AN
                            ACCOUNT OF SOME
                                OF THE
                   KJŒKKENMŒDDINGS, OR SHELL-HEAPS,
                                  IN
                       MAINE AND MASSACHUSETTS.

                                  BY
                         JEFFRIES WYMAN, M. D.

    REPRINTED FROM THE ELEVENTH NUMBER OF THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

                             SALEM, MASS.:
                        ESSEX INSTITUTE PRESS.
                                 1867.




                SHELL-HEAPS IN MAINE AND MASSACHUSETTS.


[Illustration: Crouch’s Cove, Casco Bay, Maine.]


                                  I.

Any one who would take the trouble on going to a strange city, to
examine the rubbish in its suburbs and streets, and carefully collect
and compare the fragments of pottery, pieces of cloth, of paper,
cordage, the bones of different animals used as food, worked pieces of
stone, wood, bone, or metal, might gain some insight into the modes of
life of the inhabitants, and form a fair conception of the progress
they had made in the arts of civilization. Even after a city has become
a ruin, and centuries have passed by, such examinations have been
attended with fruitful results. A savage tribe, dwelling for a long
period on one and the same place, would inevitably leave vestiges of
the manner in which they lived, though these would, of course, be fewer
in kinds just in proportion as the people were nearer to a primeval
condition.

The former dwelling-places of the Aborigines of the United States are
nowhere more plainly indicated than along the seaboard, where some
of the tribes passed a portion, at least, of each year, in hunting
and fishing; some no doubt living there permanently, while others, it
appears, made visits only at stated periods.[1] The clam, the quahog,
the scallop, and the oyster, entered largely into their food, and the
castaway shells of these, piled up during many years, have not only
become monuments of their sea-shore life, but have largely aided in the
preservation of the bones of the animals on which they fed, and also of
some of the more perishable implements used in their rude arts.

The shell-heaps on the Atlantic coast long since attracted notice.
Dr. C. T. Jackson, and afterwards Professor Chadbourne, visited the
remarkable one at Damariscotta, in Maine; Sir Charles Lyell has
particularly described another on St. Simon’s Island, in Georgia,[2]
and quite recently Mr. Charles Rau, of New York, has given a full and
instructive account of the examination of another at Keyport, New
Jersey.[3] We have ourselves examined two on the sea-coast of East
Florida, and still others in considerable numbers on the banks of the
upper St. John’s, in the same State. These last-mentioned heaps consist
wholly of the shells of fresh-water species. We may have something
to say of them hereafter, but at present shall only speak of such as
were visited on the coast of Maine and Massachusetts during the summer
and autumn of the year just passed. Of the localities where these are
situated, and of the structure of the heaps, we shall speak as briefly
as possible; but shall enter somewhat fully into details, in connection
with the implements and the remains of animals found in them. It is to
be understood, however, that the heaps here described are only a very
small portion of those to be seen along the coast of these two States,
and which offer an ample reward to any who will take the trouble to
examine them.


                                  II.

_Frenchman’s Bay._ Mount Desert is the largest of the islands on the
indented coast of Maine, and forms the western shore of Frenchman’s
Bay. Many shell-heaps are scattered over this and the adjoining islands
and the main land. Williamson,[4] without particularly designating
them, mentions the existence of several from one to two acres in
extent, and states that “a heavy growth of trees was found upon them
by the first settlers.” We have examined two. The first of these is in
Gouldsboro’, on the main land, and near the water’s edge on the eastern
shore of the bay. It is said to cover an acre of land, but being under
cultivation was examined only near its border, where a pit was sunk
showing a deposit of clamshells about two feet in thickness. Among
these were found the bones of several animals, including those of the
deer, elk, and beaver, but no implements of any kind. Stone implements
have, however, been found by those who have cultivated the soil of this
neighborhood.

A more complete examination was made of a second deposit on one of two
small islands, neither of which are named, about a mile west of the
place just mentioned.[5] This heap is seen on a bank, at a height of
about six feet above the high-water mark, varies in thickness from
a few inches to about three feet, and extends along the shore about
two hundred and fifty feet, and from thirty to forty feet inland. A
section through the heap at its thickest part showed that it belonged
to two different periods, indicated by two distinct layers of shells.
The lowest, a foot in thickness, consisted of the shells of the clam,
whelk, and mussel, all much decomposed, and mixed with earth. Above
this was a layer of dark vegetable mould, mixed with earth and gravel,
and from six to eight inches in thickness. Above this was a second
layer of shells, of the same species as those just mentioned, but in a
much better state of preservation, and with less intermixture of earth;
this deposit was in turn covered by another layer of earth and mould,
and these now sustain a growth of forest trees, but none of them of
large size. From the state of things just described, it would seem that
the place had been reoccupied, after having been once abandoned long
enough for a vegetable mould to be formed, and a layer of earth from
some neighboring source to be deposited over it. Charcoal was found in
considerable quantity, scattered among the shells, and the remains of
an old fireplace were uncovered. The bones of animals, and the various
kinds of implements (Pl. 14, figs. 3, 4, 5; Pl. 15, figs. 10, 11)
obtained during the excavations, will be described in another page.


                                 III.

_Crouch’s Cove._ This is situated on Goose Island, in Casco Bay, about
fifteen miles north-east of Portland. The whole island is at present
covered with a growth of spruce trees (_Abies nigra_), excepting a
narrow strip on the seaward side, and on this, at the southerly end of
the island, are several shell-heaps of different sizes. The longest of
these is about one hundred and fifty feet in length, forty in width,
and varying in thickness from a few inches to nearly three feet.
Considerable portions have been washed away, and the contents scattered
along the shore. The shells are mostly deposited evenly, but here and
there are raised into small knolls, and all are covered with turf. This
deposit has been carefully examined by Mr. C. B. Fuller, of Portland,
by whom large collections have been made, and a portion of which were
unfortunately destroyed by the great fire of 1866. Mr. Edward S.
Morse has more recently made a partial examination, and obtained many
valuable specimens, which will be mentioned farther on.

Our examinations[6] were begun on the bank and carried inland, until
about 375 square feet of surface, and more than 700 cubic feet of
material had been moved. Mr. Morse has given the following account of
the shells found in this, and some of the smaller deposits near by. He
enumerates the following species: “Common Clam (_Mya arenaria_), Quahog
(_Venus mercenaria_), Large Scallop (_Pecten tenuicostatus_), Large
Mussel (_Mytilus modiolus_), Cockle (_Purpura lapillus_), Beach Snail
(_Natica heros_), Whelk (_Buccinum undatum_), Periwinkle (_Littorina
litoralis_); and also the following, for which there are no common
names: _Nassa obsoleta_, _Natica triseriata_, and _Macoma fusca_. The
following land snails were also met with: _Helix albolabris_, _Sayii_,
_alternata_, _lineata_, _striatella_, _indentata_, _multidentata_, _Zua
lubricoides_, and _Succinea Totteniana_.”

“The heaps were almost entirely composed of the shells of the common
clam, which appeared longer and rougher in texture than that now dug
near by. In some of the heaps the shells of the quahog were abundant,
and marked for their size and solidity. This species, though no longer
found in the same cove with the heaps, may be had in the neighborhood
of Goose Island, but localities in which it lives are quite rare north
of Cape Cod. The common mussel, whelk, cockle, and scallop, were
probably used as food, while the other species were doubtless carried
there by accident. The presence of so many species of land snails would
seem to indicate that the island was once covered with hard-wood trees,
among which these animals alone flourish. The occurrence of the little
snail, _Zua lubricoides_, is inconsistent with the view that it is an
introduced species.”

The shells were deposited in two different layers, very much as on the
island in Frenchman’s Bay already described. The older was separated
from the more recent deposit by a thin stratum of earth, extending
through the largest portion of the heaps. Pieces of charcoal were
scattered everywhere among the shells, but in some places the larger
quantity and the blackened earth showed where fires had been made. The
number of the fragments of the bones of edible animals was quite large,
belonging to no less than fifteen species. Besides these, many bones of
other species, bone implements (Pl. 14, figs. 1, 2; Pl. 15, figs. 6, 7,
8, 9, 12, 13), and pieces of bone from which portions had been sawed
off were found; no implements of stone were exhumed, though Mr. Swan
found a small pestle, and Mr. Morse a chisel lying on the surface near
the shore.


                                  IV.

A third deposit was examined at _Eagle Hill_, in Ipswich,
Massachusetts, situated on the borders of a creek, by which easy access
is had to the sea-shore. The whole neighboring region consists of a
series of low hills of gravel, some of them covered with boulders,
but entirely destitute of forest trees. A few basswood trees (_Tilia
Americana_) have been known to exist there within a few years, but
otherwise those hills do not appear to have been wooded within the
memory or traditions of the present inhabitants. Several shell-heaps
are reported to exist in the neighborhood, but the only one examined
was on the easterly side of the hill mentioned above. This consists
of several disconnected deposits of shells, which are in part spread
out into a uniform layer, but in a few instances form small knolls
from eight to ten feet in diameter. Near the water’s edge the shells
are exposed by the washing away of the bank, but elsewhere are covered
with mould and turf, and, in some places, even on the knolls, with a
layer of gravel. In the more even portions, this last may have been
washed down from the slopes above, but such could not have been the
case with the knolls, for the tendency would have been to denudation
rather than to covering up. The shells, forming these deposits, are
almost exclusively those of the common clam, which are still found
here in great quantities, and yield a considerable revenue to those
engaged in digging them. Large piles of recently dug shells may be
seen along the neighboring shore, and noticeably contrast with those
from the Indian shell-heaps, in being thinner and less rough in their
texture. Shells of the oyster and the Mactra were found, but few in
number. Somewhat extensive excavations[7] yielded bones of the deer,
beaver, dog, birds, among these the bones of the turkey, and of fish;
but only a single implement of stone, which was spherical in shape,
with a groove around the middle of it. This was found by Mr. Putnam
just beneath the surface. Some of the bones showed distinct marks of
cutting instruments, and a few pieces of wrought bone were found, three
of which are represented in Pl. 15, figs. 15, 16, 17. Two distinct
fireplaces, indicated by hard-wood charcoal, ashes and blackened earth,
were discovered resting on the earth and beneath the shells.


                                  V.

In the town of _Salisbury_, Massachusetts, a series of heaps thirteen
in all, quite near together, consisted exclusively of the shell of the
clam. They are about a mile from the left bank of the Merrimack River,
near its mouth, and surrounded by a series of sand-downs, some wooded,
others naked; these last constantly changing from the action of the
wind. They vary in size from about twenty to more than one hundred feet
in diameter, but the shells form a layer of only a few inches, and are
largely mixed with sand. After a careful search, in company with Mr.
Alfred Osgood, of Newburyport, we failed to find in most of them any of
the works of man, except only a few flakes or “chips” of flint; but on
two, both near together, large quantities of chips were scattered over
the surface, and more than five pounds were picked up. Besides these,
several arrow-heads and fragments of pots, made of burned clay mixed
with coarse sand, were found. No bones of animals, which might have
served for food, were noticed, though carefully looked for. In previous
years, large numbers of stone implements of various kinds have been
carried away; but as the place is in the neighborhood of a large town,
and is frequently visited by those in search of such relics, they are
now nearly exhausted.


                                  VI.

_Cotuit Port_ is in the town of Barnstable, on the south side of Cape
Cod, and on the northern shore of a narrow bay. It is quite near to
the sea, but protected from it by a narrow spit of land, which forms
a natural breakwater across the bay at its mouth. Within the distance
of a few miles, a large number of shell-heaps are met with, and have
been estimated to cover hundreds of acres, sometimes having a thickness
of between one and two feet, and at others of only a few inches.
Oysters were formerly found in the bay in much larger quantities
than at present, and doubtless formed one of the chief attractions
which drew the Indians to this place. Our examinations were confined
chiefly to one of the larger deposits, about a mile to the eastward of
the village, situated on a sloping surface with a pleasant southerly
exposure. Excavations by four persons during a whole day were made
near the shore, and at various points inland, and brought to light the
shells of the oyster, clam, scallop, and quahog, in large numbers, but
quite unequally distributed; the clam being plentiful in some places,
the quahog in others, and the scallop in others, while the oyster
abounded everywhere.

Two species of _Pyrula_, viz.: _P. carica_ and _P. canaliculata_ were
found, the first in considerable numbers. Neither of these species was
found in any of the other heaps. Dr. Gould states that they are not
known to exist north of Cape Cod. The largest specimen of the _P.
carica_ was about seven inches in length, a portion of the spire having
been broken off, and this, according to Dr. Gould, is their maximum
size on the Coast of Massachusetts. It is, however, in remarkable
contrast with a shell of the same species from one of the shell-heaps
in Florida, which measured nearly fourteen inches in length.

Of the remains of vertebrates, the bones of the deer were the most
abundant; but those of the seal, the fox, the mink, of birds, including
those of a duck and the wild turkey, of turtle and of fish were found.
During a former examination of this locality by Mr. George G. Lowell
and Dr. Algernon Coolidge, a canine of a bear and a part of the skull
of a cat was obtained. No stone implements, but a few worked pieces
of bone were dug up, and also some fragments from which portions had
been sawed off. The tine of a deer’s antler, from which the tip had
been sawed off, is represented on Pl. 15, fig. 14. About two-thirds of
the metatarsal bone of the great toe from a human foot was found, in
company with the bones of the animals already mentioned, and is the
only portion of the skeleton of man which we have discovered while
examining the heaps here described. The writer would express his
obligations to Mr. George G. Lowell for the opportunity of examining
the locality at Cotuit Port, and for the gift of valuable specimens.


                                 VII.

_Age._ Shell-heaps have become intimately associated with the question
of the age of the human race, a question which has passed out of the
domain of the written, into that of geological history. It can only be
satisfactorily answered by following the method of the geologist, when
he attempts to determine the period when a given animal existed in
former geological times, viz., by a careful comparison of the remains
of such animal with those of existing species, and by an accurate study
of the geological and other physical conditions under which they are
found. In Denmark, such methods applied to the _Kjœkkenmœddings_, or
refuse-heaps, have yielded results of great importance to archæology,
and have shown that some of these heaps at least, as in Seeland along
the Isefjord, date back to a period when their geological surroundings
were somewhat different from what they now are, when the shores were
less raised above the sea, and the oysters, of the shells of which the
heaps are made up, had not yet retreated to where the fresher waters of
the Baltic, at the present time, mingle with those of the ocean in the
Kategatt.

The shell-heaps we have here described yield nothing which indicates
as high an antiquity as those of the old world. The materials of them
present some variety in the degree of decomposition which has resulted
from time and exposure, the lower layers being much more disintegrated
and friable, the shells in fact falling to pieces, while those of the
upper ones generally preserve their original firmness. That there was
a difference in time in which these layers were deposited, is further
indicated by the fact, that, in two of the heaps, a stratum of earth is
interposed between the earlier and later deposits, as if the locality
had been abandoned as a camping place, and then after a prolonged
absence of the natives had been reoccupied. Each heap, too, is covered
with a deposit of earth and vegetable mould, of variable thickness, and
in some cases, as at Frenchman’s Bay, supporting a growth of forest
trees, though these were nowhere of such size as to indicate that they
had lived a century. Mr. Morse has called attention to the abundance
of _Helices_, or land snails, which were exhumed at Crouch’s Cove,
and to the fact that these require a hard-wood growth for subsistence,
while at present the island, on which this cove is situated, is covered
with spruces. It is also noticeable that there has been in all the
localities, except at Salisbury, a disintegration of the shores, the
sea undermining and destroying the deposits. There can be no doubt that
these were once much more extensive than now, and that the water has
worked its way into their places. Lastly, these deposits contain the
remains of animals, as of the elk, not known at present to exist to the
eastward of the Alleghany Mountains; of the wild turkey, now virtually
extinct in New England; and of the great auk, which, unless it still
live on some of the small islands to the north of Newfoundland, has
receded almost, if not quite, to the arctic regions.

All these circumstances are certainly signs of the lapse of time.
Nevertheless, in the absence of any positive data as to how long a
period is necessary for the accumulation of vegetable mould, or for the
washing of earth from the slopes above on to the heaps below, or for
the rate of decomposition of shells in a given time, or of the rate
of the denudations of the shores; and in view, too, of the fact that
the animals represented in the heaps, but now no longer met with in
the regions of them, have all disappeared within the historic period
of this continent, it will be readily admitted that proof of great age
or “high antiquity” is not found in any or all the circumstances which
have been mentioned above.

On the other hand, it may be safely said that there is nothing in the
condition of these heaps which is inconsistent with the hypothesis that
they were begun many centuries ago. The examinations at Crouch’s Cove,
Eagle Hill, and Cotuit Port were sufficiently extended to enable us
to obtain a fair representation of the objects they contain; but in
no case was there found, nor have we been able to learn, that there
had been previously found a single article which could be regarded
as having been made by, or derived from the white man, nor did we
obtain any evidence that these particular heaps had been materially
added to since the European has occupied these shores. Had intercourse
with Europeans been once fairly established, it were a reasonable
presumption that we should have found at least a glass bead, a fragment
of earthenware, or an instrument of some sort indicative of the fact,
especially when we bear in mind that it would be in just such places,
where the savages collected around their fires and seething-pots to
cook and eat, that such objects might be expected to be broken or lost.
Finally, if the statements of Williamson on the authority of Johnson be
correct, viz., that “a heavy growth of trees was found on them” (the
deposits of clam-shells near Mount Desert) “by the first settlers,” we
have something like satisfactory evidence that their age could not have
been less than between three or four centuries.


                                 VIII.

_Remains of Animals._ Human remains have not been found in the
shell-heaps of Denmark, except in the case of casual burials, as of a
shipwrecked sailor, or of burials from some other unusual occurrence,
and these are of a modern date. The same absence of human remains marks
the shell-heaps we are describing, with a single exception. At Cotuit
Port an unequivocal metatarsal bone from the great toe of the human
foot was discovered. No other bones were found with it, except those of
animals. It was so deeply buried, and its appearance was such, that
no doubt exists that it was of the same age as the heap itself; we
have therefore assigned it a place in the following table, which gives
a list of the species of animals uncovered and identified by their
bones, or shells, in the different heaps, and shows their relative
distribution through them.

--+-------------------------------------+-------+--------+------+-------
  | Kinds of Animals found              |Mount  |Crouch’s| Eagle| Cotuit
  |   in the Shell-heaps.               |Desert.| Cove.  | Hill.|  Port.
--+-------------------------------------+-------+--------+------+-------
 1| Man,                                |       |        |      |   *
 2| Elk (_Cervus Canadensis_),          |   *   |        |      |
 3| Moose (_Alce Americanus_),          |   *   |    *   |      |
 4| Caribou (_Rangifer Caribou_),       |       |    *   |      |   ?
 5| Deer (_Cervus Virginianus_),        |   *   |    *   |   *  |   *
 6| Bear (_Ursus Americanus_),          |       |    *   |      |   *
 7| Wolf (_Canis occidentalis_)         |   *   |        |      |
 8| Dog (_Canis_),                      |   *   |        |   *  |   *
 9| Fox (_Vulpes fulvus_),              |       |        |      |   *
10| Cat (_Felis_),                      |       |        |      |   *
11| Otter (_Lutra Canadensis_),         |       |    *   |      |
12| Mink (_Putorius vison_),            |       |    *   |      |   *
13| Sable (_Mustella Americana_),       |       |    *   |      |
14| Skunk (_Mephitis mephitica_),       |       |        |      |   *
15| Seal (_Phoca vitulina_),            |   *   |    *   |      |   *
16| Beaver (_Castor Canadensis_),       |   *   |    *   |   *  |
17| Woodchuck (_Arctomys monax_),       |   *   |        |      |
18| Great Auk (_Alca impennis_),        |   *   |    *   |      |
19| Razor-bill (_Alca torda_),          |   *   |        |      |
20| Ducks (three species),              |   *   |    *   |      |
21| Wild Turkey (_Meleagris gallopavo_),|       |        |   *  |   *
22| Heron (_Ardea herodias_),           |       |    *   |      |
23| Tortoise (two species),             |       |        |      |   *
24| Shark,                              |       |        |      |   *
25| Cod (_Morrhua Americana_),          |   *   |    *   |   *  |
26| Goose-fish (_Lophius Americanus_),  |       |    *   |      |
27| Whelk (_Buccinum undatum_),         |   *   |    *   |      |
28| _Pyrula carica_,                    |       |        |      |   *
29| _Pyrula canaliculata_,              |       |        |      |   *
30| Oyster (_Ostrea edulis_),           |   *   |    *   |   *  |   *
31| Clam (_Mya arenaria_),              |   *   |    *   |   *  |   *
32| Quahog (_Venus mercenaria_),        |       |    *   |   *  |   *
33| Mussel (_Mytilus edulis_),          |   *   |    *   |   *  |   *
34| Scallop (_Pecten tenuicostatus_     |       |        |      |
  |   and _P. Islandicus_),             |       |    *   |      |   *
35| Hen-clam (_Mactra_),                |       |    *   |      |
--+-------------------------------------+-------+--------+------+-------

Besides the species of shells mentioned above, and which may be
regarded as having been used for food, there were also found species
from the following genera, probably accidentally introduced, viz.:
_Tritonium_, _Littorina_, _Nassa Zua_ and _Purpura_; seven species of
_Helix_; three species of _Natica_.

A glance at the above table shows what a great variety of animals was
brought to these places by the Indians. Some were hunted as articles of
food, others for their skin, and still others for both. Precisely where
the line is to be drawn between those which are and are not edible, or
what animal an Indian would absolutely refuse to eat, it is impossible
to say. Although the kinds of meat used were in the main palatable, the
natives certainly did not hesitate to make use of some which do not
commend themselves to the taste of civilized people. Josselyn, who, of
all the earlier writers, has given the most complete account of the
animals found on the coast of New England, states that “the Indians,
when weary with travelling, will take them (the rattlesnakes) up with
their bare hands, laying hold with one hand behind their head, with the
other taking hold of their tail, and with their teeth tear off the skin
of their backs, and feed upon them alive, which, they say, refresheth
them.”[8]

The bones of the deer and birds outnumber those of all the other kinds.
The condition in which they are found bears a striking resemblance
to that of the bones from the shell-heaps of Scotland, the Orkneys,
and Denmark. Nearly all the fragments from the _deer_ were those of
the long bones, which in the living animal are either covered by
the largest amount of flesh, or contain the most marrow. Not one of
them was whole, all having been broken up for the double purpose of
extracting the marrow, a custom almost world wide among savages, and
often practised by hunters, and of accommodating them to the size of
the vessel in which they were cooked. Even the phalanges of the toes
were treated in the same way.

The bones of the _bear_, though much less numerous, were similarly
broken up, and in two instances had been carbonized by contact with
the fire. Among the specimens collected by Mr. Morse in his first
visit to Crouch’s Cove, was the last molar from the lower jaw. The
crown was somewhat worn, but the ridges were not all effaced; it was
of small size, measuring 0.55 inch in length, and 0.46 in breadth. The
average size of eight specimens of the same molar in the black bear
was, length 0.60 inch, breadth 0.47, while that of two specimens from
the polar bear was, length 0.54 inch, breadth 0.45. The tooth from the
shell-heaps, therefore, as regards size, more closely resembles the
last-mentioned species, as it does also in the shape of the crown,--but
it would be unsafe, from a single specimen of the molar in question,
to attempt to identify them. The former existence of the polar bear,
on the coast of Maine, is rendered quite probable by the fact that the
tusk of a walrus has actually been found at Gardiner.[9] Sir Charles
Lyell obtained a portion of the cranium of another at Gay Head,
Martha’s Vineyard.[10] It was found by a fisherman who supposed that
it had fallen from a cretaceous bed in the cliff above. Perhaps it may
have been of a more recent date, and a contemporary of the Great Auk.

The presence of the bones of the _dog_ might be accounted for on the
score of its being a domesticated animal, but the fact that they were
not only found mingled with those of the edible kinds, but like them
were broken up, suggests the probability of their having been used as
food. We have not seen it mentioned, however, by any of the earlier
writers, that such was the case along the coast, though it appears to
have been otherwise with regard to some of the interior tribes as the
Hurons. With them, game being scarce, “venison was a luxury found only
at feasts, and dog flesh was in high esteem.”[11] We have not found any
marks of cutting instruments, as was the case with the bones found by
Steenstrup in the shell-heaps of Denmark, and from which circumstance
he inferred that dogs were eaten. In fact, they have served as food in
so many parts of the world, that the use of their flesh anywhere ought
not to be considered an improbability.

A whole left half of the lower jaw of a _wolf_ was found at Mount
Desert, measuring 7.5 inches in length, making a strong contrast in
size, with a similar half from a dog found at Crouch’s Cove. This was
more curved, and had a length of a little less than five inches.

The bones of _birds_, like those of the deer, were almost without
exception broken, but in quite a different manner. In the latter it was
the shaft that was shattered, the ends often remaining uninjured; while
in the birds the shaft was whole, and the ends not only broken off, but
nowhere to be found. It is not to be supposed that they were so broken
off for the extraction of the marrow, since those containing only air
were treated in the same way. Steenstrup having observed the same fact
in the remains from the Danish shell-heaps, suspected that they were
mutilated by dogs, and accordingly by way of experiment, having kept
some of these animals on short diet, gave them various bird bones to
eat. He found, as he had anticipated, that they ate the ends, rejecting
the shaft. He explains their choice by the greater sponginess, and
easier digestibility of the former as compared with the dense middle
portion of the latter. No doubt an additional inducement was found in
the remains of flesh, tendon, and ligament, which would usually remain
adherent to the ends, after the portions ordinarily eaten had been
removed. On looking over the specimens of our collections, marks of
teeth of animals were frequently noticed, some of them of such size as
might be made by dogs, but others by a much smaller animal, as a cat or
mink.

Of the remains of birds, by far the most interesting are those of
the Great Auk (_Alca impennis_), which formerly had a much wider
geographical distribution than now, for having followed the glaciers in
their retreat, at present it is confined to the arctic and subarctic
regions. In Europe it formerly existed, as appears from the evidence
of the shell-heaps, on the shores of Scotland, the Orkneys, and it
has recently died out in Iceland. In the United States we have the
authority of Steenstrup and Prof. Baird for its former existence as
far south as Cape Cod. There can be but little doubt that the last
survivors lingered till after the arrival of the Europeans. The
description of the “Wobble,” by Josslyn, as far as it goes, applies
to the Great Auk, “an ill-shaped bird, having no long feathers in
their pinions which is the reason they cannot fly; not much unlike a
penguin.”[12]

There are various traditions along the sea-coast of its having been
seen at a much later date. Audubon, however, in his voyage to Labrador
saw none in the Straits of Belle Isle, but was told that they still
bred on an island north of Newfoundland.

The remains of the Great Auk in the shell-heaps of Maine, were in
sufficient numbers to show that it must have been common, since
seven specimens of the humerus alone were found, besides fragments
of the cranium, jaws, and sternum. The specimens of humerus differed
remarkably in condition from the same bone of other birds found with
them, in not being mutilated; for of the seven specimens, four were
whole, and the fifth had lost but one end, while of the humeri of the
other kinds, scarce one was whole enough to enable one to identify
the species. They seem not to have been attractive to the dogs.
They are characterized by their much flattened shape, thick walls,
narrow cavity, and the absence of an opening for the entrance of air.
Well-preserved specimens of the coracoid bone were also found entire.

The catalogue we have given of the animals found in the shell-heaps
shows that the elements of variety in food certainly existed,
especially if we add to these the maize, beans, squashes, and various
kinds of roots Indians are known to have used. From the testimony of
eyewitnesses, soon after the settlement of the country, it appears that
while sometimes the Indian contented himself with maize roasted, or
with this and beans made into a pottage, he often, when the necessary
materials were at hand, made what might well be called a hodge-podge.
Gookin gives a full account of the manner in which this was concocted.
In a word, it consisted of a mixture of fish and flesh of all sorts.
“Shad, eels, alewives,” “venison, beaver, bear’s flesh, moose, otters,
raccoons, or any kind that they take in hunting,” are cut into pieces,
bones and all, and stewed together. “Also they mix with said pottage
several sorts of roots, as Jerusalem artichokes, and ground nuts, and
other roots, and pompions, and squashes, and also several sorts of
nuts or masts, as oak-acorns, chestnuts, walnuts. These, husked and
dried and powdered, they thicken their pottage therewith.”[13]

Father Rasles[14] expresses his disgust at their style of cooking and
eating, and Wood evidently had a poor stomach for “their unoat-mealed
broth, made thick with fishes, fowles, and beasts, boyled all together,
some remaining raw, the rest converted by overmuch seething to a
loathed mash, not half so good as Irish boniclapper.”[15] When visiting
the English, if offered food, Wood informs us they ate but little, “but
at home they will eat till their bellies stand forth ready to split
with fullness.”[15]

_Works of Art._ _Pottery_ is poorly represented, only small fragments
having been found. Like those from other parts of the United States,
the pots were made of clay, with or without the admixture of pounded
shells, and were imperfectly burned so that the walls are both friable
and porous. The ornamentation, when it exists, is of the rudest kind
(Pl. 14, fig. 18), consisting of indentations or tracings with a single
point, or, as in some cases, with a series of points on one and the
same instrument. Both at Crouch’s Cove and Cotuit Port, specimens were
found in which the lines in the surface had been formed by impressing
an evenly twisted cord into the soft clay (Pl. 14, fig. 19), the cord
being laid on in various positions. This kind of ornamentation has a
special interest, since there is evidence of its having been made use
of in widely distant places. We have found similar specimens on the
banks of the St. John’s in Florida; there are others from Illinois,
presented to the Peabody Museum by J. P. Pearson, Esq., of Newburyport,
and others have been noticed in the ancient barrows of England.[16]
This kind of ornament has given rise to the belief that the pots were
moulded in nets, which were removed after the vessel was finished. All
the specimens we have seen are wanting in any indication of a regular
mesh, or of the existence of knots where the cords crossed, which, if
they existed, as they must have in a net, could not have failed to be
represented.

_Implements._ It is somewhat remarkable that with the exception of
the shell-heaps at Salisbury, all of those here described yielded so
few articles made of stone. At Mount Desert only two arrow-heads were
found, at Crouch’s Cove Mr. Swann found a pestle, and Mr. Morse a rude
chisel, both picked up on the shore, but probably washed out from among
the shells. At Eagle Hill, Mr. Putnam found a spherical stone with a
groove around it, but at Cotuit Port not a single piece of worked stone
was discovered. In regions adjoining the different shell deposits,
especially at Cotuit Port, an abundance of stone implements have been
found, and those who have preceded us have occasionally obtained some
from the heaps. In the Danish heaps, they seem to have been quite
common, and Mr. Rau found them so at Keyport.

Implements of _bone_, on the other hand, are quite abundant, as
were also fragments of bone showing the marks of the instruments by
which pieces had been detached, and of such there was a considerable
variety. Some of the bones were cut across by making a groove around
the circumference, as one would cut a notch in a stick, and breaking
the rest; and others, as the metatarsal bones of the elk and deer,
were split lengthwise, by making a groove on each side nearly to the
marrow cavity, and completing the division by fracture. The roughly
striated surface of the groove, and its undulating course, indicate a
piece of stone, and not a saw, as the instrument with which the work
was done. We have found by experiment that this mode of working bone
does not prove so great a labor as it might at first sight seem to be,
and with care have succeeded in splitting in two, lengthwise, in the
course of an hour, a piece of human ulna seven inches long, by means
of a flint “chip” held in the hand. This, of course, involves a large
expenditure of time, but it must be remembered that an Indian’s time
was not valued. The work is rendered very much easier by keeping both
the instrument and bone wet. It has been objected to the opinion, that
certain implements from the European heaps were used as saws, that
having wedge-shaped edges they would soon become “choked” or “jammed.”
Practically this does not happen, for we have uniformly found that the
roughness of the sides of the flint is sufficient to widen the groove
as fast as the edge deepens it.

Implements of bone made by the Indians dwelling in New England have
rarely been mentioned, and are seldom seen in collections, but if one
may judge from the number of specimens we have obtained, must have
been in quite common use. The inhabitants of the North-west Coast, and
the Esquimaux, are largely dependent upon this material, and Messrs.
Squier and Davis found a few bone instruments in the mounds of Ohio.
The accompanying figures, drawn by Mr. Morse, represent the forms of
the more important ones discovered in the different heaps, which form
the subject of this paper. Except the first, which is reduced one-half,
linear measurement, all are represented of the natural size. We are
unable to assign any uses for the larger part of them, and of the
others can only offer a conjecture.

[Illustration: Pl. 14.

  Fig. 1.
  Fig. 2.
  Fig. 2 _a_.
  Fig. 3.
  Fig. 4.
  Fig. 5.
  Fig. 18.
  Fig. 19.

  WYMAN ON THE SHELL-HEAPS OF NEW ENGLAND.]

[Illustration: Pl. 15.

  Fig. 6.
  Fig. 7.
  Fig. 8.
  Fig. 9.
  Fig. 10.
  Fig. 11.
  Fig. 12.
  Fig. 13.
  Fig. 14.
  Fig. 15.
  Fig. 16.
  Fig. 17. 17 _a_.

  WYMAN ON THE SHELL-HEAPS OF NEW ENGLAND.]


                   EXPLANATIONS OF PLATES 14 AND 15.

Fig. 1. This instrument is ten inches long, two inches and a half broad
at the top, and one at the point. It is made of one of the branches of
the antler of the moose or elk. The breadth of the upper portion is not
seen in the figure, as the piece is represented as viewed edgewise.
It is obliquely truncated at the lower end, so as to give it a
chisel-shaped edge, and shows the effect of having been hacked by some
dull tool. Attached to a handle it might be used to dig with, or might
serve for the purpose of a head-breaker, or “casse-téte,” as described
by Father Rasles.[17] From Frenchman’s Bay.

Fig. 2. A flat-pointed instrument, 3¾ inches long, and 1¼ wide. This is
made of the dense exterior portion of an antler, and at the lower end
has a thin sharp edge as in Fig. 2 _a_. From Crouch’s Cove.

Fig. 3. A piece of one of the branches of the antler of a deer, from
which the tip has been cut off. The sides near the pointed end have
been worked down so as to present four faces, two of the angles uniting
them being quite acute. The detached piece having a deep notch would
be provided with two points or barbs, and would be adapted to serve as
the point of an arrow. Such points were used by the aborigines, and
we are informed by Winslow, that when the Pilgrims were making their
first explorations on the shore at Cape Cod, previously to landing at
Plymouth, some of the arrows shot at them had the kind of point just
described.[18] From Cotuit Port.

Fig. 4. An artificially pointed fragment of bone. From Crouch’s Cove.

Fig. 5. An artificially pointed fragment of bone, suitable for the
purpose of an awl. From Crouch’s Cove.

Fig. 6. A fragment of a bone of a bird, obliquely truncated and
artificially sharpened. From Crouch’s Cove.

Fig. 7. One of the lower incisors of a beaver, ground to a thin, sharp
edge, which last is formed by the enamel on the inner, or flat side of
the tooth. From Crouch’s Cove.

Fig. 8. A well wrought and polished spindle-shaped instrument, the
lower end of which is flattened, and has a sharp edge; the upper
portion is rounded with the end broken off, but appears to have been
worked to a sharp point. From Frenchman’s Bay.

Fig. 9. A slender piece of bone, smoothly wrought and pointed. From
Frenchman’s Bay.

Figs. 10 and 12, from Frenchman’s Bay, and 11 and 13, from Crouch’s
Cove, are all made of flattened pieces, each being cut from the walls
of one of the long bones, and showing the concellated structure on one
of the sides.

Fig. 15. From Eagle Hill; the serrated edge is quite sharp, but from
this the bone rapidly increases to one-third of an inch in thickness,
so as to render it wholly unsuitable to be used as a saw.

Figs. 16 and 17 are flat, scraped very thin, as seen in 17 _a_; one of
them is made from the bone of a bird. From Eagle Hill.

The specimens represented by the figures just enumerated, together
with other wrought pieces more or less mutilated, and collections of
the bones and shells from each of the heaps, are preserved in the
Peabody Museum of Archæology and Ethnology at Cambridge, and in the
Ethnological Department of the Essex Institute in Salem. Of these
specimens, those represented in Figs. 6, 7, 11, 13 and 14, were from
the Rev. J. A. Swan; Figs. 1, 9, 12 from Mr. William A. Hayes; Figs. 2
and 4 from Mr. Horace Mann; Figs. 10 and 17 from Mr. F. W. Putnam; Fig.
15 from Mr. E. S. Morse, and Figs. 3, 5, 8, 10, from the writer.

[Illustration: KJOEKKENMOEDDING]


                              FOOTNOTES:

[1] “Quand les sauvages vont à la mer pour y passer quelques mois à la
chasse des canards, des outards, et des autres oiseaux qui s’y trouve
en quantité,” etc. Lettres du P. Sebastian Rasles à Narantsook ce 25
Oct., 1722. Lettres Edifiantes, Paris, 1838.

[2] Second Visit to the United States. New York, 1849. Vol. I. p. 252.

[3] Smithsonian Report, 1864, p. 370.

[4] History of the State of Maine. Hallowell, 1832. Vol. I. p. 80.

[5] The two heaps were examined in company with Dr. Calvin Ellis,
Messrs, John L. Hayes, William A. Hayes, and R. E. Fitz, to whom the
writer is indebted for valuable specimens found by them.

[6] The excavations were made by Rev. J. A. Swan, and Messrs. E. S.
Morse, F. W. Putnam, Horace Mann, Edwin Bicknell, and the writer. The
sketch of the locality was made by Mr. Joseph P. Thompson.

[7] Made by Messrs. E. S. Morse, F. W. Putnam, C. Cooke, and the writer.

[8] New England’s Rarities Discovered. London, 1672. p. 39.

[9] Observations on the Glacial Phenomena of Labrador and Maine. By A.
S. Packard, jr. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. I. p. 246.

[10] Travels in North America. New York, 1845. Vol. I. p. 205.

[11] Parkman. Jesuits in America. Boston, 1867. p. 30.

[12] New England’s Rarities Discovered, p. 11.

[13] Historical Collection of the Indians of New England, in
Collections of Massachusetts History Society. Boston, 1792. p. 150.

[14] Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuse. Vol. I. p. 670.

[15] New England’s Discovered Rarities. London, 1635. p. 59.

[16] Prehistoric Times, by John Lubbock, 1805. p. 113.

[17] Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuse. Paris, 1838. Vol. I. p. 670.

[18] Young’s Chronicles of the Pilgrims. Boston, 1841. p. 158.




                         Transcriber’s Notes:

  - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
  - Blank pages have been removed.