-seizing on it, marling
it down as illustrated. A lanyard of small cords, such as log-line, is
then spliced into the eye.

[Illustration: Fig. 134.—Fender with Ropeyarn Heart.]

Fig. 134 shows a handsomer form of boat’s fender. This is made of a
centre or “heart” of rope-yarn worked over or grafted with short pieces
of rope-yarn called “knittles” or “nettles”; this is a kind of weaving.
The nettles are first cut to the right length, and the middle part
slightly twisted. They are then brought snugly round a thimble, and a
seizing put under it. The heart is put into its place and the nettles
laid evenly over it. Half of the nettles, taken alternately, are turned
back over the eye, the rest lying down the heart. Pass a turn or two of
twine or marline, called the warp or filling, round the fender where
the nettles separate, and hitch it. The turned back nettles must now
be brought down, and those that are down turned up over the eye. The
warp is now passed again, and hitched as before. This must be repeated
until the whole of the fender is covered with a sort of woven coat as
shown in Fig. 134. The ends of the nettles are brought round the last
turn of the warp, and interlaced in the grafting. This fender requires
a lanyard the same as the last one.

[Illustration: Fig. 135.—Thimble Side View. Fig. 136.—Thimble Cross
Section.]

A thimble, shown in side view and section by Figs. 135 and 136, is an
iron ring, usually galvanised, and a rope or strop fits snugly in its
flanged rim. It may be heart-shaped or round, and is used as a small
eye on the end of a rope to receive another rope.

[Illustration: Fig. 137.—Mousing a Hook.]

Fig. 137 shows a method of “mousing a hook,” that is, preventing a
chain slipping off a hook. A few turns of rope-yarn are passed round the
end of the hook and the standing part, and the ends brought round the
middle a few times, and fastened with a reef knot.

For “stropping a block” (Fig. 138) a grommet is neat, and a selvagee
still neater, especially when leather-covered. The block is first
fixed in one bight, so that the lower part of the block sits on the
splice, if there is one. A thimble is put into the other bight, and a
seizing put on between the block and the thimble, each turn of which is
hove taut with a heaver. The turns are, lastly, crossed, and the ends
knotted. Fig. 138 shows the work finished. Sometimes the stropping is
made by splicing the ends of a suitable length of rope together.

[Illustration: Fig. 138.—Stropping a Block.]

[Illustration: Fig. 139.—Pointing a Rope.]

[Illustration: Fig. 140.—Another Method of Pointing a Rope.]

Pointing a rope is done partly to prevent it from untwisting, and
partly to make it go more readily through a block or hole. Fig. 139
shows one method. The rope is unlaid for the necessary length, the
strands reduced gradually, and then laid up again. The ends are
finally whipped with small twine. If necessary the end is stiffened
by inserting a piece of stick. Sometimes a “becket”—that is, a piece
of small line with an eye at the end—is put into the end and whipped
over to secure it, as in Fig. 139. Fig. 140 gives a more elaborate
method. The rope is first unlaid, and a stop put on it where the unlaid
part begins. As many yarns as are required are taken out and made into
nettles by twisting together the two halves of different yarns. The
remainder of the yarns is scraped down taper with a knife. Half of
the nettles is turned back on the standing part of the rope, and the
other half allowed to lie on the scraped part. Two or three turns of
twine are hitched round the division of the two sets of strands, and
the nettles laid backwards and forwards, the weft being passed each
time, as described in making the fender (Fig. 134). The end usually
is whipped and a seizing put on the upper part, which is snaked, as
illustrated, by passing twine diagonally under and over the outer turns
of the seizing alternately—that is, if it comes out over the upper
turn, it will go under the bottom one, under the top, and so on until
it is finished.

Fig. 141 is part of a mainstay. An eye is first made in the end, and
a mouse the shape of a pear raised on the rope with spun yarn. Each
turn of the yarn is hove well taut with a large serving-mallet, and
beaten close. The eye and the rope as far as the mouse are wormed,
parcelled, and served over; the mouse and the part below it (the tail)
are parcelled with worn canvas, well tarred, and pointed over or
grafted with small stuff. The mouse is covered with nettles, and their
number diminished as they are worked into the smaller parts. Below the
pointing it is again served over.

[Illustration: Fig. 141.—Mainstay.]

Shear-legs are fastened together as indicated in Fig. 142. They are
first laid side by side, and a lashing of rope put round them. The
ends of the lashing are carried one up and the other down to form
a cross lashing, and are knotted in the middle. This is called a
Portuguese knot. When the legs are separated, the knot becomes very
secure.

A neat pair of yoke lines is made and fitted in the following manner.
The length of the lines depends upon the distance of the yoke from the
after seat; that distance added to 3 ft. will give a good length for
each line. Supposing the top of the back-board to be 3 ft. from the
yoke, two-and-a-half fathoms of white cotton rope will be necessary,
the extra half fathom being allowed for knotting, etc. Cut this in two
equal lengths; take one of these and “stop” with a few turns of twine
at 14 in. from one end and 6 in. from the other, which will leave 70
in. between the stops or whippings. Now unlay the longer end and whip
each strand close to the end, leaving a few inches of spare twine on
each, which will be useful when finishing the manrope knot.

[Illustration: Fig. 142.—Shear-legs.]

[Illustration: Fig. 143.—Wall Knot.]

Holding the line in the left hand, make a single wall knot, as shown
in Fig. 143. The strand A is first placed and held in position by the
thumb; B is next taken and passed round the end of A, then C round the
end of B, and up through the loop formed in the first instance with
A. Now pull together evenly, but not too tightly, and with the three
ends remaining work a crown (see Fig. 144), where A is crossed over the
knot, then B over A, and C over B, and down through the loop formed by
A. After pulling this crown together evenly, the state shown by Fig.
145 is reached; notice that the ends lie snug against the strands of
the wall knot first formed. Keeping each end on the same side of its
partner, let it follow the same round, using a steel pricker to open
the way between the strands. The twine ends before-mentioned will now
be found useful in coaxing these ends through their holes. When each
end has followed its partner round the wall and crown, the ends which
will come out at the neck of the knot may be cut off and the manrope
knot (Fig. 146) will be completed. A red leather washer with serrated
edge is usually pushed up to the knot as a finish.

[Illustration: Fig. 144.—Crown.]

[Illustration: Fig. 145.—Crown Hauled Taut.]

[Illustration: Fig. 146.—Manrope Knot.]

[Illustration: Fig. 147.—Pointing End of Yoke Line.]

The other end of the line should be pointed. To do this, unlay and fray
out the 6 in. of end, then pick out the yarns nearest the edge—that is,
next the whipping—and make a number of 2-ply nettles by laying up these
outer yarns, scraping them a little with a knife to make them taper
slightly. There must be an even number of nettles, and sufficient to
lay close together all round the “heart,” which is formed by scraping
away the centre yarns to an even taper, then marling down tight with
twine as seen at D (Fig. 147). Half the nettles must now be placed
along the heart, and half and half back over the whipping, picking
them out alternately. An indiarubber band is convenient to keep them
in place while passing the “warp”—that is, two turns of twine hitched
round the heart and those nettles lying along it.

[Illustration: Fig. 148.—Fastening off Yoke Line.]

The nettles must now change places; all that were placed back must
go forward, and all that were along the heart must go back over the
whipping, and the warp is again passed twice round and hitched; this
process is continued till the point reaches the length of 2 in., or
whatever length of point is required. Four times the diameter of
the rope is a good rule for this. To fasten off, all the nettles are
stroked down towards the tapered end, and all those round which the
warp was last passed are doubled back as shown in Fig. 148, three
hitched turns of the warp being passed through all the “bites” or loops
of the nettles, which are then pulled down and cut off with the other
nettle ends. The twine stop is then taken off and a neat snake whipping
put on in its place.

A bunting fringe is generally added as a finish, and this is very
easily made by fraying out a piece of blue or red bunting 4 in. square,
and laying the threads down together ends even, then placing enough of
these round the yoke line to encircle it at about 1 in. from the snake
whipping. Pass a number of turns of twine round all near the centre
of the bunting threads to form a little knob, then stroke all the
bunting threads towards the point and put round all a neat snake-thread
whipping just below the knob. This will form a little tassel, as shown
in Fig. 149, which represents one yoke line completed. The other is, of
course, made in the same manner.

[Illustration: Fig. 149.—Yoke Line Complete.]

[Illustration: Fig. 150.—Stern Ladder.]

[Illustration: Fig. 151.—Round of Stern Ladder.]

A rope ladder, owing to its portability, is for some purposes more
suitable than one made of wood, especially where the ladder is to be
hauled up when not in use. Fig. 150 shows a rope ladder which is made
of four-strand rope; the rounds are turned out of oak to the form shown
in Fig. 151. The groove at the ends is for the reception of the strands
of the rope. The rounds are rather more than 1 in. in diameter, and are
placed 11 in. apart. The strands are opened with a marlinespike and
the rounds inserted between them, two on each side: a seizing is put
on below each round; a round thimble is put into the upper bight, and
an eye seizing is clapped on below it. The lower ends are generally
spliced together, or a thimble may be spliced in, as at the upper end,
if it is intended to make the lower end fast.

[Illustration: Fig. 152.—Single Rope Ladder with Chocks.]

[Illustration: Fig. 153.—Toe Chock for Rope Ladder.]

Another form of rope ladder is shown in Fig. 152. A number of oak
chocks (Fig. 153) are turned, usually about 5 in. in diameter and 5 in.
deep, bored to 1 in. diameter with the grain of the wood; this will
take a 3-in. four-stranded rope. Splice an eye at one end and seize in
a thimble for the lashing; put on one of the wooden steps, flat side
uppermost towards the thimble and about 30 in. down. Insert a strand
of ratline stuff between two strands of the rope, and with the two
ends of the strand work a “wall knot” round the rope, then a “crown,”
which will bring the ends down to the first turns of the wall. Pull the
parts up tight, and follow them round once; the result will be a neat
knot looking like a two-parted Turk’s head. If preferred, two strands
may be inserted crossing each other at right angles between the four
rope strands; then with all four ends work a double wall knot round the
rope. Between the knots, spaced 15 in. apart, slip on the wood. Do not
cut off the ends short until the knots have got well jammed up.

[Illustration: Fig. 154.—Rope Ladder with Rungs.]

[Illustration: Fig. 155.—Wood Rung.]

[Illustration: Fig. 156.—Pilot Ladder.]

For a 25-ft. ladder of a better kind, illustrated in Fig. 154, two
dozen oval rungs of wood will be required, having at the ends scores
rasped as shown at Fig. 155. The rungs may be 12 in. long. Nine fathoms
of 4-in. four-stranded rope must be well stretched and the turns taken
out, stretched again, etc. Middle it and seize a thimble in the bight,
making this fast to a post. Then stretch out both parts together,
and mark off the positions for the rungs with chalk, 12 in. apart.
At every chalk mark, and round each part of rope separately, put a
seven-turn whipping of tarred nettle stuff (this is sold in hanks). Now
begin at the end nearest the bight or lower end, open the strands with
a fid and spike above the seizings or whippings, and push in a rung,
taking care to avoid twisting the rope by inserting the spike between
the two strands best situated. When all the rungs are in and the ladder
hangs without much twist, the open parts of the strands may be drawn
together with a marlinespike and a piece of sennit or by carefully
using a screw cramp above the rungs; then a six-turn seizing of nettle
stuff put tightly on above each of the rungs keeps them in place. The
top rung should be rather stouter than the rest to allow a deeper
score. Splice a thimble into each end, and into each thimble a fathom
of eighteen-yarn stuff for lashings. This is a good ladder to hang down
clear, and is used over ships’ sterns and from lower booms, the lower
thimble being convenient for boats’ “painters.”

[Illustration: Fig. 157.—Side Piece of Pilot Ladder.]

To hang against a ship’s side, where room for the toe projecting over
the rung is needed, a pilot ladder (Fig. 156) is more comfortable, but
more difficult to make. The steps are usually of teak, mortised into
diamond-shaped side pieces (see Fig. 157) about 8 in. deep by 5 in.,
with a score rasped out all round the edges. About twenty-three or
twenty-four of these steps will be required for a 25-ft. ladder, and
eighteen fathoms of 2½-in. three-stranded rope. Prepare by stretching
well as before; cut in two equal parts and mark the middle of each
length. Place one of the steps immediately over the marks and seize it
tight in place by bringing the parts of rope round the score on each
side to meet above. If the next step is placed on this seizing and so
on, the completed ladder is too stiff to roll up; it is therefore
necessary to put two seizings between each step, leaving about 2½ in.
of free rope between them. When the steps are thus seized in place,
the ends on each side are made even, spliced together, and fitted with
thimbles for the lashings.

[Illustration: Fig. 158.—Beginning Mat.]

Mats are used on board ship to prevent chafing. In making wrought mats
a piece of small cord is stretched tight horizontally at about the
height of a man, and fastened at each end. Across this, hanging by
their middles, nettles are placed. These are often made of “foxes”—that
is, three or more rope-yarns twisted together by hand, and each rubbed
down with tarred canvas or a handful of rope-yarn. Beginning with the
nettle nearest the left hand, it is crossed as A (Fig. 158). Another
nettle is then brought up close to the first, and crossed in the
same way. The end B is then passed over the strand C, and pushed to
the back; another nettle is then brought forward, crossed as before,
and one part of it put over the part D, and pressed back. The work
is continued this way, working diagonally until a sufficient width
is obtained (Fig. 159); then, as no more nettles are added, and the
outside nettle on the right is brought over from time to time, a
selvage is formed as on the left side. Take care not to twist each of
the nettles together at the bottom, so that they may retain their
twist until the next in succession is brought down to interweave
with them. There is a little difficulty at starting, but afterwards
everything goes on easily. Each nettle from the right passes over the
next one to it on the left, and is pushed back, the one that has been
passed over being taken up first over the next and pushed back as
before. Each twist should be pressed tight as it is made. When the mat
is deep enough, a selvage is made by straining another piece of cord
along the bottom, securing both ends. As each nettle comes down it is
half-hitched to this, and the next nettle is laid up at the back of it,
and so on alternately.

Mats are frequently thrummed; this is done by raising the nettles lying
on the top of the mat with a marlinespike or pricker after the mat is
finished, and putting short pieces of the nettle stuff underneath. The
thrums are then cut off to the same length, and opened out. Of course,
wrought mats may be made of any material and used for a variety of
purposes. They make most excellent door-mats, and are of everlasting
wear. For this purpose they should not be made of tarred stuff. Very
pretty mats may be constructed of twine for the foundation and various
coloured pieces of worsted for the thrums.

A kind of mat used aboard ship is called a sword mat. It is woven, but
a loom is not used. Two small cords, or, better still, two small rods,
are secured horizontally and the nettle stuff wound round them, the
coils being laid close together. A piece of wood called a “fiddle,”
as long as the width of the mat and about 2 in. wide and ⅜ in. thick,
has half as many holes bored near the lower edge as these nettles in
the mat. Every alternate nettle is secured to this by some twine laced
through the holes. Another fiddle is fastened in like manner to the
remaining nettles. The work can now be begun. The first fiddle is
raised, and the first set of nettles consequently raised with it. What
weavers call a “shed” is thus formed—that is, an opening between the
two sets of nettles—and along it the weft or filling is passed by means
of a netting needle (see p. 125). The filling is driven well home with
a flat piece of wood, tapered towards the edge, called a “sword.” The
first set of nettles is now allowed to drop, and the second set drawn
up with the other fiddle. The filling is passed again and driven home
as before. The work is thus continued until there is no longer room to
use the sword, when the filling must be worked home with a pricker.
When the mat is long enough, the filling is fastened off, and the mat
is complete. These mats may be thrummed in the same manner as the
wrought mats.

[Illustration: Fig. 159.—Mat Making.]

A softer kind of mat is made on a foundation of canvas or duck, which
is very suitable for the stern-sheets of a boat or any other similar
purpose. The material is cut to the right size and folded a short
distance from the edge. A hole is made near the selvage with a pricker
and a thrum inserted; another hole is then made a short distance
from the first and another thrum put in, and so on until the row is
completed. Row after row is thus worked until the mat is finished. Of
course the holes, and consequently the thrums, go through both parts
of the material. When the canvas is pulled straight after each row is
finished, the thrums are held securely without any other fastening.

When a pattern is to be worked on the mat, the design must first be
drawn on the material in pencil and the canvas folded accordingly;
every fold produces two rows of thrums. White duck thrummed with pieces
of cotton rope makes very nice, clean-looking mats for boat use, and as
they wash well they can always be kept in good order. These mats, with
a stout canvas or sacking foundation, thrummed with pieces of untarred
hemp rope, serve very well for door-mats, though, of course, they will
not last as long as wrought mats.

Very ornamental mats are made somewhat after the same manner as those
just described. Any suitable material, of any colour, can be used for
the foundation, on which the pattern must be drawn. The mat is folded
along the line intended to be worked, and a common pencil laid along
the ridge of the fold. The worsted or other material used is threaded
in a large needle, and worked over and over the pencil, thus forming,
when the pencil is withdrawn, a series of loops on the foundation.
Any pattern can thus be worked, provided always that it consists of
straight lines. It might be possible to form curved lines by working
the loops over the first finger of the left hand, moving the finger
after each loop.




CHAPTER IX.

HAMMOCK MAKING.


This chapter will describe the netting and slinging of hammocks.

[Illustration: Fig. 160.—Netting Needle.]

[Illustration: Fig. 161.—Netting Needle.]

Hammock making requires a netting needle of one of the shapes shown by
Figs. 160 and 161. It may be made from a piece of 3/16-in. pearwood,
beech, or boxwood about 8 in. long by ¾ in. wide. In needles as shown
by Fig. 161 the cord is wound round as when filling an ordinary
shuttle, and for Fig. 160 the cord is brought round the end at A up one
side, round the pin at B, and back the same side, the process being
repeated on the other side of the needle.

[Illustration: Figs. 162.—Mesh Stick.]

[Illustration: Figs. 163.—Mesh Stick Cross Section.]

A mesh stick (Fig. 162) is made of hardwood or bone about 5 in. long
and of an oval shape (Fig. 163); it may be about ¾ in. by ¼ in. in
section. At one end of the string to be used for the net tie a loop
A (Fig. 164), and place the knot on a nail or hook fixed in some
convenient position, as at A (Fig. 165). Place the mesh stick under
the loop as at B, put the cord under it, then pass the needle through
the loop and pull the cord tight. Now place the thumb of the left hand
on the cord beyond the loop as at A (Fig. 166), and with a turn of the
wrist of the right hand throw the cord to the position shown at B, then
pass the needle under the loop C, then through the bight of B, and down
as at D, and draw the knot tight, which should then assume the shape
shown by Fig. 167. The cord must be held firmly with the thumb at A
(Fig. 166) when pulling up the knots, as on this depends the uniformity
of the meshes.

[Illustration: Fig. 164.—Loop in Meshing.]

[Illustration: Fig. 165.—First Stage in Meshing.]

To continue the netting the stick is withdrawn and placed under A (Fig.
167), and the needle is then passed under the stick as in Fig. 165, and
brought through the loop B (Fig. 167), and the process shown by Fig.
166 is repeated to form another mesh, this being continued to make a
chain of meshes, say forty-five or fifty (Fig. 168), sufficient for
the width of the hammock. The loop A (Figs. 164, 165, and 168) that
was first tied is then untied, and it will then be found that all the
meshes are equal in size.

[Illustration: Fig. 166.—Second Stage in Meshing.]

Next the chain is opened out at right angles to the line in which it
was made, as shown by Fig. 169, and working across is begun by making a
mesh at A (Fig. 169), then at B, C, and so on, until the length of the
first lot of meshes has been reached, when the net is turned over and
another row of meshes worked until the one under A has been reached;
then the net is turned again and another row worked, and so on.

The meshes are worked as shown by Fig. 166, but at first, to ensure
uniformity, it will be well to put the loops D, E, F, and G (Fig. 169)
separately on the hook or nail as the meshes under them are made, but
after a little practice a cord may be reeved through the top line of
meshes, tied into a loop, and passed over the knee and then over the
foot, as the work progresses.

[Illustration: Fig. 167.—Third Stage of Meshing.]

[Illustration: Fig. 168.—Chain of Meshes.]

There are three ways of forming the ends. An ash stick may be used
at each end to which the end meshes are looped and tied, and a piece
of codline may be passed through the side meshes on each side and
attached to the ends of the sticks. At each end a stout cord is secured
to the stick in the form of a triangle for hanging the hammock. The
second plan is to tie a number of cords together by doubling them in
the centre and forming a loop, and each of the free ends, known as
“nettles,” is attached to one of the meshes of the net. The third and
perhaps the best plan is to reeve a cord about the size of a little
finger through the end meshes and splice it into the form of a grommet
as shown by Fig. 170. A thimble A is fixed in the end to which the
supporting cords are attached, and the cords which are reeved through
the side meshes are spliced into the eye B at C. When these “clews” are
used the net must be longer than for the sticks or nettles.

[Illustration: Fig. 169.—Beginning of Cross Netting.]

[Illustration: Fig. 170.—Hammock Clew.]




CHAPTER X.

LASHINGS AND TIES FOR SCAFFOLDING.


Lashings are seizings of rope for heavy work, such as scaffolding;
and the lashing of poles, ledgers, and putlogs may be now considered
with advantage. Heavy scaffolding is best lashed with chain; and it
should be noted that, while a rope lashing is hove taut by the steady
strain of a heaving bar, a chain requires different treatment, and must
be jerked tight with little tugs—an action similar to that used when
shaking out a mat—assisted by an occasional rap with the heaver.

[Illustration: Fig. 171.—Rope Lashing for Poles and Ledgers.]

[Illustration: Fig. 172.—Chain Lashing for Poles and Ledgers.]

[Illustration: Fig. 173.—Rope Lashing for Putlogs.]

The rope used for lashing all parts of scaffolding should be fairly
new, sound, and in size not more than 1½ in. The average length
required will be about six yards, and it must be so put on that each
turn of the lashing takes its share in the support. To this end the
tackle supporting the ledger must not be released until the lashing is
completed, otherwise the first turns will be subjected to undue strain.

Fig. 171 shows the lashing of a ledger to a pole; if chain is used a
different method is necessary, and it is lashed as in Fig. 172.

Putlogs should be square, or at any rate flat on the upper and lower
sides, to prevent any chance of rolling, one end being squared down in
size to enter the building in the place of a header brick, the other
end being lashed down to the ledger as in Fig. 173. The planks forming
the stage are not lashed to the putlogs, and there is great danger in
allowing them to project at one or both ends.

Poles are generally about 30 ft. long, and for high buildings it is
necessary to lengthen them by lashing on an extra pole. The safest plan
is to lash a half pole to the lower part of the first erected; this
resting on the ground will form a footing, upon the upper end of which
the lengthening pole will stand, being kept in position by three plain
lashings (see Fig. 174). Should the lengthening pole be only light, and
a footing not be considered necessary, a chain racking should be put on
besides two rope lashings.

[Illustration: Fig. 174.—Poles Lashed and Wedged, with Footing.]

It is usual to wedge scaffold lashings tight, and, provided the wedges
are well shaped, it is a convenient way of tightening the work after
change of weather. Badly-shaped wedges are apt to cut the rope and
sometimes work out.

[Illustration: Fig. 175.—Slinging Plank for use as Stage.]

Stages for painting, or small repairs on a building, may be quickly
rigged up by slinging each end of a plank on the bight of a rope. For
this make a marlinespike hitch (see Fig. 40, p. 40), and let the end
of the plank take the position there occupied by the marlinespike; the
double part will be below and the single part above the plank (see
Fig. 175). For single-handed work a boatswain’s chair, of which an
illustration is given by Fig. 176, is convenient.

[Illustration: Fig. 176.—Boatswain’s Chair.]




CHAPTER XI.

SPLICING AND SOCKETING WIRE ROPES.


Wire ropes are now used to such an extent, and in such a variety of
ways, that a knowledge of the best methods of handling them cannot fail
to be useful to the many thousands who are brought in daily contact
with them. An endeavour will here be made to give such clear and simple
instructions as will enable readers, with practice, to execute any job
in connection with the splicing of wire ropes. The uses that wire ropes
are now put to, and the ways and occupations they are employed in,
are so various, that it is almost a necessity for a man to be engaged
in their manufacture to have a thorough knowledge of the different
methods of handling them. For instance, it would be just as consistent
to expect a sailor, used only to eye-splicing, to go to a colliery and
put a long splice into a rope, to withstand the enormous stress there
applied, as it would be to expect a colliery man to go aboard ship to
splice the mainbrace, or any other brace.

Now Fig. 177 is a sketch-plan of an endless band rope, such as may be
seen at many collieries in Great Britain. A is the driving sheave on
the engine at bank, round which the rope passes three or four times,
and leads off to the overhead pulley B. Then it goes down the shaft,
perhaps a very considerable distance, under the pulley C, and so on to
D, whence it passes round the tightening sheave E, which is movable and
contrived with weights to keep the rope always tight, and so prevent
surging round the pulleys and sheaves and consequent loss of power. The
rope then passes round D′ to the sheave F, the driving of which is the
object aimed at, since that sheave in turn may work either one or two
hauling ropes, as at G and H, working into the interior of the pit,
in addition, perhaps, to a pump. The load on this rope may amount to
several tons, and such a rope will therefore require a splice from 60
ft. to 100 ft. long.

Further, no matter what kind of a splice it may be, it must be made
well. If it is a ship’s hawser, at times the safety of the vessel and
all it contains may depend on a splice. Again, an awful disaster might
be the result if the splice in a crane rope were to draw.

[Illustration: Fig. 177.—Colliery Band Rope Driving System.]

There are three kinds of wire rope splices, the short splice, eye
splice, and long splice.

A short splice is a bulky splice, and is used only for block straps,
slings, etc. It is not suitable for driving ropes or for running
tackle, and should never be put into a crane or hoist rope. It is made
by unlaying the two ends of the rope to a sufficient length, from 1 ft.
to 2 ft., according to size, and interlaying them together as in Fig.
178. Draw them close, and tuck the strands of one under the strands
of the other several times. It is only a case of “over and under” as
in splicing a hemp rope. After the ends have been tucked a sufficient
number of times, about twice, each strand will stand in most cases.
Hammer all down snug, and either cut off the ends with a hammer and
chisel or twist the wires off one or two at a time, which makes a much
neater job.

An eye splice may be made in two different ways—namely, left-handed, or
“over and under,” and right-handed.

[Illustration: Fig. 178.—“Marrying” a Wire Rope Splice.]

Left-handed splicing is undoubtedly stronger, tuck for tuck, than the
right-handed method, for the “bite” on the strands is greater and the
frictional adhesion is more acute. The strands and ends are practically
plaited, and consequently locked together, and, no matter how the rope
unlays itself, the splice is immovable. A splice like this should be
put into every crane rope, for frequently the load when lifted from the
ground spins round and unlays the rope to a certain extent.

In right-handed splicing, the ends to be tucked are simply laid several
times round one strand each, and offer no resistance to any such
unlaying process. However, a right-handed splice is easier and neater
to make, and these splices are becoming general, some splicers making
it a rule to put a “lock” in by tucking the ends once left-handed. A
right-handed splice is strong enough for most ordinary purposes, but
if a left-handed splice is tucked three times and put on a testing
machine, it would break the rope before it would draw out; whereas,
if a right-handed splice were tucked three times and put to the same
test, it would pull out. However, if the right-handed splice, instead
of being tucked three times were tucked eight times, it would stand any
stress that could be put on it; in fact, six times through is quite
sufficient for ordinary purposes.

[Illustration: Fig. 179.—Method of Serving Wire Rope.]

[Illustration: Fig. 180.—Partly-finished Splice.]

[Illustration: Fig. 181.—Wire Rope ready for Splicing.]

The following is the method of right-handed splicing. First fasten up
the rope-end from the vice to any convenient column or hook, and mark
off from the end, as at A (Fig. 179), the length for the splice, which
will be from 1½ ft. to 6 ft., according to the size of rope; say 2 ft.
of end for 2 in. cir. rope. Measure with a string round the groove of
the thimble, and transfer the length to the rope, marking it as at A
B. To put a seizing on the “neck” of the splice, as in Fig. 180, add
6 in. or 8 in. to the length of rope to be served. Now take a narrow
strip of parcelling—that is, thin bagging—and bind it neatly round the
rope from A to B (Fig. 179). The rule is: Worm and parcel with the lay,
but serve the rope the other way. Next take a serving-mallet D (Fig.
179), with a bobbin full of spun yarn upon it, and, beginning at B,
serve over the parcelling to A. Cut off and make fast the end of spun
yarn, when the work will be ready for turning in the thimble. A chalk
mark midway between A and B will serve as a guide in getting in the
thimble straight. Next bring the end of the rope round on the double to
form a loop, with A and B exactly level. Open the vice sufficiently to
take in that loop, insert the thimble, taking care to have it exactly
straight, and screw up the vice as tightly as possible. Securely fasten
the rope and thimble together at the “neck” A (Fig. 181), when the
rope should appear as there illustrated. Fasten it in the vice with
the thimble hanging downwards, and the part to be spliced held up by a
line suspended from some convenient joist or girder. Take the whipping
off the rope-end, and open out the strands singly, to be ready for
tucking. Looking at the rope from the direction of the arrow A (Fig.
182), drive a marlinespike through the two strands on the extreme left,
taking care, of course, always to miss the core of the rope. Twist the
spike up the rope about half a turn, so as to make an easier bend for
the strand, then take the strand nearest the opening, tuck it through,
and haul tight. Then, most important, force down the strand with the
marlinespike till it occupies the position indicated in the dotted
lines of Fig. 182.

[Illustration: Fig. 182.—Right-handed Splice, First Tuck.]

At the next tuck, with the spike take in the strand to the right,
along with the two just gone through, making an opening through three
strands, with the point of the spike coming out in the same place as
in the first tuck. Insert the next nearest end, strand two, and work in
snug as before. Of the three strands the spike has just been through,
take the one nearest to the left, and drive the spike in so as to make
the point come out at the same opening as before; tuck in No. 3 strand,
and that will make, as in Fig. 183, three strand ends entering into the
same opening in the rope, but coming out between different strands.
After this, simply keep on taking the next strand and the next end,
following round to the left, till all the ends are tucked once, when an
end will come out between each pair of strands.

[Illustration: Fig. 183.—Right-handed Splice, all Ends Tucked Once.]

The rest is easy. Merely keep on repeating the operation, with strand
and end, until the splice is long enough and strong enough. As Fig.
180 shows, after the first set of tucks, it is only a case of each end
twisting and re-twisting round its own particular strand, all the way
up. It merely thickens the strands. After the ends are tucked three or
four times, it will make a neater splice if the ends are split and the
splice is tapered at the finish by leaving behind one-half of each end,
while the other half is tucked once or twice more. Having finished the
tucking, take the splice down from the vice, cut off all strand ends
quite close, and hammer all down snugly. At the neck put on the seizing
wire, if any, parcel and serve, and the right-handed eye splice is
complete.

[Illustration: Fig. 184.—Left-handed Splice, First Tuck.]

Seizing wire is really a seven-wire strand, made of soft wire, about
No. 18 or No. 19 gauge. It is put on a splice for the double purpose
of strengthening the splice and rendering it easier to take a weak or
broken thimble out of the eye, to be replaced by a stronger one. It is
simply bound tightly round the two ropes at the neck, and the end is
brought up and round the middle twice, or thrice and made secure, as at
A (Fig. 180).

Left-handed eye-splicing should be comparatively easy if the preceding
instructions on right-handed eye-splicing have been carefully followed.
Although it is not essential, it makes a neater and a closer splice
if a slightly different method of starting is adopted. In splicing a
thimble into a crane rope or a trawl-warp, two ropes in which it is
very advisable to put left-handed splices, it is unusual to put any
seizing on the neck; instead, the rope is spliced right down to the
thimble. Serve sufficient rope to go round the thimble only, leaving
out sufficient end for the splice. Turn in and screw up very tight in
the vice, make fast at the neck, as before described, fasten the rope
up with the thimble hanging downwards, and open out the ends.

[Illustration: Fig. 185.—Left-handed Splice, all Ends Tucked Once.]

Different splicers have different ways of starting, but a very good
method is as follows: Turn to Fig. 181, and, taking the strand in the
rope nearest the point marked C, open it out with the spike. Select the
end that is nearest to it, which will be the inside middle one of the
bunch, bring it through to the right hand, as in Fig. 184, and force
it down well. Still keeping the spike through the same strand, select
the middle strand end, on the outside of the bunch, and put it through
the same aperture, but in the opposite direction—that is, left-handed.
Of the four strands now remaining, first take the two at the right,
and put each end through its nearest strands, right-handed, as at B C
(Fig. 185), and the other two at the left, and tuck them through their
nearest neighbours, left-handed. There is now an end coming out between
each strand, and if the rope is now taken down and hammered well at
this part, a very neat starting is formed. All that remains now is very
simple; just keep working round to the left, tucking each end as it
is reached over its neighbour and under the next one. Work “over and
under” all the way, until each end is tucked three or four times.

The appearance of the splice will be improved if the ends are halved
before taking the final tuck.

If the strands of the rope to be spliced are very hard and stiff, it
will perhaps be difficult to pull in the ends quite snug. To get over
this difficulty, before tucking give each strand a sharp bend close to
the rope, in the direction in which it has to be tucked, when it will
spring into its place with comparatively little pulling. When all the
ends are tucked, hammer the splice well, as that makes the wires knit
more into one another, and consequently increases the “bite.” All that
remains now is to cut the ends off, and serve over, finishing at the
thimble. It is a good plan to take the splice down now and then during
the process of tucking, and hammer it well, as that serves to drive out
all the slack at the ends.

Long-splicing is undoubtedly the most important form of splicing.
By its use two pieces of rope may be joined together, or a rope may
be made endless, without increasing its thickness at the splice. In
fact, none but a practised eye can discern where a well-made splice
is, after it has been made and set running, as all ends are completely
hidden. Ability to splice well in this style commands many good jobs at
collieries in this country and in South African mines.

Of course, in long-splicing, as in many other things, different men
have different styles. Suppose, for example, a colliery hauling rope
is to be spliced, and that it works endless from a hauling engine to
a terminal return pulley, mounted on the tension bogie; suppose also
that the rope has been put in position, with the ends left at the most
convenient place ready for splicing. If 60 ft. of end is available for
the splice, decide on that length, and, measuring about 40 ft. from
each end, make the rope fast to the rails at one side, and at the other
side fix a block and tackle, and haul in every bit of slack lying on
the hauling road, taking especial care that the tension bogie is pulled
right up to the top of the tension “ways.” This is a very important
consideration, because if, through the rope stretching, the tension
pulley got down to its limit before the rope was worn out, it would
necessitate cutting the rope and making a new splice, or opening out
the old splice and re-splicing there again after shortening the rope.

Where practicable, have the tension of a sufficient length that by
the time it gets to its limit there is sufficient length of rope to
make a new splice, in case the old one is found to be giving way. Some
ropes stretch more than others in working, and it is difficult to say
accurately how much per cent. a rope will stretch, as much depends on
the way the rope has been made. However, the larger the hempen core
inside the rope or the shorter the lay or spiral twist the more the
stretch. It is wise, therefore, when splicing a new rope never to give
any slack away.

Having got the rope hauled as tight as possible, carefully measure 30
ft. from each end of the rope, and there tie a strong whipping. It is
important that these whippings should be put on each rope at a distance
which shall ensure that they will easily come quite up to each other
when the two ends are joined together. Next, take the whippings off the
extreme ends of rope and open out the strands. Some splicers do this in
pairs; others simply halve the rope, opening it out in two bunches of
three strands each. A better way, considering laying them in again, is
to open out one strand, then miss one and open out the next to that,
then miss another and take the next one again.

There are now three single strands opened out to the whipping at 30 ft.
from the end, and between each of these strands there is one strand
unopened. This work must be done at each end of the rope, of course.
Taking these two bunches of three unopened strands, cut them off about
6 in. from the whipping and throw them on one side. Open out the 6 in.,
obtaining three strands 30 ft. long, and between each pair is a strand
6 in. long, with the same length of core projecting through the centre
of the rope. Join the two ends together as in Fig. 178 (p. 135), taking
care in every case to have the strands placed so that a long strand
will fall in where a short one comes out, and at the same time pull out
between the strands the two short pieces of core A B. Place helpers
on each side to pull on the long strands, as in a tug of war, and
after cutting the two whippings C get the helpers to pull in opposite
directions, until the two ropes are jammed close up to each other, with
the strands ready to fall naturally into the lay of the rope. If this
is not done properly, or if the rope is allowed to slip back, the
appearance of the finished splice will be spoiled by an unsightly long
place in the lay.

Next clamp or securely tie the three long strands at one side to the
rope, and proceed to lay the other three long strands into place.
Select a long strand and the short one that touches it, open out the
short strand, and lay the long one in its place. Keep on doing that
until all but 5 ft. of the long strand has been laid in; then stop and
lock these two strands together by crossing them, so that they will
not open out. Now measure back 5 ft. on the strand just opened out and
cut the rest off, as only 5 ft. will be needed on each end. Open out
another short strand, at the same time laying in a long one, to the
length of 15 ft. only, and the next long strand must be laid in just
5 ft. Now release the other three strands made fast to the rope, and
treat them in the same way, laying in a long strand where a short one
is taken out. Make all the ends 5 ft. long, putting a small whipping on
each before cutting to prevent opening out, when the splice will be as
in Fig. 186.

[Illustration: Fig. 186.—Long Splice, all Ends ready for Tucking.]

There are now twelve strand ends, 5 ft. long, which must be worked
into the inside of the rope and completely hidden; but before this
some lengths of thin bagging must be prepared, about 2 in. wide, or,
failing that, get some thin yarn, which must be wrapped securely and
evenly round each strand for about 2 ft. or 3 ft. from the end. Strips
of bagging are the better, and can be expeditiously put on by getting
each helper to wrap an end. This gives the outer strands something to
knit or bed into when the hempen core is taken out of the centre of
the rope and the steel strand ends are worked in. After considering
the difference between the size of the hempen core and of the outer
strands, necessitated, of course, by the spiral form of the outer
strands, it will be obvious that the “bite” of the outer on the inner
strands would be very little indeed if the ends were worked in bare.
When all the ends are wrapped and cut to such a length that they just
butt against each other when worked inside the rope, the work is ready
for tucking. Take hold of the piece of hempen core A (Fig. 186) and
pull it out just to past the first joint—that is, the two ends 1 and
1′. In all probability, if the rope is large or rather hard laid, this
will be difficult, unless a tapered round spike is driven through the
two strands immediately behind it.

[Illustration: Fig. 187.—Making Round Joint.]

Strand 1 has now to be worked inside the rope where the core came
out. To do that, take a flat tucking spike and drive it through the
strands 1′ and the next one with the point coming out and covering
strand 1. Twist the spike round in the lay of the rope, and, of course,
towards the original joint B in the splice; but so manipulate the
spike, or “tucker,” that strand 1 will fall into the inside of the rope
immediately the worker starts to twist, as at C (Fig. 187).

When working a strand from the outside to the inside of a rope it
should be done short, sharp, and at once. Good joints must be made
short, for then the twists in the strands so unite with one another as
to make it appear as though they were blended into one strand.

The “partner” strand to the one just worked in—that is, strand 1′—must
next be tucked out of sight, but before that can be done it will be
necessary to consider that if the wires in the strand are spun or
twisted in the opposite direction to that in which the rope is “laid”
or “closed,” then an ordinary rope is formed. But if the wires and the
strands are both twisted in the same direction there is formed a make
of rope commonly called a “Langs” or “Albert” laid rope.

In Figs. 179 to 185 ordinary ropes are illustrated, but in Figs. 178,
186, and 187 Langs ropes are shown.

[Illustration: Fig. 188.—Half-round Top-Swage.]

In an ordinary rope the strands are tucked into the inside, side by
side at the joint, which is known as a “flat joint,” while in the case
of a Langs rope the strands are crossed over each other at the joint,
and this is known as a round joint.

[Illustration: Fig. 189.—Wire Rope Clamp.]

Fig. 187 also illustrates a good way to place the spikes to work in
strand 1′ and make a round joint. Each spike is driven through two
strands, and, as shown, A is the leading spike which tucks the strand
into its place, while B is used simply to combine with A in making the
joint and forcing the strand 1′ into the centre of the rope. This is
effected by placing the strand between the points of the two spikes and
twisting them up in opposite directions. If the spike A is twisted up
towards the worker, and spike B in the opposite direction, the obvious
result is that the points of the two spikes come down, and simply crush
strand 1′ into the centre of the rope. Then go on twisting spike A
along the lay, and spike B can be pulled out as soon as the worker gets
away from the joint.

[Illustration: Fig. 190.—Link Socket.]

If these joints are closely and neatly made, each in its own way, the
two strands forming the joint knit into each other’s lay or twist, and
will be scarcely noticeable. The above operation must, of course, be
repeated until all the ends are tucked into the inside of the rope.
Tuck them in as numbered in Fig. 186, namely 1, 1′, 2, 2′, and so on.
Be very particular in seeing that the ends exactly butt each other, or
a lump results on the splice; if they do not butt, the outer strands
will sink in. When all the ends are properly tucked, the long splice
is practically completed, but it will improve matters to round off all
joints and uneven places with a half-round top-swage, about the same
diameter as the rope.

[Illustration: Fig. 191.—Side View of Socket. Fig. 192.—Socket Opened
Out.]

About all the tools necessary for long-splicing are two flat spikes or
tuckers and one round one, each say 18 in. long, a sledge and set for
cutting the rope and strands, a hand hammer for driving in the spikes,
a strong pair of cutting pliers and the top-swage (Fig. 188). A very
useful wire rope clamp is shown in Fig. 189.

[Illustration: Fig. 193.—Socket in Wire Rope.]

In addition to the method of fitting attachments to wire ropes by
means of splicing, as already described in this chapter, there is the
method of socketing, shoeing, or capping, as it is variously called.
There is a great difference between the rough product of the colliery
black-smith, in the shape of the common link socket, and the highly
finished cast-steel socket or the turned steel socket of the engineer;
and in concluding this chapter it is purposed to deal with them all.

Fig. 190 is a view of the ordinary link socket, often used at
collieries as a means of temporarily repairing a broken rope. A
whipping of soft wire or spun yarn is put on each end of the rope, and
a few wires then bent sharply back over the whipping and cut off an
inch or two shorter than the socket that fits over them. The rest of
the rope-end is cut off as close to the whipping as possible, and the
sockets, which, of course, are ready opened, are put on, hammered down
close, and firmly clinched with three rivets.

A very common socket in everyday use is shown by Figs. 191 to 193;
this is principally used on haulage ropes and ships’ steering-gear.
The eye may be of either round or square section, the latter being the
strongest and best. As a rule, these sockets are fixed on the rope
by means of rivets only, but when attached to winding ropes they are
secured with strong steel hoops, which are forged to make a close fit
at intermediate distances on the socket, as in Fig. 194.

[Illustration: Fig. 194.—Hooped Winding Rope Socket.]

Sometimes hoops are used in conjunction with rivets. When a hooped
socket leaves the black-smith’s shop, the hoops should be a close
fit at equal distances on the socket; and as a guide to replacing
them correctly, both socket and hoops should be pop-marked with a
centre-punch as shown.

[Illustration: Fig. 195.—Preparing Bulb on Wire Rope End.]

The method of preparing the wire rope for these sockets is the same
whether hoops or rivets are used. First put a strong wire whipping on
the rope at about the length of the socket from the rope-end. Untwist
the wires of the part left over and straighten them out (see Fig. 195);
then bend them sharply back, one or two at a time, over the whipping
and over the rope. If the rope has a wire core in the centre, the wires
forming it should be bent back the same as the outside wires; but if
the core is of hemp, it must be cut off close to the whipping. After
hammering snug and close, all these wires have to be cut to a different
length, so as to form a tapered bulb corresponding to the tapered
cavity inside the socket. Cut the longest wires an inch or two shorter
than the length of the socket, measuring from A to B (Fig. 193), and
gradually make the other wires shorter and shorter all the way towards
the end. These wires must now be tightly and closely served with soft
copper wire or spun yarn, using the serving-mallet already described in
this chapter. For common work spun yarn is used, and for the best class
of work soft copper wire.

[Illustration: Fig. 196.—Finished Bulb on Wire Rope End.]

[Illustration: Fig. 197.—Set-hammer for Tightening Hoops.]

[Illustration: Fig. 198.—Solid Socket with Closed End.]

[Illustration: Fig. 199.—Solid Socket with Closed End.]

In bending back the wires, care must be taken to ensure their being
bent equally all round the rope and not merely at the top and bottom or
on one side only. The object is to form on the end of the rope a bulb
which will completely fill the cavity inside the socket. To do this,
the operator should work with the closed socket beside him and take
the measurement of the inside of the socket at both ends with a pair
of inside callipers, and the size of the bulb as it progresses with
outside callipers, comparing the two. The socket may have been made
rather large inside, in which case it will be necessary to put on two
or more layers of serving to bring the bulb to the required size. The
rope should then appear as in Fig. 196. The eye of the socket must now
be made red-hot. Cool down all but the extreme back of the eye A (Fig.
192) by the application of water, and open the socket out sufficiently
to allow of the bulb being pushed into place. Let the end of the bulb
come just to the shoulder A (Fig. 193) of the socket; then hammer the
socket on the anvil, or screw it up in the vice, until it is as close
as it will go. Cool it down and drive in the rivets, clinching them
well, with a big strong head on each side, for which purpose the holes
must be well countersunk. The rivets should be made of good riveting
iron or of mild steel. A properly filled socket should show, when
finished, a ⅛-in. opening between the jaws down its full length on both
sides (see Figs 193 and 194), which would prove that the socket was
properly gripping the bulb.

[Illustration: Fig. 200.—Plan of Solid Socket with Open End.]

[Illustration: Fig. 201.—Elevation of a Solid Socket with Open End.]

[Illustration: Fig. 202.—Another Elevation of a Solid Socket with Open End.]

When fitting a hooped socket, first pop-mark the parts, then remove the
hoops and thread them on to the rope, the smallest first and the others
in order; they are thus easily returned to their proper places. As
soon as the hoops are replaced, the socket should be taken out of the
vice and held end down on a block or anvil while the hoops are driven
tightly home with a set-hammer (Fig. 197) and sledge.

To give a better finish, and to prevent the hoops from working back or
wet from entering, they are sometimes caulked on the tapered side A
(Fig. 194) with a caulking set.

[Illustration: Fig. 203.—Riveted Flat Rope Socket.]

[Illustration: Fig. 204.—Cramped Flat Rope Socket.]

For crane ropes or colliery winding ropes, steel sockets are sometimes
cast solid, some with closed eyes for the D shackle, as in Figs. 198
and 199, and others with open ends with holes for a slotted pin, as
in Figs. 200 to 202, the two latter being side views of alternative
shapes. The form shown by Figs. 198 and 199 is the more difficult to
fit, as it is obvious that the rope must first be pushed through the
socket and brought out at one side of the eye before the bulb can be
formed, when it has to be either pulled or hammered back until it is
quite tight in the socket. After the bulb of these solid sockets has
been pulled or driven into place, it is usual to drive a round tapered
copper plug into the core of the bulb, to solidify it and increase its
grip with the socket. Sometimes molten white metal is poured in to fill
up the interstices between the rope and the socket. The hole at the
small end of these sockets is made only a very little larger than the
diameter of the rope, so that it is impossible for the bulb to pull
through if properly made.

[Illustration: Fig. 205.—Socket Cramp.]

Flat wire ropes, which are not much used now, also have to be socketed,
as they cannot be spliced. There are various methods of fixing flat
rope sockets, varying with the strain and the conditions under which
they work. The most usual method is to bend the wire ends back equally
on both sides to make the bulb fit the inside of the socket, and to
secure with a liberal supply of rivets (see Fig. 203). For stronger
work, the rope-end, after being cut off square, is bent round the
shackle pin, and the socket made to grip both the rope and its end, the
whole being firmly secured by means of strong iron clamps and bolts
(see Figs. 204 and 205). In order to drive the rivets through the
compressed rope after the socket is tightened, it is necessary to make
the way easy for them by driving in tapered spikes of the shape shown
by Figs. 206 and 207. These require a hole in the end to take the end
of a stout marlinespike, for the purpose of withdrawing them from the
hole. They must be made of mild steel.

[Illustration: Figs. 206 and 207.—Riveting Spikes.]

[Illustration: Fig. 208.—Rivet.]

The best form of rivet is shown by Fig. 208; it must be made longer
than the diameter of the socket, to allow for clinching the other head.




INDEX.


  Albert Laid Rope, 147
  Arm Gaskets, 97
  Artificial Eye on Rope End, 98
  Artilleryman’s Ring Knot, 49


  Band Driving Rope, 133
  “Becket,” 107
  Belaying, 103
  —— Cleat, 103
  —— Pin, 103
  Bellringer’s Knot, 88
  “Bend,” 10
  —— Shortening, 52
  Bending Rope to Loop, 38
  Bends, 34–42
  Bessemer Steel Wire Rope, Safe Load on, 12
  Bight of Rope, Definition of, 15, 16
  Blackwall Hitch, 39
  Block, Securing, to Rope, 65
  ——, Stropping, 107
  Blood Knot, 15
  Boat Fender, 104, 105
  —— —— with Ropeyarn Heart, 105
  —— Knot, Shortening, 57
  —— Ring Knot, 43, 44, 45
  Boatswain’s Chair, 131
  Bow Knot, 19
  Bowline on Bight, 28
  —— Knot, 27
  Builder’s Double Knot, 32
  —— Knot, 30, 31, 47
  Bulb, Preparing, on Wire Rope, 151
  Bunt Gaskets, 97
  Bunting Fringe, 115
  Buoy Rope Knot, 74


  Cable Splice, 92, 93
  Cable-laid Rope, 10, 11
  Calf Knot, 18
  Can Sling, 80, 81
  Capping Wire Rope, 150
  Capstan Ring Knot, 49
  Carrick Bend, 37
  Catspaw, 36, 63, 65
  Chain Knot for Lashing, 59, 60
  —— —— Shortening, 52
  —— —— Double, 58
  Chain Lashings for Poles and Ledgers, 131
  Chair, Boatswain’s, 132
  Check Knot, 24
  Chocks for Rope Ladders, 116
  Clamp, Wire Rope, 148
  Cleat, Belaying, 103
  Clews, Hammock, 128
  ——, Sail, 37
  Clove-Hitch, 32, 47
  Cocoanut Fibre Rope, 10
  Coir Rope, 10
  Colliery Band Rope, 133
  Cordage, Working, 96–124
  Cotton Ropes, 10
  —— ——, Splicing, 93
  Crabber’s Eye Knot, 27
  Cramp, Socket, 155
  Cramped Flat Rope Socket, 155
  Crane Rope, Splicing Thimble into, 141
  Cross Lashing, 60
  Crown Knot or Crowning, 67, 68, 111
  Crucible Steel Wire Rope, Safe Load on, 12
  Cut Splice, 92


  Dalliance Knot, 83
  Davenport Brothers’ Knot, 86–87
  Delay Knot, 49
  Diamond Knot, 71, 72
  —— ——, Double, 72
  —— ——, Single, 72
  Dogshanks Shortening Knot, 54
  Double Boat Ring Knot, 45
  —— Chain Knot, Shortening, 58
  —— Diamond Knot, 72
  —— Lark’s Head Ring Knot, 47
  —— Pitcher Knot, 79


  End Seizing, 96
  Eye, Artificial, on Rope End, 98
  ——, Flemish, 97
  —— Knots, 24–29
  ——, Left-handed, Splicing, 141
  —— Seizing, 96
  —— Splice, 92
  —— Wire Rope Splice, 134, 135


  Fairleader, 103
  Fancy Knots, 66–88
  Fender, Boat’s, 104, 105
  Fid for Rope Splicing, 91
  Figure-of-Eight Knot, 16
  Fisherman’s Bend, 34
  —— Eye Knot, 24
  —— Knot, 21
  Flat Hemp Rope, Weight of, 12
  —— Rope Sockets, 155
  Flemish Eye, 97
  —— —— Knot, 26
  —— Knot, 16, 21
  Four-stranded Ropes, 10
  “Foxes” for Mat Making, 121
  French Sennit, 97
  —— Shroud Knot, 73
  Fringe, Bunting, 115


  Gaskets, 97
  Granny Knot, 18
  Grommet, Splicing, 93–95, 98
  Gunner’s Ring Knot, 49


  Halliard Bend, Topsail, 35
  Hammer, Set, for Tightening Rope, 154
  Hammock Clew, 128
  —— Making, 125–129
  ——, Mesh Stick for Making, 125
  —— Meshes, 127
  ——, Meshing, 126
  ——, Netting, 125
  ——, —— Needle for Making, 125
  ——, Slinging, 125

  Hawser-laid Rope, 11
  Hemp Rope, Safe Load on, 12
  —— ——, Sheave on, 12
  —— ——, Weight of, 12
  Hermann’s Trick Knot, 18
  Hide Rope, 10
  “Hitch,” 10
  Hitches, 30–34
  Hook, Mousing, 106
  Hooped Socket, Fitting, 151
  —— Winding Rope Socket, 150


  Jar Sling, 80, 81
  Jury Knot, 79


  Killick Hitch, 32
  “Knittles,” 105
  Knot, Artilleryman’s Ring, 49
  ——, Bellringer’s, 88
  ——, Blood, 15
  ——, Boat Shortening, 57
  ——, —— Ring, 43–45
  ——, Bow, 19
  ——, Bowline, 27
  ——, Builder’s, 30, 31, 47
  ——, —— Double, 32
  ——, Buoy Rope, 74
  ——, Calf, 18
  ——, Capstan Ring, 49
  ——, Chain Shortening, 52
  ——, Check, 24
  ——, Crabber’s Eye, 27
  ——, Crown, 67, 68, 111
  ——, Dalliance, 83
  ——, Davenport Brothers’, 86, 87
  ——, Delay, 49
  ——, Diamond, 71, 72
  ——, Dogshanks Shortening, 54
  ——, Double Boat Ring, 45
  ——, —— Chain Shortening, 58
  ——, —— Diamond, 72
  ——, —— Lark’s Head Ring, 47
  ——, —— Pitcher, 79
  ——, Eye, 24–29
  ——, Fancy, 66–88
  ——, Figure-of-eight, 16
  ——, Fisherman’s, 21
  ——, —— Eye, 24
  ——, Flemish, 16, 21
  ——, —— Eye, 97
  ——, French Shroud, 73
  ——, Granny, 18
  ——, Gunner’s Ring, 49
  ——, Hermann’s Trick, 18
  ——, Jury, 79
  ——, Lark Boat Ring, 44
  ——, Lark’s Head Ring, 45–47
  ——, Lubber’s, 18
  ——, Manharness Ring, 49
  ——, Manrope, 69, 112
  ——, Matthew Walker, 70, 71
  ——, Mooring, 49
  ——, Netter’s, 20
  ——, Openhand, 19
  ——, —— Eye, 25
  ——, Overhand, 15, 19, 21
  ——, Packing, 61
  ——, Pitcher, 77, 79
  ——, Portuguese, 61, 109
  ——, Puzzle, 79
  ——, Reef, 17
  ——, Ring, 43–52
  ——, Rosette, 19
  ——, Running Eye, 24
  ——, Sailor’s, 17, 18
  —— —— Backhanded Ring, 48
  ——, —— Ring, 49
  ——, Security of, 10
  ——, Shamrock, 81, 83
  ——, Sheepshanks Shortening. 54
  ——, Shortening, 58
  ——, Shroud, 72, 73
  ——, Single Diamond, 72
  ——, —— Pitcher, 77
  ——, Slip Eye, 24
  ——, Slipper Ring, 43
  ——, Spritsail Sheet, 73
  ——, Staffordshire, 16
  ——, Stationer’s, 42
  ——, Stopper, 15, 67
  ——, Tack, 69, 70
  ——, Thumb, 20
  ——, Tom Fool’s, 77
  ——, Treble Lark’s Head Ring, 47
  ——, Trick, 18, 79, 83–87
  ——, True, 17
  ——, “True-Lover’s,” 79
  ——, Turk’s Head, 75–77
  ——, Twist Shortening, 53
  ——, Wall, 66, 69, 110, 111
  ——, Weaver’s, 20
  ——, Wedding, 59
  ——, Whipcord, 23
  Knotting, Material for Practising, 13


  Ladder Chocks, 116
  —— Rope, 116–121
  —— Rounds, 116
  Lancashire System of Splicing Cotton Ropes, 93
  Langs-laid Rope, 147
  Lanyard, 104
  Lark Boat Ring Knot, 44
  —— Ring Knot with Crossed Ends, 46
  Lark’s Head Ring Knot, 45–47
  —— —— —— —— Stoppered, 45
  Lashing, Chain, for Poles and Ledgers, 131
  ——, Cross, 60
  ——, Regulating, 41
  ——, Rope, for Poles and Ledgers, 131
  Lashings and Ties, 59–65
  —— for Scaffolding, 130–132
  Ledger and Pole Lashings, 131
  Left-handed Eye-Splicing, 141
  —— Rope Splicing, 135
  Link Socket, 150
  Long-splicing, 91, 135, 143, 146
  Loop Shortening, 52
  Lovers’ Knot, True, 79
  Lubber’s Knot, 18


  Magnus Hitch, 33
  Mainstay, 109
  Mallet, Serving, used in Rope Splicing, 102, 137
  Manharness Ring Knot, 49
  Manilla-grass Rope, 10
  Manrope Knot, 69, 112
  Marlinespike for Rope Splicing, 91
  —— Hitch, 39
  Marling, 102
  “Marrying” Wire Rope Splice, 135
  Mason’s Whipping, 68
  Mat Making, 121–124
  ——, Sword, 122
  ——, Thrumming, 122
  Matthew Walker Knot, 70, 71
  Mesh Stick used in Hammock Making, 125
  Meshes, Chain of, 127
  Meshing in Hammock Making, 126
  Middle Seizing, 96
  Midshipman’s Hitch, 39
  Mooring Knot, 49
  Mousing a Hook, 106


  Necklace Tie, 60
  Netter’s Knot, 20
  Netting of Hammocks, 125
  —— Needle, 125
  “Nettles,” 105
  Nippering, 62


  Openhand Eye Knot, 25
  —— Knot, 19
  Overhand Knot, 15
  —— Knot Joining two Ropes, 21


  Packing, 62
  —— Knot, 60
  Parcelling, 100
  Pilot Ladder, 120
  Pitcher Knot, Double, 79
  —— ——, Single, 77
  Pin, Belaying, 103
  Pointing End of Yoke Line, 112
  —— Rope, 107, 108
  Pole and Ledger Lashings, 131
  Portuguese Knot, 61, 109
  Pricker used in Rope Splicing, 91
  Putlogs, Lashings for, 131
  Puzzle Knot, 79


  Quarter Gaskets, 97


  Racking Hitch, 36
  Réaumur Experiments on the Strengths of Ropes, 13
  Reef Knot, 17
  Regulating Lashing, 41
  Right-handed Splicing, 135–140
  Ring Knots, 43–52
  Riveted Flat Rope Sockets, 155
  Riveting Spikes, 155
  Rolling Hitch, 35
  Rope, Cable-laid, 10
  —— Formation, 9
  ——, Four-stranded, 10
  —— Ladder, 116–121
  —— Making, Principle of, 12, 13
  —— Materials, 10
  ——, Method of Measuring, 11
  ——, Sizes of, 11
  —— Sockets, Flat, 155
  —— Splicing, 89–95
  ——, Three-stranded, 10
  ——, Weight of, 12
  Ropeyarn Heart, Fender with, 105
  Rosette Knot, 19
  Round Seizing, 96, 97
  Rungs, Rope Ladder, 116, 118
  Running Bowline, 28
  —— Eye Knot, 24
  —— Knot, 29, 30


  Sailors’ Backhanded Ring Knot, 48
  —— Knot, 17, 18
  —— Ring Knot, 49
  Sally of Bellringer’s Knot, 88
  Scaffolding, Ties and Lashings for, 130–132
  Seizing, 96
  ——, End, 96
  ——, Eye, 96
  ——, Middle, 96
  ——, Round, 96, 97
  —— Stuff, 11
  ——, Throat, 96
  —— Wire, 140
  Selvagee, 98, 99
  Sennit, 97
  ——, French, 97
  Serving, 102
  —— Mallet, 103, 137
  —— Wire Rope, 136
  Set-hammer for Tightening Rope, 154
  Shamrock Knot, 81, 83
  Shear-legs, 109
  Sheave of Hemp Rope, 12
  —— —— Wire Rope, 12
  Sheepshanks Shortening Knot, 54–56
  —— Toggled Knot Shortening, 57
  Sheet Bend, 37, 38
  —— Knot, Spritsail, 73
  Shoeing Wire Rope, 150
  “Shortenings,” 52
  ——, Bend, 52
  ——, Loop, 52
  Shroud Knot, 72, 73
  —— ——, French, 73
  Shroud-laid Rope, 11
  Single Diamond Knot, 72
  —— Pitcher Knot, 77
  Sizes of Ropes, 11, 13
  Sling for Can or Jar, 80, 81
  Slinging Hammocks, 125
  —— Plank for use as Stage, 132
  Slip Eye Knot, 24
  Slipper Ring Knot, 43
  Slippery Hitch, 37
  Socket, 150
  —— Cramp, 155
  ——, Fitting Hooped, 155
  ——, Flat Rope, 155
  ——, Hooped Winding Rope, 150
  ——, Link, 150
  ——, Solid, with Closed Ends, 154
  ——, ——, with Open Ends, 154
  Socketing Wire Ropes, 133–155
  Splice, Cable, 92, 93
  ——, Cut, 92
  ——, Eye, 92
  ——, Long, 91
  ——, Short, 89
  ——, Wire Rope Eye, 134, 135
  ——, —— —— Long, 134
  ——, —— —— Short, 134
  Splicing, 89–95
  —— Cotton Ropes, 93
  —— Grommet, 93–95, 98
  ——, Long, 143–146
  ——, Method of Starting, 141, 142
  —— Wire Ropes, 133–155
  Spikes, Riveting, 155
  —— for Splicing, 148
  Spritsail Sheet Knot, 73
  Staffordshire Knot, 16
  Stages, Painters’, 132
  Stationer’s Knot, 42
  Steel Wire Rope, Safe Load on, 12
  Stern Ladder, 116
  Stick, Mesh, used in Hammock Making, 125
  Stopper Knot, 15, 67
  Stranded Ropes, 10, 11
  “Strands,” 10
  Stropping Block, 107
  Swage, Top, 149
  Sword Mat, 122


  Tack Knot, 69, 70
  Thimble, 106
  ——, Splicing, into Crane Rope, 141
  ——, ——, —— Trawl-warp, 141
  Thread, Strength of, 13
  Three-stranded Rope, 10, 11
  Throat Seizing, 96
  Thrumming Mats, 122
  Thumb Knot, 20
  Ties and Lashings, 59–65
  —— for Scaffolding, 130–132
  Timber Hitch, 32
  Toe Chock for Rope Ladder, 116
  Toggle, 104
  Tom Fool’s Knot, 77
  Topsail Halliard Bend, 35
  Top-swage, 149
  Trawl-warp, Splicing Thimble into, 141
  Treble Lark’s Head Ring Knot, 47
  Trick Knot, 18, 79, 83–87
  True Knot, 17
  True-lover’s Knot, 79
  Tuckers or Spikes for Splicing, 148
  Tufting of Bellringer’s Knot, 88
  Turk’s Head Knot, 75–77
  Twist Shortening Knot, 53


  Wall Knot, 66, 69, 110, 111
  Weaver’s Knot, 20
  Wedding Knot, 59
  Wedging Scaffold Lashings, 132
  Weight of Ropes, 12
  Whipping, 61, 62
  ——, West Country, 62, 63
  Whipcord Knot, 23
  Wire Rope Clamp, 149
  —— ——, Safe Load on, 12
  —— —— Sheave of, 12
  —— —— Socketing, 149–155
  —— —— Splicing, 133–149
  —— ——, Weight of, 12
  Worming, 99


  “Yarns,” 10
  Yoke Lines, 109
  —— ——, Fastening Off, 115
  —— ——, Pointing End of, 112


PRINTED BY CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED, LUDGATE HILL, LONDON, E.C.
30.705




TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES.

1. Silently corrected simple spelling, grammar, and typographical
errors.