Transcriber’s Note
  Italic text displayed as: _italic_




                                 THE

                         TURNER’S COMPANION:

                     CONTAINING INSTRUCTIONS IN

            CONCENTRIC, ELLIPTIC, AND ECCENTRIC TURNING;

                            ALSO VARIOUS

              Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments:

                                 AND

     DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE ECCENTRIC CUTTER, DRILL, VERTICAL
                     CUTTER, AND CIRCULAR REST;

                           WITH PATTERNS,

                 AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR WORKING THEM.

                            PHILADELPHIA:
                         HENRY CAREY BAIRD,
                        INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER,
                       No. 406 WALNUT STREET.
                                1868.




                              CONTENTS.


                                                                  PAGE

  Preface                                                           11

  History of the Lathe                                              18


  Arc patterns described                                           105

  —— ——, how worked                                                107

  —— ——, observations upon                                         108

  Balls, Chinese                                                    68

  Balls, how turned                                                111

  Balls and hollow spheres                                          68

  Black dye for ivory                                               64

  Bleaching ivory                                                   63

  Boring collars                                                    53

  Boring tools                                                      55

  —— ——, how to use properly                                        56

  Bottle                                                            91

  Box, how made                                                     44

  ——, how polished                                                  45

  ——, lined with orange-peel                                       124

  —— —— —— tortoise-shell                                          124

  Brass wheel                                                       72

  Catgut, advantage of                                              32

  Cement for ivory                                                 111

  —— for turners                                                   131

  Circular rest                                                     86

  —— saw                                                            38

  Circles, how to begin                                             73

  —— with eccentric chuck                                           97

  Chain                                                            111

  Chisels                                                           35

  Chucks                                                            39

  ——, to make in wood                                               42

  ——, choice of wood for                                            42

  ——, centering wood for                                            43

  ——, for work                                                      46

  ——, traversing                                                    52

  ——, how to use                                                    53

  Copper tools                                                      36

  Drill                                                             80

  ——, shape and uses                                                80

  ——, description of tools belonging to                             83

  Eccentric turning                                                 71

  —— cutter described                                               74

  —— ——, its uses                                                   76

  —— ——, its tools                                                  76

  —— —— patterns                                                    77

  —— —— chuck                                                       94

  —— —— ——, how to use                                              97

  —— —— —— patterns                                                 98

  Eccentric cutter and chuck united                                115

  —— —— patterns worked with them                                  115

  —— —— pillars                                                    109

  Elliptic machine                                                  65

  Flowers turned in ivory                                           69

  Glue, to make                                                     39

  ——, to use                                                        39

  Goneometer                                                        85

  Gouge                                                             34

  Hand saw                                                          38

  Handles of tools                                                  37

  Holly used for ivory                                              58

  Hook and eye, how to use                                          32

  Impressions of turning patterns                                  114

  Ivory preferable to wood                                          63

  ——, how to polish                                                 63

  ——, proper tools for turning                                      37

  ——, to cleanse from grease                                        64

  ——, to dye red                                                    64

  ——, to dye black                                                  65

  Lathes                                                            29

  ——, metallic and wooden                                           29

  ——, construction of                                               30

  ——, proper situation for                                          34

  Lighter case                                                      90

  Lining patterns                                                   73

  Lines in ivory filled with ink                                   114

  Mandrel described                                                 31

  Mastic, for turning ivory thin                                   128

  ——, to cleanse the ivory from                                    129

  Milling tools                                                     47

  Moulding tools                                                    37

  Needle cases                                                 90, 112

  Overhead frame                                                    74

  Ornamented stoppers                                               92

  Parallel rest                                                     71

  —— ——, how to use                                                 72

  —— ——, to move for side work                                      74

  Pen-holder                                                        81

  Point tools                                                       36

  Polishing soft wood                                               45

  —— hard wood                                                      62

  —— tortoise-shell                                                127

  Printing in the lathe                                             69

  Puppet                                                            30

  Rest                                                              33

  Regulating the chuck wheel                                        95

  Right-side tools                                                  35

  Rings, to make                                                   110

  Snuff-box, lined with tortoise-shell                             126

  Saws                                                              38

  Scraping tool                                                     36

  Screws                                                            48

  ——, tools for cutting                                             48

  Spiral turning                                                   112

  Table of numbers                                                  79

  Tap                                                               43

  Tenon saw                                                         38

  Tools                                                             34

  ——, proper method to sharpen                                      63

  Tool rack                                                         37

  Tortoise-shell                                                   124

  Traversing mandrel                                                49

  —— chuck                                                          51

  Turned temple                                                    109

  Turning patterns                                    77, 98, 105, 115

  Twisted pillar, support for                                      133

  Vertical cutter                                                   88

  Vandyke pattern                                                   84

  Varnish used in the lathe                                        129

  Woods, English                                                    57

  ——, foreign                                                       58

  ——, to imitate mahogany                                           57

  ——, to stain red                                                  60

  —— —— yellow                                                      61

  —— —— black                                                       61

  —— —— purple                                                      61

  —— —— mahogany                                                    32




                              PREFACE.


The primary object of the author, in offering THE TURNER’S COMPANION
to the notice of the public, is the hope of explaining, in a clear,
concise, and intelligible manner, the rudiments of this beautiful
art; an art immortalized by the pen of Virgil, practised by the
Greeks and Romans, and, as we are told, still existing in those
exquisite _chef-d’œuvres_ of former years, so much admired and sought
after in our century.

A short treatise on this subject is much wanted, and the author has
endeavoured to give such correct and comprehensive information
as will, he hopes, render the following pages useful as a book of
practical instruction to the beginner, and of reference to those
already advanced in the study of this beautiful science. The activity
of mind requisite for the attainment of perfect success in all
the various branches of Turning, by exercising the inventive and
reflective powers, cannot fail of producing a beneficial effect on
the character of youth, which must prove a lasting advantage; and the
minute accuracy necessary for handling the tools, serves to confirm a
steadiness of sight and hand that must, in after years, and in other
branches of science, be highly appreciated.

From a long experience in the endless sources of interest and
occupation derivable from this pleasing and salutary employment, the
author feels assured that whoever has once patience and perseverance
to overcome the first difficulties, will speedily, like himself,
become an enthusiast in the art. And why should not our fair
countrywomen participate in this amusement? Do they fear it is too
masculine and laborious for a female hand? If so, that anxiety is
easily removed; the rough work can be executed by any carpenter,
and when once prepared, what occupation can be more interesting and
elegant than ornamenting wood or ivory in delicate and intricate
patterns, and imitating, with the aid of the lathe, the beautiful
Chinese carving, so much and so justly admired? Besides, the taper
fingers of the fair sex are far better suited than a man’s heavier
hand, to produce the requisite lightness and clearness of effect. To
our charitable countrywomen, who employ so much of their time in
raising funds for the diffusion of Christianity in far distant lands,
and for augmenting the comforts of the poor in our own happy land,
the lathe will prove a most useful auxiliary, as well as to those who
are anxious to bestow beautiful and cherished remembrances on absent
friends.

Another very forcible argument in favour of the amusement of
Turning being cultivated by the ladies and gentlemen of our
free and independent country, and one which will, I am sure,
plead most strongly with all parents and guardians, is, that all
occupations within doors being usually of a sedentary nature, the
exercise attendant upon the use of the lathe must prove highly
beneficial to health; and one moment’s reflection will point out
the incalculable advantage to be derived from instilling the love
of useful employment in every youthful mind; or, when freed from
the irksomeness of graver study, may they not seek companions and
pursuits to whom they would ever have remained strangers, had their
idle hours not hung heavy on their hands?

Should this little work prevail upon any of my readers to commence
the study of this truly beautiful science, and should the occupation,
as no doubt it must, prove a source of pleasure by adding to their
amusement, it will amply repay the labour it has required, and bestow
sincere gratification on the Author.




                             THE LATHE.

  “The pride of arts from fair Ambition springs,
    And blooms secure beneath her fostering wings,”


Among all the many descriptions of the varied, beautiful, and useful
inventions that owe their discovery and perfection to the genius and
hand of man, inventions that in so wonderful a degree assist and
facilitate the operations of the mechanic, no one has ever written
the history of the Lathe. It seems strange that in a land where
mechanism is carried to its greatest extent, where science of every
kind is fostered and encouraged, the beautiful machinery, the easy
management, and wonderful precision obtained by the aid of the Lathe,
have never yet, in our language, found a pen willing to describe
them. And yet, to the architect, the mathematician, the astronomer,
and the natural philosopher, Turning is as useful, nay indispensable,
as to the watchmaker, the goldsmith, the joiner, and smith. And it is
not by these alone that its powers are appreciated; many of those who
by birth, station, and riches are not in a situation to require its
aid in their scientific and mechanical operations, still find this
art, from its great simplicity, from the perfect ease and accuracy
with which the most delicate and intricate workmanship is performed,
the agreeable occupation it gives to the mind, and the beauty,
elegance, and utility of its products, one of the most interesting
and healthful that can be followed.

The treasures of all lands are converted into various and beautiful
articles by the aid of the lathe. Gold and silver, brass, iron, and
copper,—the magnificent trees that grow in the deep forests of the
West, and those that flourish on the burning plains of Africa—the
ivory obtained from the tusks of the elephant and hippopotamus,—the
coal, jet, alabaster, and marble, dug from the bowels of the
earth—are all of the greatest value to the turner. A kind of cocoa
nut has also lately been brought from the West Indies, which, being
hard, white, and tough, renders it excellent for working in the
lathe; when polished, it has the appearance of a substance between
ivory and mother-of-pearl.

To the Greeks and Romans (for the exact place of its origin is
not known) the invention of this ingenious machine is ascribed;
and though, doubtless, in our time it has been greatly improved
and perfected, still the ancients, to whom we owe so much, first
discovered and used it; and by them its powers were so well
appreciated, that we are told it became a proverb among them to
say any thing was formed in the lathe to express its justness and
accuracy.

The Greek and Latin authors frequently mention it in their writings,
but they have not clearly handed down to posterity the name of the
first inventor; indeed, on this point there are many and varied
opinions. The Sicilian historian, Diodorus Siculus, informs us that
the first person who made use of the lathe was a nephew of Dædalus,
by some authors named Talus, by others Perdix. This youth, we are
told, invented the saw, compasses, and other mechanical instruments;
and to him we possibly are indebted for the lathe also, for we are
told, in ancient mythological history, so great were his ingenuity
and talent for invention, that his genius soon surpassed even that of
his uncle, who, enraged at his celebrity, and jealous of his rising
fame, scrupled not to sacrifice him to his feelings of rage and
hatred: some say he was poisoned; others, that he was precipitated
from a high tower in the citadel of Athens; and the same authors
assure us he was changed into a partridge.

Pliny, however, (and his words are great authority), ascribes
the invention of the lathe to Theodore, of Samos, an artist who
discovered the method of melting iron, of which he made statues. The
same author also mentions a man of the name of Thericles, who was
celebrated for his dexterity in Turning; and Virgil says—

           “Lenta quibus torno facili superaddita vitis.”

These testimonies, of ancient poets and historians conjoined, prove
it to be an art of the greatest antiquity. Cicero also mentions it;
and it is affirmed that, with this machine, the Greeks and Romans
turned all kinds of urns and vases, and adorned them with ornaments
in basso relievo. If to Turning we really owe those treasures of
other days which are found buried among the ruins of Herculaneum
and Pompeii—treasures so valued by the antiquary as a memorial of
former ages; by the lover of the fine arts as beautiful and graceful
additions to his cabinet of curiosities; and by the rich and opulent
as ornaments superior to any that modern hands can produce;—surely
we must confess the workmanship of the lathes of our times is not
to be compared with that performed by the more simple machinery
of centuries ago. It seems, indeed, almost miraculous, that the
beautiful figures and elegant and graceful designs here spoken of
should be produced by a potter’s wheel, so was the lathe anciently
denominated; but the testimonies of so many learned historians agree
in declaring that to its aid we owe those exquisite productions, that
it is impossible for even the most skeptical to deny it. Before we
quit, what may not unaptly be denominated, the romance of the history
of the lathe, we will add, that the saw, which we have already said
was invented by Talus, is supposed to have been first made by him in
imitation of either the jaw-bone of a snake, or else the back-bone of
a fish; and in a painting still preserved among the antiquities of
Herculaneum, is a saw exactly resembling our frame saw, with which
two genii are dividing a piece of wood.

It is, however, certain, that could these Roman and Grecian
artificers see a modern lathe, examine its complex yet beautiful
mechanism, and the almost endless additions and improvements it has
undergone since the days of Virgil and Pliny, they would hardly
recognise it in its more finished state, and would be much puzzled to
discover in what manner to manage its machinery. Among the numerous
apparatus adjusted to it is a machine, by the aid of which medallions
have been executed; and in the British Museum is a profile in basso
relievo of Sir Isaac Newton, wholly worked in the lathe; but how
different from the turning of the ancients! The medallion machine
requires much labour and very expensive apparatus, while the potter’s
wheel cannot have possessed much mechanism or great quantities of
tools: most of those now in use being unknown in former days.

Having now established the great antiquity of the lathe as a useful
and classical employment, we will briefly mention a few of the
improvements it has undergone in latter years. The potter’s wheel is,
of all lathes, the most simple; it merely consists of an iron beam,
or axis, a small wooden wheel placed on the beam, and a larger one
fastened to the end of the same beam, which turns by a pivot on an
iron stand. With this simple contrivance the workman still forms the
body of the vessel of clay, but never attempts to turn the handles,
feet, mouldings or ornaments. In latter years, various and important
tools and improvements have been made; chucks have been invented,
which enable the turner to accomplish with speed and facility an
almost innumerable variety of circles, lines, ellipses, and arcs,
all so delicate and true in their form and design, that they cannot
fail exciting the admiration and wonder of all who contemplate them.
The screw also, once a formidable difficulty to the uninitiated, is
now rendered perfectly easy of execution by means of the traversing
mandrel; those, too, who are very learned in this art, can out of a
piece of ivory or mother-of-pearl, produce in the lathe beautiful
brooches, ear-rings, and studs, worked in raised flowers; chessmen in
imitation of carving, and ornamented vases full of detached flowers;
while fluted and spiral columns, delicate mouldings, and fanciful
beadings, are of comparatively easy execution.

To form patterns upon wood or ivory, various descriptions of chucks
are employed; one lathe serves for all, as they are made to screw on
to the nose of the mandrel. By the aid of the concentric or common
chuck, every article you turn is circular; the lines forming the
circle are enlarged or decreased as the tool approaches or recedes
from the axis. The oval chuck, as its name signifies, works designs
of an oval or spherical shape; the eccentric turns patterns of a
circular form, but its peculiar properties enable the workman to
alter the centre of his work at pleasure: the geometric and compound
eccentric produce beautiful geometric and carved designs; the oblique
and the epicycloidal also turn curious and intricate patterns, and
the straight line chuck performs all its work in direct lines. These
are the chucks most in use, but many of them are expensive and
complicated, and they only execute the ornamental work; the shape
and size of the object are accomplished by the lathe, without any aid
but that of a common chuck and common tools.

The curious and varied mechanism of the above-mentioned chucks are
truly wonderful, and the patterns they perform very beautiful; one
of peculiar form, and exceedingly intricate, has been invented for
bankers’ checks, to prevent forgery. There are also two rests, which
are necessary appendages to them; the sliding rest, that moves in
a direct line at any angle, and the circular rest, which enables
the turner to ornament balls, spheres, and round objects. We must
not omit, too, to mention the eccentric cutter, the drill, and the
universal cutter, all exceedingly useful, and enabling the turner to
execute a great variety of designs and patterns. The rose engine,
also, is much admired for all kinds of ornamental work, but it is
very expensive, and new inventions are daily adding to the machinery
of the lathe, and rendering its powers more extensive.

The wonderful discovery of voltaic electricity, by which
copper-plates, plaster casts, wood engravings, and medals may be
copied, can also be applied in various ways to turning, either in
wood or ivory. For instance, by its aid a wooden thimble may be
changed into the resemblance of gold, or a box take the appearance of
silver; thus, while your work retains its first beauty and delicacy,
the material is apparently of much value. It would be going beyond
the bounds of a work on turning, to give any directions for this
transmutation, particularly as there are so many already published
on the subject. We must also add, that by a careful and steady
management, the drill may be made almost to take the place of the
graver; by holding a plate of copper steadily against it, and using
various tools, (not letting the lathe go too quick,) portraits and
landscapes can be executed for printing.

Having now finished this short sketch, which we hope will not be
unacceptable to our readers, and will perhaps induce them to follow
this interesting and healthful occupation, we must beg that those
who peruse “The Turner’s Companion,” and follow the directions it
contains, will not be daunted by the first difficulties that assail
them, but will patiently persevere till experience enables them to
overcome and vanquish them, remembering that—

    “The wise and active conquer difficulties,
     By daring to attempt them. Sloth and folly
     Shiver and shrink at sight of toil and hazard,
     And make th’ impossibility they fear.”


                LIST OF TOOLS NECESSARY FOR TURNING.

  Gouges.
  Chisels.
  Scrapers.
  Side tools.
  Point tools.
  Moulding tools.
  Inside tools.
  Planes.
  Drills.
  Hatchet.
  Mallet.
  Hammer.
  Files.
  Vice.
  Hand Vice.
  Gimlets.
  Saws.
  Screw-driver.
  Pincers.
  Compasses.
  Rule.
  Callipers.
  T square.
  Brace and Bits.
  Screw tools.
  Milling tools.
  Oil-can.
  Glue-pot.
  Sand Paper.
  Chalk.
  Glue.
  Isinglass.
  Pumice Stone.
  Nails.




                                 THE

                         TURNER’S COMPANION.


The machines used for Turning, whether round or oval objects, are
called Lathes; they are of various shapes and sizes; some very
small, as those generally used by watchmakers; others very large
and powerful, for turning iron; and others, the kind I am going to
describe, of a middling size, for fashioning wood and ivory. The
large lathes, being too heavy to be worked with the foot, are usually
turned by a steam-engine, but the foot-lathe is the most convenient
for the turner in wood; it may be made of iron or wood: if of the
latter, it should be constructed entirely of very hard, well-seasoned
oak, or of mahogany. There are various opinions respecting the
advantages and disadvantages of metallic and wooden lathes; in the
former, it is impossible to obviate an elastic tremor, which is
unpleasant and injurious; but then, on the other hand, they are so
much more durable and compact; and they enable you to perform your
work with so much more accuracy and exactitude, that they are, on the
whole, perhaps, to be preferred. The drawing given in Plate 1 will
serve as a pattern for either an iron or a wooden lathe; but as the
workman could construct the latter for himself, we will suppose the
description we are about to give relates to a wooden one.

The bed of the lathe, B B, may be of any length required, and is
firmly fastened with bolts to the uprights O O, which form the legs
of the lathe, and to which the bed is strongly attached by bolts
passing through both; while the nuts that draw them tight, being what
is called _countersunk_, are of no inconvenience to the workman. The
feet and the two uprights must also be firmly fastened to the legs
O O; and to prevent the least unsteadiness or motion, they must be
screwed strongly to the floor, and must be of a sufficient size to
form a solid support to the lathe.

[Illustration: _Plate 1._]

The left hand puppets, C D, or, as they are sometimes called, the
headstock, should be of iron, and cast in one piece. The under
part fits tightly into the open space in the bed of the lathe, and
is fixed there with screws; while the two cheeks of the puppets rest
_on_ the bed itself. The mandrel E, to prevent, as much as you can,
any vibration, should be as long as possible; it runs in a metal
collar, through the puppets C D, and is of steel, turned perfectly
cylindrical; it is kept constantly oiled, by pouring a few drops of
oil upon it through holes made in each of the puppets. The screw
E, at the end, is called the nose of the spindle, and upon it the
chucks intended to receive the work are screwed. The back puppet, G,
is used to support long pieces of wood; it is moved backwards and
forwards on the bed of the lathe, so as to suit the work upon which
you are occupied, by loosening the screw L; within the upper part of
G is a steel spindle, J, which screws in and out of the headstock,
by turning the screw K. Care must be taken that the point of this
spindle be exactly on a line with the nose of the mandrel, E. The
point, J, takes out, and another nose, L, can be inserted in its
place, to receive the pointed end of any small work, should it be
more convenient.

Upon the spindle is a brass or a mahogany wheel, F; it has three
grooves in it, and the great wheel, K, has three similar grooves
turned in a V, so as more effectually to take hold of the band which
moves them round. The three different grooves in this wheel, and in
the small one, give different velocities to them. The band which
turns them is made of strong catgut, and passes under the lower and
over the upper wheel, working in the corresponding grooves of each;
it is joined with a hook and eye of iron, that have a screw in them.
Slightly taper off with a sharp penknife a little of each end of the
catgut, so that it will just enter the hook and eye; then hold the
band firmly in a vice with your left hand, and with your right take
up the hook or eye in a pair of pincers, and screw it upon the catgut
till quite firm. This is a far better means of joining the band than
any other that can be employed, as the hooks and eyes seldom give
way, and obviate the necessity of knots or joins, which are always
clumsy and inconvenient. Cord, too, gives way with the variations of
the atmosphere, so that it constantly requires shortening in dry,
and lengthening in rainy weather; catgut is so slightly influenced
by these changes, that its use is far preferable. The treadle, N,
when moved up and down with the foot, gives motion to the two wheels,
and thus the spindle, with the wood to be worked screwed upon it, is
turned round with a quick or slow movement. The axle of the great
wheel, S, works in two screws, Q; the crank, M, is connected at one
end with the axle, S, and at the other hooks into the treadle frame,
N. Plenty of oil should be given to the axle at Q to enable it to
work easily. The rest which supports the tools is represented at Fig.
1, and M; it is made of iron, and consists of three parts; the lower
has a forked foot, T, which rests upon the bed of the lathe, and
enables it to be drawn backwards and forwards, so as to accommodate
the workman; this foot is held in its place by a bolt, O, which,
passing through the bed of the lathe, is sufficiently broad to rest
upon each side of the foot, T, and is tightened by a screw that
passes underneath the lathe, P, through which it passes; the upper
part of the rest is a cross piece of iron with a cylindrical stem,
that fits into the socket, U, and is moved up and down, to the right
or the left, by loosening the screw, H. The workman should have
rests of different sizes, to suit various kinds of work, but they
must all fit into the same socket.

Having now given a clear description of a lathe, I need only add,
that it should be placed opposite a window, so as to have the benefit
of as much light as possible; a skylight above the head is also a
great advantage. As it is indispensably necessary for the learner
to exercise himself in plain turning, that is, in the formation of
different articles, so as to be able to turn them perfectly round,
oval, or hollow, as required, before attempting more difficult and
complicated work, we will now give a list of the most useful tools
for this purpose.

For the wood, the gouge, Fig. 1, plate 1, is first to be employed,
to reduce the unevenness of your work; its edge is rounded. To use
it, place the rest on a level with the axis of the work, and hold
the handle of the tool downwards so that its cutting edge is _above_
the axis. These tools are useful for making concave mouldings. In
using them, do not push them roughly against the wood till it becomes
tolerably even, or you will spoil their edge and chip the work; and
hold your hands very steady.

The chisel, Fig. 2, is next used, to give a smooth and polished
appearance to the wood. Its cutting edge is oblique. Elevate the rest
considerably _above_ the axis of the work, so that, though held with
a less inclination than the gouge, the edge of the chisel operates
on a higher part of the surface. Use this tool at first with great
caution, for it is much more difficult to manage than the gouge; with
an inexperienced hand, the point is apt to dig into the wood, quite
spoiling its surface, or else, by pressing it too firmly upon the
work, it cuts great pieces in an uneven manner. When skillfully used,
it should feel almost to work by itself, merely running steadily
along the wood, shaving off all its inaccuracies, and making it look
quite bright, smooth, and polished. All soft woods are entirely
turned with the gouge and chisel, of both of which you must have
several sizes.

Fig. 3 is called a right-side tool, and has two cutting edges, a side
edge and an end edge: so as at the same time to cut the bottom and
side of a cavity. The left-side tool cuts with the opposite side. In
using them, hold the bevel which forms the edge downwards.

Fig. 4 is a point tool, useful for making small mouldings, and much
employed in finishing the shoulders and flat ends of work.

Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, are inside tools, used to turn out hollows; also
to make cups, and various other articles.

Fig. 10 is a parting tool, used to cut off work, and to make
incisions.

Fig. 11 is used exclusively for very hard woods, as cocoas and
ebony, which chip if attempted to be smoothed with a chisel; also
for turning ivory, bone, or jet; one side and the end are sharp.
This tool is very strong, and requires some practice to use it well.
Be very careful, in sharpening it, to keep the front edge quite
straight, or else, in hollowing out boxes, the inner sides will not
be turned out evenly; that is, one part will be thinner than another.
This tool is held flat upon the rest, which must be on a level with
the axis of the work, or sometimes the tool, by raising the handle,
may be lowered so as just to scrape the wood. It is frequently called
a graver; in turning metals, it is the tool first used. Copper and
brass are easy to turn, and in case of necessity, it is useful to
have the proper tools, and to know how to manage them.

These tools all are indispensably necessary to the turner, and he
should exercise himself constantly in their use; for until he becomes
quite master of them, he will injure, spoil, chip, and destroy,
whatever he attempts to turn.

Figs. 12 and 13 are very useful to make mouldings of various kinds.

The handles of the tools must be made of very hard wood, and it is a
great convenience to have them all of nearly the same size; for the
hand, getting accustomed to them, manages them with more facility.
Drive the tool firmly into the handle, and hold it there by a broad
brass ring, as in No. 1.

To keep the tools in good order, that is, properly ground and sharp,
demands great attention. If they become chipped, grind them even on a
grindstone, taking care that the BEVELS retain their proper angles.
To avoid spoiling their edges, and to enable you to have them always
near at hand, a rack perforated with holes, into which they can slip,
is very useful. This rack may be fastened against the wall, near
the lathe. A screw-driver, two or three different-sized gimlets,
and nails of various kinds, must always form part of the turner’s
tool-box; also some files, and a hand-vice.

Before we leave the description of turning tools, we will mention
the saw, which is an indispensable addition to the tool-box. There
are many kinds, but the most useful are the hand-saw, the tenon saw,
and the circular saw. The first is about twenty-six inches long,
and is generally made with four teeth to an inch. It is used for
cutting wood across, and in the direction of its fibres. The teeth
at the lower end are smaller than the upper ones, by which means the
wood is not so much torn as if the teeth were all of an equal size.
The tenon saw is used for cutting across the fibres of wood; the
smallest saw of this kind is about fourteen inches long, the largest
about twenty inches. Circular saws are of all sizes; they are easily
fitted up with a spindle, which, being screwed on to the nose of the
mandrel, and supported at the other end by the back puppet, enables
the workman to turn them by the wheel of the lathe, while at the
same time he holds the wood or ivory firmly against them. Should a
larger circular saw be required, it is more advisable to fit it up
separately from the lathe, with a frame-work and wheel to itself.

Glue, which is very necessary for turners, requires some little care
in preparing; it must first be steeped for several hours in cold
water to soften it; if it swells without melting, it is good, and
must then be dissolved in water; the proper quantities are, a quart
of water to half a pound of glue. The heat should be just enough
to melt it, and the pan in which it is contained must be placed in
a larger copper vessel, filled with water; by this means, when the
water in the outer pan boils, the glue will be dissolved without any
fear of its burning, which would immediately spoil it. When you are
going to glue a piece of wood to a chuck, put very little glue thinly
and evenly over the surface of the latter, then press the wood upon
it firmly, and place a lead weight upon them to unite them perfectly.


                               CHUCKS.

[Illustration: _Plate 2._]

The chucks, upon which the material to be turned, whether of wood,
ivory, or metal, is always fixed, next demand our attention. They
are of every variety of size and form, and are all screwed upon
the mandrel of the lathe. Many are made of brass; others (the most
numerous, because the turner can make them for himself), are of
wood; but these latter should be used soon after they are made; for
if not constructed of very dry, hard wood, any great variation in
the weather will cause them to shrink, and thus the screw becomes
slightly altered, and will not fit tightly to the neck of the
mandrel. To avoid the expense of having many brass chucks, which
would be very great, if we procured them of the size and shape
requisite for all kinds of work, it is a good plan to have several
brass plates made about the size of half-a-crown, plate 2, A, with
a screw in them, to fit upon the mandrel, and four screw-nails
with which to fasten them to wooden chucks of any form. Thus, when
these chucks are worn out, unscrew the brass plates and screw them
on to others. In plate 2 are the drawings of several chucks, which
are useful for various purposes; they are all made of brass, with
a screw that fits upon the mandrel. B is a brass plate, about two
inches in diameter; from the middle projects a tapering screw,
about half an inch long. This is used to hold any thing that is
flat, as a stand, or candlestick base, or, with the aid of the back
puppet, to support a long piece of wood, while turning down to fit a
stronger chuck. For this purpose, bore a hole in the wood, and screw
it on to the chuck. C is the same shape, but has five iron points
projecting from its surface; upon them the wood must be firmly fixed
by hammering it on. It is better to use the back puppet, as the wood
is apt to become loosened by a sudden jar, or any unevenness in the
surface.

D is universally useful, either for large or small pieces of work.
The wood or ivory may be turned to the proper size to fit, on the
chuck B, and then driven firmly into the hollow cup with a wooden
mallet; or a piece of common wood may be made to fit it tightly, and
a hole turned in it to hold the object you intend to turn.

E is called a ring chuck, and is made of box wood. Drill a hole
through the centre, and then saw it across in six parts. By its being
turned smaller at one end than at the other, this chuck opens at the
_sawgates_; you then drive on to it, with a hammer, a ring of metal,
and the wood inserted in the hole will remain immovable.

F is called a square hole chuck, the hole in the middle having
several drills and bits to use with it, as in 3, 4, 5, 6. G is called
a die chuck: it is the same in shape as the cup chuck, only not so
deep, and it has several screws passing through its sides at equal
distances, and meeting in the centre, by which the work is held, so
that it serves equally for a large or a small object.

H is exactly the same in shape as G; with the addition of an _arm_,
No. 1, the use of which is as follows. If this chuck does not turn
the wood round properly, fasten to the latter what is called a
_carrier_, No. 2, the end of which, projecting further than the
chuck, rests upon the arm, 1, and causes all to turn together.

These appear to us to be the chucks most universally in use for
concentric turning; the ordinary ones the turner may make of wood,
and those for ornamental work we shall mention hereafter.

It may, however, be as well to describe the method of making the wood
chucks:—Select a piece of close-grained dry wood—box is the best;
having taken off the corners and made it tolerably round with a
chisel, or a small hatchet, you must then find the centre of the two
ends. To do this, lay the piece of wood on a bench; open a pair of
compasses to nearly half the diameter of the piece; fix one point of
the compasses firmly in the middle, and with the other draw a circle
as near the edge of the wood as you can. If you find the circle is
not exact, but further from the edge on one side than the other,
alter the position of the compasses, till they become right. Bore a
hole in the centre, when found, and screw the wood on to the chuck,
B. Place your rest _facing_ the work, and cut in the centre of it a
hole, the depth and NEARLY the size of the screw on the nose of the
mandrel. This done, take the piece of wood off the brass chuck, and
fasten it firmly in a vice; then screw into the hole a TAP, which has
been made on purpose to fit the screw of the mandrel. This tap cuts
a thread as you turn it round in the hole, so that when you unscrew
it, you have only to screw the wood to the nose of the mandrel,
taking care to make it fit quite close to the shoulder; it must then
be turned quite round and smooth with the gouge and chisel, and the
face of it also perfectly flat, which is seen by holding against it
the flat part of the T square, plate 1, R. If the square touches
all the face of the chuck, it is ready to receive the wood; but if
you can in any part see the light between them, take the chisel and
smooth it over again. The chuck being ready, cut a piece of wood,
we will say for a box, round it with a chisel, take some thin glue,
and fasten the wood to the chuck with it. When quite hard and dry,
begin to turn the sides even, then cut down the groove to receive
the lid, which should be glued on to another chuck. To hollow out
the box, turn the rest to the face of the work and use the gouge.
When of a sufficient depth, take the _callipers_, plate 1, K, push
the small ends down the box to the bottom, stretch them out as far
as they will, and set the screw, then pull them slowly out, so as to
measure the size of the top of the inside of the box; if not exactly
the same, turn out a little more of the bottom. Now begin to smooth
the outside and hollow out the lid, taking great care to make it fit
exactly the groove made in the bottom of the box; for this purpose
the callipers must be set, so that the forked end stretches to the
width of the circumference of the groove; you will then find that the
other end will be exactly the same width, and keep trying them to the
inside of the lid, till they enter it very tightly; then try the lid
on the bottom, and it will fit. By thus using the callipers, you are
saved much trouble in taking the work on and off the lathe, to fit
the parts together.

You must now cut the lid off the chuck, either with the parting tool,
or with a saw, and having it firmly placed on the bottom, smooth and
finish off the sides so that they look quite even, and as if there
was no separation between them. This done, move the rest to the front
of the lid, and finish it up the same, taking care not to leave the
slightest scratch or unevenness on the surface; then rub the whole of
the work well with sand paper, making the lathe turn very rapidly,
first one way, then the other, and finish by rubbing it over with a
drop of olive oil on a piece of rag, and the shavings of the wood.
The great beauty of turning consists in all the parts being exact,
shining, well finished off, and not too thick; to attain this latter
perfection, experience is necessary, and I should advise constant
practice in turning box-wood and holly, till the learner is able
to make his boxes fit properly, and also look neat and light. The
lid being finished, lay it aside, and saw off the bottom; then turn
its own chuck to a proper size to receive it, while you smooth and
polish the outer part. It is requisite to be very particular in the
manner of chucking work, such as boxes, thimbles, or any thing that
has been hollowed out; and remember always to make a chuck to fit
INTO THEM, instead of putting THEM into one. It is also better to
leave a shoulder that the work can rest against,—you are then sure
that it is supported evenly; if not, you may find that the slightest
inclination to one side or the other will cause you to turn one side
much thinner than the other; and if you are working, we will say
the top of a box, it will always look crooked, and if the bottom,
it will never stand steady. Should the box feel loose and fall
off the chuck before it is finished, a little chalk may be rubbed
upon the former, which will give it a firmer hold, and prevent the
slipperiness consequent on the friction of two pieces of wood; and
sometimes a thin piece of paper inserted between them is useful in
the same way; for although the work should fit close and firm on the
chuck, if the chuck be _too large_, so that you have to use force
to make them unite, you will most probably split your work all to
pieces. Great care also is requisite to get it off the chuck; insert
one of the small chisels between it and the shoulder of the chuck,
and move it slightly, first on one side, then on the other. Many
neat ornaments may be made on boxes with the smaller chisels, such
as lines and mouldings; and there are several useful and ornamental
tools, called _milling tools_, (see plate 5, Nos. 1, 2, 3), which
are not expensive, and give much effect to the work. They consist of
small wheels, upon which the pattern is cut. Place the rest so that
there is space for the wheel to turn between it and the work, push it
close up to the wood, hold the handle very firmly with both hands,
so that the tool cannot slip, and with a few quick turns of the
wheel of the lathe, the pattern will be clearly impressed upon the
wood. With these simple tools innumerable beautiful articles may be
finished; and though they require neither the application nor talent
that can be displayed in performing other ornamental work with the
eccentric chuck, cutter, and drill, still they possess two great
advantages—cheapness, and facility of management, and are easily
procured.

By a little attention and ingenuity, a great variety of elegant and
useful articles may be made on the lathe, with the assistance of
but a limited collection of tools,—such as thimbles, boxes, cups,
rings, stands, small vases, stilettos, pen-handles, pin-cushions,
needle-cases, and vinaigrettes.


                             THE SCREW.

We now come to the most difficult operation in turning, that of
cutting a screw; to perform it well and easily is a proof of the
workman’s skill and proficiency in the art. There are many ways of
doing it; we shall therefore give the best and least expensive.
The screw tools, figures 14 and 15, plate 1, must fit exactly one
into the other. Fig. 15 is an outside, Fig. 14 an inside tool. As
the threads may be required to be cut coarse or fine, according to
the work you are engaged upon, the small grooves in the tools are
made to suit. Having turned your box quite round, and hollowed it
out, cut the groove upon which the lid is to fit; place the rest
at a convenient distance, turn the wheel, not too fast, and move
the outside screw-tool along the rest with a regular horizontal
motion, and it will cut a screw, the threads of which will fill up
the space between the teeth of the tool. But care must be taken to
jerk the tool off when at the end of the space intended for the
screw; or if it be allowed to remain stationary, cutting the wood,
the threads will be destroyed, and become useless. When this is well
done, turn out the lid of the box till it nearly fits the bottom,
and in the same manner press the inside screw tool against the side
of the cavity, draw it out horizontally as the work moves round, and
if carefully managed, it will soon be made to fit upon the outside
screw. As, however, to accomplish this well, and with precision,
great practice is requisite, an invention, called a traversing
mandrel, is frequently used, particularly by beginners: we will
endeavour to give a description of its form and use.

At the end of the mandrel A, pl. 4, is a brass cylinder, I, which
fits upon the end, and is kept in its place by a nut, 2, which screws
firmly into it. Below this, fixed to a brass plate that rises and
lowers at pleasure by turning the screw-key, B, is attached the
screw-guide; (a brass plate cut into grooves of various sizes to
suit the thread you wish to cut, fig. 3;) this guide moves round on
a pin. To use this machine, unscrew the nut B, pull off the brass
cylinder, and in its place put on the guide, C, and screw the nut in
again; turn the other guide, 3, to the groove which corresponds with
it, and which is usually numbered, to avoid mistakes; turn the key B
till the lower guide meets the one you have just put on the mandrel,
and slips easily into it. You will now find that by only allowing the
fly-wheel to move _half round_ and back again, the mandrel will run
backwards and forwards, and thus have the exact motion requisite for
cutting a screw. Fix your rest, and hold your tool (which must have
the same sized thread as the guide then on the mandrel) quite steady
upon the rest, against the revolving wood, and in a few minutes the
screw will be produced. The inside screw is made in the same manner,
with the inside tool, by turning the rest in front of the work. Do
not press the tool too hard to the wood at first, till the threads
are slightly cut, so that the teeth may enter always in the same
place. About six different-sized screw guides and tools to fit will
be quite sufficient for an amateur turner. There is also another way
of cutting screws, by means of a traversing chuck. On the mandrel,
R, pl. 4, is screwed the chuck B, to which are screwed the chucks of
the lathe, R. On the outside of B is turned a screw, fitted to an
inside screw worked in the block C, from which extends an arm, D,
sufficiently long to allow the arm E to slide up and down it; a piece
of iron should be screwed to the circular block, C, of such a length
as to be capable of moving in a groove that may be cut in the collar;
it is intended to prevent the block C from turning quite round. The
rest, G, must not stand, as usual, parallel to the work in cutting
the outside screw, but at right angles, as when an inside screw is to
be cut, in order that the further arm of the rest, F, may be joined
to the end of the second arm, G. It is necessary that the second arm,
E, shall be capable of fastening firmly the first arm, D, to any part
of the rest, G, F, as also to have a joint at each end, to admit in
a horizontal plane its free action. Thus, as the lathe turns to or
from us, the arms must traverse forwards or backwards, which gives
a similar motion to the tool, H, that is screwed firm to the further
arm, F, of the rest, and thus you can cut a screw with a single point
tool. Of course any unsteadiness would spoil the screw. If you draw
the centre of the rest nearer to you, and thus bring the tool nearer
to the arm, E, a screw of a much larger-sized thread will be cut; for
as the rest, turning in its socket, moves on a centre, the further
the tool is from the centre, the greater will be the radius of the
circle described, and _vice versâ_.

It may, perhaps, be feared that a piece of wood so far from the
collar, K, may be apt to spring; but this is easily avoided, by not
making use of the chuck, B, till the screw is to be turned. Another
disadvantage would seem to arise from the impossibility of cutting
screws when the puppet head is made use of. But this may also be
obviated by lengthening the arm, E, to the part where the screw is to
be cut, and thus we have the same screw as the traversing one. The
socket, S, slides on the rest, and may be fastened to it by a screw,
the upper part that turns on a pivot admits the arm, E, to slide
through it, which arm is held firm with a screw.

At the commencement of the work, the rest stands at right angles with
the wood on which the screw must be cut; then, by bringing it back to
its original angle, and sliding forwards the tool to the last thread
of the screw that was just cut, we proceed to any length required.
When two or three threads are cut, the most unskillful turner will be
able to continue the screw with a common screw tool.


                           BORING COLLAR.

Fig. D, plate 4, is a boring collar, used to support any long slender
body which is required to be turned hollow. Without a support of
this kind it would be impossible to keep the wood in its place; and
it would either incline from the centre, thus causing the hollow to
be drilled out quite crooked, or it would spring from the chuck. To
obviate these two inconveniences, the two collars, figs. C and D,
plate 4, are employed. In the former one, which is made of iron or
brass, the holes are conical, and their centres are all precisely at
the same distance from the axis of the collar. In using it, remove
the right hand puppet, and provide a much lower one. Through it drill
a hole, the same size as that in the centre of the boring collar.
The centre of this hole must be in the same line with the centre of
the mandrel. The collar, when attached to it, faces the mandrel, and
is held firm by a screw. When fixed, the centre hole is opposite the
axis of the mandrel; and when the largest hole is used, it clears
the top of the headstock to which it is affixed. The end of the work
to be bored being placed in the hole which fits it, the tool is
held upon the rest against its centre, and the boring is easily and
accurately performed.

[Illustration: _Plate 3._]

The collar, D, is perhaps, a simpler apparatus for supporting long
pieces of slender wood or ivory, and has this advantage, that the
workman can easily make it for himself. It should be constructed
of very hard, well-seasoned wood. The foot, E, must be in breadth
exactly the size of the aperture in the bed of the lathe, and is
kept quite steady by a bit of wood thrust through it underneath the
lathe. Into this collar, fit many pieces of wood with different
sized holes bored through them, (all exactly in a line with the
axis of the mandrel,) so as to admit large or small pieces of work,
the sides being grooved, and the supports sawn to correspond: they
all slide in with great ease, and are kept quite steady by an iron
pin which runs through the top. The fig. G, shows the collar, with
one of the supports slipped in, the other sliding upon it; H is the
collar, showing the groove, and L L are two supports that fit into
it. The _middle_ of the apertures of these supports, whether large or
small, must always be exactly on a line with the axis of the mandrel,
therefore, after they are bored quite true on the lathe, they are
sawn exactly across the hole. This is a very useful addition to the
lathe, not only as a support when boring holes, but also to be used
with the right hand puppet, to give strength to any long slender
piece of work, as a screen-handle or a pen-holder; for, being of
great length, the stress necessary to the proper management of the
tools would be apt to break the wood or ivory, and it is easy to make
one of the ornamental mouldings of a proper size, to enable it to run
smoothly in one of the supports; if too tight, the wheel will not
turn, and if too loose, the work will jerk up and down.

For boring, there are many shaped tools of various sizes; 16, 17, pl.
1, are drawings of the most useful. They have no handles, but at the
smaller end a hole is drilled, to admit the point, J, of the puppet,
G, pl. 1. Having, with one of the turning tools, made an aperture in
the work sufficiently large to allow the boring tool to enter, screw
the puppet, G, firmly to the bed of the lathe, then turn the small
wheel, K, till the point enters the hole in the tool, which must be
steadied by holding it straight and firm with a pair of pincers. Make
the wheel turn rather quickly, and with the left hand keep moving the
left wheel, K, very gently, so as to force the tool into the wood.
After a few turns, stop the lathe, and take out the boring tool, to
get rid of the shavings and dust; move the puppet nearer and begin
again. A little difficulty will be found in making the tool enter the
wood, or _bite_, as it is called, but, by humoring it gently, it will
soon take hold; care must be taken to keep it quite straight, and not
to go too fast, or it will be liable to break. This method of boring
is only used for small hollow tubes, needle-cases, crochet-needles,
handles, and small work.


                              OF WOODS.

There are many beautiful English woods which are excellent for
turning; beech is very universally used, and it should be cut into
moderate sized pieces and boiled, to render it more durable, and to
make it work smoothly.

Elm and chestnut are also much admired; if the latter be dipped
in alum water, then brushed over with a hot decoction of logwood,
afterwards with one of Brazil wood, it will be made to imitate
mahogany. Green wood should never be used, as it is apt to split; it
should be kept for at least a year before attempting to turn it. Some
persons, if they fear the wood has not been sufficiently seasoned,
cut it up and put it in a vessel filled with a ley made of wood
ashes. In this it must be boiled for an hour, and allowed to remain
in the liquor till quite cold, afterwards it must be dried in the
shade.

Old walnut wood is very beautiful; to improve its colour, it may be
put in the oven, and when worked, polish it with its own oil, very
hot.

Sycamore, when grown in favourable situations, is as white and
nearly as hard as holly; the cherry, yew, laburnum, and pear-tree
woods, are also very beautiful; but though invaluable for plain
turning, they are not hard enough, or of a sufficiently close and
fine grain, to admit of ornamenting them in delicate and minute
patterns. The milling tools are generally employed for them. Of all
English woods, the holly is the whitest, and is rendered still more
so by boiling; it is, when very good, used for inlaying, in imitation
of ivory. Box is the hardest and toughest of our woods; when cut
plank-wise, it is apt to warp, if not well seasoned; but its yellow
colour, if highly polished, is much admired, and it will receive the
most delicate patterns; it is also used as a substitute for ivory.

The foreign woods are those most prized by the ornamental turner,
on account of their hardness, and the beautiful polish which can be
given to them. Cocoas, or the wood of the palm, is much used for all
kinds of ornamental work. It is of a beautiful brown, streaked with
darker veins, and is found in the West Indies.

Ring wood is extremely hard, of a chocolate brown, with black veins;
it is a good wood for turning, and comes from Brazil.

Partridge and leopard woods, tulip and snake woods, are also
frequently used; the latter is of a very deep red, and very hard.

Calamander wood, a tree growing in the island of Ceylon, is very hard
and heavy, and the veins in it most beautifully shaded. The principal
colours are a fine chocolate, sometimes deepening almost into black,
then gradually shading into a cream colour. It is a very hard wood,
and takes a high polish.

African thorn is of a beautiful dark colour, and much prized when it
can be obtained good, which is rarely the case.

Ebony, an exceedingly hard, smooth, foreign wood, is much admired
by turners. The best is a jet black, free from any veins, and
receiving a very high polish. There is some difficulty in keeping
woods to prevent them from warping or cracking. The foreign woods,
particularly, being usually very dry, often open in fissures while
working. The best method of preserving them is to place them in a
cool and rather damp place, and to rub a little oil now and then
over the outsides, to keep them moist. If the wood is sufficiently
large to allow of its being quartered, the danger of its splitting
is much less; but the foreign woods are rarely large, as the trees
are generally very high, but small in circumference. If foreign woods
cannot easily be obtained, box wood and holly may be stained so as
greatly to resemble them. The dying woods to be used must be in
small chips or raspings. When the wood is ordered to be brushed over
several times with the fluid, it should be dried between each time.
If the stain is wished to be very deep, the wood should be boiled in
the stain.


                         TO STAIN WOOD RED.

Mix two ounces of Brazil wood, and two of potash, in a quart of
water; let them remain in a warm place for some days, stirring them
occasionally. With this boiling liquid, brush over the wood till it
becomes of the requisite colour; then dissolve two ounces of alum in
a quart of water, and, while the wood is wet, brush it over with it.
For a pink or a rose red, use double the quantity of potash.


                           A YELLOW STAIN.

Steep one ounce of turmeric in a pint of spirits of wine; let it
stand for several days. Brush the wood over with it. A red yellow is
made by adding to the above a little gum tragacanth.


                           A BLACK STAIN.

Brush the wood with a hot decoction of logwood, then with common ink.


                           A PURPLE STAIN.

Boil one ounce of logwood and two drachms of Brazil wood in a quart
of water, over a moderate fire. When one-half is evaporated, strain
it, and brush the wood over with it. When dry, brush it over with a
solution composed of a dram of pearl-ash in a pint of water.


                          A MAHOGANY STAIN.

For a light stain, mix two ounces of madder and one of fustic in a
quart of water, and boil them all together; a darker stain is made by
using half an ounce of logwood in the place of the madder, and then
brushing the wood with a weak solution of potash.

All hard woods are easily polished; first, they are made perfectly
smooth and even, with the turning tools, after which rub them with
sand paper, then with Dutch rushes, which, to prevent their breaking
into small pieces, should be steeped in water. While using these,
make the lathe turn quickly round, sometimes one way, sometimes the
other, to prevent any unevenness, and keep moving the sand paper, &c.
&c., or the edges are apt to cut lines. When this is done, and the
work looks smooth, rub over it a drop or two of olive oil, wipe it
clean with its own shavings, take it off the lathe, and brush it with
a very hard brush, the same as those used for blacking leather.

As it is impossible to turn well unless your tools are in good
order, great care must be taken to keep them very sharp. If a bit
of the steel splits away, as is frequently the case in turning hard
woods, grind it down till it becomes even again, then rub it on the
Turkey stone, with a little olive oil, till the edge is so sharp that
you cannot see it; for the gouges and hollow tools, thick Turkey
stones, rounded at the edges, are sold, which enter into the groove,
and the outer edges are rubbed on the flat stone.

As soon as the turner becomes quite master of his tools, he will
find ivory much pleasanter to work than wood; it is not so liable to
split, it turns smoother, polishes with less trouble, and shows any
ornamental work much better than wood. But then it is very expensive,
and very difficult to obtain good and white. New ivory may be
bleached by exposing it in the sunshine, and wetting it constantly,
or it will crack; but till the ivory is cut up, you cannot tell
whether it will be good or not. Pieces may be bought cheaper that
have a hollow in the middle, they serve very well for pedestals of
vases, by screwing another bit into the hole, or for boxes, by gluing
in a piece of ebony to fit the hollow. Ivory is polished _before_
ornamenting, with putty powder, ground very fine, rubbed on with
a piece of linen dipped in water, dry it, and rub very hard with
a bit of felt, and the polish will be beautiful. But after it is
ornamented, polish only with a brush dipped in water and chalk, or
even in plain water.

For dying ivory, it is first necessary to cleanse it from the grease
which it always contains, more or less, and which would prevent its
receiving the stain or dye. For this purpose, mix half a pound of
nitre in an equal quantity of water, tie a string round the pieces of
ivory, and dip them in while the liquor is hot, then plunge them into
cold water.


                          TO DIE IVORY RED.

Take half a pound of pieces of scarlet cloth, put them into a clean
earthen pot; add one ounce of soft soap, after which pour in three
quarts of soft water. Boil all together for half an hour, stirring
it frequently, and squeeze the cloth several times, to extract the
colour. When this is done, have ready an earthen vessel, put into
it as much pulverized alum as will lie upon a sixpence, pour the
scarlet liquid over it, and extract all the colour from the cloth by
pressing it in a canvas bag. Steep the ivory in this liquor till it
becomes of the proper scarlet.


                             BLACK DYE.

Boil a quarter of a pound of logwood shavings in a quart of water, in
an earthen vessel, for half an hour. Steep the ivory in it.

On taking the ivory out of these boiling liquors, immerse it
instantly in cold water, to prevent its cracking.


                          ELLIPTIC TURNING.

This machine is frequently called, by those who do not understand the
ellipse, an oval chuck; but it is not oval, for an oval expresses an
object that is smaller at one end than at the other. Fig. 1, plate
3, is a front view of the machine. I K is the iron plate to which
all the parts (except the ring, hereafter described) are fastened.
A screw, similar to that on the nose of the mandrel, is riveted to
this plate, fig. W, and upon it whatever you wish to turn is fixed.
Fig. 2 exhibits a back view of this machine; at each of the four
corners there is a short square pillar, marked D. Within these are
two narrow ribs of steel, reaching the whole length of the plate I
K. Each of them, being bevelled, forms an angular groove, reaching
all its length. By means of these grooves the slider, F, moves up and
down.

[Illustration: _Plate 4._]

When the slider is in its place, two pieces of steel, M M, bear upon
the side pieces, to which, and to the plate, I K, they are firmly
attached by four screws, X X X X. The plate, F, being cast in the
same piece as the slide, cannot be thrown out of its place, but moves
in a longitudinal direction only, the nut, L, acting as a stop to
prevent its going too far. The space between the end pieces, M M, is
just equal to the diameter of the ring, O, Fig. 3, upon the outside
of which they revolve when the nut is screwed upon the mandrel. Two
arms, R R, are connected with it, and in each there is a groove
extending nearly their whole length. This machine is connected
with the lathe, and its motion obtained as follows:—E E, fig. 4,
represents a headstock, through which two holes are drilled, the
centres of which are precisely in a line with the centre of the
mandrel, M; the ring is fastened to the headstock by two screws,
I I, the shanks of which pass through the grooves and through the
holes in the headstock. When the ring is in this position, it will
be perceived that it can only move from side to side, and its centre
must always be in the same horizontal line with that of the mandrel.
Now screw upon the mandrel the nut, L, fig. 2. The plate, I K, if
set exactly opposite the mandrel, will revolve in a circle; but if
the centre of the ring be the least in the world on one side of the
mandrel, it will revolve in an ellipse. When, therefore, the work is
fastened to the screw, W, it is quite as easy to turn an ellipse as
on the ordinary lathe to turn a cylinder.

Of course, the slider must move with great steadiness and freedom,
to effect which, very great accuracy in the workmanship must be
observed. Figs. 5 and 6 are two different views of the machine,—5 is
the side, 6 the end view.

To turn a hollow sphere, the convex surface is first turned, and
perfectly smoothed and finished; it must then be bored with a
centrebit, to make an aperture sufficiently large to admit the tool,
fig. 7, plate 1, with which the interior must be worked away. As,
however, it would require a large aperture to enable you to hollow
out the whole sphere, it is preferable to make six openings with the
centrebit, each in a line with the centre; they must also be made
at equal distances from each other, and every hole must be at right
angles with all the rest, except one, which is exactly opposite to
it. Place the sphere in a chuck, with the middle of any two of the
holes in a line with the axis of the mandrel; turn out as much as
you can of the first hole, then bring the other holes forward and do
likewise; at last the excavations will be cut through.

To turn the Chinese balls, which are so much admired for their beauty
and curious workmanship, we are told to proceed as follows:—As they
are composed of spheres one within the other, the holes must be just
deep enough to leave the thickness between each little more than the
diameter of the smallest sphere. The work must be begun by forming
the innermost sphere, and afterwards it must be continued regularly
on to the larger, till at last the outer sphere is completed.

An immense, almost an endless, variety of figures may be worked in
the lathe by carefully regulating the tools. Beautiful flowers in
ivory, equal to the Chinese carving, are formed by the experienced
turner, with small wheels and other instruments: medallions, even,
are executed in the lathe, with machinery so constructed that the
tool follows on the wood the exact lines of the head that is being
copied.

Gold and silver ornaments, such as watches, snuff-boxes, and other
trinkets, are worked with what is called a rose engine; plates with
patterns indented upon them are fastened upon the mandrel: the screw
regulates the tool, which produces an exact counterpart of the
pattern.

Many of the copper cylinders used in printing calicoes afford curious
specimens of engraving in the lathe. It is impossible to imagine any
thing more beautiful than the effect produced, and a whole web of
linen is printed by them in a very few minutes. The methods employed
in this kind of turning by the various artists who practice it are
but little known; and, indeed, to look at the patterns produced, it
would be supposed that the graver must have been used to form them. A
general idea of the nature of the work is all we are enabled to give.
The pattern intended for the cylinder must be cut upon a small steel
wheel, which revolves upon an axis. This wheel is then to be held
against the copper cylinder, which, quickly revolving in the lathe,
carries it round, and receives from it the impression of its pattern.
The wheel operates like a punch, but the roughness it makes on the
edge of the work is easily polished down.

Having now finished the directions for concentric and elliptic
turning, we will, before beginning the ornamental parts of this
interesting art, beg to impress upon the minds of our readers that
they must never be discouraged by failure in their first attempts,
even though they may be subjected to many disappointments; for, as
the Bard of Avon expresses it:—

    “Oft expectation fails, and most oft there
     Where most it promises; and oft it hits
     Where hope is coldest, and despair most sits.”




                         ECCENTRIC TURNING.

[Illustration: _Plate 5._]

This name includes all the various, beautiful, and intricate work for
which the powers of a lathe are so justly celebrated, and which, once
seen, must be admired by all who love the fine arts and examine the
powers of machinery. The eccentric cutter, the drill, the eccentric
chuck, and the universal, or vertical cutter, are all indispensable
for those who wish to perform ornamental turning, and with them the
most delicate and intricate patterns can be worked with a precision
and accuracy that are truly wonderful. A sliding, or parallel, rest
is absolutely necessary for turning patterns, as upon it, in some
degree, depends their exactness. Fig. 1, plate 5, is the drawing of
one. The foot, A, screws firmly to the bed of the lathe, like the
common rest, and the upper part fits into the socket, B, and, by
means of the nut, C, is turned in any direction you wish. D D is a
bed of steel, five or six inches long; through the groove down the
middle is a screw which passes from one end to the other, and, by
turning the squarehead, E, the tool slider, J, is pushed backwards
or forwards, while the rest itself remains stationary. The steel bed
is graduated. Between the bed and the screw, E, is a small brass
wheel, divided into numbers, G; this regulates the position of the
tool. The tool slider, J, fits into the bed, H, and slides in and
out; J is the part where the tool slips in, and it is kept firm by
a screw, K. The handle draws it to and from the work, and the nuts
_l_ _l_, regulate the depths of the cuts. The tools belonging to
this rest, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, are of steel, about two inches long, and
are ground to different angles: there are various sizes of each.
When you intend to ornament a piece of wood or ivory, first turn
it quite round, and smooth it with the common tools; you must then
make the surface _perfectly flat_, and to accomplish this, adjust
the sliding rest at a proper distance, put in one of the round-ended
tools, No. 5, let it just _touch_ the wood by setting the screws,
_l_ _l_; put the lathe in motion, and gently approach the tool to
the work; if it cuts too deep, tighten the screws a little more; if
too little, push the screw forward. Keep the tool steadily up to the
work by pressing on the lever, S, which impels the tool to slide
forward, then, with the right hand, turn the head, E, by means of
a handle, P, which will thus enable the tool slide to run from one
end of the brass bed to the other, at the same time that the lathe is
turning rapidly round, and thus the surface of the wood is rendered
perfectly smooth, level, and polished. Sometimes, however, it will
require to be worked over in this manner three or four times before
it becomes quite flat; and frequently, even when it appears level,
there will still be a hollow in the middle, which will quite destroy
the accuracy of the patterns: to discover whether this is the case
or not, take the T square, see plate 1, fig. R; place it with its
edge against the wood: if you can see light between it and the work,
the surface cannot be even, and requires smoothing over again. The
next process is to cut very delicate circles all over the work, at
regular distances: this is done to take off the bright look of the
wood, that the patterns may appear to greater advantage. Put into the
tool slide a double angular tool, No. 4; adjust it so as to make a
distinct, but still delicate, cut into the wood. Make one cut in the
middle of the work; move the brass wheel, G, one number, or from 1 to
2; make a second cut; move to 3, then to 4, and so on: each circle
you will find enlarges gradually, till you arrive at the end of the
wood. Pattern 1, plate 6, is a specimen of this work; but remember,
it is merely a preparation for other patterns. In doing _side work_,
as the side of a box, or a knitting-case, unscrew the screw C, and
turn the brass bed of the rest round till in a line with it, then
proceed as directed for face work. The wood being ready, we will now
go on to give a description of the eccentric cutter, plate 5, fig.
2. Like the tool slider, it fits into the sliding rest, but now it
is no longer the work which moves round and the tool stationary,
but the wood remains firmly fixed while the tool rapidly revolves
and cuts the patterns. For this purpose, it is obviously necessary
that the fly wheel should turn the cutter, while the small wheel
remains immovable. Several methods are used to perform this: the one
given plate 4, fig. K, is the easiest. The frame here represented
should be of iron, firmly screwed to the bench of the lathe, and of
sufficient height to be about a foot above the head of the workman.
In front is a spindle, which works in two nuts, No. 1 1, exactly in
a line with the mandrel. Two wooden wheels, No. 2 2, are fastened
to this spindle; the one on the left hand remains stationary over
the fly wheel of the lathe, by which it is turned, the other slips
backwards and forwards, according to the work it is required to do.
Take off the usual catgut from the fly-wheel, and pass a long one
over it, and over the small wheel on the over-head frame, No. 2.
When the cutter, 2, plate 5, is fixed in the slide rest, draw the
other small wheel on the spindle, No. 2, forward, till just above the
rest, then pass a catgut over it, and round the small brass wheel,
B, of the cutter, and the whole will turn together. The brass wheel
of the lathe must then be fixed at one particular number. It is
usually divided into three hundred and sixty divisions, each marked
by a small hole in the brass wheel, as in fig. A, plate 4, and it is
by properly dividing the numbers on this plate that the accuracy of
the patterns depends; to keep the wheel steady, a small steel key,
_h_, plate 4, is slipped into the brass knob, O, plate 4, and the
other end, being pointed, enters into one of the small holes, say the
one marked 360; the work is then immovable until you remove the key
into another hole. The cutter itself is of brass, with a spindle,
C, which works in two brass collars. At one end is the wheel, B, by
which it is turned, at the other a steel frame, T D, which is marked
on the upper edge in small lines, E, to regulate the quantity of
eccentricity. The steel tool-box, F, holds the tool, which is kept
firm by a small screw underneath. By means of a screw through the
frame, D D, similar to that of the sliding rest, the tool is pushed
backwards and forwards, and cuts a large or a small circle. G is the
nut that moves it, and it also is divided into numbers. This cutter,
for many patterns, is quite as useful as the eccentric chuck, but,
in conjunction with the former, is invaluable, and the patterns
performed by them may be multiplied according to the taste and genius
of the turner. The two screws, H H, fix the depth of the cut; the
wheel of the sliding rest determines the necessary distance, that of
the cutter the eccentricity, while the brass wheel keeps the pattern
accurate. The tools, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, plate 5, are of various
forms and sizes: care must be taken not to break them, and the cutter
must be constantly well oiled with olive oil; the holes, K K, are
made to receive it. In using this tool, make the wheel of the lathe
go very quick, but approach the tool very gently and slowly to the
work. The better to do this, the lever, S, is used; it enters into
one of the holes in the side of the cutter, and into a similar one in
the sliding rest, so that by a slight pressure the tool is impelled
gently forward. There are generally about two dozen tools shaped like
those in the plate, but of various sizes.

To imitate the second pattern, plate 6, which, it will be perceived,
is a number of circles, slide the cutter towards the edge of the
work by turning the screw of the slide rest, then, to make the outer
circle of the border, turn the small nut, G, of the cutter six times
round; put a double angular tool into the tool box, screw it firmly,
adjust your cutter by the screws, H H, to the proper distance, and
stop your wheel with the steel key at 360. Cut one circle, alter
your wheel thirty numbers, cut another circle, then thirty numbers
more, till the twelve circles are all cut. This done, alter the wheel
fifteen numbers, which will make the circle cut half through two of
the former ones, then move 30, as before, till the twelve are done.
For the small inner circles turn the nut, G, of the cutter two turns
back, to reduce the size, and move 30 as before. The pattern in the
middle is still circles, though differently arranged. Draw back the
cutter till a little past the middle of the work, then unscrew the
nut, G, fifteen turns, cut one circle, move the brass wheel 15, cut
another; move 15, cut another; then move 45, cut another; move 15,
then 15, and so on till all are finished.

Third pattern.—Set the cutter at five turns, and move five numbers on
the brass wheel for every circle. For the middle pattern, turn the
nut of the cutter eight times, move ninety numbers on the wheel, till
four circles are cut; then move 45, cut another; then 90 again. To
make the small circles, turn the nut, G, backward two turns, and move
90 as before, for the four first circles; then move 45; then 90 to
the end.

[Illustration: _Plate 6._]

Fourth.—The border of this pattern is the same as the one in No. 3,
only you place a piece of wood about a quarter of an inch in depth
_across_ the bed of the lathe, letting it pass half under the slide
rest; screw the rest down firmly, and proceed as above. By thus
raising the rest in a slanting position, half the circle only is cut,
which has a very pleasing effect. For the centre pattern, set the
cutter at a small circle, cut one in the middle, having the wheel
fixed at 360. Then move the brass wheel of the slide rest, plate
5, three numbers for each circle; these done, return to the middle
circle and continue the same to the other end. Then move the brass
wheel of the lathe to 45, and repeat as above, three numbers for each
circle, till the next row is finished; then again move forty-five
numbers on the large wheel; and so on to the end.

Fifth pattern.—Set the cutter at a large circle, the brass wheel at
360. Move 5 for four circles, then move 15, then 4 four times more,
then 15 again, and so on to the end. For the middle, set the cutter
to a small circle, and move the brass wheel of the lathe 90 four
times.

Sixth pattern.—Set the cutter to the largest circle it will make,
begin in the middle of the work, set the wheel at 360, and move ten
every time.

To assist the beginner, a drawing is given of the wheel, supposing
the largest number to be 360, A, plate 4. By this the numbers are all
arranged; a table of the divisions is also given; for on the proper
and accurate calculation of the numbers depends the exactness of
the patterns. The plate on the wheel divided at 144 is the plate for
marking half-circles and arcs, as in plate 12, fig. 3, which shall be
described hereafter. These patterns are very beautiful, and, from the
arcs being gradually reduced in size, they have a curious and elegant
appearance, but they cannot be worked _without_ an eccentric chuck.


                             THE DRILL.

The drill is a most useful auxiliary to the eccentric cutter, not
only for drilling holes, which it does with great nicety and speed,
but also for making mouldings and patterns of various kinds. Unlike
the cutter, which moves either in a large or small circle, the
drill can only work upon its own centre, and therefore the size of
the pattern depends upon the tool placed in it, its position being
regulated by the screw in the sliding rest, into which it slips
like the cutter. It is turned by a rope exactly the same as in the
directions already given for the eccentric cutter, and greatly
resembles it in shape, except at the end, A, plate 7, which is made
just to receive the tool, and a small screw keeps it firm. Suppose
you wish to ornament anything—say, the pen-holder, plate 9—with
concave mouldings, as in A. Having set the rest, by the aid of the
T square, exactly in the same slanting direction, put a round-ended
tool, No. 3, into the drill, set it to the proper distance, fix the
brass wheel at 360, cut a round hole; move the wheel to 72, cut
another, and so on till five are drilled; then, without altering the
rest, put in a smaller round-ended drill, hold it by means of the
lever well up to the work, make the large wheel go very quick, and
slowly turn the screw of the slide rest, so as to impel the drill
which ever way you wish. Do not cut too deep at first, or you will
break the tool; if a great depth is required, go over in the same
line three or four times. This done, count 72, as before, and proceed
the same; the pattern will have the appearance of the pen-holder
in the drawing. The end, B, after being turned to the shape, is
ornamented in small holes, that resemble a honeycomb, in the same
manner, with a round-ended drill; counting so as to make them fit
nicely between each other. To do this, you must be able to subdivide
your first numbers. Thus, suppose you drill a round hole at 1, 40,
80, and so on till you come to 360, these numbers can be divided by
beginning the next row (which must be begun the breadth of the tool
from the former one, by turning the slide-rest screw half, or a whole
turn, according to the breadth of the tool) at 20, then count forty
numbers as before; but if you had taken forty-five instead of forty
for your number, you could not have divided it evenly in the second
row, so as to make the holes intersect each other. Be very careful
to remember how many times you turn the slide-rest wheel, that each
cut may be of equal length. There are generally about four dozen
tools belonging to the drill, of various sizes, but of the shapes
given in plate 7. Nos. 1 and 2 drill large or small holes, as for
instance, round the sides of a turned pincushion, or needle-book, for
the stitches to go through; 3 is used to make concave mouldings, or
to cut quite through the work in straight lines, as in the lighter
case, E, plate 9. This pattern looks very pretty, and is quite easy,
if your work is turned sufficiently thin; it should be lined with
coloured velvet. No. 4 makes concave mouldings flat at the bottom;
these tools are also used to cut round dots: 5, cuts small or large
beadings, which give great lightness and finish to the work. Having
made a moulding with the hollow tool No. 2 of the slide rest, choose
a beading tool that just fits the moulding, put it in your drill, set
it to cut sufficiently deep to be quite round at the top; having cut
one, count by the brass wheel the proper distance, to make them fit
close, but without one spoiling the shape of the other; the round
dots on the bottom of the lighter case are intended to represent
these beads. Tool No. 6 cuts mouldings of the same shape as the
drawing. In using this and the tools Nos. 7 and 8, be careful, after
the first cut, where you place them for the second, to make them fit;
and in using all the drill tools, make the lathe go as quick as you
can, but move your _tool_ very _slowly_, and keep the drill slide
well oiled.


       LIST OF NUMBERS ON THE SMALL WHEEL AND ECCENTRIC CHUCK.

  +——————————————————————————————————————————++————————————————————+
  |             LATHE WHEEL.                 ||    CHUCK WHEEL.    |
  +——————+————————+————++——————+————————+————++——————+————————+————+
  |No. of| No. of |    ||No. of| No. of |    ||No. of| No. of |    |
  |divi- |cuts to |    ||divi- |cuts to |    ||divi- |cuts to |    |
  |sions |complete|    ||sions |complete|    ||sions |complete|    |
  | for  |  the   |Odd || for  |  the   |Odd || for  |  the   |Odd |
  | one  | circle.|nos.|| one  | circle.|nos.|| one  | circle.|nos.|
  | cut. |        |    || cut. |        |    || cut. |        |    |
  +——————+————————+————++——————+————————+————++——————+————————+————+
  |  1   |  360   | —  ||  1   |   96   | —  ||  1   |  120   | —  |
  |  2   |  180   | —  ||  2   |   48   | —  ||  2   |   60   | —  |
  |  3   |  120   | —  ||  3   |   32   | —  ||  3   |   40   | —  |
  |  4   |   90   | —  ||  4   |   24   | —  ||  4   |   30   | —  |
  |  5   |   72   | —  ||  5   |   19   |  1 ||  5   |   24   | —  |
  |  6   |   60   | —  ||  6   |   16   | —  ||  6   |   20   | —  |
  |  7   |   51   |  3 ||  7   |   13   |  5 ||  7   |   17   |  1 |
  |  8   |   45   | —  ||  8   |   12   | —  ||  8   |   15   | —  |
  |  9   |   40   | —  ||  9   |   10   |  6 ||  9   |   13   |  3 |
  | 10   |   36   | —  || 10   |    9   |  6 || 10   |   12   | —  |
  | 11   |   32   |  8 || 11   |    8   |  8 || 11   |   10   | 10 |
  | 12   |   30   | —  || 12   |    8   | —  || 12   |   10   | —  |
  | 13   |   27   |  9 || 13   |    7   |  5 || 13   |    9   |  3 |
  | 14   |   25   | 10 || 14   |    6   | 12 || 14   |    8   |  8 |
  | 15   |   24   | —  || 15   |    6   |  6 || 15   |    8   | —  |
  | 16   |   22   |  8 || 16   |    6   | —  || 16   |    7   |  8 |
  | 17   |   21   |  3 || 17   |    5   | 11 || 17   |    7   |  1 |
  | 18   |   20   | —  || 18   |    5   |  6 || 18   |    6   | 12 |
  | 19   |   18   | 18 || 19   |    5   |  1 || 19   |    6   |  6 |
  | 20   |   18   | —  || 20   |    4   | 16 || 20   |    6   | —  |
  | 21   |   17   |  3 || 21   |    4   | 12 || 21   |    5   | 15 |
  | 22   |   16   |  8 || 22   |    4   |  8 || 22   |    5   | 10 |
  | 23   |   15   | 15 || 23   |    4   |  4 || 23   |    5   |  5 |
  | 24   |   15   | —  || 24   |    4   | —  || 24   |    5   | —  |
  | 25   |   14   | 10 || 25   |    3   | 21 || 25   |    4   | 20 |
  | 26   |   13   | 22 || 26   |    3   | 18 || 26   |    4   | 16 |
  | 27   |   13   |  9 || 27   |    3   | 15 || 27   |    4   | 12 |
  | 28   |   12   | 24 || 28   |    3   | 12 || 28   |    4   |  8 |
  | 29   |   12   | 12 || 29   |    3   |  9 || 29   |    4   |  4 |
  | 30   |   12   | —  || 30   |    3   |  6 || 30   |    4   | —  |
  | 31   |   11   | 19 || 31   |    3   |  3 || 31   |    3   | 27 |
  | 32   |   11   |  8 || 32   |    3   | —  || 32   |    3   | 24 |
  | 33   |   10   | 30 || 33   |    2   | 30 || 33   |    3   | 21 |
  | 34   |   10   | 20 || 34   |    2   | 28 || 34   |    3   | 18 |
  | 35   |   10   | 10 || 35   |    2   | 26 || 35   |    3   | 15 |
  | 36   |   10   | —  || 36   |    2   | 24 || 36   |    3   | 12 |
  +——————+————————+————++——————+————————+————++——————+————————+————+


[Illustration: _Plate 7._]

These tools are also useful for cutting out the edges of work in
vandykes, as in the top of the lighter case, E, for which pattern the
tool No. 8 was used, the gimped edge being cut with No. 2; the end of
the needle-case, D, in plate 9, is done with a round-ended drill, No.
3, in the same manner as directed for the end of the pen-holder.
In the patterns Nos. 1 and 6 of plate 11, the straight lines near the
centre are cut with the round-ended drill.


                             GONEOMETER.

All the eccentric tools require the greatest care in sharpening, and
the above ingenious machine has been invented for this purpose; it is
represented at P, in plate 4. The upper part, 1, is a plate of brass,
the outer edge, 2, is graduated as high as 50 each way, beginning at
the tongue, 3. Beyond the numbers is a groove, in which one end of
the tool slide, 4, slips, and is firmly fixed (so as to point to any
of the numbers that suit the angle of the tool) by a nut underneath.
The whole plate, 1, is raised and lowered at pleasure by a small
hinge at 5, and the requisite height is fixed and settled by counting
the numbers on the steel tongue, 3. Underneath is another brass bed
with two feet, upon which the machine rests, while the front part
leans forwards and rests upon the end, 5. The box that contains the
goneometer has three drawers in it; the first is lined with brass,
except for about three inches in width, which space is covered with
fine Turkey stone. To use this machine, take out this drawer, lay the
feet of the goneometer on the brass, put the slide-rest tool, No. 4,
into the tool box, screw it firm, then slide the tool box along the
groove till it arrives at the proper angle, say 45; fix it with the
nut underneath, then raise the whole brass plate, 1, sliding it along
the tongue, 3, till at the exact height necessary for the tool to
touch the Turkey stone. Rub it backwards and forwards upon it with
oil. When one side is sharp, move the tool slide to the opposite
angle, to sharpen the other. The small eccentric tools are placed in
the steel case, U, and the case fits into the tool slide.


                           CIRCULAR REST.

The rest we have already described, called the Parallel Rest, works,
as its name sufficiently expresses, in a straight line; it is
therefore useless for ornamenting spherical objects, and the circular
rest has lately been invented to supply this deficiency. It is a most
ingenious contrivance, and perfectly fulfils the purpose for which it
was invented.

[Illustration: _Plate 8._]

The bed, A A, is the same as in the parallel rest, and screws
in the same way to the bed of the lathe. B is a brass socket and
pillar, which support the bed C, in which the tool box slides; they
are formed in the same piece with the lower bed, L L, and firmly
fixed into the lower part, which is grooved, by four brass-headed
screws, N N. The grooves enable the whole socket and tool box to
slide backwards and forwards on the bed of steel, D D, and by means
of the screw which passes through it the workman regulates the
advance or retreat of the rest to or from the work in a _straight
line_, while the lower part remains stationary. The small wheel, E,
is graduated, and turned by a key, to enable the turner to count the
distance. F is a steel spindle, which works in two brass collars,
G G; about half-way down. The spindle is formed into a screw, O,
which turns upon the brass wheel, H, and by moving the nut, J,
moves the whole rest in a circular direction, in the same way that
the screw in the steel bed, D D, impels it in a straight line: by
this ingenious contrivance all objects that are round or spherical
can be ornamented: such as balls, the globular sides of vases, or
small baskets, in every variety of pattern. The learner will easily
discover the proper method of using this rest, which is very simple
in its mechanism and use. The nut, K, is for setting the tool slider
at different angles, the same as in the parallel or sliding rest; the
tools to be employed are those of the above-mentioned rest.


                 THE VERTICAL, OR UNIVERSAL CUTTER.

                              PLATE 7.

This cutter, which also fits into the slide rest, is different from
the others; and, as its name denominates, the patterns it can cut
are almost endless, for it may be turned in any direction. The bed
of the slide is the same as with the drill; at the end, No. 1, is a
screw, which, when turned by the key, B, inclines the tool-holder, 2,
to any angle that may be required, and it is regulated by the lines
on the brass plate, 3, which are marked by a small steel point; so
that if you wish to cut out a pattern slanting to the right, and
another to correspond slanting to the left, you have only to mark
the number on the plate, where you cut the first, and then with the
key move the cutter to the same position on the opposite side. When
the tool-holder, 2, stands straight, as in the plate, the tool
cuts horizontally: when it is screwed down to the last line on the
plate, it cuts perpendicularly, but the cut always scoops out; and by
putting the tool as far out of the holder as you can, the cut will
be larger, and the scoop deeper. The back support of the pulley,
4, moves with the tool-holder; and the pulleys, 5, correspond with
each; the back one is turned in the same direction as the front one,
by unloosing the screw, 6. The gut, after passing over the pulley
on the over-head frame, comes through the two back pulleys of the
cutter and round the front one, as in the plate; but when the cutter
is screwed flat, a short cord, the same as that used for the drill,
is sufficient; and the back pulleys are then not necessary. This tool
requires constant oiling at D D, for the friction is very great; it
also demands much care and delicacy in using it, as it must not be
incautiously thrust against the wood, or it will stick fast, and
not turn round. There are about four dozen tools, all of the shapes
given in the plate, but of various sizes. This cutter slides into the
slide rest, and the depth of the cut is, as usual, regulated by the
screws at the end, and the cutter is brought to the work by the aid
of the same lever as is used for the drill and eccentric cutter. The
patterns cut by this tool are counted and regulated by the numbers
on the brass wheel, as with the others. When the turner has once
tried it, he will readily discover its advantages for all kinds of
ornamental work, particularly for the sides of boxes, needle-cases,
and many other articles; but it is needless to give many drawings of
the patterns, as they much depend upon the taste of the turner.

One beautiful design for a lighter case, or small basket, is worked
with this cutter with a flat-ended tool. Turn the work very thin,
chuck it firmly, make one cut deep enough to allow the tool _just_
to cut through, and no more. Count thirty on the brass wheel of the
lathe every time; the next row make the cut deeper, so that the
opening will be larger, then move 60. By this means a piece of ivory
will be left standing out, with openings cut between, which, when
lined with coloured velvet, looks light and elegant. This row count
sixty every time; the next, thirty, as at the beginning.

[Illustration: _Plate 9._]

The needle-case in plate 9, fig. K, is entirely ornamented with this
cutter in a variety of patterns. Figs. 1, 3, 4, and 8, are worked
with the flat and round-ended tools; 2, with the tool No. 6; 5 with
the tool 3; 7, with 4; and 6 with No. 6.

The bottle, B, is also ornamented with the same tools. It is hollow
down the neck, and is intended to contain a tin or glass of water;
in the stopper is glued a small camel’s-hair brush, which rests in
the water, and is meant to be used for wetting postage-stamps, and
fastening them upon letters. The bottom of the neck unscrews at fig.
1, and the part below it is hollowed out like a box, to hold the
stamps. The neck is ornamented in steps. Set the cutter quite flat,
facing the side of the work; use the tool No. 5; cut one line, move
the brass wheel of the lathe just far enough to make the second cut
join the first, and the same all round. In the next row make the
first cut half-way between the others; thus, if you have begun at
the numbers, 1, 6, 12, in the second row begin at 3, then go to 9,
then to 15, and so on. Every row of steps begins half-way through the
former ones, and for each row move the cutter on the slide rest the
breadth of the tool. The convex moulding at the bottom of the neck is
done by putting one of the hollow tools of the sliding rest into a
handle, and rounding the ornament with it. The other patterns are all
done with the same cutter, by placing the tools at different angles.
In the same plate, 9, the two patterns F and G are very beautiful,
they are worked with the eccentric cutter. F resembles the scales of
fish lying one over another: put the most angular tool, No. 5, (of
the cutter tools), into the cutter; describe a circle from the edge
of the middle line to the outer one; cut one circle very _deep_, move
ten numbers on the brass wheel of the lathe, and so on to the end.

The pattern, G, is worked exactly the same, only a less angular tool,
No. 4, is used, and fewer numbers are counted: it resembles leaves,
one lying over the other.

The stopper of the bottle, B, is also ornamented with this cutter,
and with an angular tool. First turn the stopper quite circular, (the
knob at the top must be glued in afterwards). Set the sliding rest
at a convenient distance, and place under it one of the slide-rest
tools, so as to raise it in an uneven manner; screw the rest firmly,
and set the circle just large enough to encircle half the stopper.
By this means the tool cuts the UNDER part of the circle, and passes
over the other half: this pattern must be cut very deep, and about
five numbers be counted between each cut on the brass wheel of the
lathe.

D is another pattern for a stopper; it is worked with a round-ended
drill. Cut the holes rather deep, and as near as you can to one
another, only leaving a very little thin shell of ivory between them,
and the pattern will resemble a honeycomb. The lighter case, E, is
ornamented with the drill and vertical cutter. Turn the upper part
very thin, then drill long lines quite through the ivory, leaving
a space between each; this looks light and elegant, if lined with
coloured paper. The base is cut in steps with the vertical cutter;
count twenty for each cut; the second row, make each cut between the
former ones, moving for each row the breadth of the tool. The top is
cut out in leaves with the drill tool No. 8.

To sharpen all these tools, use the goneometer, taking care that you
fix it exactly at the proper angle, by counting the position by the
numbers. If you do not place the tool just at the right angle, it
will cut the patterns quite crooked.


                          ECCENTRIC CHUCK.

    “The centre mov’d—a circle straight succeeds;
     Another still, and still another spreads.”

[Illustration: _Plate 10._]

Perhaps the most useful of all the additions to the lathe is this
chuck, for by its aid the turner can alter the centre of his work as
he pleases, producing a great variety of circular lines of different
sizes, and other ornaments, which cannot be attempted without it.
The tools are those already described belonging to the slide rest,
which latter, when used with this chuck, assumes quite a different
character than when employed with the eccentric and universal cutters
and the drill. With these three, it merely serves to mark, by aid of
its screw, the distance they require to be from the work, and the
position in which they are to be placed, but does not assist in the
size or form of the patterns to be cut; with the eccentric chuck,
however, it is quite different. The rest marks the _size_ of the
circles, while the chuck fixes their _position_. Thus: suppose you
wish to cut a circle, or series of circles, not as in the pattern,
No. 1, plate 6, which begin from the centre and gradually enlarge,
but like those in No. 3; the slide rest must be set to the proper
position, to enable the tool to cut the requisite circle, and then
the chuck must be screwed down till the tool arrives opposite the
exact place where the pattern is to be worked. With this chuck the
over-head frame is no longer used; the brass and fly-wheels being
employed together, as in common turning, the chuck having a wheel of
its own by which to regulate the patterns. In the annexed plate, fig.
1, is a front view of the eccentric chuck; fig. 2 is the same seen
sideways.

A A are two brass plates, with a screw at the back of them, as shown
at P, fig. 2; by this screw it fastens on to the mandrel of the lathe
like a common chuck. A A are so shaped as to admit of D sliding up
and down them, and the four screws enable the slide to be tightened
or loosened. Down the middle of the chuck is a screw with a very fine
thread; it is turned at either end by the square head, 3, and thus
D slides up and down at pleasure, but cannot in any way get out of
its proper position, and, above all, can never shake in its bed. E
is a brass wheel divided into 120 teeth, upon which the distances
are calculated, the same as on the other brass wheel; in the middle
of it, F, is a screw, the same in size as that on the mandrel, upon
which the chuck that holds the work must be screwed. The wheel, E,
has a spring screw, which, by turning back the spring, H, enables
you to move the wheel round as many numbers as you wish, and the
steel point, K, marks the one you wish to set it at. L is a small
wheel with four numbers marked upon it; by setting it at O, the steel
screw passes from line to line of the wheel, E, fig. 2; by turning
it one line further, it stops at ¼; another line, it stops at ½; and
a third, at ⅓; thus enabling you to cut your patterns as fine and
delicate as you like.

The square heads, 3 3, are placed at each end of the chuck, so that
the plate D can traverse the whole length, and thus enable you to
ornament a square or an oblong piece of work; both heads have four
numbers marked upon them, by which you regulate the motions of the
chuck. For instance, when D D is screwed up level with the black
line O, the screw F will be exactly in the centre of the lathe. Now,
suppose the tool in the slide rest is set to cut a very small circle,
and you wish, having done that one, to cut several others of the
same size round it, thus, [Illustration: small wheel] you must turn
the chuck down one turn by counting the numbers on the square head,
No. 3; and having cut one circle in the proper place, count as many
numbers on the brass plate, E, as are necessary to make them fit
properly. Should you wish to make a second row of circles larger than
the first, besides turning down the chuck, you must, to enlarge them,
turn the screw of the slide-rest one turn forwards. All the patterns
already given for the eccentric cutter can be done equally well with
the eccentric chuck, except the border pattern in No. 4, which can
only be worked by the cutter. Patience, calculation, and attention
will enable you to perform the most beautiful, minute, and intricate
patterns with the eccentric chuck; but though I have endeavoured
to give many specimens, when printed they only in a slight degree
convey an idea of the real beauty of this kind of turning; the
depth of the cut will wholly alter the appearance of a pattern,
and the same circles cut with another shaped tool present quite a
different appearance; in all, however, there is one rule, which must
never be forgotten—viz., be very careful to make your wood or ivory
_perfectly_ smooth, flat, and even, before attempting to ornament
it, or you will be disappointed by finding that your circles are cut
deep in one part and are scarcely visible in another; also remember
to _line_ it, as directed when treating of the slide-rest, for this
gives much effect to the work.

[Illustration: _Plate 11._]

Pattern 1, plate 11. Begin by the shell. Having smoothed and lined
your wood, put a double angular tool (No. 4 of the slide-rest tools)
into your rest; turn the slide-screw till the tool is exactly in the
centre of your work, when, if you move the wheel round, you will
find the tool will only cut a dot. The outer circle is the one with
which to commence; turn the slide-rest screw forwards ten whole
turns, and you will find you have the circle of the proper size. Now
approach the tool to the wood, cut the circle carefully at first,
till you decide on the proper depth for the cuts; then set your screw
guides, and proceed as follows. For the other ten circles, move the
eccentric chuck downwards half a turn, and diminish their size by
moving the slide-rest screw backwards half a turn, so as to keep the
lower part of each circle in the same place. To have a good effect,
shells should be _well cut up_—that is, each circle should be of a
sufficient depth for the edge of the cut to meet the former one, and
thus efface the lines made in preparing the wood. The rays from the
centre are worked with the drill; put a fine round-ended tool, No. 3
of the drill tools, into the drill; place it in the slide rest, stop
the fly-wheel, arrange the cords, and set the tool with the screw
guides to cut very little at first. By means of the slide-rest screw,
push the drill forwards till the tool touches the outer edge of the
shell; hold it well up to the work with the lever; make the lathe go
very quick, and move the drill on the slide forwards very slowly, by
turning the slide-rest wheel round with the key 12 turns FORWARDS,
then the same backwards. Move 12 numbers on the eccentric chuck wheel
for each of the other middle lines, and cut them as above; then move
the slide-rest half a turn forwards to shorten the line, and move
1 number on the eccentric chuck wheel, and cut a line moving the
slide-rest 11 turns forwards, by which it will be equally shortened
at each end. Move to the other side of the long lines and do the
same. The whole pattern is done in this manner, counting one for
every line on the eccentric chuck wheel, and gradually shortening
them by reducing the turns of the slide rest. For the third pattern,
which would look better done in dots than in circles, take away the
drill, put back the slide rest tool-box, and take a flat-ended tool;
set it to cut a dot about the same size as the circles, just deep
enough to efface the under lines, so that each dot will look bright
and shining. Having cut one, count 2 on the eccentric chuck wheel for
each of the other 60; then screw the chuck downwards 2 turns, so that
the next row may be just above those already done; cut five dots,
counting 2 numbers for each, then pass over four and cut five more;
and so on to the end. The upper circle is worked precisely the same
as the lower one. The outer pattern is done like the arc patterns in
plate 12, counting 5 for each arc on the eccentric chuck.


                             PATTERN 2.

The middle pattern is formed of eight shells, with only four lines
in each; but these parts of shells begin at the centre point, not
round it, as in the former pattern. Use a double angular tool, screw
the tool slide out 10 turns, and the eccentric chuck _downwards_,
till the outer or largest circle just touches the centre; cut one
circle, move 15 numbers on the eccentric chuck wheel; cut another,
and continue the same till the eight are done; then diminish each
as directed for the shell, counting 15 for every circle. The second
pattern, of rings one within another, is worked with the same tool;
set it to the centre point of the wood, screw it forwards four turns,
then screw the chuck downwards until you can cut a circle just above
the shells; count 6 numbers on the eccentric chuck wheel for each of
the 20: then diminish your circles by turning the slide-rest screw
_backwards_ half a turn; do the second row, counting 6 as before, and
the same for the two inner ones. A still prettier way of doing this
pattern is to cut steps instead of circles. Put a fine flat-ended
tool into the slide, set it to cut a circle the same circumference
as the largest in the pattern; then reduce its size as before, and
cut the next deeper, by screwing out the screw guides a very little;
the third is still smaller and deeper. A little dot should remain
in the middle, standing up as high as the level of the wood; to do
this pattern the wood must be thick, as the steps require a certain
depth. The outer pattern is done in the same manner as that in
pattern 1, only the numbers are counted differently.


                             PATTERN 3.

Count 40 on the eccentric chuck wheel for each of the three large
circles, diminish one turn of the eccentric chuck. Then diminish the
circle two turns of the rest screw, and lower the eccentric chuck two
turns, and cut a circle every 20 numbers; the others are done the
same. For the second pattern of circles, cut one for every number
on the eccentric chuck wheel; then move one number on the eccentric
chuck wheel, and move the eccentric chuck downwards one turn, and cut
a circle every 15; by moving the chuck down, and advancing one number
every time, the circles are made to incline sideways. The outer
pattern is much the same as in the two former ones.


                             PATTERN 4.

This is a double shell in the centre. Begin with the large circle,
having fixed the eccentric chuck wheel at No. 120. Having cut one
whole shell, move the wheel to No. 60, and work the other in the
same way. For the circles, keep the tool in the same place on the
slide rest, and screw the eccentric chuck down two turns to clear the
edge of the shell; cut one circle every 12 numbers on the eccentric
chuck wheel, enlarge the circle by moving the slide rest one turn
forwards; cut the second row, and so on till the fourth or largest
one is done, then diminish the size for the other two WITHOUT
altering the chuck, but counting the same. The white dots are worked
out with a flat-ended tool, cutting one every six numbers on the
eccentric wheel; then move your chuck downwards three turns, and cut
one every 12; this done, move back to the former row to the dot that
comes between the circles, replace the double angular tool, enlarge
your circle, and cut one every 12; screw the chuck downwards three
turns, and proceed the same; then screw the chuck upwards one turn
and a half, which will bring your tool to a level with the middle of
the two former circles; move the eccentric chuck wheel one number on
each side of the former ones, and the rosette will be finished. The
border is formed of plain circles, omitting 3 numbers every ninth
cut.


                             PATTERN 5.

The middle and second row of circles are too simple to require
explanation. For the clusters of rings, begin with the middle row;
cut two a little apart from each other, then one through the middle
of them, and so on to the end; set the eccentric chuck wheel to the
_middle_ circle of one of the clusters, and move the eccentric chuck
downwards, till the tool can cut through the middle of the others,
then upwards the same number of turns. The extra half circle is
made by moving the wheel of the lathe with the hand, as for the arc
patterns, and counting the numbers on the eccentric chuck wheel,
_between_ those already formed.


                             PATTERN 6.

This is merely a circle of shells, worked the same as in pattern 1;
only with this difference, that each circle is done to correspond in
each shell, instead of working every one separately, which would be
more tedious; 15 is counted on the eccentric chuck wheel for each row
of circles. The rays in the middle are done with the drill; these can
also be done without an eccentric chuck; the numbers must then be
counted on the fly-wheel, which, for this kind of line work, is kept
steady with the stop.


                        PATTERN 1, PLATE 12.

Cut a small circle, then one every 12 numbers on the eccentric chuck
wheel. Move the chuck downwards two turns, and the eccentric chuck
wheel 1 number, either backwards or forwards; if the former, the rows
of circles will incline to the right; if the latter, to the left.
Proceed the same for every row of circles, always counting twelve
between each, and advancing the chuck 1 number at the beginning of
every new row.


                             PATTERN 2.

Begin with a small circle in the middle, then turn the eccentric
chuck down two turns, and cut one every 15. For the other two rows
proceed the same, lowering the chuck two turns, and counting 15 for
each on the eccentric chuck wheel. For the chain work, cut a circle
every 15 near the edge; then screw the eccentric chuck one turn
upwards, move 1 on the eccentric chuck wheel on each side of the
others; thus, if the upper row of circles begin at 120, the second
row will begin at Nos. 1 and 119, then at Nos. 14 and 16, and so on:
the third and fourth rows are the same as the two first; and the last
is cut between the others.

[Illustration: _Plate 12._]

Patterns 3 and 4 are called arc patterns, and are worked in a
different manner. In plate 4, fig. A is a drawing of the brass
fly-wheel of the lathe, with the numbers marked upon it. D is a brass
circle half an inch wide, which is attached to it: and upon which
are marked 144 lines, every 18 of which is described by a number. B
B are pieces of brass which, by means of a groove in the edge of the
circle, fit upon two steel slides that fit into the groove, and are
kept firm by two nuts, which fix them opposite any number you wish. P
is a long thin piece of steel, which enters by one end the bed of the
lathe, so as always to stand quite upright, by which means, when the
brass fly-wheel is gently turned with the hand, the flat end of the
stop, P, catches upon the lower piece of brass, B, and if you reverse
the motion of the fly-wheel, the other piece, B, will rest upon the
stop, so that you will find the wheel can only turn half or three
parts round, just as you choose to set the stops. These patterns,
it will immediately be seen, are worked with the hand, which must
guide the wheel slowly up and down; therefore slip off the cord, and
having arranged a double angular tool in the slide rest, hold it up
to the centre of the work, put the stop, P, into the hole, _n_, of
the bed of the lathe, and gently move the wheel till you find the
extent of circle you wish to cut; fasten on one slide firmly, then
fix the other end of the arc, and fasten the other slide. This done,
approach the tool carefully to the wood, and cut the first long arc
by moving the fly-wheel with your left hand as far up and down as
the stop will allow; then move 20 numbers on the eccentric chuck
wheel for every one of the other five arcs, and cut them in the same
way. After these are completed, move one number on the eccentric
chuck wheel and unscrew the UPPER slide, and move it down as many
lines as you think fit, in order to shorten the next arc; count 20,
as before, for every other of the 5. Each row is worked the same,
shortening the arcs and advancing one number on the eccentric chuck
wheel for each row. Pattern 4, and the border in pattern 1, plate
11., all are done in the same manner, only counting differently. A
great variety of arcs can be worked, and have a very curious effect,
but you must be careful in cutting them not to let the tool go too
deeply into the wood or ivory, or it will either stick fast, or else
cut jagged, uneven arcs; rather prefer to spend more time over the
work, by working the arcs over and over again till the proper depth
is obtained.

These patterns will enable the learner easily to discover and invent
many others, all beautiful when properly and neatly worked.


                             PATTERN 5.

Cut a circle every 24 numbers of the eccentric chuck wheel. Lower the
chuck one turn, and cut a circle on each side of the former ones, so
as to form the five knots of threes. The edge is worked like the arc
patterns, making each half circle meet and join with a dot, cut with
a small flat-ended tool.


                             PATTERN 6.

For the border cut three circles, one for each number on the
eccentric chuck wheel, then cut another at 6, 7, and 8, and so on
till all are done. The pattern in the middle needs no explanation.

[Illustration: _Plate 13._]

Plate 13 contains several specimens of eccentric turning. The temple
may be made either of wood or ivory, and be left open, as in the
plate, or have a coloured card-board case made to fit inside it.
The upper and lower parts of the pillars, six in number, are fluted
with a round-ended drill, but the middle parts are worked with the
eccentric chuck, and are curious specimens of its powers. They
much resemble a spiral staircase, and though at first sight they
may appear difficult, yet they are not so when properly explained.
Begin by turning the wood or ivory perfectly cylindrical with the
slide-rest tool. This done, screw your eccentric chuck _one turn_
downwards, and turn the screw of your rest _one turn_ forwards,
moving 12 numbers on the eccentric chuck wheel for every step. As
this requires great nicety, delicacy, and care, (the cuts being very
deep,) you must no longer depend upon the lever to approach the tool
(which is No. 1, of the slide-rest tools) to the work; instead of
using it, screw one of the screws, L, at the end of the tool slider,
to the deepest cut, and leave it so; then, as you push the tool
against the wood, gently unscrew the other screw, L, till the first
one prevents its cutting any deeper. For every step, move exactly the
breadth of the tool. If the piece you are working is thin and long,
it will be necessary to use the back puppet; in which case remember
to draw it away from the wood at every change of movement; for, of
course, when the eccentric chuck is altered, the centre of the work
becomes altered also. Nos. 1 and 2 of plate 13 are different patterns
for pillars, both worked _without_ the eccentric chuck. The depth
of the cuts, it will immediately be seen, form the steps. The rings
now demand our attention; the tool used for forming them is No. 6 of
the slide-rest tools, plate 5; one side of the tool cuts the outer;
the other, the inner part of the rings. Put the tool into a handle,
where it must be held firm by a screw; the same handle will be very
useful to hold the slide-rest tools for making mouldings and delicate
ornaments. The end of the ring tool, No. 6, being very sharp, cuts a
road for itself into the wood or ivory, then press it gently to the
left, till you find one half of the ring is formed, which will be
seen by its filling up the half circle of the tool; then remove
the tool to the outside of the work, and press the other side against
it till the ring falls off. It is a good way to turn a small cup and
line it with velvet, or some soft article, into which to allow the
rings to fall, as the delicate ones would be apt to split by striking
against the steel bed of the lathe. To form the chain, cut the rings
carefully through on one side with a sharp penknife, and slip them
one through the other. The handles of the temple are large rings, the
pins they hang upon are of wood. Flatten the knob either with a file
or a small saw, and drill a hole through it to receive the ring; the
pin is then glued into the moulding.

The ball at the top is turned quite round, and may be ornamented
with the circular rest. The ball pendant from the chain is circular,
except on one side, where a small pin is left, through which drill
a hole and slip the ring through it. All the ornaments, pillars,
and flutings may be made of separate small pieces of ivory, which,
when worked, are easily fastened together by a strong cement made of
isinglass melted in gin. The top of the temple may be worked with the
universal cutter, or the drill, and the feet are turned quite round,
and then ornamented with the eccentric cutter, as directed for the
stopper of the bottle, B, plate 9. The needle-case, E, in plate 13,
is also a specimen of curious turning; the whole thing should be of
ivory, or else the twists of ivory, and the pillar in the middle of
cocoa, or some dark wood. Turn the ivory perfectly cylindrical, and
hollow it very carefully; this done, throw your eccentric chuck four
times outwards, the screw of the sliding rest one turn downwards,
and the eccentric chuck wheel four numbers for each plate. The other
twists are each worked exactly the same, and they must have a small
pin left at either end, which is glued into the moulding. When your
centre pillar is hollowed, fit the twists to it.

Another method for working this pattern is with the aid of the
drill, and by this means the twists are in the _same_ piece of ivory
as the pillar. Having formed a smooth cylinder, hollowed it out,
and made the screws, take your largest flat-ended drill, and drill
fifteen holes round the pillar, or one at every eighth number of
the eccentric chuck wheel. Your ivory must be very thick, to enable
the tool to cut very deep. Having cut one row of holes, slowly and
carefully, you must move the sliding rest forward two turns, then cut
another hole every eighth number again; do a third circle the same,
moving the chuck and slide the same every time. Now examine your
work, and see whether the twists begin to appear. They should, as in
the plate, be quite _separate_ from the ivory tube in the middle,
being only joined at the top and bottom. For this no exact rule can
be given, as it depends on the circumference of the work: if very
large, the tool must cut very deep to detach it: but, after trying
two or three times by these directions, it will be found quite easy.
As the ivory twists are, of course, very delicate, and the least jar
in working is apt to break, do not use the lever, but employ the
screw guides, as directed for the spiral turning. _Line_ the ivory
before beginning the twists, and leave about half an inch at each
end, which you can ornament with the cutter: this gives strength to
the work. For the same reason, it is advisable to cut one piece of
your ivory longer than the other: on the shorter one make the outside
screw, and below it about half an inch of ornament; on the other,
make the inside screw, and work it with the cutter to correspond
with the other part, quite beyond where the screw extends. When
screwed together, it will not be perceived that the two pieces are
not even; and as the part where the inner screw is worked is, of
course, thin, you would have no thickness for the spiral pattern.
When one end is finished, put a fine double angular tool into your
cutter, and very carefully cut some circles at regular distances
between the twists: this adds much to the curious effect of the
patterns: to do it, work backwards, counting the same numbers on the
chuck wheel and on the sliding rest as for the twists.

Patterns that are not cut deep can have the impression taken off on
paper, either by slightly rubbing the wood over with printers’ ink,
and laying upon it silver paper, which must be pressed down upon it;
or by laying the paper on the wood, and rubbing it well with a piece
of lead melted into the shape of a pencil. Patterns on ivory also
look very well by rubbing a little printers’ ink well over them till
the lines are full of it, then wipe off the superfluous ink from the
surface, and the design will be black on a white ground.

An immense variety of most beautiful and intricate patterns are
worked with the eccentric cutter, in conjunction with the eccentric
chuck; indeed, many of those formerly supposed to be only done with
the double eccentric chuck, invented by Mr. Ibbetson, can be worked
by these two when used together, but they require much patience, and
knowledge of the powers of the eccentric chuck, to enable the learner
to use them properly. When the eccentric cutter is used, always set
the tool exactly in the _centre_ of the work, at its lowest degree,
before you begin any pattern, or you will never be quite sure that
your work is done straight; when once you have settled the centre,
the patterns will diverge regularly and evenly from it. In the
patterns we are going to describe, the slide rest fixes the position
of the tool; the chuck must be screwed down to the proper situation
to meet it, and the cutter tool must then be screwed out to cut the
circle required.


                        PATTERN 1, PLATE 14.

This pattern is formed of four groups of circles, containing seven in
each. Your wood being perfectly smoothed and _lined_, set the cutter
tool (a double angular one) at its lowest degree, exactly in the
centre of the work, so that if moved it would only cut a dot. Unscrew
it eight or ten turns to make a large circle, then by impelling the
cutter box forwards with the slide-rest screw, fix it so that the
tool cuts the circle a little _over_ the centre: arrange your screw
guides: having cut one circle, count 30 on the eccentric chuck wheel,
and the same for the other two. It will be observed that these four
groups go in straight lines, each towards the edge of the work; to
perform this, in the six following rows of circles, move the slide
rest forwards half a turn, and the small wheel of the eccentric chuck
half a turn upwards for each row of four circles, counting 30, as
before, till the twenty-eight are all done.


                             PATTERN 2.

[Illustration: _Plate 14._]

Arrange the circle a little smaller than for pattern 1, and on a
level with the centre point of the work. Set the chuck wheel at
120, cut a circle; then one at 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, when
you will find the eight _outer_ circles of the pattern are formed.
Then move the slide-rest screw forwards four numbers, and to No.
1 on the eccentric chuck wheel; then to Nos. 14-31, 44-61, 74-91,
104. By following the same rule in the other circles you will find
the pattern is not difficult, though at first it may appear very
intricate. As all depends upon properly counting the numbers on the
eccentric chuck wheel, to make the calculation more easy, I give the
proper numbers for the sixteen circles composing one cluster, and you
will then see that the others can readily-be done the same, always
remembering to move the slide-rest screw forwards four numbers for
every row; 1, 15-2, 14-3, 13-4, 12-5, 11-6, 10-7, 9-8; the latter
single number forms the centre or outer circle near the edge.


                             PATTERN 3.

This pattern requires great attention and care to work it properly.
Having arranged the cutter tool, screw it out four turns to make the
circle the proper size, then move the cutter to the edge of the work,
cut a circle at Nos. 120, 40, and 80, on the eccentric chuck wheel,
then set the wheel at 20, and leave it fixed. Your next operation
must be to screw down the eccentric chuck, and alter the position
of the tool on the slide-rest, till, by laying your hand on the
fly-wheel and moving it gently, the tool of the cutter appears to
describe a half circle _across_ the wood, in the same way as for the
arc patterns. Having arranged the first arc, move 40, as before, and
see whether the second will exactly meet it, then the third; they
should each diverge from the centre of the first circles which were
cut round the edge; if they do not exactly fit, move the chuck up and
down, and the slide-rest screw backwards or forwards, till you find
the exact position; as, however, the arc is difficult to settle, the
line being of course an imaginary one, as the tool must not touch the
wood, it is a good way to cut a piece of pencil to fit like the tool
into a box, and with it mark the arcs; they will easily rub out, and
thus you will be able to be more certain of your proper distance and
position. The next thing is, to see on the fly-wheel of the lathe how
many numbers are required to form the arc; thus, if it begins, as the
one I have worked did, at 360 of the brass wheel, and ended at 85,
stop the wheel at the former number, cut a circle, then one at every
fifth number on the same wheel, till you arrive at 85; then move
forty numbers on the eccentric chuck wheel, and do the other arc the
same; then the third one.


                             PATTERN 4.

The arc pattern is first worked: arrange it as directed for pattern
3, and mark the outline with a pencil: in this, the arc began at 280
of the fly-wheel, and ended at 168, making in all 116 numbers; to
divide 58 for each half of the arc, divide them thus—4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9, 10, 3, 4; then count back 4, 3, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4. You will see
that the numbers increase one every time or for every circle, which
also is enlarged one notch for each. Having made the three arcs fit
by marking their position with the pencil in the cutter box, cut a
very small circle at 280, enlarge one notch, count 5, cut another,
enlarge a notch, count 6, and so on till you have counted, in all,
49 numbers; do not enlarge the circle, but cut one, counting three
numbers, then 4, which will be the middle, then 4 again, then 3, then
10; after 10, decrease the circle one notch for every cut, and count
backwards, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4. The other three arcs are done the same,
by counting 40 for each on the eccentric chuck wheel; for each of the
crowns cut five circles just above the arc, by counting one number
for each circle on the eccentric chuck wheel, then lower the chuck
one number, and cut the same circles again through the others; lower
it half a turn more, and cut two circles; then half a turn again, and
cut one circle above and between the last two.


                             PATTERN 5.

Set the cutter to the middle, enlarge the circle four turns; then
turn the slide-rest screw two numbers to the right, cut one circle,
and for each of the other eleven, screw the chuck down one turn,
then return to the middle and cut eleven the other way. When 23 are
finished, screw the slide rest to the left four numbers, and cut 23
more exactly in the same manner. To work the side patterns begin by
that on the right, set the cutter to the middle of the work, unscrew
it two turns, move the cutter slide twelve turns to the right on the
slide-rest, cut the middle circle, enlarge one number of the cutter,
lower the eccentric chuck one turn, and, to keep the _outside_ of
the circles in a straight line, move the screw of the slide-rest
inwards half a number: proceed the same till the nine circles are
cut, then return to the middle circle by counting back nine turns
of the eccentric chuck, nine numbers of the cutter, and four and a
half numbers on the slide-rest; proceed exactly in the same way to
cut the other eight circles, only _raising_ instead of _lowering_
the eccentric chuck one turn for each circle. The opposite pattern
is worked the same, only taking care to turn the slide-rest screw
outwards the half turn for every circle, or the straight pattern will
come contrary.

In all these straight patterns take great care that the fly-wheel is
stopped in such a manner that the eccentric chuck stands perfectly
upright: to do this, hold the T square against one side, and make a
mark on the brass wheel for the stop to enter. When you are quite
sure that the chuck inclines neither to the right nor the left, drill
a small hole in the wheel sufficiently deep for the stop to hold
it quite firm. You will then find your patterns will always come
straight.


                             PATTERN 6.

Set the cutter to the centre, enlarge the circle six turns, cut
one, diminish one number on the cutter for each of the other eight
circles, and move the eccentric chuck downwards one turn for each.
Count back to the middle circle, and work the other eight the same.
The side patterns are done much like those in pattern 5, only the
large circle is in the middle, and the straight lines incline inwards.


                             PATTERN 7.

Set the cutter to the middle of the circle, enlarge it two turns
and a half, cut a circle in the middle, turn the chuck down two
turns, so as to cut another a little into the former ones; continue
the same till the seven are done; return to the middle circle, and
cut the other six in the same line, by screwing the eccentric chuck
upwards instead of downwards. When the thirteen are completed, lower
the chuck one turn, and screw the slide rest outwards (if doing the
lines to the right) two turns, cut a circle, then move the eccentric
chuck downwards as before, till the second line of circles is cut,
each line diminishing one turn of the eccentric chuck at the top and
bottom.


                             PATTERN 8.

Set the cutter to the middle, enlarge it two turns, turn the slide
rest outwards twelve turns, cut a circle near the edge; count 20 on
the eccentric chuck wheel, cut another, then 5 more, each distant
twenty numbers from each other. To make the circles join in straight
lines, screw the eccentric chuck downwards two turns for every one;
when the outside pattern is done, return to the middle circle, and
cut the other lines the same.


                             PATTERN 9.

Square patterns require great care in working them. First saw the
wood perfectly square; then, when on the lathe, take the T square;
hold the flat edge firm on the bed of the lathe, and the handle
against one side of the wood, till both are even, then fix the wheel
of the eccentric chuck to that number. Having with the cutter worked
one row of patterns, move the chuck 30 numbers, which, if the wood
is quite square, will enable you to do the second row; then 30 more
for the third side, and 30 for the last.

We are told, that French and Italian turners often line boxes with
the peel of the Bergamot orange; they cut a circle through the peel,
and carefully strip it off in two quarters, turning the inside out,
and drying them; the scent is very powerful; of course they can only
line globular boxes the size of themselves.


              TO LINE WOODEN BOXES WITH TORTOISE-SHELL.

As many of my readers may wish to line their snuff-boxes with
tortoise-shell, I think it needful to give some instructions in the
best method of doing it. Cut the shell into very thin leaves with
a sharp fine saw, then divide these into the size you wish for the
inside of the snuff-box, leaving a very little extra for the joint.
Take a new rough file, and scrape away a little of the two _ends_ of
the narrow strip of shell, so that they can lie one upon another,
and fit so closely that the aperture is hardly perceptible. Plunge
the tortoise-shell into warm water for a few minutes, and it will
become quite soft. Have ready on the lathe a piece of wood a little
_less_ in circumference than the inside of the box, and perfectly
round and smooth. While the shell is soft, place the joints together,
wrap a wet piece of linen tightly over them to hold them fast, and
press them firmly together with the finger and thumb. Then heat a
pair of tongs to a proper heat, (which is known by trying them on
writing paper; if they brown it, they are too hot; if they only turn
it yellow, they are right,) and with them compress the joint of the
tortoise-shell. The water, the heat, and the pressure united, will
make the two parts join firmly. When finished thus far, file away any
roughness that may remain, and steep the shell into hot water till
quite soft, then slip it upon the piece of wood before mentioned, and
see if it fits it perfectly; if not, try with pressure to give it the
requisite shape; and if this does not succeed, take the wood out of
the lathe, leaving the tortoise-shell upon it, and hold them over a
brazier, turning them frequently and quickly between the hands, that
the heat may equally penetrate all the parts; then strike the side
that bulged out with a mallet, and with a little care it will soon
assume the required form. You may finish it on the lathe, observing
only to place it so that the tool does not catch the lap of the
joint, which might cause it to open; and when you take it off, plunge
it in cold water to make it retain its form.


                      TO FINISH THE SNUFF-BOX.

Make your box and lid of hard, well-seasoned wood; hollow them out,
and polish the insides, only omitting to cut the lip upon which the
lid fits, and which will be formed by the tortoise-shell. As you
hollow out the box and lid, keep fitting in the shell, that you may
not make them too large; when it slips in rather tight, take a point
tool and cut some circles on the inside of each; (this is done to
enable the glue to hold firmly.) Now, take the tortoise-shell and
file that part that is to be cemented to the box, so as to make it
rough. Take a pair of compasses, in one end of which is a sharp
knife, set them to the exact size of the inside of the bottom and
lid, then place them on a piece of tortoise-shell, and cut out the
two round pieces. Melt some glue till rather liquid, thicken it with
vermilion, lay a coat on the inside of the top and bottom of the
box, and press in the two circles of tortoise-shell; in the same
manner glue in the sides, leaving the lip (upon which the lid is to
fit) standing up above the bottom part of the box. Leaving the glue
to harden for a day, then replace the work on the lathe, turn the
inside quite even, and polish it with pounce powder and oil, then
with tripoli powder and water. Should the lid, when finished, become
too small for the box, dip it for a minute in boiling water, fit it
on to a piece of wood the exact size, and leave it there to harden.


                   HORN TO IMITATE TORTOISE-SHELL.

Dissolve three ounces of potash in a pint of boiling water. Let it
boil for a quarter of an hour, then pour it into a basin capable of
holding about as much again, and in which you have put half a pound
of quick lime, stir it well, and when the latter is _slacked_, add
three ounces of red lead and one ounce of vermilion.

When the whole is of the consistency of thick soup, dip a thin
pointed stick into it, and lay the drops it will take up upon a piece
of horn in those parts required to be coloured, leaving those that
are to be transparent. When quite dry, clean the whole with a wet
sponge, and you will find it will greatly resemble tortoise-shell.


               MASTIC USED IN TURNING IVORY VERY THIN.

To turn ivory as thin as writing paper, so as to render it quite
transparent, is very difficult to accomplish, but is much admired
when done, and shows the skill of the artist. To enable the ivory to
bear the action of the tool without splitting, the following mastic
has been found very useful, both for strengthening it and for giving
a deep colouring, by which means the thinness is more perceptible.
Some turners wet the ivory for the latter purpose, but as when wet it
is quite transparent, and thickens again when dry, the mastic will be
found much preferable.

Take some lamp or ivory black in powder, and strain it through a fine
sieve, so as only to retain the finest parts. Steep these in water
to free them from any impurities. After lying in it a few minutes,
pour off the water, and make some glue very hot, mix it with the lamp
black till of the consistency of oil paint. This mastic must be kept
warm near the fire, and when you have sufficiently hollowed out the
vase, or whatever you wish to turn, very thin, shape the outside a
little: then dip a large camel’s-hair brush in the warm varnish and
lay a thick coat all over the inside; let this dry, put on another,
and repeat the process till sufficient strength is obtained. You may
now, without fear or danger, work your ivory as thin as possible, and
ornament it with the cutters and drill. Without this mastic it would
not, when transparent, bear the force of these tools.

When the work is all finished and carefully polished, take it off
the lathe, and put it in a basin filled with warm water. After a
few minutes’ immersion, take it out, and plunge it in clean water,
shaking it gently. This will make the mastic dissolve and leave
the ivory. Renew the warm water frequently, as leaving it in the
blackened liquid might injure the colour of the work.


BEAUTIFUL VARNISH FOR WOOD, TO BE USED WHILE THE WORK IS ON THE LATHE.

To one quart of spirits of wine add four ounces of lacker, three
ounces of gum benzoin, one drachm of camphor, half a drachm of
sandarac, half a drachm of dragon’s blood, one drachm of turpentine.
Put these ingredients in a long-necked bottle capable of holding
two quarts, and tie a piece of wet parchment over the neck; when
dry, pierce it with holes with a large pin. Place the bottle in the
_bain marée_ till the contents are perfectly dissolved, shaking it
frequently. When cold, strain the liquid through a piece of coarse
muslin, and keep it well corked for future use.

Having finished and polished your work with tripoli powder and
sand-paper, wipe the wood quite clean with a piece of fine linen.
This done, put a few drops of the varnish on a bit of cotton wool,
and one drop of olive oil, to prevent its drying too quickly; while
applying this varnish, make the lathe wheel go very quick, and hold
the cotton close to the work.

To polish the above, when the varnish is perfectly dry, take some
finely-powdered whiting or chalk, and with it polish the work in
every direction, but be careful not to press too strongly on the
varnish, or it will be marked; and do not rub it for more than a few
minutes at a time, as the friction and excessive speed and heat will
spoil the polish. When done, take a sponge dipped in water, wash the
work well, and then rub it with a piece of fine linen, and a drop
or two of olive oil; lastly, clean it with a bit of soft old rag or
leather.


                          TURNER’S CEMENT.

Sometimes the workman is too much hurried to wait till the work can
be glued upon the chuck; the following cement will be found useful.
Take two pounds of Burgundy pitch, one pound of rosin, one pound of
colophonium, two ounces of yellow wax, and one ball of whiting. Melt
all, except the latter, in an earthen pot, over a slow fire. When it
begins to bubble, stir it well with a stick to prevent its passing
the edge of the pot, and when all is quite melted take it off the
fire. Add the whiting, finely powdered, little by little, stirring in
well till the contents are perfectly mixed. Replace the pot on the
fire, still stirring it; and after a few minutes, pour all the cement
quickly into a tub or basin of cold water for about a minute. Then
take it out, and knead it well with the hands. Roll it into sticks
upon a smooth stone, and plunge them into cold water to harden. The
strength and goodness of this cement depends greatly upon its being
made as rapidly as possible. To use it, melt the end of one of the
sticks by putting it near the fire; rub it on the chuck; when you
think there is sufficient cement laid upon it, heat the bit of wood
or ivory you wish to unite to it, and the warmth will make it adhere
firmly.

Another cement, that is preferable for using in cold weather, is made
by adding two pounds of Burgundy pitch, two ounces of yellow wax, and
two pounds of Spanish white. These are melted together, rolled into
sticks, and used as above; one stroke of the mallet will detach the
work from the chuck when joined with this cement.


NEW AND VALUABLE RECIPE FOR TAKING BEAUTIFUL IMPRESSIONS FROM TURNING
                              PATTERNS.

Take a sheet of rice-paper, paste it upon letter-paper with flour
paste, which must be mixed as smooth as possible, and laid on very
thin. Leave it till quite dry, then lay the rice-paper thus backed
upon the piece of Turning, and with the thumb nail or a piece of
cloth rub the back of the paper, pressing it gently so as to make
it enter into all the deep, fine cuts of the Turning. The impression
will be beautiful, and have the appearance of a raised medallion.
It is invaluable for taking off patterns from ivory, as it can in
no way injure the colour or delicacy of the work; and from the
facility of bending the paper, impressions can as easily be taken
from round articles (as the sides of a box or pillar) as from flat
ones. The medallions may be left white, or the pattern coloured with
water colours, leaving the ground white; and they can, besides their
utility as patterns to which to refer, be employed in ornamenting
various useful articles.

       *       *       *       *       *

In turning the pillars in the temple, pl. 13, great inconvenience and
trouble have been found in working them, for want of the support of
the puppet G, plate I; for as in each step the eccentric chuck has
to be slightly altered, the point, J, of the puppet, when the work
is moved, is apt to slide back into the hole it first formed, thus
making the steps quite crooked. To obviate this difficulty, I should
advise my readers to use the following simple contrivance. Take out
the point, J, and replace it by a piece of wood turned to fit exactly
into the tube, and on the end of which is left a circular piece the
size of a half-crown. Take another bit of wood, of the diameter of
your pillar; fix a short nail into the middle of it; glue the other
side to the pillar, put it on the lathe, screw up the puppet, G, and
you will find the nail will always, whenever you move the chuck,
firmly fix itself into the wooden end which replaces the point J.

       *       *       *       *       *

And now, having, I trust with sufficient clearness, explained the
practical and ornamental parts of concentric and eccentric Turning,
I will take leave of my readers, only adding that, if they wish
to attain perfection in this interesting art, they must patiently
continue their exertions, for experience and industry will alone
enable them to avoid many faults, and discover the real cause of
many failures; and to those who may feel disheartened with repeated
disappointments, I will say—

    “Courage! try thy chance once more.”

Let me also observe to those who cannot afford to purchase much
expensive machinery, that with care, patience, and perseverance, the
common tools may be made to work a great variety of very beautiful
articles: and if they will also keep in mind the old-fashioned but
true saying, “that whatever is worth learning at all, is worth
learning well;” they will, I have no doubt, soon become proficients
in an art that has been admired and practised for centuries.


                              THE END.

                  STEREOTYPED BY L. JOHNSON AND CO.
                            PHILADELPHIA.




  Transcriber’s Notes

  pg 20 Changed are great authority,) to: authority),
  pg 28 Added period after Gimlets
  pg 40 Changed make them for himself,) to himself),
  pg 47 Changed 1, 2, 3,) to: 3),
  pg 63 Changed pedestals of vases. to: vases,
  pg 70 Added colon after: Bard of Avon expresses it
  pg 75 Changed wheel on the overhead to: over-head
  pg 81 Changed resemble a honey-comb to: honeycomb
  pg 92 Changed (of the cutter tools,) to: tools),
  pg 92 Changed glued in afterwards.) to: afterwards).
  Other hyphenated and non-hyphenated words left as written.